COST Action E 52 - vTI - Bund.de

Sonderheft 350 

Special Issue 

COST Action E 52 

Genetic resources of beech in Europe – 

current state 

Josef Frýdl, Petr Novotný, John Fennessy 

and Georg von Wühlisch (eds.)

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Special Issue 

COST Action E 52 


current state 

Josef Frýdl, Petr Novotný 1 , John Fennessy 2 

and Georg von Wühlisch 3 (eds.) 

1 Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 

CZ-156 04 Praha 5-Zbraslav, Czech Republic, E-mail: frydl@vulhm.cz 

2 Research Manager Tree Improvement & Non-wood Forest, COFORD, 

Department of Agriculture (4W),Kildare Street, Dublin 2, Ireland, 

E-mail: john.fennessy@coford.ie 

3 Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut, Federal Research Institute for 

Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Institute for Forest Genetics, Sieker 

Landstr. 2, D-22927 Großhansdorf, Germany, 

E-mail: georg.wuehlisch@vti.bund.de

Reissue 

of 

COMMUNICATIONES INSTITUTI FORESTALIS BOHEMICAE, VOL. 25 

Forestry and Game Management Research Institute 

Strnady 136, 252 02 Jíloviště 

E-mail: admin@vulhm.cz, http://www.vulhm.cz 

Setting: Mgr. E. Krupičková, K. Šimerová 

Editors: Josef Frýdl, Petr Novotný, John Fennessy & Georg von Wühlisch

COST Action E52 


current state 

Implementing output of COST Action E 52 Project 

„Evaluation of beech genetic resources 

for sustainable forestry“ 

(2006 – 2010)

Contents 

Preface ............................................................................................................................................7 

Introductory note..............................................................................................................................8 

PAPERS 

Hajri Haska 

The status of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

in Albania and its genetic resources ..............................................................................................11 

Hasmik Ghalachyan – Andranik Ghulijanyan 

Current state of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis LIPSKY) in Armenia ............................................26 

Raphael Klumpp – Herfried Steiner – Eduard Hochbichler 

Current state of the European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) gene-pool in Austria ...........................38 

Patrick Mertens – Elodie Bay – Bart De Cuyper 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) gene-pool in Belgium ...............................46 

Dalibor Ballian 

An overview of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Bosnia and Herzegovina .......................52 

Alexander H. Alexandrov – Alyosha Dakov 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and oriental beech 

(Fagus orientalis LIPSKY) gene-pool in Bulgaria .............................................................................61 

Mladen Ivanković – Saša Bogdan – Joso Gračan – Ivan Pilaš 

Current status of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) genetic resources 

in Croatia ......................................................................................................................................70 

Petr Novotný – Josef Frýdl 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) genetic resources 

conservation in the Czech Republic .............................................................................................78 

Jon K. Hansen 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Denmark ..............................................88 

Alexis Ducousso 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in France ...........................................................................91 

Tengiz Urushadze – Zurab Manvelidze – Lasha Dolidze – Irina Tvauri 

Oriental beech in Georgia – present state and conservation priorities .........................................98 

Georg von Wühlisch – Hans J. Muhs 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests In Germany ................................113 

Scott McG. Wilson 

The European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Great Britain: Ecological status, 

silviculture and management of genetic resources ...................................................................122 

Konstantinos Spanos – Dionysios Gaitanis 

Current status of genetic resources of beech in Greece ............................................................141

Ernő Führer – Csaba Mátyás – György Csóka – Ferenc Lakatos – 

Sándor Bordács – László Nagy – Ervin Rasztovits 

Current status of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

genetic resources in Hungary .....................................................................................................152 

David Thompson – John Fennessy 

Beech (Fagus sylvatica) in Irish forestry .....................................................................................164 

Raffaello Giannini – Paolo Capretti – Giovanni Emiliani – Marco Fioravanti – 

Susamma Nocentini – Cristina Vettori 

Genetic resources of beech in Italy ............................................................................................171 

Sven M. G. de Vries 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Netherlands ..................................179 

Małgorzata Sułkowska 

Conservation of genetic resources of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Poland ..............184 

Gheorghe Postolache – Dragos Postolache 

Genetic resources of beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the Republic of Moldova .................................191 

Lucia Ioniţă – Gheorghe Pârnuţă 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) gene-pool in Romania ............................201 

Mirjana Šijačić-Nikolić – Saša Orlović – Andrej Pilipović 

Current state of Balkan beech (Fagus sylvatica ssp. sylvatica) 

gene pool in the Republic of Serbia.............................................................................................210 

Dušan Gömöry – Ladislav Paule – Roman Longauer 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) genetic resources in Slovakia ..........................................220 

Gregor Božič – Lado Kutnar – Mihej Urbančič – Dušan Jurc – 

Andrej Kobler – Tine Grebenc – Hojka Kraigher 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) gene pool in Slovenia .............................225 

Diana Barba – Guillermo Madrigal – Jose A. Reque – Ricardo Alía 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

forest and genetic resources in Spain .........................................................................................236 

Rolf Övergaard – Lars-Göran Stener 

Current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Sweden ..............................................242 

Pascale Weber – Andrea R. Pluess – Urs Mühlethaler 

Resources of beech in Switzerland ............................................................................................248 

Gaye Eren Kandemir 

Current state of Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis LIPSKY) 

genetic resources conservation in Turkey ..................................................................................256 

Hryhoriy Krynytskyy – Vasyl Parpan – Roman Kuziv 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in the Ukraine ......................................................265 

Reviewers Directory ....................................................................................................................273 

6

Preface 

The consideration to prepare a common publication with basic information on European beech 

genetic resources in European countries was initially proposed during an introductory COST Action 

E52 Working and Management Committee Meeting (WMCM) in Zvolen, Slovakia (October, 2006) 

and at that meeting it was agreed in principle by the participants. However, the proposal becomes 

a firm commitment at the COST Action E52 WMCM in Florence (April, 2008), when the Czech 

Republic representatives undertook to coordinate the work and so ensured this common publication. 

Financial assistance from the COST Action E52 resources was approved during COST Action E52 

WMCM in Rzesow, Poland (October, 2008). During the COST Action E52 WMCM in Sopron, 

Hungary (October, 2009) the details on the publication were further developed. The editors convey 

a special thanks to the initiative of Prof. Ladislav Paule (Slovakia), who suggested that contact should 

also be made with other countries situated in the original natural distribution area of European 

beech, including some countries with natural occurrence of oriental beech, and to ask them for their 

collaboration in the project. 

At the end of this four years process, we would like to express our thanks and appreciation to the 

Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Bohemicae publication staff, especially to Mgr. Eva Krupičková, 

Klára Šimerová, Šárka Holzbachová, DiS. and Marta Čížková, DiS. for their forbearance and patience 

in the preparation work of these proceedings. 

We would also wish to acknowledge all the authors from the COST Action E52 working group and 

other authors from various institutions for their timely processing of papers, also to all reviewers for 

their work and effort which contributed to the completion of this publication at a remarkable level. 

A special acknowledgment from first two editors belongs to John Fennessy (Ireland) for his support 

role in the various contributions. Finally we wish to express our grateful thanks to the financial 

support from the COST Office, too. 

Josef Frýdl, Petr Novotný, John Fennessy & Georg von Wühlisch 

Editors

Genetic resources of beech in Europe – current state 

Introductory Note 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a major and wide-spread forest tree species with a natural 

occurrence from Scandinavian to Mediterranean countries and ranging from the Atlantic influenced 

climate in West-Europe to the more continentally influenced regions in Central and South-Central 

Europe, covering an area of roughly 14 million ha of forest land. Beech is not only of interest for 

economic reasons. It is also of high ecological and silvicultural value and acts to stabilise forest 

ecosystems. Beech forests are beneficial for the production of ground water and the regeneration of 

depleted soils. 

Beech is a dominating species in many forest ecosystems. Other species of these ecosystems depend 

on co-existence with beech. Beech is thus viewed as a flagship species of many ecosystems because 

they would not exist in this form if beech were not present. 

As a widely spread tree species, European beech and its ecosystems will be affected by climate change 

differently in different regions. Conditions in the north and north-east of the present distribution 

range will be more favourable for beech and may support further spreading in this region. However, 

as beech is growing predominantly in the lowlands, where precipitation is anticipated to be reduced, 

while at the same time evapotranspiration will increase due to higher temperatures, beech stands 

especially of the southern and south-eastern range of the present distribution will be affected most 

severely. Migrations of beech populations in the Mediterranean region to higher elevations have 

already been reported. However, where beech populations already occupy the top of mountain ranges 

there is no possibility to migrate further by natural means and such populations may disappear unless 

measures of intentional assisted migration are taken. Before climate change progresses and impacts 

the ecosystems physically, which is expected to occur in a higher frequency of extreme drought years 

like 2003, action should be taken. 

Due to this concern, COST Action E52 “Evaluation of Beech Genetic Resources for Sustainable 

Forestry” (http://www.vti.bund.de/de/startseite/institute/fg/forschungsbereiche/herkunfts-undzuechtungsforschung.html) 

was implemented and twenty-two European countries as well as 

Bioversity, Rome, (EUFORGEN-Programme) have agreed to participate. The main objective of this 

COST Action is to evaluate for the first time jointly 60 field trials located in 19 European countries 

of the International Beech Provenance Trial established in two series 1995 and 1998 with a total of 

200 provenances representing the whole distribution area of beech. This common garden experiment 

allows predictions of the future distribution range of beech forest ecosystems under the assumption 

of certain scenarios of climate change, basing on the analysis of the reaction pattern of European 

Beech populations of defined origin (provenance = progenies of natural beech stands) under changed 

climate situations in sets of pan European field trials. 

The network of forest geneticists created by COST Action E52 including all major countries where 

European beech occurs, provided the platform to decide about the scope and contents of the present 

publication, “Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Bohemicae, vol. 25”. Covering the whole range 

of European beech distribution, the present publication with its 29 country reports (including three 

papers reporting information about 3 million ha of Oriental beech) attempts to give an overview of 

8

the present state of the beech forests with respect to their extent of distribution, plant sociological 

composition, management practices, ongoing research, health state, degree of endangerment, genetic 

composition of the populations, and conservation strategies of valuable beech genetic resources. 

With this publication an earlier publication of 1993: “The scientific basis for the evaluation of the 

genetic resources of beech – Proceedings of an EC workshop”, edited by H.-J. Muhs is updated 

comprehensively by including reports of more countries, reflecting the changes and progress 

achieved. For example, air pollution is not harming the beech ecosystems as much as it used to, while 

concurrently the threat due to climate change has increased. To account for this change differing 

approaches have been adopted. The high ecological value of beech has been recognised and has led 

to policies and programmes to convert pure conifer forests into mixed forests with considerable 

area increases of beech. Additional seed stands have been approved in many countries and artificial 

regeneration of beech has been implemented increasingly. Silviculture has changed widely. Beech 

forests are managed progressively more in closed-canopy shelterwood systems where crop trees are 

selected already at a younger stage and, by giving these more room, an earlier exploitable trunk size 

is reached. The economic value of beech timber has risen as the demand for wood has increased 

generally and beech wood can replace many tropical timbers due to its technological properties. 

Finally, in most countries in situ gene conservation stands have been registered and underlie special 

management practices to maintain a widest possible genetic diversity. The aforementioned manifold 

changes show that it was highly necessary to give record of them in the present publication, which 

also gives valuable information of recent inventories in different countries of the total and reduced 

area covered by beech stands as well as data of the standing volume of beech timber. 

It remains to thank all authors providing detailed reports of the state of beech forests in each of their 

countries. The funding of the printing by the European Science Foundation, Brussels, is gratefully 

acknowledged. Finally, it is especially appreciated that Josef Frýdl, Petr Novotný and John Fennessy 

volunteered to undertake the tedious job of editing this publication! 

Grosshansdorf, November, 2010 

Georg von Wühlisch, 

Chairman of COST Action E52 

9

The sTaTus oF euroPeaN beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) IN 

aLbaNIa aNd ITs GeNeTIc resources 

HAJRI HASKA 

Forest Directory, Agency of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Environment, 

Forest and Water Administration, Tirana, Albania Republic 

absTracT 

The status of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Albania and its genetic reserve are presented in 

this paper. Some introductory data for Albania as a country as well as some general data about the 

forests are provided as well as information about the occurrence of European beech, its distribution 

in Albanian districts, as well as its occurrence according to nature ecosystems, pure or mixed with 

other forest species. Beech forests and their age structure as well as production and distribution of 

volume according to age classes are described in a more detailed way. The descriptions of beech 

forests and related information where methods for treatment of beech forests are provided. The most 

important part of this paper is the section which describes genetic reserves of European beech, as 

well as detailed information on the methods for choosing the reserves and conservation methods. 

In this section the list of units of European beech nominated as Nature Reserve Integrate (NRI) in 

Albania is also given, accompanied with some important data as well as a support map with NRI 

distributions according to districts. The concluding part of this paper gives some data about the 

health status of European beech forests as well as information about some protected areas selected 

as bio-monuments. 

Key words: Albania, European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), ah, ahishte (in Albanian), distribution, 

genetic resources, management; ecosystem 

some GeNeraL daTa oN aLbaNIa 

Albania is a small country located on the Balkan Peninsula, on the south eastern part of Europe, 

between geographic coordinates 39° 8’ and 42° 9’ latitude and 19° 16’ longitude. With only 28, 48 km2 total surface area, most of the territory is close to the sea and mountains, and as result it has different 

climatic zones and a well defined vertical vegetation structure. 

The climate in Albania is Mediterranean-subtropical and several studies have categorized it in 

a different way, but the more acceptable is that it identified climatic zones as follow: 

(i) field Mediterranean climate zone; with mean annual temperature 15 – 16 °C, abundance rainfall 

during autumn and winter season, meanly rain and very rare snow, annual rainfall 1,000 – 

1,200 mm. 

(ii) hilly Mediterranean climate zone; with mean annual temperature 11 – 12 – 15 °C, abundance 

rainfall, snow layer 30 – 40 cm. 

(iii) pre-mountain Mediterranean climate zone; with mean temperature 10 – 11 °C, annual rainfall 

900 – 1,000 mm, 40 – 80 cm snow layer. 

11

(iv) mountain Mediterranean climate zone; with mean temperature – 10 °C, sometime only 4 – 

6 °C, even sometimes descended below zero; maximum annual rainfall 2,000 – 2,500 mm per 

year, but mean annual rainfall is 1,300 – 1,800 mm. 

There are five vegetation types in Albania: (i) Mediterranean vegetation type (macchia Mediterranean); 

(ii) oak forests; (iii) beach forests; (iv) fir forests; (v) Bosnian and Balkan pine forests. 

Extending and strengthening the network of protected area (up to 9 units), as a base for creating 

an ecologic network of the country, is an important aim and objective of Albanian institutions, and 

has resulted in extension the surface area of protected areas from 6.4% in June 2005 to 361,401.40 ha 

or 12.5 % of the total country area at the end of 2009. 

Administration and management of protected area in Albania is based on Law No. 8906, dated 

06.06.2002 “For Protected area”, and some related decisions, orders and rules. 

After 1990, Albania enacted many important international conventions that have relevance with the 

protected areas, environment etc. These protected areas, according IUCN categories include: 

I. Nature strict reserve/scientific reserve (NStR/ScR); 2 units, 4,800 ha. 

II. National parks (N.P.); 14 units; 1 6,51 ha; 

III. Nature monuments (NM); 50 units (more individual trees; usually smaller area); 3,490 ha; 

IV. Nature reserve managed (NRM); 22 units; 62,530 ha; 

V. Protected landscapes (PL); 5 units; 95,864.4 ha; 

VI. Protected area of Nature Resource Managed; 4 units; 95,864.4 ha. 

ForesT resources IN aLbaNIa 

Approximately 36% of the total surface area of Albania is covered by forests amounting to 1,042, 90 ha, 

with a total standing volume of 5, 26,100 m3 , of which 62% is commercial timber and 38% firewood. 

More of the forest lies at north-east and south-eastern part of Albania. 

According to national statistics the current forest situation is as follows: 

• High forest: 325,3 0 ha; coppice forest: 45 ,598 ha; scrub and other vegetation: 260,190 ha. Some 

of the main forest species that grow in Albania are as follows (Fig. 1): 

Fig. 1: Proportion (%) of European beech and other main forest trees in Albania (prepared by H. Haska) 

12 

Black pine 10.4% 

Fir tree 1.4% 

Other conifers 4.5% 

Beech 19.2% 

Oak 32.7% 

Other broadleaves 6.8% 

Shrubs 25%

• Beech (Fagus), 19 ,093 ha; with total standing volume of 36,441,800 m 3 . 

• Oak (Quercus), 340, 0 ha; with total standing volume of 14,635,500 m 3 . 

• Black pine (P. nigra Arnold), 108,620 ha; with total standing volume of 10,1 0,600 m 3 . 

• Fir (Abies) 15,062 ha; with total standing volume of 3,81 ,100 m 3 . 

• Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), 61,500 ha; with total standing volume of 2,592,000 m 3 . 

• Hornbeam (Carpinus), 92,980 ha; with total standing volume of 2,916,600 m 3 , etc. 

(Source: Report of State Environment in Albania 2005-200 -2009; Agency of Environment and 

Forestry) 

dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN aLbaNIa 

Out of a total of 36 districts in Albania, 23 have European beech present from 800 to 2,000 m 

and even up to 2,400 m altitude (a.s.l.). 

The most southern area where European beech is found in Albania lies in Nemerçka 

mountain, a mountain between Permeti and Gjirokastra districts, in southern Albania with 

an elevation of 2,489 m (Maja e Drites-Top of Light). 

E. beech forests in Albania lie over dusty forest soil while, oak forests over marron soil, whereas 

scrub in general over calyx marron soils. 

Tab. 1: Distribution of E. beech according to districts in Albania – 2007 (ha) 

Nr. District High forest Coppice Total 

1 Berat 490 - 490 

2 Bulqize 14,120 270 14,390 

3 Devoll 810 5,340 6,150 

4 Diber 7,840 3,030 10,870 

5 Elbasan 5,580 - 5,580 

6 Gramsh 5,150 240 5,390 

7 Has 2,220 - 2,220 

8 Kolonje 2,070 1,040 3,110 

9 Korce 5,900 8,320 14,220 

10 Kukes 4,390 2,890 7,280 

11 Kurbin 90 - 90 

12 Librazhd 22,150 - 22,150 

13 Malesi e Madhe 21,367 20 21,387 

14 Mat 9,610 - 9,610 

15 Mirdite 6,510 - 6,510 

16 Permet 660 - 660 

17 Pogradec 7,980 3,710 11,690 

18 Puke 13,380 - 13,380 

19 Shkoder 15,080 1,210 16,290 

20 Skrapar 2,560 70 2,630 

21 Tirane 8,833 20 8,853 

22 Tropoje 16,170 70 16,240 

23 Kruje 850 - 850 

Total 200,040 ha 

13

Fig. 2: Nature monument “Stone of Billy-Goat” surrounded by European beech, in National Park “Bredhi 

i Drenoves”, Korca region, Albania (H. HASKA) 

euroPeaN beech ForesTs aNd TheIr aGe sTrucTure 

Forests in Albania have mainly close-to-nature character with dominant uneven aged structure; 

however in many parts of Albania, very old and overmature stands with low increment can be found. 

More than 50% of high forests of E. beech are about 100 years old. They are usually in mountainous 

areas which are hardly accessible due to poor road infrastructure. Those forests are found in some 

districts such as Tropoje, Librazhd, Malesi e Madhe and Pogradec, and recently have been declared 

as protected areas. The future role of these areas will be more for nature conservation, recreation and 

scientific purposes and no longer for wood production. 

Intensification of silvicultural activities directed at beech production forests in the future will lead to 

an improvement of their age structure. 

euroPeaN beech ForesTs aNd TheIr ProducTIoN PoTeNTIaL 

Forests today have a multifunctional role, however, the main function remains the production 

of wood, whether as commercial timber or as fire wood, or more recently for biomass which is 

considered more environmentally friendly. 

Forests in Albania can be grouped according to their production as follow: 

- Forest with high production, which occupy over 11% of total forest area, and have a annual 

production of 2.3 m3 /ha. 

- Forest with medium production, which occupy over 13% of total forest area, and have a production 

of 1.8 m3 /ha. 

- Forest with low production, which occupy over 6% of total forest area, and have a production of 

1.3 m3 /ha. 

14

Fig. 3: Mixed forest of European beech and birch in Dardhe, Korce region, Albania (H. HASKA, 2004) 

As it can be seen from the data, it can be concluded that in Albania the predominant forests have 

low production. Some of the main causes for this can be summarized as follows: 

a) Scrub layer in a considerable area of the forest (25% of forest surface), that have very low 

productivity (1.14 m3 /ha). 

b) Over 45% of forest surface with low or medium stocking density. 

c) Considerable area of coppice forests (about 31%). 

d) Forests at high altitude (up 2, 50 m) in the mountains especially on medium and steep slopes, 

where the site conditions (climatic, pedological) are not favourable for tree growth and 

productivity. 

e) Very old age of some high forests which reduces the annual growth increment. 

According to government forest yield figures, forests in Albania have average annual increment 

values of 1.69 m3 /ha year for high forest, 0.91 m3 /ha for coppice and 1.14 m3 /ha for scrub. Average 

annual forest increment in Albania is above 1.32 m3 /ha, which is lower than in some of the European 

countries such as Germany or France, but perhaps higher than some others such as Italy or Greece. 

Albanian European beech forests have higher average annual increment than some others species 

as follows: European beech forests 2.14 m3 /ha, oaks 1.24 m3 /ha, pine 1.45 m3 /ha. However, some 

species with low surface area have higher increment such as fir with 2.92 m3 /ha, and poplar which 

has 3.60 m3 /ha. 

For many years, the forest strategy and policy of the Albania state has been to increase the productivity 

of the forests. This has been supported by local community and has been complimented by financial, 

scientific and technical support from a number of overseas projects, with extra financial support, 

notably over these last years from the World Bank as well as others financial donations. 

15

Fig. 4: Distribution of European beech area (high forests) according to age classes (Source: Ecological Survey: 

Virgin forests in Albania, adapted by H. Haska) 

Fig. 5: Distribution of European beech volume (high forest) according to age classes (Source: Ecological 

Survey: Virgin forests in Albania, adapted by H. Haska) 

Fig. 6: Distribution of European beech surface (high forest) according to production classis (Source: Ecological 

Survey: Virgin forests in Albania, adapted by H. Haska) 

16 

ha 

40,000 40000 

35,000 35000 

30,000 30000 

25,000 25000 

20,000 20000 

15,000 15000 

10,000 10000 

5,000 5000 

0 

m³ 

10,000,000 10000000 

9,000,000 9000000 

8,000,000 8000000 

7,000,000 7000000 

6,000,000 6000000 

5,000,000 5000000 

4,000,000 4000000 

3,000,000 3000000 

2,000,000 2000000 

1,000,000 1000000 

0 

ha 

90,000 90000 

80,000 80000 

70,000 70000 

65,000 60000 

50,000 50000 

40,000 40000 

30,000 30000 

20,000 20000 

10,000 10000 

00 

I II III IV V VI VII > VII 

I II III IV V VI VII > VII 

I II III IV V

TreaTmeNT oF beech 

In forest with a production function there is a need to implement different silvicultural treatments 

such as cleaning, thinning, and harvesting. Treatment methods for different forest types and different 

management practices vary according to the purpose of the forest. 

In Albanian forests, the practice of successive felling and cutting with clearcuts have proved 

most successful and have guaranteed forest production continuity as well as the development of 

regeneration which has protected forest land from erosion. 

Experiments with cutting in horizontal and vertical belts or with clearcuts have been also undertaken. 

These treatment methods with cutting have always been carried out in consideration with specific 

biological characteristics such as the actual forest stands structure as well as the orographic and 

climatic conditions where the forest stands are located. So for European beech forests in Albania 

successive cutting with clearfelling are carried out. Beech usually has good natural regeneration 

capacity especially in stands over 100 – 120 years. 

For forest stands in first production class that are over 80 years of age, it is the practice to manage 

with three intervention cuttings and in some special cases with only two intervention cuttings. 

These cuttings are always made with a view to secure new natural regeneration in the forest. Seeds 

cutting intensity has varied from 25 to 35% of parcel or sub parcel volume. Light cutting intensity 

and definitive cutting are undertaken in relation to conditions of regeneration and development 

of seedling after seed cutting. In cases where amount of seedling are high and are distributed in 

a evenly, then a final cutting to allow light into the stand may be undertaken. Generally the natural 

regeneration period for beech is five to ten years. Final cutting is applied when seedling have reached 

30 – 80 cm high and have a density 3 – 5 seedlings for m2 with even distribution over the entire 

surface of the forest stands. 

In the mixed forests with beech and conifers (pine, fir), preferences are given to conifers during 

applied treatment methods, because conifers are considered more valuable. 

The data from different studies combined with some general calculations on wood production and 

presented as the annual harvesting possibility for forests in Albania is estimated at over 1,520,000 m3 , 

from which 4 ,000 m3 are commercial timber and 3,000 m3 are firewood. 

More wood is harvested from beech forests as beech forests cover 43% of total forest. It should 

also be noted that in general many beech forests are used for the collection of firewood as well as 

foliage and leaves as fodder for animals, as well as for the collection of non-wood forest products 

such as mushrooms, medical plants, etc. In the last years, the country also implemented a major 

improvement in a decentralization process. About 40% of the forests in Albania are now the property 

of local government to be managed and to produce profit. 

GeNeTIc reserves oF euroPeaN beech IN aLbaNIa 

Two main methods for conservation of genetic resources are used: in situ conservation (conservation 

in natural stands) and ex situ conservation. 

In situ conservation is realized through Nature strict reserves, National forest parks and Nature biomonuments, 

Nature integrated reserve (NRI); while with the second method (ex situ), it is achieved 

through the establishment of gene banks, fields collections, or seedbed gardens. Apart from the above 

1

conservation methods other methods have also commenced, such as the conservation of material at 

very low temperature; in vitro conservation; pollen conservation; ADN-s conservation. For many 

species a gene bank is created near state seed stores or state nursery. 

With scientific forest institutions support (Forest and Pasture Research Institute) and Management 

forest institutions (ex DGFP), such organisations are defining the main forest species in Albania 

Forest Seeds Stands. These forest seeds stands are generally defined in natural forest areas and 

sometimes in special cases in afforestation. 

In determination of forest seed stands or seeds reserves an acceptable scientific criteria is adhered to 

such as: adequate size of forest stands, distance from other forest stands. Other tree quality parameters 

are also taken into account such as – high, diameter, form and quality of individual trunks. Other 

considerations include a general estimate of forest stand quality and individual tree quality; for 

example adequate fructification, effect of increasing age, crown form, resistance against diseases and 

insects, capability to different climate and site conditions, quality of wood production, capability of 

natural regeneration, high germination potential, seed collection possibility and proximity to seed 

treatment facility, whether mixed with other forest species and if mixed with some other forest kind 

with possibility of pollination between them. Other items considered are, number of trees per unit 

surface area etc. 

More care is manifested in identification of “plus” trees, where individual trees chosen are firstly 

demonstrating phenotypic superiority. Tree with “plus” status can to be superior in one or more 

characteristics, but will ideally be superior in all characteristics, or at least most of them. 

Reproductive criteria that will also be considered include such items as: age of flowering, production 

quantity of flowers and seeds, flowering periodicity. In relation to wood quality such issues will be 

considered as basic density, fibres dimensions or resinous oil quality – their quantity, terpens and 

resin, the last for conifers wood. 

For the chosen forest stands and for “plus” tree, other factors which will be taken into consideration 

will include such characteristics as: resistance against diseases and insect attack, against aridity, 

animals and other natural and human impacts. 

For seeds reserves some others management activity has been made such as; removal of inferior and 

poor quality trees, undertake thinning which is a very important operation and creates spatial area 

necessary for flowering and seeds collection; cleaning of ground area for facilitation of prediction 

control and seed collection; limitation of forest stands for elimination contamination of pollination, 

as well as and other services such as: paring, fertilize, using of fungicide or insecticide; all these 

supplementary measures are considered for increasing and conserving production. 

In relation with E. beech in Albania, Nature reserve integrate (NRI) are defined in some districts 

of the country and in total there are approximately 2 units with a surface area exceeding 2,313 ha. 

These units categorised according to the IUCN criteria are given in Table 2 and are presented 

according to district (Tab. 3) and their location in Albania can be seen in the map below (Fig. ). 

18

Tab. 2: E. beech Nature Reserve Integrate units (NRI) in Albania according to IUCN category 

Nr. Species Surface 

(ha) 

Nr. Surface according to IUCN category (ha) 

I II III IV V VI VII 

1 European beech 2,313 27 424 1,889 

Tab. 3: European beech Nature Reserve Integrate (NRI) in Albania 

Nr. District Forest 

Surface 

(ha) 

Parcel 

Altitude 

(m a.s.l.) 

Age 

(years) 

I Berat Tomorr (National Park) 30 9a 870-1,050 110 

II Bulqize Liqeni i Zi 57 4a-22b 1,300-1,725 80-120 

III Devoll Perparimaj 81 85, 86, 87, 88 1,300-1,650 70-110 

IV Diber 

Lure (National Park) 

Zhuri i Pllahut 

300 

34 

1-32 

32a 

850-1,750 100-180 

V Has Tej Drinini Bardhe 80 140, 141 1,110-1,340 110-115 

VI Kolonje Orgocke 50 60, 69 1,500 160 

Qarrishte 124 96-112 1,150-1,750 90-180 

Rrajce 77 64a, 65a 1,600-1,650 120-155 

VII Librazhd Dardhe-Xhyre 112 28a, 29b 1,350-1,450 80-135 

Lepush 25 69ab, 70a 1,150-1,670 180-190 

Stravaj 42 20, 21a 1,210-1,543 200 

VIII Mat 

Qaf Shtame-Kete 

Isuf Emin Plloci 

86 

20 

24, 34-35 

23, 24 

900-1,700 

1,400-1,600 

125-170 

90-160 

Lugina e Vermoshit 74 53a, 53b 1,250-1,700 170 

IX M.Madhe Fusher Zeze 20 39b 1,500-1,650 160-170 

Thethi (National Park) 50 4 1,518 150 

X Pogradec 

Bishnice 

Guri i Nikes 

43 

72 

17a 

8, 9 

1,604-1,854 

1,050-1,220 

190 

100-110 

XI Puke Iballe 48 35, 36a 745 80 

XII Shkoder Cukal 500 1-20 1,350-1,735 135-180 

XIII Tirane 

Dajt (National Park) 

Bize 

74 

47 

36, 37 

95, 96, 97, 98 

1,400 

1,277-1,490 

130 

140-170 

Curraj i Eperm 40 97a 900-1,160 130 

XIV Tropoje 

Nikaj Mertur 

Lumi i Gashit 

75 

30 

10, 11a 

89b 

800-1,400 

1,600 

105 

130 

Çerem – Dragobi 122 87, 88, 89 1,350-1,950 90-120 

TOTAL 2,313 

19

Fig. 7: Distribution of European beech and Nature Reserve Integrate units (NRI) in Albania according to districts 

(prepared by H. Haska) 

The daTa abouT heaLTh coNdITIoN oF euroPeaN beech 

IN receNT years IN aLbaNIa 

Albania has for many years been monitoring the health of its forests which has been undertaken by 

a number of scientific institutions. For the entire country a national network with 299 permanent 

sample plots has been created. The method used was applied firstly from the Germany and later 

adapted by the European Commission. 

The monitoring process took place in the districts with the highest forest production potential such 

as Puka, Kukës, Mat, Shkodra, Tirana, Librazhd, Pogradec, Korça, Përmet, Berat, Vlora, Dibra, 

and Kolonja. In the period 2005 – 200 , data on the forest health status were collected at country 

level in order to evaluate the parameters and determine the needle and leaf fall, the level of tree 

discolouration, pests, illnesses and other factors, with the final objective to control the situation as 

regards forest health and give recommendations for improving the health of the forest. 

The monitored species are black pine, fir, beech, oak, etc. 

Below are some data for forests including E. beech forests, data collected over recent years. 

20 

Have not the beech 

90-1000 ha 

1000-7000 ha 

7000-10 000 ha 

10 000-15 000 ha 

More then 15 000 ha 

Reserve Nature Integrate 

units of E. beech

Tab. 4: Percentage of defoliation according to category (average 2005-2007) 

Category 

Percentage of leaf loss according to category 

0-10% (0) 11-25% (1) 26-60% (2) 61-99% (3) 100% (4) 

Leaf loss (%) 63.3 30.0 5.2 1.1 - 

Tab. 5: Percentage of discoloration according to category (average 2005-2007) 

Category 

Leaf discolouration 

level (%) 

Percentage leaf discolouration according to category 

0-10% (0) 11-25% (1) 26-60% (2) 61-99% (3) 100% (4) 

48.1 38.6 12.0 0.9 0.4 

The most problematic pests for beech: (Mikiola fagi Hartig), Librazhd, Kolonja; (Rhynchaenus 

fagi L.), Korça, Puka; (Phyllaphis fagi L.), at national level; (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger). 

Some the main diseases in beech (Fagus sylvatica): (Nectia dittisima), in all ancient beech woods; 

(Phytophthora fagi), Shkodra, Kukës; (Fomes fomentarius), Librazhd (unused areas). 

Tab. 6: Level of damage by the main pests (%) according to category for European beech 

Category 

0-10% (0) 

Level of damage 

11-20% (1) 21-50% (2) 51-90% (3) 91-100% (4) 

I.D. (%) 

Beech (F. sylvatica) 61.3 33.2 4.0 1.5 - 13.7 

Pests which cause a high level of damage in the leaf are the Tortrix viridana L. 1 %, Saperda 

charcharis L. 22% and Ceratostomella ulmi 19%. 

Tab. 7: Level of damage by the main diseases in European beech 

Level of damage I.D. (%) 

Category 

0-10% (0) 11-20% (1) 21-50% (2) 51-90% (3) 91-100% (4) 

Beech (F. sylvatica) 80.3 16.0 2.2 1.5 - 10.5 

The disease causing a high intensity of damage in the leaf species is Cryphonectria parasitica. 

Tab. 8: Percentage of damage according to causes in the tree species of broadleaved forests 

Type of 

damage 

Pest Disease 

Percentage of damaged trees according to causes 

Grazing and 

overgrazing 

Climatic 

factors 

Pedology 

factors 

Fires 

Unknown 

causes 

Leaf 4.3 4.6 1.7 2.3 1.5 2.7 1.2 18.3 

Total 

(%) 

21

Degree of damage according to causes is at an average value of 18.9%, while for the conifers it is 

19.2% and for the broadleaved species is 18.3%. The highest levels are found in other broadleaved 

species such as oak, hornbeam and box, where a considerable area of these species is suffering from 

water deficit due to the high and prolonged temperatures. 

Discoloration: This is the basic indicator of the complex factors which are reflected in the change 

of colour through to the dying of the leaves. Referring to the classification according to category, 

it is obvious that this indicator has a notable increase in the second and third categories (26 – 60% 

and 61-99% with respective values of 15.42 and 1.48%), compared to last years (in the category 26 

– 90% it was 9. 9% while in category 61 – 99% it was 0.98%) . 

The pest with the highest intensity in the leaf species is: Tortrix viridana L. 1 .0%, Saperda charcharis L. 

22.0% and Ceratostomella at the poplar and elm-trees 19.0%. 

The disease causing a high intensity of damage in the leaf species is Cryphonectria parasitica 25.3%. 

Degree of damage according to causes is at an average value of 18.9%, while for the conifers it is 

19.2% and for the broadleaved species it is 18.3%. 

In future, with better coordination between all stakeholders working in forestry, such as the 

specialists of the FSD, communes, others entities that work in forests and cooperate with observing 

and signalling staff are to be allocated and share some important monitoring duties. 

ProTecTed area aNd some euroPeaN beech bIo-moNumeNTs 

IN aLbaNIa 

Many of protected areas are covered by European beech, mainly pure but also mixed with others 

forest species. Greatest evidence of this is in the national parks, where European beech is one of the 

main forest trees as follows: 

“Shebenik-Jabllanica” national park which was approved in 2008 with a surface area of 33,928 ha and 

is 80 km from the capital Tirana. 

National park “Mali I Dajtit”, was extended with a large surface area added last year and is also very 

near to Tirana. This national park has a very rich flora that includes Mediterranean shrubs (Arbutus 

unedo), oaks and at high altitude beech forest pure and mixed with conifers. 

“Thethi” national park is another park in the Albania Alps, where beech created pure or mixed forest 

stands; this is 0 – 5 km distant from Shkodra city. 

National park “Lura” in Dibra district, 55 km from Peshkopi city, 30 km from Kurbnesh and 0 km 

from Burrel city. This area has many pure and mixed stands of beech with conifers such as Bosnian 

and Balkan. 

“Lugina e Valbones” national park lies in Tropoja district, 25 km from Barjam Curri city and is part 

of the Albanian Alps. Some parts of this area has virgin forests where beech grows pure and mixed 

with others species such as Norway spruce (Picea abies) which is the only area of Norway spruce 

growing in Albania. 

“Zall Gjocaj” national park, Mati district, 40 km from Burrel city, has a high level of biodiversity and 

some part with virgin forests which are covered by different forest trees pure or in mixture such as 

beech, black pine, fir, Bosnian pine, ash, maple etc. 

22

“Qaf Shtame” national park, in Kruja district 25 km distant from Kruja city, is another very beautiful 

place where beech and black pine grow together. 

“Tomorri” national park in Berati district 30 – 40 km distant from Berati city is covered by forest 

composed of beech and Bosnian pine, and others forest species, pure or mixed. 

“Prespa” national park in Korça district, about 25 km from Korca city is a cross-border park between 

Greece, Macedonia and Albania. In the lower parts oak grows while in the more productive parts oak 

grows with beech, both pure or in mixed stands. 

“Bredhi i Drenoves” national park also in Korça district, 10 km from Korca city, has very beautiful 

forests composed of Abies borisii-regis mixed with maple, ash, black pine can be found and in some 

cases with beech. 

“Llogara” national park in Vlora district in the southern part of Albania where beech grow very rare 

at higher altititude. 

In Albania are designated some nature monuments, and these are approved by the government 

and are included in the national heritage. A nature monument is a natural object with one or more 

unique values; scientific, historic, religions, ecologic, cultural, esthetics, didactics, touristic – these 

are habitats for rare species as well as endemic, threatened or important species. To facility their 

study, nature monuments are divided into three categories: geo-monuments, hydro-monuments and 

bio-monuments. Albania has recognised a number of bio-monuments (around 308), some of which 

contains European beech. 

bIo-moNumeNTs WITh euroPeaN beech IN aLbaNIa 

accordING To dIsTrIcTs 

Gramshi district – Ahishta e Rovjes; Librazhdi district – Pylli i Stravajt, Druri i Bizges, Ahet e Fushe 

Gurrës, Pylli i Barkmadhit Kostenje; Korçe district – Ahishtja e Protopapes Opar, Ahishtet e Bofnjes; 

Devolli district – Ahishtja e Shenkostandinit, Pylli i Shen Thanasit, Ahishtja e Bradvices; Diber 

district – Ahu i Blliçes, Boroviku i Beguinecit, Krasta e Pocestit; Hasi district – Ahishtja e Liqenit 

te Kuq; Tropoje district – Ahishtja Gurra e Hasan Gashit (Mertur), Ahishtja e Vranices; Malesia 

e Madhe district – Ahu i Greçes (Mrizi i Greçes), Mrizi (ahu) i Pleshtit (Boge); Skrapari district – 

Ahishtja e Leshnjes; Ahishtja e Symizes, Ahishtja e Lirzes. 

reFereNces 

Abeshi P. et al. 200 . Biodiversity Thesaurus. Tirana. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Water 

Administration. 2008: 38-43. 

Agency of Environment and Forestry. Different documents from Archive as: Forest and Pasture 

Cadastre in years, National Forest inventory, National Pasture Inventory, National Medical Plants 

Inventory, different Studies and Projects. 

Baku P. 2002. Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Tirana. Publisher BACCHUS, 21 p. 

Dictionary of Plant Names. 2003. Tirana, Prishtinë. The Academy of Sciences of Albania. The 

Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo. 11 p. 

23

Dida M. et al. 2004. Nature Protected Area, National Parks of Albania. Tirana. General Directory of 

Forests and Pastures Tirana, 1 -30, 123-126. 

Dragoti N., Dedej Z., Abeshi P. 200 . Protected Area of Albania. Tirana. Ministry of Environment, 

Forest and Water Administration of Albania; World Bank (WB); Global Environment Facility 

(GEF). 18-21, 55-112. 

Ecological Survey. 199 . Virgin Forests in Albania. Tirana. Forest and Pasture Research Institute; 

Institute of Biological Research; Museum of Nature Sciences. 38-60. 

Encyclopedic Albanian Dictionary. 2008. Vol I. Tirana. The Academy of Sciences of Albania. 28 p. 

Environmental situation in Albania, 2005 – 200 . Agency of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of 

Environment, Forest and Water Administration of Albania. Tirana: 63-103, 28 -352. 

Environmental situation in Albania 2008. Charter II: Biodiversity. 2009. Agency of Environment and 

Forestry, Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration of Albania. Tirana: 30- 

60. 

Environmental situation in Albania 2009. Charter II: Biodiversity. 2010. Agency of Environment and 

Forestry, Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration of Albania. Tirana. 

Haska H. 2002. Forest, Environment, and Community. (Lecture Cycles in Environmental Specialists 

Training Course: “Protection and Administration Environment in Albania”. Vol. I. Tirana: 1- 

116. 

Haska H. 2001. Maple. Tirana. Management and Inventory Department, Forest and Pasture Research 

Institute, BACCHUS, 141-142. 

Haska H. et al. 2004. Monitoring biodiversity in forest by means of their state of health monitoring 

system. National Conference on Environment Monitoring in Albania, Tirana. 

Haska H. et al. 2004. “TOURISTIC ALBANIA – Nature and Culture Heritage”. University of Athens, 

“ELLA”, 413 34 GRECCE: 25-3 . 

Haska H., Etleva C. 200 . Forest in Albania and their monitoring. Integral Protection of Forests – 

Scientific – Technological Platform. International Scientific Conference, Belgrade 12th December 

200 . Proceedings Book. Institute of Forestry Belgrade, Serbia. Belgrade: 86-90. 

Haska H., Karadumi S. et al. 2004. Biodiversity Characteristics in Mountains Ecosystems in Albania. 

Flora and impacts from climatic changes. International Conference on Mountains Ecosystems in 

Albania, Tirana November 2004. 

Law Nr. 8906, date 06.06.2002. “For Protected Area”. Tirana. Parliament of Albania. 

Lipe Q., Postoli A. 19 1. Dendrology and Forest Selection. High State Institute of Agriculture. Vol. 

II. Tirana: 223-229. 

Ministry of Environment, Forests and Water Management. Different data as: Forest Strategy, 

Environment Strategy, different laws and rules and other data for Forests, Pasture and Environment 

sector. 

Mitrushi I. 1955. Trees and Shrubs of Albania. Tirana. Institute of Sciences. 3 0-3 3. 

Mitrushi I., Karadumi S., Haska H., 2005. Fruits and seeds of Trees and Shrubs of Albania. Tirana. 

Academy of Sciences of Albania, 420-421. 

24

Qiriazi P., Sala S., 2006. Nature Monuments of Albania. Tirana. Ministry of Environment, Forestry 

and Water Administration of Albania. 9 -22. 

Statistical Year-Book 2003 – 2004. Directorate of Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 

Albania. Tirana: 126-130. 

The First National Communication of Albania to the United Nations Framework Convention on 

Climate Change, (UNFCCC), Environment Ministry of Albania, Tirana July 2002: 59-60, 100- 

101. 

Reviewed 

contact: 

Prof. Dr. Hajri Haska 

Director of Forest Directory 

Agency of Environment and Forestry; Ministry of Environment, Forest and Water Administration 

Rruga: “Halil Bega”, Nr: 23, Tirane, Albania 

e-mail: haskahajri@yahoo.com 

25

26 

curreNT sTaTe oF orIeNTaL beech 

(FAgUS oRIeNTALIS Lipsky) IN armeNIa 

HASMIK GHALACHYAN 1 – ANDRANIK GHULIJANYAN 2,3 

1 Plant Resources Management Division, Bioresources Management Agency, Ministry 

of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia, Government Building 3, Republic 

Square, 3 5010 Yerevan, Armenia 

2 “Forest Research and Experimental Centre’’ State Non-Commercial organization 

3 Ministry of Nature Protection of the Republic of Armenia, Government Building 3, 

Republic Square, 3 5010 Yerevan, Armenia 

absTracT 

This paper presents the current state of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) in Armenia. It is 

the dominant tree species in 82.2% of the national forest area. Research shows that in Armenia 

oriental beech prefers to grow in the northern part of the country. From an economic viewpoint, the 

species provides a valuable wood resource which is widely used for the manufacture of furniture, as 

well as for carpentry and in the construction of buildings. Oriental beech is also an excellent park 

tree, with several ornamental garden forms. Furthermore, the paper describes the current state of 

the oriental beech gene pool and its preservation in the framework of the Armenian conservation 

programme. It includes information on the current state of forestry research on oriental beech and 

related activities. 

Key words: oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky), Բոխի արևելյան, ղաժի (in Armenian), 

oriental beach distribution, oriental beech ecology, preservation and conservation of 

oriental beech gene pool, genetically conditioned variability, research experiments 

INTroducTIoN 

The Republic of Armenia is located on the verge of Southern Caucasus and Asia Minor, occupying 

about 10% of the north-eastern part of the Armenian plateau and is situated between 35° 50‘ – 40° 

15‘ of the northern latitude and 43° 2 ‘ – 46° 3 ‘ of the eastern longitude. Armenia borders Georgia 

in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, Iran in the south and Turkey in the west. 

Armenia is a typical mountainous country with a complex geographical structure. The total area 

of the country is 29, 40 km2 . The highest peak is Mount Aragatz (4,090 m above sea level) and the 

lowest is along the banks of Debed River (3 5 m). Relative altitude fluctuates from 1,500 to 3, 00 m. 

The average altitude of the territory is 1,850 m. Such broad altitudinal variation results in a great 

diversity of climate and landscape. 

Water resources in the country are quite limited. The largest lake is Lake Sevan which is a natural 

source of drinking water for the region. Rivers are small and shallow.

Armenia is characterized by a mountainous continental climate with a peculiarity for its dryness. 

Average highest annual temperature is 14 °C, and the lowest is -2. °C. The highest average temperature 

is observed in July – August in the Ararat valley and pre-mountain zone which is in the range of 24 

– 26 °C; in mountain zones it is in the range of 15 – 20 °C; in high altitude regions it varies from 10 to 

15 °C and even lower. 

Average lowest temperature in January fluctuates between -18.9 and -3.1 °C. The annual precipitation 

range is from 600 to 1,000 mm. High altitude zoning is demonstrably obvious. In winter long-lasting 

snow cover exists above 1,300 m (according to the National Report on the State of Plant Genetic 

Resources in Armenia, 2008). 

orIeNTaL beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN The rePubLIc oF armeNIa 

Generally, oriental beech natural occurrence is in Western Europe (Eastern Balkan Peninsula), 

Crimea, Caucasus, Asia Minor (North), Iran (North). 

Oriental beech is a common species and a third century typical relict. The scientist Tumajanov 

(19 1) has shown the Holocene expansion of that species from the Kakheti to the northern side of the 

Big Mountain Range (Georgia). It is possible that during this time a habitat transformation has taken 

Fig. 1: Stand of oriental beech showing large-trunks (A. Ghulijanyan, 2009) 

2

place and the species has extended its range in the other direction to the south – Little Caucasus, 

and turned into large beech forests which are a common occurrence when old relict species become 

acclimatized and the result is an enlargement of their natural habitat area. Oriental beech is a good 

example of this. 

Despite the negative human impact on the forest ecosystem, oriental beech shows a strong 

sustainability and shows a much better sustainability than Georgian oak species. Georgian oak is 

one of the main constituents of Armenian forests. Description of oriental beech forests in Northern 

Armenia is given in Tables 1 and 2. 

As a result of intensive unregulated forest removal, many of oriental beech stands have been seriously 

damaged. The natural regeneration recovery is slow and generally unsatisfactory and urgent 

reafforestation activities are needed in those parts of the distribution area (Fig. 1, 2). 

The main part of the mesophilic forest ecosystem of Armenia can be considered as relict. A number 

of former relict plant species have now become acclimatized in forest ecosystems. There are both very 

common and rare tree species and grass among these plants. For example, Betula, Tilia, Lonicera, 

euonymus, Pyrola, Cornus mas, Carpinus betulus, Rhus coriaria, Tamus communis, Juglans regia, 

Platanus orientalis, Zelcova carpinifolia, Atropa bella-donna species are considered relict species of 

Armenian forests. 

Oriental beech grove dominance is found in 82.2% of the forest area, accounting for ,9 0 ha while 

83.2% of general resource or 1 ,0 4,059 m3 are distributed in the northern part. In the same location 

Fig. 2: Regrowth of coppiced stump of oriental beech (A. Ghulijanyan, 2009) 

28

Fig. 3: Leaves of oriental beech (http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_Oriental_Beech.htm) 

Table 1: Changes of the areas with dominance of oriental beech and Georgian oak distribution according to 

height above sea level and scope declivity level 

The dominating 

tree species 

Oriental beech 

Georgian oak 

The level 

of scope 

declivity 

Up to 

800 

meters 

Sea level height [m] 

800-1,200 1,200-1,600 1,600-1,800 1,800-2,000 

2,000 and 

higher 

Up to 10 5.2 363.0 514.6 92.4 9.5 984.7 

11-20 9.3 1,886.0 7,744.4 2,450.0 445.8 19.5 12,555 

21-30 51.5 7,244.8 29,034.9 13,634.6 5,992.4 214.7 56,172.9 

31-40 80.6 3,510.6 10,965.5 5,603.8 1,650.5 126.0 21,937 

41 and 

higher 

8.6 569.2 1,861.1 623.7 141.8 4.0 3,208.4 

Total 155.2 13,573.6 50,020.5 22,404.5 8,240.0 364.2 94,858 

Up to 10 34.7 235.3 395.5 158.5 23.4 847.4 

11-20 57.2 1,620.4 5,708.8 2,070.7 132.6 17.0 9,606.7 

21-30 233.4 7,029.0 15,853.2 8,036.1 4,473.7 505.9 36,131.3 

31-40 146.4 3,715.5 6,357.6 3,175.0 1,380.0 342.6 15,117.1 

41 and 

higher 

16.8 665.3 1,099.7 249.7 40.9 2,072.4 

Total 488.5 13,265.5 29,414.8 13,690.0 6,050.6 865.5 63,774.9 

Total 

29

29.9% of Georgian oak is distributed over an area of 19,08 ha and accounts for 24.5% of the forest 

resource with 2,381,310 m3 . 

In the southern part of the country the data for the species are as follows: oriental beech – 12.2% of 

the forest with an area of 11,611 ha and a volume representing 11.5% of the total and amounting to 

2,366,404 m3 while Georgian oak accounts for 62.8% of the area or 40,033 ha and representing 63.3% 

of the volume which is equivalent to 510,513 m3 . 

Experience shows that in Armenia oriental beech prefer to grow on the northern parts of the country 

while Georgian oak grows better in the southern part of the country. 

The above data show the differences between oriental beech and Georgian oak forests, due to 

ecological needs, altitude and humidity preferences. 

In the northern areas of the country where oriental beech prefer to grow, the mountains are higher 

than in the southern parts of the country, where mountains are much lower and where Georgian oak 

prefers to grow. 

Table 2: The change of resource indexes of oriental beech and Georgian oak according to sea level height and 

scope diclivity level 

The dominating 

tree species 


Georgian oak 

30 

The 

level of 

scope 

declivity 

Up to 

800 

meters 

800-1,200 

1,200- 

1,600 

The sea level height [m] 

1,600- 

1,800 

1,800- 

2,000 

2,000 

and 

higher 

Total 

1 ha average 

resource (m) 

Up to 10 1,200 47,190 76,050 10,900 1,560 136,900 139.0 

11-20 1,710 339,500 1,455,740 433,650 62,800 3,600 2,297,000 183.0 

21-30 10,790 1,499,800 7,454,970 2,990,000 1,205,000 35,420 12,111,480 215.4 

31-40 12,100 827,500 1,560,470 1,277,000 328,800 20,950 5,111,320 233.0 

41 and 

higher 

2,920 165,490 511,060 158,610 29,370 520 867,970 217.8 

Total 

1 ha, 

28,720 2,879,480 11,058,290 4,870,060 1,627,530 60,490 20,524,670 216.4 

average 

resource 

(m3 ) 

185.0 212.1 220.6 217.1 197.5 166.1 216.4 

Up to 10 2,270 27,900 40,690 12,680 1,450 91,290 107.7 

11-20 4,440 186,500 395,290 236,500 13,800 910 1,223,470 127.3 

21-30 20,740 802,960 2,635,120 1,075,520 552,620 48,000 4,642,430 128.4 

31-40 9,490 428,000 769,860 400,500 148,000 10,810 1,866,340 123.5 

41 and 

higher 

2,250 70,280 136,890 31,380 2,630 243,430 117.5 

Total 

1 ha, 

39,190 1,515,640 3,977,850 1,756,580 718,500 59,720 8,066,960 126.5 

average 

resource 

(m3 ) 

80.2 114.3 135.2 128.3 118.7 69.0 126.5

The Georgian oak forests prefer the south-western and south-eastern sides, where they account for 

16, 80 ha (26.3%) and 1 ,451 ha (2 .4%), and together with the northern areas amount to 19,08 ha 

(29.9%) (Tab. 1). 

As mentioned above, forest ecosystems have been extensively changed over the last ten years. 

The reason of this is the change in the main forest distribution areas and distribution of forest species. 

Another reason for these changes is the structure and the habitat of these species. 

Table 3: Dynamic changes of areas covered with forests and resources according to forest forming species 

Main treespecies 


Georgian oak 

Hornbeam 

Pine-tree 

Oriental hornbeam 

Other species 

Total forest 

covered area 

The year of forest 

establishment 

Total 1 ha average 

resource [m 3 ] 

Square [ha] Resource [m 3 ] 

1966 90,236.1 14,652,090 162.4 

1978 92,784.0 16,763,000 180.7 

1988 93,596.0 21,611,300 230.9 

2006 94,858.0 20,524,670 216.4 

1966 47,064.7 4,830,400 102.6 

1978 52,040.5 5,791,120 11.3 

1988 54,002.0 7,267,750 134.6 

2006 63,774.9 8,066,960 126.7 

1966 27,068.4 2,876,200 106.3 

1978 26,275.4 3,140,380 119.5 

1988 26,783.0 3,826,730 142.9 

2006 31,507.9 3,979,370 126.3 

1966 1,621.4 181,330 111.8 

1978 4,431.0 276,000 62.3 

1988 6,529.9 456,000 69.8 

2006 7,139.3 590,895 82.8 

1966 6,686.4 319,020 47.7 

1978 6,127.0 325,500 53.1 

1988 6,132.0 385,900 62.9 

2006 13,304.3 534,890 40.2 

1966 8,047.4 593,260 73.7 

1978 10,069.1 838,070 82.5 

1988 11,053.1 1,060,720 95.7 

2006 10,969.6 874,035 79.6 

1966 180,724.4 23,452,300 129.8 

1978 191,822.0 27,134,080 141.4 

1988 198,096.0 34,608,400 174.7 

2006 221,554.0 34,570,820 156.0 

31

Fig. 4: Botanic map of the Republic of Armenia (http://www.armstat.am/file/article/marz_07_e_7.pdf) 

ecoLoGy oF orIeNTaL beech 

Mesophyte. Very shade tolerant. One of essential forest-forming trees. Usually grows with other 

broadleaved or coniferous trees but may form pure stands. Generally dominates on northern slopes 

in wet valleys. Demands warmth, high soil fertility and wetness, as well as air humidity. Thrives on 

fertile, brown forest soils. Forms best stands of all ages at the altitude 00 to 1,200 m. In the Caucasus, 

attains 2,200-2,300 m, to form subalpine elfin woodlands (Chukhina 2003). 

use aNd ecoNomIc vaLue 

Technical, ornamental. Provides valuable wood which is widely used for furniture (bentwood 

„Viennese“ furniture), as well as construction and carpentry (parquetry). Excellent park tree, with 

significant ornamental garden forms. Nut bearing trees cultivated in Armenia include walnut (Juglans 

regia), hazel (Corylus avellana, C. colurna) and chestnut (Castanea sativa). People also use the fruits 

of beech (Fagus orientalis). Wild species of almond (Amygdalus nairica, A. fenzliana, A. urartu) and 

pistachio (Pistacia mutica) are also grown in the country. 

The unique forest of Mtnadzor gorge is considered a fine example of natural indigenous forests. Here 

the primary targets for conservation are oak, hornbeam and oak-hornbeam forests, as well as rare 

plant communities, such as yew (Taxus baccata). Here also is found the only small oriental beech 

grove in the south of Armenia along with a plane grove (Platanus orientalis) (Chukhina 2003). 

32

Fig. 5: Map of oriental beech distribution in northeastern Armenia 

33

Fig. 6: Map of oriental beech density in northeastern Armenia 

34

PesTs, dIseases aNd abIoTIc ImPacTs 

To-date some 43 insect species are considered to be associated with oriental beech as a host tree in 

neighboring Iran, the majority of which are not very host specific bark and wood borers (Adeli, 

Soleimani 19 6). A similar situation is found in Armenia. 

According to Avagyan (2009), the National Forest Policy and Strategy (2004) and The Forest 

National Programme (2005) include issues on climate change risks. The following activities related 

to climate change as envisaged in these programmes: assessment of forest vulnerability as a result of 

forecasted climate change; development of measures aimed at increasing forest adaptability; efficient 

use of international financing mechanisms in the forest sector (as envisaged by Kyoto Protocol) for 

implementation of afforestation/reforestation projects by using Clean Development Mechanism 

based on forest ecosystems capacity to absorb carbon; assessment of the damage caused to forests by 

pests and diseases and application of integrated methods to control pests and diseases spread in the 

forests and the forest maintenance improvement programme. 

orIeNTaL beech GeNe PooL PreservaTIoN aNd coNservaTIoN 

A network of specially protected areas was first established in Armenia in 1958 to protect ecosystems, 

habitats and rare, endemic and threatened species (http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/arm/arm_ 

natreserves.htm). 

There are currently five State Reserves, 22 State Reservations and one National Park 

registered, which together cover around 311,000 ha, or 10% of the surface of the country. 

Around 60% of Armenian species are represented within the protected area network; however there 

is a bias towards forest habitats, and a need to expand the system to include better representation of 

other ecosystems. 

As for oriental beech, there are several nature reserves managed for this species, in Armenia, as e.g. 

the Dilijan reserve (Khanjyan 2004). This nature reserve is managed by “Hayantar” State Enterprise 

(under the authority of the Ministry of Nature Protection). “Dilijan” National Park is situated in the 

north of Armenia, in one of most picturesque areas (established in 1958, area: 2 ,995 ha). The main 

subjects of protection are beech and oak forests that also include some pines (Pinus kochianus), as 

well as the shady yew grove of Hakhnabad with impressive Taxus baccata trees. While the National 

Park doesn’t present the whole diversity of the flora of northern Armenia, it has over 1,000 species 

of plants in an area of 28,000 ha. The main wood and bush types are oak (Quercus iberica), beech 

(Fagus orientalis), different types of hornbeam (Carpinus caucasicus, C. orientalis), as well as ash, 

some types of lime tree, maple, caprifoil, spindle tree and others (Fraxinus, Tilia, Acer, Lonicera, 

euonymus). Numerous plants like rare Job`s-tears (Lychnis flos-cuculi), different orchids, and 

fritillaria (Orchidaceae, Fritillaria) are included in the Red Book. 

Another nature reserve, in which management is directed to other species as well as to the oriental 

beech gene pool preservation and conservation, is the Shikakhogh reserve, managed by “Hayantar” 

State Enterprise (under the authority of the Ministry of Nature Protection). It was established in 1958. 

The Shikakhogh Reserve is situated in the northern slopes of the Meghri ridge that protects the area 

from hot air masses from the Iranian Plateau, while the high Zangezur range stretches from north to 

south and slows humid air from the Caspian Sea. Due to the mild climate and numerous close gorges 

not only single representatives, but whole communities and islands of tertiary flora have survived 

here such as yew grove (Taxus baccata), along with the only beech grove in southern Armenia as well 

35

as ivy, persimmon, plane and walnut, Fagus orientalis, Hedera helix, Diospyrus caucasicus, Platanus 

orientalis, Juglans regia, Periploca graeca etc. The main part of the reserve is occupied by broadleaf 

trees – generally oak and oak/hornbeam forests – that occupy the middle area of the vegetation belt 

at altitudes of 1,000-2,200 m above the sea. 

ForesT research 

In the Asian region, numerous research experiments have been established aimed at studying oriental 

beech influence and behaviour, such as a study undertaken to establish the effects of harvesting 

impact on the herbaceous understory, of the forest floor and top soil properties as well as the effects 

of extraction practices on a beech stand (Murat, Makineci, Yilmaz 2005). In this study, the impact 

of extraction work on the access roads have been carried out for many years and the likely effects of 

man, animal and mechanical interactions in the beech stand have been examined. 

Numerous other studies on the genetical characteristics of oriental beech have also been undertaken, 

e.g. research aimed at the clarification of the unique Fagus sylvatica-orientalis complex or two distinct 

species undertaken by studying the sequence of the trnL-trnF region of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA). 

Twenty-nine Fagus sylvatica and twenty-two Fagus orientalis populations have been sampled to better 

delineate the systematic position of the genus Fagus, Fagus taurica Popl., Fagus moesiaca Czecz., 

Fagus grandijblia Ehrh., Fagus crenata Bl., Fagus japonica BI., and Fagus hayatae Palibin were also 

considered (Vettori et al. 2004). 

In 2002, there was an assessment on the adverse effects of human impact on biodiversity in Armenia’s 

premier wilderness areas – the Khosrov Reserve and Gndasar Mt./Noravank Canyon (Khorozyan 

2002). The report from this experimental study derives from the field project generously supported by 

The Whitley Laing Foundation for International Nature Conservation/Rufford Small Grant program 

which was implemented over four months in the summer-autumn of 2002. The aim of this project was 

to assess the status and distribution of adverse human activities in the areas of both Khosrov Reserve 

and Gndasar Mt./Noravank Canyon and predict their actual or potential impact on biodiversity. 

Among the results of this research, for example in the Khosrov Reserve, in site conditions studies it 

has been established that through out the canyon bottom with streams flowing alongside, this sparse 

forest transforms to the dense “jungles” or true woods of oak (Quercus macranthera), oriental beech 

(Fagus orientalis), crooked and thorny berry trees and shrubs like buckthorn (Rhamnus pallasii), dog 

rose (Rosa canina), hawthorn (Crataegus calycina), wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana), etc. 

reFereNces 

Adeli E., Soleimani P. 19 6. Insects on oriental beech (Fagus orientalis ssp. macrophylla) in Iran 

and their importance for forestry practices and wood utilization. Zeitschrift für Angewandte 

Entomologie, 80: 132-138. 

Avagyan A. 2009. Review of national research, data and projects on climate change: Dimensions, 

impacts and mitigation and adaptation policies in Armenia. http://www.fao.org/world/regional/ 

reu/events/climate/docs/Armenia_en.pdf 

Chukhina I. G. 2003. http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/content/related/Fagus_orientalis/ 

Ghulijanyan A. 2009. Dendrological Diversity of North-Eastern Armenia and Dynamics of Change 

of the Biomass of the Most Valuable Species. 

36

Khanjyan N. 2004. Specially protected nature areas of Armenia. Yerevan, Ministry of Nature 

Protection of the Republic of Armenia: 54 p. 

Khorozyan I. 2002. Assessment of adverse human impact on biodiversity in Armenia’s premier 

wilderness areas, Khosrov Reserve and Gndasar Mt./Noravank Canyon. Final Report of the 

Whitley Laing Foundation for International Nature Conservation Project: 24 p. 

Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Armenia. 2008. National Report on the State of Plant 

Genetic Resources in Armenia. 

Murat D., Makineci E., Yilmaz E. 200 . Harvesting impact on herbaceous understory, forest 

floor and top soil properties on skid road in a beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) stand. Journal of 

Environmental Biology, 28/2: 42 -432. 

National Forest Policy and Strategy (2004). Government Decree of Republic of Armenia, № 38, 

30.09.2004. 

Nature Reserves. http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/arm/arm_natreserves.htm 

The Forest National Programme (2005). Government Decree of Republic of Armenia, № 1232-P, 

21.0 .2005. 

Tumajanov I. I. 19 1. Changes of the Great Caucasus forest vegetation during the Pleistocene and 

Holocene. In Davis, P. H., Harper, P. C., Hedge, I. C. (eds.): Plant life of South-West Asia. Botanical 

Society of Edinburgh: 3-8 . 

Vettori C., Paffetti D., Paule L., Giannini R. 2004. Identification of the Fagus sylvatica L. and 

Fagus orieantalis Lipsky species and intraspecific variability. Forest Genetics, 10/3-4: 223-230. 

Reviewed 

contacts: 

Dr. Hasmik Ghalachyan 

Plant Resources Management Division, Bioresources Management Agency, Ministry of Nature 

Protection of the Republic of Armenia 

Government Building 3, Republic Square, 3 5010 Yerevan, Armenia 

e-mail: hasmikghalachyan@yahoo.com 

hasmikgrigan@yahoo.com 

3

38 

curreNT sTaTe oF The euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNe-PooL IN ausTrIa 

RAPHAEL KLUMPP 1 – HERFRIED STEINER 2 – EDUARD HOCHBICHLER 1 

1 Institute of Silviculture, Department of Forest- and Soil Sciences, University of Natural 

Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Peter Jordan Str. 82, 1190 Vienna, Austria 

2 Department of Forest Inventory, Unit of Natural Forest Reserves and Nature 

Conservation, BFW Austria, Hauptstr. , A-1140 Vienna, Austria 

absTracT 

The current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Austria is presented in this paper as well as 

information on the present distribution of beech and on its actual representation in forest stands and 

plant communities. The historical as well as the contemporary status of beech in Austrian forestry is 

also outlined. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica), Buche, Rotbuche (in German), distribution, 

silviculture, gene-pool, forest history, forest genetic resources, Austria 

The curreNT dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN ausTrIa 

European beech is the most common broadleaved tree species in Austria, covering an area of 

323,000 ha which represents 9.6% of the Austrian forests. Beech was recorded up to a maximum 

elevation of 2,050 m a. s. l. during the national inventory of 2002 (Englisch 2006). Beech is usually 

found in Austria at elevations from 150 m a. s. l. up to 1,500 m a. s. l. throughout the northern 

foothills of the Alpine mountains and up to 1,550 m a. s. l. in the southern foothills. More than 0% 

of the trees are to be found at an elevation between 300 and 900 m a. s. l. and only 6% can be found 

between 1,200 and 1,500 m a. s. l. (Schadauer, Büchsenmeister, Schodterer 2006). Rendzina 

soils on substrates rich in carbonates are most frequently occupied by beech. 

Being a tree species of the montane forest communities, the species occurs mainly in beech dominated 

forests as well as in the spruce-fir-beech and the maple-ash-forests. As a mixed species it can be 

found in oak-hornbeam as well as in spruce-fir communities and hence it is spread over a total area 

of 1.5 million ha or 50% of all Austrian forests (Schadauer, Büchsenmeister, Schodterer 2006). 

In most cases, beech cover is less than 10% of the area and pure stands where beech cover is more 

than 80% are scarcely found. However, the “Viennese Forest” west of Vienna and the “Kobernausser 

Forest” in Upper Austria are two regions well known for their pure beech stands. 

As a result of intensive forestry practice during the last two centuries, beech forms pure beech stands 

only on 28% of the potential beech forest sites, while artificial spruce stands can be found on 45% 

of this area. The most important forest community, the spruce-fir-beech type with an extension of 

more than 1.1 million ha is even covered by 2% of anthropogenic spruce forests. This anthropogenic 

driven development is influenced by climate fluctuations: a natural dynamic in beech regeneration

was reported by Polaczek (1954) who observed a better success of beech regeneration after several 

warm years and vice versa a better spruce regeneration after cold years. Thus it is not surprising, 

that the area covered by beech increased by 14,000 ha during the “warm” decade between 1992 and 

2002. 

Beech forestry practice varies between Austrian regions and differs according to regional challenges 

and the individual objectives of the owner. High quality wood production is the main objective for 

pure and mixed beech stands, sometimes including larch and spruce on good sites, as well as for 

mixed stands with spruce and fir on medium sites. Recreation and special forest functions dominate 

forestry in those forests, which are close to urban areas. 

The structure of ownership differs among Austrian regions: large land owners are to be found in 

the east of Austria and small farmers in the west, while in contrast, the two famous forest regions 

“Viennese Forest” and “Kobernausser Forest” are owned extensively by the Austrian Federal Forest 

Stock Corporation (ÖBF AG). 

coNsIderabLe beech dIseases aNd PesTs 

There are quite a number of pests and insects as well as fungi associated with Fagus sylvatica as host 

and their impact has been mostly underestimated by practitioners (Tomiczek, Perny, Cech 2006). 

The latest synoptical publications on the situation of beech pests in Austria document the presence 

of several pests of no economic importance in most of the cases (Tomiczek et al. 2009, 2010). Some 

examples of pests important for Austrian beech stands are cited below. 

Out of the group of insects occurring on the stem or on the bark of beech, Cryptococcus fagisuga 

created a problem for 60 ha of beech stands in 2008 but only for 10 ha in 2010. The beetle Agrilus 

viridis is still present at a potentially dangerous level and the processing of dead beech trees for 

fuel wood instead of removing the dead tree in time from the forest is problematic in this respect. 

Amongst the bark beetles, Taphorychus bicolor can be observed in many regions of Austria since 

2003. Trypodendron domesticum is one of the most important timber beetles in Austria, which may 

cause dieback of beech saplings (Tomiczek et al. 2009, 2010). 

An increased activity of Phytophtora species was recorded during recent years, where P. cambivora 

was observed most frequently. Furthermore the fungus Apiognomonia errabunda resulted in 

brownish leaves of Upper Austrian beech stands in spring 2008 and in Lower Austria in spring 2009 

(Tomiczek et al. 2009, 2010). 

hIsTory, ForesT maNaGemeNT aNd GeNeraL ThreaTs 

Beech was among the last tree species that conquered the Eastern Alps after the last glacial period. 

The first pollen records date from the period around 5,400 B.C. but the widest expansion was reached 

5,000 years later, when beech dominated the forests together with fir and spruce (Kral 1994). Despite 

early anthropogenic influences, the forest composition of large forest areas was still close to nature at 

the time of 1000 AD, when beech had a distribution of 20% and was the most common broadleaved 

tree species (Kral 1994). Beech was cultivated as a fruit tree during the middle age. However, when 

fuelwood and construction timber became more economically valuable, the percentage of beech was 

consequently reduced to roughly half of its natural distribution (see above), in particular as beech 

timber was not transportable by the historical logistic system of water channels. 

39

Huge clearcuts were practiced to provide timber in historical times. At present, the natural 

regeneration of beech stands dominates as a silvicultural technique in Austria. The classical method 

is shelterwood cutting of an area between one to three hectares (preparation cutting, seed cutting, 

several release cuttings and the final cut). The final cut is undertaken, if the regeneration covers most 

of the area of the stand and the height of young plants reaches 30 to 60 cm (Fig. 1). 

Fig. 1: Beech recruitment during the final stage of shelter cut (S. Spinka, 2010) 

The treatment goal for the young stand phase is to achieve a dense, homogenous thicket with a high 

number of well-formed trees at adequate spacing. Sometimes weeding (reducing competitive shrub 

and tree species) is necessary. The cleaning of the young stands, processed at a height frame of three 

to six (ten) metres top height, should eliminate wolf trees (forked dominant and co-dominant trees; 

negative selection). Generally, there are discussions amongst practitioners about the necessity of 

treatments (intensity, type) in this early stand phase. Therefore treatments are neglected in most of 

the young stands in Austria. The choice of crop trees as well as the selective thinning, starts at a top 

height of fifteen to eighteen metres (branch free bottom log of eight to twelve metres) and is already 

current practice in Austria (Fig. 2). In the second half of the rotation cycle, repeated increment 

thinning is obligatory up to 20 years before starting the shelterwood cutting. 

Over the last two decades alternate silvicultural methods (shelterwood group selection system, target 

diameter harvesting concept) were discussed and also practised in few Austrian forest enterprises. 

The main topic of the discussion is the quality development of the stands, in particular of the young 

stands, which grow up from shelterwood group regeneration. 

40

Fig. 2: Selected target trees in a beech stand of the Viennese Forest (S. Spinka, 2010) 

Despite the fact, that two thirds of all young forest stands in Austria originate from natural regeneration 

(Schodterer 2004), beech transplants are used for the restoration of secondary coniferous stands 

(see above), where mother trees are not found in sufficient number. The reproductive material for 

this need must be imported to an extent of 44% (period 199 – 2006; Anonymous 2008). In 2010, 

254 beech forest stands covering an area of 1,556 ha have been approved for seed procurement 

according to Austrian legislation (Anonymous 2010). The responsible federal forest office BFW 

targets to increase the area of approved seed stands by an extra 1, 45 ha considering the different 

plant communities and forest ecoregions of Austria (Anonymous 2010). 

During the decade from 199 to 2006, 5 seed harvests were carried out, in 39 stands which resulted 

in the collection of 2,834 kg of viable seeds (Anonymous 2008). In general, no seed harvest was 

possible for four years out of ten and a seed harvest of more than 1,000 kg was realized only in 2001 

and 2003, respectively (Anonymous 2008). These numbers clearly demonstrate the demands of the 

market. Since beech is a stand forming tree species abundantly occurring throughout Austria, no 

seed orchards (ex situ units) have been established. In order to meet future requirements for timber 

production under the climate change constraint, the installation of suitable beech plus tree seed 

orchards should be discussed for Austria. 

The human impact on the Fagus sylvatica gene pool in Austria, caused by historical forest exploitation 

and alteration of forest communities is obvious, but a quantification impossible. Provenance research 

is urgently needed, in order to define suitable provenances for the restoration of the potential beech 

forest communities. The possible effects of the ongoing climate change process (Lexer et al. 2001) 

should be considered when designing those provenance tests in order to define provenances with 

special conformity or genetic adaptability. 

41

GeNe reserves aNd NaTure reserves IN ausTrIa 

Beech forest ecosystems are included in the Austrian programme of gene conservation forests 

(Geburek, Müller 2006, Konrad, Litschauer, Geburek 200 ). These in situ gene conservation 

units have been established in order to conserve genetic resources of regional importance. The 

Austrian system of forest ecoregions serves as filter at a landscape level for identifying valuable forest 

stands. The forest authority and the “Austrian Research and Training Centre for Forests“ (BFW) 

select valuable beech stands but the final decision is made in a voluntary manner together with the 

respective forest enterprise. Subsidies are provided to the owners to compensate special efforts and 

increased silvicultural management costs. These forests are managed specifically to foster natural 

regeneration. In this way the natural selection dynamics and adaptive potential of the species are 

preserved. Today, 106 gene conservation forests with a total area of 3,269.8 ha have been established 

(Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Gene conservation forests containing beech as a main or a secondary tree species 

42 

Forest type 

Number of gene conservation 

forests 

Area (ha) 

spruce-fir-beech forest 78 2,819.5 

beech forest 26 447.8 

sycamore maple-beech forest 2 2.5 

Total 106 3,269.8 

The “Austrian Nature Reserve Programme” is a method for protecting valuable forest ecosystems 

and was initiated as a consequence of the ministerial conference process Ministerial Conference for 

the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) in 1993 (Frank, Mueller 2003). Beech as well as 

spruce-fir-beech forests are of particular relevance for the nature reserve programme, as those forest 

communities are to be found all over the Austrian forest ecoregions. 

The number of existing reserves is given in Table 2 as well as the number of reserves which needs to 

be established in future in order to cover the Austrian forest communities in a representative way. 

The success of the “Austrian Nature Reserve Programme” clearly demonstrates the commitment of 

the forest owners. Thus the future of the programme depends only on the political provision of 

funds. 

Both programmes (the nature reserves and the gene reserves) are valuable methods for preserving the 

Austrian gene pool of European beech, which complement each other. The nature reserves warrant 

natural dynamics without active forest management and the gene reserves encourage individual 

management measures for the respective reserves. Both strategies should be continued in order to 

meet the challenge of global warming. 


Fagus sylvatica traditionally has not been the among the main target species in Austrian forest 

genetics, which may be explained by the dominating economic interest in Norway spruce. Within 

the Austrian forest monitoring programme, the forest tree fertility, pollen and seed release of beech

Tab. 2: Compilation of different associations of Austrian (sycamore-) beech and spruce-fir-beech forests 

according to WILLNER (2007) and their respective representation in the “Nature Reserve Programme” 

throughout the 22 Austrian forest ecoregions 

Forest type Association 

Number of 

reserves 

To be 

established 

(missing) 

beech forests 

Athyrio distentifolii-Fagetum 0 2 

Carici albae-Fagetum 1 1 

Castaneo-Fagetum 0 2 

Cyclamini-Fagetum 4 6 

Galio odorati-Fagetum 9 7 

Hacquetio-Fagetum 0 2 

Helleboro nigri-Fagetum 1 4 

Lamio orvalae-Fagetum 2 2 

Melampyro-Fagetum 6 8 

Mercuriali-Fagetum 7 5 

Ostryo-Fagetum 2 2 

Taxo-Fagetum 

high montane sycamore - beech forests 

0 1 

Saxifrago rotundifoliae-Fagetum 

spruce-fir-beech forests 

5 4 

Adenostylo glabrae-Fagetum 5 3 

Anemono trifoliae-Fagetum 2 1 

Calamagrostio villosae-Fagetum 1 6 

Cardamino trifoliae-Fagetum 4 5 

Dentario pentaphylli-Fagetum 1 0 

Isopyro-Fagetum 0 2 

Lonicero alpigenae-Fagetum 1 1 

Luzulo-Fagetum 7 8 

Poo stiriacae-Fagetum 1 0 

Σ 59 72 

has been observed for more than 24 years (Litschauer, Konrad 2006). Relatively recent activities 

were initiated dealing with provenance research and genetic diversity in the species. The project 

DYNABEECH (2001 – 2004) aimed to assess the impacts of silvicultural regimes on genetic and 

ecological diversity (Buiteveld et al. 200 ). Also the latest international research projects on 

molecular markers as well as the first international beech provenance test (COST Action E52) 

involved Austrian research activities (e. g. Comps et al. 1998, Magri et al. 2006). In addition to 

the international beech provenance trial, a similar national trial has been established in 1995 using 

a large number of Austrian provenances. 

The latest findings can be interpreted in a way that suggests that the glacial refuge of the Austrian beech 

population may have been in the Balkan Peninsula (Magri et al. 2006). The long-term monitoring 

43

of beech flowering and seed production exhibited a more frequent seed production in the south 

of Austria compared to the north. Moreover, a trend for a better seed harvest as consequence of 

sufficient precipitation has also been observed together with a subsequently increasing population of 

seed insects (Litschauer, Konrad 2006) 

reFereNces 

Anonymous. 2008. Nachhaltige Waldwirtschaft in Österreich. Österreichischer Waldbericht 2008. 

Vienna, Austrian Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water: 39-50. 

Anonymous. 2010. The Austrian National Catalogue of Forest Seed Sources. http://bfw.ac.at/rz/Natr. 

baumartsummen_hk (0 . 11. 2010). 

Buiteveld J., Vendramin G. G., Leonardi S., Kramer K., Geburek T. 200 . Genetic diversity and 

differentiation in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands varying in management history. For. 

Ecol. Manag., 24 : 98-106. 

Comps B., Matyas C., Geburek T., Letouzey J. 1998. Genetic variation in beech populations along 

the Alp chain and in the Hungarian basin. Forest Genetics, 5/1: 1-9. 

Englisch M. 2006. Die Rotbuche – ein Baumartenportrait. BFW Paxisinformation, 12: 3-4. 

Frank G., Mueller F. 2003. Voluntary approaches in protection of forests in Austria. Environmental 

Science & Policy, 6: 261-269. 

Geburek T., Müller F. 2006. Nachhaltige Nutzung von genetischen Waldressourcen in Österreich 

– Evaluierung bisheriger Maßnahmen und Perspektiven für zukünftiges Handeln. BFW Berichte 

134. 36 p. 

Konrad H., Litschauer R., Geburek T. 200 . Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung der genetischen 

Waldressourcen in Österreich. In: Tagungsband der Fachtagung „Biodiversität in Österreich - 

Welchen Beitrag leistet die Land- und Forstwirtschaft in Österreich“, 28. 6. 200 , HBLFA für 

Landwirtschaft, Raumberg Gumpenstein: 49-56. http://www.raumberg-gumpenstein.at/cms/ 

index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=230 &Itemid 

Kral F. 1994. Wald- und Siedlungsgeschichte. P. 9-48. In: Austrian Society of Foresters (ed.): 

Österreichs Wald – Vom Urwald zur Waldwirtschaft. 544 p. 

Lexer M. J., Hönninger K., Scheifinger H., Matulla C., Groll N., Kromp-Kolb H., Schadauer 

K., Starlinger F., Englisch M. 2001. The Sensitivity of the Austrian Forests to Scenarios of 

Climatic Change. A Large-scale Risk Assessment. [Sensitivität des österreichischen Waldes unter 

Klimaänderungsszenarien – Deutsche Zusammenfassung.] Umweltbundesamt Monographien, 

Band 132 (M-132), Umweltbundesamt Wien. ISBN 3-8545 -556-1 

Litschauer R., Konrad H. 2006. Die Samenproduktion der Buche in den letzten 24 Jahren in 

Österreich. BFW Paxisinformation, 12: 6- . 

Magri D., Vendramin G. G., Comps B., Latalowa M., Litt T., Paule L., Route J. M., Tantau I., 

van Knaap W. O., Petit R., de Beaulieu J.-L. 2006. A new scenario for the Quaternary history of 

European beech populations: palaeobotanical evidence and genetic consequences. New Phytol., 

1 1: 199-221. 

Polaczek K. 1954. Die Entwicklung der Buchenverjüngung im Wienerwald nach dem Mastjahr 

1946. Centralblatt f. d. gesamte Forstwesen, 3: 35- 2. 

44

Schadauer K., Büchsenmeister R., Schodterer H. 2006. Aktuelle und potenzielle Verbreitung 

der Buche in Österreich. BFW Paxisinformation, 12: 8-9. 

Schodterer H. 2004. Die Verjüngung des österreichischen Waldes. BFW Paxisinformation, 3: 1 - 

21. http://bfw.ac.at/ 00/pdf/BFW_praxis2004_kl.pdf 

Tomiczek C., Cech T., Fürst A., Hoyer-Tomiczek U., Krehan H., Perny B., Steyrer G. 2009. 

Waldschutzsituation 2008 in Österreich. AFZ-Der Wald, 64: 3 3-3 6. 

Tomiczek C., Cech T., Fürst A., Hoyer-Tomiczek U., Krehan H., Perny B., Steyrer G. 2010. 

Waldschutzsituation 2009 in Österreich. AFZ-Der Wald 65/ : 45-48. 

Tomiczek C., Perny B., Cech T. L. 2006. Zur Waldschutzsituation der Buche. BFW Paxisinformation, 

12: 19-21. 

Willner W. 200 . Fagion sylvaticae. In: Willner W., Grabherr G. (eds.): Die Wälder und Gebüsche 

Österreichs. Elsevier GmbH, Spektrum. Heidelberg, Akademischer Verlag: 144-166. 

contacts: 

Ass. Prof. Dr. Raphael Th. Klumpp 

Universität für Bodenkultur, Institut für Waldbau 

Peter Jordan Str. 82, A-1190 Wien, Austria 

tel.: +431 4 654 4063 

e-mail: raphael.klumpp@boku.ac.at 

Reviewed 

45

46 

curreNT sTaTe oF euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNe-PooL IN beLGIum 

PATRICK MERTENS 1 – ELODIE BAY 1 – BART DE CUYPER 2 

1 Département de l’Etude du Milieu Naturel et Agricole, Direction du Milieu Forestier, 

Avenue Maréchal Juin, 23, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgique/Belgium 

2 Research Institute for Nature and Forest, Gaverstraat 4, B-9500 Geraardsbergen, Belgium 

absTracT 

Walloon forests cover approximately 555,000 ha with ,6% beech stands (“hêtre” in French, Fagus 

sylvatica L. in Latin) which represents % of forests. It is the second most important broadleaved 

species after oak, with a wood volume of 10,000,000 m³. It is a native species of the Walloon Region. 

Forests in Flanders cover about 150,000 ha, having an afforestation index of 11%. The most important 

tree species are poplar (45,000 ha) and pedunculate oak (30,000 ha) while beech occupies the third 

place, covering 21,000 ha. 

Key words: Fagus sylvatica L., beech, hêtre (in Belgian), Wallon Region, Flemish Region, gene-pool, 

genetic resources, current status 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN beLGIum 

Wallon region 

Five provenance regions were defined according to natural delineations (Fig. 1). Beech is potentially 

well adapted to the whole Walloon Region. However, 0% of beech forests are located in Ardenne 

and 15% in Gaume regions. Half of the beech forests is found at higher altitudes greater than 400 m, 

and more than 5% grows on slope of at least 5° (IPRFW 2000) 1 . 

Flemish region 

As beech naturally occurs on loamy and sandy-loamy soils, its area in Flanders covers the provenance 

regions “Brabant District West” and the southern part of “Brabant District East” (Fig. 1). 

characTerIsTIcs aNd ForesT maNaGemeNT 

Wallon region 

Beech forests cover 42,000 ha in the Walloon region. 89% of those stands are composed of beech, 

and considered as pure; oaks complete the stand composition. Average basal area of those stands is

Fig. 1: Provenances regions in Belgium (VANDER MIJNSBRUGGE et al. 2004 2 , ORVERT 2008 3 ) 

20 m².ha-1 . Natural regeneration, revealed by the presence of seedling, thickets or saplings, is 

observed in 44% of the beech forest area. More than four out of five regenerated trees are beech. 

There is a contrast in the regeneration, depending on the altitude: under 450 m, the distribution 

of stem circumferences indicates a multi-storied high forest, while over 450 m there is a clear lack 

of regeneration (IPRFW 2000) 1 . Even in the case of natural regeneration which was commonly 

used for regeneration, artificial plantations have become more and more frequent since the 1980s. 

Reproductive material used mainly comes from Walloon Region. There are five selected seed stands 

in the region. 

Plantation establishment and some crop development works of beech (as well as other species) are 

encouraged by economic initiatives of the Walloon Region (DGRNE 199 ) 4 . 


As beech is mostly found together with oak in mixed stands, pure beech stands cover only 4,250 ha. 

The average volume and basal area amount to 480 m³.ha-1 and 33 m².ha-1 respectively. 

The main beech forest is the Forest of Soignes (Sonian Forest, see Fig. 3), located near Brussels, 

covering 4,420 ha of which 56% are located in Flanders. Beech constitutes the main species and it 

accounts for 80% of the basal area. The only Flemish seed stand, covering 1,453 ha, is located in this 

forest. 

4

eech dIseases aNd PesTs 

Wallon region 

The Walloon beech forest was subjected to a severe insect attack by bark beetles beginning in 

autumn 1999 and located throughout the Ardennes area and to a lesser extent in Gaume. The 

main factor that had increased insect pressure seems to be an intense and unusual cold period in 

November 1998. Beech bark had been badly injured, allowing xylophagous insects a wide entrance 

door. The preceded relative warm period could explain why bark was not acclimatized for frost. 

The bark beetles involved were Trypodendron domesticum Er. and Trypodendron signatum Er. 

Injuries caused by insects were also colonized by fungi. Moreover, ethanol produced by injured 

tissues attracted more and more bark beetles. As a result, 11% of beech were infested in 2001 

and 5% in 2002 (these numbers do not take into account damaged trees removed earlier). It was 

estimated that a volume of 2,000,000 m³ of beech wood has been damaged between 1999 and 

2005 (Huart, Rondeux 2001, Huart et al. 2003) 5,6 . Currently, less attacks by bark beetles were 

observed, however beech has still the highest rate of defoliation in Wallonia (Laurent, Lecomte 

2006) . 


In Flanders, diseases and pests do not constitute a major problem. Infections by Nectria ditissima 

and N. coccinea and attacks by Rhynchaenus fagi and Apiognomonia errabunda are recorded only 

occasionally. 

euroPeaN beech GeNe PooL PreservaTIoN aNd coNservaTIoN 

oN NaTIoNaL LeveL 

For the last ten years, a major effort has been made to increase the number of seed stands of different 

hardwood species. Today, the results are sufficient for beech to meet the regeneration needs of 

foresters. Nevertheless, these selections are not directly linked to a general conservation purpose but 

are mainly done to ensure good timber production potential for the future. 

More specifically, the concept of forest reserves has been developed since 19 3. Currently, eight forest 

reserves with a total area of 244 ha have been registered. They generally comprise special ecological 

sites including beech and oaks. 

Conservation ex situ was also undertaken using provenance/progeny trials. In the 1950s, different 

tests were established to study genetic variability in beech at different levels (individual, population, 

ecological type, provenance). These tests, mainly limited to Belgian populations, completed by 

observations in natural forests, show an important variability between populations for different 

characteristics such as flushing, morphology of leaves and growth. In addition, Belgium took part in 

an international provenance trial in 1988 establishing one site in Paliseul where 4 provenances were 

compared. These different trials should give more basic information to elaborate a complete longterm 

conservation program (Jacques, De Cuyper 2003) 8 . 

48

Fig. 3: Regenerated stand by clumps in Forêt de Soignes (P. MERTENS, 2009) 

Fig. 2: Regenerated stand by trees in Southern Belgium (N. LEMOINE, 2002) 

49

ecoLoGy 

There are two main ecological types where beech forest is found: Atlantic and continental. Those are 

also subdivided according to the pH of soil. Soil and plant associations of the different ecological 

types are presented in Table 1 (SIBW 2008) 9 . 

Tab. 1: Characteristics of ecological type associated with beech forest in Wallonia 

Ecological 

type 

Atlantic: 

50 

Trophic 

feature 

Texture 

feature 

– acidophilic oligotrophic sandy to 

silty-gravel 

– neutrophilic mesoeutrophic 

Continental: 

– acidophilic oligotrophic silty gravel, 

sandy loam, 

silty sand 

– neutrophilic mesoeutrophic 

Canopy layer Shrub layer Herb layer 

beech, sessile oak, 

pedunculate oak, 

silver birch, 

rowan 

brown leached beech, sessile oak, 

pedunculate oak, 

ash, maples 

loam, silty sand 

and pebbly 

sandstone 

beech, sessile 

oak, sycamore, 

hornbeam 

beech, sessile oak, 

ash, maples 

In the Atlantic type, the neutral soils are more frequent than in continental. 


hornbeam, sycamore, 

hazel, holly, alder, 

buckthorn 

hornbeam, hazel, 

field maple, elder 

beech, hornbeam, 

hazel 

hornbeam, hazel, red 

elder, guelder rose, 

hawthorn 

Germanders 

Bilberry 

Ferns 

Anemones 

Yellow deadnettle 

hyacinths 

Lesser celandine 

Nettle 

Haircap moss 

Wood-rush 

Bilberry 

Bracken fern 

Hair grass 

Woodruff 

Yellow deadnettle 

Wood anemone 

In the Walloon Region, the main interest in forest research is to observe phenology and phenotypic 

plasticity of the main broadleaved species (and notably beech), in order to assess consequences of 

potential climatic changes, as faced nowadays. This assessment will be achieved firstly by a state 

of the art of adaptation of current forest tree population, realized under greenhouse conditions. 

Secondly, evaluation of phenology will be conducted under different regional situations, considering 

soil temperature at root level. 

As for the Flemish Region, on the one hand, research concerning beech focuses on the problems with 

natural regeneration and measures for its enhancement. On the other hand, new and more accurate 

tariff tables have been constructed.

eFereNces 

1 http://environnement.wallonie.be/dnf/inventaire 

2 http://www.inbo.be/docupload/2015.pdf 

3 http://environnement.wallonie.be/orvert/regions_de_provenance.html 

4 http://environnement.wallonie.be/cgi/dgrne/plateforme_dgrne/visiteur/frames_affichage_divers.cfm?origine=1 

565&idFile=1565&thislangue=FR&pere=303&doc=afrnat_1.htm&theme=Nature%20et%20for%C3%Aats 

5 HUART O., RONDEUX J. 2001. Genèse, évolution et multiples facettes d’une maladie inhabituelle affectant le hêtre 

en région wallonne. Forêt Wallonne, 52: 8-19. 

6 HUART O., DE PROFT M., GRÉGOIRE J.-C., PIEL F., GAUBICHER B., CARLIER F.-X., MARAÎTE H., RONDEUX J. 2003. 

Le point sur la maladie du hêtre en Wallonie. Forêt Wallonne, 64: 2-20. 

7 http://environnement.wallonie.be/eew/files/rapport2006/publication/RES_FOR_03.pdf#page=1 

8 http://www.bioversityinternational.org/networks/euforgen/Networks/viewreport.asp?recordcount=27&highlightt 

ext=Fagus%20sylvatica&pktxtMeetingAcronym=TO01&pktxtCountryCty=BEL 

9 http://biodiversite.wallonie.be/cgi/waleunisform.pl?CODEEUNIS=G&LISTING=Liste&NIVEAU=7 

contacts: 

Ir. Patrick Mertens, Ir. Bart De Cuyper 

Département de l’Etude du Milieu Naturel et Agricole, Direction du Milieu Forestier 

Avenue Maréchal Juin, 23, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgique/Belgium 

e-mail: patrick.mertens@spw.wallonie.be, bart.decuyper@inbo.be 

Reviewed 

51

52 

aN overvIeW oF euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) IN bosNIa aNd herZeGovINa 

absTracT 

DALIBOR BALLIAN 

University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Forestry, Zagrebačka 20, 1000 Sarajevo, 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

This work presents the status of beech in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is one 

of the most important forests tree species in Bosnia and Herzegovina, both from the economic and 

from ecological point of view. The area of beech forests extends to 665,000 ha, out of which 318,000 

ha are occupied by coppice beechwoods (Matić et al. 19 1). This paper provides the most important 

information on the range of this species, conservation of genetic resources, methods of management 

and its importance for productive forestry. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), common beech, bukva (in Bosnian) distribution, 

genetic resources, Bosnia and Herzegovina, forestry research 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN The bosNIa aNd 

herZeGovINa 

The beech (bukva) (Fagus sylvatica L.) shows very good horizontal and vertical distribution in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina. It grows, in combination with sessile oak (Fagetum submontanum), in the 

lowest forest zones, at higher elevations it can be found in hills, where it forms pure stands (Fagetum 

montanum), and finally in mountain areas, mixed with common fir or with both fir and spruce, 

forming our most important community of mixed beech and fir forests (Abieti fagetum). 

The forests growing in the Central Dinarides are very specific; over a very small area there is a broad 

variety of climate, edaphic, orographic and other factors which all have direct influence on the 

differentiation of various ecotypes (Stefanović 19 , Stefanović et al. 1983). 

According to Fukarek (19 0), beech occupies the largest part of forest land in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina (Fig. 1). If a wide zone in the Western Bosnia and the entire lower Herzegovina with 

thermophilous sub-Mediterranean vegetation as well as the belt of lowlands and hilly terrain in 

the North and Northeast Bosnia occupied by hygrophilous and moderately thermophilous sub- 

Pannonian formations are not considered, the spread of beech is the unique feature of the entire 

remaining area. 

Of course, deeply cut river valleys, karst fields and mountain’s summits must be excluded from this 

area, as beech is rare here. In almost all river valleys, usually the southern slopes from the bottom to

Fig. 1: Distribution of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

the top are occupied by oak forests, whereas beech grows exclusively in depressions or along wet banks 

of creeks, while northern slopes are almost completely occupied by beech with few exceptions. 

First, it is necessary to distinguish between the range of pure beech forests and the range of beech as 

a species. The extension of beechwoods in Bosnia and Herzegovina is significantly narrower compared 

with the range of beech alone which, be it single trees or groups, grows in forests composed of oak 

and hornbeam, or, on the other hand, ascends followed by mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra s. l.) far 

above the upper forest’s limit. Therefore, on the lower distribution limit, beech can be found growing 

scattered or in mixed stands composed of deciduous trees such as European hornbeam (Carpinus 

betulus L.), field maple (Acer campestre L.), sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Lieblein), lime and 

some other species. Often beech appears mixed with xerophilous species, such as hop hornbeam 

(ostrya carpinifolia Scop.), manna ash (Fraxinus ornus L.), wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis (L.) 

Crantz), European cornel (Cornus mas L.) and others. 

Condition of beech at the lower border of its range largely depends on the character of the site. Beech 

usually occupies fresher, better protected and moister depressions or north-oriented slopes, while 

on dry and open slopes (often facing west and south) it is unable to compete with oak and other 

53

thermophilous species. It is not a rare case that in shadowed places (e. g. river valleys) beech grows 

at lower altitudes than oak (as a sort of inversion), even it moves from the northern slopes to the 

opposite south-oriented slopes. 

Survival and growth of beech at low altitudes in Bosnia greatly depend on the orientation of 

a particular river valley. If the river valley is extended from the north to the south (as it is the case 

of the biggest rivers Una, Vrbas, Bosna and Drina), then the beech line is significantly distant from 

the valley. If the river valley is oriented from the east to the west, beech descends from the northern 

slopes to the valley itself, and even is able to cross it. Hence, the extent of the lower beech line depends 

on ecological conditions of the stand which, under these conditions, are significantly determined by 

the terrain form and shape. 

Beech reaches its upper distribution limit only in some of the western and southern Bosnian and 

Herzegovinian mountains with an altitude above 1,900 m. Summits of these mountains are overgrown 

by the stands of mountain pine, where beech occupies favourable locations (north-oriented slopes) 

and individually can ascend up to 1,800 m. In addition to the mountain Plješevice located on 

the border with Croatia, this is the case of the following Bosnian mountains: Klekovača, Dinara 

(Troglav), Kamešnica, Šator, Vitoroga, Golija, Kujača, Cincar, Malovan, Raduša, Vran, Vranica, 

Bjelašnica, Treskavica, Jahorina, Zelengora, Maglić (Vučevo) and Ljubišnja, in Herzegovina parts 

of Bjelašnica (Krvavac), Visočica, followed by mountains Prenj, Čvrsnica and Velež. On the other 

hills and mountains, beech does not reach its upper limit, so either pure submontane beechwoods or 

mixed fir-spruce-beech forests cover the highest locations. 

The attached map of the beech range shows that Bosnia and Herzegovina is crossed by two important 

vegetation and geographical range lines, forming internal limits of beech distribution within its 

own range. One is the border of steppe (in a wider sense) or thermophilous and hydrophilous zone 

vegetation of the oak forests of Pannonia; the other is the border of evergreen and thermophilous 

Euro-Mediterranean vegetation of the Adriatic area. 


Beech is one of the most important forest trees in Bosnia and Herzegovina, viewed both from the 

economic and ecological aspects. The forest cover of Bosnia and Herzegovina represents 2, 10,000 

ha of forests and forest land, covering approximately 53% of its territory (Stojanović et al. 1986). 

High forests represent 1,266,000 ha, low forests, stumps and coppices 918,000 ha. Moreover, there 

are bare lands and glades of 390,000 ha suitable for afforestation, and 130,000 ha of arid soils. Of the 

overall forest area, pure beechwoods represent 660,000 ha, of which there are 345,000 ha of high and 

318,000 ha of low forests (Matić et al. 19 1). In addition, beech is found in mixed forests composed 

of beech and fir or beech, fir and spruce mixture at an area of 565,000 ha. In that way, the total area of 

forests containing beech is 1,225,000 ha. Out of that, 93% are natural or semi-natural forests, which 

is significant in comparison with the European average where the proportion of natural or/and seminatural 

forests is rather low. Based on this, Matić, Pintarić, Drinić (1969) elaborated guidelines 

for management, however, they were subjected to many changes. 

Beech forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina have different characteristics, but the specific feature of beech 

forests in central Bosnia is that an important area of pure beech forests are of secondary origin (Beus 

1984). They were created from mixed beech and fir stands or beech-fir-spruce mixture through human 

54

activities already during medieval times and as such represent a transitional stage of vegetation. In 

addition to natural forests making significant portion, there are seven relatively well-preserved primeval 

forests with a high concentration of beech: Ravna vala on the Mountain Bjelašnica, Janj, Lom, Mačen 

do, Trstionica and Plješevica, as well as the most important European prime Peručica. Many scientific 

studies have been undertaken here, among them works by Drinić (1956), Fukarek (1962, 1964a, b), 

Stefanović (19 0, 1988), Pintarić (19 8, 199 ), Leibundgut (1982), later, research was conducted 

in the prime forest Janj and Lom (Maunaga et al. 2001), Trstionica (Ballian, Mikić 2002). All the 

prime forests are mixed, with a great proportion of beech. Prime forest Mačen occupies a special place, 

and has hosted research on beech structure (Mešković 200 ). 

When presenting a review on the systems of management of beech forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 

the following basic facts must be taken into account: in spite of a common primeval-forest origin 

(they were all primeval forests until 90 – 100 years) beech stands in Bosnia and Herzegovina do 

not have similar structural composition. According to Bozalo (1991) there are great differences 

in density, growth and structure between different stands but also within an individual stand. Most 

frequently there is a regular network of patches in the stand composed of two even-aged layers; the 

upper layer is composed of rare older trees and lower layer is formed of offspring, heterogeneous in 

every way. Between them, there are often patches without undergrowth with only a few old trees or 

insufficiently regenerated patches without old trees. On average, the quality of these beech trees is 

very poor, but again there are differences between as well as within the stands in this respect. 

Considering the described composition and structural build of beech stands, management systems 

based on clearcuts or shelterwood cutting have never been applied. In the area of the Krivaja river, 

clearcutting was implemented on larger areas for some time, and also on smaller areas in the central 

Bosnia, aiming at replacing beech by coniferous forests, but it did not bring good results. The negative 

effects of this activity are visible up to the present because it resulted in highly degraded stands 

occupying highly productive soils. 

As the selection cutting, which was the most common method in beech forests, was not an acceptable 

solution, there were more attempts to work out a better-suited way of management within some 

already established management systems. This is why Pintarić (1991) promoted combined natural 

regeneration. 

This focused on satisfying three demands: 1) to increase permanently the amount and quality of 

crop, 2) to maximize the use of mechanization in the manipulation of forests assortments and 3) to 

preserve and improve other permanent commonly useful functions of beech forests. 

Bozalo (1991) and Pintarić (1991, 2000), based on the actual situation and the structural 

composition of beech forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina, natural and working conditions, and 

biological and ecological characteristics of beech, found a solution in the system of management by 

selected group cuttings in stands. The advantages of this system compared to clearcuttings on larger 

areas, classical shelterwood and selection cutting, concerning the regeneration of stands, increasing 

crops and improving quality, are all well known. This management system is also advantageous 

regarding other public-benefit functions of beech forests. In other words, within this management 

system there was a need to develop ways of work that would allow for higher use of mechanization in 

wood-manipulating operations, but also use of knowledge in genetics and breeding. 

Coppice beech forests were managed exclusively by clearcutting, aiming at conversion into coniferous 

forests, but Pintarić (1986) advocated tending to improve the structure of beech stand. Consequently, 

55

during the last five years, a system of management by selection was developed (Matić 1985) and 

implemented in stands in the age category 40 – 60 years, with a small financial gain (Koričić 2004). 

Based on this system, smaller stands in western Bosnia have been converted into high forests over 

several years. The experiences with artificial planting of beech forests are unsatisfactory because 

beech plants are produced occasionally in small amounts as plant production requires seed crops, 

which are very rare. This is one of major factors causing a lack of experiences with artificial planting 

of beech and implementation of improving measures. On several occasions, there were attempts of 

seeding beech stands, but it was done sporadically and on a smaller scale. 

PreservaTIoN aNd coNservaTIoN oF GeNeTIc resources oF 

euroPeaN beech 

The area of Dinarides is very specific both by its terrain shape and its climate and this is the main 

reason why it represents an important center of vegetation diversity. Therefore, many experts 

suggested that forests trees in the Dinarides area show higher levels of genetic variability compared 

with the north. This applies also to beech, as confirmed by research conducted by Gömöry et al. 

(1999) and Brus (1999), which showed that a high variability is characteristic not for central Europe 

but the Balkans, and especially for Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

As beech gained in importance in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the last fifteen years, there were 

attempts to extend the sources of reproductive material, seed bases. Thirteen seed stands were 

Fig. 2: A typical beech forests in eastern Bosnia, Mt. Konjuh (Fagetum montanum) 

56

established aimed at seed production, and at present they are considered to be important for the 

conservation of the autochthonous gene pool. Special activities were carried out in declaring protected 

beech forests, usually located in protected areas around water sources. In this way several stands in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina were declared to be protected. However, in relation to the protection of the 

gene pool, prime forests are of special interest, since beech plays a special role in their structure and 

because all prime forests belong to forest communities of beech-fir forests (Abieti fagetum) which are 

under permanent protection. 


In the past, research on beech was not a matter of high importance because beech had been considered 

a weed species until twenty years ago. Lately, but still with rather late when compared to developments 

in Europe, efforts were made in establishing research on the genetic structure of this valuable species. 

An experiment with twenty two European provenances was launched within the COST Action E52. 

The experiment was located on a typically degraded beech stand near Kakanj in Central Bosnia. 

Current research is directed towards the molecular-genetic research on beech, in cooperation with 

foreign laboratories. At present the results are partially complete; there are ongoing isoenzymatic 

analyses that will provide us with new information on the genetic structure of beech originated from 

the Central Dinarides, and there are plans for conducting comprehensive morphological research. 

Fig. 3: Beech forest on the Mt. Šator (Fagetum subalpinum s.l.) 

5

eFereNces 

Ballian D., Mikić T. 2002. Changes in the structure of the virgin forest Trstionica, Mitteilungen aus 

der Forschungsanstalt für Waldökologie und Forstwirtschaft Rheinland-Pfalz, 50/3: 238-24 . 

Beus V. 1984. Vertikalno raščlanjenje šuma u svijetlu odnosa realne i primarne vegetacije u Jugoslaviji. 

[Vertical diversification of forests in light of the real and primary vegetation in Yugoslavia.] ANU 

BiH, Radovi LXXVI, Odjelj. Prir. i matemat. nauka, 23: 23-32. 

Bozalo G. 1991. Proučavanje sistema gazdovanja u prirodnim šumama. Izvještaj za period 1989 

– 1990 u okviru D.C.VII. [Study on the Systems of Management over the Natural Forests. The 

Report from 1989 to 1990 within D.C.VII.] Sarajevo. 

Brus R. 1999. Genetic variation of the beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Slovenia and comparison with its 

variation in central and southeastern Europe. Dissertation thesis. Ljubljana, Univerza v Ljubljani, 

Biotehniška fakulteta: 130 p. 

Drinić P. 1956. Taksacioni elementi sastojina jele, smrče i bukve prašumskog tipa u Bosni. [Taxative 

elements of the stands of fir, spruce and beech of the virgin forest type in Bosnia.] Sarajevo, 

Radovi Poljoprivredno-šumarskog fakulteta, 1. Bd, p. 10 -160. 

Fukarek P. 1962. Prašumski rezervat Peručica. Narodni šumar, Sarajevo, p. 10-12. 

Fukarek P. 1964a. Prašuma Peručica nekad i danas (I). [Prime forest Peručica then and now (I).] 

Narodni šumar, 9-10, p. 433-456. 

Fukarek P. 1964b. Prašuma Peručica nekad i danas (II). [Prime forest Peručica then and now (II).] 

Narodni šumar, 1-2, p. 29-50. 

Fukarek P. 19 0. Areali raprostranjenosti bukve, jele i smrče na području Bosne i Hercegovine. [Die 

Verbreitungsareale der Buche, Tanne und Fichte im Gebiete Bosniens und der Herzegowina.] 

ANU BiH, Radovi XXXIX, Odjel prirodnih nauka 11: 231-256. 

Gömöry D., Paule L., Brus R., Zhelev P., Tomović Z., Gračan J. 1999. Genetic differentiation and 

phylogeny of beech on the Balkan Peninsula. J. Evol. Biol., 12: 46- 54. 

Koričić Š. 2004. Biološki, ekološki i ekonomski pokazatelji uspješnosti proreda u panjačama bukve. 

[Biological, ecological and economical indicators of success in spacing of beech]. Doktorska 

disertacija. Sarajevo, Šumarski fakultet: 230 p. 

Leibundgut H. 1982. Europäische Urwälder der Bergstufe. Bern-Stuttgart, Haupt., 308 p. 

Matić S. 1985. Intenzitet prorede i njegov utjecaj na stabilnost, proizvodnost i pomlađivanje sastojina 

hrasta lužnjaka. [Intensity of thinning and its influence on stability, productivity and regeneration 

of oak stands.] Savjetovanje povodom 125 godišnjice Šumarskog fakulteta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 

p. 1-25. 

Matić V., Drinić P., Stefanović V., Ćirić M., Beus V., Bozalo G., Golić S., Hamzić U., 

Marković Lj., Petrović M., Subotić M., Talović N., Travar J. 19 1. Stanje šuma u SR Bosni 

i Hercegovini, prema inventuri na velikim površinama u 1964 - 1968 godini. [Conditions of the 

forests in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, according to inventory done on large areas from 1964 to 

1968 godini.] Sarajevo, Šum. fak. i inst. za šum. posebna izdanja br. : 639 p. 

58

Fig. 4: Sub-Mediterranean type of degraded beech forests on the Mt. Kamešnica (Fagetum montanum) 

Matić V., Pintarić K., Drinić P. 1969. Osnovne smjernice gazdovanja šumama u BiH za period 

19 1 do 2005 godine. [Basic guidelines in the forests management in BiH from 19 1 to 2005.] 

Sarajevo, Institut za šumarstvo: 290 p. 

Maunaga Z., Govedar Z., Burlica Č., Stanivuković Z., Brulić J., Lazarev V., Mataruga M. 

2001. Plan gazdovanja za šume sa posebnom namjenom u strogim rezervatima prirode Janj i 

Lom. [Management plan for forests with special purpose in the strict natural reservations Janj 

and Lom.] Studija šumarskog fakulteta u Banja Luci: 143 p. 

Mešković D. 200 . Analiza strukture prirodnog pomlatka u prašumskom rezervatu ‚‘Mačen do‘‘ 

(Bosna i Hercegovina). [The structure analysis of natural shoot in the virgin forest ‚‘Mačen do‘‘ 

Bosnia and Herzegovina.] Radovi – Šumar. Ins. Jastrebar., 42/2: 85-94. 

59

Pintarić K. 19 8. Urwald Peručica als natürliches Forschungslaboratorium. Allgemeine 

Forstzeitschrift, 33/24: 02- 0 . 

Pintarić K. 1986. Problem rekonstrukcije degradiranih šuma u SR Bosni i Hercegovini. [Problem 

in reconstructing degraded forests in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina.] Sarajevo, Naučni skup: 

Rekonstrukcija degradiranih šuma: 32-3 . 

Pintarić K. 1991. Uzgajanje šuma II. [Silviculture II.] Sarajevo, Udžbenik: 286 p. 

Pintarić K. 199 . Forestry and forest reserves in Bosnia and Herzegovina. COST Action E4 - 

Ljubljana, Forest reserves research network: 1-15. 

Pintarić K. 2000. Analiza strukture i kvalitete prirodnog pomlatka nekih bukovih šuma u Bosni 

i Hercegovini. [The analyses of the structure and quality of the natural offspring of some beech 

forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina.] Šumarski list, CXXIV/11/12: 62 -635. 

Stefanović V. 19 0. Jedan pogled na recentnu sukcesiju bukovo-jelovih šuma prašumskog karaktera 

u Bosni. [A view on the recent succession of the beech/fir-trees forests with prime forest character 

in Bosnia]. Sarajevo, ANU BiH, Radovi XV, Odjel prirodnih nauka, 4: 141-150. 

Stefanović V. 19 . Fitocenologija sa pregledom šumskih fitocenoza Jugoslavije. [Phytocenology 

with the review of the forests phytocenology of Yugoslavia.] Sarajevo, Zavod za udžbenike: 

283 p. 

Stefanović V. 1988. Prašumski rezervati Jugoslavije, dragulji iskonske prirode. [Prime forest 

reservations of Yugoslavia, The gems of Nature.] Biološki list, 9-10: 1-5. 

Stefanović V., Beus V., Burlica Č., Dizdarević H., Vukorep I. 1983. Ekološko vegetacijska 

rejonizacija Bosne i Hercegovine. [Ecological and vegetative mapping of Bosnia and Herzegovina.] 

Sarajevo, Šumarski fakultet, Posebna izdanja br. 1 : 51 p. 

Stojanović O., Stefanović V., Burlica Č., Pintarić K., Pavlič J., Koprivica M., Luteršek D., 

Lazarev V. 1986. Ekološko-proizvodne karakteristike (proizvodni potencijal) dugoročni ciljevi 

i mogućnosti proizvodnje drveta na staništima izdanačkih šuma bukve u SR BiH. [Ecological 

and productive characteristics (productive potential) long-term goals and possibilities for wood 

production of beech stands in SR BiH.] Sarajevo, Šumarski fakultet: 120 p. 

contacts: 

Prof. Dalibor Ballian, DSc. 

University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Forestry 

Zagrebačka 20, 1000 Sarajevo, 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

e-mail: balliand@bih.net.ba 

60 

Reviewed

CURRENT STATE OF EUROPEAN BEECH 

(FAGUS SYLVATICA L.) AND ORIENTAL BEECH 

(FAGUS ORIENTALIS LIPSKY) GENE-POOL IN BULGARIA 

absTracT 

ALEXANDER H. ALEXANDROV – ALYOSHA DAKOV 

Forest Research Institute – Sofia, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 

132 St. Kliment Ohridski blvd., Sofia 1 56, Bulgaria 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) distribution in Bulgaria is presented, incl. a map, general 

characteristics of beech forests: areas, ecology, species composition of stands, ecological, 

morphological and phenotypic beech forms, health status, regeneration and silvicultural practices, 

harvested wood, as well as gene pool conservation and research. Briefly data are presented on oriental 

beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky). 

Key words: European beech, obiknoven buk (in Bulgarian), oriental beech, iztochen buk (in 

Bulgarian), gene-preservation, in situ conservation 

INTroducTIoN 

Some beech populations in southeastern Europe survived during the Quaternary due to their 

distribution in areas without glaciations. At present Fagus sylvatica L. and Fagus orientalis Lipsky are 

species with primary forestry importance for Bulgaria due to their wide natural distribution, important 

environmental functions and valuable timber. The wide range of European beech determines its 

large ecological, morphological and phenological variability according to the altitude, forming the 

upper forest limit in some mountains. The good beech seed yields in the country are defined in 

the management directions relying mainly on the natural regeneration and only in unfavourable 

conditions – on afforestation. During the last years the investigation interest in beech increases at 

national and at Paneuropean level. 

dIsTrIbuTIoN 

european beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

The natural distribution of this species covers Stara planina (Balkan range), Sredna gora, the 

Rhodopes, Rila Mt., Pirin Mt., Belasitsa Mt., Osogovo Mt. and Vitosha Mt. (Fig. 1). It is distributed 

from 100 – 200 m a. s. l. up to 1,800 m although tree groups and solitaires could be found outside 

these limits. The lowest populations of European beech are located at 150 m in Bozhuritsa Locality, 

Vidin region – north-west Bulgaria and at 200 – 300 m in Ludogorie – north-east Bulgaria. 

61

Fig. 1: Natural distribution of Fagus sylvatica in Bulgaria 

oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) 

The natural distribution of oriental beech is in the eastern part of Balkan peninsula, Asia Minor, 

Crimea, the Caucasus and Iran, in Crimea being located from the sea level up to 2,300 m above 

sea level (Delkov 1988). The taxonomic status of Fagus orientalis Lipsky is uncertain according to 

Greuter et Burdet (1981), Tutin (1993), Denk et al. (2002) who tend to accept it as subspecies 

of Fagus sylvatica L. The discrimination between both beeches by means of biochemical markers is 

considered by Busov (1995), Gailing et von Wuehlisch (2004). 

In Bulgaria oriental beech is distributed in the Strandzha Mt., in parts of Eastern Rhodopes and Eastern 

Stara planina (Eastern Balkan range), where on west it reaches Vurbitsa pass and on east – to Obzor 

and Dvoynitsa river (Fig. 2). At an altitude above 00 m it is substituted usually by European beech. 

GeNeraL characTerIsTIcs 

Beech forests occupy the second place – 18. % of the forest area in the country, after the oak ones 

(36.1%). Totally the beech forests cover 685,150 ha, of which 416,5 0 ha are high-stem. The growing 

stock is 189,26 ,500 m 3 or 30.1% of Bulgarian forests, while the high-stem beech forests comprise 

114,535,110 m 3 with annual increment of 4.06 m 3 /ha (Kostov, Rafailova 2009). 

The human activity during the last 30 – 40 years led to about 20% increasing of beech growing stock 

as well as to increasing of the relative part of the coppice beech forests. 

62

Fig. 2: Map of natural range of Fagus orientalis L. in Bulgaria 

Fagus sylvatica L. forms both large pure stands and mixed ones with some deciduous species such 

as hornbeam, sycamore, durmast oak, Norway maple, Balkan maple, limes, common ash, silver 

birch, aspen, rowan, wild service tree and bird cherry. In the higher parts of the mountains it mixes 

with coniferous species as Norway spruce and silver fir, rarely with Scots pine and Macedonian 

pine. Large European beech forests occur in the mountain belt on north slopes and on fresh to wet 

rich soils. The mixed hornbeam-beech stands are about 100,000 ha, 0,000 ha of them being in the 

Balkan range. 

The most productive are the mixed stands of European beech, Norway spruce and silver fir, which in 

Parangalitsa reserve of the Rila Mt. at 1,400 m reach growing stock of 1,600 m3 /ha. 

During the last decade a process of beech area extension to higher altitudes has been observed as 

a result of climatic changes and limited pasture. 

Oriental beech as a Pontic species is a colonizer in the Strandzha Mt., where it forms mixed stands 

usually on north exposures. The species most frequently concomitant are evergreen shrubs as 

Rhododendron ponticum L., Laurocerasus officinalis Roem. and Ilex colchica Pojark. In East Balkan 

range Fagus orientalis occurs in deep defiles and on north exposures up to 550 m a. s. l. In the 

mixed stands it grows with Carpinus betulus L. and more limited with Tilia tomentosa Moench., 

Acer pseudoplatanus L. and other deciduous species. 

The ecological conditions in the wide altitudinal range of Fagus sylvatica L. distribution in Bulgaria 

determine the presence of the following ecotypes (Dobrinov, Doykov, Gagov 1982, Alexandrov 

1990): 

63

1. Pre-mountain and hilly-plain ecotype. It is located from 150 – 200 m up to 500 – 600 m in the 

hilly parts of north Bulgaria and Predbalkan, respectively, in the region of Vidin and Shumen 

plateau at 350 – 400 m. The hilly-plain ecotype is characterized with longer vegetation period and 

some xerophyte features as thick cuticle and pubescent leaves. 

2. Low-mountain type. It is located in the altitudinal range from 500 – 600 m to 800 – 900 m where 

it forms pure and mixed stands with Quercus petraea Liebl., Carpinus betulus L., Tilia spp., Acer 

pseudoplatanus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., etc. 

3. Middle-mountain ecotype. Its distribution is from 900 – 1,000 m to 1,300 – 1,400 m. It has the 

most qualitative stems, fast growth and highest wood productivity. Some individuals reach up to 

40 m height, and the growing stock of stands – up to 800 – 900 m 3 /ha. 

4. High-mountain ecotype. It is located at an altitude of more than 1,400 m and reaches up to 1, 00 

– 1,800 m, where, in some areas in Balkan range, the Pirin Mt. and Osogovo Mt. forms the upper 

boarder of the forest. The growth is slow, and the stems are of lower quality. 

According to the branching habit of stem there are: 

1. single-stem form; 

2 forked form which could bifurcate once, twice, etc.; 

3. bunch-form. 

According to the bark cracking there are described: 

1. smooth-bark form; 

2. with small bark fissures; 

3. f. fraxinoides; 4. f. quercoides. 

According to the bark colour there are pale-bark and dark-bark (lead-coloured) forms. 

In general the individuals with fissured bark are of slower growth, stem benching and less 

resistance. 

According to the direction of beech wood fibres there are twist fibre and straight-fibre forms, which 

are inherited (Dobrinov, Doykov, Gagov 1982). The twist fibres are non-desirable characteristics 

and this is the reason why these individuals are removed during thinnings. 

The polymorphism according to the size and form of the leaves covers the following forms: 

1. f. grandifolia; 2. f. parvifolia; 3. f. rotundifolia; 4. f. carpinifolia; 5. f. quercifolia. The last one is 

suggested to be a bud mutation. 

As about the phenology the most discernable are the early- and late-flushing forms with 2 – 3-week 

difference of the phenophases. The late-flushing form, similarly to the oak, is of straight-stem, with 

small tapering, narrow crown, finer branches, fast growing, better quality timber and more resistant 

to diseases and pests. The early-flushing form is the most frequently bench-stem one. 

From tree breeding point of view the most valuable are the individuals with monopodial or high 

forked stem, smooth silver-grey bark, narrow pyramidal or conic crown, fine branches and lateflushing. 

The ornamental forms with pyramidal crown (f. pyramidalis) or with pendulous branches (f. pendula) 

and according to the leaf colouring are applied for gardening: dark red (f. purpurea), multicoloured 

and three-coloured – white leaves with green spots and pink edges. 

64

The health status of beech forests is good and they are of high vitality. It is determined by the site 

conditions, incl. climatic and pedologic, insects and fungal background, the age of the stand and 

management. In general, beech forests are weakly attacked by insect pests. 

20-year investigations of International Co-operative Programme ‘Forests’ indicate that in comparison 

with other main tree species in the country the state of European beech is the best one (MEW, MAF, 

UF, FRI, 2006). 

The following diseases are of significant practical importance: wood rots, caused by wood-destroying 

fungi Basidiomycetes, as well as stem and branch canker, caused by the fungus Necrotia ditissima. 

Some abiotic factors such as windbreaks and ice breaks, although rarely, cause significant damages. 

In November 200 , about 500,000 m3 wood mass, mainly from pre-mature stands (60 – 80 years 

old) were broken and fell due to windbreaks and ice breaks in Balkan range beech forests (the State 

Forestry Etropole, Botevgrad and Vitinia) within the altitudinal range of 00 – 800 m up to 1,100 

– 1,200 m. 

The felling with preliminary natural regeneration is the basic management way of forests in Bulgaria 

especially during the first half of the 20th century (Vachovski, Dimitrov 2003). 

In the pure beech stands shelterwood felling and group-selection system are usually applied, the 

number of the phases and their duration depending on the regeneration. 

In the mixed beech stands, especially with species with contrast ecological requirements, as those by 

beech, fir and spruce, the single tree selection system is the most suitable. 

The clearcutting in the high-stem forests has been forbidden by Forestry Law since 1992. 

When the regeneration with beech at some site conditions is missing or is insufficient and no 

additional natural regeneration is expected, only afforestation with beech seedlings is reliable and 

applied during the last 3 – 4 decades. The area afforested with beech reached 2,652 ha in 198 and 

after that followed a significant reduction of afforestation with this species – 1,46 ha (1990), 309 ha 

(1994), 121 ha (2000), 4 ha (2005). 

The production of beech seedlings – 1,250,000 in the year 2000, 5,0 0,000 (2002), 2,000,000 (2008) 

– is realized most frequently in a traditional way – in open nurseries or in temporary nurseries under 

the canopy of beech stands preliminary thinned to density of 30%. 

Beech timber production reached 2,990,000 m3 (139.2% of the growth) in 1960, after that decreased 

to 2,26 ,000 m3 (110.4% of the annual increment) in 19 0, to 1,1 5,000 m3 ( .5%) in 1980, to 

5,000 m3 (61.1%) in 1990 (Garelkov et al. 1995). During the period 2000 – 2005 the average 

wood harvesting of beech was about 1,100,000 m3 of which 810,000 m3 in high-stem beech stands, 

250,000 m3 in coppice and 40,000 m3 in reconstructed beech stands, the ratio of the main fellings 

being 64% (Kostov, Rafailova 2009). 

GeNe-PooL coNservaTIoN 

The most reliable method for conservation of beech gene pool is in situ. It includes genetic resources 

of genus Fagus in the three national parks – Central Balkan, Pirin and Rila, in seven natural parks, in 

reserves, and all approved seed production stands. 

65

The total area of in situ gene conservation of European beech was 41, 24 ha or 6.1% of genus Fagus 

area in the year 2005, mentioning a significant increasing in comparison with the year 2000, when 

it was 32, 59 ha, while of the oriental beech it was 5,882.3 ha (2005), insignificantly changed from 

5,819.1 ha (2000) (Alexandrov, Pandeva 200 ). 

Of all forest tree species in the country the largest area of in situ conservation represents the genus 

Fagus – totally 4 ,606 ha (32.8%), i. e. 6.9% of beech territory. 

European beech occurs in the tree composition of 44 reserves in the following mountains: the Balkan 

range, Sredna gora, Vitosha, Rila, Pirin, Slavianka, Osogovo and the Rhodopes at altitudinal range of 

330 m (Vulchi gorge) up to 1, 40 m (Shabanitsa). The average age varies from 60 years at Vrachanski 

karst to 2 0 in Shabanitsa. Some of the reserves as Steneto, Boatin, Dzhendem and Tsarichina 

comprise valuable beech genetic fund. 

Oriental beech appears in 6 reserves, out of which five are in Strandzha Mt. (Lopushna, Silkossia, 

Sredoka, Tissovitsa and Vitanovo) and one in Eastern Balkan range (Kirov dol) at altitudinal range 

from 190 m up to 480 m. The average age is from 100 years for Vitanovo to 150 years for Kirov dol 

(Turok et al. 2000). 

The in situ gene conservation involves also the virgin forests, of which 5% are in the protected 

territories. Within the total area of virgin forests in Bulgaria of 103,356 ha or 2.9% of the total forest area 

of the country, beech virgin forests cover 32,338 ha or 31.3% of the virgin forests (Veen, Raev 2006). 

The seed stands of Fagus sylvatica L. are on 12,550 ha and of Fagus orientalis Lipsky – 40.3 ha, 

which together present about 2% of genus Fagus area; they are sufficient enough for seed production 

purposes of these species in the country. They represent valuable autochtonous populations that 

could be used for export of beech seeds to other European countries. 

research 

Investigations of beech forests being done for several decades in Bulgaria resulted in publishing of 

three books as follows: Marinov, Nedyalkov, Naumov (1961), Garelkov, Turlakov (19 8) and 

Garelkov et al. (1995). They deal with biology and ecology of the beech, its distribution, typology of 

beech forests, structure, growth and productivity of beech ecosystems, its management, afforestation, 

diseases and pests, and prognoses for the future of beech forests. 

On the base of long-term investigations Dobrinov, Doykov, Gagov (1982) published “Forest 

genetic fund in Bulgaria” in which, among the deciduous species, the first place is dedicated to beech 

(Fagus spp.). 

In the field of breeding and forest plantations of beech two Ph.D. theses (Garelkova 1980, Botev 

1988) were defended, and one, on variability and selection of Fagus sylvatica L. in the Central Balkan 

(Dakov 2010), is under preparation. 

During the last 1 – 2 decades a few population genetic surveys in beech were carried out in the 

Balkans, including some Bulgarian populations. The presence of rare alleles in the Rhodopes 

Mountains populations was found out proving their autochthonous nature and refugia origin at 

glaciation time (Hazler et al. 199 ). Polygenesis and genetic differentiation of beech on the Balkan 

peninsula reveal the taxanomical status of its populations (Gömöry et al. 1999). 

66

Under the auspices of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI 1998) a project 

was realized on “Genetic resources of broadleaved forest tree species in Southeastern Europe” with 

participation of Bulgaria, Romania and Moldova. The project investigation on the genetic resources 

of Fagus spp. were published in a brochure of Turok et al. (2000). 

During the period 1995 – 2009, planned into phases I, II, III of European Forest Genetic Resources 

Programme (EUROFGEN), investigations of the economically most important species in Europe 

were realized, grouped into 5 networks, Fagus spp. was included sequentially in the following 

networks: Social Broadleaves, Temperate Oaks and Beech, Stand-forming Broadleaves. A paper on 

the genetic resources of Bulgarian Social Broadleaves including those of European and oriental beech 

was published by Alexandrov et al. (1999) in an EUFORGEN edition. 

Within the programme COST (European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical 

Research) including a project COST Action E52 “Evaluation of beech genetic resources for sustainable 

forestry” (2006 – 2010) articles on survival, growth and ecophysiology of 49 beech provenances 

from 20 European countries were published by Alexandrov, Pandeva, Dakov (2006), Velinova, 

Naydenova, Dakov (2008, 2010). 

The beech genetic resources of the Balkans and in particular of Bulgaria are valuable resource for the 

European forestry, especially for the South and Southeast Europe, where they could be used in suitable 

sites. The studied provenances at different ecological conditions via the programme COST Action 

E-52 give opportunity for selection of the most suitable ones for the expected climate changes. 

reFereNces 

Alexandrov A. 1990. Genetics and breeding of forest tree species. Sofia, Zemizdat: 142 p. (in 

Bulgarian). 

Alexandrov A., Pandeva D. 200 . Conservation and utilization of forest genetic resources in 

Bulgaria. Comptes rendus de l’Academie Bulgare des Sciences, 60, 8: 911-916. 

Alexandrov A., Pandeva D., Dakov A. 2006. Survival and growth of 12 years old European beech 

provenances in Tvarditsa Forestry Experimental plantation. Bulgaria, Nauka za gorata, 4: 11-19. 

Alexandrov A., Popov E., Genov K., Hinkov G. 1999. Genetics resources of Bulgarian Social 

Broadleaves. Social Broadleaves. Rome, EUFORGEN, IPGRI: 41-52. 

Botev N. 1988. Influence of initial density of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) plantations on their 

growth. PhD Thesis, Sofia (in Bulgarian). 

Busov V. B. 1995. Discrimination between the European (Fagus sylvatica L.) and oriental beech 

(Fagus orientalis Lipsky) by SDS-PAGE of seed proteins. In: Baradat Ph., Adams W. T., Müller- 

Starck G. (eds.): Population Genetics and Genetic Conservation of Forest Trees. Amsterdam SBS 

Publ.: 1- . 

Dakov A. 2010. Variability and breeding of Fagus sylvatica L. in Central Balkan Range. PhD Thesis 

(manuscript). Sofia (in Bulgarian). 

6

Delkov N. 1988. Dendrology. Sofia, Agricultural Publishing House: 334 p. (in Bulgarian). 

Denk T., Grimm G., Stoegerer K., Langer M., Hemleben V. 2002. The evolutionary history of 

Fagus in western Eurasia: Evidence from genes, morphology and the fossil record. Plant Syst. 

Evol., 232: 213-236. 

Dobrinov I., Doykov G., Gagov V. 1982. Forest genetic fund in Bulgaria. Sofia, Zemizdat: 259 p. 

(in Bulgarian). 

Gailing O., von Wuehlisch G. 2004. Nuclear markers (AFLPs) and chloroplast microsatellites 

differ between Fagus sylvatica and F. orientalis. Silvae Genet., 53: 105-110. 

Garelkov D., Stiptsov V., Kalinkov V., Turlakov P., Bozhinov Ch., Bouzov B., Nedelin G., 

Bobev R. 1995. The beech forests in Bulgaria. Sofia, Zemizdat: 199 p. (in Bulgarian). 

Garelkov D., Turlakov P. 19 8. Beech forests in Bulgaria. Sofia, Zemizdat: 110 p. (in Bulgarian). 

Garelkova Z. 1980. Studies on variability and breeding importance of common beech in some 

regions of Northwestern Bulgaria. PhD Thesis. Sofia, 232 p. (in Bulgarian). 


phylogeny of beech on the Balkan Peninsula. J. Evolution. Biol., 12/ : 46- 54. 

Greuter W., Burdet H. M. 1981. Fagus sylvatica subsp. orientalis. In: Greuter W., Raus T. (eds.): 

Med-Checklist Notulae, 4. Wildenowia, 11: 2 1-280. 

Hazler K., Comps B., Sugar I., Melovski L., Tashev A., Gracan J. 199 . Genetic structure of 

Fagus sylvatica L. populations in Southeastern Europe. Silvae Genet., 46: 229-236. 

IPGRI 1998. Genetics resources of broadleaved forest tree species in Southeastern Europe. Final 

report. Sofia, Bucarest, Chisinau, 305 p. (manuscript). 

Kostov G., Rafailova E. 2009. Dynamics of forest resources in Bulgaria at different management 

regimes. Sofia, Avangard Prima: 320 p. (in Bulgarian). 

Marinov M., Nedyalkov S., Naumov Z. 1961. Beech forests in Bulgaria. Sofia, Zemizdat: 231 p. 

(in Bulgarian). 

MEW, MAF, UF, FRI (Ministry of Environment and Waters, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 

University of Forestry, Forest Research Institute): 2006. Assessment and monitoring of air 

pollution effects on forests, Sofia, 238 p. 

Turok J., Alexandrov A., Blada I., Postolache G., Biris I., Donita N., Gamez V., Genov K., 

Latu S. 2000. Genetic resources of Fagus spp. in Southeastern Europe, Sofia, IPGRI: 23 p. 

Tutin T. G. 1993. Fagus L. In: Tutin, T. G. Heywood, V. H., Burges, N. A., Valentine, D. H., Walters, 

S. M., Webb, D. A. (eds.): Flora Europea, vol. 1. 2nd ed. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae. Cambridge, 

Cambridge University Press: 2 p. 

Vachovski H., Dimitrov S. 2003. Forests and forest management in Bulgaria during the XXth 

century. Apricom, 352 p. (in Bulgarian). 

Veen P., Raev I. (eds.): 2006. Virgin forests in Bulgaria. Sofia, GEA: 129 p. 

68

Velinova K., Naydenova T., Dakov A. 2008. Contents of pigments, total protein and free proline 

in the assimilating apparatus of 12-year-old provenances of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). 

Silva Balcanica, 9/1: 59-66. 

Velinova K., Naydenova T., Dakov A. 2009. Content of carbohydrates in the assimilating apparatus 

of 12-year-old provenances of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Nauka za gorata, 11/1: 2 - 

32. 

contacts: 

Prof. Alexander H. Alexandrov, DSc. 

Forest Research Institute 

Sofia, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 

132 St. Kliment Ohridski blvd., Sofia 1 56, Bulgaria 

e-mail: forestin@bas.bg 

Reviewed 

69

0 

curreNT sTaTus oF euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNeTIc resources IN croaTIa 

absTracT 

Mladen IvankovIć 1 – SAŠA BOGDAN 2 – Joso Gračan 3 – IVAN PILAŠ 4 

1 Croatian Forest Research Institute, Division for Genetics, Tree Breeding and 

Forest Seed Husbandry, Cvjetno naselje 41, 10450 Jastrebarsko, Croatia 

2 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Genetics, 

Dendrology and Botany, Svetošimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia 

3 Hrvoja Macanovića 43, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia 

4 Croatian Forest Research Institute, Division for Ecology and Silviculture, 

Cvjetno naselje 41, 10450 Jastrebarsko, Croatia 

This paper presents general data on European beech genetic resources in Croatia and provides an 

overview of forest genetics research activities. In the first part, the paper deals with the horizontal 

and vertical distribution range of the species and its habitat characteristics. Basic information on 

forest management, seed zonation as well as general information about threats to genetic resources 

follows. Finally, a review on conservation efforts, including the development of in situ and ex situ 

conservation units as well as research work on provenance testing are presented. 

Key words: beech, distribution range, habitat, conservation, provenances, research 

dIsTrIbuTIoN aNd habITaT 

The European beech (Croatian names: obična bukva, bukva prosta, bukva šumska, buk, bukva) is 

one of the most important forest tree species of the Republic of Croatia. Pure or mixed beech stands 

constitute quite stable ecosystems, and are mostly naturally regenerated. It is the most common tree 

species in Croatia, where it accounts for 4 % of the forest area (Vukelić, Rauš 1998) and forms 

45% of total wood growing stock. According to Klepac (1986), pure beech stands occupy an area 

of 200,000 ha, mixed stands with sessile oak and hornbeam accounting for 00,000 ha while mixed 

stands of beech, silver fir and Norway spruce occupy an area of 200,000 ha. It is considered as one of the 

most vital forest tree species in Croatia, since pure and mixed stands are not significantly damaged by 

pests, diseases and air pollution (Glavaš, Harapin, Hrašovec 1992, Potočić, Seletković 2000). 

The European beech woodland appears in many types of forest communities and is widespread both 

horizontally and vertically. In the lowlands it occurs as a secondary species in forests of pedunculate 

oak and common hornbeam. Its share in the low hills increases and reaches its culmination and the 

highest commercial value in the highlands up to 800 m, where it forms climatozonal communities 

in which it has distinct dominance. Above this area it occurs in mixed stands with silver fir. 

Horizontally, the para-Mediterranean vegetation zone occurs in the Dinaric Alps that extend along

the Adriatic coast, while in the continental part northward of the Dinaric Alps, the features of the 

Illyrian vegetation zone decrease and those of the Central European vegetation zone of acidophilic 

forests increase (Vukelić, Baričević 2003). 

In the lowlands, the species can be found at minimum altitude of 100 m above sea level, where it is 

the secondary species in stands of pedunculate oak and hornbeam (Matić, Oršanić, Anić 2003). 

In the mountains of central Croatia and mountains between the Sava and Drava rivers, it can be 

found mainly on the northern slopes between 350 and 50 m a. s. l., within pure or mixed stands 

with sessile oak, hornbeam and sweet chestnut. In the area of Gorski Kotar the species reaches 00 m 

a. s. l. in pure stands, while at higher altitudes it is in mixed stands with silver fir. In the Dinaric Alps 

it can be found up to 1,500 m a. s. l. European beech also grows at altitudes above 200 m on the slopes 

of the Dinaric Alps along the northern Adriatic coast (Učka, Senjska Draga), where it forms so-called 

para-Mediterranean vegetation zone (Matić, Oršanić, Anić 2003). 

Beech forests are under the influence of almost all climatic types occurring in Croatia, according to 

Köppen’s classification. It favours areas influenced by moderately warm summers, high precipitation 

(between 16 and 2,523 mm) and shorter winters, as well as with mean annual air temperatures 

between and 10 °C. The distribution range of the species in Croatia can be divided in four 

distinctive climatic regions. The first region is situated in the eastern Pannonian part of Croatia, 

which is characterized by a moderately warm rainy climate (climate type Cfwb”x”). The second 

region is situated in the western Pannonian part (climate type Cfwbx”). In comparison with the 

previous one, this type is characterized by somewhat higher annual precipitation which ranges 

from 806 to 1,255 mm. The other two climate types occur west and south-west from the Karlovac- 

Topusko line. Those are type Cfwbx” (a moderately warm rainy climate, but with somewhat higher 

annual precipitation than in the western Pannonian region) and Dfsbx” (boreal climate). The boreal 

climate type influence areas above 1,200 m a. s. l. In this region, the driest part of the year occours 

in the warm season. Precipitation is marked by two maximums, one in early spring and one in the 

late autumn. Mean annual precipitation ranges between 1,106 and 2,523 mm. The mean annual air 

temperatures range between 3.9 and 10.0 °C, dependent on the altitude. The region is characterized 

by significant temperature extremes where absolute temperature fluctuations rise to 66.5 °C. Frost is 

a frequent phenomenon, with late spring frosts often occurring even in late June. The beech forests 

in the area of Lika and Gorski Kotar mostly grow on indented terrain and permeable soil substrates 

with numerous different microclimatic conditions which is a typical characteristic of this region 

(Seletković, Tikvić 2003). 

In the lowland region the occurrence of beech is linked exclusively to micro-elevations out of the 

reach of floodwaters, with deep gleyic hydromorphic soils (fluvisols and planosols) or terrestic 

(automorphic) soils (eutric cambisols and luvisols). In general, from the hilly to the subalpine 

zone, pure beech stands or mixed oak-beech and beech-fir stands are usually found on different 

automorphic, very rarely hydromorphic soil types. Within its range in Croatia, beech is completely 

absent from sites with extreme edaphic conditions (dry and shallow soils on dry terrains and sunny 

expositions, positions with stagnant groundwater in the rhizosphere (Pernar, Bakšić 2003). 

ForesT maNaGemeNT 

Most beech forests in Croatia are managed as even-aged forest stands. They are usually regenerated 

naturally by the shelterwood method. Natural regeneration results from seeds from the mature trees 

1

standing in the regenerating area. However, problems with natural regeneration arise in stands with 

disturbed structure, where canopy openings give rise to invasion of weeds which impair normal 

regeneration. That is why seed and nursery raised stock have increased in importance due to 

interventions needed in the stands undergoing a regeneration phase. Interventions constitute measure 

of artificial regeneration in normal beech stands on the basis of inadequate natural regeneration, or 

a tending measure in the adequate stocking of insufficiently regenerated areas. Seeds and seedling 

are also frequently used in uneven-aged beech-fir stands, in which increasing fir dieback creates 

gaps, as well as in the conversion of deciduous and coniferous forest of other species established 

in potential beech sites (Matić, Oršanić, Anić 2003). In those cases and according to the law on 

forest reproductive material, seeds and seedlings should originate from the same provenance region, 

respecting altitudinal distribution types. 

The regeneration of beech stands is based on the shelterwood method consisting of three to five cuts 

(so-called: preparatory cut, seed cut, one or two additional cuts and the final clearfell). Regenerating 

cuts are applied on smaller or larger areas and regeneration periods range from 10 to 20 years. 

The selective cut method has been applied for regeneration of mixed stands of European beech and 

silver fir in the mountain zone of the Dinaric region (Matić, Skenderović 1993, Matić, Oršanić, 

Anić 2003). 

seed ZoNe deLINeaTIoN aNd ForesT reProducTIve maTerIaL 

LeGIsLaTIoN 

The first seed zonation of European beech forests in Croatia was made in the 1950s (Šafar 1958), and 

afterwards by the Department for Control of Forest Seeds in 1963 (Gradečki, Poštenjak, Regent 

1990). Another zonation was made in the 1990s (Gračan et al. 1995, 1999). 

In 2008, a new seed delineation was made according to the regulations on provenance regions of 

economically important forest tree species, made under the Law on Forest Reproductive Material 

(Official Gazette 2005). The European beech forests are delineated in four provenance regions and 

eleven seed units (Fig. 1). 

2.2. Provenance region of mountain beech forests (300 – 800 m a. s. l.) 

2.2.1. Dilj and Psunj seed unit 

2.2.2. Zagorie and Bilogorie seed unit 

2.2.3. Žumberak and Pokuplie and Banovina seed unit 

2.3. Provenance region of Pannonian beech and fir forests (800 – 1,000 m a. s. l.) 

2.3.1. Papuk seed unit 

2.3.2. Slieme seed unit 

2.3.3 Zagorie seed unit 

3.3. Provenance region of Dinaric beech and fir forests ( 00 – 1,200 m a. s. l.) 

3.3.1. Gorski kotar seed unit 

3.3.2. Kapela and Velebit seed unit 

3.4. Provenance region of coastal beech forests (800 – 1,000 m a. s. l.) 

3.4.1. Istra seed unit 

3.4.2. Velebit and Dinara seed unit 

3.4.3. Mosor and Biokovo seed unit 

2

Fig. 1: Provenace regions and seed units of the European beech (NN 107/08) 

ThreaTs To The GeNeTIc resources 

European beech is considered as the most vital tree species in Croatia. To date, there have not 

been any significant damages in the beech stands caused by diseases or insects. Compared to other 

economically important tree species, European beech shows better resistance to forest decline. 

Defoliation status of the beech in Croatia for the period 198 – 2001 showed that severe damage 

varied between 4.2% and 11.9%, which was lower than in the rest of Europe (Potočić, Seletković 

2000). No continuity was found in the deterioration of the condition of the beech in any of the damage 

classes. It fluctuated, depending on the strength of diverse unfavourable ecological and biological 

factors. In other tree species, such as silver fir, pedunculate oak, sessile oak, Aleppo pine, black pine 

and others, the condition was significantly worse in all damage classes (Prpić et al. 2003). 

However, the assessment of beech defoliation from 1999 to 2001, showed considerable differences 

between various areas. A particularly high percentage of significantly defoliated trees was found 

in the area of Zagreb (39.4%) and Požega (20%) cities. Local differences could be explained by air 

pollution caused by industries and traffic. Also, significant beech defoliation was found along the 

busiest tourist roads (Prpić et al. 2003). 

Decrease of mean precipitation and severe droughts have been frequently recorded since 1990. 

Droughts are most dangerous for the beech in lowland and hilly areas, while higher altitudes are less 

exposed due to higher relative air moisture (Harapin 2003). 

3

Beech has been under strong anthropogenic influence for a long time. It has been used for fuelwood, 

building material, charcoal, and other purposes. Sometimes, intensive cuttings have resulted in 

dry soil, dry-topped crowns and tree and stand dieback. Beech, as a sciophyte, is very sensitive if 

its bark is directly exposed to the sun. Poor management practice in some beech forests or large 

infrastructural changes (highways, canals, retentions, etc.) resulted in forest gaps, soil dehydration, 

bark sun scorch, physiological weakening and tree dieback and decline of beech stands over large 

areas (Harapin 2003). 

coNservaTIoN aNd ForesT GeNeTIcs research 

Considering in situ conservation measures, beech as one of the most valuable forest species, can be 

commonly found in four national parks (Plitvice Lakes, Risnjak, Paklenica and Northern Velebit), 

four nature parks (Velebit, Medvednica, Biokovo and Papuk), two nature reserves (Bijele stijene and 

Samarske stijene). 

Additionally there are 15 seed stands which occupy a total area of 568 hectares, as well as 12 

stands which serve as conservation units with the total area of 1,088 hectares. As a result of ex situ 

conservation efforts, two provenance trials were established, which occupy a total area of four ha. 

The beech forests protected within national parks, nature parks, reserves or seed stands are managed 

in a natural and sustainable way. It means that management is directed toward promotion of 

biodiversity and its self-regeneration capacity in the protected areas. 

The first research on the European beech provenance variation in Croatia started in the early 1990s 

when the Croatian Forestry Institute participated in the international project “Assessment of beech 

genetic resources for adequate use in sustainable forest management” (Gračan, Ivanković 2001, 

von Wuehlisch 200 ). The first provenance trial was established in 1995 in the region of the Forest 

Office Bjelovar. Unfortunately, severe drought and damage by rodents led to a high plant mortality 

in the trial. During the spring of 1998 a second international provenance trial was established in 

the region of the Forest Office Kutina (trial “Kutinska Garjevica”). The trial was established with 15 

indigenous and 21 exotic provenances originating from other parts of Europe. At the same time, 

another provenance trial which comprised only indigenous provenances was established in the 

region of the Forest Office Duboka. A third provenance trial was established during the spring 200 

on Medvednica mountain, close to the city of Zagreb (Fig. 2). Both trials are included in the COST 

Action E52 “Evaluation of Beech Genetic Resources for Sustainable Forestry”. 

Assessments of height growth and survival in the field trial “Kutinska Garjevica” began soon after its 

establishment. The results of those assessments in 1998, 1999 and 2000, show that average survival 

rate were 6.0% (1998), 60. % (1999) and 58.1% (2000). The provenance P 59 (Pidkamin, Ukraine) 

had the highest survival percentage of 96.0% (1998), 95.3% (1999) and 94. % (2000), while the 

lowest survival percentage was shown by provenance P 6 (Bilowo) from Poland: 4 .0% (1998), 

30.1% (1999) and 24.6% (2000). 

Survival of indigenous provenances, namely P 13 (Samobor), P 14 (Pisarovina) and P 10 (Ivanjska) 

was also high, just below provenance P 59. All provenances from Croatia had a survival rate higher 

than the average for the trial. Survival of Croatian provenances ranged from 83.3% (P 13) to 64. % 

(P 2 Sjeverni Dilj and P Bjelovar Bilogora). Provenances from Slovenia also had higher than average 

survival rate (58.1%). Mean trial heights were 40. cm (1998), 46.6 cm (1999) and 0.1 cm (2000). 

4

Fig. 2: International beech provenance trial Medvednica from the series 2007 

The highest average height in year 2000 had provenance P 5 (Sjeverna Babja gora 110.6 cm), P 12 

(Vurberg, Slovenia 10 .0 cm) and P 14 (Gračec Lučelnica 104.0 cm). The lowest mean heights were 

observed in provenances P 64 (Nižbor, Czech Republic 40.9 cm), P 23 (Torup, Sweden 41.1 cm), P 6 

(Bilowo, Poland 41.5 cm) and P 21 (Grasten, Denmark 41.6 cm). 

On the basis of conducted research work and by comparing common provenances in the Croatian 

and Slovenian trial, it was observed that some provenances showed phenotype stability under 

different site conditions, while on the other hand, some provenances showed specific adaptability to 

environmental conditions which prevailed in the two trials. Typical provenances that showed specific 

adaptability and quite unstable mean phenotypic values were P 13 (Soignes from Belgium), P 14 

(Aarnink from the Netherlands), P 46 (Domažlice from the Czech Republic) and P 6 (Bilowo from 

Poland) (Ivanković, Bogdan, Božič 2008). 

It should be noted that studies undertaken on growth traits and flushing phenology in Croatian 

provenance trials of the European beech indicate ecotypic pattern of genetic diversity (Jazbec et al. 

200 , Ivankovic, Bogdan, Božič 2008) which coincides with some other results (Comps et al. 1991, 

Paule 1995, Gömöry, Hynek, Paule 1998, Chmura, Roźkowski 2002). 

5

eFereNces 

Chmura D. J., Roźkowski R. 2002. Variability of beech provenances in spring and autumn phenology. 

Silvae Genetica, 51/2-3: 123-12 . 

Comps B., Thiebaut B., Šugar I., Trinajstić I., Plazibat M. 1991. Genetic variation of the Croatian 

beech stands (Fagus sylvatica L.): spatial differentiation in connection with the environment. 

Ann. Sci. For., 48: 15-28. 

Glavaš M., Harapin M., Hrašovec B. 1992. Zaštita šuma. [Forest Protection.] In: Rauš Đ. (ed.): 

Šume u Hrvatskoj. Zagreb, Šumarski fakultet: 1 1-1 9. 

Gömöry D., Hynek V., Paule L. 1998. Delineation of seed zones for European beech (Fagus sylvatica 

L.) in the Czech Republic based on isozyme gene markers. Ann. Sci. For., 55: 425-436. 

Gračan J., Ivanković M. 2001. Prvi rezultati uspijevanja provenijencija obične bukve (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) u Hrvatskoj. [First resuts on growth of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances 

in Croatia.] In: Matić S., Krpan A. P. B., Gračan J. (eds.): Znanost u potrajnom gospodarenju 

hrvatskim šumama. Zagreb, Šumarski fakultet i Šumarski institut: 1 5-190. 

Gračan J., Krstinić A., Matić S., Rauš Đ., Seletković Z. 1995. Šumski sjemenski rajoni (jedinice) 

u Hrvatskoj. [Forest seed zones in Croatia.] Jastrebarsko, Šumarski institut, (unpublished 

manuscript). 

Gračan J., Turok J., Kremer A., Paule L., Bonfils P., Lipman 1999. Beech and oak genetic 

resources in Croatia. In: Proceedings of the second EUFORGEN Social Broadleaves meeting. 

European Forest Genetic Resources Programme. Birmensdorf, Switzerland, p. 53-61. 

Gradečki M., Poštenjak K., Regent B. 1990. Osnivanje rad i razvoj organiziranog šumskog 

sjemenarstva u Hrvatskoj u razdoblju od 30 godina (1959 – 1989). [Foundation and development 

of organized forest seed husbandry in Croatia during last 30 years (1959 – 1989).] Šumarski list, 

114/6-8: 295-29 . 

Harapin M. 2003. Harmful factors and integral protection of common beech. In: Matić S. (ed.): 

Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, Hrvatske 

šume Ltd., Zagreb City Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 594-598. 

Ivanković M., Bogdan S., Božič G. 2008. Varijabilnost visinskog rasta obične bukve (Fagus sylvatica 

L.) u testovima provenijencija u Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji. [European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) height 

growth variability in Croatian and Slovenian provenance trials.] Šumarski list, 132/11-12: 529- 

541. 

Jazbec A., Šegotić K., Ivanković M., Marjanović H., Perić S. 200 . Ranking of European beech 

provenances in Croatia using statistical analysis and analytical hierarchy process. Forestry, 80/2: 

151-162. 

Klepac D. 1986. Uvodni referat na simpoziju o bukvi. [Colocvium on beech. Introductory paper.] 

In: Krpan A. P. B. (ed.): Kolokvij o bukvi. Zagreb, Šumarski fakultet: 11-15. 

Matić S., Oršanić M., Anić I.: 2003. Silviculture in beech forests. In: Matić S. (ed.): Common 

beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, Hrvatske šume Ltd., 

Zagreb City Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 326-339 and 3 0-392. 

Matić S., Skenderović J. 1993. Uzgajanje šuma. [Silviculture.] In: Rauš Đ. (ed.): Zagreb, Šume 

u Hrvatskoj. Šumarski fakultet i Hrvatske šume: 81-95. 

6

Official Gazette NN 140/05, 2005: Zakon o šumskom reprodukcijskom materijalu. [Law on Forest 

Reproductive Material.] Narodne novine br. 140/05. 

Paule L. 1995. Gene conservation in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Forest Genetics, 2/3: 161- 

1 0. 

Pernar N., Bakšić D. 2003. The soils of beech forests. In: Matić S. (ed.): Common beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, Hrvatske šume Ltd., Zagreb City 

Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 66- 1. 

Potočić N., Seletković I. 2000. Stanje oštećenosti šuma u Republici Hrvatskoj 1998. [Crown 

condition of forests in Croatia in 1998.] Šumarski list, 124/1-2: 51-56. 

Prpić B., Seletković Z., Jurjević P., Tikvić I. 2003. The decline of common beech. In: Matić S. 

(ed.): Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, 

Hrvatske šume Ltd., Zagreb City Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 239-244. 

Seletković Z., Tikvić I. 2003. Climate of forest ecosystems of common beech in Croatia. In: Matić 

S. (ed.): Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, 

Hrvatske šume Ltd., Zagreb City Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 83-86. 

Šafar J. 1958. Osnovna razdioba područja Hrvatske na sjemenske jedinice. [Basic seed units 

delineation of Croatia.] Šumarski list, 82/10: 329-338. 

Vukelić J., Baričević D. 2003. Forest communities of common beech in Croatia. In: Matić S. (ed.): 

Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Croatia. Zagreb, Academy of Forestry Sciences, Hrvatske 

šume Ltd., Zagreb City Office for Agriculture and Forestry: 108-123. 

Vukelić J., Rauš Đ. 1998. Šumarska fitocenologija i šumske zajednice u Hrvatskoj. [Forest 

Phytocenology and Forest Communities in Croatia.] Zagreb, Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Šumarski 

fakultet: 310 p. 

Wuehlisch von G. 200 . Series of international provenance trials of European beech. In: Improvement 

and Silviculture of Beech, Proceedings from the th International Beech Symposium 

IUFRO Research Group 1.10.00. Teheran, Iran, Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands 

(RIFR): 135-144. 

Reviewed 

contacts: 

Dr. sc. Mladen Ivanković, Dr. sc. Sasa Bogdan 

Croatian Forest Research Institute, Division for Genetics, Tree Breeding and Forest Seed Husbandry 

Cvjetno naselje 41, 10450 Jastrebarsko, Croatia 

e-mail: mladeni@sumins.hr, sasa.bogdan@zg.htnet.hr

absTracT 

8 


(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNeTIc resources 

coNservaTIoN IN The cZech rePubLIc 

PETR NOVOTNÝ – JOSEF FRÝDL 

Forestry And Game Management Research Institute 

Strnady 136, 156 04 Praha 5-Zbraslav, Czech Republic 

The paper describes the current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Czech Republic. 

It provides information on the horizontal and vertical distribution of the species, together with data 

on its actual representation in forest stands, plant communities and on the site conditions, in which 

it occurs. While in the past E. beech natural composition in the Czech Republic forests was 3,1 0,000 

ha or 40.2% of the current total area of the Czech Republic, the present composition of the species is 

very different, with just 182,048 ha, or approximately .0% of the present area of forests in the Czech 

Republic. The reasons for this are that most beech stands were harvested for glass manufacturing and 

for charcoal production. Another factor is that in the past some mixed beech stands were replaced 

by Norway spruce monocultures. However, at present the area of European beech has increased and 

this is reflected in a higher proportion of this species in the present tree species composition. As well 

as information on the E. beech gene pool preservation and conservation programme, there is also 

information on E. beech current in situ and ex situ gene conservation activities. The current state of 

forestry research on beech and other related activities are also described. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), buk lesní (in Czech), distribution, gene-pool 

current state, Czech Republic, forestry research 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN The cZech rePubLIc 

Forest land covers 2,660, 34 ha in the Czech Republic out of a total area of ,886,519 ha. The 

composition of forest tree species has considerably changed in the past two and a half centuries as 

a result of intensive forest management. Replacement plantations of coniferous tree species have also 

been recommended since the 18th century. 

While the natural species composition included beech (40.2%), oaks (19.4%), fir (19.8%), spruce 

(11.2%) and pine (3.4%), the present species composition is rather different. The proportions of 

spruce (52.4%) and pine (1 .0%) are higher. Oaks (6.8%), beech ( .0%) and fir (< 1%) are underrepresented 

with regard to the original species distributions (Report about Forest State and 

Management of the Czech Republic in 2008). Most beech stands were harvested and the wood was 

used in glass manufacturing as well as for charcoal production. Mixed beech stands were replaced by 

Norway spruce monocultures and oak stands by pure pine stands.

European beech is distributed almost over the entire Czech Republic, with a concentration in the 

mesophyticum and oreophyticum regions. A small population of European beech is recognized 

in the thermophyticum, while in the regions that have been utilised for agriculture this species is 

missing. European beech is the most important broadleaved species in the Czech Republic, from an 

economic point of view. Its occurrence is recorded from about 300 to 1,000 m a. s. l., mainly from 

the supracolline to the mountainous level, however it rarely occurs on northern slopes especially 

on limestone at the colline level. The minimum elevation limit of this species is in the locality of 

Dúbrava at Hodonín (South Moravia, altitude 220 m), and the valley of the Labe river close to 

Hřensko (North Bohemia, altitude ca 120 m – inversion site). According to Koblížek (1990), 

the altitudinal maximum of European beech is recorded in a rocky area close to the Black Lake 

locality of the Šumava Mts. (South Bohemia, altitude 1,240 m), as well as on the southern slopes 

of the Krkonoše Mts. (Eastern Bohemia, altitude 1,200 m), and the locality of Velká Kotlina in the 

Hrubý Jeseník Mts. (North Moravia, altitude 1,250 m). The centre of European beech distribution is 

recorded as in the beech forest vegetation level, where this species formed pure stands in the past. At 

lower levels, where European beech forms mixtures with oak, this species grows mostly on northern 

slopes or inversion sites with higher soil humidity. European beech does not grow in floodplain 

forests. Where European beech occurs at higher elevations, it forms mixed stands with Norway 

spruce and silver fir. 

In the Bohemia region, extensive mixed stands of European beech have remained in the Šumava 

Mts. (South Bohemia, altitude 650 – 1,000 m), considerable remnants of beech woods are recorded 

in the Český les (Bohemian Forest) Mts., as well as the Novohradské hory Mts. and the Blanský les 

(Blanský Forest) Mts., (e. g. localities called Královský hvozd, Boubín, Žofínský prales). European 

beech occurrences at lower altitudes are recorded in the Krušné hory (Ore Mts. – 400 – 00 m a. s. l.) 

and the Lužické hory (Lusatian Mts.). In the Jizerské hory Mts., Krkonoše (Giant Mts.) and Orlické 

hory Mts., the occurrence of European beech is rare (average upper distribution limits is about 900 m 

in these localities). Larger occurrence of European beech is recorded in sub-mountainous regions of 

the above mentioned mountains. Similarly European beech occurrence is recorded in the Králický 

Sněžník Mts. and Jeseníky Mts. Remains of original beech woods are located around Českomoravská 

vrchovina (Bohemian-Moravian Highland) (e. g. in localities of Žákova hora, Křemešník), and in 

other areas (Železné hory Mts., Blaník Mt., Kostelec nad Černými lesy region, Císařský les /Císařský 

Forest/, Drahanská vrchovina Highland, Oderské vrchy Highland). In addition, European beech 

occurrence is recorded in the Brdská vrchovina Highland and in the locality of Hřebeny, in very 

poor site conditions. Greater representations of European beech are recorded both in the Doupovské 

hory Mts. and in České středohoří Middle Mts., and is probably as a result of local nutrient basaltic 

base sites. 

In the Moravian region, European beech is abundant in the areas of the Chřiby Highland, Malé 

Karpaty Mts. and Bílé Karpaty (White Carpathians) Mts. In the Beskydy (Beskids) Mts., European 

beech was largely artificially replaced by Norway spruce. Considerable remains of autochthonous 

beech woods are located in natural reserves, such as Mionší National Nature Reserve and Salajka 

National Nature Reserve, including natural reserves managed both at the Radhošť Mt. and Kelečský 

Javorník Mts. (Úradníček 2004). 

9


The territory of the Czech Republic is divided into 41 Natural Forest Regions, delimited by geographic, 

geomorphologic and climatic conditions (Plíva, Žlábek 1986). Ecological conditions affect the 

representation and formation of regional populations which are adapted to local conditions. There 

are nine forest altitudinal zones (FAZ) in the Czech Republic. Beech occurs naturally from FAZ 2 

to . Beech stands survived in extremely steep areas, where it was impossible to carry out artificial 

regeneration with spruce. At these locations beech also regenerates naturally. 

European beech distribution map in the Czech Republic are published in Čermák et al. (1955), 

Götz (1966), Moravec, Neuhäusl (19 6), Slavík (1990), Neuhäuslová et al. (1998). The actual 

distribution range of European beech in the Czech Republic according to the National Forest 

Inventory is presented in Figure 1. 

Fig. 1: Present distribution range of European beech in the Czech Republic (Source ÚHÚL: Národní 

inventarizace lesů v České republice 2001 – 2004) 

In the Czech Republic, European beech is represented in three associations: Herb-rich woodlands 

(eu-Fagenion Oberdorfer 195 em. Tüxen in Oberdorfer et Tüxen 1958) – beech, silver fir-beech and 

lime-beech climax or subclimax woodlands (Fagus sylvatica, Abies alba, Tilia cordata, T. platyphyllos) 

with frequent herbs or grasses, on siliceous brown forest soils (brown earths, cambisoils) in the 

submontane and montane levels. Calcicolous beech woodland (Cephalanthero-Fagenion Tüxen in 

Tüxen et Oberdorfer 195 ) – beech woodland (Fagus sylvatica) on rendzina soils on substrates rich 

in carbonates or with an admixture of CaCO 3 , mostly in the submontane or montane, rarely colline, 

levels. Acidophilous beech and silver fir woodland (Luzulo-Fagion Lohmeyer et Tüxen in Tüxen 1954) 

– mesophilous species-poor beech and silver fir woodland on oligotrophic siliceous soils, mostly in 

the submontane to supramontane levels, and waterlogged oak-beech woodland on pseudogleys at 

lower elevations in north-eastern Moravia (Neuhäuslová et al. 1998). 

European beech wood is often characterized by “red heart”, however, it is possible to obtain valuable 

assortments from higher parts of stem, while affected parts are usually processed for firewood or 

cellulose (Úradníček et al. 2001). 

80

According to the Report about forest state and management of the Czech Republic in 2008, the average 

quality of tested seeds of European beech was described as having the following characteristics: 0% 

viability of pure seeds and 69% germination. The stock of seed and raw seed registered in the Seed 

Production Plant at Týniště nad Orlicí was 1 ,688 kg of pure seed and 5, 64 kg of raw seed. Artificial 

regeneration of European beech recorded in recent years are as follows: 3,386 ha (2000), 2,908 ha 

(2001), 3,143 ha (2002), 3,032 ha (2003), 3,406 ha (2004), 3,2 5 ha (2005), 3,433 ha (2006), 3,625 ha 

(200 ) and 3,865 ha (2008). 

According to the long-term monitoring of forest condition, average defoliation of European beech in 

stands older than 60 years was 22.5% in the period 1991 – 2006. Within this period, mean defoliation 

decreased in 1998 to the lowest level (14.6%), then increased slightly, and there has been only a minor 

change from 2000 to date. 

In 2008, average prices of beech round wood in the Czech Republic were as follows: Assortments of 

logs of the 1st class = 3,8 CZK (ca 152 €)/m3 , 2nd class = 2,829 CZK (ca 111 €/m3 ), 3rd A/B class = 

1, 62 CZK (ca 69 €/m3 ); 3rd C class = 1,389 CZK (ca 55 €/m3 ); 3rd D class = 1,111 CZK (ca 44 €/m3 ) 

and pulpwood of the 5th class = 908 CZK (ca 36 €/m3 ). 

For current legislative rules in the Czech Republic, there is a valid Forest Act no. 289/1995 Gaz. 

together with several executive decrees of the Ministry of Agriculture, implementing this act. 

Marketing of forest reproductive material is regulated by Act no. 149/2003 Gaz. and its executive 

decrees. 

The following basic materials of European beech had been registered in the Czech Republic up to 31. 

12. 2009 (www.uhul.cz): 

• Category identified (seed source – 9 trees; 56 stands of phenotype class C /23,045.38 ha/; 2 

stands of phenotype class B /252. 8 ha/; 1 stand of phenotype class A / .38 ha/). 

• Category selected (692 certified stands of phenotype class B /10, 40.29 ha/; 63 certified stands 

of phenotype class A /2,613.50 ha/). 

• Category qualified ( seed orchards /9.69 ha/; 28 plus trees). 

In the Czech Republic 10 European beech genetic conservation units (60,0 3.2 ha) have been 

registered. These measures are aimed at the preservation and conservation of European beech gene 

pool. 


As already mentioned, the proportion of European beech has decreased from an original 40.2% to 

a current level of .0% as a consequence of forest management over the past 200 years (Report about 

forest state and management of the Czech Republic in 2008). However, regeneration of European 

beech has been steadily increasing and this is reflected in the higher portion of this species in overall 

tree species composition (Tab. 1). Mean age of beech forest stands has also been increasing up to 

2000 ( 3 years), which implied total aging of European beech population in the Czech Republic. 

However current data show that an increase of mean age has stopped ( 0 years in 2008). The plan 

to increase the proportion of European beech in the Czech Republic to 18% is now evident, but 

it will be necessary to pay attention to additional artificial regeneration, despite increasing natural 

regeneration. The origin of reproductive material to be used for artificial regeneration has to meet 

81

equirements of related national (Ministry of Agricultural Decree no. 139/2004 Gaz.; Fig. 2) and 

international legislative rules on reproductive material zoning. 

Tab. 1: European beech proportion and mean age in forest stands of the Czech Republic 

82 

1950 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008 

% 4.5 5.0 5.3 5.4 6.0 7.0 

ha 102,243 129,158 135,988 140,130 154,791 182,048 

yrs 66 67 69 71 73 70 

Report about forest state and management of the Czech Republic in 2006 

Report about forest state and management of the Czech Republic in 2008 

Fig. 2: General delimitation of areas with approved horizontal transfer of European beech reproduction 

material in the Czech Republic; according to current legislation 

curreNT GeNeTIc coNservaTIoN acTIvITIes iN situ 

aNd EX situ 

Passive gene conservation of beech populations in situ has taken the form of nature reserves. The 

gene conservation units are considered an active way of gene conservation and reproduction. These 

units are groups of stands with a minimum area of 100 ha. Here natural regeneration of target species 

is obligatory. If natural regeneration is not successful, it is possible to use a reproductive material 

coming from these units for their artificial regeneration. Guidelines for the management of individual 

gene conservation units are elaborated by the FGMRI Strnady (Novotný, Frýdl, Čáp 2008).

The most important ex situ conservation activities are grafting and establishment of clonal archives 

and seed orchards. Up to now, one clone archive of beech, covering seven altitudinal forest vegetation 

belts, was established for the most polluted areas of Krušné hory (Ore Mts.). The establishment of 

special plantations for obtaining secondary cuttings is another method of ex situ conservation. 

Besides, some beech genetic resources have been conserved within the existing seed banks and tissue 

culture banks. 


Provenance research of European beech in the Czech Republic over the past 38 years revealed 

numerous valuable findings on height growth characteristics of various subpopulations in various 

site conditions of research provenance plots, that have been established and examined, to-date. These 

research plots are of long-term character, and continue to provide importance results with increasing 

age. 

Two maps are presented (Fig. 3 and 4) with examples of locations of beech forestry research in the 

Czech Republic. This type of research is very important for the management of genetic resources in 

the Czech Republic. 

Current research projects present possibilities for solution of problems with European beech in 

the Czech Republic. FGMRI Strnady, Department of Forest Tree Biology and Breeding. has been 

carrying out the national research project QF4025 “Applications of the results of the European beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) genetically conditioned variability verifying for the gene resources protection and 

reproduction and for this species increasing in the forest stands of the Czech Republic”. This project 

was financed by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic through the National Agency 

for Agricultural Research. This project started at the 1st February 2004 and finished 31st December 

200 . 

Fig. 3: Delineation of the proposed seed zones for European beech in the Czech Republic (According to 

HYNEK 2000) 

83

The main purpose of the project was to realize breeding measures, directed to the protection and 

reproduction of European beech gene resources and to contribute to creating conditions for saving 

and increasing proportion of this species in the forest stands. Evaluation of the provenance plots series 

19 2, 1984, 1995 and 1998 provided additional information about the variability of beech, mainly 

about viability and production potential of individual beech populations. This information will be 

used for streamlining of seed harvesting from the certified forest stands and for the purpose of seed 

zoning. The positively verified subpopulations have been used as the basic material for autovegetative 

propagation with the aim to create a set of trees grown especially for production of cuttings. The 

actual findings from provenance research of European beech are mentioned e. g. in the papers of 

Novotný (2006), Novotný et al. (200 ), Novotný, Frýdl (2010), Novotný, Frýdl, Čáp (2010). 

Current international COST Action E52 “Evaluation of Beech Genetic Resources for Sustainable 

Forestry” and national research project COST MŠMT OC08009 ”Participation of the Czech Republic 

in evaluating European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances with the aim to judge their utilization 

in forestry regarding expected climatic changes“ provide another possibility for continuation and 

extension of research activities aimed at European beech in the Czech Republic. 

Another national research project COST MŠMT OC08022 „Ecophysiology of beech proveniences 

and their sensitivity to growth environments“ contributes to scientific investigation of beech 

ecophysilogy and adaptation capabilities under the conditions of expected climate change. Some 

results of this research were published (Košvancová 2009, Košvancová-Zitová 2009) 

Fig. 4: Delineation of proposed seed zones for European beech in the Czech Republic based on isozyme 

gene markers (GÖMÖRY, HYNEK, PAULE 1998) 

acKNoWLedGemeNT: 

This paper was written in the frame of the research project COST MŠMT OC08009. 

84

eFereNces 

Čermák K., Hofman J., Krečmer V., Čabart J., Syrový S. (eds.) 1955. Lesnický a myslivecký atlas. 

Mapová část., maps 42 – 48. [Forestry and Hunting Atlas. Map Part.] Praha, Ústřední správa 

geodézie a kartografie: 120 p. 

Gömöry D., Hynek V., Paule L. 1998. Delineation of seed zones for European beech (Fagus sylvatica 

L.) in the Czech Republic based on isozyme gene markers. Ann. Sci. For., 55: 425-436. 

Götz A. (red.) 1966. Atlas Československé socialistické republiky, map 23.1. [Atlas of the Czecho- 

slovak Socialistic Republic.] Praha, Ústřední správa geodézie a kartografie: 58 p. 

Hynek V. 2000. Návrh semenářských oblastí a přenosu reprodukčního materiálu pro buk lesní, dub 

zimní a letní, lípu malolistou a velkolistou, javor mléč a klen, jasan ztepilý a úzkolistý a pro jedli 

bělokorou v ČR. [Proposal of seed zones and rules for European beech, sessile oak, pedunculate 

oak, small-leaved linden, large-leaved linden, Norway maple, sycamore, common ash, narrowleaved 

ash, and for silver fir reproduction material transfer in the Czech Republic.] Lesnická 

práce, 9/4: 1 4-1 6. 

Koblížek J. 1990. Fagaceae Dumort. – bukovité. [Fagaceae Dumort. – Beechen], p. 1 -35. In: Hejný 

S., Slavík B. (eds.): Květena České republiky 2. Praha, Academia: 544 p. 

Košvancová M., Urban O., Šprtová M., Hrstka M., Kalina J., Tomášková I., Špunda V., Marek 

M. V. 2009. Photosynthetic induction in broadleaved Fagus sylvatica and coniferous Picea abies 

cultivated under ambvient and elevated CO concentration. Plant Science, 1 : 123-130. 

2 

Košvancová-Zitová M., Urban O., Navrátil M., Špunda V., Robson T. M., Marek M. V. 2009. 

Blue radiation stimulates photosynthetic induction in Fagus sylvatica L. Photosynthetica, 4 : 388- 

398. 

Moravec J., Neuhäusl R. 19 6. Geobotanická mapa Československé socialistické republiky, mapa 

rekonstruované přirozené vegetace, měřítko 1 : 1 000 000. [Geobotanic map of the Czechoslovak 

Socialistic Republic, Map of reconstructed natural vegetation, Scale 1 : 1 000 000.] Praha, 

Academia. 

Národní inventarizace lesů v České republice 2001 – 2004. Úvod, metody, výsledky. [National Forest 

Inventory in the Czech Republic 2001 – 2004. Introduction, methodology, results.] Brandýs nad 

Labem, ÚHÚL 200 . 222 p. 

Neuhäuslová Z. et al. 1998. Mapa potenciální přirozené vegetace České republiky. [Map of the 

Czech Republic potential natural vegetation.] Praha, Academia: 341 p., maps. 

Novotný P. 2006. Literární přehled dosavadních výzkumných aktivit souvisejících s ověřováním 

dílčích populací buku lesního (Fagus sylvatica L.) v ČR. [Historical literature review of research 

activities connected with European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) partial populations verifying in 

the Czech Republic.] p. 84-99. In: Novotný P. (ed.): Šlechtění lesních dřevin v České republice 

a Polsku. Sborník ze semináře s mezinárodní účastí, Strnady 8. 9. 2005. [Forest tree species 

breeding and improvement in the Czech Republic and Poland. Proceedings from international 

seminar, Strnady 8. 9. 2005.] Jíloviště-Strnady, VÚLHM: 99 p. 

Novotný P., Čáp J., Frýdl J., Chládek J., Šindelář J., Tomec J. 200 . Výsledky hodnocení série 

experimentálních provenienčních ploch s bukem lesním (Fagus sylvatica L.) ve věku 25 let. 

85

86 

[Results of evaluation series of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenance plots at the age of 

25 years.] Zprávy lesnického výzkumu, 51/4: 281-292. 

Novotný P., Frýdl J. 2010. Vyhodnocení proveniencí buku lesního (Fagus sylvatica L.) na výzkumných 

plochách série 1995 v juvenilním stadiu růstu. [Evaluation of European beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) provenances on research plots of series 1995 in juvenile growth stage.] Zprávy 

lesnického výzkumu, 55/2: 92-105. 

Novotný P., Frýdl J., Čáp J. 2008. Metodické postupy pro navrhování, vyhlašování a management 

genových základen v lesním hospodářství České republiky. [Methodological procedures for 

gene conservation units’ proposals, declarations and management in the Czech Republic forest 

management.] Lesnický průvodce, no. 8, 80 p. 

Novotný P., Frýdl J., Čáp J. 2010. Výsledky hodnocení provenienční plochy s bukem lesním (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) na lokalitě č. 50 – Pelhřimov, Křemešník ve věku 36 let. [Results of evaluation of 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenance plot on the locality no. 50 – Pelhřimov, Křemešník 

at the age of 36 years.] Zprávy lesnického výzkumu, 55/1: 1-11. 

Plíva K., Žlábek I. 1986. Přírodní lesní oblasti ČSR. [Natural forest regions of ČSR.] Praha, SZN: 

313 p. 

Slavík B. 1990. Fytokartografické syntézy ČSR. 2., p. 23. [Phyto-cartographic synthesis of ČSR.] 

Průhonice, Botanický ústav ČSAV: 1 9 p. 

Úradníček L. 2004. Lesnická dendrologie II. (Angiospermae). [Forest Dendrology II. 

(Angiospermae).] Brno, MZLU: 1 0 p. (scriptum). 

Úradníček L., Maděra P., Kolibáčová S., Koblížek J., Šefl J. 2001. Dřeviny České republiky. 

[Czech Republic tree species.] Písek, Matice lesnická: 333 p. 

Vyhláška MZe ČR č. 139/2004 Sb., kterou se stanoví podrobnosti o přenosu semen a sazenic lesních 

dřevin, o evidenci o původu reprodukčního materiálu a podrobnosti o obnově lesních porostů 

a o zalesňování pozemků prohlášených za pozemky určené k plnění funkcí lesa. [Czech Republic 

Ministry of Agriculture Decree no. 139/2004 Gaz. about forest tree species seed and seedlings 

transfer, about documentation concerning origin of reproductive material and details concerning 

forest stands regeneration and afforestation of areas certified for forest management.] Sbírka 

zákonů Česká republika, 2004, no. 46, p. 1955-1963. 

Zákon č. 149/2003 Sb., o uvádění do oběhu reprodukčního materiálu lesních dřevin lesnicky 

významných druhů a umělých kříženců, určeného k obnově lesa a k zalesňování, a o změně 

některých souvisejících zákonů (zákon o obchodu s reprodukčním materiálem lesních dřevin). 

[Law no. 149/2003 Gaz., concerning rules of marketing with forest tree species reproductive 

material.] Sbírka zákonů Česká republika, 2003, no. 5 , p. 32 9-3294. 

Zákon č. 289/1995 Sb., o lesích a o změně a doplnění některých zákonů (lesní zákon). [Forest Law 

no. 289/1995 Gaz.] In: Zákon o lesích a příslušné vyhlášky. Praktická příručka, 2003, no. 48, 

p. 3-23. 

Zpráva o stavu lesa a lesního hospodářství České republiky v roce 2006. [Report about forest state 

and management of the Czech Republic in 2006.] Praha, MZe ČR 200 . 128 p.

Zpráva o stavu lesa a lesního hospodářství České republiky v roce 2008. [Report about forest state 

and management of the Czech Republic in 2008.] Praha, MZe ČR 2009. 128 p. 

contacts: 

Ing. Petr Novotný, Ph.D., Ing. Josef Frýdl, CSc. 


Strnady 136, 156 04 Praha 5-Zbraslav, Czech Republic 

tel.: +420 25 892 228, +420 25 892 2 1 

e-mail: pnovotny@vulhm.cz, frydl@vulhm.cz 

Reviewed 

8

absTracT 

88 


(Fagus sylvatica L.) IN deNmarK 

JON K. HANSEN 

Forest & Landscape Denmark, Hørsholm Kongevej 11, DK-29 0 Hørsholm 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica), is the most important broadleaved species as regards forest area 

and production. The species today covers 13% (69,000 ha) of the forest area in Denmark and 31% of 

the total area with broadleaved species in Denmark. The species is mainly growing on more fertile 

moraine soils in east Denmark, but is used more frequently in west Denmark as well as on poorer 

sandy soils. The health status of the species has improved since the mid-1990s, when it was poor, 

probably due to drought. The species is mainly naturally regenerated. Provenance experiments have 

revealed only small differences between Danish provenances in growth, but these experiments have 

also revealed that it is possible to improve stem straightness especially using specific provenances 

from Switzerland or Slovakia. However, these provenances are also more prone to late frost in the 

spring due to earlier bud burst than Danish provenances. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), bøg (in Danish), distribution, provenance research 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN deNmarK 

European beech is the most important broadleaved species covering 13% of the total forest area and 

31% of total area with broadleaved species in 2006 (Nord-Larsen et al. 2008). The species is mainly 

distributed to the eastern Isles of Denmark and eastern parts of Jutland characterized by more fertile 

soils such as clayey and sandy moraine in contrast to the western part of Jutland with sandy soils. In 

2006, the percentage of the total forest cover with beech was 8% in Jutland and 24% at the Isles and 

the total area 1,614 ha (Nord-Larsen et al. 2008). 

heaLTh sTaTus 

Defoliation recorded in sample plots from 1988 to 2006 showed a steady decrease in leaf loss after 

a period in the mid-1990s with larger leaf loss possibly associated with drought and large mast years 

(Thomsen et al. 2008). Health status as measured by degree of defoliation is possibly associated with 

precipitation in the growing season as seen in the period 1989 – 2006 (Thomsen et al. 2008).

ForesT maNaGemeNT 

European beech in Denmark is mostly growing in even aged monocultures, perhaps with a few trees 

of ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus). The species is both planted and 

naturally regenerated. Additionally, beech is the constituent part in the understorey of oak forests. The 

management regime might change to natural regeneration in smaller plots combined with mixtures 

with other species to ease natural regeneration (Larsen 2005). Planting of beech is subsidized by the 

state when planted in existing conifer forest and as afforestation. 

In 2005 the harvest of beech was 224, 00 m3 , 60,400 m3 of which were used for logs and veneer and 

the remaining for fire wood (Statistics Denmark 200 ). 

GeNeTIc resources 

Beech in Denmark is largely naturally regenerated. From 2001 – 2006 the average annual seed harvest 

and import of seed was 13.9 tons. The annual seed harvest from approved Danish stands of Danish 

origin was .5 tons and the annual seed harvest from approved Danish stands of any origin 11. tons, 

while the annual import was 2.2 tons (Bastrup-Birk et al. 2008). Danish seed sources should be 

approved (Bekendtgørelse om skovfrø og planter 200 ). The total area with approved seed stands, i. e. 

in the category of selected resources is 485 ha. The country is considered as one seed zone concerning 

beech. 

The Forest and Nature Agency has recently approved a number of beech stands of known local origin 

around the country. These stands will serve as gene conservation stands and restrictions will be made 

concerning planting of beech in surrounding stands (units) (Ditlevsen, pers. comm.). 

Provenance field trials have only shown small differences between Danish provenances as regards 

growth and stem form and actually only statistical certain differences as regards growth. Provenance 

field trials with European provenances have revealed larger differences as regards the percentage 

of trees with straight stems and timing of bud burst (e. g. Hansen et al. 2003). Especially the Swiss 

provenance Sihlwald has shown to be superior as regards stem straightness and two approved Danish 

seed stands are of this origin. The use of this species, however, should be restricted to areas less prone 

to late frost since the buds of this provenance (like Slovak provenances) burst early. 

research ProJecTs 

Research topics focussing on beech are dealing with natural regeneration, nutrient leaching, and 

carbon sequestration in near natural managed forests and with the development of individual tree 

growth models. 

reFereNces 

Bastrup-Birk A., Riis-Nielsen T., Hansen J. K., Rune F. 2008. Biologisk Diversitet. [Biological 

diversity.] In: Nord-Larsen T., Johannsen V. K., Jørgensen B. B., Bastrup-Birk A. (eds.): Skove og 

Plantager 2006. [Forest and Plantation 2006.] Hørsholm, Skov & Landskab: 8 -105. 

89

Bekendtgørelse om skovfrø og – planter 200 [Departmental order no. 1100, 20/09 200 about forest 

seeds and plants]. 

Hansen J. K., Jørgensen B. B., Stoltze P. 2003. Variation of quality and predicted economic returns 

between European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances. Silvae Genetica, 52: 185-19 . 

Larsen J. B. 2005. Naturnær skovdrift. Dansk skovbrugs Tidsskrift, Dansk Skovforening. 401 p. 

Nord-Larsen T., Johannsen V. K., Jørgensen B. B., Bastrup-Birk A. 2008. Skove og Plantager 

2006. [Forest and Plantation 2006.] Hørsholm, Skov & Landskab: 185 p. 

Statistics Denmark 200 . Statistisk årbog 200 . [Statistical Yearbook.] Copenhagen, Danmarks 

Statistisk. 

Thomsen I. M., Jørgensen B. B., Ravn H. P., Hansen K. 2008. Skovsundhed. [Forest health.] In: 

Nord-Larsen T., Johannsen V. K., Jørgensen B. B., Bastrup-Birk A. (eds.): Skove og Plantager 

2006. [Forest and Plantation 2006.] Hørsholm, Skov & Landskab: 55- 2. 

contacts: 

Jon Kehlet Hansen, Ph.D. 

Forest & Landscape Denmark 

Hørsholm Kongevej 11 

DK-29 0 Hørsholm 

tel.: +45 3533 1635 

e-mail: jkh@life.ku.dk 

90 

Reviewed

euroPeaN beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) IN FraNce 

absTracT 

ALEXIS DUCOUSSO 

Genetic team, UMR BIOGECO, INRA 

69 route d’Arcachon, 33612 CESTAS cedex 

European beech is the third most important forest species in France aft er pedunculate oak (Quercus 

robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). It covers an area of 1,392 millions hectares (public forests: 

3,000 ha and private forests: 619,000 ha) which represents 9.3% of the forest cover (IFN 2008). Th e 

public forests represent 26% of the forest area but public ownership amounts to 55% of the beech 

forests. Th e main beech forests are located in the plains of the north-east and in the mountains 

(Vosges, Jura, Alps, Massif Central and Pyrenees) but it has an important position in the plain of the 

north west (Normandy and Picardy) (Fig. 1). It is present in the Mediterranean region at mountainous 

level (Corsica, Luberon, Ventoux, Lure, Verdon, etc.). Marginal populations are found on the plain 

of the south-west (Roquefort, Ciron valley, etc.) and in the Mediterranean region (Cagnes sur Mer, 

Massane, Valbonne, Sainte Baume, etc). Th e beech forests are slowly expending. Th e standing 

volume is 260*10 6 m 3 (11%) and the annual production is 8.4*10 6 m 3 per year (8%). Th e individual 

number is 884*10 6 + 50*10 6 . With such a distribution, beech is subjected to various climatic and soil 

conditions. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), hêtre (in French), genetic resources, research 

Fig. 1: Distribution map of beech in France (IFN 2008) 

91


Beech is found in different types of forests, the most common are beech and oak-beech forests in the 

plains (Carpino betuli-Fagenalia and Quercelia roboris), beech and fir-beech forests in the mountains 

(Fagenalia sylvaticae and Acerion pseudoplatani). 

The main silvicultural management is high forest (65%) followed by high forest with standard (26%) 

and coppice (9%) (Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Silvicultural management for the beech forests in France 

92 

Silviculture Surface % 

High forest 904,800 ha 65 

High forest with standard 361,920 ha 26 

Coppice 125,280 ha 9 

The wood prices (Tab. 2) range from 3 €/m 3 to more than 1 5 €/m 3 therefore quality is a high priority 

but the best qualities (A and B) represent only 16.4% (Tab. 3). Several factors account for this low 

percentage: high forests are too dense, pathological problems, defaults like nodes, etc. 

Tab. 2: Beech wood prices in France in June 2008 (Anonymous 2008) 

Quality Length (m) Diameter (cm) Wood price (€/m3 ) 

A 3 55 and more 175 and more 

B 3 50 and more 35 – 123 

B 2.5 45 and more 72 – 110 

C 3 45 and more 30 – 40 

C 2 35 and more 15 – 25 

C 1.5 35 and more 16 – 20 

D 1.8 30 and more 12 – 17 

D 1.5 30 and more 3 – 7 

Tab. 3: Volume and price of beech wood sold in Lorraine according to quality during the period 1994 – 1996 

(BASTIEN, HEIN, CHAVANE 2005) 

Quality Percentage Price 

A 0.6 323 €/m3 B 15.8 168 €/m3 C 48.1 81 €/m3 D 35.5 38 €/m3 In order to increase the production of wood of good quality, silvicultural norms are evolving. The 

foresters are reducing cycle and density and are trying to promote mixed stand (up to 20%) with 

maple, oak, fir, wild cherry, wild service tree, etc.

GeNeTIc resources maNaGemeNT IN FraNce 

Natural regeneration is of high priority but plantations are still common. The number of 

commercialized beech seedlings produced is decreasing: 1, 4,000 seedlings in 2008, 2,553,000 in 

2005 and 4, 14,000 in 1998. Beech is the most affected species by this phenomenon. It has several 

putative origins: (i) high priority for natural regeneration, (ii) fall of plantation density, (iii) cost of 

beech plantations, (iv) risk with climatic changes and (v) global decrease of artificial regeneration in 

France. 

In France, we have only ‘selected’ seed stands for forest reproductive material. France is divided in 

16 provenance regions and has 169 selected beech seed stands. They cover a surface area of , 16.9 

ha (Tab. 4). 

Tab. 4: Beech provenances regions in France 

Provenance region Selected stands Beech 

Code Name Number Surface area (ha) surface (%) 

FSY 101 Massif Armoricain 4 147.7 8 

FSY 102 Nord 19 2,886.0 10 

FSY 201 Nord-Est 70 3,010.0 19 

FSY 202 Vallée de la Saône 0 0 6 

FSY 301 Charentes 1 6.8 1 

FSY 401 Massif Central nord (low altitude) 11 289.1 11 

FSY 402 Massif Central nord (high altitude) 7 115.1 11 

FSY 403 Massif Central sud 18 341.6 12 

FSY 501 Jura 18 371.0 17 

FSY 502 Préalpes du Nord 2 19.1 17 

FSY 503 Alpes Internes nord 0 0 8 

FSY 601 Pyrénées occidentales 7 160. 5 12 

FSY 602 Pyrénées centrales 10 293.0 45 

FSY 633 Pyrénées orientales 2 77.0 16 

FSY 751 Région méditerranéenne 0 0 7 

FSY 800 Corse 0 0 10 

TOTAL 169 7,716.9 11 

The delineation of the provenance regions (Fig. 2) was carried out according to: 

– Genetic data for the following provenances regions (Comps et al. 198 , Vernier, Teissier du 

Cros 1996, Magri et al. 2006): Nord (FSY102), Nord East (FSY201) and Pyrenees (FSY601, 

FSY602 and FSY603); 

– Soil conditions (Tessier Du Cros, Lepoutre 1983) for Massif Armoricain (FSY101), Charentes 

(FSY301) and North East (FSY201) ; 

– Climatic conditions for Massif Central (FSY401, FSY402 and FSY403); 

– Soil and climatic conditions: Jura (FSY501) and Alps (FSY502 and FSY503). 

93

GeNe coNservaTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN FraNce 

At the end of the 1980s several threats to beech genetic resources were identified: 

– Generalization of exchanges of forest reproductive material and plantation for regeneration 

– Impact of silviculture 

– Several episodes of decay 

– Climatic changes 

Facing these threats, a programme of gene conservation was launched in 1986. This in situ network 

was the first with the fir (Abies alba). It includes 26 genetic conservation units (GCU) (Fig. 3). These 

GCU are representatives of the differences of the main provenances regions and marginal conditions. 

The GCU cover a surface of 4,446. ha (Tab. 5). Six populations are considered as marginal because 

five are in the Mediterranean region and one on extreme condition for altitude and soil. One GCU, 

NF of Verzy, has a peculiar phenotype because the trees are crooked. It is dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica 

var. tortuosa). 

Tab. 5: List of the 29 GCU in France with their location and particularities 

Forest Region Core zone Buffer 

zone 

Remarks 

Aigoual Languedoc-Roussillon 13.8 110 marginal population 

Aubusson Auvergne 10 102 

Baïgorry Aquitaine 7.5 146.4 

Beaulieu Champagne-Ardennes 8.7 112.3 

Boucheville Languedoc-Roussillon 19.9 187.7 

Brotonne Normandy 25.8 140.2 

Châtillon Burgundy 10.4 154.7 

Chizé Poitou-Charentes 12.6 183.9 

Colettes Auvergne 8.7 96.9 

Coscione Corse 40 34 marginal population 

Ecouves Normandy 13.6 143.4 

Filsis Alsace 10 230.5 

Fougères Brittany 10.3 151.5 

Gar Cagire Midi-Pyrénées 10 151.5 

Gérardmer Lorraine 15.2 82.7 marginal population 

Haye Lorraine 16.2 218.7 

Issaux Aquitaine 11.6 95.0 

Léoncel Rhône-Alpes 10.1 118 

Luchon Midi-Pyrénées 4 48.6 

Lure Provences-Alpes-Côte d‘Azur 5 255.4 marginal population 

Luxueil Franche Conté 8.1 226.9 

Montagne Noire Midi-Pyrénées 8.5 169.7 

Moussaou Midi-Pyrénées 34.2 181.1 

Retz Picardy 7 180.5 

Sainte Baume Provences-Alpes-Côte d‘Azur 14.1 124.2 marginal population 

Valbonne Languedoc-Roussillon 23.3 118.9 marginal population 

Verrières du Grosbois Franche-Comté 5 175 

Verzy Champagne-Ardennes 33.3 0 dwarf beech 

Wingen Alsace 11.5 92.6 

408.4 4,032.3 

94

Fig. 2: Beech provenance region limits in France (white zones: no seed harvesting; dashed zone: 

provenance region without registered stands; dotted blue: two provenances regions according to 

altitude) 

Fig. 3: Location of the beech gene conservation unit (blue dot: regular population; red dot: marginal 

populations; orange dot: dwarf beech population) 

95


The beech research programme started during the 19 0s. This programme has different aims: 

ecology, ecophysiology, pathology and genetic diversity organization. The genetic programme 

focuses on three objectives: adaptation to climate changes, management and conservation of genetic 

resources. The first provenance test was established in 19 9 and the last one in 1994 (Tab. 6). Among 

the 12 provenance tests only three of them are international that means sister plantations exist in 

different European countries and tested populations covered a large part of the natural range. All 

these international tests are located in the National Forest of Lyons (West France), the younger one 

is included in the COST Action E52. One progeny test was planted in 1999 in the National Forest of 

Hayes (North East France). 

Tab. 6: List of the provenance and progeny tests, location, tested material and individual number 

(*: IUFRO test; +: test included in the COST Action E52) 

Forest name Region 

96 

Plantation 

Provenance number (countries) 

years 

Provenances tests 

Surface 

(ha) 

Individuals 

Ecouves Normandy 1979 16 (16 F) 0,50 1,540 

Sommedieue Lorraine 1979 14 (13 F + 1 RO) 0,46 1,100 

Arfons Midi Pyrénées 1979 15 (14 F + 1 B) 0,32 1,400 

Ligny en Barrois Lorraine 1983 32 (29 F + 1 B + 2 NL) 0,19 1,345 

Plachet 

Champagne- 

Ardennes 

1982 30 (27 F + 1 B + 2 NL) 0,33 1,345 

Ormancey 

Champagne- 

Ardennes 

1982 22 (20 F + 1 B + 1 NL) 0,16 689 

Guimont Limousin 1981 34 F 0,50 2,520 

Retz Picardy 1982 30 (24 F + 3 NL+ 3 RO) 0,27 1,356 

Lyons Normandy 1982 

49 (39 F + 4 B + 3 NL + 1 CH + 

4 RO) 

0,34 2,200 

Lyons* Normandy 1986 

24 (6 F + 2 NL + 1 DK + 14 D + 

1 TU) 

61 (3 F + 2 E + 18 D + 1 NL + 

0,67 6,700 

Lyons* Normandy 1987 15 CZ + 2 HU + 8 RO + 1 B + 4 H + 

3 GB + 3 PL + 1 YU) 

1,44 14,400 

Lyons*+ Normandy 1994 

49 (1 E + 4 F + 34 D + 1 I + 2 CZ + 

1 PL + 5 SK + 1 RO) 

Progenies tests 

1,50 7,500 

Haye * Lorraine 1999 77 progenies from NF Hayes 1,61 4,285

eFereNces 

Anonymous 2008. Cours des bois sur pieds. Forêt de France, 519: 8. 

Bastien Y., Hein S., Chavane A. 2005. Sylviculture du Hêtre: contraintes, enjeux, orientations de 

gestion. Rev. For. Fr., 62/2: 111-122. 

Comps B., Barrier, G., Merzeau D., Letouzet J. 198 . La variabilité allozymatique des hêtraies 

dans le sous domaine médio et euatlantique d’Europe. J. Can. For. Res., 1 /9: 1043-1049. 

IFN: 2008. The French Forest Figures and Maps. 26 p. (http://www.ifn.fr/spip/IMG/pdf/Memento_ 

IFN_EN.pdf) 

Magri D., Vendramin G. G., Comps B., Dupanloup I., Geburek T., Gömöry D., Latalowa M., 

Litt T., Paule L., Roure J. M., Tantau I., Van Der Knaap W. O., Petit R. J., De Beaulieu J. L. 

2006. A new scenario for the Quaternary history of European beech populations: palaeobotanical 

evidence and genetic consequences. New Phytologist, 1 1/1: 199-221. 

Tessier du Cros E., Lepoutre B. 1983. Soil X provenance interaction in beech (Fagus sylvatica). 

Forest Sciences, 29/2: 403-411. 

Vernier M., Teissier du Cros E. 1996. Variabilité génétique du hêtre. Importance pour le 

reboisement en Picardie et en Normandie. Revue Forestière Française, 48/1: -20. 

contacts: 

Dr. Alexis Ducousso 

Genetic team, UMR BIOGECO, INRA 

69 route d’Arcachon, 33612 CESTAS cedex, France 

e-mail: alexis.ducousso@pierroton.inra.fr 

Reviewed 

9

98 

orIeNTaL beech IN GeorGIa – PreseNT sTaTe aNd 

coNservaTIoN PrIorITIes 

TENGIZ URUSHADZE 1 – ZURAB MANVELIDZE 2 – LASHA DOLIDZE 1 – 

IRINA TVAURI 1 

1 Vasil Gulisashvili Forest Institute, 0186, Mindeli str. , Tbilisi, Georgia 

2 Shota Rustaveli State University, Institute of Biodiversity, 6010, Ninoshvili str. 35, 

Batumi, Georgia 

absTracT 

This article discusses the current state of oriental beech forests (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) in Georgia, 

based on data from the last (2000) inventory of the state forests. It describes the distribution of forests 

according to altitude and steepness of slopes, as well as according to main functional divisions. The 

main characteristics of biodiversity of beech forests at the ecosystem level as well as the main wood 

species are considered together with the quantification of the supply of timber. Spatial and age structure 

of stands of virgin forests are presented according to height and diameter and other peculiarities of 

the main biological stages of formation and development of these natural characteristics. The main 

principles of forestry management and conservation priorities according to different categories of 

forests are also considered. 

Key words: Georgia Republic, beech, aRmosavleTis wifeli (in Georgian), biodiversity, forest 

management 

orIeNTaL beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN The rePubLIc oF GeorGIa 

Based on its forests, Georgia is the richest country in the entire ecoregion of the Caucasus, included 

in the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) list of 200 ecoregions, which are distinguished by richness of 

species, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness and characteristics of peculiarities of origination and rarity 

of habitats (WWF & IUCN 1994, Williams et al. 2006, WWF Global 200 Ecoregions). The Caucasus 

is also one of 34 “hot-spots” of biodiversity, identified on the world globe, which are characterized by 

greatest biological diversity and richness of endangered land ecosystems (WWF 1998). 

The total area of Georgia is 6.95 million ha and of this, the total area of forests is 2,988,000 ha while 

the territory covered with high forest is 2, 6 ,300 ha. The high percentage of forests at 39.1% is 

heighlighted in comparision with other countries in the Caucasus at 2 %. The total supply of wood 

amounts to 453 million m3 , with an annual national increment of 4.6 – 4.8 million m3 . Average wood 

supply from one hectare is 15 .8 m3 and annual additional supply of the wood on one hectare forms 

1.8 m3 (Materials of the forests arrangement of the Republic of Georgia 1990 – 1995, Gigauri 1980). 

According to Gigauri (2000) the forests of Georgia are divided into mountain and lowland forests 

according to geographic conditions. Mountain forests occupy 98% of the area while only 2% is 

occupied by lowland forests. Forests are located on steep and gentle slopes. Forests area is decreasing 

along the lower part of mountain slopes and in the west of Georgia up to 500 – 600 m a.s.l., in the east

of Georgia up to 00 – 800 m a.s.l. and also in the sub Alpine region up to 1,800 – 2,500 m a.s.l. At 

heigh mountain levels and on steep slopes there are areas still covered with high forests in a natural 

state and not damaged by farming activity. .3% of the forests are situated at 500 m a.s.l. while 19.5% 

are at 501 – 1,000 m a.s.l. A further 35.5% are between 1,001 – 1,500 m a.s.l. while 3 . % are over 

1,501 m a.s.l. Thus almost ¾ ( 3.2%) of forests are located at 1,001 m a.s.l. and higher. 

The greatest part of the forests ( 8.0%) are located on steep slopes from 21° to 35° and steeper, while 

(36° and more) are slopes in mountains. Such an unequal distribution of forests according to vertical 

zonation and steepness of slope defines the wide spectre of their biodiversity (Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Distribution of areas covered with forest according to elevation (m a.s.l.) and slope inclination (°) 

Elevation Slope 

(m a.s.l.) % (°) % 

0 – 250 3.9 0 – 10 5.5 

251 – 500 3.4 11 – 15 6.8 

501 – 1,000 19.5 16 – 20 9.7 

1,001 – 1,250 16.8 21 – 25 16.6 

1,251 – 1,500 18.7 26 – 30 18.2 

1,501 – 1,750 17.8 31 – 35 19.6 

1,751 – 2,000 12.9 36 – 40 15.2 

>2,001 7.0 41 and above 8.4 

According to the main functional aims the forest of Georgia can be divided in the following way: 

Reserve forest (protected territories): 495,900 ha (16.6%) 

State farming forest fund: 2,492,100 ha (83.6%) 

Among them: 

– forests of green zone – 265, 00 ha; 

– forests of resort zone – 890,600 ha; 

– soil-protective water regulation forests – 1,335,800 ha; 

– total: 2,988,000 ha (100%) 

The species composition of Georgian forests is very diverse. About 400 species of trees and bushes 

grow naturally in these forests. Each one is an inseparable part of the ecosystem as a whole and 

encompasses its own microcenosis, which are linked in 123 botanical genera and 56 families. 

Included in their number are 153 species of trees, 202 species of bush, 29 species of sub-shrubs, and 

11 species of liana. 

Richness of endemic woody plants is a characteristic of the diversity of the dendroflora, including 61 

endemic species of Georgia and 43 of the Caucasus. The occurrence of pure and mixed stands points 

to the biological diversity of these forests, diversity of forest ecosystems and the complex structure. 

The Georgian forests are very diverse from the point of view of biological, genetical and economical 

importance and are presented as stands of valuable woody species. Based on the data of Gigauri 

(2000), the broadleaved forests in Georgia occupy 83.6% of all forests and their supply of wood 

accounts for 251.3 million m3 . The stands of hardwood species occupy 0.5% of broadleaved forests 

and their supply of wood accounts for 290.3 million m3 . This includes the following: 

The largest territories of Georgia’s forests are occupied by oriental beech at 42.5% and with a volume 

of wood of 224. mil. m3 (see map). 

99

– Oak (Quercus iberica Stev, Q. macranthera F. et M., Q. imeretina Stev, Q. longipes Stev and etc.) 

at 10.5%, and with a volume of wood of 23.6 mil. m 3 ; 

– Hornbeam (Carpinus caucasica Grossh) stands at 9.9% with a volume of wood of 24. mil. m 3 ; 

– Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) stands at 3.8% and with a volume of wood of 12. mil. m 3 . 

The softwood species group form 10.8% and the total volume of wood at 20 million m 3 and include: 

Alnus barbata C.A.M., A. incana (L.) Moench at .2% with a volume of wood of 13.8 mil. m 3 ; 

Betula verrucosa, B. litwinowi A. Doluch at 2. %, with a volume of wood which is 3.5 mil. m 3 ; 

Populus alba L., P. tremula L., P. nigra L. at 0.6%, with a volume of wood 1.4 mil. m 3 . 

Coniferous forests occupy 16.4% of all forests and the volume of wood of this forest category is 

121.9 mil. m3 and include: 

– Pine (Pinus Sosnowskyi Nakai) group at 4.4% of the area covered with forests and providing 

a volume of wood of 14.6 mil. m3 ; 

– spruce (Picea orientalis Link) group at 5.0% and providing a volume of wood of 32.4 mil. m3 ; 

– Abies nordmanniana (Stev) Spach group at 6.9% and providing a volume of wood of 4. mil. m3 (Fig. 1). 

Georgia’s forests contain an increasing wood resource in such valuable species as: 

yew (Taxus baccata), oak (Quercus macranthera, Quercus imeretina), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), zelkova 

(Zelkowa carpinofolia), box (Buxus colchica), linden (Tilia caucasica), maples (Acer campestre, 

A. Trautvetteri and other), pear (Pyrus caucasica) and many more. 

100

5,0% 5,0% 

6,9% 

6,9% 

0,6% 0 

0,6% 4,7% 

2,7% 

2,7% 

4,7% 

3,8% 3,8% 

4,4% 4,4% 

7,2% 

7,2% 

11,7% 

11,7% 

10,5% 

10,5% 

42,5% 42,5% 

Fagus 

Quercus 

Carpinus 

Alnus 

Abies 

Picea 

Pinus 

Castanea 

Betula 

Populus 

Other wooden spesies 

Fig. 1: Distribution of areas covered with forest according to main wood species (%) 

Georgia has an abundantly large area of forests which provide a substantial supply of wood of species 

including: birch (Betula medwedewii), oak (Quercus pontica), buckthorn (Rhamnus imeretina), wing 

nut (Pterocarya ptherocarpa), blueberry (Vaccinium arctostaphylos), laurel (Laurus nobilis), azalea 

(Rhododendron ungerni, R. ponticum), epigaea gaultherioides, osmanthus decorus, tree strawberry 

(Arbutus andrachne), persimmon (Diospyros lotus), bladder nut (Staphylea pinnata), S. colchica, 

juniper (Juniperus foetidissima), apricot (Prunus laurocerasus) and others. 

Oriental beech in Georgia is characterized by a distinct zonal distribution, while solitary old age (300 

– 400 years) specimen trees (Photo 1, 2) are located directly on the shore of the Black Sea, and are 

found up to an upper boundary of the subalpine belt at an altitude of 2,200 m and over. The forest 

belt is formed from 800(1,000) m to 1,500(1,600) m (Gulisashvili 19 4). 

The virgin beech forests of indigenous origin are found mainly on slopes with large inclines and in 

inaccessible mountain ravines and on slopes managed as protected areas. Because the main beech 

forests are located mainly on hillside slopes, near populated areas and close to the Black sea, natural 

forest ecosystems are frequently replaced with anthropogenic formations – agro-ecosystems. 

Over long periods, the beech forests in Georgia have undergone the anthropogenic stress due to 

high demand for valuable timber (mainly parquet assortment) and fuel wood. As a result conditions 

of stability of species’ diversity and main forest-taxation characteristics of virgin beech forests 

remained in a fragmented form and retained importance from the point of view of implementation 

of sustainable forestry policy. Particularly, in fulfillment of protective-ecological functions (soilprotection, 

water-protection, water regulation), as well as supply of the population with wood raw 

material and fuel wood as well as other non-timber forest resources. 

101


The principles of protection, sustainable development and management of the forests of Georgia are 

based on the Constitution of Georgia (web-site: www.parlamet.ge), the Declaration “On Principles 

of Sustainable Development of Forests” of the UN International Conference on Environment and 

Development in Rio de Janeiro, 1992 and on the principles, established by Article 5 of the law of 

Georgia (web-site: http://aarhus.ge/uploaded files/ ee5a802ed 8f 21815 f48f182 cce5 edfe. pdf) “On 

Protection of Environment”; the principle of preservation of biological diversity is one of the most 

important of these. 

Photo 1, 2: Fagus orientalis LIPSKY (Z. Manvelidze) 

In Georgia, typological analysis of forest flora has special significance for sustainable management 

of forestry from the point of view of observance of principles of sustainable forest management and 

preservation of sustainability of separate parameters of biological diversity (Makhatadze 1962, 

Japaridze 2003). 

According to typological point of view Fagetum of Georgia can be said to be studied widely. Studies 

have been undertaken by the following: Gulisashvili (1964), Dolukhanov (1968), Tumajanov 

(1938), Makhatadze (1965), Svanidze, Abuladze, Parjanadze (19 8), Svanidze (2001), 

Kvachakidze (1992, 2001), Bakhsoliani (2002), Manvelidze, Memiadze, Gorgiladze (2004), 

Dolidze (2006) and others. 

The phytocenological spectrum of Georgian beech forests over time has been significantly determined 

by orographic, climatic, soil and anthropogenic factors (Kvachakidze 2001). In the beech forests of 

102

Georgia 52 associations (forest types) are recognised while in the beech forests of the state forest 

fund, regulation on felling must be justified from the forestry and environmental points of view and 

is mainly based on characteristics of the specific types of beech forests (Gulisashvili 1964): 

Beech forests with rhododendron sub-forest (Fagetum rhododendrosum): Beech forests of this type 

are found in Western Georgia in shady damp parts of the mountains as well as in Eastern Georgia. 

These stands are highly productive. 

Beech forests with cherry laurel sub-forest (Fagetum laurocerasosum): They are spread in damp valleys 

of Western Georgia on steep slopes of all exposures. Vegetation includes azalea, ilex, Caucasian 

bilberry etc., which are mixed together with cherry laurel in the subforest. 

Beech forest with dead surface (Fagetum nudum): This is sufficiently wide type of forest, and is found 

mainly in the form of high-density stands. Beech forests of this type are presented in the lower and 

upper belts of the distribution of beech forests: 

Beech forests with dead surface in the lower belt are spread on the northern mountain slopes of mean 

inclination at the altitudes 600 – 800 m. In this type of beech forest due to the high density of canopy, 

natural regeneration is very limited. 

Beech forests with dead surface in the middle belt are spread within the altitudes at 1,000 – 1,200 m, 

mainly on slopes of north-eastern exposures. The natural regeneration of beech by seed in these 

stands of high density is unsatisfactory. 

Beech forests with star grass cover (Fagetum asperulosum): They are found mainly within the altitudes 

800 – 1,500 – 1, 00 m. This is very wide spread type of forest and may be of two sub-types. 

Beech forests with star grass cover at the middle belt are found within the altitudes 1,000 – 1,400 m. 

Natural regeneration (by seeds) is satisfactory. Productivity of stands is high (growth class I-II). Here 

grass cover is relatively sparse. 

Beech forests with star grass cover of the upper belt are found at altitudes 1,500 – 1,800 m, mainly 

on the northern exposures of mean (15 – 20°) inclination. Hornbeam and lime are mixed with beech 

and here a sub-forest is seldom found. Grass cover is weakly developed. 

Beech forests with fescue grass cover (Fagetum festucosum): Vertical distribution of this type of beech 

forest according to height may be divided into three belts, in particular: 

Beech forests with fescue grass cover of the lower belt. This type is found at the altitudes 1,000 – 

1,300 m, on steep southern mountain slopes. Associated species are hornbeam, common maple, lime 

etc. which are mixed with beech in these stands. Here the sub-forest is less developed. These stands 

are of high productivity (growth class I-II). 

Beech forests with fescue grass cover of the middle belt are found at altitudes of 1,300 – 1,500 m, on 

the slopes of southern and northern (less) exposed sites. The different ages of the stands determine 

their biodiversity. 

Beech forests with fescue grass cover of the upper belt are found at 1,600 – 1,800 m, on the steep 

slopes (inclination 21 – 35°). These stands are mainly of beech with Nordmann fir and eastern spruce 

and are mixed with it in Western Georgia. Natural regeneration in medium density beech forests of 

this type is satisfactory. 

One of the main determining features of biological diversity of Georgian beech forests is their 

distribution according to the density of stands. 

Stands of medium density (0.5 – 0. ) mainly dominate in Georgian beech forests. It is noteworthy 

that low-density stands occupy sufficiently large areas and the area of high-density stands have 

103

significantly decreased. This is caused mainly by economic interference by man in the natural 

processes. Incorrect use of exploitation regulations of beech forests in separate regions has resulted 

in felling of high-density productive stands, or have resulted in significant decrease of density of 

these stands. As a result, these stands have suffered significant reduction of productivity and indices 

of marketable value of the stands (Fig. 2). 

In Georgia all age group of beech forests are represented (Gigauri 2004) (Fig. 3) 

– Young groups occupy 6.3% of all forests area and the wood supply represents 1.5% 

– Middle aged groups occupy 32.9% of forest areas and the supply of the wood represents 21.8% 

– Matured groups occupy 1 .9% of forest area and the supply of wood represents 1 .1%; 

Fig. 2. Distribution of areas covered with beeches according to frequency 

104 

43% 

43% 

6% 

18% 

6% 

18% 

33% 

33% 

0.3-0.4 density 

0.5 density 

0.6 density 

0.7density 

0.8 and more 

density 

young 

young 

middle age 

middle age 

mature 

mature 

over 

over 

mature 

mature 

Fig. 3. Distribution of areas of beech forest according to groups of different ages

– Matured and over-aged groups account for 42.9% of the forest area and the supply of wood is 

59.6%. 

Beech forests of Georgia are characterized by high indicator levels of productivity (Fig. 4) 

particularly: 

– High productivity (I-II class quality) groups occupy 21% of all forests; 

– Average productivity groups (III class quality) – 44.9% of forests; 

– Low productivity groups (IV class quality) – 24.9% of forests; 

– Very low (V-Va class quality) productivity groups – 9.2% of forests. 

25% 

9% 

45% 

21% 

I-II growth class 

III growth class 

IV growth class 

V growth class 

Fig. 4: Distribution of areas covered with beech forest according to quality classes 

One important determinant of biological diversity of forests in Georgia, like other countries, is the 

dynamics of accumulation of biomass over a period of time. An individual beech tree or an entire 

stand accumulates a certain amount of biomass at various stages of growth and development under 

the influences of external factors (soil, climate, relief etc.) and due to their biological characteristics. 

Based on data by Gigauri, Dzebisashvili (1990), of the main species forming the forests of Georgia, 

oriental beech occupies one of the leading places after eastern spruce and fir, according to the index 

of accumulation of biomass by a tree of one and the same diameter, and at 100 cm diameter, its total 

volume on average contributes 16. 1 m3 (Tab. 2). 

Tab. 2: Dynamics of accumulation of biological mass of beech according to thickness stages 

Thickness 

stage (cm) 

20 

60 

100 

140 

160 

Average 

height (m) 

24.0 

37.5 

42.0 

44.0 

45.5 

Volume of wood biomass (m3 ) among them 

Stem Crown wood 

Green mass 

of crown 

Total 

0.34 

0.08 

0.03 

0.45 

4.52 

0.97 

0.31 

5.80 

13.80 

2.44 

0.47 

16.71 

27.79 

3.81 

0.53 

32.13 

37.33 

4.67 

0.71 

42.71 

105

In separate regions of Georgia virgin forest stands still remain with an area of approximately 

566,000 ha, of which 396,300 ha are of virgin beech forests. 

These beech forests are similar to the virgin forests of fir and spruce, are characterized by different 

age structures and are distinguished by a high variability of age. Trees of almost all age groups, from 

seedlings to large-sized trees that are at maturity are present in the same stand. This high variability 

of age is also present within each grade of diameter and the difference between ages sometimes vary 

over several hundreds years. 

In Georgia the virgin forests with beech are found as stands of composite structure, mainly vertically 

distributed, multilayered and with different levels of height and diameter. 

In such stands, the distribution of trees in different levels of height and diameter is non uniform and 

is characterized by several maximums (“peaks”) and the series of distribution in the entire stand is 

asymmetrical. For example, in the virgin fir and beech forests the distribution of numbers of trees on 

aggregative grades of diameter is as follows: 

43.5% of the number of trees in grade category of diameter up to 20 cm. 

30.2% of the number of trees in grade category of diameter range 24 – 40 cm. 








00. % of the number of trees in grade category of diameter range 184 – 200 cm. 

Furthermore, in natural stands can be found many virgin forests with beech, where trees of 

phenomenal diameter (2.0 – 2.5 m) and height (50 – 60 – 65 m) are not unusual. 

Thanks to the environmental conditions (soil, climate) which are optimal for growth and development 

of forests, the virgin forests of Georgia, especially in the western part, are represented mainly by high 

productivity stands. In this connection the pure and mixed beech stands of Abkhazeti and Zemo 

Svaneti are especially distinguished where supply of wood per ha is frequently 1,000 – 1,200 m3 , and 

in separate virgin forest areas can reach 1,600 – 1,800 m3 with annual increment of 20 – 25 m3 . These 

forests are indeed monuments of nature not made by hands. The virgin fir and beech forests are 

unmatched by productivity index in the other countries of Europe and possibly Asia. 

In stands formed of beech and, according to the peculiarities of vertical distribution of trees in space 

these may be categorised in four layers, while in pure beech forests – three layers (Fig. 5). 

The stands of virgin beech forests of Georgia – pure and mixed, of different ages, with different 

diameter structure – are recognized as classical examples of a high index of biological diversity. 

In stands of composite structure on the same slope, as well as in adjoining area, the whole spectrum 

of biodiversity, the whole natural patchwork is presented – the system of stand roots, grass canopy 

and biological stages within one cycle of development of the stand. 

106

Fig. 5. Scheme of structure at height of beech group (according to GIGAURI 1980) 

During the life of one generation (500 – 600 years) beech forest will pass the main biological stages 

of development: 

1. Teenage stage (age 40 – 60); 

2. Development stage of young forest (age 41 – 100); 

3. Development stage of the middle and matured parts of the group (101 – 160); 

4. Maturity stage of the group (age from 161 to 240 – 250). Trees reach large size; 

5. Stage when trees of the upper part of the canopy get old and when they begin to die gradually (age 

from 250 to 350 – 360); 

6. Primary stage of dying of the earlier generation or natural maturity of the forest (from 360 to 500 

– 600 – 800). 

The main principles of forest management in various categories of forests in Georgia are: 

In protection forests, national parks and on protected areas of various categories the regime of 

forestry is determined by preservation, protection and improvement of the entire complex of natural 

conditions (today 14 state reserves, 8 national parks, 12 game reserves, 14 natural monuments and 2 

protected landscape function in Georgia) (web-site: http://dpa.gov.ge/). 

In green zone forests, the forestry management aims at the formation of valuable forest stands 

– healthy, high productive and of aesthetical valuable that will promote improvement of sanitary 

hygienic conditions of the urban-industrial environment and secure the remainder of the population 

and adequately protect their health status. 

In the forests of such importance, the main regulations of forestry are determined by improvement 

of sanitary, hygienic and aesthetical conditions of the forests. 

In the mountain forests the protection of soil and water through regulation are important functions 

and here the purpose of forestry is the conservation and strengthening of soil protection, water 

preservation and other water control functions. Here, the main function is to avoid erosion and 

protect the permanent health status of rivers and streams. Besides protective and other functions 

but due to their high productivity, these forests also have a function of timber production. These 

protective and exploitation functions of the forests supplement each other. However, forest 

exploitation requirements are always subordinate to the protective functions of forests (Cutting Rules 

in Georgian Forests, 2000). 

10

The main requirement of beech forestry in Georgia is that stands always are characterized by different 

age structures and contain a variable range of diameter that together with other factors provide 

various assortment of timber. 

easTerN beech GeNe PooL PreservaTIoN aNd coNservaTIoN 

IN The rePubLIc oF GeorGIa 

As already mentioned, the age structure of virgin beech forests in Georgia is sufficiently differentiated 

and as such are characterized by different ages. In their overall numbers young and middle age stands 

occupy almost 40% of the total forests. 

In the virgin stands at the same location, as well as in adjoining territory, the whole spectrum of 

biodiversity is presented by an entire natural patchwork. In particular, the system of below ground 

area – the roots of a stand, the grass canopy, other biological stages of development in time of a stand 

but within the life of one generation: young growth (shoot), the under canopy area, stands composed 

of average age variables, m a t u r i n g s t a n d , m a t u r e s t a n d , o l d s t a n d s a n d s t a n d s 

remaining standing to over maturity and finally dying and dead trees. Each of these in this very 

intricate natural system, occupies its own ecological niche; they influence each other and exist in 

a close mutual dependence that establishes reliable prospects from the point of view of preservation 

and conservation of the gene pool of oriental beech. 

For the protection and conservation of beech forests and subject to economic activity, it should be 

noted, that in Georgia selection of ecologically justified and acceptable regulations combined with 

methods of wood harvesting and correct determination of annual quantities of forest products, are 

and will continue to be the central issue of science and practice. 

Based on long-term scientific research and practical experience, in the mountain forests of Georgia 

these rules and methods of determination of wood harvest and annual cut of forest products have 

been in use for a long time, and contribute to the conservation and strengthening of the socialenvironmental 

functions (soil protective, water regulation, climate regulation etc.). 

Based on this, wood harvesting and timber utilization are required to satisfy the following 

requirements: 

1. Preservation and widening of biological sustainability and diversity of forest ecosystems; 

2. Firm observance of all requirements of permanent or constant utilization of timber, growing and 

formation of purposeful high productive forests; 

3. On mountain slopes – preservation and strengthening of soil and water protective role and other 

associated social and environmental functions; 

4. Avoidance of occurrence and development of erosion and generally other adverse natural 

phenomena; 

5. Improvement of appropriate environmental conditions for natural regeneration of tree species, 

valuable from the biological, forestry, economical or other point of view, and of their biological 

communities; 

6. Increase of productivity and quality indices of forests with timely use of trees assigned for felling 

and their utilization before deterioration of the wood technical properties. 

Thus, in the forests of Georgia use of timber, in the first place, is the process of preservation and 

protection of the biological-ecological-natural properties of the forest, and not for forestry-industrial 

purposes. 

108

curreNT GeNeTIc coNservaTIoN acTIvITIes iN situ 

aNd EX situ 

A genetic resources inventory of several species in Georgian broadleaves forest was carried out 

based on the international (IPGRI) project “Plant Genetic Resources Development programme for 

South-East Europe - Preservation of Broadleaved Forests Genetic Resources”. Sample plots areas 

were established and after their detailed description was recorded plus stands and plus trees were 

registered. The location and detailed taxation-forestry characterization of the plus trees was also 

identified and described. 

Each tree was numbered and characterized. 

During the 2004-2005 reporting period 13 forest units and 23 forest unit subdivision of genetic 

reserves were registered, and 40 temporary sample plots have been established. 21 plus trees were 

described and information obtained and entered into the data base in Mtskheta, Akhmeta, Tianeti, 

Dmanisii, Kaspi, Dusheti, Telavi, Kvareli and Tetriwkaro regions. 

The priority of protection and conservation of the gene pool of the Georgian forest ecosystems 

especially in beech forests, which occupy almost half of the territory of the countries forests is 

determined by its connection with the commitments of Georgia to the international convention 

“on biological diversity” (The Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, web-site: http://www. 

cbd.int) and the government priorities, determined by the strategy and action plan of Georgia on 

biodiversity (web-site: http://www.nacres.org/pdf/bsap_ge.pdf; Resolution of Government Georgia 

#2 , 2005.19.02. (web-site: http://www.garemo. itdc.ge/ storage/ assets/ bsapge.pdf). 

In situ conservation of species and their habitats firstly requires firm observance of the principles of 

sustainable nature management, in particular, the harmonization of environmental, economical and 

social factors. 

Based on the above principles, endemic, relic and rare plant species of local flora, and groups of 

living organisms, formed by their prevalence, distinguished by structural, functional, geographical, 

environmental and other characteristic features, which in nature are presented by ecosystems of high 

conservation values, groups of phytocenoses and the main and secondary types (associations) of 

phytocenoses, are subject to conservation of ecosystem and species diversity in the first place. 

The success of measures for in situ conservation of species and ecosystem diversity demands 

protection of ecosystems of high conservation value through effective management. 

In this connection and taking into account the unique biological diversity and tourist recreation 

resources of Georgia, territorial protection of nature and development of tourism related to it must 

be considered as one of the highest priorities. Successful implementation of this activity requires 

regulation of the process of spatial arrangement (development of infrastructure, taking into account 

cultural heritage and requirements of environment protection), as well formation of modern effective 

protected areas. 

In the scope of the 2005 – 2010 program on ex-situ conservation of habitats and species established 

by the strategy and action plan of biodiversity of Georgia (web-site: http://www.nacres.org/pdf/bsap_ 

ge.pdf; Rezolution of Georgia government #2 , 2005.19.02. web-site: http://www.garemo. itdc.ge/ 

storage /assets/ bsapge.pdf certain results are achieved from the point of view of identification and 

determination of the ways of conservation of important places of biodiversity outside the protected 

areas. In particular, under the financial and methodological support of the biodiversity conservation 

foundation the research fulfilled in 2009 within the project, have identified “wildlife monuments”, 

109

(“Launching the Conservation of Georgia’s Natural Monuments”) (http://www.nacres.org.), in which 

the objects of high conservation value in the ecosystems of beech forests are included. 

The first logical step for resolution of the problem of the ex-situ conservation of species diversity is 

a formation of a living collection and seed banks in botanical gardens, protected areas and in the 

areas attached to education or scientific research centers. 


Currently the Vasil Gulisashvili Forest Institute performs the administration of the project 

“Afforestation and optimization of harvested Beech stands in Adjara for supporting sustainable 

development” The project goal is to study the existing situation of the ecosystems in the beech forest 

areas of the Adjara region affected by felling activities; study the influence of these ecosystems on 

the protective ecological functions and devise science-based measures for the recovery of the forest 

ecosystems. 

In order to address the problems of sustainable management of forest resources in accordance with 

the strategy and action plan of Georgia on biodiversity (web-site: http://www.nacres.org/pdf/bsap_ 

ge.pdf), the following strategic principles must be taken into account: 

• The ecosystems of virgin forests are substantial and important for the preservation of the general 

functional state of the forests; 

• Sustainable utilization and management of forest ecosystems must make possible the preservation 

of their main environmental processes, biological diversity, fertility and renewable capacity; 

• Complete inventory of forest resources is essential for sustainable management of forest 

resources; 

• Sustainable utilization and management of Georgian forests must contribute in the preservation 

of local and global ecosystems; 

• The conditions are to be considered, which damage or cause deterioration to the general functional 

state of Georgian forests; 

• The fundamental environmental functions of Georgian mountain forests must be considered; 

• Considerable part of Georgian mountain forests are to be preserved in a more or less virgin state 

and respectively they are to be considered as the resources of international importance; 

• It should be taken into account that sustainable utilization and preservation of forest resources 

and their flora and fauna may be provided by coordination of the national policy and international 

efforts. 

The above requirements are the main purpose and tasks for development of forestry based on the 

principles of sustainable development and are as follows: 

• Elaborating, implementation and analysis of demonstration projects for estimation of new and 

traditional forms of management of forest resources; 

• Providing of moratorium on timber logging in old forest stands and forests of high conservation 

value and implementation of priority principles for the protection of stands of such type of 

forests; 

• Use of methods of planning of land utilization and zoning in management of these forest 

resources; 

110

• Elaborating and implementation of programs of restoration and reforestation of forest lands 

acceptable from the environmental and social points of view, in order to increase forested areas 

and restore forest types, which were significantly degraded or totally destroyed; 

• Forest plantations are not to be created at the expense of natural forests or other natural 

ecosystems; 

• The areas and forest types are to be established, where the forest of natural origin disappeared 

and where restoration and reconstruction of forest stands is necessary; development of optimal 

technical and economical assessment of methods of restoration and reconstruction of forest 

stands. 

reFereNces 

Agency of protected areas of Georgia. [ssip daculi teritoriebis saagento.] web-site: http:// 

dpa.gov.ge/. 

Bakhsoliani T. 2002. saqarTvelos wiflnarebi. [Georgian Beeches.] Tbilisi: 280 p. 

Biodiversity Conservation and Research (NACRES) (web-site: http://www.nacres.org) 

Biodiversity strategy and action plan of Georgia. 2005. web-site: http://www.nacres.org/pdf/bsap_ 

ge.pdf 

Dolidze L. 2006. aRmosavleT saqarTvelos wiflnarebis tyis ekosistemebis optimizaciisa 

da stabilurobis mecnieruli safuZvlebi, specialoba 06.03.03, “tyeTmcodneoba da 

metyeveoba” [Scientific Principles of Optimization and Stability of Beech Forest Ecosystem of 

East Georgia, Specialization 06.03.03, “Forest science and Forestry”] Thesis Work. 

Dolukhanov A. T. 1968. Темнохвойные леса Грузии, Тбилиси. [Darkbranches Possessing Forests 

of Georgia.] Tbilisi. 

Gigauri G. 1980. saqarTvelos tyeebSi meurneobis gaZRolis safuZvlebi. [Principles of 

Conducting Farming in Georgian Forests.] Tbilisi: 2 8 p. 

Gigauri G. 2000. saqarTvelos tyis biomravalferovneba. gamomc. [Forest Biodiversity of 

Georgia.] Tbilisi, Raritet: 154 p. 

Gigauri G. 2004. saqarTvelos tyeebi. [Forest of Georgia.] Tbilisi: 322 p. 

Gigauri G. N., Dzebisashvili G. S. 1990. Сортиментные и товарные таблицы основных 

лесообразующих пород горных лесов СССР. [Yield tables of main tree species of mountain 

forests of USSR.] Moscow, Agropromizdat. 

Gulisashvili V. Z. 1964. Природные зоны и естественно - исторические области Кавказа. 

[Natural zones and historic districts of Caucasus.] Moscow, Science: 32 p. 

IPGRI Letter of Agreement Number, 22 June 2004, 04/041. “Development of national programmes 

on plant genetic resources in south-eastern Europe” – Conservation and use of broadleaved forest 

genetic resources. Author of Project G. Gigauri, Name & function of project staff I. Tvauri. 

Japaridze T. 2003. metyeveoba. [Forest Science.] Tbilisi, Ganatleba: 29 p. 

Kvachakidze R. 1992. kaxeTis kavkasionis tyis mcenareuloba. gamomc. “mecniereba”. [Forest 

plants of Great Caucasus in Kakheti region.] Tbilisi, Edit. Mecniereba, 1 6 p. 

Kvachakidze R. 2001. saqarTvelos tyeebi. [Forest of Georgia.] Tbilisi: 168 p. 

111

Makhatadze L. B. 1962. Типы лесов Триалетского хребта и использование их в лесном 

хозяйстве. [Types of the Forests of Trialeti Range and their Using in Forest Farming.] Tbilisi 

Botanical Institute, 11: 3-44. 

Makhatadze L. B. 1965. Типы горных лесов и их применение при организации хозяйства. 

[Types of Mountain Forests and their Applying during Organisation of Farming.] Works of Tbilisi 

Forest Institute, 14. Moscow, Forest Production. 

Manvelidze Z., Memiadze N., Gorgiladze L. 2004. formacia wiflnarebi (Fageta). [Beeches 

in Achara.] Problems of Agrarian Science (Collection of Scientific Works), 2 : 33-3 . 

Map. WWF information by G. Beruchashvili 

Resolution of Georgian goverment #2 , 19.02.2005. web-site: http://www.garemo.itdc.ge/storage/ 

assets/bsap_ge.pdf 

Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation. Grant 08. 04.8-12. www.rustaveli.org.ge/ 

State Materials of Forest Arrangement of Georgia, 1990-1995. [saqarTvelos respublikis 

saxelmwifo tyeTmowyobis masalebi 1990-1995]. (in Georgian) 

Svanidze M. A. 2001. Типология лесов Грузии. [Typology of Forests of Georgia.] Tbilisi, Gulani. 

Svanidze M. A, Abuladze E. A., Parjanadze I. G. 19 8. Формирование состава и структуры 

в мелкотравных порослевых бучинах под влиянием рубок ухода. [Forest composition and 

structure formation after thinings in coppice beach forests.] Articles of Tbilisi Mountain Forest 

Institute, 2 . Tbilisi, Mecniereba. 

The Constitution of Georgia, web-site: (http://www.parlament.ge/ 

The Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, web-site: http://www.cbd.int/ 

Tumajanov I. I. 1938. Леса горной Тушетии. [Forests of the Mountain.] Works of Tbilisi Botanic 

Garden. Tbilisi, АН ГССР. 

web-site: http://aarhus.ge/index.php?lang=geo&page=148 

Williams L, Zazanashvili N., Sanadiradze G., Kandaurov A. (eds.). 2006. An Ecoregional 

Conservation Plan for the Caucasus. Tbilisi, Contour Ltd. 

Wris wesebi saqarTvelos tyeebSi. 2000. [Cutting Rules in the Forest of Georgia.] Tbilisi: 4 p. 

WWF & IUCN (1994). Centres of Plant Diversity. A Guide and Strategy for Their Conservation. Vol. 

1. Cambridge: IUCN Publications Unit, UK 

WWF 1998; http://www.wwf.org/; http://www.worldwildlife.org 

WWF Global 200 Ecoregions //A blueprint for a living planet; http://www.worldwildlife.org 

contacts: 

Dr. Irina Tvauri 

Forest Institute 

0186, Mindeli str. , Tbilisi, Georgia 

e- mail: itvauri@yahoo.com 

112 

Reviewed


(Fagus sylvatica L.) ForesTs IN GermaNy 

GEORG VON WÜHLISCH 1 – HANS J. MUHS 2 

1 Institute for Forest Genetics, Sieker Landstrasse 2, D-2292 Grosshansdorf, Germany 

2 Schimmelmannstrasse 3 , D-22926 Ahrensburg, Germany 

absTracT 

The situation of beech forests in Germany is presented with special consideration of the genetic 

constitution and conservation of the genetic resources. The occurrence of beech has been influenced 

by man starting already in Neolithic times, resulting in an area of now 1.565 million ha (reduced area). 

Beech occupies a broad spectrum of ecological niches, some with a high genetic diversity. A national 

plan for conserving the genetic resources of all tree species has been developed. A close-to-nature 

silvicultural concept is being followed aiming at multiple forest functions and uses. Beech forests 

have suffered in the years following the drought during the summer of 2003, but on the whole the 

beech forests are highly productive and years of seed production are more frequent. The economics 

of beech silviculture improved in recent years due to diversification of the uses. 

Key words: beech forests, European beech, Buche (in German), distribution, ecology, biodiversity, 

silviculture, regeneration, economics, conservation, research 

dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN GermaNy 

Beech has migrated into Central Europe together with fir and spruce only in a late stage of the 

remigration process after the Ice Age. There it was favoured by the agricultural system of the 

Neolithic people, which cleared the forest composed of oak, ash, hazel, elm, and other deciduous 

trees. After they had abandoned these areas, beech was more successful in colonizing these areas. 

Thus the anthropogenic influence was severe and had a lasting effect on the distribution of beech, 

explaining its widespread occurrence (Küster 1998). Beech in Central Europe when compared to 

regions of South-Eastern Europe is able to migrate into the low lands and to adapt to the moist sub- 

Atlantic climate. 

Beech occurs potentially all over Germany, except in the regions close to the coast of the North 

Sea (marsh and peat soils), the dry sites (loess and sandy soils) mainly in East-Germany, the upper 

Rhine valley and the high elevation above 1,600 (north slopes) or 1,800 (south slopes) of the Alps. 

Hofman, Anders, Matthes (2000) estimated this area to be 50.8% (potentially natural vegetation) 

for the East-German Federal States, where beech would play a dominant role. It would occupy the 

rich, loamy sites close to the Baltic Sea and the low-mountain regions in the southern part, while in 

the West-German Federal States the occurrence is scattered according to local site conditions, but the 

potential proportion of beech forest is about the same. 

113

After the clearing of vast forest areas for agricultural purposes in the medieval period, the human 

influence on beech forests was detrimental for two reasons. The total forest area was reduced to about 

30%, in some regions even far less and the species composition of the forests was simultaneously 

reduced from about 50% beech down to less than the present 15%. Moreover, beech was replaced by 

faster growing conifers or its viability was reduced due to continued coppicing. This led to a critical 

situation some 250 years ago; thereafter regular forest management was introduced based on the 

principles of sustainability. 

Updated area figures are given in the Second National Forest Inventory (Federal Ministry 2002): Total 

forest area is 11.0 5 million ha (public owned 33.3%, corporate bodies 19.5% and private and to be 

privatised 4 .2%), thereof 1.565 million ha (14.8%) are covered by beech (reduced area). Most beech 

forests (80%) are located in south-west and central parts of Germany mainly in Baden-Württemberg, 

Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland, Hesse, part of Bavaria and the southern parts of Lower Saxony and 

North Rhine-Westphalia. 

Changes in the 15 years from the first (198 ) to the second (2002) inventory are remarkable: the 

increase in total forest area by afforestation is 135,288 ha or about 9,020 ha/year. Moreover about 

81, 54 ha or 5,450 ha/year of mainly conifer forest were replaced by broadleaved forest tree species. 

Thus, both figures result in a considerable change in species composition. Beech is leading with an 

increase of about 1.9 percent (from 12.9 to 14.8% of the total forest area), the other deciduous tree 

species together increase by 2.9% in area, and Douglas fir and silver fir by about 0.6%, while Norway 

spruce, Scots pine and larch show a loss of 5.4% in total area. 

ecoLoGy aNd bIodIversITy 

Beech prefers mild winters and a sub-Atlantic climate with sufficient rainfall, reaching at least 

a yearly minimum precipitation of 500 to 600 mm. It is sensitive to late frost and hard winter frost 

and has low tolerance to drought and a high water table. Although beech can grow on a wide range 

of different soils with low to high pH-values, it is found most frequently on limestone derived rich 

soils. Beech has been in the past and is still expanding its range under natural condition because of 

its pronounced competitiveness (Hofmann, Anders, Matthes 2000). 

In Germany, there are four main forest communities with beech as forest cover: Luzulo-Fagetum in 

hilly to mountainous regions often in mixture with oaks, silver fir and Norway spruce depending on 

altitude and covering 34,000 ha; Deschampsio-Fagetum in the northern low lands sometimes mixed 

with oaks and covering 53,000 ha; galio odorati-Fagetum from the low lands to the Alps on neutral 

to acid soils sometimes mixed with common ash and sycamore maple and covering 42 ,000 ha and 

Hordelymo-Fagetum widely distributed on neutral to carbonate rich soils and covering 2 ,000 ha. 

Beech is not coppiced any more in Germany, all coppiced stands have been converted to high forest. 

Most of the beech forest is natural (60%) or managed close to nature (22.5%), while forests of other 

tree species have only low percentages of this type of management, e. g. oak forests (5.3% natural and 

41.5% close to nature), Norway spruce (5.6% respectively 21.8%) and Scots pine (5.0% respectively 

10.2%) (Federal Ministry 2002). 

A great advantage of beech ecosystems is their ability to catch ground water because of their low 

evaporation rate, smooth bark favouring an effective stem flow, leafless time for more than half 

a year. All these factors result in high percolation rates in beech forests, which are higher than in any 

114

other forest species or grassland. The annual seepage will supply up to 40% of the precipitation to 

the ground water in optimal cases. Thus, beech forests are increasingly favoured in water catchment 

areas. 

Beech forest ecosystems in Central Europe appear to be poor in species biodiversity compared to oak 

forest ecosystems. As beech is able to grow and dominate on a variety of sites, the composition of 

flora and fauna species varies with site conditions, of which the poorest are on acidic soils in the low 

land, the richest on calcareous soils in the mountainous regions. To capture as much of the diversity 

for nature conservation as possible, a network of beech forests in national parks and forest nature 

reserves (most are unmanaged over the last 30 years) has been established, including National Park 

Jasmund, Müritz, Grumsin (Schorfheide-Chorin), Hainich, Eifel and Kellerwald-Edersee, which 

are some prominent ones. There are 16 such natural forest reserves distributed all over Germany 

and covering 31,16 ha. The richness in terms of biodiversity is ascertained by a survey undertaken 

at different places, which show for example that the number of 96 strictly monophagous insects 

specialized on beech is high but fairly low compared to 298 depending on oak. However, if the total 

number of species of all different habitats is considered, the number of animals adds up to 6, 16 of 

which 1, 92 are beech forest specialists and the number of plants comprises 4,320 of which 1,169 are 

specialized on beech forests (Janssen 2008). Thus, the contribution to the natural heritage of the 

forests is evident due to their high biodiversity. 

PesTs, dIseases aNd abIoTIc ImPacTs 

Beech suffers from a complex disease, which is not yet fully analysed. Obviously an aphid (Cryptococcus 

fagisuga) and Nectria fungi started to attack the trees, followed by beech bark beetles (Trypodendron 

domesticum and Hylocoetus dermestoides). In the late phase fungi like Fomes fomentarius and other 

fungi causing white rottenness are damaging the trees until they die off. This complex disease has 

already been described in the west of Germany (Eifel, Hunsrück and Saarland) years ago and is 

still expanding. Besides this, the small beech bark beetle (Taphrorychus bicolor) has damaged the 

cambium after heavy storms in south-west Germany. Browsing by deer is critical; during the time of 

regeneration and protective fencing is necessary. 

Air pollution was still heavily affecting beech, much more than the conifers as shown by the crown 

defoliation, although the main pollutants (SO , NO ) have decreased substantially during the past 

2 x 

years, except for NH and O , the last one of which continued to be the most critical for the forest. 

3 3 

Especially beech suffered from crown defoliation with a drastic increase of damaged trees from 30% 

(2003) to 55% (2004). This could be explained by the drought in 2003 and a heavy seed crop in 2004 

because a positive correlation between crown defoliation and the intensity of seed production was 

found (BMVEL 2003, 2004). 

sILvIcuLTure aNd maNaGemeNT 

After the periods of heavy overuse of the forests during the past centuries, which continued up to 

the middle of the last century and also devastated large areas of beech forests, it was necessary to 

find a better way to protect and use the forests. The old credo of sustainable management first put 

into practice by Hannß Carl von Carlowitz in the 18th century was revived and extended to include 

115

also aspects of ecology, nature protection and genetics beside the original economical aspect. Hence, 

clearcuts of the stands even with low acreage are avoided, uneven aged stands are well accepted, and 

natural regeneration is preferred wherever it is advantageous. This is the case when the quality and 

the origin of the stand to be regenerated are sufficiently adapted to the prevailing site conditions. 

If the prerequisites for the natural regeneration are not given or the regeneration fails, for instance 

in case of lack of seed crop, low number of beech trees per stand or insufficient preparation of soil, 

then seed or plants raised thereof or wildlings (young wild grown seedlings) taken from adjacent 

stands can be used to interplant and fill gaps in the stand to be regenerated. It is accepted practice 

to intervene during the development of the stand by early promotion of selected trees. Thinning 

measures are supporting this strategy, which is aiming at a high proportion of best quality stems in 

the stand for harvest. Felling is done at intervals in congruence with the development of the stand 

by optimizing increment and quality of timber. Dead wood is left in the stand in order to enhancing 

biodiversity. 

As a result, these principles of “modern” silviculture can be described briefly as close to nature 

silviculture of the beech forest for multiple uses. Close to nature silviculture supports different 

functions of the forest like wood production, production of ground water in water catchment areas, 

preservation of biodiversity, protection of various kinds, as well as allowing multiple uses for instance 

for wild life and hunting, recreation, and a place of culture and experience of aesthetic, historical 

and mystical aspects. Since the 1980s silviculture has been gradually modernized in Germany, 

which caused a radical change in the management not only of the beech forests, but primarily for 

these affecting all beech forests (forest conversion phase). It was the main characteristic of modern 

silviculture to comply with the natural processes as much as possible. Shortly after the introduction of 

modern silviculture it turned out to be essential for a successful and competitive forest management 

(Janssen 2008). 

Forest policy was encouraged to manage all forests with the aim to structure and to mix the stands 

with broadleaved tree species, to let the trees grow for a longer time, thus increasing the age, the 

standing volume and the increment. This management was extremely successful: The total standing 

volume for all forests increased up to 3,380 million m³, which is the highest in Europe followed by 

Sweden and France. For beech, the total standing volume grew by 25.8% within 15 years up to 583 

million m³ (about 1 .3% of the total) or 323 m³/ha. Most of the standing volume exists in stands 

older than 120 years (3 %) followed by stands between 80 and 120 years (35%). The mean annual 

increment during a 15 year period (198 – 2002) of all beech forest was 11. 4 m³/ha, higher than in 

the past. Additionally, stand structure and management system have the advantage that the stands 

gain a higher stability and value in terms of ecology and biodiversity, support the wood industry with 

high quality timber continuously and cost efficiently, and increase the carbon sequestration (Federal 

Ministry 2002). 

For future planning, the BMVEL (2005) investigated how much wood would be available for the 

period 2003 – 2042, by group of species, wood classification system, and region. The increment 

estimate, including all species on the total national forest area reaches 60 million m³/year of usable 

wood (stem wood and industrial wood) in the first years and will increase to 0 million m³/year 

by 2042. For beech wood the corresponding figures are 10.8 million m³/year for 2003, then the 

increment will rise up to more than 12. million in the years between 2008 – 2012 and drop slowly 

again down to 10.8 million. However, generally the supply of beech wood will be sustainable in the 

years to come. 

116

Fig. 1: The 26 regions of provenance of European beech in Germany 

Legend: The registration code and common name are given below. The numbers in brackets refer to the ecological units [(http://fgrdeu. 

genres.de) according to the German Law on Forest Reproductive Material Moving in Trade Forstvermehrungsgutgesetz 

(FoVG), Legal Ordinance on Regions of Provenance (Herkunftsgebietsverordnung, Fagus sylvatica), and regions of provenance 

(Herkunftsgebiete): 

810 01 Niedersächsischer Küstenraum und Rheinisch-Westfälische 

Bucht (03) 

810 02 Ostsee-Küstenraum (01, 02) 

810 03 Heide und Altmark (04, 05) 

810 04 Nordostbrandenburgisches Tiefland (06) 

810 05 Märkisch-Lausitzer Tiefland (10, 11) 

810 06 Mitteldeutsches Tief- und Hügelland (09, 14, 16) 

810 07 Rheinisches und Saarpfälzer Bergland, kolline Stufe (12 

bis 400 m, 20 und 29 bis 500 m) 

810 08 Rheinisches und Saarpfälzer Bergland, montane Stufe 

(12 über 400 m, 20 und 29 über 500 m) 

810 09 Harz, Weser- und Hessisches Bergland, kolline Stufe (07 

und 08 bis 400 m, 21, 22 und 31 bis 500 m) 

810 10 Harz, Weser- und Hessisches Bergland, montane Stufe 

(07 und 08 über 400 m, 21, 22 und 31 über 500 m) 

810 11 Thüringer Wald, Fichtelgebirge und Vogtland, kolline Stufe 

(15 und 25 bis 600 m, 13, 26 und 27 bis 700 m) 

810 12 Thüringer Wald, Fichtelgebirge und Vogtland, montane 

Stufe (15 und 25 über 600 m, 13, 26 und 27 über 700 m) 

810 13 Erzgebirge mit Vorland, kolline Stufe (17, 18 und 19 bis 

500 m) 

810 14 Erzgebirge mit Vorland, montane Stufe (17, 18 und 19 

von 500 bis 700 m) 

810 15 Erzgebirge mit Vorland, hochmontane Stufe (17, 18 und 

19 über 700 m) 

810 16 Oberrheingraben (30) 

810 17 Württembergisch-Fränkisches Hügelland (23, 24, 32, 33, 

34 und 39) 

810 18 Fränkische Alb (35) 

810 19 Bayerischer und Oberpfälzer Wald, submontane Stufe 

(28, 36 und 37 bis 800 m) 

810 20 Bayerischer und Oberpfälzer Wald, montane Stufe (28, 

36 und 37 über 800 m) 

810 21 Schwarzwald, submontane Stufe (38 bis 900 m) 

810 22 Schwarzwald, hochmontane Stufe (38 über 900 m) 

810 23 Schwäbische Alb (40 und 41) 

810 24 Alpenvorland (42, 43, 44, 45) 

810 25 Alpen, submontane Stufe (46 bis 900 m) 

810 26 Alpen, hochmontane Stufe (46 über 900 m) 

11

eGeNeraTIoN aNd seed ProcuremeNT 

Due to the prevailing natural regeneration of beech up to the 19 0s, planting was not common. But 

when the forest policy aimed at increasing the area of broadleaved tree species within their potential 

natural range by conversion of the coniferous forest, mostly seed of beech was required for planting. 

Consequently seed was collected in own stands or imported mainly from South-East Europe in case 

of lack of seed crops in Central Europe. 

Meanwhile the self-supply has improved not only for technical reasons, but also due to more frequent 

crop years since the 1990s when large quantities could be collected (see below). 

According to the national law on forest reproductive material (FoVG 2002), seed stands had to 

be approved and regions of provenances had to be delineated (Fig. 1). The delineation is based on 

ecological units (Ökologische Grundeinheiten). The entire land area of the Federal Republic has been 

divided into areas of uniform ecological conditions: 46 ecological units in total. A number of similar 

and adjacent ecological units are combined to form a region of provenance. There are 26 regions of 

provenance throughout the Federal territory comprising some 14,181 seed stands for collecting seed 

to be marketed in the category “selected” covering a total area of 81,315 ha, of which 1,049 ha are 

autochthonous (8 %). Additional 30 stands with acreage of 244 ha are approved for collecting seed to 

be marketed in the category “tested” (BLE 1999). Seed collection and plant establishment are carried 

out by private seed dealer and nurseries mainly. There are public agencies, which run seed kilns and 

some small nurseries, because most of the approved basic material is owned by the states (59%), but 

they sell by far the largest quantities of seed to private nurseries. 

ecoNomIcs 

Beech wood is mostly used for fire wood and pulp. This market is still expanding since the middle of 

the last century. In the past decades a trend could be observed towards a diversification of the uses. 

The industry developed new techniques and new products using beech wood. This was possible, 

because it could rely on the sustainable supply of beech wood of high quality, especially of sawn 

timber and veneer. With the new uses, beech wood became more valuable and its price rose. 

As shown above, the standing volume of beech wood is high, especially in stands of high age class. 

Thus, a total of 10 million m³/year was harvested, of which about .4 million m³/year was used 

for industry (pulp, paper, chipboard) or domestic fuel and 2.6 million m³/year as sawn timber for 

a variety of uses for instance for furniture, wooden strips, plates and toys, construction, parquet floor, 

stairs, for joiner and carpenter and the packaging industry. 

More beech wood is exported than imported. In 2006 the export of beech raw wood reached annually 

about 1,010 thousand m³ and for sawn timber 384 thousand m³. The figures for import are 3 

thousand m³ raw wood and 56 thousand m³ sawn timber. Main countries importing beech raw wood 

were Sweden, China, Austria, Italy, and Denmark, and those importing sawn timber were China, 

U.S.A., Poland, Spain, and The Netherlands. This market offers further opportunities for expansion. 

The prices for harvested stem wood reached about 90 to 120 €/m³ and for industrial wood between 

23 and 30 €/m³ in the years 1995 to 2006. On average the forwarding cost to the forest roadside 

amounted to 26 €/m³, the corresponding prices came up to 48 €/m³ for unsorted beech wood. Thus 

118

the earnings for the forest owner from the sale of the wood was 22 €/m³. The total income of beech 

forest owner has been calculated to about 260,000 €/1,000 ha and year, this includes also the earnings 

from other uses, primarily hunting leases, while the expenditures summed up to about 240,000 

€/1,000 ha and year. Four jobs can be created in the forestry sector (two employees and two as service 

providers) permanently and additional four jobs in the wood industry and saw mills to process the 

wood from 1,000 ha. Besides these positive economics other valuable contributions of the beech 

forest to the total balance like the ecological and social functions should not be forgotten (Janssen 

2002). 

coNservaTIoN 

In 198 (revised in 2000) a national concept for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic 

resources in the Federal Republic of Germany was elaborated and a working group (Bund-Länder- 

Arbeitsgruppe) was established coordinating all activities for evaluation of genetic resources and in 

situ and ex situ conservation measures as well as research in this field. Meanwhile the major forest 

tree species have been intensively dealt with and the minor forest tree and shrub species got more 

attention and special topics like monitoring, source identification, documentation and cooperation 

with international bodies gain importance. 

In recent years beech nuts have been collected in approved stands: 184,815 kg (2004), 11 kg (2005), 

196,640 kg (2006), and 43,185 kg (200 ). Besides the approved basic material for beech (see above), 

special gene conservation units have been identified. Either they are stands (184 stands covering 

1,496 ha) or single trees (193) in situ and one stand (1.0 ha) ex situ. Beech nuts have also been stored 

as special objects to be conserved; there are 65 seed lots stored together with 44,85 kg of seed as of 

May 2008. All special objects to be conserved have a unique status; they are registered and get special 

treatments, if necessary. 

In the 1990s a data base was established containing all information about important plant genetic 

resources, including forest genetic resources, which is available on the website (http://www.genres. 

de/genres_eng/fgr/fgr_index.htm). The database serves as a national centre providing data and 

useful information for interested users, in the near future it will also be linked with the information 

systems EUFGIS (EUFORGEN) and REFORGEN (FAO). 

Since 2004 a concept for genetic monitoring of forest tree species in the Federal Republic of Germany 

is available on the website (http://www.genres.de/genres_eng/fgr/fgr_mon.htm) and (http://www. 

genres.de/genres_eng/fgr/fgr_rah.htm). Beech has been chosen for a conservation pilot study; the first 

results show a high variation within stands and also differences among stands from different regions 

as shown by isozyme and DNA marker analyses. A second project includes beech and wild cherry 

as species to be monitored. Beside many other characters such as genetic markers are also studied to 

measure differences between old trees, naturally regenerated young trees and seed of the same old 

trees. Changes in the genetic structure may give evidence for disturbances in the transmission from 

one generation to the next one. So far no such evidence has been found (BLE 2009). 

119

esearch 

Some research topics in the field of genetic variation, genetic resources, provenances, genetic 

monitoring, genetic differentiation and diseases of beech, which have been conducted in the past five 

years or are still under investigation (BLE 2009) may be mentioned below: 

Three studies are under way to analyse, assess and correlate the resistance or tolerance to drought 

in populations of beech. This is particularly of interest in the eastern part of its distribution, where 

the rainfall is at its lower limit for beech. Additional studies of wood anatomy and chlorophyll-afluorescence 

are also integrated into these studies. Some studies are dealing with the genetic structure 

in regenerated populations, the influence of thinning on the genetic structure, and the variation in 

stands. Genetic monitoring occupies a large part of research, in particular the long-term monitoring 

in cooperation with the environmental monitoring of the Level II plots, which have been established 

during an EU-wide project. Distinction between seed lots by using stable isotopes or between 

Fagus sylvatica and F. orientalis by nuclear marker has been successful. In an older provenance trial 

it could be shown that economic value, e. g. straight stem form and fine branching, is influenced 

by the provenance. Over recent years the COST Action E52 is focussing on a joint evaluation of 

the international beech provenance trials. Furthermore the complex disease of beech occurring in 

western parts of Germany is being investigated more intensively. 

reFereNces 

BLE Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung: 1999. Zusammenstellung über zugelassenes 

Ausgangsmaterial für forstliches Vermehrungsgut in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Stand 

01.10.199 ), 4 6 p. 

BLE Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung: 2009. Fortschrittsbericht der Bund-Länder- 

Arbeitsgruppe ”Forstliche Genressourcen und Forstsaatgutrecht“, 66 p. 

BMVEL Bundesministerium für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (ed.): 2003 und 

2004. Bericht über den Zustand des Waldes, Ergebnisse des forstlichen Umweltmonitoring, Bonn 

53 p. and 88 p. 

BMVEL Bundesministerium für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (ed.): 2005. Das 

potenzielle Rohholzaufkommen 2003 – 2042, 91 p. 

Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection: 2002. The Second National Forest 

Inventory – NFI, Covering the National Forest Inventory Survey of 2001 – 2002 and 1986 – 1988, 

211 p. (corresponding German Version, 2002, 8 p.) 

FoVG Forstvermehrungsgutgesetz 2002. Published in: Bundesgesetzblatt Jahrgang 2002, Teil I, 

Nr. 32, p. 1658 – 1666. 

Hofmann G., Anders S., Matthes B. 2000. Das potentiell-natürliche und derzeitige Waldbild in den 

ostdeutschen Ländern, Mitteilungen der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Forst- und Holzwirtschaft 

Hamburg Nr. 196, 93 p. 

Janssen A. (ed.). 2008. Beech Forests – diverse, unique, sustainable. Published by Deutscher 

Forstwirtschaftsrat, Berlin, 5 p. 

120

Küster H. 1998. Geschichte des Waldes, Von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart, Verlag C. H. Beck 

München, 26 p. 

contacts: 

Dr. Georg von Wühlisch 

Institute for Forest Genetics 

Sieker Landstrasse 2, D-2292 Grosshansdorf, Germany 

e- mail: georg.wuehlisch@vti.bund.de 

Reviewed 

121

The euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) IN GreaT brITaIN: ecoLoGIcaL 

sTaTus, sILvIcuLTure aNd maNaGemeNT oF GeNeTIc 

resources 

absTracT 

122 

SCOTT MCG. WILSON 

Consultant Forester and Forest Ecologist, 

3 Thorngrove Crescent, Aberdeen AB15 FH, Scotland, UK 

This paper presents information about the current status of the European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

in Great Britain. Beech is a native species in southern parts of Great Britain where it can be found 

in three natural beech woodland types (calcareous, mesotrophic and acid). Beech has also been 

established in plantations throughout many parts of Great Britain over the past 400 years, and is the 

third most abundant timber hardwood after oak and ash. A variety of silvicultural approaches has 

been adopted in beech woodlands, although low timber prices and landscape/nature conservation 

priorities in recent years have reduced the intensity of stand management. A major proportion of the 

British beech resource is in old stands under low-intervention management. Important examples 

of natural beech woodland are protected within designated conservation sites (equivalent to forest 

reserves in Europe). A network of selected seed stands for beech is maintained throughout Great 

Britain, but much beech reproductive material for forestry use has traditionally been imported from 

Europe. Recently there has been renewed interest in establishing qualified sources of reproductive 

material for beech (elite trees, seed orchards). The paper concludes with a review of current research 

priorities for beech in Great Britain, focussing on disease, pest and climatic impacts. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), natural distribution, woodland ecology, silviculture, 

reproductive material, genetic conservation, Great Britain, forest research 

PoPuLaTIoN hIsTory aNd NaTuraL dIsTrIbuTIoN 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is normally regarded as a native tree species in southern parts 

of Great Britain, including much of south-eastern and south-central England and some parts of 

south-eastern Wales. This natural range lies between 50.5 and 52.5 degrees north latitude. Naturallyarising 

British beechwoods are of the lowland or colline types, occurring between sea level and 

300 m a. s. l. The major proportion occurs between 150 m and 300 m a. s. l. on the convex upper 

slopes of hill ranges geologically formed of Cretaceous chalk (e. g. the Chilterns, North and South 

Downs) or Jurassic oolitic limestone (e. g. the Cotswolds). A minor proportion occurs on acid sand 

and gravel sites, found over lowland Tertiary basin deposits (e. g. New Forest, Burnham Beeches). 

From palynological evidence, beech is seen to have colonized Great Britain from mainland Europe, 

not later than 4,000 years B. P., at first spreading fairly slowly (Birks 1989, Rackham 2003). It may

have had human assistance in this colonization – accidental or deliberate. It is certainly believed that 

beech spread into a landscape that had previously undergone significant anthropogenic clearance of 

natural mixed deciduous woodlands (dominated by oak, lime, ash, hazel and elm), which may have 

facilitated later, more rapid, colonization by beech. There is limited evidence that beech may have 

spread naturally beyond its current natural distribution, colonizing Carboniferous limestone hills 

to 300 m a. s. l. in areas of northern England and eastern Wales (to 54 degrees north). The extent of 

naturally-arising beech woodland has since been markedly reduced by clearance of woodland for 

agriculture and urban development and by replanting with alternative species. Nonetheless, seminatural 

beech woodland remains the dominant land-cover type in a number of localities in the hills 

of southern England where it appears climatically suited and silviculturally valuable. 

beech PLaNTaTIoN aFForesTaTIoN sINce 1600 

Since around 1600 AD plantation afforestation has been pursued in many parts of Britain for both 

timber production and landscape amenity, using a wide variety of tree species. Beech was used 

extensively in this afforestation, particularly between 1680 and 1920, when it was favoured for 

planting on private estates, often using reproductive material sourced from famous superior stands 

of mainland Europe, such as Versailles (France) and Forêt de Soignes (Belgium). Planting during 

Fig. 1: Upland beech plantation – eastern Scotland 

123

this period took place both within and beyond the natural range of beech in Great Britain. Many 

plantations were established in more northern and montane areas such as Wales, Scotland and the 

north of England (Wilson 2006). This has extended the effective range of the species within Great 

Britain – northwards to 58.5 degrees latitude in Scotland and upwards to ~450 m a. s. l. in various parts 

of the British uplands. Beech has proven its ability to regenerate naturally throughout the mainland 

of Great Britain on suitable, freely-drained woodland sites and is not significantly climate-limited 

Fig. 2: 18th century beech avenue – south Scotland 

Fig. 3: 19th century beech shelterbelt – eastern Scotland 

124

elow 300 m a. s. l. The species has also become a characteristic landscape element in many open 

agricultural districts of Great Britain as a long-standing and common shelterbelt species. A more 

recent phase of beech plantation expansion took place between 1920 and 1960, mainly as part of 

publicly-owned afforestation schemes within the native range of beech in southern England. Many 

such plantations were on land formerly occupied by calcareous grasslands. This history of plantation 

afforestation with beech has significantly expanded its land cover – it is now the third most abundant 

productively-managed hardwood tree species in British forestry, following oak and ash. 

ecoLoGIcaL TyPes oF brITIsh beechWoods 

British beech woodlands are recognized to be of three main ecological types, dependent upon the 

underlying soil conditions (Avery 1958, Peterken 1993, Rodwell 1991, Watt 1934). These types 

closely resemble the classical beech woodland phyto-sociological communities of mainland/central 

Europe. The main beechwood types are: 

• calcareous beechwoods – classified as W12 in the UK National Vegetation Classification 

(NVC) (Rodwell 1991). These are developed on shallow soils over calcareous strata such as 

Cretaceous chalk and Jurassic limestone in southern England. Soils are mainly of the rendzina 

and calcimorphic brown-earth types, with pH > in the subsoil. Many beech woodlands of this 

type are on very steep scarp slopes (> 45 degrees) and are known as “beech hangers”. Common 

tree species associates are ash (Fraxinus excelsior), yew (Taxus baccata), whitebeam (Sorbus aria) 

and field maple (Acer campestre), with very localized occurrence of box (Buxus sempervirens) 

which may be a Roman introduction. Two introduced maple species (Acer pseudoplatanus and 

Acer platanoides) are also frequent. The predominant ground vegetation is of calcicole species 

such as Mercurialis perennis, Allium ursinum, Sanicula europaea and Arum maculatum. An 

extreme form of this community, where yew dominates over beech, has been recognized as NVC 

W13. Some ecologists have divided the British calcareous beechwoods into two sub-types, one 

with abundant Mercurialis perennis the other with Sanicula europaea prevalent (Watt 1934). The 

latter is thought to be associated with particularly shallow drought-prone rendzina soils. 

• mesotrophic beechwoods – classified as W14 in the UK National Vegetation Classification 

(NVC). These are developed on brown earth soils of moderate fertility, over a wide range of 

parent materials within and beyond the natural range of beech. Within the natural range, most 

mesotrophic beechwoods are found on argillic clay soils over calcareous strata such as Cretaceous 

chalk and Jurassic limestone. These occur extensively on the more gradual/concave “dip” slopes 

behind escarpments. Common tree species associates are pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), ash 

(Fraxinus excelsior), hazel (Corylus avellana) and the introduced sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus). 

Elm species (Ulmus procera and Ulmus glabra) would also have been found in the past, prior to 

devastation by the Dutch elm disease pathogen between 1930 and the present. The predominant 

ground vegetation is of Rubus fruticosus, with mixed grasses/herbs. There is little apparent edaphic 

or floristic distinction of these mesotrophic beechwoods from the mesotrophic oakwoods (NVC 

W10), but beech does not grow well on the more poorly-drained clay soils and plantation of 

beech onto such sites has often led to stand decline. 

• acid beechwoods – classified as W15 in the UK National Vegetation Classification (NVC). These 

are developed on mild podzols and podzolic brown earth soils of very low fertility (pH < 4), 

over a range of parent materials within and beyond the natural range of beech. Within the native 

125

126 

range, most acid beechwoods are developed on low elevation sites (< 150 m a. s. l.) over gravel 

and sand deposits of Tertiary ages (Bracklesham beds etc.). A proportion of acid beechwoods 

within the natural range has an open wood-pasture/parkland structure, consisting of overmature 

beech, known in Britain as “veteran trees”. In upland areas of northern and western 

Britain, acid beechwoods have been created by planting (very locally to > 400 m a. s. l.) over hard 

rock geologies (granites, sandstones, schists etc). Common tree species associates are sessile oak 

(Quercus petraea), birch (Betula pendula), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), holly (Ilex aquifolium), the 

introduced Rhododendron ponticum and a variety of conifer tree species not native to these sites. 

Many acid beechwoods have very sparse ground vegetation due to canopy shade, but the fine 

grass Deschampsia flexuosa often dominates, together with Vaccinium myrtillus. In artificial beech 

stands, a variety of other species can become dominant including the grasses Agrostis capillaris, 

Holcus lanatus and H. mollis and locally, Luzula sylvatica. The native climax vegetation on sites of 

this kind outside the natural range of beech would have consisted of open oak-birch woodland 

with strongly calcifuge ground flora. 

The curreNT brITIsh beech resource – eXTeNT 

aNd aGe-cLass dIsTrIbuTIoN 

The most comprehensive information concerning the current land-cover of beech in Great Britain 

comes from the National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees (NIWT), a nation-wide sample-based 

survey of the nation’s forest resources conducted on a roughly ten-year cycle. The most recent available 

data arise from the last survey, reported in 2001 – 2002 (see Tables 1 and 2). Work is currently 

under-way on the next round of survey, known as the National Forest Inventory, which will produce 

up-dated information for publication over the next five years. There is unlikely to have been major 

change in the position of beech over the past decade as little new beech woodland has been planted 

and there has been limited felling of older beech. 

Tab. 1: Extent and relative significance of the beech resource within Great Britain 

Data obtained from the latest FC National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees (2001 - 2002) 

Tree species England (ha) Wales (ha) Scotland (ha) Britain (ha) Britain (%) 

Oak 158,665 42,918 21,114 222,697 9.4 

Ash 104,920 19,321 4,904 129,145 5.4 

Beech 64,022 8,998 9,961 82,981 3.5 

Sycamore 48,805 6,907 10,882 66,594 2.8 

Birch1 69,633 12,579 77,780 159,992 6.7 

Other/Mixed2 201,523 26,780 81,722 310,025 13.0 

Broadleaves 647,568 117,503 206,363 971,434 40.8 

Conifers 340,201 148,913 916,490 1,405,604 59.2 

Forested area 987,768 266,416 1,122,583 2,376,767 100 

Notes: 1 Almost all of the area described as birch woodland will be spontaneous or sub-spontaneous woodland 

that is not under active management for birch timber production. 

2 There may be a significant but undefined quantity of mature beech, some potentially suitable for timber, 

submerged within the other/mixed broadleaved woodland category.

Tab. 2: Age class distribution of the beech resource within Great Britain 

Data obtained from the latest FC National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees (2001 – 2002) 

Total 

Small 

woods 

Nontimber 

Total 

timber 

Pre- 

1861 

1861- 

1900 

1901- 

1910 

1911- 

1920 

1921- 

1930 

1931- 

1940 

1941- 

1950 

1951- 

1960 

1961- 

1970 

1971- 

1980 

1981- 

1990 

1991- 

1995 

Class 

Country ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha 

England 785 1,014 1,968 5,685 7,689 5,613 3,925 5,707 5,252 2,136 9,961 4,889 54,624 5,948 3,450 64,022 

Wales 100 20 13 250 872 421 688 319 408 81 1,090 274 4,536 2,833 1,629 8,998 

Scotland 182 94 85 179 381 109 369 213 369 92 1,221 1,034 4,330 4,280 1,351 9,961 

Total 1,067 1,128 2,066 6,114 8,942 6,143 4,982 6,239 6,029 2,309 12,272 6,197 63,490 13,061 6,430 82,981 

% Total 1.3 1.4 2.5 7.4 10.8 7.4 6.0 7.5 7.3 2.8 14.8 7.5 76.5 15.7 7.8 100 

Notes: 1. Age class data is only available within the NIWT survey for that portion of the beech resource which is classed as “High Forest Category 1” (i. e. 

potentially capable of producing sawlog quality timber at final harvest) and standing in woodlands in excess of 2 ha. Aggregated totals are provided for 

(a) the poorer material in woods > 2 ha in extent and (b) for material of any quality in smaller woodlands/linear features. This allows for reconciliation of 

the total resource with the data presented in Table 1 supra. 

It will be seen from the data presented that a major 

proportion of the standing British beech resource 

is in the semi-mature and mature age classes, 

potentially suitable for timber harvest, having 

been established prior to the Second World War. 

This includes a significant amount of over-mature 

beech, established during the eighteenth and 

nineteenth centuries on private estates, which 

is retained mainly for landscape amenity and 

conservation purposes and is unlikely to become 

available for harvest under current market 

conditions. A number of the finer mature stands 

of beech timber, valuable as potential sources of 

selected reproductive material, were destroyed 

or seriously damaged during the major storms of 

late 198 and 1990 that affected parts of southern 

England. This included the very famous stands 

at Slindon Park and West Dean in Sussex, which 

are currently in the thicket regeneration phase. 

Some valuable timber stands also suffered drought 

damage following the dry summers of 19 5 – 19 6. 

Nonetheless there remain a number of very fine 

stands of mature beech in Britain, most within the 

natural range in the Chilterns and Cotswolds, but 

with a scatter of examples elsewhere. Fine beech 

sawlog timber harvested in Britain finds markets 

for furniture-making and decorative joinery, but 

a major proportion of the total harvested volume 

is used for firewood. 

The remainder of the standing beech resource in 

Britain is found in younger plantations on both 

public and private forest lands, established during 

the mid-twentieth century, often with a view to 

rotational timber harvest. These stands have, on 

the whole, been subject to a fairly low intensity of 

thinning/management due to low market prices 

for beech timber at present, coupled with grey 

squirrel damage. Improved fuelwood markets over 

the past two years have encouraged early thinnings 

in young beech stands, which should enhance final 

crops. Very little new beech woodland has been 

created for forestry purposes over the last 40 years, 

but the species has continued to find favour as an 

element within landscape and amenity planting. 

12

Fig. 4: Premier beech stand – Chiltern beechwoods 

sILvIcuLTure oF beech IN brITaIN 

A variety of silvicultural approaches has been applied to beech woodlands in Britain over the past 

300 – 400 years for which reliable records are available (Rackham 2003). These can be summarized 

as: 

• selection forestry – based on classic Continental European systems of beech woodland 

management for timber production. Many of the better quality stands of pure beech within the 

natural range in Britain have been managed under variants of the group selection and single-tree 

selection systems for production of quality timber for the furniture-making industry. This was 

the prominent system applied in the Chiltern beechwoods, during the period 1 50 – 1950, where 

a traditional furniture-making industry developed, concentrated in the towns of High Wycombe 

and Princes Risborough. More recently, the best examples of this type of silvicultural management 

have been in the Cotswold beechwoods, principally in those owned by the Workman family. Only 

a small area of British beech woodland currently remains under traditional selection silviculture. 

Since the mid-19 0s, timber values obtainable for mature beech crops have been depressed in 

Britain, with the exception of high quality stems suitable for veneer, and this has made it difficult 

to cover the costs of selection silviculture from timber income alone. 

• regular forestry – remains the predominant silvicultural approach in British woodlands 

managed for timber production on a rotational basis, both on public and private lands. During 

the two world wars significant areas of beech woodland were clear-felled under emergency 

timber supply programmes and later re-planted with new beech crops. Other areas of open 

ground were planted with beech during the twentieth century, particularly on the public forest, 

128

with the intention that stands would later be rotationally felled. Yields would typically be 4 – 8 

m 3 /annum over a final-felling rotation of 80 – 120 years. However in recent decades the area of 

regular beech woodland being felled and replanted has declined markedly, with most stands now 

being converted to lower-intensity forms of management (shelterwood, non-intervention etc.) 

aimed at amenity and conservation. Diversification by enrichment planting with other native 

species (oak, ash, cherry) has become a frequent response to perceived challenges to beech from 

increasing drought. 

• Fuelwood/coppicing – a traditional form of management of beech woodland in certain regions, 

particularly the Cotswolds during Roman times and the Chilterns during the medieval and earlymodern 

periods. Until the widespread adoption of coal as a domestic and industrial fuel, smalldiameter 

beech was a major source of fuel for the city of London, for example – especially for 

industries such as bread-making. Beech does not coppice very reliably under British climatic 

conditions at the present time, but some areas of beech woodland in these regions appear to have 

been managed as coppice in the past. Beech remains a favoured fuelwood for log stoves and there 

is now renewed interest in the management of the species under short-rotation forestry systems 

to produce fuel chip. 

• Wood-pasture/pollarding – a traditional form of management of beech woodland, particularly 

associated with lowland acid beech woodlands within the natural range. There are several 

prominent localities – Savernake Forest, New Forest, Burnham Beeches, Windsor Great Park 

and Epping Forest – where these systems have been applied intermittently over at least several 

centuries, leading to valued cultural landscapes of veteran beech and oak trees set within open 

grass parklands. Beech was traditionally pollarded to produce fresh growth beyond the reach 

of browsing livestock. In recent years there has been a considerable upsurge in interest in the 

restoration of such wood-pasture landscapes by re-introduction of cattle grazing and active 

beech pollarding (Read et al. 2010). Many beech wood-pastures are under public or charitable 

conservation ownerships, and almost all major examples have been designated as nature reserves 

or conservation sites. The preservation of the over-mature beech resource, including its standing 

deadwood, has been prioritized in support of the saproxylic invertebrates exclusively associated 

with this. 

• Low-intervention high forest – areas where mature beech woodland (natural or planted) is 

allowed to remain with very limited management interventions, usually only amounting to the 

removal of dangerous unstable trees. In some cases this is due to inaccessibly steep terrain or to 

the abandonment of former selection forestry systems on economic grounds. In some cases there 

is an explicit nature conservation or landscape amenity basis for the adoption of low-intervention 

management, both on public and private forest estates. Some privately-owned mature beech 

woodlands are now used for sport – e. g. pheasant shooting. A considerable amount of the mature 

standing beech resource under low-intervention management regimes is in mixture with other 

species, including introduced conifers. The proportion of British beech woodland under low 

intervention management is increasing, particularly in districts where damage by introduced 

grey squirrel reduces productivity. 

129

coNservaTIoN maNaGemeNT oF beech WoodLaNds IN brITaIN 

All woodlands in Great Britain are subject to generic protection through a system of felling regulation 

by the state Forestry Commission. Forestry operations are also influenced by the UK Forestry 

Standard and, on some ownerships, through adherence to the UK Woodland Assurance Scheme (FSC 

compliant certification). All notified fellings of trees beyond the arboricultural scale require felling 

licence approval from the Forestry Commission prior to work being carried out, with a system of legal 

enforcement and sanctions. Felling licences are normally conditional on effective restocking, either 

by natural regeneration or re-planting. Felling licences can be granted for individual silvicultural 

interventions or as a component of approval for the implementation of a Forest Design Plan (public 

forests) or Forest Plan (private forests). It has become very rare in recent years for hardwood stands 

to be felled and restocked with conifer species. However, in the case of planted beech woodlands, 

permission may be granted to change composition to an alternative hardwood species such as oak, or 

to mixed hardwood forestry. Mixed hardwood-conifer stands can be restocked to retain the mix. 

Additional protection is given to what are known as “ancient semi-natural woodlands” in Great Britain. 

These represent the minor proportion of the overall British forest resource that has escaped clearance 

or extensive replanting with non-site-native tree species since at least 1600 AD (England and Wales) 

or 1 50 AD (Scotland). In the case of beech, this would apply to most mature beech woodlands within 

the natural range that have not been cleared since 1600, although it is accepted that in some cases 

planting of beech may have occurred in the past, including with non-local reproductive material 

Map 1: Geographical distribution of beech woodland Special Areas of Conservation (SAC’s) within the 

British natural range 

130

Tab. 3: European-level beech woodland conservation areas (SAC sites) in Great Britain 

Data obtained from published records of the Joint Nature Conservation Committee 

SAC site name Annex I beechwood type Beechwood habitat 

extent (ha) 2 

Aston Rowant 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum1 30 

Burnham Beeches 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 345 

Cardiff Beech Woods 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 53 

Chilterns Beechwoods 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 565 

Cotswold Beechwoods 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 469 

Cwm Clydach Woodlands 9120 Atlantic acidophilous1 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 4 + 21 

Duncton to Bignor Escarpment 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 171 

East Hampshire Hangers 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 266 

Ebernoe Common 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 165 

Epping Forest 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 642 

Mole Gap to Reigate Escarpment 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum1 178 

North Downs Woodlands 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 53 

The Mens 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 142 

The New Forest 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 1,990 + 410 

Windsor Forest and Great Park 9120 Atlantic acidophilous1 273 

Wye Valley Woodlands 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum 190 

Notes: 1. Denotes sites where the beechwood is a qualifying feature but not the primary reason for original 

selection of the site as a candidate Special Area of Conservation (cSAC). 

2. Great Britain is estimated to hold a total of 12,250 ha of natural beechwood habitat conforming to 

the 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum Annex I habitat and 7,250 ha conforming to the 9120 Atlantic acidophilous 

beechwood with u/s Ilex and Taxus Annex I habitat. A further 15,000 - 20,000 ha are thought to conform 

to the broader UK Habitat Action Plan definition for “Lowland Beech and Yew Woodlands”. The remainder 

of British beech woodlands (around 50%) are in plantations, including on the more upland sites. 

(for example from France and Belgium). In these ancient semi-natural woodlands, felling licences 

will rarely be issued for extensive group or clear-fellings, although thinnings to promote natural 

regeneration are permissible. The best examples of ancient semi-natural woodland are designated as 

“Sites of Special Scientific Interest” (SSSI’s), which are protected from a wider range of “Potentially 

Damaging Operations” extending beyond tree felling. Some of these SSSI’s sites have recently been 

incorporated within European-mandated “Special Areas of Conservation” (SAC’s), for some of 

which, beech woodlands are Annex I qualifying habitats. Table 3/Map 1 detail SAC sites, within the 

British natural range, where beech woodland is a qualifying feature, although it may not occupy the 

entire site. SSSI/SAC sites can be under public, private or charitable ownership, and are effectively 

managed on a low-intervention basis equivalent to forest reserves in other countries. Some are small, 

discrete woodland sites, occupying a few hectares, whereas others cover woodland complexes over 

several hundred. Prominent SSSI’s where public access is available are designated “National Nature 

Reserves” (NNR’s), of which a small number feature natural beech woodland ecosystems. Protection 

of SSSI, SAC and NNR sites is administered by devolved public nature-conservation agencies – 

131

Fig. 5: 18th century pollard or bundle-planted beech – south Scotland 

Natural England, Countryside Council for Wales and Scottish Natural Heritage, who have powers of 

regular inspection and monitoring, enforcement and also grant-in-aid allocations. 

Outside the natural range of beech, beech woodland sites would not be eligible for SSSI/SAC status, as 

they are regarded as “long-established plantations” rather than “ancient semi-natural woodlands”. In 

some acid upland oak-birch woodlands, planted beech is regarded as an invasive introduced species, 

potentially threatening to the primary conservation interest. In this it is often considered together 

with Acer pseudoplatanus and Rhododendron ponticum, neither of which is native to the British Isles. 

This applies to several prominent woodland complexes in Wales, northern England and Scotland. 

Here, efforts are made to manually remove young regenerating beech seedlings and saplings, but 

mature and veteran beech trees are often permitted to remain for their inherent landscape and 

deadwood invertebrate values. 

maNaGemeNT oF beech reProducTIve maTerIaL 

WIThIN brITaIN 

Great Britain has not previously operated a formal system of genetic reserves or genetic conservation 

units within existing woodland, as it was considered that the system of Sites of Special Scientific 

Interest (SSSI’s), described earlier, provide for effective conservation of genetic diversity along with 

other components of biodiversity (landscape, structure, species). In recent years the concept of 

formal genetic conservation reserves has been re-evaluated but no decision to proceed with a novel 

system of designations has been implemented to date. 

132

Sourcing of forest reproductive material in Great Britain is controlled by the domestic Forest 

Reproductive Material (FRM) Regulations, which implement relevant European directives. For beech, 

all domestic basic material sold for forestry must come from a source appearing on the Register of 

Basic Material, maintained by the Forestry Commission. Traditionally, much of the beech planting 

stock used in Great Britain has been grown from seed collections from a small number of premier 

stands in mainland Europe (Versailles, Forêt de Soignes etc.) which would equate to the present-day 

“selected seed stand” category of basic material. However, from time-to-time beech reproductive 

material has also been sourced from domestic seed stands. Great Britain is divided into four Regions 

of Provenance (10, 20, 30 and 40), with RoP 40 containing most of the natural range of beech within 

Great Britain (Lines 1999, Hubert, Cundall 2006). 

Great Britain has registered a domestic network of 25 selected seed stands of beech from which 

basic material can potentially be collected for forestry plantings. These are mostly very small stands 

of mature planted beech of notably superior stem form, covering a total area of 11 ha (see Table 

4/Map 2). Although 15 of these stands are geographically located within the natural range of beech 

in Great Britain, none are registered as being of indigenous origin. Of the 25 stands, one is registered 

as of Versailles origin (planted 1680!) while the remainder are of unknown origin. Most are mature 

plantations that will embody both British and Continental European selected provenances from the 

period 1680 – 1920. Due to the low-level of planting of beech for forestry purposes, little seed is now 

taken from these. Nursery production of beech plants is overwhelmingly for landscape amenity and 

horticultural uses. 

Fig. 6: Beech selected seed stand – North Scotland 

133

Tab. 4: Distribution of selected seed stands and 110 elite trees for beech in Britain 

Data relating to selected seed stands obtained from FC Register of Basic Material 

134 

Region of 

provenance 

Number of selected seed 

stands 

Area of selected 

seed stands (ha) 

Number of recorded 

elite trees (in 2007) 

10 (NW) 1 1.5 9 

20 (NE) 4 7.2 43 

30 (SW) 5 5.8 15 

40 (SE) 15 102.5 43 

TOTAL 25 117.0 112 

Notes: 1. It is regarded as quite possible, and desirable, to identify additional elite trees from within Region of 

Provenance 30 (western England and Wales) prior to establishment of any future qualified seed orchard 

for that RoP. 

2. It is unlikely to be possible to identify more than a small number of additional elite trees from Region of 

provenance 10 (western Scotland) and any future qualified seed orchard established for Scotland would 

be likely to have to combine RoP’s 10 and 20. 

3. One site within Region of provenance 40 (Kingscote Wood, Cotswolds) could potentially supply up to 

20 elite trees, but this has been limited to 5 above for representativeness. 

Regions of 

provenance 

Map 2: Geographical distribution of beech selected seed stands and elite trees within Great Britain 

10 

20 

30 

40

Recently the four British Regions of Provenance have been sub-divided into smaller voluntary “local 

seed zones” which can be adhered to for plantings of native trees in or near existing ancient seminatural 

woodlands in order to conserve genetic diversity (Ennos et al. 2000, Herbert, Samuel, 

Patterson 1999, Hubert, Cottrell 200 ). For beech, this consideration would only apply within 

the natural beech range – covered by local seed zones 303, 402, 403, 404, 405. However, due to the 

long history of beech planting, no source-identified basic material for beech has been registered as 

being indigenous to date. Indeed there are currently no source-identified locations within Britain for 

beech. 

Great Britain currently has no qualified or tested sources of beech basic material. A programme of elite 

tree selection, progeny testing and seed orchard establishment for beech was pursued by the Forestry 

Commission in the period 1945 – 1985, but the small seed orchards created at that time have been 

abandoned for many years. Over very recent years there has been revived interest in the improvement 

of hardwood species, with the formation of the collaborative British and Irish Hardwood Improvement 

Programme (BIHIP) (Savill, Fennessy, Samuel 2005). Due to low timber prices, climatic challenges 

and grey squirrel impacts, beech was not selected as an early priority for this programme. However in 

200 a new pre-selection of some 110 elite beech trees was made throughout Great Britain, suitable for 

the future formation of one or more qualified seed orchards, probably by clonal propagation methods 

(Wilson 2008a, b). A similar strategy has been successfully adopted for Betula pendula within the 

BIHIP priority species programmes. 

Fig. 7: Seed collection from beech selected seed stand – North Scotland 

135

esearch PrIorITIes For beech IN brITaIN 

Over the past century a number of lines of active applied research have been pursued with regard 

to beech in Great Britain, both by the research branch of the Forestry Commission (now known as 

Forest Research) and by academic researchers in university forestry departments and government 

research institutes. The main areas of work have been: 

• Plant ecology and site affiliations – early work between the two world wars adopted the 

Continental European phyto-sociological and edaphic approaches, leading essentially to the 

three-fold floristic/edaphic classification of the British beechwoods. Leading researchers in this 

period were Tansley, Watt and Bourne, based at the university forestry departments in Oxford 

and Cambridge (Tansley 1911, 1939, Watt 1923/25, 1931, 1934, Watt, Tansley 1930). The 

Chiltern and Cotswold beechwoods received particular attention. Later woodland ecologists 

such as Peterken and Rodwell have refined the basic classification of the British beech woodland 

communities, providing finer detail (Peterken 1993, Rodwell 1991). 

• establishment and productivity – post Second World War research, based at the Forestry 

Commission’s Alice Holt Research Station, focussed on improving techniques for the establishment 

of new beech crops, particularly on rendzina soils/calcareous grasslands within the British 

natural range. There was also a programme of tree breeding, with early provenance trials, elite 

tree selection, progeny trials and seed orchard establishment (Savill, Fennessy, Samuel 2005). 

Leading Forestry Commission researchers on beech were J. M. B. Brown and D. Fourt (Brown 

1953). Current advice would be to establish beech crops at 2,500 stems/ha or ideally more. Crops 

established at 1,100 stems/ha require intensive pruning to achieve satisfactory timber crops and 

this is rarely applied due to high costs for the required labour inputs. 

• diseases and pests – the long-standing disease of beech in Great Britain was beech bark disease, 

caused by an initial infestation by the felted beech coccus insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga) followed 

by lesion infection with the fungus Nectria coccinea. Together these cause significant canker and 

die-back of beech from the pole-stage onwards and were the subject of research at Alice Holt in the 

19 0s and 1980s (Lonsdale, Wainhouse 198 ). More recently attention has turned to the highly 

aggressive Phytophthora fungus-like pathogens that have become established in western parts of 

Great Britain (Phytophthora ramorum and Phytophthora kernoviae). Although the main hosts for 

these species in Great Britain are ornamental shrub species such as Rhododendron, Azalea, Syringa 

and Pieris, these pathogens have demonstrated an ability to infect beech trees growing in close 

proximity, particularly in the warm-moist climates of south-western Britain. More recently Larix 

kaempferi has been affected in this region. A programme of research is currently being pursued, 

led by Forest Research at Alice Holt, to develop avoidance and mitigation measures for these new 

diseases across a range of tree species. Grey squirrels remain the main mammalian pest of beech 

within its British native range, causing significant bark stripping damage, especially at the poletimber 

stage. This species was introduced to Britain in the 1800s and has since spread widely, 

displacing the native, and less damaging, red squirrel. A variety of research and development 

approaches has been pursued to enable effective control of grey squirrels in the forestry context 

by trapping and to examine the potential applicability of immuno-contraception. 

• drought damage and die-back – since the severe summer droughts of 19 5 – 19 6, increasing 

evidence has been found of mature beech within the British natural range suffering apparent 

drought damage (Peterken, Mountford 1996). This leads to crown recession and partial 

136

defoliation, and in severe cases, stem lesions and mortality (Innes 1988, Power, Ashmore, 

Ling 1995, Stribley 2005). The Forestry Commission forest condition monitoring programmes 

detected such damage through the 1980s and 1990s when there were several episodes of 

atypically severe summer drought. The risks to beech are highest on shallow or sandy soils with 

Fig. 8: European-scale beech provenance trial – Northmoor Trust 

Fig. 9: Beech provenance trial – planted early 1950‘s – south Scotland 

13

138 

a low available water capacity and on poorly-drained clay soils where a high winter water-table 

can truncate beech root runs. Low-level ozone pollution from vehicle exhausts may exacerbate 

the impacts on beech by restricting stomatal closure during drought episodes, and there may 

be interactions with the periodic beech mast (Matthews 1955). Recently, increment coring 

techniques have been used to investigate these effects by studying ring-width patterns in mature 

beech over the past four decades (Wilson et al. 2008). 

• climate-change impacts – there has been increasing concern over recent years as to the potential 

impacts of predicted climate change on beech populations in Britain, particularly within the 

natural range in southern England (Broadmeadow, Ray, Samuel 2005). Climates within this 

region are already prone to summer soil moisture deficits due to low annual rainfall (locally 

500 – 600 mm) and extended periods of drought. Summer droughts are predicted to become 

more frequent and severe over the next rotation under future climate scenarios considered by 

the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP). Analyses using information about the climatic 

tolerances of beech (for example the Ellenberg beech quotient) have indicated that beech may 

suffer decreases in vigour and yield performance in parts of its British natural range within this 

time period, with local mortality on vulnerable soil types, following episodes of severe summer 

drought (Wilson 2006, Wilson et al. 2008). Air pollution may also be a contributory factor. This 

has implications both for its suitability for timber production and for the conservation of Annex 

I lowland beech woodland habitat types (Wesche 2003). Consideration is being given to the 

refugial potential of beechwoods in the British uplands, beyond the current natural range, which 

may be less vulnerable to climatic change (Wilson 2006). This may promote changes to nature 

conservation policy and practice in upland beech and other woodlands. 

• Provenance trials – to address climatic challenges to beech, Great Britain is currently participating 

in European-level beech provenance trial series, with two active fully replicated trial sites located 

within the British natural range of beech in south eastern England. These trials are under 15 years 

of age. There are also some smaller, more weakly replicated, trials of European beech provenances, 

stemming from the early 1950s, which are amenable to rapid mid-rotation re-assessment at the 

present time. 

seLecT bIbLIoGraPhy oF brITIsh beech 

Avery B. W. 1958. A sequence of beechwood soils on the Chiltern hills, England. Journal of Soil 

Science, 9: 210-224. 

Birks H. J. B. 1989. Holocene isochrone maps and patterns of tree-spreading in the British Isles. 

Journal of Biogeography, 16: 503-540. 

Broadmeadow M. S. J., Ray D., Samuel C. J. A. 2005. Climate change and the future for broadleaved 

tree species in Britain. Forestry, 8/2: 145-162. 

Brown J. M. B. 1953. Studies on British beechwoods. Forestry Commission Bulletin 20. London, 

Forestry Commission. 

Ennos R., Worrell R., Arkle P., Malcolm D. 2000. Genetic variation and conservation of British 

native trees and shrubs: current knowledge and policy implications. Forestry Commission 

Technical Paper 31. Edinburgh, Forestry Commission.

Herbert R., Samuel S., Patterson G. 1999. Using local stock for planting native trees and shrubs. 

Forestry Commission Practice Note 8. Edinburgh, Forestry Commission. 

Hubert J., Cundall E. 2006. Choosing provenance in broadleaved trees. Forestry Commission 

Information Note 82. Edinburgh, Forestry Commission. 

Hubert J., Cottrell J. 200 . The role of forest genetic resources in helping British forests respond to 

climate change. Forestry Commission Information Note 8 . Edinburgh, Forestry Commission. 

Innes J. L. 1988. An assessment of the use of crown condition for the determination of the health of 

beech (Fagus sylvatica). Forestry, 1: 113-130. 

Lines R. 1999. Seed origins of oak and beech used by the Forestry Commission from 1920 to 1990. 

Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 93/3: 1 1-1 . 

Lonsdale D., Wainhouse D. 198 . Beech bark disease. Forestry Commission Bulletin 69. Edinburgh, 

Forestry Commission. 

Matthews J. D. 1955. The influence of weather on the frequency of beech mast years in England. 

Forestry, 28: 10 -116. 

Peterken G. F. 1993. Woodland Conservation and Management. 2nd edition. London, Chapman 

and Hall. 

Peterken G. F., Mountford E. P. 1996. Effects of drought in Lady Park Wood, an unmanaged 

mixed deciduous woodland. Forestry, 69: 125-136. 

Power S. A., Ashmore M. R., Ling K. A. 1995. Recent trends in beech tree health in southern 

Britain and the influence of soil type. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 85: 1293-1298. 

Rackham O. 2003. Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England. Dalbeattie, 

Castlepoint Press. 

Read H. J., Wheater C. P., Forbes V., Young J. 2010. The current status of ancient pollard beech 

trees at Burnham Beeches and evaluation of recent restoration work. Quarterly Journal of 

Forestry, 104/2: 109-120. 

Rodwell J. S. (ed.) 1991. British Plant Communities. 1. Woodlands and Scrub. Publication of the 

National Vegetation Classification (NVC). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 

Savill P. S., Fennessy J., Samuel C. J. A. 2005. Approaches in Great Britain and Ireland to the 

genetic improvement of broadleaved trees. Forestry, 8/2: 163-1 3. 

Stribley G. H. 2005. Decline in the health of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) trees in southern England 

monitored from 1989 to 2002. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 99: 193-200. 

Tansley A. G. 1911. Types of British Vegetation. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 

Tansley A. G. 1939. The British Islands and their Vegetation. Cambridge, Cambridge University 

Press. 

Watt A. S. 1923/25. On the ecology of British beechwoods, with special reference to their regeneration. 

Journal of Ecology, 11: 1-48; 12: 145-204; 13: 2 - 3. 

Watt A. S. 1931. Preliminary observations on Scottish beechwoods. Journal of Ecology, 19: 13 -15 , 

321-359. 

139

Watt A. S. 1934. The vegetation of the Chiltern hills, with special reference to the beechwoods and 

their seral relationships. Journal of Ecology, 22: 230-2 0, 445-50 . 

Watt A. S., Tansley A. G. 1930. British Beechwoods. In: Fifth International Botanical Congress 

Abstract of Communications, p. 105-114. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 

Wesche S. 2003. The implications of climate change for the conservation of beech woodlands and 

associated flora in the UK. English Nature Research Report No. 528. Peterborough, English 

Nature. 

Wilson S. McG. 2006. The European beech in Scotland: history, distribution and ecological potential. 

Scottish Forestry, 60/4: 4-13. 

Wilson S. McG. 2008a. Potential to produce improved beech planting stock for use in Britain. 

Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 102/1: 35-43. 

Wilson S. McG. 2008b. Locating superior stands and individuals of beech in Scotland for future tree 

breeding programmes. Scottish Forestry, 62/1: 18-24. 

Wilson S. McG., Broadmeadow M., Sanders T. G., Pitman R. 2008. Effect of summer drought 

on the increment of beech trees in southern England. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 102/2: 111- 

120. 

For information with respect to the designation and conservation of beech woodland Special Areas 

of Conservation, refer to www.jncc.gov.uk. 

For information with respect to the GB National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees (NIWT) and the 

GB National Forest Inventory (NFI), refer to www.forestry.gov.uk/inventory 

For information with respect to the control of beech reproductive material in Great Britain, including 

details of selected Registered Seed Stands, refer to www.forestry.gov.uk/frm 

For information with respect to research into genetic conservation and tree improvement for British 

beech, refer to www.forestry.gov.uk/research and www.bihip.org 

contacts: 

Dr. Scott McG. Wilson MICFor 

Consultant Forester and Forest Ecologist 

3 Thorngrove Crescent, Aberdeen AB15 FH, Scotland, UK. 

e- mail: scottmcgwilson@hotmail.com 

140 

Reviewed

curreNT sTaTus oF GeNeTIc resources oF beech 

IN Greece 

KONSTANTINOS SPANOS – DIONYSIOS GAITANIS 

N. AG. RE. F. - Forest Research Institute, Gr-5 006 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece 

absTracT 

The presented work provides an overview of beech forests in Greece. Information on natural 

distribution of beech and country data are given. Information on the ecology of beech genetics and 

management of its genetic resources is also provided as well as the importance of beech at present 

and in the former times. Information on silviculture, propagation and forest management are also 

highlighted. Type and quality of wood products, volume of standing timber and of wood harvested 

are summarized. General information on health status, general conditions and threats to beech 

and its genetic resources and indications of recent climatic impacts on beech forests are provided. 

Further particularities including scientific studies on beech, the most important problems of beech 

ecosystems and sustainable silviculture are provided. 

Key words: European beech, Oxia (in Hellenic), overview, beech forests, taxonomy, genetics, 

ecology, sustainable silviculture, wood production, forest management 

NaTuraL dIsTrIbuTIoN oF beech 

The mountains of Greece are well known for their rich flora and high biodiversity including many 

endemic species (Dafis 19 3, Strid 1989, Strid, Kit 1991, Dimopoulos, Bergmeier 1998, 

Dimopoulos et al. 1995, Fady-Welterlen 2005). In Greece, beech ecosystems are very dispersed 

on the high mountains (Fig. 1), growing on a variety of sites which harbor a rich biodiversity. Beech 

forests represent about 10.02% (336,600 ha) of the total high forests of Greece and most of these, 

around 80%, are state forests. Beech grows in the mountains of N, NW, and E Greece, on the Pindos 

Mountain range up to Mountain Oxia in the central part of the country (Moulopoulos 1961, 1965, 

Spanos 2010). Altitudinally, it grows from 180 m a. s. l (Kentavros Mountain – Xanthi) up to 1,600 

– 2,000 m a. s. l. (mountains of Pindos, Olympos and Oxia). Beech forests have been evaluated 

systematically by Moulopoulos (1961, 1965) and Dafis (19 3, 1990). According to Moulopoulos 

(1961, 1965), beech forests are composed of Fagus sylvatica, Fagus moesiaca and Fagus orientalis. 

Horizontally, Fagus sylvatica is mainly distributed in the central and western mountainous parts of 

the country, Fagus orientalis in the forests of the eastern parts and Fagus moesiaca in almost all beech 

forests. Vertically, Fagus orientalis is found on lower altitudes (180 – 1,000 m a. s. l.), Fagus sylvatica 

in the higher and colder parts (up to 1,100 – 2,000 m a. s. l.) whereas Fagus moesiaca in all altitudinal 

ranges of beech (Dafis 19 3, 1990). Past studies (Moulopoulos 1961, 1965) have shown that 

Fagus orientalis is better adapted to relatively drier conditions whereas Fagus sylvatica prefers colder 

environments. It has been suggested that Fagus moesiaca is a hybrid (Fagus ×moesiaca) of Fagus 

141

sylvatica and Fagus orientalis or represents populations of Fagus sylvatica adapted to intermediate 

site conditions (Moulopoulos 1965). Other studies (e. g. Gömöry et al. 1999) have suggested that 

populations of the putative taxon of Fagus moesiaca from the Balkan Peninsula seem to form an 

independent group. In recent studies, based on morphological and molecular variation, and Flora 

books (e. g. Strid 1989, Strid, Kit 1991) the two species are considered as subspecies of the cluster 

species Fagus sylvatica (e. g. Fagus sylvatica subsp. sylvatica and Fagus sylvatica subsp. orientalis). 

Fig. 1: Map showing distribution of beech in Greece 

In Greece, beech is considered as a cold resistant species, it requires rich (in humus and nutrients) 

and humid soils, high air humidity and average mild climate close to Atlantic conditions. The climate 

where beech grows belongs to the mountainous supra-Mediterranean climate, characterized by high 

annual precipitation, high relative humidity and short dry periods (Dafis 1969, Athanasiadis 

1985, 1986, Anon. 1991, 1996, Spanos et al. 1998, Larsson 2001). Beech forests belong to the subzone 

Fagion moesiacae (beech forests) of the Fagetalia (mixed beech-fir and mountainous supra- 

Mediterranean conifers) forest vegetation zone (Fig. 2). 

142

Fagetalia 

(Fagetum) 

Abietion cephalonica Abietum cephalonicae 

Abietion cephalonica 

– Abietum borsii regis 

– Abieti – Fagetum 

– Fagetum moesiacae 

– Fagetum submontanum 

– Fagetum montanum 

– Fagetum subalpinum 

Fig. 2: Diagram showing the beech-fir forest vegetation zone (Fagetalia) (DAFIS 1973, ATHANASIADIS 1985) 

ecoLoGy oF beech (cLImaTe, sITe/sea LeveL, soILs), mIXTure 

WITh oTher sPecIes 

Phytosociological studies for the beech forests of Chalkidiki, Pieria Mt., Ossa Mt., Pilion Mt. and 

central Pindos mountain range have distinguished beech forests into six phyto-sociological units 

corresponding to six site quality types which have been classified into three groups as following 

(Dafis 1969): 

• Site types I and II: here beech shows the maximum productive capacity. However, regeneration 

in this site type is suppressed due to the intense ground vegetation. To enhance and help natural 

regeneration, a series of shelterwood cuttings on large areas (for even-aged stand structure) or in 

small groups expanded (for uneven-aged stands) should be carried out. 

• Site types III and IV: in these types, beech shows sufficient productivity. Natural regeneration 

develops relatively well because of the reduced competition from the ground vegetation. 

• Site types V and VI: these types are mainly occurring on the hills and drier slopes. Beech stands 

here show low productivity and poor timber quality. In such sites the introduction of less 

demanding conifers (e. g. Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra) as a proportion of 60 – 80% is recommended. 

The chorological significance of beech forests in Greece is reflected by many species of boreal, 

central European and temperate distribution, some of which are just reaching the southernmost 

limits in Greece (e. g. Luzula luzuloides, Paris quadrifolia, Millium effusum, Corallorhiza trifida) 

(Dimopoulos, Bergmeier 1998, Dimopoulos et al. 2005). According to the geographical pattern of 

beech forests the following groups/types can be distinguished: (a) western types (N, C and S Pindos), 

(b) eastern types (EC and NC Greece), (c) northern types (Varnous to Rodopi), and (d) northeastern 

types of F. sylvatica ssp. orientalis (E. Rodopi). Occurrence of taxa at their southernmost distribution 

limits is often vulnerable status and may require effective conservation (in situ) within beech forests 

(Medail, Quezel 199 , Dimopoulos, Bergmeier 1998, Spanos, Feest 200 ). In Greece, beech 

forest soil contained the highest N content in comparison to conifers and many other broadleaved 

species (Kavvadias et al. 2001, Michopoulos, Baloutsos, Economou 200 ) thus recognizing 

beech an important species for soil improvement. 

143

GeNeTIcs: TaXoNomy, GeNeTIc resources, LeGIsLaTIoN, 

maNaGemeNT aWareNess oF The GeNeTIc resources oF beech, 

area oF iN situ, EX situ reserves, commoN GardeN TesTs 

Taxonomy of beech in Greece: F. sylvatica L., Sp. Pl.: 998 (1 53) ssp. sylvatica (recorded from Europe). 

2n = 22 and 24. Syn.: F. moesiaca (K. Maly) Czecz. in Roczn. Polsk. Towarsz. Dendrol. 5: 96 (1993), 

p.p. It is closely related to F. sylvatica ssp. orientalis (Lipsky) Greuter and Burdet in Willdenowia 

11: 2 9 (1981), described from NW Iran. Typical ssp. orientalis from N. Iran and NC Turkey can be 

distinguished from ssp. sylvatica on the following characters (Moulopoulos 1965, Strid 1989): leaf 

size/shape and number of veins, cupula size and shape of scales. Beech stands show high differentiation 

in Greece. Various forms called F. moesiaca (K. Maly) Czecz. with intermediate leaves (between the 

two species) can be found throughout the range of ssp. sylvatica but are more frequent in the Balkan 

Peninsula and in NW Anatolia (Turkey) where the two subspecies meet. The shape and the size of 

the male perianth (diagnostic character) vary within the subspecies and even in the same tree and 

the same inflorescence (Moulopoulos 1965, Strid 1989, 1991). Another diagnostic character of 

ssp. orientalis is the spathulate cupula scales (Moulopoulos 1965, Athanasiadis 1986). In Europe, 

beech trees with such scales are found in SE Bulgaria, Romania and European part of Turkey. In 

Greece, and particularly in the north-eastern part of the country, some trees resemble ssp. orientalis 

in vegetative characters, but never have clear dilated cupula scales (Strid 1989). Such phenotypes 

usually grow at relatively low altitude (200 – 1,000 m), whereas typical ssp. sylvatica is mainly found 

in the western and central parts and rarely below 1,000 m (Moulopoulos 1965, Strid, Kit 1991). 

The two subspecies are considered typical geographical races, and have a broad range of intermediate 

forms in the zone of contact (Moulopoulos 1965, Strid, Kit 1991). Recent studies based on leaf 

morphological characters (e. g. Boutsios et al. 2004) and molecular markers (e. g. Vidali et al. 

2005) have shown an increased genetic diversity in beech populations from NE and E Greece (Thraki 

region) in comparison to other parts of the country, and suggested a possible meeting of the two 

subspecies (F. sylvatica ssp. sylvatica and F. sylvatica ssp. orientalis) at this location. 

The seed stands of beech have been selected according to EEC and OECD/international rules and 

terminology (E.E.C. 1966, O.E.C.D. 196 , Barner, Koster 19 6, Matziris 1989). Beech selected 

seed stands are shown in Table 1 along with the parameters: latitude, longitude, altitude, mean annual 

temperatures, mean annual rainfall, summer rainfall and bedrock (E.E.C. 1966, Mavrommatis 1980, 

Matziris 1989). In the description of each stand other details are also given (e. g. prefecture, village, 

site name, local forest service). 

Tab. 1: Fagus sylvatica selected seed stands in Greece 

Species and 

provenance 

144 

Stand 

no. 

Latitude Longitude Altitude 

(m) 

Mean annual 

temperature 

(°C) 

Mean annual 

rainfall 

(mm) 

Summer 

rainfall 

Bedrock 

Fagus sylvatica 

Aridaia 59 41° 07‘ 22° 05‘ 1,400 - 746 133 granite 

Konitsa 60 40° 05‘ 20° 41‘ 1,750 10.8 1,000 150 flysch 

Drama 61 41° 22‘ 24° 34‘ 1,450 8.8 1,020 205 granite

Regions of provenances: 

The whole country has been divided into five provenance regions based on the number of biologically 

dry (lack of growth) days (Mavrommatis 1980, Matziris 1989): 

– Region GR-1/100–150: means the region characterized by 100 – 150 biologically dry days 

– Region GR-2/ 5–100: means the region characterized by 5 – 100 biologically dry days 

– Region GR-3/40– 5: means the region characterized by 40 – 5 biologically dry days 

– Region GR-4/1–40: means the region characterized by 1 – 40 biologically dry days 

– Region GR-5/0: means the region characterized by zero (0) biologically dry days 

The location of beech seed stands in Greece is also shown in Figure 3. 

Fig. 3: Map showing the beech seed stands (register) in Greece (MATZIRIS 1989) 

The above mentioned three seed stands of Fagus sylvatica are considered sufficient to represent 

pure Fagus sylvatica material of best provenances for reforestation/afforestation demands in Greece. 

However, in case of future demands (reforestation/afforestation works) for drier climates and lower 

altitudes or to compete with the climate change, well adapted (dry conditions) provenances of the 

ssp. orientalis (e. g. from lower altitudes in Central-East and Eastern Greece) can be selected. 

In general, in Greece, regeneration of beech is achieved by natural regeneration and there are no 

artificial plantations of beech, since beech seedlings‘ growth is limited without protection from 

the mother stand. Occasionally, beech is planted in State forests – seed collected from registered 

or local seed stands, in gaps (under shelterwood) where natural regeneration has failed. There are 

145

no provenance trials due to the above mentioned reasons, but it is recommended to consider a 

well-planned program of provenance trials for local adaptation (e. g. see FRAXIGEN 2005) and 

adaptation to climate change. Finally, sufficient research has been done on taxonomy and genetics of 

beech, and this can support political decisions to ensure sustainable management and future survival 

of beech ecosystems. 

ImPorTaNce oF beech IN ForesTry curreNTLy aNd IN Former 

TImes 

Beech forests produce valuable technical, industrial and fuel wood. Before the 19 0s, beech forests have 

been used by local people for fuel wood and technical wood, grazing of domestic animals, mushroom 

and nut collection and hunting. Due to the past over-exploitation many beech stands have been 

degraded or converted into coppice forests. At the present time, most of the beech forests are under 

sustainable forest management and most of them have been converted into high forests (Fig. 4), and 

are considered of high value while serving the multiple-purpose functions of wood production, non 

wood products, water quality, ecosystem roles and rare/vulnerable taxa conservation. Additionally, 

some beech forests are part of national parks (e. g. Olympos Mt., Pindos Mt.) while most of them 

share part of most NATURA areas, and therefore they are of high conservation value. Beech forests 

are considered highly important, the stands in good sites are sufficiently productive and their wood 

is more valuable than that of conifers. Furthermore, beech stands are the most valuable resource for 

water quality protection and provide high social services (e. g. recreation, aesthetics, hunting). 

Fig. 4: A degraded beech stand converted into high forest (Chalkidiki, Greece) 

146

sILvIcuLTure, reGeNeraTIoN, ForesT maNaGemeNT 

cultivation (thinning and tending) 

Beech stands require continuous intensive silvicultural treatment by removing poorly-formed and 

less vigorous individuals while focusing on the best trees (Dafis 1969, 1990, Bassiotis 19 2). 

Cultivation treatments required: 

– Tending of new growth 

– Thinning of dense growth 

– Cultivation of young stands (young stems) 

Treatment of degraded stands 

Uneven-aged beech stands with many gaps, often heavily degraded, must be rehabilitated quickly, 

and converted into mixed (seed originated), usually in age classes of even-aged stands. In such cases 

grazing is prohibited, gaps are planted with appropriate tree species (depending upon site conditions 

– beech, oak, pine, spruce, maple), the mature groups of beech are regenerated and existing new 

growth/dense growth and young stands are thinned, favouring various noble hardwoods. 

Natural regeneration 

Beech is highly tolerant of shading, the most tolerant of all broadleaved species in Greece. Natural 

regeneration of beech should be directed to result in: (a) uneven-aged stands mixed with conifers, 

oaks or noble hardwoods, and (b) pure even-aged stands or stands of mixed ageclasses. 

Regeneration methods 

• Regeneration using shelterwood cuttings in strips parallel to stand edge lines 

• Regeneration in small groups of uneven-aged stands 

• Regeneration without strict rules of spatial planning (degraded stands) 

TyPe aNd QuaLITy oF Wood aNd oTher ProducTs 

Beech can produce significant amount of round wood, which is higher in comparison to other 

broadleaves and conifers. Beech can also produce significant quantities of fuel wood (Spanos 2010). 

The wood of beech is of average quality, uniform without showing distinctive heartwood, slightly 

elastic, easily split, relatively heavy and hard but easily workable. Beech forests produce technical, 

industrial and fuel wood. Stem treatment of beech wood can improve wood quality and mechanical 

properties. It is used in furniture, the panel industry, barrel making, railway lines‘ support and handtools. 

The industrial wood is used for panel and paper pulp production. It is also used for charcoal 

production. 

cover area, amouNT oF sTaNdING TImber, amouNT oF Wood 

harvesTed 

In Greece the ownership status of forests is: 65.5% – State forests, 12.0% – communal, 8.0% – private, 

and 14.5% has some other status (e. g. owned by monasteries, mixed status: state/private, state/ 

communal). The coniferous forests cover 42.5 % of the total forests whereas the broadleaves 5 .43%. 

Beech forests count 1 .5% (336,600 ha) of the total broadleaves or 10.02% of the total high forests. 

14

The total stock volume of beech forests is 30,43 ,000 m 3 (overbark volume) or 90.41 m 3 /ha average for 

all beech forests (but it can produce more than 10 m 3 /ha on good sites- rotation age 100 – 120 years) 

and the annual net growth (increment) is 2.8 m 3 /ha on average. The total stock volume of beech 

forest is about 50% of that of the total broadleaves or 21.1% of the total high forests. The wood 

production of beech stands (high forests) is lower than that of fir (Abies spp.) and Norway spruce 

(Picea abies). The above ground wood volume of 100-year-old beech stands (first site quality class) 

can reach 660 m 3 .ha –1 , whereas that of fir is 1,200 m 3 .ha –1 and of spruce averaged at 1,160 m 3 .ha –1 . The 

wood volume of coppice beech stands at age of 35 years (first site quality class) is calculated to 220 

m 3 .ha –1 . The net mean annual increment of beech stands (high forests) is estimated to 3.4% (Ministry 

of Agriculture 1992, 2000). 

heaLTh sTaTus aNd ImPorTaNT dIseases aNd INsecTs, 

GeNeraL coNdITIoN oF beech ForesTs, ThreaTs To beech 

aNd ITs GeNeTIc resources, INdIcaTIoNs oF receNT cLImaTIc 

ImPacTs oN The beech ForesTs 

In general, beech stands are considered resistant to biotic attacks (fungi, insects, animals). The fungus 

Phytophthora omnivora attacks young seedlings after germination, the fungus Nectria ditissima 

causes cancers in the stems, whereas the fungi Polyporus igniarius and Fomes fomentarius can attack 

the wood. Insect attacks are in general not harmful. Insects that may attack beech are Melolontha 

vulgaris, Agrillus viridis, orchestes fagi. Early regeneration can suffer damages from mice, small and 

large mammals. Beech stands can be damaged if directly exposed to sun radiation (bark-burning), 

and may also suffer wind and snow damages. During the last 20 – 30 years, due to the reduction of 

grazing pressure (mainly sheep and goats), beech forests are expanding and competing with other 

species (e. g. oaks, chestnut, fir) particularly in cold and humid areas (usually in northern exposures) 

in the high mountains. 

The recent drought conditions (last 20 – 30 years) can cause die-back (after long dry summers) and 

death of beech trees (medium age and old trees). However, the threat is still not serious since beech 

is a very competitive species in cool and humid environments with deep soils. Furthermore, beech is 

the most shade tolerant species in Greece and can grow in the understorey of other species (e. g. fir, 

spruce) and is able to create mixed stands with conifers or pure beech stands depending upon site 

conditions. Land use change is not a threat for beech, since it usually grows on high mountains where 

human pressure is not so heavy. In contrast, most of the mountain villages and agricultural land 

(farms, pastures) have been abandoned and taken over by forestry through natural afforestation. 

FurTher ParTIcuLarITIes 

In general, the beech forests in Greece produce low amount of technical wood (sawn timber) and 

most of it is used for fuel wood, charcoal production or wood for industrial use (e. g. particle-board, 

MDF, paper pulp) (Spanos 2010). To increase technical wood production there is a need to convert 

all coppice and degraded stands into even-aged or uneven-aged seedling stands (high forests) aiming 

at production of good quality and trunks free from branches. Conversion of all coppice stands into 

high/seedling forests, well-planned cultivation (all stage thinnings), enrichment with conifers (e. g. 

Abies spp., Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra, Pinus leucodermis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix 

148

decidua), oaks (Quercus spp.) or noble hardwoods (e. g. Acer spp., Prunus avium, Fraxinus spp., 

Castanea sativa, Sorbus spp., Juglans regia, Tilia spp.) are of highest priority. Although most of the 

beech forests form part of the National Parks and the NATURA areas and gene conservation stands, 

apart from the three seed stands mentioned above, others have not yet been selected. A well-planned 

program for establishment of gene conservation stands is considered worthwhile as safeguard against 

forest fires and climate change. This is an easy but very important task, since the Forest Service in 

Greece has all necessary data on beech forests. 

reFereNces 

Anon. 1991. CORINE biotopes manual. Habitats of the European Community. Data specifications 

– Part 2, EUR 1258 /3 EN. 

Anon. 1996. Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats. Version EUR 15, EC DG XI, 103 

pp. 

Athanasiadis N. 1985. Forest Phytosociology. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, 

Giachoudi-Giapouli Pupl.: 119 p. (in Hellenic). 

Athanasiadis N. 1986. Forest Botany. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, 

Giachoudi-Giapouli Pupl.: 309 p. (in Hellenic). 

Barner H., Koster R. 19 6. Terminology and definitions to be used in certification schemes for 

the forest reproductive material. In: XVI IUFRO World Congress, Division II, Norway, proc., 

p. 1 4-191. 

Bassiotis K. 19 2. Lessons of Special Applied Silviculture. Thessaloniki, Greece. 

Bohn U. 1995. Structure and content of the vegetation map of Europe (scale 1 : 2.5 million) with 

reference to its relevance to the project entitled “European Vegetation Survey” Annali di Botanica, 

53: 143-149. 

Boutsios S., Tsiripidis I., Papageorgiou A., Galatsidas S. 2004. Diversity of beech leaves 

morphological traits in Rodopi. In: 1st Panhellenic Environmental Conference on “Current 

Environmental Problems”, Nea Orestiada, May – 9, 2004 (in Hellenic with English summary), 

Proc., p. 56- 61. 

Dafis S. 1969. Stathmological studies in beech forests. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of 

Thessaloniki, Scientific Annals of School of Agriculture and Forestry: 48 p. (in Hellenic with 

German summary). 

Dafis S. 19 3. Classification of forest vegetation of Greece. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of 

Thessaloniki, Scientific Annals of School of Agriculture and Forestry: 5-88 (in Hellenic). 

Dafis S. 1990. Silvicultural treatment of beech forests. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of 

Thessaloniki, Scientific Annals of the Department of Forestry and Natural Environment: 115-150 

(in Hellenic with German summary). 

Dimopoulos P., Bergmeier E. 1998. Chorology and synchorology of beech forests in Greece. In: 

Proc. th Scientific Conference, Hellenic Botanical Society, October 1 – 4, 1998, Alexandroupolis, 

96-101 (in Hellenic with English summary). 

Dimopoulos P., Bergmeier E., Theodoropoulos K., Fischer P., Tsiafouli M. 2005. Monitoring 

guide for habitat types and plant species in the NATURA 2000 sites of Greece with Management 

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Institutions. Agrinio, Greece, Univ. of Ioannina and Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, 

Physical Planning & Puplic Works: 1 2 p. (in Hellenic with English summary). 

E.E.C. 1966. On the marketing of forest reproductive material. Official Journal of the European 

Communities, 66/404. 

Fady-Welterlen B. 2005. Is there really more biodiversity in Mediterranean forest ecosystems? 

Taxon, 54/4: 905-910. 

FRAXIGEN 2005. Ash species in Europe: biological characteristics and practical guidelines for 

sustainable use. Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, UK, 128 p. 


phylogeny of beech on the Balkan Peninsula. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 12: 46- 54. 

Kavvadias V., Alifragis D., Tsiontsis A., Brofas G., Stamatelos G. 2001. Litterfall, litter 

accumulation and litter decomposition rates in four forest ecosystems in northern Greece. Forest 

Ecology and Management, 144: 113-12 . 

Larsson T. B. 2001. Biodiverity evaluation tools for European forests. Ecological Bulletins, 50: 23 . 

Matziris D. 1989. Forest reproductive material in Greece – I. Forest seed stands. Dassiki Erevna, 

10/1: 5-9 (in Hellenic with English summary). 

Mavrommatis G. 1980. The bioclimate of Greece. Correlations of climate and natural vegetation 

– bioclimatic maps. Dassiki Erevna,Vol. I, Appendix, Athens, Greece (in Hellenic with English 

summary). 

Medail F., Quezel P. 199 . Hot-spots analysis for conservation of plant biodiversity in the 

Mediterranean basin. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 84/1: 112-2 . 

Michopoulos P., Baloutsos G., Economou A. 200 . Nitrogen cycling in a mature mountainous 

beech forest. Silva Fennica, 42/1: 5- . 

Ministry of Agriculture 1992. Results of First National Inventory of Forests, 134 p. 

Ministry of Agriculture 2000. Criteria and indicators for the sustainable forest management in 

Greece, 101 p. (Hellenic with English summary). 

Moulopoulos C. 1961. Classes of Applied Silviculture. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of 

Thessaloniki, School of Agriculture and Forestry: 109-129 (in Hellenic). 

Moulopoulos C. 1965. The beech forests of Greece – Part A: The beech species and their distribution 

in Greece. Thessaloniki, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, Scientific Annals of School 

of Agriculture and Forestry: 88 p. (in Hellenic with English summary). 

O.E.C.D. 196 . Scheme for the control of forest reproductive material moving to international trade, 

Paris. 

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of the workshop and MC Meeting of the COST Action E52. “Evaluation of Beech Genetic 

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Institute: 133 p. 

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Greece. BEAR Technical Report no. 3., /www.algonet.se/-bear. 

Strid A. 1989. Mountain Flora of Greece, 1. Newcastle. Athenaeoum Press. 

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Vidali A., Papageorgiou A., Gailing O., Tsiripidis I., Finkeldey R. 2005. Genetic diversity and 

possible evolution of four beech populations in Rodopi. In: Proceedings from 12th Panhellenic 

Forestry Conference on “Forest and water: Protection of Natural Environment”, Drama, October 

2 – 5, 2005 (in Hellenic with English summary), p. 51-58. 

contacts: 

Dr. Konstantinos Spanos 

N. AG. RE. F. - Forest Research Institute 

Gr-5 006 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece 

tel.: +30 2310 4611 1 (2, 3), fax: +30 2310 461341 

e-mail: kspanos@fri.gr; kspa@fri.gr 

Reviewed 

151

curreNT sTaTus oF euroPeaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNeTIc resources IN huNGary 

152 

ernő Führer 1 – CSABA MÁTYÁS 2 – GYÖRGY CSÓKA 3 – FERENC LAKATOS 2 – 

SÁNDOR BORDÁCS 4 – LÁSZLÓ NAGY 5 – ERVIN RASZTOVITS 2 

1 Forest Research Institute, HU-1023 Budapest, Frankel L. u. 42-44., Hungary 

2 University of West Hungary, HU-9400 Sopron, Bajcsy Zs. u. 4., Hungary 

3 Forest Research Institute, HU-3232 Mátrafüred, Hegyalja u. 18., Hungary 

4 Central Agricultural Office, Dept. of Forest and Biomass Reproductive 

Material, HU-1024 Budapest, Hungary 

5 Forest Research Institute, HU-9601 Sárvár Várkerület 30/30, Hungary 

absTracT 

Most occurrences of beech in Hungary are submontane beech forests occupying the Hungarian 

Middle Mountains and the hills of the southwest. Provenance tests indicate the comparatively 

vigorous growth of Hungarian provenances. They are among the early flushing sources. The use of 

Hungarian provenances may increase with the growing interest in drought-tolerant reproductive 

material. A network of registered gene reserves has been selected, totalling about 50 hectares. The 

species reaches the limit of its warm-temperate distribution throughout Hungary and this exposure 

will increase with expected climatic changes. The gradually growing moisture deficit has already led 

to severe health decline and emergence of serious pests and diseases in Hungarian beech forests since 

the 1990s. Regarding the stability and future of beech ecosystems, long-term strategy of both forest 

management and nature conservation has to take into account the quantitative forecasts of genetic 

tests. 

Key words: European beech, közönséges bükk (in Hungarian), provenance test, phenology, xeric 

limits, pests and diseases, gene reserve 

dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN huNGary 

Out of the 20.3% of land covered by forests, beech currently occupies 10 ,940 ha, which amounts to 

5.9% of the forest area (CAO 2008). The occurrence of beech is characteristically restricted to areas, 

where the humidity is high enough and the heat regime is well balanced (Fig. 1). It may be suspected 

that in earlier centuries its distribution was wider, especially in the Western half of Transdanubia. 

While beech forests gave way to agricultural land use at low elevations, in less accessible areas beech 

forests remained in close to natural state. Forest inventory data show that during the last century the 

area of beech remained stable and even increased slightly in certain regions (Mátyás 2002). 

While the altitudinal occurrence is stretching from the lowlands up to 1,000 metres above sea level, 

the vast majority of the beech stands in Hungary can be found between 200 and 500 m. The lowest

elevation where beech occurs is extrazonal, in the upper valley of the Drava river, due to favourable 

microclimatic conditions (South-West Hungary, altitude ca. 120 m a. s. l.). It is very obvious that in 

Hungary beech is reaching the limit of its continental, warm-temperate distribution at most locations 

and this exposure will increase with expected climatic changes. 

beech IN characTerIsTIc ForesT assocIaTIoNs 

Typical mountain beech forests (Aconito-Fagetum) are found only at higher elevations of the North- 

Hungarian Middle Mountains (Tab. 1). Their presence is restricted to the Bükk and Zemplén 

Mountains, and to smaller occurrences in the Mátra and Börzsöny Mountains. These are highly 

productive forests mainly growing on lessivated brown forest soils. Beside beech, common ash 

(Fraxinus excelsior), sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), European rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and 

mountain elm (Ulmus glabra) are admixed species. Only isolated, small fragments represent the 

mixed fir-beech forests (Abieti-Fagetum) in the Sopron and Kőszeg Mountains. 

The largest occurrences are submontane beech forests (Melitti-Fagetum) occupying the lower 

elevations of the Hungarian Middle Mountains crossing the country from NE to SW (first of all 

in the Zemplén, Bükk Börzsöny, Bakony and Kőszeg Mts.). Westward, in Southwest Transdanubia 

beech occupies more frequently collinal sites under 400 m a. s. l. The latter region receives more 

precipitation and is under moderate sub-Mediterranean influence, therefore floristically distinguished 

as Illirian beech forests (Vicia oroboidis-Fagetum). Submontane beech forests are mixed with 

Fig. 1: Distribution of beech in Hungary based on forest inventory data. The map also shows the present and 

future ecological status of the species: the regions which will presumably remain in the beech climate on 

the long run (green), the occurrences presently in beech climate (red) and the ones already at present 

outside of beech climate (dark grey) (design/data: FÜHRER 2008) 

153

hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea) indicating higher temperatures and 

less favourable humidity conditions (Tab. 1). 

Regarding specific site conditions, beech is a dominant tree species on humid-acidophilous sites 

(Deschampsio flexuosae-Fagetum). It is also present as admixed species beside common ash (Fraxinus 

excelsior) and large-leaved linden (Tilia platyphyllos) on the comparatively dry sites of calcareous 

ravine slopes of the Transdanubian Middle Mts. (Mercuriali-Tilietum). A relict-type occurrence with 

yew (Taxus baccata) in the Bakony Mts. has been described as Taxo-Fagetum (Majer 1980). 

ecoLoGIcaL characTerIsTIcs 

Due to its climate sensitivity, beech is used in forestry practice as an indicator species for the beech 

forest belt, providing the most favourable growing conditions in the country. The climatic envelope 

of beech can be well characterized using summer mean temperature and precipitation of the growing 

season (Rasztovits, Berki, Móricz 2009). According to Mátyás et Czimber (2000), typical 

associations are also differentiated by climatic conditions (Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Climatic parameters of zonal beech associations* (MÁTYÁS, CZIMBER 2000) 

Forest association type 

(after MAJER /1968/) 

154 

Percentage of total beech 

distribution (%) 

Mean annual 

precipitation 

(mm) 

Mean July 

temperature 

(°C) 

Mean altitude 

(m a. s. l.) 

Aconito-Fagetum 7.4 706 17.4 598 

Melitti-Fagetum 61.9 745 18.7 436 

Vicio orob.-Fagetum 30.7 773 20.2 209 

* based on the reconstructed vegetation map of ZÓLYOMI (1967) 

A considerable part of beech stands are situated close to the xeric limits, i. e. at the drought-related 

(trailing, or retreating) end of their distribution range (Mátyás, Nagi, Ujvári-Jármay 2008). The 

probability of climatic-zonal presence of beech can be described reliably by climatic indices such as 

Ellenberg’s quotient (Czúcz, Gálhidy, Mátyás 2009). Due to its ecological vulnerability, further 

indices have been developed in Hungary, using more detailed weighing of precipitation and thermal 

data, such as the “forest aridity index” FAI (Führer, Járó 2000, Führer 2010), and the “beech 

index” (Rasztovits, Berki, Móricz 2009). 

GeNeTIc characTerIZaTIoN oF huNGarIaN beech ForesTs 

Presence of beech in the Carpathian Basin is documented for over 6,000 years and some researchers 

propose the existence of much older local refugia (Magri 2008). The Balkan origin of local beech 

is therefore still questionable and has not been decided by cpDNA studies either. Isozyme studies 

show a clear differentiation of beech populations of low elevations in Hungary and in Eastern Austria 

from more Western, less diverse populations. At some loci a significant East-West allelic frequency 

gradient was observed, proposing a westward migration route (Comps et al. 1998). Recent studies of

Fig. 2: Climatic envelope of beech in Hungary using climate data of the period 1975 – 2004 (design: RASZTOVITS 

2009) 

Fig. 3: Percentage of flushed plants per population in the Bucsuta beech provenance test on the 95th calendar 

(Julian) day in the second year after outplanting. Atlantic coast sources are late, Alpine and SE- 

European continental sources are early (Test location marked by triangle. Shaded: natural distribution 

area) (MÁTYÁS 2002) 

155

genetic diversity patterns in Hungary strongly support the sweeping effect of extreme selection, close 

to the xeric limits of distribution for beech. At numerous isozyme loci, decline of heterozygosity and 

allelic diversity has been found (Borovics, Mátyás, unpubl.). 

Phenology and growth of local populations can be assessed in provenance tests. In Hungary, one test 

of the international series of 1998 has been outplanted in Bucsuta, Zala hills, Southwest Hungary. The 

test shows the generally vigorous growth of Hungarian provenances, which may be linked to better 

utilization of the vegetation season (Fig. 4). Beside relatively fast juvenile growth, a higher number of 

buds and shoots, and larger leaf area seem to be characteristic at early age. Judging on mature stands, 

stem quality in Hungary is strongly varying and shows no clear trend (Mátyás 2002). 

Hungarian beech populations are among the early flushing sources. The provenance Magyaregregy 

from the southernmost occurrence (Mecsek Mts.) was the earliest among all provenances at Bucsuta 

in the year shown in Figure 3. The repeated phenology assessments indicate that although rank 

changes between years occur, trends are maintained, but with changing level of discrimination. 

Differentiation among sources depends on spring weather conditions: slow, gradual increase of heat 

sum yields the best discrimination. 

The Central Agricultural Office established with 8 local sources a similar test with larger, 0.1 ha plots in 

the same year (1998) in Bucsuta and two other sites in NE Hungary. There are no results available yet. 

Fig. 4: Average phenotype of a continental (Nr. 52 Magyaregregy, Hungary, mean H: 3.52 m, left) and of an 

Atlantic provenance (Nr. 13 Soignes, Belgium, mean H: 2.62 m, right) at age of 8 years from planting in 

the Bucsuta experiment. The Hungarian population shows denser crown structure and more vigorous 

growth (Photo archive Mátyás) 

156

eGIsTered sources oF reProducTIve maTerIaL 

Although most of the beech forests are regenerated naturally (total area was 1,112 ha in 200 ), there 

is a significant use and trade of reproductive material which may further increase with the growing 

interest in drought-tolerant reproductive material. Seed sources and reproductive material production 

are under control of the CAO1 , detailed data are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Seed production is 

rhapsodic, and is strongly influenced by the weather conditions of the preceding vegetation period 

(Mátyás 1969). Therefore often wildlings are lifted from natural regenerations (Tab. 3). 

Delineation of seed zones by Cs. Mátyás followed available information on adaptive genetic variation 

of the species, and climatic selection type (zone 5 being the most continental, while zone 3 the driest 

and most endangered for beech). The five seed zones (provenance regions) for beech are shown in 

Figure 5 (there is no beech in zone 6). 

Note: Only 4 zones numbered in map 

Fig. 5: The map of seed zones (provenance regions) valid for beech in Hungary (MÁTYÁS 2002) 

Tab. 2: Approved sources of reproductive material of European beech registered in Hungary, by genetic 

category* (2008 data by CAO, S. Bordács) 

‘Selected’ (S) ‘Source identified’ (SI) 

Total number of approved stands 60 87 

Total area (ha) of approved stands 930 59,327 

* there are no registered sources of beech in categories ‘Qualified’ and ‘Tested’. 

1 Central Agricultural Office, Budapest (former OMMI) 

15

coNservaTIoN oF GeNeTIc resources 

In 2004, the Forestry Committee of the Plant Gene Bank Council selected and registered 33 gene 

reserves, totalling about 50 hectares (Fig. 6), for a future network of beech gene conservation 

units. These populations sufficiently cover the range of beech in Hungary, as well as climatic, site 

and, presumably, genetic variation (Mátyás, Bach 1998). Due to inconsistent legal background 

and conflicts of interest with nature protection, the legal recognition of in situ forest gene reserves 

remains to be completed. 

Apart from formal gene reserves, different categories of protected areas serve gene conservation of 

beech in a wider sense. 

Fig. 6: Network of gene reserves of European beech in Hungary (design: NAGY 2009) 

Tab. 3: Beech reproductive material produced and certified in 2004 – 2008 (data by CAO, S. Bordács) 

158 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Seed (S) (kg) – – 600 300 887 

Seed (SI) (kg) 1,532 455 2,456 4,279 8,844 

Wildlings lifted (tsd.) 53 181 1,025 490 348 

Seedlings (tsd.)* 2,242 3,621 1,117 8,294 72,431 

• Including exports

maIN beech dIseases aNd PesTs 

European beech harbours a high number of arthropod and fungal pests. Regularly none of them causes 

significant damage, except for large, country-wide gradations. The most recent outbreak (2004, 2005) 

of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) severely affected the mountain beech stands in Bakony and in 

Northern Hungary, causing large-scale defoliation (up to 80%) in some regions. Beech compensates 

the foliage loss much slower than oaks, but the refoliation can be almost perfect after 1 – 3 years of 

higher precipitation (Csóka, Hirka, Koltay 2006). 

The woolly beech aphid (Phyllaphis fagi) occurred on 1, 25 hectares in the average of the last 5 years. 

Damage of beech flea weevil (Rhynchaenus fagi) was recorded twice recently (1,500 hectares in 2000 

and 500 hectares in 2005). The typical drop shaped galls of beech-leaf gall midge (Mikiola fagi) are 

common and widespread in every beech stand, particularly on younger trees (Hirka 2008). 

heaLTh aNd vITaLITy Loss due To cLImaTIc eXTremes 

Beech is sensitive to water balance and therefore to relatively small changes in climate. The gradually 

growing moisture deficit in Hungary has led to severe health decline in Hungarian beech forests 

since the 1990s. The decrease of vitality is mainly connected to the climatic anomalies, particularly to 

the decrease of precipitation of the growing season (Lakatos, Molnár 2006). The trees weakened 

by drought become more sensitive to secondary pests and pathogens and show symptoms of health 

Fig. 7: Mortality caused by drought in late summer 2003 in a beech stand in Balatonszárszó (photo: 

Rasztovits) 

159

deterioration (early leaf abscission, sparser crowns, etc.). This may lead to mass mortality if extreme 

dry summers appear in 3 – 4 years consecutively (Rasztovits, Berki, Móricz 2009). 

In Zala County, a decline syndrome was triggered by the severe droughts of the period 2001 – 2003, 

in mature beech stands under regeneration, where the canopy closure was opened up recently 

(Fig. ). This led to the outbreak of beech buprestid (Agrilus viridis). As a consequence, more than 

100,000 m3 sanitary felling had to be undertaken in 2005 (Góber 2005). Damage of Biscogniauxia 

nummularia disease and of the beech bark beetle (Taphrorychus bicolor) often occurred together with 

the buprestid damage. On average over the last 5 years (2004 – 2008) damage by these two insect 

species was recorded on about 300 hectares annually (Hirka 2008). 

sILvIcuLTure, ForesT maNaGemeNT 

In Hungary, beech attains the culmination of its height growth increment at the age of 15 – 20 years, 

the diameter increment culminates – depending on crown closure – at the age of 50 – 60 years. On 

favourable sites it reaches 400 m3 .ha-1 standing volume at the age of 50, and exceeds 600 – 00 m3 .ha-1 at the felling age of 100 years. Compared to the total volume of Hungarian forests, the standing 

volume of beech represents, with 39.3 million m3 , a much larger ratio (11%) than its area. 

In pure beech stands shelterwood cutting, in mixed stands group-, strip-, or strip-and-groupwise cutting 

is used for regeneration. At a young age beech thickets are kept very dense. Frequent interventions are 

necessary only in mixed stands. Juvenile stands differentiate well up to age 20 – 25; thinning is restricted 

to the upper storey. In adult forests, thinning is vigorous. For the support of silvicultural tending 

procedures, standard tending models have been developed by the Forest Research Institute, which are 

followed by the industry especially in stands producing high-valued timber (Bondor 1986). 

Annually, 500,000 m3 of beech are harvested in Hungary, so beech has an important role in Hungarian 

wood processing. 6 – % of the harvested assortment is veneer log; 35 – 40% is saw log. Low quality 

beech wood is used as pulp and fiber wood for HDF boards (20%) and as firewood (35 – 40%). On 

better sites the quality of the timber deteriorates after 100 years of age because of the development of 

false heartwood and other timber defects which reduce drastically the value of the timber (Molnár, 

Bariska 2006). 


Priority themes of beech research are in the field of ecology, forest yield and silviculture, as well as in 

forest genetics. Exploration of the ecophysiological processes, such as water and organic substance 

uptake and discharge of beech forests is carried out in permanent ecological research areas in order 

to forecast the effects of changing climatic conditions. The investigation of the total organic material 

sink volume of beech ecosystems represents an important element in the clarification of the role of 

forests in the carbon cycle. 

Forest yield research has been maintained for more than 50 years in approximately 100 permanent 

yield experiments in beech. Research results, such as structural investigation of stands, are indispensable 

to define growth functions and to deduct optimal measures of yield regulation. Silvicultural 

research work is carried out in tending test series to define the effect of various silvicultural 

interventions and to develop optimized methods for practical forest management. 

160

In the field of forest genetic research, research is aimed at investigating the impact of various 

silvicultural interventions on genetic diversity and at defining the conditions to maintain genetic 

sustainability. In provenance experiments adaptability, plasticity and phenology of populations are 

analyzed, above all to model the impacts of expected climate change. 

The FuTure oF beech IN huNGary 

Summing it up, the most important outcome of ecological and genetic evaluations is that beech 

reaches the limit of its warm-temperate distribution at most locations in Hungary. This exposure will 

increase with expected climatic changes. Model calculations with different tree species reveal that 

increasing drought stress close to the xeric limit of distribution leads to the exhausting of the genetic 

potential of adaptability. The loss of tolerance and health decline is therefore a genetic problem 

(Mátyás, Nagy, Ujvári-Jármay 2008). 

The gradually growing moisture deficit in Hungary has already led to severe health decline and 

emergence of serious pests and diseases in Hungarian beech forests since the 1990s. The climatic 

scenarios for the 21st century predict besides loss of productivity and carbon sequestration also the 

decline of stability of many forest ecosystems (Führer, Mátyás 2006). 

Regarding the stability and future of beech ecosystems, both forest management and nature 

conservation have to take into account in strategic planning the quantitative forecasts of forest genetic 

tests, and take steps to develop flexible gene conservation programs (Mátyás 2005). 

reFereNces 

Bondor A. (ed.) 1986. A bükk. [European beech.] Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó: 180 p. 

CAO (Central Agricultural Office) 2008. National Forest Data Base, statement on 31st December 200 . 

Budapest, Forest Directorate. (in Hungarian). 

Comps B., Mátyás Cs., Geburek T., Letouzey J. 1998. Genetic variation in beech populations along 

the Alp chain and in the Hungarian basin. Forest Genetics, 5/1: 1-9. 

Csóka Gy., Hirka A., Koltay A. (eds.) 2006. Biotic damage in forests. Proceedings of the IUFRO 

WP. .03.10. Symposium, Mátrafüred, Hungary, 12 – 16 September 2004. 

Czúcz B., Gálhidy L., Mátyás Cs. 2009. Limiting climatic factors and potential future distribution 

of beech and sessile oak forests near their low altitude – xeric limit in Central Europe. Annals of 

Forest Science (submitted). 

Führer E. 2008. Erdőgazdálkodás. [Forest management.] In: Harnos Zs., Gaál M., Hufnagel L. (eds.): 

A klímaváltozásról mindenkinek. [Climate change for everybody.] Budapest, Corvinus University 

of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Science, Department of Mathematics and Informatics: 90- 

102. 

Führer E. 2010. Erdő és klíma. [Tree growth and the climate.] “CLIMA-21” Brochures, 61: 98-10 . 

161

Führer E., Járó, Z. 2000. Az aszály és a belvíz érvényesülése a Nagyalföld erdőművelésében. [Role 

of drought and inundation in the silvicultural methods on the Great Plain.] In: Proceedings of the 

Forest Research Institute, Budapest, Nr. 12. 

Führer E., Mátyás, Cs. 2006. Effect of climate change on carbon sequestration and stability of the 

Hungarian forest cover. In: Priwitzer T. (ed.): Climate Change – Forest Ecosystems & Landscape. 

Proceedings from the international scientific conference and JRC workshop “Forest monitoring 

from remote sensing at scales from global to local”. Zvolen – Sielnica 19 – 22 October 2005. 

Zvolen, FRI: 19-24. 

Góber Z. 2005. A Zalaerdő Rt. kezelésében lévő területeken 2004-ben végbement erdőpusztulás 

értékelése. [Forest dieback in Zala County in 2004.] Erdészeti Lapok, 140: 156-159. 

Hirka A. 2008. A 200 évi biotikus és abiotikus erdôgazdasági károk, valamint a 2008-ben várható 

károsítások. [Abiotic and biotic forest damages in Hungary in 200 and the expected damages in 

2008.] Agroinform Kiadó: 126 p. 

Lakatos F., Molnár M. 2006. Mass dieback of beech (Fagus sylvatica) in Zala County. In: Tomiczek 

(ed.): IUFRO Working Party .03.10 Proceedings of the Workshop 2006, Gmunden/Austria: 142- 

149. 

Magri D. 2008. Patterns of post-glacial spread and the extent of glacial refugia of European beech 

(Fagus sylvatica). Journal of Biogeography, 35: 450-463. 

Majer A. 1968. Magyarország erdőtársulásai. [Forest associations of Hungary.] Budapest, Akadémiai 

Kiadó: 515 p. 

Majer A. 1980. Bakony tiszafása. [The yew forest of the Bakony.] Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó: 

3 3 p. 

Mátyás Cs. 2002. Erdészeti – természetvédelmi genetika. [Forest and conservation genetics.] 

Budapest, Mezőgazda: 422 p. 

Mátyás Cs. 2005. Expected climate instability and its consequences for conservation of forest 

genetic resources. In: Geburek T., Turok J. (eds.): Conservation and management of forest genetic 

resources. Zvolen, Arbora Publ.: 465-4 6. 

Mátyás Cs., Bach I. 1998. Erhaltung forstgenetischer Ressourcen in Ungarn mit besonderer 

Berücksichtigung von seltenen und bedrohten Mischlaubholzarten. In: Geburek T., Heinze B. 

(eds.): Erhaltung forstgenetischer Ressourcen im Wald. Landsberg, Ecomed Verl.: 1 0-1 . 

Mátyás Cs., Czimber K. 2000. Zonális erdőtakaró mezoklíma szintű modellezése: lehetőségek a 

klímaváltozás hatásainak előrejelzésére. [Modelling zonal forest associations on the mesoclimatic 

level: possibilities for forecasting climate change effects.] Erdő-Klíma Konf. III. 83-9 , Debrecen 

University. 

Mátyás Cs., Nagy L., Ujvári-Jármay É. 2008. Genetic background of response of trees to 

aridification at the xeric forest limit and consequences for bioclimatic modelling. In: Střelcová K., 

Mátyás Cs., Kleidon A. et al. (eds.): Bioclimatology and natural hazards. Berlin, Springer Verl.: 

1 9-196. 

162

Mátyás V. 1969. Influence des conditions meteorologiques sur la floraison de hétre. FAO For. Tree 

Breed. Congress, 69, 11-12. 

Molnár S., Bariska M. 2006. Magyarország ipari fái. [Industrial woods of Hungary.] Budapest, 

Szaktudás Kiadó Ház: 0- . 

Rasztovits E., Berki I., Móricz N. 2009. Determination of the drought tolerance limit of beech 

forests and forecasting their future distribution in Hungary. Forest - Biogeosciences and Forestry, 

Florence – submitted ID #: ms09/260 

Zólyomi B. 196 . Rekonstruált növénytakaró. [Reconstructed vegetation cover.] In: Radó S (ed.): 

National Atlas of Hungary. Budapest, 21, 31. 

contacts: 

Dipl. Ing. Ervin Rasztovits 

University of West Hungary 

HU-9400 Sopron, Bajcsy Zs. u. 4., Hungary 

tel.: +36 99-518-391 

e-mail: raszto@titanic.nyme.hu 

Reviewed 

163

164 

beech (Fagus sylvatica) IN IrIsh ForesTry 

DAVID THOMPSON 1 – JOHN FENNESSY 2 

1 Coillte Teoranta – The Irish Forestry Board, Kilmacurra Park, Kilbride, Co. Wicklow 

2 Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Kildare Street, Dublin 2 

absTracT 

Beech (Fagus sylvatica) is not a native species to Ireland, but has been widely planted since the 1 th 

century and it accounts for 1.4% of the forest tree species and 5. % of the broadleaved forest in the 

Republic of Ireland. It is well adapted to the maritime climate and with a 100 to 120-year rotation it 

typically produces 4 to 8 m 3 /ha/yr on average. Beech has been, and will continue to be, an important 

component of broadleaved forestry in Ireland. The main concern in Ireland is to identify and source 

the best reproductive material for seed importation to supplement home collected sources. 

Key words: beech, Fagus sylvatica, fea (in Irish), reproductive material, ecology, silviculture, 

management, insects and diseases 

bacKGrouNd 

Ireland, located between 51° and 56° North latitude, experiences a much milder climate than would 

be expected at these latitudes as a result of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and its distance from 

the main European continent. Average winter temperatures are about 6.5 °C with average summer 

temperatures of 12.5 °C. The climate is maritime with cool, wet winters and cool wet summers. 

Rainfall varies from a high of over 3,000 mm in parts of the northwest to 50 mm in the southeast 

and is distributed equally during the year (rainfall ranges from 190 days/year in the east to 250 days/ 

year in the west). 

During the last Ice Age most of the island was covered by glaciers which eliminated almost all earlier 

vegetation. All the “native” tree species migrated to the island, possibly across land bridges from the 

United Kingdom and the Continent before these were flooded by rising sea levels as the ice melted. 

Unfortunately, beech was only able to cross the English Channel and establish itself in southern 

England and was not among the species to naturally reach Ireland. In the sub-montane region of 

central Europe which has a similar climate to Ireland, beech dominates large areas suggesting that 

this would be the natural forest type had the species migrated here after the last Ice Age. 

The date of introduction of beech (Fagus sylvatica or Fea in Irish) into Ireland is not known but 

according to Nelson et Walsh (1993), like sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), beech may have been 

an early import, coming with the Normans to whom this was a familiar tree. More definitive evidence 

suggests that beech was introduced to Ireland from England sometime during the 1 th century 

because reports of groves of beech being defoliated in 169 have been found in letters of the time 

(Fitzpatrick 1966). Nevertheless, it has become a widely planted species, especially in old estates 

and has become naturalized in Ireland.

A recent inventory of all forest land in the Republic of Ireland (Anonymous 200 ) reported that there 

were a total of 625, 50 hectares of forest land in Ireland or about 9% of the total land area. Ownership 

of this land is divided between public (52%) and private (48%). The national forest estate currently 

consists of 4% conifer species, 24% broadleaves and 2% unstocked. Of the total forest land about 

8, 10 hectares or about 1.4% of the total are planted with beech. Of the 151,950 hectares designated 

as broadleaved forest, beech accounts for 5. % of all broadleaves. 

In Irish beech stands age distribution is heavily weighted towards the older age classes with almost 

60% of the area in the 51+ year age category. This consists largely of the 1930s phase of beech planting 

in the public sector and the old woodland remnants of the private sector. 

Beech has been planted in most areas of the country, but the majority is planted along the east coast 

and south of a line running from Dublin on the east coast to Galway on the west coast. It was one of 

the main species planted in the old estates and many of the mature beech trees that can be seen in the 

Irish countryside were planted in late 1 00s under a grant system administered by the Royal Dublin 

Society. The species was also extensively planted around the edges of conifer plantations in the 20th 

century to enhance their appearance and provide autumn colour. Today its greatest use is for hedging 

in suburban gardens. 

Despite its undoubted potential beech has not featured prominently in grant aided planting of 

recent decades, possibly because of establishment difficulties caused by heavy grass competition on 

agricultural sites. 

sILvIcuLTure aNd maNaGemeNT oF beech IN IreLaNd 

Current beech stands have been categorized in the national forest inventory as, 4 % being 

afforestation sites, 3 % semi-natural sites and 16% reforestation or replanted sites (Anonymous 

200 ). About 2% of the beech plantations are below 100 m in elevation with most of the rest below 

200 m in elevation. 

Beech has generally been managed under the clearcut silvicultural system but this is likely to change 

as shelterwood systems will be used for most broadleaves in the future, to maintain forest cover. 

Mean tree age in both public and private plantings is 44 years (Anonymous 200 ). In Irish beech 

stands 58% of the trees are in the top layer of the canopy, with 22% in the middle and 20% in the 

bottom layer of the canopy. Current estimates are that there is approximately 1. million m3 of beech 

growing stock in Ireland with most of this being in public ownership. 

Current recommendations are to plant between 6 to ,000 plants per hectare (Joyce et al. 1998). It is 

rarely planted pure because early thinnings have little value. For this reason it is commonly planted 

in mixture with a conifer that will provide income from the thinnings. In the past, beech has been 

used in mixtures with western red cedar (Thuja plicata), Scots (Pinus sylvestris) or Corsican pine 

(Pinus nigra var. maritima), or European larch (Larix decidua). Mixtures with wild cherry (Prunus 

avium), oak (Quercus petraea, Q. robur) and Spanish chestnut (Castanea sativa) are also mentioned, 

but may not be practical. Mixtures are planted as a 50 : 50 (alternate line or bands) mixture or a 5 : 

25 conifer : beech mixture. 

165

Currently about 35% of the beech stands are unthinned. Essentially all Irish beech stands are left 

unpruned and most are considered “medium branched”. Over 40% of the Irish beech stands are 

classed as “high forest” with 26% classified as “overmature” and 13% developing “high forest”. 

Stem form of beech in Ireland is very poor in relation to stands on the continent. This may be due 

to provenance but equally, environmental factors such as silvicultural management or exposure may 

play a significant role. Most of the older beech stands in Ireland have undergone some degree of 

“high grading” where the best individuals have been removed. 

Almost 80% of the beech stands are classed as producing saw logs (20 cm+), but because of downgrade, 

most of this material would actually only be useable as pulp (Anonymous 200 ). The average 

growing stock for publicly owner land is 1 0 m3 /ha while for private ownership it is 213 m3 /ha for an 

overall average of 1 2 m3 /ha. On average, beech stands in Ireland grow at a yield class of between 4 to 

8 with perhaps a maximum of 10 m3 /ha/year on a rotation length of 100 to 120 years. 

Currently beech accounts for approximately 2% of the sowing programme in state nurseries (600,000 

plants in 2009). 

dIseases aNd PesTs IN IreLaNd 

In Ireland beech tends to break bud in mid-April and as such it can be damaged by late spring frost. 

Young plants can be killed by frost due to an inability to produce new leaves. Frost can also cause 

shoot dieback which results in poor stem form. 

Beech leaves may be attacked by fungi causing powdery mildew (Microsphaera alphitoides) or a leaf 

spot (gloesporium fagi) and by the beech leaf miner (Rhynchaenus fagi). The fungus ganoderma 

applanatum can cause a decay of the wood and young stems can be damaged by cankers caused by 

fungi of the genus Nectria (Nectria ditissima and N. coccinea). The beech woolly aphid (Phyllaphis 

fagi) can kill young beech plants. Beech bark disease which involves both woolly aphids and Nectria 

coccinea has not definitively been identified in Ireland. Mature trees may suffer from foot rots caused 

by the fungus Armillaria mellia. 

Major stem damage is caused by non-native grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) that strip the bark 

from trees in the late spring. Deer can also damage the lower stem of trees. 

ecoLoGy 

Beech is a species well adapted to Ireland’s maritime climate, although this may affect stem form. 

It grows on a wide range of soil types but reaches its best development on free draining soils of 

neutral to moderately alkaline pH. The tallest beech tree in Ireland recorded in the Specimen Tree 

Register of Ireland is 39 m with a circumference of 5.1 m (Anonymous 2005). It is not a good pioneer 

species because it requires shelter for successful establishment especially in afforestation situations in 

Ireland. Beech will not tolerate exposure once it has been established. As a shade tolerant species it 

will undoubtedly play an increasing role as an understory species in continuous cover forestry. 

Beech begins to flower at age 50 to 60 years. Late spring frosts can prevent good seed crops but 

generally mast years occur every 4 to 5 years. Natural regeneration can be prolific and beech is often 

regarded as an invasive alien species in native woodland, particularly on limestone soils. 

166

Photo 1: Stand of beech in Kilbora Property, Camolin Forest, Co Wexford (J. Fennessy) 

reProducTIve maTerIaL 

Because beech is not a native species in Ireland, the question of “what is the best seed source for Irish 

conditions” has been asked and continues to be asked. Records of the seed sources sown in state 

nurseries during the period 1930 to the present show that a wide range of material has been planted 

during the last 8 years. In many cases it was the price of the seed that determined its purchase. 

During the 1930s seed sources from Germany, the Netherlands, Austria and “Central Europe” were 

planted. During the period 1939 to 1953 beech seed was exclusively from “home collected” sources, 

mainly mature stands in old estates around the country. A number of the best stands has been 

registered as seed stands and the total area registered to-date amounts to 81 ha in total. In the 1960s 

two beech seed orchards were established using grafts of selected Irish sources to ensure a supply 

16

Photo 2: Stand of beech in Kilbora Property, Camolin Forest, Co Wexford (J. Fennessy). 

of seed. Unfortunately no details regarding the origin of the clones remain and these orchards have 

never been used for seed collection. 

In the period 1954 to 1960 most seed continued to come from home collected sources, but imports 

from Germany and Italy were also planted. During the period 1960 to 1980 the majority of seed was 

imported from Romania, Bulgaria, Germany, Czechoslovakia and Denmark with very little home 

collected seed used. From 1980 to the present Hungarian, Romanian, Slovenian and Czech material 

continued to be planted until 1996 when Irish Forest Service recommendations were established. 

These recommendations are to plant only Irish, British, Dutch, Belgian, northern French, Danish 

and northern German sources in an attempt to use reproductive material from sources with similar 

climatic conditions. 

An analysis of commercial stands established between 1930 and 1980 with these imported seed 

sources showed that both German and UK material were superior to other imported sources in 

terms of survival, growth rate and stem form (J. Neilan, unpublished). In fact stands of Romanian, 

Bulgarian and Czechoslovakian sources could not be found, suggesting that this material had proven 

to be unsuitable for use in Ireland. One UK “research” seed source has consistently produced good 

quality plantations that are currently used as seed stands, however the exact origin of this material is 

unclear. Indeed several other home collected sources in old estates were also found to produce good 

stands although their original seed source is unknown. 

168

In 1995 and again in 1998 Ireland participated in a EU funded international beech provenance trial. 

Unfortunately the 1995 trial failed due to an exceptionally dry summer when established, but the 

1998 trial has established reasonably well and is one of a network of 21 similar trials throughout 

Europe. It consists of 34 provenances from across the natural species range. While only preliminary 

results (after 9 growing seasons) are available at present, they show that while initial survival rates 

averaged % (range of 1 to 98%) some provenances (from France, the Czech Republic, Austria 

and Sweden) continue to show losses (Thompson 200 ). Material from eastern and south-eastern 

Europe is the most vigorous, mainly because they break bud early in the spring which could make 

them very susceptible to late spring frost damage. However, in the years since this trial has been 

established there has been no serious incidence of frost damage. The results suggest that the use 

of home collected seed (individuals that have grown for one generation under Irish conditions) or 

material from British sources would be best suited to current Irish climatic conditions. Other low 

elevation sources from northern France and Germany, as well as material from Britain, Belgium, the 

Netherlands and Denmark should also be suitable for use in Ireland. 

A study comparing flushing date of 3 home collected sources of beech with several continental 

sources suggested that perhaps some selection for late flushing had taken place in the home collected 

material. However, Worrell (1992) concluded that no significant adaptation of continental sources 

of beech had taken place in Britain. 

coNcLusIoNs 

Although not a native species, beech has proven to be a species that is well adapted to conditions 

where it has become naturalized. There are no limiting insect or disease problems, although the grey 

squirrel may cause problems for beech as well as many other broadleaved species. If necessary, seed 

sources from other oceanic areas of northern Europe appear to do well under Irish conditions. Beech 

has been, and will continue to be, one of the important broadleaved species, especially if continuous 

cover forestry becomes a widespread practice in Irish forestry. 

reFereNces 

Anonymous. 2005. Champion Trees – a selection of Ireland’s greatest trees. Dublin, Tree Council of 

Ireland: 51 p. 

Anonymous. 200 . National Forest Inventory – Republic of Ireland- Results. Dublin, Forest Service: 

256 p. 

Fitzpatrick H. M. 1966. The Forest of Ireland. Society of Irish Foresters. Wicklow, Ireland, Bray, 

Co.: 153 p. 

Joyce P. M., Hus, J., Mccarthy R., Pfeifer A., Hendrick E. 1998. Growing broadleaves. Silvicultural 

guidelines for ash, sycamore, wild cherry, beech and oak in Ireland. Dublin, COFORD: 144 p. 

Nelson E. C., Walsh W. F. 1993. Trees of Ireland Native and Naturalised. Dublin, Lilliput Press: 

24 p. 

Thompson D. 200 . Provenance of beech best suited for Ireland. COFORD Connects Reproductive 

Materials Note Number 12. Dublin, COFORD: 4 p. 

169

Worrell R. 1992. A comparison between European Continental and British provenances of some 

native trees: Growth, survival and stem form. Forestry, 65/3: 253-280. 

contacts: 

John Fennessy, M.Sc. 

Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 

Kildare Street, Dublin 2, Ireland 

e-mail: john.fennessy@coford.ie 

Dr. David Thompson 

Coillte Teoranta – The Irish Forestry Board 

Kilmacurra Park, Kilbride, Co. Wicklow, Ireland 

e-mail: david.thompson@coillte.ie 

1 0 

Reviewed

GeNeTIc resources oF beech IN ITaLy 

RAFFAELLO GIANNINI 1 – PAOLO CAPRETTI 2 – GIOVANNI EMILIANI 1 – 

MARCO FIORAVANTI 1 – SUSAMMA NOCENTINI 1 – CRISTINA VETTORI 3 

1 Department of Agricultural and Forest Economics, Engineering, Science and 

Technologies, University of Florence, Italy 

2 Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, University of Florence, Italy 

3 Plant Genetics Institute, National Research Council, Italy 

absTracT 

This paper reports on the main characteristics of European beech forests in Italy. The natural 

distribution and the country data (surface and main typology) indicate that the beech stands cover 

more than 1 million hectares located from the Alps in the north, to the mountains of the island of 

Sicily, which is the southeast border of the natural range of the species. The silviculture and forest 

management practices, as well as the health status are described. Some additional data concerning 

the lumber production and timber supply are also provided. Particular emphasis is placed on the 

genetics resources. The data on genetic variability, the phylogeographic relationship as well as 

phenological and growth parameters and molecular genetics features of Italian populations of beech 

are also presented. 

Key words: distribution, silviculture, management, genetics, disease, wood production, European 

beech, faggio (in Italian) 

NaTuraL dIsTrIbuTIoN aNd couNTry daTa 

According to the Italian National Forest Inventory (IFNC 2005), the total area covered by beech 

forests in Italy is 1,042,129 hectares, which corresponds to 9.4% of the country’s total forest area. 

Beech is present in all administrative regions with the exception of Sardinia (Fig. 1). In the Alps, 

beech forms pure/mixed stands above 1,000 m a. s. l. in areas with relatively lower rainfall, while it is 

present at around 600 – 00 m in more humid areas. On the Apennine mountain range, beech usually 

grows above 900 – 1,000 m a. s. l. In southern areas with high air moisture conditions, beech can 

descend to an altitude of 400 – 500 m, where it is found in association with evergreen oak (Quercus 

ilex L.). The southern populations located in the island of Sicily (Etna Mt., volcanic soils; Nebrodi 

Mt., sandy soils; Madonie Mt., calcareous soils) are important because they increase the value of 

biodiversity for the whole country. 

Over 53% of the total area covered by beech has a long history of coppicing. High forests cover 34% of 

the total beech area and 13% has complex structures which have not been classified in “regular” types 

(INFC 2005). Coppice is so widespread because it provides mountain populations with firewood and 

charcoal. Beech coppice is more diffused in northern and central Italy. During the last decades, the 

practice of coppicing has been progressively abandoned in many areas because of the high labour 

costs and due to mountain depopulation. 

1 1

Beech high forests are most common in southern Italy where they play an important and attractive 

role in many protected areas, such as in the Abruzzi and Gran Sasso-Maiella National Parks. 

Many beech stands, including those near ‘old-growth’ forest types, are listed under NATURA 2000 

conservation sites. 

sILvIcuLTure aNd ForesT maNaGemeNT 

The present structure of beech forests in Italy is as a result of many interacting factors. One of the 

greatest impactas has been the type of cultivation and management which has characterized the 

history of each stand (Nocentini 2009). Beech coppice is generally clear felled leaving 60 – 80 

standards per hectare. Rotation age is usually 24 – 30 years. A particular type of beech coppice is 

‘selection coppice’ (or uneven aged coppice), where shoots of different ages (usually three age classes) 

grow on each stump (Giannini, Piussi 19 6). 

Over the last few decades, forest policies have been increasingly directed to favouring beech coppice 

conversion to high forests, considered more productive and ecologically more desirable. 

In general, conversion to high forest has been carried out, progressively reducing density by frequent 

thinning of the shoots. The aim is to favour growth of the best stems and at the same time reduce 

re-sprouting (Bagnaresi, Giannini 1999). Conversion to high forest is completed with seedling 

establishment following regeneration felling. Conversion to high forest requires a long period of 

time, varying in relation to site quality, but generally it takes several decades, often up to 60 – 80 

(100) years after the first thinning (Nocentini 2009). 

In high forest management, the uniform shelterwood system is usually prescribed because of the 

supposed natural tendency of beech towards even-aged structures. Plans usually prescribe rotation 

ages varying between 100 and 140 years. Most of beech high forests, especially in the southern 

regions, have a complex structure which is the result of the particular type of selection felling carried 

out by the owners. These are repeated in each compartment at short intervals (8 – 10 years), creating 

small gaps – 40 to 100 square meters – where beech regeneration quickly sets in. This type of forest 

management, not part of regular management plans, but described according to unwritten rules 

passed on by owners and woodsmen from generation to generation, can be considered as a part of 

local traditional knowledge. 

Silviculture and management aspects, which are currently under investigation, present the possibility 

of managing beech stands with the objective of increasing structural diversity. Particularly interesting 

are the results of investigations, currently undertaken , on the structure, regeneration and productivity 

of beech high forests following small group selection felling (Ciancio et al. 2008). 

Of importance also are the investigations on natural beech regeneration in even-aged, monospecific 

stands of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in the northern Apennines and in Austrian pine (Pinus nigra 

Arn.) plantations, where the management objective is to favour re-naturalization, i. e. the gradual 

transformation towards self-regenerating, mixed stands with complex structures (Nocentini 2009). 

GeNeTIcs 

The genetic variability and the phylogeographic relationships as well as phenological and growth 

parameters or molecular genetic features of Italian beech populations were extensively analyzed in 

the past years using a variety of traditional and molecular approaches. 

1 2

Provenance studies revealed differences in chilling needs (Bagni et al. 1980), bud break and flushing 

(Borghetti, Giannini 1982), phenology, xylem embolism (Borghetti et al. 1993) and drought 

resistance (Tognetti, Johnson, Michelozzi 1995). 

Molecular fingerprinting with isozyme markers in 21 Italian populations (Leonardi, Menozzi 1995) 

revealed levels of genetic diversity comparable to those reported for European stands. Similar values 

were also reported by Belletti et Lanteri (1996) for 11 stands from Piemonte (north-western 

Italy). I-SSRs and RAPDs (DNA based markers) were able to detect a higher level of variability for 

a population from the Northern Apennine region (Troggio et al. 1996) and to obtain a preliminary 

estimation of pollen migration. 

Fig. 1: Distribution of beech forests in Italy (From: Corine Land Cover 2000. Reports 36/2005. APAT, 

Rome, 2005) 

1 3

In general, all genetic variability studies revealed a low estimate among stands diversity as well as a low 

geographic structure (Leonardi, Menozzi 1996) with a consequential strong diversity component 

within population. These findings are consistent with the European stand data and wind-pollinated, 

low self-compatibility reproductive biology, characterized by a low level (2 – 4%) of inbreeding 

(Rossi, Vendramin, Giannini 1996). 

Emiliani et al. (2004) using RAPD and cpDNA PCR-RFLP markers analyzed 30 populations located 

in southern Italy. The analysis showed that the south of Italy represents a diversity hotspot with 

more than one glacial (micro) refuge nuclei, and that the genetic variability among populations is 

substantially higher than that reported in literature. 

In a wider geographic context, the distribution of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation was studied 

using PCR-RFLP and microsatellite markers in 6 Italian beech populations (Vettori et al. 2004). 

The authors confirm the role of southern and central Italy as the hotspots of haplotype diversity 

(highest level of total haplotype diversity h = 0.822, high level of genetic differentiation g = 0.855) 

t st 

and the highest number of haplotypes. Nevertheless, all haplotypes found along the Apennines 

remained trapped in the Italian peninsula. 

The phylogeography of beech was extensively analyzed with molecular genetics and paleobotanical 

approaches by Magri et al. (2006) suggesting, in accordance with Emiliani et al. (2004) and Vettori 

et al. (2004), that beech populations might have survived during the last glacial period at different 

locations in the Italian peninsula, with the consequence that no clear large-scale migration trends 

can be recognized in southern and central Italy. Furthermore the authors suggest that the presence 

of populations displaying high divergence in central-southern Italy may be associated to the fact that 

beech populations persisted in these regions since the middle Pleistocene. 

Recently, microsatellite loci were used to examine the impact of forest management on genetic 

diversity (Buiteveld et al. 200 ). The comparison between two Italian stands – one near to the 

‘old-growth’ forest and one with high management-intensity (shelterwood system) – revealed no 

significant differences in genetic diversity parameters. 

Using an innovative approach on fossil pollen DNA, Paffetti et al. (200 ) demonstrated, in contrast 

to current knowledge based on palynological and macrofossil data, that the F. orientalis complex 

was already present during the Tyrrhenian period in what is now Venice lagoon (Italy). This finding 

represents a new and important insight, considering that nowadays Western Europe is not the natural 

area of the Fagus orientalis complex, and that the presence of the complex during the last interglacial 

period in Italy has never been hypothesized before. 

The individuation of retrotransposable elements in beech (Emiliani, Paffetti, Giannini 2009) 

offers an interesting insight into F. sylvatica genome and the possibility for the development of new 

markers for genetic diversity screening and for evolution studies. 

A genetic linkage map of European beech was constructed according to a “two-way pseudo-testcross” 

mapping strategy, using a total of 312 RAPD, AFLP and SSR markers scored in 143 individuals from 

a F full-sib family (Scalfi et al. 2004). In the same pedigree, the association with genetic markers of 

1 

several quantitative traits: leaf area, leaf number and shape in two different years, specific leaf area, 

leaf carbon-isotope discrimination and tree height were also investigated obtaining QTLs associated 

with leaf traits explaining a variation between 15% and 35%. 

1 4

GeNeTIc resources aNd reProducTIve maTerIaL 

The competences for legislation and transfer regulation of forest reproductive material of beech 

have been transferred from the Ministry to the local regions. Each region is actually discussing the 

situation in the “Economic Development Programme” and to date no tree seed zone or seed stands 

were identified by the Regional Administration as programmed in the D. L. 386/2003. 

In Table 1 there are listed the seed stands that are to be included in the register as foreseen by the 

aforesaid Law (italic), the seed stands (underlined) included in the National legislation on reproductive 

material (D. L. 269/19 3, no more in force), and seed stands from Sicily suggested by Vettori et al. 

(200 ) on the basis of population genetic fingerprinting (bold). 

Lumber aNd TImber 

The Italian National Forest Inventory (IFNC 2005) estimates a standing volume of about 1,2 0*10 6 m 3 

of wood (including logs and big branches) in the area of forests in the country. Beech forests give 

a lumber and timber supply of 240 million per m 3 , which represents 19% of the total national timber 

production. In term of timber quality there is a remarkable difference between wood obtained from 

coppice stands and wood obtained from high forest stands. The main product from coppice stands 

is firewood, while that from the better high forest stands, it is possible to obtain lumber suitable 

for industrial transformation such as rotary cutting for plywood production and sawn timber for 

furniture. Italian beech wood production is not sufficient, both in terms of quantity and quality, for 

sustaining domestic demand, especially demand coming from the plywood industry. For this reason 

every year, large amounts of beech timber are imported from France, former Yugoslavia and central 

European countries (Hungary, Romania). 

heaLTh sTaTe 

Beech forests are generally considered non-problematic with regard to their susceptibility to 

pathogens and insects. However, during the past decades a certain number of diseases and mortality 

situations have been reported (Luchi et al. 200 ). Most beech problems are concentrated in the 

few beech plantations present in Italy rather than in natural forests. They are generally influenced 

by climatic and unfavourable environmental situations. Main symptoms consist of the progressive 

drying of the upper parts of the crown, necrosis of leaves and branches, as well as the main stem, 

associated with the presence of fungus Biscogniauxia nummularia (Bull.) Kuntze, an endophyte/ 

parasite typical of stressed plants, naturally diffused in the environment. It causes cankers along the 

stem but also “white rot”. In general, fungi of the family Xylariaceae cause charcoal canker in the 

Fagaceae family (Capretti et al. 2003). There is good evidence that these species occur in healthy 

living trees as endophytes and then become invasive under water stress conditions. 

Biotic and abiotic stresses may also favour other pathogens present on the soil or on the root system 

as Ascomycetes fungi responsible for white root rot: Ustulina deusta (Hoffm.) Lind and Xylaria 

polymorpha (Pers.) Grev. Both have been found occasionally in connection with occurrence of 

damages by Heterobasidion annosum Fries. Bref. causing beech tree decay and uprooting of trees in 

mixed stands with conifers (Abies and Pinus spp.) (Capretti et al. 2003). 

Root diseases were also locally registered, showing symptoms typical for Phytophthora: increased 

crown transparency, abnormally small and often yellowish foliage, dieback of the crown, necroses of 

1 5

Tab. 1: Beech seed stands in Italy 

Name of stands (region) Lat. Long. Alt. (m) 

Molveno (Trentino-Alto Adige) 46° 10’ 10° 57’ 1,350 

Millifret, Cansiglio (Veneto) 46° 03’ 12° 22’ 1,130 – 1,500 

Airole, Tencione (Liguria) 44° 14’ 8° 07’ 1,100 – 1,200 

Pian degli Ontani, Abetone (Toscana) 44° 05’ 10° 40’ 1,200 – 1,400 

Marsigliana, Monte Amiata (Toscana) 42° 53’ 11° 36’ 1,000 – 1,400 

Cappadocia, Campo Ceraso - Coste Calde (Abruzzo) 42° 05’ 13° 17’ 1,300 – 1,400 

Cinquemiglia, Piano d‘Albero, Serra Nicolino (Calabria) 39° 23’ 16° 06’ 950 – 1,200 

Val Loana, Finero, Malesco (Lombardia) 46° 06’ 8° 32’ 1,350 

Vanezzo della Soda, Val di Sella (Trento) 46° 02’ 11° 24’ 900 – 1,000 

Vallesessera, Mosso S. Maria (Piemonte) 45° 39’ 8° 8’ 900 

Belfè, Ala di Stura (Piemonte) 45° 18’ 7° 18’ 1,300 

Consolata, Ceres, Mezzenile (Piemonte) 45° 18’ 7° 23’ 975 

Richiaglio e Viù (Piemonte) 45° 12’ 7° 23’ 1,100 

Cugn, Pradleves (Piemonte) 44° 25’ 7° 16’ 1,100 

Colle Missignana, Villa Collemandina (Toscana) 44° 21’ 10° 42’ 1,200 

Colle Melogno – Calizzano (Liguria) 44° 14’ 8° 12’ 1,100 – 1,200 

Madonna d‘Ardua, Chiusa di Pesio (Piemonte) 44° 13’ 7° 39’ 1,200 

Terme di Valdieri, Valdieri (Piemonte) 44° 12’ 7° 16’ 1,750 

Palanfré, Vernante (Piemonte) 44° 11’ 7° 30’ 1,400 

La Verna, Chiusi della Verna (Toscana) 43° 71’ 11° 93’ 1,190 

Val Fondillo (Abruzzo) 41° 50’ 13° 52’ 1,200 –1,400 

Piano Battaglia, Petralia Sottana (Sicilia) 37° 52’ 14° 01’ 1,600 – 1,700 

Mt. Soro, Lago Biviere (Sicilia) 37° 56’ 14° 41’ 1,600 – 1,700 

Linguaglossa (Sicilia) 37° 47’ 15° 02’ 1,900 – 2,000 

the inner bark and cambium with tarry spots on the bark surface and bleeding cankers (Jung et al. 

2005). 

Other fungi, generally associated with humid and shaded environments, may also cause problems 

on branches and leaves of beech trees in the juvenile stage (ex. Nectria ditissima Tul. & C. Tul., and 

Apiognomonia errabunda /Roberge ex Desm./Höhn.) (Luchi et al. 200 ). 

myThoLoGy 

In Italy many single trees or stands are recognized as folk symbols. For example in the Vallombrosa 

Forest there is an old beech tree which is known locally as the Holy beech of Saint John Gualbert 

(Patron of Foresters), founder of the Vallombrosan monastic order in the XIth century. According to 

the legend, the Saint, John Gualbert escaped from Florence one winter night and when he arrived in 

Vallombrosa he fell asleep under the beech tree. To protect the sleeping saint, the beech tree sprouted 

leaves and bent its branches. The Holy beech which is today growing in the Vallombrosa Forest 

probably dates from the XVIIIth century, and is thought to be a sprout of the original beech tree. 

1 6

A very peculiarly feature of this beech tree is that every year it opens up its leaves (flushes) a few days 

before the other beech trees in the forest. 

reFereNces 

Bagnaresi U., Giannini R. 1999. La selvicoltura delle faggete: sintesi dello stato dell’arte. [The 

silviculture of beech forests: synthesis of state of art.] In: Scarascia-Mugnozza G. (ed.): Ecologia 

strutturale e funziomale di faggete italiane. [Structural and functional ecology of Italian beech 

forests.] Bologna, Edagricole, p. 18 -199. 

Bagni N., Falusi M., Gellini R., Torrigiani P. 1980. La dormienza delle gemme di alcune 

provenienze difaggio: aspetti morfologici e funzionali. [Bud dormancy of some Italian beech 

provenances: morphological and functional aspects.] Giornale Botanico Italiano, 114: 122-123. 

Belletti P., Lanteri S. 1996. Allozyme variation among European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands 

in Piedemont, North-Western Italy. Silvae Genetica, 45: 333 . 

Borghetti M., Giannini R. 1982. Indagini preliminari sulla variazione di alcuni caratteri in piantine 

di faggio di provenienza diversa. [Preliminary results on variation of some traits of European 

beech seedlings from different provenances.] Ann. Accad. It. Sci. For., XXXI: 119-134. 

Borghetti M., Leonardi S., Raschi A., Snyderman D., Tognetti R. 1993. Ecotypic variation of 

xylem embolism, phenological traits, growth parameters and allozyme characteristic in Fagus 

sylvatica L. Functional Ecology, : 13- 20. 

Buiteveld J., Vendramin G. G., Leonardi S., Kamer K., Geburek T. 200 . Genetic diversity and 

differentiation in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands varying in management history. 

Forest Ecology and Management, 24 : 98-106. 

Capretti P., Menguzzato G., Maresi G., Luchi N., Moriondo F. 2003. Fenomeni di deperimento 

e di moria in popolamenti artificiali misti di latifoglie e conifere. [Wasting a way symptoms and 

mortality in broadleaves and conifer artificial stand.] Ann. Accad. It. Sci. For., LII: 3-30. 

Ciancio O., Iovino F., Menguzzato G., Nicolaci A. 2008. Struttura e trattamento in alcune 

faggete dell’Appennino meridionale. [Structure and sylvicultural systems applied at some beech 

forest located on the Southern Appennines.] L’Italia forestale e montana, 63: 465-481. 

Emiliani G., Paffetti D., Giannini R. 2009. Identification and molecular characterization of LTR 

and LINE retrotransposable elements in Fagus sylvatica L. Forest, Biogeosciences and Forestry, 

2: 119-126 [on line)]. 

Emiliani G., Paffetti D., Vettori C., Giannini R. 2004. Geographic distribution of genetic 

variability of Fagus sylvatica L. in Southern Italian populations. Forest Genetics, 11: 231-23 . 

Giannini R., Piussi, P. 19 6. La conversion des taillis en futaie: l’expérience italienne. In: Proceedings 

of XVI IUFRO World Congress. Oslo, Norway, p. 388-396. 

IFNC. 2005. Inventario Nazionale delle Foreste e dei serbatoi forestali di Carbonio. [National 

Inventory of Forests and the C Forest Sinks.] Corpo Forestale dello Stato. Roma, MIPAAF. 

Jung et al.: 2005. Involvement of Phytophthora species in the decline of European beech in Europe 

and the USA. Mycologist, 19: 159-166. 

Leonardi M., Menozzi P. 1995. Genetic variability of Fagus sylvatica L. in Italy: the role of postglacial 

recolonization. Heredity, 5: 35-44. 

1

Leonardi S., Menozzi P. 1996. Spatial structure of genetic variability in natural stands of Fagus 

sylvatica L. (beech) in Italy. Heredity, : 359-368. 

Luchi N., Mazza G. L., Feducci M., Capretti P. 200 . I funghi lignicoli del faggio. [Wooden fungi 

of the European beech.] Micologia Italiana, XXXIV: 44-48. 

Magri D., Vendramin G. G., Comps B., Dupanloup I., Geburek G., Gömöry D., Latałowa M., 

Litt T., Paule L., Roure J. M., Tantau I., van der Knaap W. O., Petit R. J., de Beaulieu J.-L. 


evidence and genetic consequences. New Phytologist, 1 1: 199-221. 

Nocentini S: 2009. Structure and management of beech forests in Italy. Forest, Biogeosciences and 

Forestry, 2: 105-113 [on line]. 

Paffetti D., Vettori C., Caramelli D., Vernes, C., Lari M., Paganelli A., Paule L., Giannini R. 

200 . Unexpected presence of Fagus orientalis complex in Italy as inferred from 45,000-year-old 

DNA pollen samples from Venice lagoon. BMC Evolutionary Biology, /Suppl 2: S6. 

Rossi P., Vendramin G. G., Giannini R. 1996. Estimation of mating system parameters in two 

Italian populations of Fagus sylvatica L. Can. J. For. Res., 26: 118 -1192. 

Scalfi M., Troggio M., Piovani P., Leonardi S., Magnaschi G., Vendramin G. G., Menozzi 

P. 2004. A RAPD, AFLP and SSR linkage map, and QTL analysis in European beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.). Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 108: 433-441. 

Tognetti R., Johnson J. D., Michelozzi M. 1995. The response of European beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) seedlings from two Italian populations to drought and recovery. Trees, 9: 348-354. 

Troggio M., DiMasso E., Leonardi S., Ceroni M., Bucci G., Piovani P., Menozzi P. 1996. 

Inheritance of RAPD and I-SSR markers and population parameters estimation in European 

beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Forest Genetics, 3: 1 3-181. 

Vettori C., De Carlo A., Proietti A. M., Paffetti D., Emiliani G., Saporito L., Giaimi G., 

Giannini R. 200 . Valutazione e conservazione della variabilità del germoplasma forestale in 

Sicilia. [Evaluation and conservation of forest tree germplasm in Sicily.] Collana Sicilia Foreste n. 

35, Palermo. 230 p. 

Vettori C., Vendrami G. G., Anzidei M., Pastorelli R., Paffetti D., Giannini R. 2004. 

Geographic distribution of chloroplast variation in Italian populations of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). 

Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 109: 1-9. 

contacts: 

Prof. Raffaello Giannini 

Department of Agricultural and Forest Economics, Engineering, Science and Technologies 

University of Florence, Italy 

e-mail: raffaello.giannini@unifi.it 

Dr. Cristina Vettori 

Plant Genetics Institute, National Research Council, Italy 

e-mail: cristina.vettori@cnr.it 

1 8 

Reviewed

absTracT 


(Fagus sylvatica L.) IN The NeTherLaNds 

SVEN M. G. DE VRIES 

Alterra Green World Research PO BOX 4 , 6 00 AA Wageningen, 

The Netherlands 

Beech is an important broadleaved species in The Netherlands as regards to forestry and landscape. 

The species currently covers 3.8% (12,000 ha) of the forest area in The Netherlands. The species is 

mainly growing on sandy soils in the middle and eastern parts of the country. In relation to predicted 

changing climate beech is expected to suffer health problems in the (near) future in relation to drought 

as well as changing ground water tables. This combined with the fact that most beech forests are 

planted evokes need for (international) provenance research. Three areas with a total of 440 ha have 

been categorized for gene conservation and for use of forest reproductive material in the category 

“Source Identified Basic Material” in the National Catalogue. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), beuk (in Dutch), genetic resources, distribution, 

provenance research 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN The NeTherLaNds 

European beech is considered to be an important broadleaved tree species in Dutch forestry. The 

majority of the beech forests are concentrated on the sandy soils in the middle and eastern parts of 

The Netherlands. The Dutch government intends to promote further expansion of the area planted 

with beech. Besides its use in forestry, beech is also used on a large scale in roadside plantings and in 

landscaping (amenity plantations). Beech is autochthonous in The Netherlands (Fig. 1), but through 

numerous imports in the past original material is very rare. 

ForesT maNaGemeNT aNd characTerIsTIcs 

The total forest area in The Netherlands covers 360,000 ha of which beech constitutes 3.8% with 

12,000 ha (Vijfde Nederlandse Bosstatistiek 200 ). The ownership of Dutch forests is 31% private; 

the State Forest Service manages 2 % for the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality; 

1 % is owned by nature conservation agencies and the rest is owned by municipalities and other 

governmental organizations. 

Most of the beech plantations are planted; of this an unknown amount with imported plant material. 

Almost all planting material came from unknown sources from abroad as well as from unknown 

Dutch sources. Less than 1% is considered as naturally regenerated. However, the latest opinions 

1 9

Photo 1: Ede-01. Roadside plantation of beech in the category “selected basic material” 

regarding reforestation favour natural regeneration generally and especially in the case of beech 

forests. Nowadays natural regeneration is becoming more and more popular among forest managers, 

and this is specifically the case with beech forests. 

Dutch forests are relatively young: 52% are between 25 and 65 years of age. The standing volume 

of beech is 3,186,000 m3 , it is about 5% of the total standing wood volume in the country. The 

distribution of standing wood into diameter classes for beech ranges from 10 cm to 120 cm with 

more than 0% of the standing wood volume in the classes from 20 to 0 (Vijfde Nederlandse 

Bosstatistiek 200 ). 

European beech in The Netherlands is mostly growing in even-aged monocultures (41.8%), but it 

also appears in mixtures with either conifers (1 .3%) or other broadleaves (38.2%). 

180

Natural distribution of Fagus sylvatica in The Netherlands 

Extracted from: 

Beech Forests, Rob Peters, 1997 

Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. 

Houtteelt der gematigde luchtstreek Deel 1: De Houtsoorten 

Dr. G. Houtzagers, 1954 

N.V. Uitg.-Mij W.E.J. Tjeenk Willink, Zwolle. 

Fig. 1: Natural distribution of Fagus sylvatica in The Netherlands 

The majority of the beech forests are concentrated on the sandy soils in the middle and eastern parts 

of the country; 58.2% of the beech forests grow on poor sandy soils and 31.8% on rich sandy and on 

more loamy soils. 

In relation to predicted changing climate, beech is expected to suffer health problems in the (near) 

future in relation to drought as well as changing ground water tables (De Vries 200 ). Climate scenarios 

made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) predict for The Netherlands higher 

temperatures and more precipitation, but most of this precipitation is expected to fall outside the 

growing season and therefore will not directly benefit the trees. On the other hand it could mean rising 

ground water tables, and it is well known that beech can suffer much from both changing ground 

water tables and from higher temperatures. The question is to what extent beech forests can adapt to 

these changing situations or to what extent they are plastic enough to cope with the changes. Another 

possibility could be to introduce beech reproductive material from sources with comparable climates 

as predicted for The Netherlands in the future. Well-adapted basic material is of high importance 

both now and in the future. Present provenance research is carried out using Dutch provenances 

(Kranenborg, Jager, de Vries 2010) as well as provenances from foreign countries from several 

locations covering the entire distribution range of beech (Kranenborg, de Vries 2001). A special 

reference can be made for the International beech trial established in Wageningen in 1998 that is part 

of a network of European international field trials network (Wühlisch et al. 2008). 

181

GeNeTIc resources, coNservaTIoN aNd The use oF ForesT 

reProducTIve maTerIaL 

Most of the beech plantations in The Netherlands are planted, an unknown amount with imported 

plant material and from unknown sources. However, inventories showed that there is still some 

beech forest from putative autochthonous origin. This autochthonous material is scarce, often 

located on private estates or nature reserves and therefore less easily accessible and the price of 

seeds and plants is therefore relatively high. As a result of an often negative selection in the forests 

owned by community (the best performing trees were harvested first) in the past it appears that the 

quality of trees from these rare sources did not meet the requirements in terms of forestry standards 

mentioned in the former EU Directive on Forest Reproductive Material (no. 66/404/EEC) (de Vries 

1998a, b). However, the new Directive on Forest Reproductive Material (no. 1999/105/EEC) is now 

implemented in Dutch National Law, in the Seed and Plant Act 2005. This new Directive enables 

EU countries to introduce a new category “Source Identified Basic Material” (SI) in their National 

Catalogues of basic material. This opened new ways and possibilities for autochthonous seed sources 

of beech to be included in the system of certification of Forest Reproductive Material and to be used 

in restoration projects of original ecosystems and forests. In this category of SI to date three areas of 

beech forest with a total of 440 ha have been selected with the aim of gene conservation and use of 

this valuable original genetic material. 

The Dutch List of Recommended Varieties and Provenances of Trees is issued every other five years; 

the latest was issued in June 200 covering the period from 200 to 2012. Intermediate updates are 

provided in the case basic material is renewed, removed or changed (Kranenborg, Jager, de Vries 

2010). In the category “Selected basic material” a total of 21 stands of beech have been selected by 

the Board for Plant Varieties (Raad voor plantenrassen) (Anonymous 200 ). The majority of these 

are roadside plantations. The Dutch List of Recommended Varieties and Provenances of Trees 

also contains a number of provenances from Germany and Belgium recommended for use in The 

Netherlands. 

A National Policy Document of the Government of the Netherlands was introduced during the 

COP meeting on Biodiversity in The Hague in April 2002: “Sources of Existence: Conservation and 

the sustainable use of genetic diversity” (Anonymous 2002). It covers genetic resources of all kinds 

including agricultural and horticultural crops, animal genetic resources and forest genetic resources. 

The content of this document enables relevant parties to implement the conservation of forest genetic 

resources in different ways. To date for beech only the designation of nature reserves has taken place 

and no other initiatives in relation to, for instance, gene banks have been undertaken. 

In relation to the EU funded project “European Information System on Forest Genetic Resources 

(EUFGIS)” so far one Gene Conservation Unit (GCU) has been designated for The Netherlands. 

reFereNces 

Anonymous. 2002. Bronnen van ons bestaan. Behoud en duurzaam gebruik van Genetische 

diversiteit. [Sources of Existence. Conservation and the sustainable use of genetic diversity.] 

Ministerie LNV. Den Haag, maart 2002. 69 p. 

Anonymus. 200 . Achtste Rassenlijst van Bomen. [8th List of Recommended Varieties and 

Provenances of Trees.] Raad voor plantenrassen, Ede. 530 pp. 

182

de Vries S. M. G. 1998a. Activities concerning social broadleaves genetic resources in the 

Netherlands. In: Turok J., Kremer A., de Vries, S. (eds.): First EUFORGEN Meeting on Social 

Broadleaves. Bordeaux, France, 23 - 25 October 199 . Rome, International Plant Genetic 

Resources Institute: 9 -101. 

de Vries S. M. G. 1998b. Das niederländische Programm zur Erhaltung forstgenetischer Ressourcen. 

In: Geburek Th., Heinze B. (eds.): Erhaltung genetischer Ressourcen im Wald - Normen, 

Programme, Maßnahmen. Landsberg, Ecomed-Verlagsgesellschaft: 110-119. 

de Vries S. M. G. 200 . Beuk kan klimaatverandering doorstaan. [Beech can withstand climate 

change.] De Boomkwekerij, 50: 14-15. 

Houtzagers G. 1954. Houtteelt der gematigde luchtstreek. Deel 1: De Houtsoorten. [Silviculture in 

temperate zones. Part 1: The Trees Species.] N.V. Uitg.-Mij W.E.J. Tjeenk Willink, Zwolle. 5 6 p. 

Kranenborg K. G., de Vries S. M. G. 2001. Internationaal herkomstonderzoek beuk in Nederland. 

[International provenance research of beech in The Netherlands.] Wageningen, Alterra, Research 

Instituut voor de Groene Ruimte. Alterra-rapport 286, 36 p. 

Kranenborg K. G., Jager K., de Vries S. M. G. 2010. Herkomstonderzoek beuk in Nederland. 

Wageningen, Centre for Genetic Resources Netherlands. [Provenance research of beech in The 

Netherlands.] CGN-rapport 2010-16, 32 p. 

Peters R. 199 . Beech Forests. Dordrecht – Boston – London, Kluwer Academic Publishers: 169 p. 

Vijfde Nederlandse Bosstatistiek. 200 . Meetnet Functievervulling bos 2001 – 2005. [Monitoring of 

forest functions 2001 – 2005.] Directie Kennis, Ministerie LNV. Rapport DK nr. 200 /065, Ede. 

95 p. 

Wühlisch G. von, Hansen J. K., Mertens P., Liesebach M., Meierjohann E., Muhs H.-J., 

Teissier du Cros E., de Vries S. 2008. Variation among Fagus sylvatica and Fagus orientalis 

provenances in young international field trials. In: 8th IUFRO International Beech Symposium. 

Nanae, Japan, 2008.09.08-13 p. 4-6 [Abstract]. 

contacts: 

Ir. Sven M. G. de Vries 

Alterra Green World Research 

PO BOX 4 , 6 00 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands 

tel. +31 31 485 43 , fax. +31 31 419 000 

e-mail: sven.devries@wur.nl 

Reviewed 

183

184 

coNservaTIoN oF GeNeTIc resources oF euroPeaN 

beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) IN PoLaNd 

MałGorzata sułkowska 

Forest Research Institute, Department of Genetics and Physiology of Woody Plants, 

Sękocin Stary, 3, Braci Leśnej St., 05-090 Raszyn, Poland 

absTracT 

European beech stands cover 5.2% of the forest area in Poland. The most typical forest tree associations 

are formed at the lower forest range in the Carpathians and Sudeten Mountains in the South of Poland 

and at morainic landscape of Pomeranian Lake District of North Poland. In Poland beech reaches the 

north-eastern limit of its natural range. The growth of beech stands outside the natural beech range 

indicates that the species possesses a potentially much wider range. Methods are presented which 

are used in conservation of Polish beech genetic resources and state of research related to genetic 

variation as well as silvicultural problems. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), buk zwyczajny (in Polish), distribution, genetic 

variation, Poland, forestry research 

curreNT sTaTe oF euroPeaN beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

IN PoLaNd 

European beech stands cover 5.2% (44 ,500 ha) of forest area in Poland (Forests in Poland 2009). 

European beech belongs to the dynamic species in Pomerania and frequently supplants other forest 

species, mainly oak and sometimes also Scots pine. Fagus sylvatica forms enter woods of the lower 

mountain forest range in southern Poland (usually altitude 450 m a. s. l.). Its role was considerably 

restricted in the Sudeten Mts. due to Norway spruce promotion in the past. The most elevated 

locations of the species were reported from about 1,000 – 1,200 m in this mountain range. The 

occurrence of European beech has not been limited so strongly in the forests on the Carpathians. 

European beech dominating forests are especially extensive in the eastern part of this range growing 

there up to altitude about 1,200 m. It forms the upper forest limit in the Bieszczady Mts. European 

beech stands of the highest quality are located mainly in the north-western part of Poland, central 

part and the southern part of Poland (Boratyńska, Boratyński 1990). The present genetic 

structure of European beech populations in Poland was formed by many different factors, not only 

by environmental and genetic, but also by anthropogenic factors. Very important factors that affected 

the gene pool were glacial epoch, the location of beech refugia, and the postglacial migration paths 

of the species (Szafer 1935, Huntley, Birks 1983, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1983, Hazler et al. 

199 ). Different environmental condition resulted in a great number of ecotypes and populations 

that characterized various ecological requirements (Dzwonko 1990, Giertych 1990). In Poland, 

European beech reaches the north-eastern limit of its natural range (Szafer, Pawłowski 19 2,

Fig. 1: Natural distribution of European beech in Poland – Gostyńska-Jakuszewska, zIelIńskI (1976) 

Boratyńska, Boratyński 1990). The geographic range of European beech is limited by: continental 

climate, soil conditions, winter temperatures and air humidity (Sławiński 194 , Jedliński 1953, 

Boratyńska, Boratyński 1990). The growth of European- beech stands outside its natural limit 

indicates that this species possesses a potentially wider range (Brzeziecki 1995, Tarasiuk 1999). 

Polish European beech dominant communities were formed 2,000 years ago (Środon 1990). Their 

typical habitats are moderate wet and good aerated soils, e. g. leached brown soils or brown soils, 

formed from light, medium, or heavy clays, loess soils and limestone soils (Tomanek 19 0, Dzwonko 

1990). 

In Poland European beech attains 40 – 4 m in height and 1.5 – 2 m in diameter. It starts to 

produce seeds when it is 80-year-old in stands, or when it is 50-year-old as an open-grown tree. 

Seeds are produced in irregular intervals – usually every 5 – 8 years (Tomanek 19 0, Boratyńska, 

Boratyński 1990). 

There are the following well characterized dominant European beech forest associations in Poland 

(alliance Fagion) – Matuszkiewicz (2005): 

• Fagetum carpaticum–Luzulo-Fagenion, Luzlo-luzuloides-Fagetum – acid beech stand, Dentario 

glandulosae-Fagetum – fertile Carpathian beech stand and Dentario enneaphyllidis-Fagetum – 

fertile Sudeten European beech stand; 

• Melico-Fagetum – Luzulo pilosae-Fagetum – acid lowland European beech stands, galio-odorati- 

Fagetum – fertile lowland European beech stands. 

185

Generally, European beech forests in Poland are in good health condition. However, some problems 

are connected with silvicultural practice during reforestation, for example with early and late frost, 

and with damage by game. 

The economic importance of European beech wood is high and in some regions this wood is the main 

product. In Poland generally coniferous species are considered as economically the most important, 

however European beech wood has been used both in the furniture industry and in the construction 

of buildings. 

meThods oF coNservaTIoN oF euroPeaN beech GeNeTIc 

resources 

The conservation of forest genetic resources should ensure: continuity of the basic ecological processes, 

preservation of the forest and sustainable utilisation of ecological systems; restitution of forest in destroyed 

habitats; conservation of biological and genetic diversity for future generations and enhancement of 

natural resistance of stands. In situ conservation consists in passive and active measures. The former 

ones are related to conservation in national parks and nature reserves, the latter concern reproduction 

of seed stands in managed forests, which is regulated by internal state forest service law. The program 

for the preservation of genetic resources of forest trees (among others European beech) in Poland 

for 1991 – 2010 (Matras et al. 1993) has just ended. In the first step, 33 gene reserves with a total 

area of 9 ha were included in the program of forest genetic variability conservation (State Forest 

and National Parks area). 553 European beech plus trees were also selected in State Forest Regional 

Directorate (Matras 2005). The next steps of active European beech stand conservation is progeny 

testing (field experiments) of selected populations, followed by plus tree selection, and establishment 

of seed orchards in order to determine their genetic value and breeding utilisation as potential forest 

reproductive material – this will also involve using molecular genetics methods. 

As an integral part of the program of forest gene resources conservation, there has been Forest 

Regionalization for seeds and seedlings (Government Decree 2004) undertaken. The principles of 

Forest Reproductive Material (FRM) movement into controlled directions are intended to reach the 

following goals: to promote the valuable forest tree populations and enlarge the genetic diversity 

of the species in those areas, where the local resources of reproductive material are insufficient; 

to increase the forest sustainability and silvicultural targets (obtaining high quality and quantity 

production) through the use of the tree populations that suit best the local site natural conditions, to 

preserve the genetic diversity of mountain populations and their adaptation to particular elevations 

zone – six zones were distinguished. Among the total of 91 seed regions, 68 European beech regions 

of provenance were distinguished in Poland where beech occurred. In some of these seed regions the 

species occurs as admixture by single individuals or only as shrub layer. 

The next program of forest genetic resources conservation and forest tree improvement (2011 – 2035) 

will focus on the problem of global climate changes for example warming effect and water stress 

(Fonder 2005). 

Methods of seed storage (Suszka 1990) elaborated in Poland facilitate the sowing of seeds of 

European beech up to five years after harvesting. There are three seed storage houses in Poland: in 

Dukla in the Carpathians, in Białogard in the Pomeranian Lake District and in the Gene Bank built 

in the Sudeten Mountains at Kostrzyca. Storage period of seeds in traditional way does not allow 

186

a long enough period for regeneration of the best ecotypes and populations. New technology enables 

storage of seeds, germs and parts of plants for up to 30 years in liquid nitrogen. This method will help 

to protect seeds, especially in regions characterized by low European beech phenotype plasticity and 

seed productivity. Long-time storage of seeds is a complementary method for establishing ex situ 

gene conservation stands. 

research acTIvITIes reLaTed To GeNeTIc resources oF 

euroPeaN beech 

The first European beech experiment representing 11 Polish provenances was established in 196 

(Rzeznik 19 6, 1990). Six parallel provenance field trials were established. In this experiment two 

ecotypes of European beech were distinguished: mountain and lowland. Afterwards the provenance 

experiment with 45 populations of European beech was established with six trials in the 1992/1995 

series (Barzdajn 2002, Matras et al. 2005). Adaptive characteristics (survival and growth) and 

phenology (flushing and growth cessation) were analyzed. Among European beech populations in 

Poland, populations of high plasticity were selected, well adapted to different sites like Kwidzyn, 

Wipsowo and Lezajsk provenances. Provenances which originate from places where European 

beech was not widely found were characterized by relatively low survival and slow growth rate of 

forest cultures (Karnieszewice, Lipusz). Flushing revealed great differentiation and two phenological 

forms were distinguished – late form (Pomeranian region) and early form (southern part of Poland). 

Cessation characteristics did not show any clear trends. In this experiment genetic variability of mother 

stands and progeny were also compared using progeny studied at the experimental plot in Bystrzyca 

Klodzka. Statistical analyses showed high genotype × environment interactions for most of the studied 

silvicultural features, as well as varying plasticity of populations. Biochemical studies (isoenzyme 

and RAPD markers) revealed that genetic variation of parent populations confirms the results of 

phenotypically based assessments to a significant degree. Provenance Kwidzyn (Forest Directory 

Kwidzyn, forestry Polno) was proposed to be certified as the national standard population according 

to its high plasticity value and silvicultural characteristics. Regional European beech standards were 

chosen there e. g. in Forest Districts Gryfino, Milicz, Zdroje, Łosie (Sabor et al. 2004). 

Isoenzyme analysis showed (Sułkowska 2002, Gömöry et al. 2003): high genetic diversity of 

beech in Poland, similar to other neighbouring European populations, slight decrease of average 

number of alleles per locus and level of differentiation towards the north of the natural range limit, 

which generally confirms the migration paths after glaciations but it is not the basis to distinguish 

geographic regions. 

Recently, population differentiation of nine European beech provenances from selected stands 

and their progeny for selected genetic parameters and on the basis of soil characteristics of their 

habitats were studied (Sułkowska, Kowalczyk, Przybylski 2008). According to phytosociological 

characteristics following plant associations were classified: fertile Pomeranian beech – galio-odorati- 

Fagetum (Gryfino i Kartuzy), fertile Carpathian beech – Dentario glandulosae-Fagetum (Lutowiska 

i Łosie), acid beech – Luzulo-luzuloides-Fagetum (Miechów, Suchedniów, Tomaszów, Zwierzyniec), 

fertile Sudeten beech – Dentario enneaphyllidis-Fagetum (Zdroje). The analyzed selected stands are 

practically homogenous related to site conditions which reflect ecological index values (Zarzycki 

et al. 2002): light – semi-shade, thermic – temperate cool climate conditions, edaphic – clay-sandy 

or sandy-clay soils and regarding to humus mineral-humus soils. There were only differences 

determining moisture and acid factors of the soils. The stem and shape of the crown of most of the 

18

stands were of good quality. The genetic analyses were performed using isoenzyme electrophoresis 

and DNA-RAPD methods. The importance of very high intra-population diversity was shown, as 

well as high variation of investigated populations. Genetic diversity and differentiation of European 

beech populations and their progeny are correlated with the level of mineral ions important for 

growth and functions of plants. European beech provenances originating from fertile habitats with 

higher soil pH were characterized also by higher differentiation value of genetic parameters, as e. g. 

Miechów provenance pH of the soil 5.51 (0 – 20 cm layer) up to .05 (20 – 40 cm layer) – measured 

in H 2 O. For the mother stand of provenance Miechów (South Poland) average number of 2.3 alleles 

per locus (isoenzyme markers) was estimated, while percentage of polymorphic loci was .8% and 

for progeny 2.6 and 88.9%, respectively. The lowest average number of alleles per locus (1.9) was 

found for Zwierzyniec mother stand (south-east Poland natural range border), characterized by 

percentage of polymorphic 66. % and for the progeny stand 2.3 and 66. %, respectively. The mother 

stand of Kartuzy population (north Poland) was also characterized by low value of analyzed genetic 

parameters: average number of alleles per locus 1.9, with percentage of polymorphism 66. %, but 

for progeny stands the values were higher at 2.4 and 88.9%, respectively. The Kartuzy population 

was characterized by the lowest pH of the soil value – 4.35 (0 – 20 cm layer) up to 4.52 (20 – 40 cm 

layer) – measured in H 2 O. On the basis of DNA-RAPD markers a slight decrease of average number 

of alleles per locus and level of differentiation towards the north of Poland was observed, but this 

trend was not so clear. The results pointed at the ecotype character of genetic variation of European 

beech related probably with site differentiation. So, use of local European beech ecotypes, taking into 

account its plasticity seems to be the best advice to obtain success in forest management. 

reFereNces 

Barzdajn W. 2002. Proweniencyjna zmienność buka zwyczajnego (Fagus sylvatica L.) w Polsce 

w świetle wyników doświadczenia proweniencyjnego serii 1992/1995. [Provenanace variability 

of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) related to results of the provenance trial of 1992/1995 

series.] Sylwan, 146/2: 5-33. 

Boratyńska K., Boratyński A. 1990. Systematyka i geograficzne rozmieszczenie. [Systematic and 

geographic distribution.] In: Białobok S. (ed.): Buk zwyczajny Fagus sylvatica. [European beech 

Fagus sylvatica] Warszawa – Poznań, PWN: 2 - 3. 

Brzeziecki B. 1995. Skale nominalne wymagań klimatycznych gatunków leśnych. [Nominal climatic 

requirements forest species range.] Sylwan, 139/3: 53-65. 

Dzwonko Z. 1990. Ekologia. [Ecology.] In: Białobok S. (ed.): Buk zwyczajny Fagus sylvatica. 

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Fonder W. 2005. Realizacja „Programu zachowania leśnych zasobów genowych i hodowli selekcyjnej 

drzew leśnych w Polsce” w latach 1991 – 2005. [Program of forest gene resources conservation 

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Giertych M. 1990. Genetyka [Genetics.] In: Białobok S. (ed.): Buk zwyczajny Fagus sylvatica. 

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Gömöry D., Paule L., Schvadchak M., Popescu F., Sułkowska M., Hynek V., Longauer R. 2003. 

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wykazu obszarów i map regionów pochodzenia leśnego materiału podstawowego (Dz. U. 04, 

nr 6 , poz. 621). [Government Decree of Minister of Environment on 29 march 2004 concerning 

areas and maps of forest basic material origin inventory act no 6 , 621.] 

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[Chosen masterpieces concerning beech, fir, spruce and other tree species in Malopolska and 

Lubelska uplands and their significance for forest management unit.] Warszawa, PWRiL. 

Forests in Poland 2009. Warszawa, Centrum informacyjne Lasów Państwowych. On-line: http:// 

www.lasy.gov.pl/dokumenty/in_english/files/forests_in_poland_2009-ang-pdf/view 

Matras J. 2005. Ochrona leśnych zasobów genowych i ich wykorzystanie w selekcji drzew oraz 

nasiennictwie i szkółkarstwie leśnym. [Programme for forest genetic diversity conservation, Eng. 

summary.] In: Międzynarodowa konferencja – naukowo techniczna – Ochrona leśnych zasobów 

genowych i hodowla selekcyjna drzew leśnych w Polsce – stan i perspektywy. Malinówka, 

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Matras J., Burzyński G., Czart J., Fonder W., Korczyk A., Puchniarski T., Tomczyk A., 

Załęski A. 1993. Program zachowania leśnych zasobów genowych i hodowli selekcyjnej drzew 

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Markiewicz P. 2005. Zróżnicowanie genetyczne oraz zmienność cech hodowlanych populacji 

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498 

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Reviewed 

contacts: 

Dr. Małgorzata Sułkowska 

Forest Research Institute, Department of Genetics and Physiology of Woody Plants, Sękocin Stary, 3, 

Braci Leśnej St., 05-090 Raszyn, Poland 

e-mail: sulkowsM@ibles.waw.pl 

190

GeNeTIc resources oF beech (Fagus sylvatica) 

IN The rePubLIc oF moLdova 

GHEORGHE POSTOLACHE – DRAGOS POSTOLACHE 

Botanical Garden (Institute), Academy of Sciences, Department of Geobotany 

and Forestry, Padurii 18, MD-2002 Chisinau, Republic of Moldova 

absTracT 

This paper presents data about the natural distribution, establishment of natural distribution maps, 

diversity analysis, forest regeneration applications, inventory of genetic resources, in situ conservation 

and rational use of forest genetic resources of beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the Republic of Moldova. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica), fag (in Moldavian), beech diversity, plant associations, 

natural species composition, natural distribution, maps of natural distribution, 

inventories of genetic resources, in situ conservation 

GeNeraL characTerIsTIcs 

Forests are the most inestimable, renewable natural resources and all forests belong to the first 

functional group, which means that the function of these forests is a protective one, according to Art. 

14 of the Forest Code. 

The National Forest Fund of the Republic of Moldova covers 400,900 ha (11.0% of the country 

territory) including 362, 00 ha covered by forests (10. %) (Galupa et al. 2006). State forests are 

subject to forest management plans that provide the description of the state of forest biodiversity 

parameters: typological diversity of forests, species composition of forest sub-compartments, state of 

grassy cover, regeneration, etc. Deciduous species cover 9 .8% and conifers 2.2%. 

The natural forests in Moldova consist of broadleaved formations of the Central European type. 

The main species components of the forest are pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), sessile oak 

(Q. petraea), pubescent oak (Q. pubescens) and beech (Fagus sylvatica). Their distribution depends 

on the altitudinal levels, on the exposure level and the degree of slope inclination, on the soil and 

other conditions. These and other factors determined the formation of different types of forests and 

associations (Postolache 1995). 

NaTuraL dIsTrIbuTIoN 

Beech is found in the northwestern part of the Codrii Reserve from the central part of Moldova and 

considered at the eastern border of the natural range in Europe (Borza 193 , Soceava, Lipatova 

1952, Gheideman 1969, Tishkevici 1984, Postolache 1995). From the climatic, pedologic and 

geomorphologic point of view this part of Moldova is different from the rest of the country. Many 

191

esearchers (Andreev 195 , Gheideman et al. 1964, Postolache 1995) consider this part of 

Moldova as a particular subregion. Hydrothermic coefficient is 1.0 – 1.1. 

Beech forests cover 2,062.8 ha. Most of beech forests, 1,441.9 ha, are present in protected areas 

(Plaiul Fagului/The Beech Region, Codrii, Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni, Cazimir – Milesti, Cabac, Bogus, 

Harjauca – Sipoteni, Sadova (Fig. 1, 2). The rest of the beech forests, 620.9 ha, are situated in the 

forest districts Harjauca, Calarasi, Ciorăşti and Păruceni. 

Fig. 1: Beech forests from the “Plaiul Fagului”/The Beech Region reserve 

192

Fig. 2: The protected area of “Cabac” 

esTabLIshmeNT oF maPs oF NaTuraL dIsTrIbuTIoN oF beech 

(Fagus sylvatica) 

The distribution maps of the natural range of beech forests have been developed based on floristic 

and phytocenological investigations and forest planning information (Andreev 195 ). The herbarium 

illustrated the distribution of pedunculate oak, sessile oak and beech in Moldova. Gheideman 

(1969, 1986) presents general data about the distribution of these species in geobotanic districts. 

Data about the distribution of beech are included in the works of Soceava et Lipatova (1952), 

Postolache (19 6, 1995) etc. 

In 19 5, 1995, 1992 – 1996, the forest fund planning in Moldova was completed. These materials 

contain data about the forest stand composition. In 1966 – 19 2 the forest types and forest associations 

193

with beech from the forest farms in the centre of Moldova were mapped and classified. Turok et al. 

(2000) published a distribution map of the beech forests in southeastern Europe, comprising also the 

beech in the Republic of Moldova. Postolache (2002) published the vegetation map of Republic of 

Moldova, where the distribution of beech forests was presented. 

From these maps it can be observed that the largest surface area of beech (Fagus sylvatica) was 

recorded in the central part of Moldova (scientific reserves “Codri”, “Plaiul Fagului”/The Beech 

Region, the forest farms Calarasi, Nisporeni. All the beech areas in Moldova can be attributed to the 

category of the marginal ones, as they are located at the easternmost border of the beech distribution 

range in Europe. 

PLaNT commuNITIes dIversITy 

Beech communities are distributed at an altitude of 200 – 400 m, more often on the upper part of 

slopes with an inclination of 10 – 40, with north and north-east exposures. These communities are 

represented by small areas, often in the form of narrow strips near the breaks caused by landslides, 

or along valleys and small rivers where in many places they go down below 200 m of altitude. Beech 

communities are growing on brown forest soils. 

Pure forest stands and mixed beech forests stands were distinguished according to their composition 

and structure. The coverage of tree canopy is around 0.8 – 0.9. Beech (Fagus sylvatica) dominates the 

upper part of the tree layer. Beech as the main species of these forests attains the height of 30 – 35 m, 

diameter of the trunk 50 – 0 cm. It is characterized by a forest stand with a diverse composition 

and structure. Forest stands are composed of a range of 15 different tree species. Besides Fagus 

sylvatica and Quercus petraea also Tilia tomentosa, T. cordata, Fraxinus excelsior have been recorded. 

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) dominates at the lower tree layer. Also scattered broadleaves species like 

Cerasus avium, Acer platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus, A. campestre, Sorbus torminalis, Ulmus glabra, 

Populus tremula, Malus sylvestris, Pyrus pyraster are present. The shrub layer is poorly developed 

and is represented by solitary species like Sambucus nigra, Swida sanguinea, Crataegus monogyna, 

C. curvisepala, Corylus avellana, Staphylea pinnata, Viburnum lantana, Cornus mas, euonymus 

europaea, e. verrucosa. The herb layer is sometimes as poorly developed as the shrub layer. Therefore 

the coverage of herb layer varies from 4% to 50%. However, in the spring when ephemeral plants 

flourish (Scilla bifolia, Corydalis solida, C. marschaliana, Dentaria bulbifera, D. glandulosa, Allium 

ursinum, Anemone ranunculoides, Ficaria verna, gagea lutea, g. pusilla, Isopyrum thalictroides), herb 

layer may reach a coverage of 60 – 90% in some places. During the summer period the herbs are 

represented by species such as: galium odoratum, Carex pilosa, C. brevicollis, C. digitata, C. sylvatica, 

Asarum europaeum, Hedera helix, Aegopodium podagraria, galeobdolon luteum, Sanicula europaea, 

Polygonatum latifolium, P. multiflorum, Pulmonaria obscura, Alliaria petiolata, Circea lutetiana, 

Mercurialis perennis, geranium robertianum, g. phaeum, Viola reichenbachiana, V. mirabilis, 

Dryopteris filix-mas, epipactis heleborine, Stachys sylvatica, Actaea spicata, Convallaria majalis, Poa 

nemoralis, Mycelis muralis, Neottia nidus-avis, Salvia glutinosa, Scrophularia nodosa, Arum orientale, 

Athyrium filix-femina, Cephalanthera damasonium, Cephalanthera longifolia, Dactylis glomerata, 

Stellaria holostea, Urtica dioica, euphorbia amygdaloides, geum urbanum, Lamium maculatum, 

Lunaria rediviva, Melica uniflora, Milium effusum, Platanthera bifolia, Astragalus glycyphyllos, 

Cardamine impatiens, equisetum telmateia, glechoma hirsuta, Lamium purpureum, Lathyrus niger, 

Parietaria erecta, Ranunculus auricomus, Scutellaria altissima, Tussilago farfara, Vicia dumetorum, 

194

Monotropa hypopitis. Most of these species are characterized by a very low abundance, and some 

of them can be found only in a few exemplars. In beech forests 25 species of rare plants have been 

recorded, most of them are listed in the Red Book of Moldova: Daphne mezereum, Dryopteris 

dilatata, D. carthusiana, D. caucasica, D. filix-mas, Polystichum aculeatum, Thelypteris palustris, 

Athyrium filix-femina, Cystopteris fragilis, gymnocarpium dryopteris, Cephalanthera damasonium, C. 

longifolia, C. rubra, Cypripedium calceolus, Lunaria rediviva, Telekia speciosa, Dentaria quinquefolia, 

D. glandulosa, ortilia secunda, Pyrola rotundifolia, Majanthemum bifolium, Platanthera bifolia, P. 

chlorantha (Gheideman 1969, Postolache 1995, Postolache, Chirtoaca 2005). 

According to the phytocenologist Gheideman (1969), there are seven associations of beech forests 

in the country. According to the authors Postolache and Chirtoaca (2005) from the central 

European school, the beech forests comprised in the scientific reserve “Plaiul Fagului”/The Beech 

Region were classified as association Carpino-Fagetum silvaticae Pauca 1941. 

In these communities, the dominant plant species are mesophilic – 4 . %, followed by mesohygrophilic 

– 32.6% and xeromesophilic – 1 .5%. The mesoxerophilic and hygrophilic species are presented 

in 1% each. The life forms spectra are dominated by hemicryptophyte species (33%) and geophyte 

species (30%) followed by phanerophyte species (25%). The floristic elements analysis reveals the 

dominance of Eurasian element (Euras. – 35.2%), European element (Eur. – 20.5%) and Central- 

European element (Eur. centr. – 11.4%). Relatively well represented are circumpolar elements (Circ. 

– 10.2%). 

beech dIversITy 

Many researchers have studied beech populations, but up to the present there has not been a consensus 

regarding the systematics of Moldovian beech. Savulescu et Rayss (1926) indicated two forms 

of beech in the beech forests in Basarabia: (a) f. cuneifolia Beck and (b) f. rotundifolia Beck. Borza 

(193 ) considered that there are two varieties of beech in Basarabia: (a) Fagus sylvatica var. podolica 

spread in the North of Basarabia and (b) Fagus sylvatica var. moesiaca Czecz. spread in the Centre 

of Basarabia. Soceava et Lipatova (1952) attributed the beech from Moldova to the var. moesiaca 

Czecz. 

Istrati (19 5, 1980), after studying the vegetative and generative organs of beech populations, 

concluded that according to the leaf form the beech belongs to the Fagus sylvatica species and differs 

from F. orientalis Lipsky and F. taurica Popl. A special peculiarity of the beech population is the 

asymmetry of the leaf blade. 

On the basis of the investigations on the vegetative and reproductive organs of beech populations 

Tishkevici (1984) made similar conclusion, that the Moldovian beech has some specific peculiarities 

but is the closest to Fagus sylvatica. 

Thus the problem of the beech population structure is not resolved. It is possible that one of the 

principles is the phylogenetic problem of the beech. Mattfeld (1936) quoted by Borza (193 ) 

presumed that long ago during the preglacial period the differentiation of beech (Fagus sylvatica) 

took place from a tertiary species into two species. After the glacial period the environment became 

more favourable for beech (Fagus sylvatica). According to Wulff (1931) Fagus sylvatica developed 

after the glacial epoch from Fagus orientalis. 

195

Following this short characteristic of the beech populations it may be concluded that the beech 

population has a complex structure and it is necessary to protect all these areas as they are both of 

scientific and practical interest. 

As the beech in Moldova is situated at the eastern border of its distribution area, it has been attributed 

to the category of marginal forest genetic resources. 

ForesT reGeNeraTIoN aPPLIcaTIoN 

Between 19 5 and 1984 some experiments on the establishment of beech plantations were performed 

(Tishkevici 1984). During the years 199 – 2005 other experiments regarding beech regeneration, 

by the method of successive cuttings, were carried out in the scientific reserve “Plaiul Fagului”/The 

Beech Region on an area of 294.9 ha. The purpose of this work was to optimize the forests structure 

where hornbeam is abundant. 

Nowadays the developed successive cuttings are applied in several forest districts in order to optimize 

the composition and structure of beech forests. 

INveNTory oF Fagus sylvatica GeNeTIc resources 

Resulting from analysis of forest plans, 236 sub-compartments with beech with a total area of 2,062.8 

ha were delineated in the state forest fund. According to the abundance of beech in forests stands 

65 sub-compartments (2 4.3 ha) have been distinguished in natural forest stands, where the beech 

represents more than 50%. The rest of beech sub-compartments 152 (1, 3 .0 ha) are located in 

derivative forest stands with a beech proportion of 10 – 49% and the other 19 sub-compartments 

are planted forests with an area of 51.5 ha. The areas protected by the state (Plaiul Fagului/The Beech 

Region, Codrii, Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni, Cazimir – Milesti, Codrii, Cabac, Bogus, Harjauca – Sipoteni, 

Sadova) contain 1,441.9 ha of beech forests or forests with beech (Fig. 1, 2). Outside the protected 

areas there are 620.9 ha of beech forests managed by the forestry institutions from Harjauca, Calarasi, 

Ciorăşti, Păruceni. 

Taking into consideration that the beech in Moldova is situated at the eastern border of the distribution 

area in Europe it should be stressed that it is necessary to extend the state protected areas within the 

beech forests. The forest genetic resources in these areas have been sampled based on the quality of 

the forest stands. 

Three categories of forest genetic resources have been established: 

• Optimal forest genetic resources of beech (Fagus sylvatica) include the most valuable genetic 

resources. The volume of the wood is 340 – 460 m3 ·ha-1 . The height of the tree range is 26 – 38 m 

and the diameter of the stems is 32 – 56 cm. Ten forest genetic resources of beech have been 

attributed to this category. 

• Forest genetic resources seed stands include forest stands which are less productive than the optimal 

ones (230 – 308 m 3 ·ha -1 ). Three forest genetic resources seed stands have been established. 

• The forest genetic resources from the reserves are a separate category. In the reserves 11 forest 

genetic resources have been established with a total area of 1,441.9 ha (Tab. 1). 

196

coNservaTIoN aNd raTIoNaL uTILIZaTIoN oF The ForesT 

GeNeTIc resources 

There are nine state protected areas of beech of which two of them: “Plaiul Fagului”/The Beech 

Region, and “Codrii”, are scientific reserves. One beech forest “Hîrjauca – Sipoteni” was attributed to 

the category of protected areas being considered a monument of nature. Four protected areas such as 

“Cabac”, “Sadova”, “Bogus” and “Leordoaia” were attributed to the category of nature reserves, while 

two protected areas ”Cazimir – Mileşti” and “Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni” were assigned to the category of 

landscape reserves. 

Nowadays within these nine protected areas only 1,441.9 ha of beech forests and forests with beech 

are under the protection of the state, representing a total of 0% of the existing beech forests. These 

204.1 ha include natural-fundamental forests in which the beech represents more than 50%. Also 

registered is an area of 1,193.6 ha of derivative beech forests where the participation of the beech tree 

varies between 10 to 40%. In the scientific reserve Plaiul Fagului/The Beech Region and in nature 

reserve Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni, 14 areas were planted with beech trees, an area of 44.2 ha (Tab. 1). 

Tab. 1: Area (ha) occupied by different categories of beech forests within the protected areas 

Protected areas Natural-fundamental 

forest stands 

Derivative forest 

stands 

Planted forest 

stands 

Plaiul Fagului 130.9 691.0 26.7 848.6 

Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni 5.0 256.0 17.5 278.5 

Cazimir – Milesti 18.5 166.8 – 185.3 

Codrii 38.0 28.2 – 66.2 

Cabac 7.3 39.7 – 47.0 

Bogus 1.8 7.8 – 9.6 

Harjauca – Sipoteni 1.3 4.1 – 5.4 

Sadova 0.8 – – 0.8 

Leordoaia – Palanca 0.5 – – 0.5 

Total 204.1 1,193.6 44.2 1,441.9 

curreNT LeGIsLaTIoN 

Based on the research undertaken by Borza (193 ), eight compartments were identified within 

the forest vegetation classification, among which there were two with beech forests (Pârjolteni – 

10 ha and Hârjauca – Palanca – ha). In conformation with a decision of the Romanian Council of 

Ministers taken in July 19, 193 , these areas along with others were declared Monuments of Nature 

in Basarabia. Based on the decision of Moldova S. S. R. taken on January 8, 19 5, No. 2 ”Regarding 

the settlement of natural areas and complexes from the territory of Moldova S. S. R. under the 

protection of the state” several areas with beech forests of nine protected areas (Plaiul Fagului/The 

Beech Region, Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni, Cazimir – Milesti, Codrii, Cabac, Bogus, Harjauca – Sipoteni, 

Sadova, Leordoaia – Palanca) were put under the protection of the state. 

Total 

19

In agreement with the Law on Natural State Protected Areas Fund adopted by the Parliament of the 

Republic of Moldova No. 1538 – XIII in February 25, 1998, these protected areas were reconfirmed 

and attributed to several categories of protected area status. Thus were established: two scientific 

reserves (Plaiul Fagului/The Beech Region, Codrii), one monument of nature (Harjauca – Sipoteni), 

two landscape reserves (Căbăieşti – Pârjolteni, Cazimir – Milesti) and four nature reserves (Cabac, 

Bogus, Sadova, Leordoaia - Palanca). 


The beech forests were studied by several groups of researchers. During 1949 – 1951 one group of 

researchers from Sankt-Petersburg guided by B. Soceava investigated the spread of beech forests in 

Moldova. The results of this research were published in a number of articles by Soceava et Lipatova 

(1952). 

The researchers from the Agriculture University of Chisinau under the guidance of G. Tishkevici 

investigated the biological, ecological and physiological properties, systematic position, natural 

regeneration and productivity of beech during the period 19 0 – 1980. These results were published 

in the monograph “Okhrana i vosstanovleniye bukovikh lesov” [Conservation and reconstruction of 

beech forests] (Tishkevici 1984) and in a number of articles. 

Other research activities regarding different aspects of the beech tree and beech forests were 

performed within the Botanical Garden (Institute) from the Academy of Sciences of Moldova. 

During 1966 – 1969, T. Gheideman investigated the plant associations, microclimatic conditions, 

hydric regime of beech trees and other components of beech forests. The results of these investigations 

were published in the monograph “Bukovaya dubrava Moldavskoi S. S. R. [Beech forests of 

Moldova S. S. R.] (Gheideman 1969). 

Later, during 199 – 2000, a group of researchers under the guidance of Professor Gh. Postolache, 

performed important research studies on the identification of beech genetic resources (Fagus 

sylvatica) within the collaborative project with Bulgaria, Moldova and Romania “Genetic resources 

of broadleaved forest tree species in southeastern Europe” initiated by IPGRI (International Plant 

Genetic Resources Institute). The selection of beech forest genetic resources was performed by means 

of a methodical selection of forest areas which included exploration, sampling and classification. 

Based on this research the monograph of “Genetic resources of Fagus spp. in southeastern Europe” 

was prepared and published by Turok et al. (2000). 

Postolache (2004) in his work ”State of Forest and Tree Genetic Resources in the Republic of 

Moldova” presented information regarding the forest genetic resources of beech. Postolache and 

Chirtoaca (2005) investigated beech forests in the scientific reserve “Plaiul Fagului”/The Beech 

Region that was attributed to the association Carpino-Fagetum sylvaticae Pauca 1941. They show the 

floristic and phytocenological composition of beech forest communities. 

198

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Postolache G. 2002. Harta Vegetaţiei. [Vegetation map of the Republic of Moldova.] Republica 

Moldova. Atlas. Chişinău. p. 26. 

Postolache G., Chirtoacă V. 2005. Vegetaţia. Natura rezervaţiei “Plaiul Fagului” [Vegetation. 

Nature of the reserve “The Beech region”.] Chisinău, Rădenii Vechi: 16 -216. 

Postolache G. G. 19 6. Lesnaia podstilka v krugovorote vescestv. [Litter in the cycle of matter.] 

Chisinau. Stiinta: 1 8 p. 

Săvulescu T., Rayss T. 1926. Materiale pentru flora Basarabiei (partea II). [Materials for Basarabia 

flora (second part).] Bucureşti, p. 83-94. 

Soceava V., Lipatova V. 1952. Rasprostranenie buka v lesah Moldavii. [Beech spread in forests of 

Moldova.] Moskva – Leningrad, Trudi Botanicheskogo Instituta im. V. L. Komarova. ser. III, 8: 

259-288 or 3(8): 259-288. 

Tishkevici G. L. 19 . Sistematicheskoe polozhenie buka, proizrastayushchego v Moldavii. 

[Systematics of beech in Moldova.] Botanicheskii zhurnal, 62/6: 8 6-883. 

Tishkevici G. L. 1984. Okhrana i vosstanovlenie bukovikh lesov. [Conservation and reconstruction 

of beech forests.] Chişinev, Ştiinţa, p. 26-50. 

Turok, J. 199 . Introduction. In: Technical guidelines for genetic conservation of Norway spruce 

(Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Roma, IPGRI: 1-4. 

Turok J., Alexandrov A., Blada I., Postolache G., Biris I., Donita N., Gancz V., Genov K., 

Lazu S. 2000. Genetic resources of Fagus spp. in southeastern Europe. IPGRI. 

Wulff E. 1931. Vvedenie v istoricheskuyu geografiyu rastenii. [Introduction to history of plants 

geography.] Leningrad, 350 p. 

contacts: 

Dr. habil. Gheorghe Postolache 

Botanical Garden (Institute), Academy of Sciences, Department of Geobotany and Forestry 

Padurii 18, MD-2002 Chisinau, Republic of Moldova 

e-mail: ghpost@asm.md, ghpost@mail.ru 

200 

Reviewed


(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNe-PooL IN romaNIa 

Lucia Ioniţă – Gheorghe Pârnuţă 

Forest Research and Management Institute Department of Genetics and Tree Breeding 

Bd-ul Eroilor nr. 128, Code 0 190 Voluntari- Ilfov, Romania 

absTracT 

The paper outlines the state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Romania. The information 

included deals with the distribution, ecology, taxonomy, phenotypic and genetic variability of 

European beech. Information about characteristics and forest management, as well as methods for 

preservation of European beech genetic resources, are also included. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), fag (in Romanian), Romania, distribution, 

phenotypic and genetic variability, genetic resource, forest research 

dIsTrIbuTIoN aNd ecoLoGy oF euroPeaN beech IN romaNIa 

In Romania, European beech is the dominant species, covering 32.3% of the forest land (about 

2,041,000 hectares, INS 2008) and amounting for 3 % of standing wood volume. Romania has 11. % 

of Euro-Asian beech stands, thus ranking third in the world. The map of natural distribution range 

of Fagus sylvatica was elaborated by Blada et al. (2002) and is presented in Figure 1. 

European beech is a hill and mountain tree growing in both pure and mixed stands with silver 

fir, Norway spruce and sessile oak. The sub-zone of European beech covers a great deal of Banat, 

Transylvania, Maramureş, the two slopes of the Carpathians and the central plain of Moldavia. 

As for the beech extension in altitude, it is very variable depending on the geographical location: 

150 m in Banat (seldom 60 m along the Danube Valley and 100 m in Cerna Valley), 800 m in the 

Transylvanian Alps. The upper limit of closed beech stands lies between 1,200 and 1,400 m but 

can reach even 1,500 m in the Transylvanian Alps and 1, 00 m in the Western Carpathians on the 

northern slopes. 

The optimum range is characterized by a range of precipitation of 650 – 1,250 mm depending on the 

geographical region and a mean annual temperature of 5.2 – 8. °C. European beech stands of high 

productivity can be found only on deep and rich soils, with a high availability of water and nutrients. 

Such kind of stands exists in the Western Carpathians (Banat and Crişana regions). 

Ecological researches regarding Romanian beech forests were performed by Pauca-Comănescu 

(1989). 

201

Fig. 1: Map of natural distribution range of Fagus sylvatica (BLADA et al. 2002) 

PheNoTyPIc aNd GeNeTIc varIabILITy oF euroPeaN beech IN 

romaNIa 

Phenotypic variability of European beech population in Romania area was described by Milescu et 

al. (196 ) who classified the systematic subunits of Fagus sylvatica as follows: F. sylvatica ssp. europaea 

(ssp. sylvatica), F. var. moesiaca sylvatica ssp. orientalis, var. grandifolia and F. sylvatica ssp. taurica, 

var. grandifolia. 

The ecological units of European beech were defined based on the natural types of beech forests. 

After Ienciu (2005) other subunits of European beech had been described, by many authors, based 

on the form and structure of the crown, characteristics of leaves, bark and wood and also other traits 

as follows: 

– F. s. var. pendula Lodd. Catal. (Florescu, Dumitriu-Tătăranu 1960), in Banat Mountains at 

800 m, Aleşd, Black Forest (Bihor) (Beldie 1952) and Jerălău Valley (Banat); 

– F. s. f. dentata Dalla Torre et Sarnth, in Transylvania at Braşov, in Muntenia at Schitu Goleşti- 

Grădiştea Forest (Muscel), (Beldie 1952); 

– F. s. var. vulgaris (Dom.) Beldie Syn., the most common in Romania, the most interesting 

population from genetic, ecological and productivity points of view being the ones from Beliu, 

202

Dumitreşti, Dobra, Voineşti, Bârzava, Sudrigiu, Radna, Mihăieşti, Fântânele, Soveja and Făget 

(Chiriţă et al. 1981); 

– F. s. var. typica C. K. Schneider f. crenata Kárp., at Băile Herculane (Banat) (Karpati 193 ); 

– F. s. f. beckii Dom., in Parâng (Beldie 1952); 

– F. s. var. moesiaca (Maly) Hayek Emend. Dom., in Transylvania, Banat, Oltenia, Moldovia and 

Dobrogea (Beldie 1952), the most valuable populations being Berzasca, Orşova, Bozovici, Anina, 

Mehadia and Tismana (Dumitriu-Tătăranu, Ocskay 1953); 

– F. s. var. (Maly) Dom. moesiaca f. czeczottae Paşcovschi, in Neva Valley, at Sviniţa (540 m) and 

in Little Mountain at Sebeş (1,200 m) (Paşcovschi 1945); 

– F. s. f. roseo-marginata Henry. Syn. in Timiş Park (Braşov) (Beldie 1952) and in Arinilor Park at 

Sibiu (Ţopa 1956); 

– F. s. f. leucodermis Georgescu et Dumitriu-Tătăranu in Cheia, Bistriţa, Argeş Region, 

Bistricioarei and Zănoaga (Dumitriu-Tătăranu 1959), in Brădiştea (Milescu et al. 196 ), in 

Mehedinţi and Vulcan Mountains, at Săcărâmb, and in Apuseni, at Suharău (Enescu 19 5); 

– F. s. f. quercoides Pers., Ciucaş Mountain (1,060 m) and Red Mountain (1,240 m) (Băile Herculane) 

(Dumitriu-Tătăranu, Ocskay 1953); 

– F. s. var. borzae Dom., in Banat (Domogled Mountain), in Moldova at Grăjdeni, Feredeu-Deleni, 

Repedea (Iaşi) (Beldie 1952); 

– F. s. f. (var.) microcarpa Aschers-Graebn., in Cheile Bicazului (1,000 – 1,120 m) (Ţopa 1956), in 

Neteda Plai Mountain (1,500 m) (Georgescu 1958) and in Hurcu Mountain (Banat) (1,200 m) 

(Florescu, Dumitriu-Tătăranu 1960). 

Fagus orientalis Lipsky was found in Banat at Moldova Nouă and Orşova (900 – 1,100 m), Cerna 

Mountain (1,160 m), in Moldavia at Buhuşi, Huşi, Piatra Neamţ Regions, Măgura Odobeşti, Berneşti 

and Iaşi, and in Snagov Forest, Dobrogea and Lucoviţa. Three forms – f. major Dom. (Fata lui Matis, 

Herculane), f. minor Dom. and f. fallax Dom. (Duhova, V. Gratca, Orşova at 0 m, Snagov Forest) 

– were identified. 

One hybrid – Fagus orientalis × Fagus sylvatica – was also identified in the plains of the south-west 

and east of the country. 


In the past European beech wood was not used very much for industrial purposes. Nowadays it is 

widely used for lumber, parquetry fillet, veneer, plywood, lumber-core plywood, particle boards, 

rural buildings, fuel wood, etc. Recently, it has been used even for pulp and paper production. 

European beech stands in Romania are almost all (95%) naturally regenerated, the national policy in 

this field being to increase the share up to 100%. 

Wood production is the main destination of European beech forests in Romania. The total wood 

production at 100 years old in pure European beech stands varies between 453 m 3 .ha -1 in the lowest 

(Vth) site class and 1,155.5 m 3 .ha -1 in the highest (Ist) site class. At 80 years of age, the mean growth 

of pure European beech stands in the Ist site class is 11.9 m 3 .ha -1 .yr -1 and decreases down to 4.3 in the 

203

(lowest) Vth class. At 100 years of age, in the Ist site class, the proportion of industrial wood is 2%, 

of which 65% is sawnwood (Enescu 1993). 

The amount of European beech wood harvested in the forests (state and private) of Romania in the 

past 10 years is shown in table 1. 

Tab. 1: Amount of beech wood harvested in Romania in the past 10 years (Romanian Statistic Yearbook 

2008) 

Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Harvested volume 

(million m3 ) 

3.963 4.505 4.956 4.480 4.439 4.748 5.412 4.794 4.997 5.182 


In Romania, because of only natural regeneration (by seed), European beech has not been the topic 

of a breeding programme. For that reason its phenotypic and genetic variability was barely searched 

in-depth. 

A biosystematic research in 60 natural populations has investigated traits of pulp production interest 

(Ciocnitu et al. 19 5). Populations with high pulp value were found in the north of the Eastern 

Carpathians, Suceava Plateau, south Eastern Carpathians, Mehedinţi Plateau and in Western 

Carpathians (Apuseni Mountains). 

Another study (Urecheatu 1992) using natural populations took into consideration 42 

morphological and anatomical parameters and showed a very large inter- and intrapopulation 

variability. The research carried out by Stănescu and Şofletea in 1990 – 1992 in European beech 

populations from a relevant proportion of its natural range in Romania showed a large variation of 

some leaves’ morphology and bark colour. 

The first study regarding phenotypic and genotypic variation of European beech in Romania was 

initiated by Enescu et Muhs (1988). The first step was the study of phenotypic variation of some 

evolutionary traits in natural populations of European beech from Romania. The biosystematic 

research of 21 natural populations selected after 5 altitudinal profiles containing the main parts of 

European beech natural range had included the measurement and observation of 29 traits of forest 

interest. The first results showed the existence of a large variation of those traits. The second step was 

the establishment of international provenance trials in Romania in 1995 and 1998 (Wuehlisch von 

200 ). These trials were the object of other research projects performed by Ioniţă in 2005 – 2008 

(Mihai et al. 2008). 

Researches on differentiation in European beech at allozyme loci were performed by Gömöry et 

al. (2003). The Romanian Carpathians are unambiguously the centre of the allelic richness, both at 

the regional and population level. On the other hand, allelic richness exhibits very distinct trends. 

Despite local variations, centres of high as well as low allelic multiplicity can easily be identified. 

Extremely low values occur at the northeastern limit of the distribution range – Baltic coast and 

204

centre of Poland. The highest values were found in the Romanian Carpathians, mainly in the Apuseni 

Mts. and at the southeastern edge of the Carpathians (regions Ploieşti and Braşov). 

European beech continues to be the most resilient species among the most important Romanian forest 

species. Its defoliation proportion was 15.6% in 2004, 11% in 2005 and 11.5% in 2006 (Badea et al. 

2005 – 200 ). In some particular areas (NE and Central Romania) beech decline has been recorded, 

due to a complex mixture of abiotic factors (water fluctuation, frost, etc.), favouring (agedness, 

compact soil, low drainage, etc.) and aggravating (bark and wood insects, diseases – Phytophthora 

spp., Nectria spp., etc.) (Chira et al. 2005, Chira, Chira 200 ). As a new phenomenon, Lymantria 

dispar defoliations have been recorded in beech stands in the last years (Tăut, Neţoiu 200 ). Also 

beech canker is widely spread in hilly and low mountain areas (Chira, Chira 1998). 

coNservaTIoN oF euroPeaN beech GeNeTIc resources 

In Romania, the beech genetic resources are conserved only in situ, with the exception of 4 populations 

that are included in the international field trials of European beech established in our country. 

A first method of conservation is the seed stand, which amounts for ,665 ha spread all over the 

phytogeographic subzones of our country (Seed Stands Catalogue 2001). Other virgin stands, 

with garden-like patterns, are preserved under total non-intervention regime in old forests legally 

dedicated as nature monuments. Eight virgin forests – Văliug Forest District, compartment 3 , 

Mehadaia Forest District, compartments 214 and 94, Bozovici Forest District, sub-compartment 110 

C and compartment 4 , Nera Forest District, compartments 38 A and 64, and Făget Forest District, 

sub-compartment 110 A – were identified. Among these forests, Nera and Făget are protected areas. 

A second method of conservation is the selection of genetic resources of European beech which are 

included in the National Catalogue of Forest Genetic Resources (Pârnuţă et al. 2008). The genetic 

resources of European beech consist in 123 conservation units, with 11,803 ha total surface, of which 

3,106.4 ha as core zone and 8,696.6 ha as buffer area. 

The map of Fagus sylvatica genetic resources distribution on regions of provenances is presented in 

Figure 2. 

Scattered stands of European beech located outside of the natural range such as Bucovăţ-Craiova, 

Bucoviciorul-Dolj, Luncaviţa-Măcin, Mănăstirea Câlnic-Tulcea, are also preserved. To the same 

group belong the scattered individuals or small groups of European beech trees located in the 

Transylvania Plateau (Sivaşul de Câmpie-Mureş) and in the Muntenia Plains (Ţigăneşti-Snagov, 

Curcubeul-Gherghiţa). 

An important proportion of European beech forests are subject of NATURA 2000 programme in 

Romania (2 3 of SCI, which amounts for 2,023,601 ha, including beech forests also) (Stoiculescu 

200 ). 

The Romanian legislation regarding the forest genetic resources consists of the Governmental 

Ordinance no. 11/2004 on the production, marketing and utilization of forest reproductive material, 

approved by Law no. 161/2004 and Law no 46/2008–Forest Code. 

205

Fig. 2: Fagus sylvatica (L.) genetic resources distribution on regions of provenances 

seLecTed reFereNces 

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diversity, CABI Publishing, IPGRI Rome. 

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celuloză. [Phenotipical selection of valuable populations of beech for cellulose wood.] ICAS 

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206

Chira D., Dănescu F., Geambaşu N., Roşu C., Chira F., Mihalciuc V., Surdu A. 2005. Aspecte 

privind uscarea fagului în România în perioada 2001 – 2004. [Aspects regarding beech drying in 

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study.] Ed. Academiei R.S.R: 5 3 p. 

Dumitriu-Tătăranu I. 1959. Origine et position systematique de lots de hetre du sud-ouest de la 

France. [Origine and systematic position of beech lots in south-est of France.] Revue Forestiere 

Française, Nancy, nr. 3: 123-190. 

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forest species-special part.] Bucureşti, Ceres: 314 p. 

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of Beech. Proceedings of an EC Workshop. Ahrensburg 1993, Working document of the EC, DG 

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de fag cu ajutorul distanţei genetice. [Evaluation of beech natural population diversity with the 

help of genetic distance.] Revista Pădurilor, nr. 5: 1-5. 

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Roumania. In: Korpel S., Paule L. (eds.): 3. IUFRO Buchensymposium. Zvolen 1991, p. 85-92. 

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Georgescu C. 1958. Dare de seamă asupra boalelor de importanţă economică în pădurile ţării în 

anii 1934 – 1938. [Report on economical important deseases in the forests of the country in the 

years 1934 – 1938.] An. ICF, 19: 25-30. 

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comparative trials from the west of the country.] Teza de doctorat, “Universitatea Transilvania” 

din Braşov. 

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2008. Evaluări privind variaţia genetică a principalelor specii de arbori forestieri din România în 

vederea stabilirii surselor de seminţe testate. [Evaluation of genetic variation of the main forest 

tree species in Romania for establishing tested seed sources.] Revista Pădurilor, nr. 4: 3-11. 

20

Milescu I., Alexie A., Nicovescu H., Suciu P. 196 . Fagul. [Beech.] Ed. Agro-silvică, Bucureşti: 

581 p. 

Pârnuţă G., Stuparu E., Budeanu M., Scărlătescu V., Marica F., Lalu I., Filat M., Tudoroiu M., 

Lorenţ A., Nică M. S., Teodosiu M., Chesnoiu E. N., Marcu C. 2008. Conservarea şi 

managementul durabil al resurselor genetice forestiere din România. [Conservation and 

sustainable management of Romanian forest genetic resources.] Proiect în cadrul Programului 

Naţional de Cercetare de Excelenţă (CEEX), elaborat în perioada 2005 – 2008, Referat ştiinţific 

final 2008, Contract nr. 618/2005, Manuscris ICAS. 

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Ecological researches.] Ed. Academiei R.S.R. Bucureşti, ISBN: 9 89 32 00 8. 

Paşcovschi S. 1945. Rolul hibridării naturale în fenomenul succesiunilor vegetale. [The role of 

natural hybridization in plant succesion phenomena.] An INCEF, 13: 100-149. 

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Skripten 222, Bundesamt für Naturschutz: 41-182. 

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(manuscris). 

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del Haya. Pamplona, Spain: 30 -310. 

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Iran, S. 135-144. 

*** 2001. Catalogul Naţional al Surselor pentru Materiale Forestiere de Reproducere din România. 

[National Catalogue of Romanian Forest Reproductive Material Sources.] Autori Moise M. et. al., 

ICAS-Manuscris, Bucureşti 2001. 

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161/2004 concerning approval of Gonernmental Ordinance no. 11/2004.] Monitorul oficial al 

României Partea i nr. 466/25.05.2004. 

*** 2004. Ordonanţa Guvernului nr. 11/2004 privind producerea, comercializarea şi utilizarea 

materialelor forestiere de reproducere. [Governmental Ordinance no. 11/2004 concerning the 

production, commercialization and utilization of forest reproductive materials.] Monitorul 

Oficial, Partea I, nr. 85/30.01.2004. 

*** 2008. Institutul Naţional de Statistică, Informaţii Statistice, Silvicultură, SILV, ISSN 1584-9139 

(National Institute for Statistics, Statistic information, Silviculture). 

208

*** 2008. Legea nr. 46/2008: Codul Silvic [Law no. 46/2008: Forest code.] Monitorul Oficial al 

României, Partea I, nr. 238/2 .03.2008. 

contacts 

Dr. Lucia Ioniţă, Prof. Dr. Gheorghe Pârnuţă 

Forest Research and Management Institute Department of Genetics and Tree Breeding 

Bd-ul Eroilor nr. 128, Code 0 190 Voluntari- Ilfov, Romania 

tel.: +4021 350 3238; +4021 350 3245 

e-mail: luciaionita1@yahoo.com, gh_parnuta@icas.ro 

Reviewed 

209

210 

curreNT sTaTe oF baLKaN beech 

(Fagus sylvatica ssP. sylvatica) GeNe PooL IN The 

rePubLIc oF serbIa 

Mirjana Šijačić-Nikolić 1 – Saša Orlović 2 – Andrej Pilipović 2 

1 Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade, Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, 

Republic of Serbia 

2 University of Novi Sad, Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment, 

Antona Čehova 13, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia 

absTracT 

Total forest area of Serbia is 2,412,940 ha. The dominant species in the forest growing stock is beech 

(50.4% by volume) with a wide range of vertical distribution, occurring in a great number of forest 

types, in different structural forms, in pure or mixed stands, of different origin, at different sites. 

The main characteristic of the beech gene pool in Serbia is high individual and group variability in 

many morphological and genetic-physiological traits, which results in numerous intraspecific taxa 

described in this region. 

Key words: Balkan beech, bukva (in Serbian), taxonomy, morphology, variability, range, forest 

community, environmental conditions, state, forest management system, fungi, insects, 

gene pool 

TaXoNomy 

In Serbia, in addition to European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and oriental beech (Fagus orientalis 

Lipsky), according to Jovanović (2000), there is also Balkan beech which is the most represented 

species. This author considers Balkan beech (Fagus moesiaca Domin, Maly/Czeczott.), as a separate 

species in the region of the Balkan Peninsula and Serbia. 

Balkan beech was first described as a separate taxon by Josef Karel Malý in 1911. The description 

of this taxon was later completed by Czeczott (1933). Opinions regarding the taxonomical status 

of this taxon varied. Frequently, it is described as a separate unit (Czeczott 1933, Fukarek 1954). 

Mišić (195 ) considers it a phylogenetical link between F. sylvatica and F. orientalis. Sometimes it 

is considered a hybrid between both species morphologically closer to F. sylvatica (Becker 1981), 

a mixture of F. sylvatica and F. orientalis with the occurrence of transition forms dominated by 

characters of one of the two species (Stoyanoff 1932), an ecotype (Staňescu 19 9) or identical 

with the Crimean beech Fagus taurica Popl. (Didukh 1992). 

The morphological description of “F. moesiaca” is rather vague. There is no agreement among 

different authors about the morphological traits discriminating between the Balkan and European

and/or Eastern beech. For most characters, the mean values are different but the ranges of variation 

overlap considerably. In comparison with pure F. sylvatica, “F. moesiaca” has larger leaves with more 

lateral veins, larger beechnuts and longer cupule peduncle (Czeczott 1933, Mišić 195 , Staňescu 

19 9). In addition to the morphology, “F. moesiaca” differs from F. sylvatica by a high sprouting 

capacity and a considerably higher frequency of seed years, as well as ecological requirements 

(Mišić 195 ). 

Furthermore, the description of the distribution range of Balkan beech is not unequivocal. The 

main part of the range seems to be the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia), 

Albania, Bulgaria and Greece (Fukarek 1954, Mišić 195 ), but isolated occurrences have been 

reported from south-eastern Rumania, Hungary and even Poland and the former Czechoslovakia 

(Karpáti ex Fukarek 1954, Staňescu 19 9). Croatian and Slovenian populations are generally 

considered F. sylvatica. European beech belongs to those forest tree species whose genetic variation 

has been very thoroughly documented within the majority of its range employing isozyme markers. 

However, the data for Balkan beech are scarce, especially for our main area of interest, i. e. the 

southern Balkans, and for Eastern beech they are practically missing. Comps et al. (1991) investigated 

beechwoods from the continental and Mediterranean parts of Croatia, and reported the presence of 

differences between these two regions. Data from Balkan countries were also included in a wide 

study of beechwoods in Central Europe (Comps et al. 1990), but the data from Serbia, Bulgaria and 

the Romanian Carpathians were pooled, so that no differentiation patterns within this large area 

could be identified. Recently, a study focusing on this region was published by Hazler et al. (199 ). 

Although there is a gap in their material between Macedonia and Croatia, a north-west to south-east 

cline can be identified in their presentation of PCA results. In all these reports, beech in this region 

was denoted as Fagus sylvatica L. 

The final question to be solved is the taxonomical status of Balkan beech. Unfortunately, the criteria 

for distinguishing species in the plant kingdom are very vague. The populations in this region can 

be distinguished from the remaining common beech by morphology, and they are genetically 

differentiated, so that they can be considered a separate taxon. Nevertheless, the rank of a separate 

species seems to be too high. There are other beechwoods, e. g. in Calabria, which are even more 

differentiated, but they are denoted as F. sylvatica. Therefore, the rank of a subspecies appears to be 

more appropriate for Balkan beech (Gömöry et al. 1999). 

morPhoLoGy 

Balkan beech is a deciduous tree capable of reaching a height up to 30 (45) m, a diameter of 2 m, and 

a lifespan up to 300 years. It has a dense crown, which is spherical in isolation, and reduced in stand 

conditions. Its root system is variable, shallow to medium deep, with well-developed lateral roots. Its 

bark is whitish-grey and smooth. 

It has thin twigs and long shoots with alternately arranged buds and leaves in two rows. The buds 

are long, spindle-shaped, prominently long, pointed. Bud scales are brown, naked and glossy. 

Balkan beech leaves grown in sunlight (resembling F. sylvatica leaves) differ from the leaves grown 

in the shade (which are similar to the leaves of F. orientalis). Sun leaves are smaller, thicker, ovate 

(elliptic), and shade leaves are larger, thinner, obovate with a wedge shaped base (elongated) with 

5 – 12, most often 9 pairs of veins. The leaves are entire, sometimes crenate, sparsely toothed, with 

bristles. 

211

Flowers are unisexual. Staminate flowers appear on the shoots hanging on peduncles in globular 

inflorescences. Perigon parts are shorter and broader than in Fagus sylvatica L. Female flowers, two 

per cupule, are on the upper end of strong shoots. Male and female flowers occur in two-flowered 

dichasia. The flowers appear simultaneous with the leaves in April or May. Beechnuts, 1.3 – 1.8 

cm long, are borne in pairs in each cupule. Cupules are formed by fusing numerous scaly stipules 

(bracts), 13 – 35 mm long, split in the upper part, with four valves. Stipules are variable, leaflikewide 

(as in F. orientalis) or thread-like narrow (as in F. sylvatica). Beech nuts are brown, triangular, 

containing usually one, rarely two seeds. They mature in the autumn from September through 

November, when they fall (Jovanović, Cvjetićanin 2005). 

varIabILITy 

In Serbia, Balkan beech has three ecological races, four varieties and two forms. Near the lake 

Vlasinsko Jezero (altitude about 1,300 m) there is a beech tree with golden-yellow leaves, which 

is designated as a special variety Fagus moesiaca (Maly) Czecz. var. aurea Obrad. 1892 Em Jov. 

It was used for the cultivar ‘Zlatia’ which is cultivated in parks and botanical gardens in Europe. 

In the study of beech variability and ecology of the former Yugoslavia, in the area of Serbia, Mišić 

(195 ) describes Balkan beech as a separate species and distinguishes three ecological races: 

212 

1. Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) brevipedunculata; 

2. Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) macrocarpa; 

3. Fagus moesiaca (Domin, Maly) longipedunculata. 

He further reports that “... three separate races occupy predominantly three altitudinal belts of 

our mountains, forming specific altitudinal regional associations. On some lower mountains, 

there is only one race – macrocarpa, because the boundaries of some vegetation belts are moved 

downwards, due to specific climate effects. At the particular sites there are individual trees or small 

groups of trees, which by some characteristics resemble one race, and by other characteristics – 

another race. They are transitory or hybrid forms. All three beech races have approximately equal 

alternation of seed years. The statistically determined differences are not equal in all the studied 

characteristics of the three races. The two oldest taxonomic forms of beech in Serbia are macrocarpa 

and brevipedunculata, and they exhibit the slightest differences. There is a series of transitory 

populations among the three altitudinal races regardless of the substantial differences in the majority 

of morphological characteristics among individual races. All the above shows that the races are not 

completely differentiated, formed and stabilised. 

Within the race brevipedunculata Mišić (195 ) distinguishes the variety rotundicarpa in the ravines, 

and the variety microcarpa on the prominent ridges. Beech with quercoid bark (Fagus moesiaca var. 

quercoides) was described in Serbia by Tucović et Jovanović (1964). On the mountain Golija, 

there is a beech stand on acid siliceous bedrock, in which bark colour is very similar to that of 

white-bark pine. The new form of beech was named Fagus moesiaca (D. M.) Cz. leucodermis by 

Korać (19 4). The Balkan beech form with pendulous branches (Fagus moesiaca /Domin, Maly/ 

Czecz. f. pendula /Dum-Cour./ Lodd.) on Šar Planina was described by Ostojić et Dimović 

(1999).

dIsTrIbuTIoN, ForesT commuNITIes aNd ecoLoGIcaL 

coNdITIoNs 

Total area under forests in Serbia is 2,412,940 ha. Beech is the dominant species (50.4% by volume) 

with a wide range of vertical distribution, occurring in a great number of forest types, in different 

structural forms, in pure or mixed stands, of different origin, on different sites. 

Although the question of the ranges of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), Balkan beech (Fagus 

moesiaca Domin, Maly/Czeczott.) and Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) in Serbia has not 

been completely resolved, as they are often mixed and occur together in this area, all beech stands in 

Serbia are treated as Balkan beech forests and are studied and described as such. 

Beech forests in Serbia occur in the form of special altitudinal belts, at the altitudes between 40 m 

in the Đerdap area and 2,100 m on Mt. Prokletije. The beech altitudinal zone is divided into four 

beech altitudinal belts: submontane beech forests (Fagenion moesiacae submontanum), montane 

beech forests (Fagenion moesiacae montanum), beech and fir forests (Abieti-Fagetum) and subalpine 

beech forests (Fagenion moesiacae subalpinum). Submontane beech forests grow in oak altitudinal 

belt, and above it beech forms a climate-regional vegetation belt. The characteristic of beech forest 

belt (altitudinal range) in Serbia is the migration to the higher altitudes going from the north to the 

south, both of the lower and the upper boundaries of distribution. The lower boundary in the north 

part is at the altitude of about (40) 250 m (Northeast Serbia), and in the south, about 600 – 800 m 

(Suva Planina, Kopaonik). The identical phenomenon also occurs on the upper boundary of this 

belt, which is in Northeast Serbia about 1,100 m, and on Kopaonik and Suva Planina about (1,300) 

1,800 m (Krstić 2005). 

Syntaxonomically, beech forests in Serbia belong to the class of Eurosiberian deciduous forests 

(Querco-Fagetea Br.-Bl. et Vlieg 19 3), order – beech forest (Fagetalia sylvaticae Pawl. 1928), 

suborder – forest of Balkan beech (Fagenalia moesiacae B. Jov. 1986), and to the alliance of Balkan 

beech forests (Fagion moesiacae Bleč. et Lak. 19 0). This alliance is divided into seven suballiances, 

four of which are designated by altitudes, and three are based on the edaphic differences (Jovanović, 

Cvjetićanin 2005). 

The dominant soil types characterize not only the edaphically conditioned coenoses of beech forests, 

but also the orographically conditioned coenoses. Based on the criteria of Soil Classification (Škorić, 

Filipovski, Čirić 1985), the 10 main soil types in beech forests are divided into four classes: 

undeveloped (diluvium), humus-accumulating (rendzina, black earth on limestone and ranker), 

cambic (acid brown soil, eutric brown soil and brown soil on limestone) and eluvial-illuvial soils 

(illimerized, brown podzolic, and podzol). The soils are formed on different parent rocks, such as 

all types of eruptive and metamorphic rocks and several types of sedimentary rocks (Knežević, 

Košanin 2005). 

The range of beech forests in Serbia is characterized by two types of regional climate: the drier 

continental climate and the colder, more humid mountainous climate. The elements of regional 

climate are under a strong local impact. Regarding air temperature, beech belongs to the ecological 

group of mesothermal plants, which grow best on the sites with moderate temperatures, and the 

extreme temperatures can be harmful and can lead to tree damage or death. Regarding mean annual 

relative humidity, Balkan beech has a wider ecological range (65 – 80%) than European beech ( 5 

– 85%) and Oriental beech ( 0 – 80%) (Krstić 2005). 

213

The sTaTe aNd ForesT maNaGemeNT sysTem 

Beech is the dominant species in the growing stock in Serbia (50.4% per volume). The percentage 

of beech forests in the total area of state forests in central Serbia is 4 .11%, the percentage of mixed 

forests of beech and fir, and beech, fir and spruce is 4.03%. Regarding the origin, high forests occupy 

69.3%, coppice forests 29.8%, brushland 0. %, and degraded forests used for fodder 0.2%. The area of 

degraded and destroyed forests in beech forests is 28,2 9 ha ( .6%) (Medarević et al. 2005). 

The average volume in beech forests is 21 m3 .ha-1 , average current volume increment is 4.55 m3 .ha-1 ; 

the average volume in mixed forests of beech and fir is 308 m3 .ha-1 , volume increment is 6.95 m3 .ha-1 ; 

the volume in mixed forests of beech, fir and spruce is 353 m3 .ha-1 , volume increment 8.24 m3 .ha-1 . The 

average volume in high forests is 255 m3 .ha-1 , volume increment 5.04 m3 .ha-1 ; the average volume in 

coppice forests is 166 m3 .ha-1 , average volume increment 4.30 m3 .ha-1 . Regarding the average volume 

and volume increment in high forests, only about 85% of the total production potential are used, and 

in coppice forests, about 65% of the production potential are used (Medarević et al. 2005). 

Beech forests are classified into 35 specific purpose entities, in which 18 special objectives of 

management have been defined. Production forests occupy 2 ,315 ha or 4.40% of the total area of 

beech growing stock. Protection forests cover 18.48% and national parks .12% (Medarević et al. 

2005). 

The main characteristics of forest management systems applied in beech forests, according to Milin 

(1988), can be defined as: shelterwood management system characterized by seed tree felling or 

shelterwood felling with three cuts (preparatory, regeneration and removal cut) which are performed 

during the regeneration period; selection management system characterized by selection cutting, 

in which the trees which reached the target diameter are cut, and of the smaller diameter trees only 

those that should be removed because of silvicultural reasons; and group selection management 

system characterized by silvicultural groups which are not defined by the size of the area, but by 

the homogeneity of stand conditions, the basic silvicultural requirement and the respective basic 

silvicultural operation. 

The mosT FreQueNT PhyToPaThoLoGIcaL aNd INsecT 

damaGes 

In the research of parasitic and saprophytic mycoflora in beech high and coppice forests in Serbia, 

14 species of fungi have been identified on beech trees, of which 33 species occur on cupules, 

fruits and seedlings, 56 species on foliage and bark of branches and stems, and 58 species are wood 

rotting and sap stain fungi. The most harmful disease agents are Nectria species (coccinea, ditissima, 

galligena), and somewhat less harmful are the fungi Phytophthora cactorum (Leb. et Cohn) Schr., 

Apiognomonia errabunda (Rob. ex Desm.) Hohnel, Cytospora spp., Diatrypella verruciformis (Her. 

ex Fr.) Nits., Melanconium stromaticum Corda and Stilbospora angustata Pers. The fungus Nectria 

coccinea, together with the insect from fam. Eriococcidae Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind., causes the socalled 

beech bark disease. Of the 58 fungi species which infest wood, 48 species destroy beech wood 

(i. e. cause wood decay), four species cause sap stain, and six species are secondary pests and therefore 

they have not a practical significance. Among wood rotting fungi, the greatest economic damage is 

caused by fam. Polyporaceae Fomes fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Fr. and Hypoxylon deustum (Hoffm. ex 

Fr.) Grev. and, somewhat less, by Armillaria mellea s. l. (Vahl. ex Fr.) Karst., Bjerkandera adusta 

214

(Willd. ex Fr.) Karst., Fomitopsis pinicola (Sov. ex Fr.) Karst., ganoderma applanatum (Pers. 

ex Wallr.) Pat., Pholiota adipose (Fr.) Kumm., Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kumm., Polyporus 

squamosus (Huds.) Fr. and Trametes hirsuta (Wulf. ex Fr.) Pil. These fungi infest live trees, and 

continue the destruction of wood after tree felling (i. e. on the dead wood) (Karadžić, Milijašević 

2005). 

In beech stands in Serbia, a total of 142 phytophagous insect species have been identified to date. 

Of the total number of insect pest species, 93 species or 65.5% are primary pests, nine species or 

6.4% are secondary pests, 1 or 11.9% are tertiary, and five species or 3.5% are quaternary pests. Six 

species or 4.2% are very significant pests of beech, of which three (Phyllaphis fagi L. from Aphidae, 

Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. from Eriococcidae, and Rhynchaenus fagi L. from Curculionidae) 

are oligophagous and specific for beech, and the other three butterflies (Lymantria dispar L. from 

Lymantridae, operophtera brumata Hbn. and erannis defoliaria L. from Geometridae) are wide 

polyphages and during mass outbreaks they also cause damage to beech stands (Mihajlović 2005). 

GeNe PooL coNservaTIoN 

The main characteristic of beech gene pool in Serbia is the high individual and group variability of 

numerous morphological and genetic-physiological traits, which resulted in numerous intraspecific 

taxa recorded in this area. Taking into account the beech domination in the growing stock of Serbia, 

its wide range of horizontal and vertical distribution, its presence in a great number of types of forest 

communities, the conservation of its gene pool should be performed on the original sites (in situ 

conservation), aiming at the conservation of the adaptable potential of the species (dynamic gene 

conservation). This means the selection of the superior natural populations, the revision of the existing 

ones and the designation of the new seed forests, groups or individual trees. Also, conservation can 

be done in artificially established ex situ sites, such as provenance tests, archives, clonal or seedling 

seed orchards. 

To enhance the production of good-quality reproductive material, and as a form of gene pool 

conservation, 19 seed stands have been designated to date in Serbia, total area 13 .5 ha. The spatial 

distribution of the designated seed stands covers almost completely its coenological, ecological and 

population diversity. 

The Law on Reproductive Material of Forest Trees adopted in 2005 defined clearly the production 

of reproductive material at the level of provenance regions, which resulted in the designation of five 

beech provenance regions in Serbia. 

The degree of variability and the potential of different beech provenances in the juvenile stage of 

development were assessed in the framework of the project ”Conservation and directed utilisation 

of beech gene pool in Serbia” which was financed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and 

Water Management in the period 2004 – 2006 (Šijačić-Nikolić et al. 2006, 200 , Šijačić-Nikolić, 

Milovanović, Knežević 2006). 

During the 1980s in Serbia, 4 beech test trees (plus trees) were designated, and the clonal progeny 

has been obtained from 64 trees to date. A high degree of rooting of up to 90 to 100% was achieved 

by autovegetative propagation of beech by aerial rooted cuttings, using growth stimulators such 

as β-indole butyric acid in concentrations 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0%. Two live archives of beech (Belgrade 

215

and Beočin) were established by propagated vegetative copies, as the basis of the collection of 

secondary scions and further vegetative reproduction of plus trees. A beech clonal seed orchard 

was established by planting grafts of 30 clones in the Arboretum «Šuplja Stena» on Mt. Avala near 

Belgrade (Jovanović 19 1). 

Within the last series of European provenance tests in 200 , funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, 

Forestry and Water Management RS, two provenance tests were established in Serbia: one on Mt. 

Fruška Gora and the other in the Faculty of Forestry Teaching Centre at Debeli lug. The above tests 

were established from two- and three-year old seedlings of 24 European provenances. The experiment 

established on Fruška Gora is situated in FMU 3804 Popovica-Majdan-Zmajevac, compartment 29f, 

managed by NP “Fruška Gora“. It is characterized by Northwest aspect, altitude 350 – 380 m, area 

1 ha, with sample plot area 0.4 ha, on acid brown to lessivé acid brown soil, slope 11 – 15°. The 

Faculty of Forestry site “Pripor-Felješana” at Debeli lug is at the altitude of 42 m, east aspect, ridge 

of uniform slope, on humus-siliceous soil, with humid continental climate. 

The monitoring of the development and phenology of the represented provenances started during 

2008, within the project ”Research of forest tree genetic potential within the network of European 

provenance tests” funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of Republic 

of Serbia. 

Fig. 1: Location Debeli lug, Serbia, photo Mirjana Šijačić Nikolić, 2008 

216

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21

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contacts: 

Prof. dr. Mirjana Šijačić-Nikolić 

Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade 

Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia 

tel. + 381 11 30538 3 

e-mail: sijacic68@open.telekom.rs 

Prof. dr. Saša Orlović 

University of Novi Sad, Institute of Lowland Forestry and Environment 

Antona Čehova 13, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia 

e-mail: sasa.orlovic@minpolj.sr.gov.yu 

Reviewed 

219

220 

euroPeaN beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

GeNeTIc resources IN sLovaKIa 

DUŠAN GÖMÖRY 1 – LADISLAV PAULE 1 – ROMAN LONGAUER 2 

1 Technical University in Zvolen, Faculty of Forestry, T. G. Masaryka 24, SK-96053 

Zvolen, Slovakia 

2 National Forestry Centre, T. G. Masaryka 22, SK-96092 Zvolen, Slovakia 

absTracT 

The study gives an overview of the current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and its genetic 

resources in Slovakia. Basic information about the horizontal and vertical distribution, representation 

in forest stands, plant communities and management of beech stands is provided, along with an 

overview on the sources of forest reproductive material and gene conservation measures. Past and 

recent research activities on the field of beech genetics are also mentioned. 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), European beech, buk lesný (in Slovak), distribution 

range, gene-pool conservation, forest reproductive material, Slovakia 

dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN sLovaKIa 

Slovakia with the proportion of forested land of 41% belongs to the most forested countries of Europe. 

The total area of forests is 1,932,900 ha, the average standing stock is 232 m 3 .ha -1 . 

Beech is one of the most important forest tree species in Slovakia. It is the most widespread one, 

sharing 31.2% of the present tree species composition (Ministry of Agriculture 2008), whereby 

this share is quite stable over the last 60 years or more. The natural range covers almost the whole 

country from the Small Carpathians in the west to the Poloniny Mts. in the east, with the exception 

of lowlands (Zahorie, Danube and East-Slovakian lowlands), river valleys, dry karst plains of 

southeastern Slovakia, and subalpine and alpine environments. Beech is also absent at the southern 

slopes of the Tatra Mts. even at lower elevations. However, in several regions the share of beech 

in the tree species composition was severely reduced during the last centuries, when indigenous 

broadleaved and mixed forests were replaced by conifer (mainly spruce) monocultures (Upper-Hron 

valley in Central Slovakia, Orava and Kysuce regions in the northwest). 

Generally, continuous distribution of beechwoods is limited by approx. 330 m and 1,200 m a. s. l. 

However, sporadic occurrence of beech has been reported at the elevations of 120 m in the Burda 

Mts. in the southwest and at 180 m in the Vihorlat Mts., in eastern Slovakia; on the upper limit, 

beech climbs up to 1,480 m a. s. l. in the Low Tatra Mts. (Blattný, Šťastný 1959). In several 

mountain ranges such as the Velka Fatra Mts. or Poloniny Mts., where summits were deforested 

during the Wallachian colonization in the 16th century to obtain pastures for sheep, beech forms 

an artificial upper forest limit. Although no true krummholz beech stands are found in Slovakia, in 

several mountains stand height is severely reduced at sites exposed to wind and low temperatures.

Because of its high share in the tree species composition, beech is represented in many primeval 

forest remnants (56 out of 4 forest national nature reserves, whereas in 36 it is a dominant species, 

cf. Korpeľ 1989). Four virgin forests (Stužica, Havešová, Rožok, Kyjov), together with the Ukrainian 

beech reserves, have been recorded since July 28, 200 , in the UNESCO World Natural Heritage list. 

beech commuNITIes 

In Slovakia, beech occurs naturally in six out of eight vertical forest vegetation zones, from the 2nd 

up to the th. The optimum for beech constitutes the 4th vegetation zone, where even natural pure 

beechwoods occur. However, beech is naturally represented in most forest plant communities of 

Slovakia, covering almost 90% of the forest area (Table 1). At low elevations, beech occurs in the 

mixture with sessile oak and hornbeam. In the optimum, beech forms dense pure stands with a very 

poor herb layer (communities Fagetum pauper) or communities with the occurrence of typical 

beechwood species such as galium odoratum, Dentaria bulbifera, galeobdolon luteum or Asarum 

europaeum (Fagetum typicum). With increasing altitude, silver fir and Norway spruce become 

admixed; this so-called “Carpathian mixture” represents the most productive forests of Central 

Europe (typical representatives can be found in nature reserves Dobroč or Hrončecký Grúň, where 

beech reaches heights up to 4 m (Holeksa et al. 2009). On sites with a rapid nitrogen turnover, 

beech is mixed with sycamore, common ash, mountain elm and linden, on rocky sites with Scots 

pine and European larch. 

The most common soil types in Slovak beechwoods are cambisols. However, beech is able to survive 

and compete on a broad variety of soil types from podzols over andosols on volcanic bedrock 

up to rankers and rendzinas on carbonate rocks, on the other hand it avoids heavy soils on loess. 

The distribution of beech communities according to the CORINE classification including the 

Tab. 1: Review of the phytosociological units (groups of forest types sensu Zlatník) containing beech 

(RANDUŠKA, VOREL, PLÍVA 1986) 

Typological unit Vegetation zone Share (%) 

Fagetum quercinum 2 2.70 

Fageto-Quercetum 2 15.53 

Querceto-Fagetum 3 8.40 

Fagetum pauper 4 18.25 

Fagetum typicum 4 3.80 

Fagetum dealpinum 4 4.00 

Abieto-Fagetum 5 11.50 

Fageto-Abietum 6 9.20 

Fageto-Aceretum 6 3.50 

Fagetum abietino-piceosum 6 5.50 

Remaining communities 6.85 

Total 89.23 

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corresponding typological units can be found on the webside of the National Forestry Centre (http:// 

www.forestportal.sk/ForestPortal/). 

maNaGemeNT oF beech sTaNds 

Beech is an important commercial tree species, but primarily it is considered a stabilizing element of 

forest stands. It is reflected also in the health state: beech is generally considered resistant to native 

pests and pathogens, the mean defoliation degree on a 0 to 4 scale is 0.86 compared to 1.36 in the case 

of Norway spruce. Therefore, it is not an object of intensive breeding, but much more emphasis is given 

to the preservation of its adaptedness and ecological stability through the gene-pool conservation of 

the existing indigenous populations. Natural regeneration is generally considered the best tool for 

fulfilling these tasks. Therefore, silvicultural systems based on natural regeneration have traditionally 

been applied in beech forests. A tendency towards forest management close to nature is declared 

and reported in Green Reports of the Ministry of Agriculture. Officially, the share of clearcuts in the 

forests of Slovakia decreased from 85% in 1990 to 32% in 200 . However, the reality may deviate from 

official declarations, with an increasing use of heavy mechanization, there is a shift from shelterwood 

group cuttings towards logging schemes allowing higher logging concentration such as strip felling, 

and even small-scale clearcuts are sometimes applied also in beechwoods. This is also documented 

by the extent of natural regeneration: although it increased from 18% in 1990 to 34% in 200 , it does 

not correspond to the declared decrease of clearcuts. 

Beech mostly grows in high forests, beech coppices are exceptional. Generally, the proportion of 

coppices is very low in Slovakia, being 1.82% in 200 , and the majority of these are oak and hornbeam 

stands. 

As mentioned, the actual proportion of beech is over 31%, but the share on potential natural forest 

vegetation is much higher, 48%. A long-term target is increasing this proportion to approx. 36%. The 

average age of beech stands is 1 years, whereby a shift towards a higher representation of older age 

classes has been observed in recent years. The current annual increment amounts to 5.9 m3 .ha-1 . 

ForesT reProducTIve maTerIaL aNd GeNe PooL 

coNservaTIoN 

The reconstruction of a more natural tree species composition is hardly possible without extensive 

reforestation. This is an up-to-date topic mainly in the Kysuce region where conifer plantations, 

declining today, had replaced natural stands, and a reconstruction of a more natural tree species 

composition is under way. As very few beech stands remained in this area, finding appropriate seed 

sources is a difficult task. 

In Slovakia, the problems of the biological quality of forest reproductive material have been legally 

regulated since 1939. At present, there are two legislative norms in this field: the Act no. 21 /2004 on 

Forest Reproductive Material, and the Decree no. 5 1/2004 on the Sources of Forest Reproductive 

Material, its Procurement, Production and Use, elaborating detailed rules of procuring and transfer 

of Forest Reproductive Material (FRM). Both legal norms implemented the rules set by the OECD 

Scheme and the EU Directive 105/1999/EC. A revision of the legislation is just under preparation, 

but the basic principles will not be probably changed. In general, reproductive material for forestry 

222

purposes is allowed to be procured only from the sources explicitly given by the law (even in the case 

when it is collected for own use) and the transfer is also strictly regulated. 

Currently, 38 plus trees were selected for beech (out of 4,2 8 in total). The main source of beech 

seeds are approved seed stands of two categories: there are 2,342 ha of category A stands and 23,00 

ha of category B stands, representing 41% of the approved stands area. Moreover, there are 184 ha of 

so-called seed stands, which are reproductive plantations established from the material originating 

from category A approved stands, i. e. serving for the preservation of gene pools of the most valuable 

stands ex situ. There are neither seed orchards nor tested basic material of beech in Slovakia. The use 

of reproductive material of the category “identified” must be approved by the Ministry of Agriculture 

and is allowed only when no suitable material of higher categories is available. 

Concerning the transfer of FRM, the territory of the country is divided into five provenance regions, 

out of which three are located within the natural distribution range. Although it is not explicitly stated 

in the legislative norms, for provenance regions situated within the natural range, transfer is allowed 

only within a region. Moreover, the decree defines altitudinal zones of 200 m; transfer is allowed 

only within a zone or into the neighbouring zones. In practice, however, these rules are frequently 

not followed by foresters and nursery managers. The working capacities of the responsible authority, 

which is the Centre for the Control of FRM in Liptovský Hrádok, belonging to the National Forestry 

Centre, are limited, and the attention is primarily paid to conifer species, so that the collection of 

beech seeds or seedlings from the understorey is rarely supervised by the regional inspectors of the 

Centre. 

Gene reserves as spatially continuous complexes of predominantly indigenous forest stands of more 

than 100 ha with a balanced age structure can also serve as sources of FRM and are specifically 

destined for gene conservation in situ. At present, there are 18 gene reserves declared only for beech 

with a total area of 5,01 ha. Moreover, beech is represented in further 24 gene reserves with a total 

area of 5,480 ha, where its average share is 6 .6%. 

The supply of beech seeds is variable. Most seeds of forest tree species are processed and stored 

centrally in a specialized branch of the state forest enterprise Lesy SR (OZ Semenoles, Liptovský 

Hrádok). The optimum supply of beechnuts, estimated at 56,000 kg, was exceeded only after a mast 

year in 2006, otherwise there is a permanent deficit in beech seeds. No beechnuts are stored in the 

gene bank, which is also managed by OZ Semenoles. 

During the last ten years, the amount of beech plants in forest nurseries oscillated around 40 millions 

seedlings and plants of different ages, out of which approximately 15 millions are used for reforestation. 

Most frequently, bareroot 2-year-old seedlings are used for planting (~4 million of plants), followed 

by 3-year-old seedlings (~3.5 millions of plants), containerized seedlings are less frequently used 

with beech. The amount of plants transplanted after one or two years (mostly bareroot) is approx. 

6 million of plants. 

research acTIvITIes 

Provenance research of beech in Slovakia started in the 1960s by establishing a small initial trial 

with only three provenances (Balkovič 1965). Later, in 19 2, a larger provenance experiment with 

20 Slovak beech provenances was established on a site at School Forest Enterprise of the University 

College of Forestry and Wood Technology in Zvolen, which was later evaluated by Paule (1982). The 

223

assessments of both trials focused on height and diameter growth and its seasonal dynamics, as well 

as spring phenology. 

Large-scale exploration of the genetic variation of European beechwoods employing allozyme 

markers started in the late 1980s in cooperation between the Faculty of Forestry in Zvolen and the 

team of B. Comps at the University of Bordeaux, later it continued by own activities supported by 

several successive grants of the Slovak Grant Agency for Science. Within these projects, almost 300 

populations covering the whole distribution range of Fagus orientalis and the whole eastern half 

of the range of F. sylvatica were analyzed, demonstrating rangewide as well as regional trends and 

patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in western-Eurasian beech taxa (Gömöry, Paule, 

Vyšný 200 ). 

reFereNces 

Balkovič Z. 1965. Čiastkové výsledky provenienčných pokusov s bukom. [Partial results of beech 

provenance trials.] Zborník vedeckých prác Lesníckej fakulty VŠLD : 5 -81. 

Blattný T., Šťastný T. 1959. Prirodzené rozšírenie lesných drevín na Slovensku. [Natural 

Distribution of Forest Tree Species in Slovakia.] Bratislava, SVPL: 402 p. 

Gömöry D., Paule L., Vyšný J. 200 . Patterns of allozyme variation in western-Eurasian beeches. 

Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 154: 165-1 4. 

Holeksa J., Saniga M., Szwagrzyk J., Czerniak M., Staszynska K., Kapusta P. 2009. A giant 

tree stand in the West Carpathians – An exception or a relic of formerly widespread mountain 

European forests? Forest Ecology and Management, 25 : 15 -1585. 

Korpeľ Š. 1989. Pralesy Slovenska. [Primeval Forests of Slovakia.] Bratislava, VEDA: 329 p. 

Ministry of Agriculture, 2008: Report on the Status of Forestry in the Slovak Republic 2008. Green 

Report. Bratislava, Ministry of Agriculture of the Slovak Republic, and Zvolen, National Forest 

Centre – Forest Research Institute: 1 p. 

Paule L. 1982. Untersuchungen zum Wachstum slowakischer Rotbuchenprovenienzen (Fagus 

sylvatica L.). Silvae Genetica, 31: 131-136. 

Randuška D., Vorel J., Plíva K. 1986. Fytocenológia a lesnícka typológia, [Phytosociology and 

Forest Typology.] Bratislava, Príroda: 344 p. 

contacts 

Doc. Ing. Dušan Gömöry, DrSc., Prof. Ing. Ladislav Paule, PhD. 

Technical University in Zvolen, Faculty of Forestry 

T. G. Masaryka 24, SK-96053 Zvolen, Slovakia 

e-mail: gomory@vsld.tuzvo.sk, paule@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

224 

Reviewed

absTracT 


(Fagus sylvatica L.) GeNe PooL IN sLoveNIa 

GreGor BožIč – lado kutnar – MIheJ urBančnIč – DUŠAN JURC – 

ANDREJ KOBLER – TINE GREBENC – HOJKA KRAIGHER 

Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia 

In Slovenia European beech is autochthonous and the most economically and ecologically important 

tree species. The paper presents the characteristics of Slovenian beech forests regarding their natural 

distribution range, diversity of beech forest types and site conditions, sustainable co-nature-based 

management and gene pool conservation. New information about observed beech injuries and future 

perspectives of beech forests in the territory of Slovenia according to predicted climate changes are 

included. The mesic beech-forest vegetation may be adversely affected by changing environmental 

conditions predicted by the existing climate-change scenarios, and the area of prevailing beech forests 

is likely to decrease in the future. 

Key words: Fagus sylvatica L., bukev (in Slovenian), natural distribution, forest types, genetic 

resources, Slovenia 

euroPeaN beech ForesTs dIsTrIbuTIoN IN sLoveNIa 

Slovenia belongs to one of the most forested countries in Europe. At the end of 2005 forests covered 

an area of 1,216,815 ha which represents 60% of the total country. According to Perko (200 ), 0% 

of forests in Slovenia grow on potential beech (44%), fir-beech (15%) or beech-oak (11%) sites. 

According to palynology data (Culiberg 1994, 1999) the proportion of potential beech sites is 

probably higher, as records confirm that beech used to be more common in Sub-Mediterranean 

(Karst) region, where its current infrequency is associated with centuries-long anthropozoogenous 

influence (Dakskobler 2008). 

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is among 1 naturally growing trees in Slovenia (Kotar, Brus 

1999). The highest area of growing stock has the following tree species: Fagus sylvatica L. (32%), Picea 

abies (L.) Karst. (32%), Abies alba Mill. (8%) and different species of Quercus sp. ( %) (Lesnik, 

Matijašić 2006). 

Beech covers a major part of the forested area of the country and occurs mainly in the montane zone. 

From the hilly zone, where many mixed forests of sessile oak (Quercus petraea /Matt./ Liebl.) and 

hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) have been converted to farmland, to montane zone these mixed 

forests change gradually into forests, in which beech dominates. In the Alpine region, beech grows 

in mixture with Norway spruce (Picea abies /L./ Karst.), and European larch (Larix decidua Mill.), 

while pure beech forests reach up to the higher belt of the dwarf mountain pine zone (Pinus mugo 

Turra) in the Dinarics. In the Dinaric region, the mixed forest of beech and silver fir (Abies alba 

Mill.) is the most wide spread forest community. 

225

In Slovenian forests diverse vegetation patterns have been recognized (Zupančič 1996). The most 

important beech forests as regards surface area, their size, economic value and protective and biotopic 

roles are listed below (Dakskobler 2008). Beech forests on acid (dystric) soil are found under the 

following: acidophilic beech forest with hard fern (Blechno-Fagetum), moderately acidophilic beech 

forest with chestnut (Castaneo-Fagetum sylvaticae), and moderately acidophilic beech forest with 

white wood-rush (Luzulo-Fagetum). In the hilly areas and submontane altitudinal belt the following 

forest communities on calcareous or calcareous-silicate bedrocks are commonly found: submontane 

beech forest with pyrenees star-of-Bethlehem (ornithogalo pyrenaici-Fagetum), submontane beech 

forest with hacquetia (Hacquetio-Fagetum), beech and sessile oak forest with ivy (Hedero-Fagetum), 

and subpanonic beech forest with vetch (Vicio oroboidi-Fagetum). In the montane and altimontane 

belt the most extended beech forests are montane beech forest in association with dead nettle (Lamio 

orvalae-Fagetum), beech forest with goatsbeard (Arunco-Fagetum), the Dinaric montane fir and 

beech forest (omphalodo-Fagetum), high-montane beech forest with bitter-cress (Cardamini savensi- 

Fagetum), high-montane beech forest with rue-leaved isopyrum (Isopyro-Fagetum), and beech 

forest with hairy alpine-rose (Rhododendro hirsuti-Fagetum). On warmer sites in the submontane 

and montane belt, beech occurs in termophilic beech and hop-hornbeam forest (ostryo-Fagetum) 

and beech forest with autumn moor grass (Seslerio autumnalis-Fagetum). In the altimontane and 

subalpine belt predominantly in the Alps, beech occurs in the alpine beech forest (Anemono trifoliae- 

Fagetum), fir and beech forests with homogyne (Homogyno sylvestris-Fagetum), altimontane beech 

forest with large white buttercup (Ranunculo platanifolii-Fagetum), and subalpine beech forest with 

holly-fern (Polysticho lonchitis-Fagetum). 

Forest stands of all listed communities are part of the habitat types in EU Community interest 

(Habitat Directive 1992). Surface distribution of beech communities in Slovenia can be found in 

two vegetation maps in scale 1: 100,000 (Košir et al. 19 4, 2003), and in scale 1:400,000 (Čarni et 

al. 2002). 


European beech in Slovenia grows and forms communities in all phytogeographical regions (Wraber 

1969), on all terrain positions and slope orientations, on calcareous, silicate and mixed calcareoussilicate 

bedrock. It occurs on different soil types: lithosols, regosols, rendzinas, rankers, brown soils 

on limestones and dolomites, eutric and distric brown soils, lessivé soils, podzols, semipodzols and 

pseudogleys (Urbančič et al. 2005), from hills (150 m a. s. l.) to the subalpine belt (1,650 m a. s. l.) 

(Dakskobler 2008). 

According to the international soil classification (WRB 2006) different soil groups with soil subunits 

were determined on beech sites. Fir-beech forests and beech forests on carbonate parent material (as 

limestones, dolomites, marls, flyschs etc.) mostly overgrow Leptosols, Phaeozems, Cambisols and/or 

Luvisols with eutric to calcaric properties. For beech-oak forests Luvisols on limestones and dolomites 

are characteristic. Acidophilic beech forests mostly cover Leptosols, Umbrisols, Cambisols, Alisols 

and/or Acrisols with dystric properties developed on non-carbonate parent material. 

Special beech sites can be rarely found also on folic Histosols (high mountains), Regosols (eroding 

areas, unconsolided material), Podzols (bases poor siliceous parent material, in areas with high 

precipitations) or Planosols (on clayey sites). 

In the Alpine and Dinaric high mountain belt (alpine vegetation belt), in cold air pools (frost hollows), 

in lowlands on hydromorphic soil, and on steep, stony, rocky or explicitly sunny and warm sites in 

226

the Sub-Mediterranean and in the hinterland, the climatic and soil conditions are mainly unsuitable 

for beech. 

Forests as a renewable natural resource with their multiple roles are ranked among the country natural 

wealth. Forestry is traditionally co-nature-based and oriented in sustainable and multifunctional 

management regardless of the ownership. Clearcuts are forbidden since 194 . Natural regeneration is 

promoted wherever possible. Renewal work with care for forest young components is carried out on 

10,000 – 12,000 ha per annum. If seedlings are used, they should originate from known seed sources 

in Slovenian forests and from adequate tree species and provenances. Replanting with sowing and 

seedlings is carried out annually on ca 500 ha, mainly for implementation of the long-term ecological 

improvement (conversion) from spruce monocultures growing in natural beech or beech-silver fir sites 

to broadleaved forests. To achieve the conversion, a combination of natural and artificial regeneration 

starting as advanced planting is preferred (Diaci 2006). On average 130,000 beech seedlings from 

local provenances are planted annually. Tree seeds and seedlings are collected from officially approved 

selected seed stands or from the source identified seed stands in the Slovenian forests. 

Managements regimes in beech forests are carried out with regard to the site, stand conditions and 

silviculture technique used (irregular shelterwood system, single tree selection system or group 

selection system). In managed beech forests only small-scale regeneration practices are applied. The 

regeneration is usually induced through diffuse opening in the canopy layer. The total growing stock 

for beech in 2005 was 95,486,453 m3 (SFS, 2006). Beech is present in 89% (> 1 million ha) of total 

forested area. In 3% of the area (851,333 ha) its presence in growing stock is more than 5%. Annual 

harvesting of beech in 2005 was 95,4 0 m3 , representing 66.1% of total yearly felling of broadleaved 

tree species in Slovenia and 24.6% of total amount of all trees harvested. Long-term monitoring 

revealed a 15.8% average level of defoliation of beech in the years 1993 – 2005. 

In 2008 the prices of non coniferous roundwood in Slovenia (fco. forest road) were for sawlogs 

(beech) 63.60 EUR/m 3 , pulpwood, round and split 32.56 EUR/m 3 , other industrial roundwood 3 .32 

EUR/m 3 , wood fuel 32.60 EUR/m 3 (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia; http://www.stat.si). 

Legislation in regards to forestry includes the Forest Act (UL RS, no. 30/93, 13/98, 56/99, 6 /02, 

110/02, 112/06, 115/06, 110/0 ) and the Act on Forest Reproductive Material (ULRS, no. 58/02, 

85/02), which was based on the Directive on the marketing of forest reproductive material (1999/105/ 

EC). Supporting documents: three regulations, 19 rules and two other legally documents are valid 

(http://www.mkgp.gov.si). 

beech dIseases aNd PesTs 

In Slovenia, sanitary felling of beech comprised 1,021,000 m 3 in the period 1995 – 2006, which 

represents 9.9% of all sanitary felling and 3.1% of total felling in this period (Timber, ZGS). The 

highest percentage in the sanitary felling of beech was due to sleet damages (46%), forest operation 

damages (18.8%), wind throw (14.2%) and snow (11.5%). Diseases of beech were the cause of 4.6% 

of sanitary felling while other damages (pests, game, pollution, unknown reasons) were the cause of 

4.9% of sanitary felling. 

In the last few years different symptoms of beech injuries and dieback were observed locally in 

Slovenian forests. With expected climate change harmful biotic factors are expected to intensify 

and extend over wider areas (Jurc 200 , Ogris, Jurc, Jurc 2008). Stands suffering from extreme 

dry and hot weather were more susceptible to Armillaria spp. and unusual cases of fast mycelial 

22

spread in the cambial zone of seemingly healthy beech trees were observed. Fomes fomentarius (L.) 

J. J. Kickx, ganoderma spp., and Kretzschmaria deusta (Hoffm.) P. M. D. Martin were frequent 

invaders of sun-burnt portions of the bark. Oportunistic pathogens as Nectria coccinea (Pers.) Fr., 

Neonectria ditissima (Tul. & C. Tul.) Samuels & Rossman and Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr.) 

which are the cause of cankers and branch dieback appeared in a wider extent. In central part of 

Slovenia infrequent symptoms of Phytophthora infections occurred. Isolates in pure cultures were 

identified as Phytophthora cambivora (Petri) Buisman and P. citricola Sawada. At the edge of the 

beech area in Slovenia (E & W parts of the country) cases of massive top dieback of mature beech 

trees were observed. Bark of the trees was necrotized and some necrosis extended downwards to 

mid stem heights. On the dead bark numerous stromata of Biscogniauxia nummularia (Bull.) 

Kuntze developed. The trees were occasionally also attacked by beech bark beetle, Taphrorychus 

bicolor Herbst and beech splendour beetle, Agrilus viridis L., which, in these cases, were secondary 

pests. Some stands of beech showed attack of ambrosia beetle Xyloterus domesticus L. Although 

the number of entrance holes on a single trunk could be small, the sourrounding bark dies out in 

large oval necrosis. Wood degrading fungi spread relatively fast in wounded trunks causing rapid 

deterioration of their value. In recent years some outbreaks of leaf disease caused by endophytic 

fungus Apiognomonia errabunda (Roberge ex Desm.) Höhn. were also detected. The populations of 

primary pests reducing leaf tissues (Rhynchaenus fagi L.), or sucking on leaves and bark (Cryptococcus 

fagisuga Lindiger, Phyllaphis fagi L.), have expanded in recent years, causing considerable defoliation, 

browning of leaves and weakening of the trees. 

Fig. 1: Present distribution of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Slovenia according to its share in growing stock 

(SFS, PISEK 2005) 

228


oN NaTIoNaL LeveL 

After the primary succession in the postglacial period, the larger part of the Slovenian territory was 

overgrown by forests, above all by beech and fir-beech forests (Šercelj 1996). Results of genetic 

analysis of European beech populations in Central and South Eastern Europe using isoenzymes as 

gene markers have shown the existence of genetic differences between provenances of beech from 

north-western part of the investigated area and provenances of beech from eastern part of the Balkan 

Peninsula (Brus 1999, Brus, Horvat-Marolt, Paule 1999). The obtained results supported the 

hypothesis that during the ice ages the European beech was present in microrefugia at the South 

Eastern periphery of the Alps and on the territory of today’s Slovenia (Brus, Horvat-Marolt, Paule 

2000, Brus 2008a). Findings were confirmed by the Magri et al. (2006) study which analyzed large 

palaeobotanical and genetical data of common beech in Europe. The territory of today’s Slovenia 

was one of the main source areas for the post-glacial development of beech and supposedly the 

most important glacial refugia for its re-colonization in Europe (Magri et al. 2006, Brus 2008b). 

Development of beech forests allowed a possibility that European beech in the territory of present 

day Slovenia passed the way of genotypic specialization which resulted in locally adapted races or 

ecotypes. 

Conservation of locally adapted races is ensured by approved forest seed objects, through protection 

of natural parks, natural monuments, and forest reserves (virgin forests). In the network of 1 3 

virgin forest reserves which was established in the 19 0s on suitable sites (Mlinšek 1980), beech 

is the dominant species in 62% with high share in its growing stock (Smolej et al. 1998). However 

conservation of forest genetic resources in Slovenia is traditionally an integral part of close-tonature 

and sustainable forest management and linked to the Forest Act (1993). In order to mitigate 

the impacts of climate changes on forests and to enhance their sustainability with promotion of 

dynamic genetic processes for adaptation to changing environmental conditions, collection and use 

of forest beech reproductive material is strictly implemented through the Act on Forest Reproductive 

Material (ULRS, no. 58/02, 85/02) and the Rules on requirements and approval procedure of basic 

forest reproductive material (FRM) in the categories “source identified” and “selected” and Slovenian 

national list of basic material (ULRS, no. 91/03). The main criteria for approval of seed sources for 

multifunctional forestry are autochthony, effective population size, adaptation to site conditions, 

health status and resistance, uniformity, isolation of the stand, age and development stage of 

population, volume production, quality of wood and the form and growth habit. European beech 

seed sources which are approved in category “selected” need to be at least 5 ha in extent, to contain 

0 phenotypically acceptable fructifying trees, and up to 20% of phenotypically less favourable trees 

(Kraigher, Pučko, Božič 2004). 

The national list of basic forest reproductive material in Slovenia is established and published by 

the Slovenian Forestry Institute (SFI) each year in the official gazette and on SFI web page. As for 

current state of European beech basic material (seed sources) for reproductive material in Slovenia, 

to 01/01/2009 (Kraigher et al. 2009) the following basic material sources have been registered: in 

the category “source identified” 269 ha ( seed stands from 3 regions of provenance); in the category 

“selected” 504 ha (20 seed stands from regions of provenance); whereas four seed stands have been 

notified out of the total area of 203 ha as European beech dynamic “gene conservation units”, of all 

stands classified under category “selected sources”. 

229

Fig. 2: Rajhenavski Rog forest reserve in Kočevje Region is overgrown by Dinaric fir-beech forest (Photo: 

L. Kutnar) 

Fig. 3: Natural regeneration of mountain beech forest on the Gorjanci Mountain near Novo Mesto Region after 

application of selective thinning treatment (Photo: L. Kutnar) 

230

eech domINaTed ForesT soIL ecosysTem research 

Beech dominated forests are important regarding biodiversity both above- and below-ground. The 

Slovenian Forestry Institute research team in cooperation with several national and international 

institutions studied the below-ground aspect of beech dominated forests recently, starting from 

the basic analyses of fine root growth and their importance for soil structure and carbon dynamics 

(Kraigher et al. 200 , Železnik et al. 200 , 2009, Grebenc, Štupar, Kraigher 200 ) to the 

applied studies of rhizosphere symbionts diversity. The influence of ozone (Grebenc, Kraigher 

200 a, b) and small canopy gap (Grebenc 2005, Grebenc et al. 2009) were proven to influence the 

below-ground components. Several biodiversity analyses were performed in various groups of beech 

forests soil organisms including ectomycorrhizal fungi (Grebenc 2005, Grebenc et al. 2009), litter 

decomposing fungi (Bajc et al., in prep.), eubacteria (Grebenc, Bajc, Kraigher 2009, Kraigher 

et al., in prep.) and pedofauna (Grebenc, Bajc, Kraigher 2009, Grgič et al., in prep.) all indicating 

a high biodiversity under moderate anthropogenic influence, pronounced differences among sites and 

within repetitions at sites, and also a general shortage of knowledge on below-ground components 

in temperate beech forests. Studies represented parts of national and international (EU) projects 

covering different forest management systems applied in the country, from virgin forests, managed 

forests, to remediation sites and the international beech provenance trial. 

FuTure PersPecTIves oF beech ForesTs 

Predicted climate changes could cause significant changes in the beech forest distribution. The 

change of forest vegetation pattern, driven by expected climate changes, has been studied recently 

(Kutnar, Kobler 200 , Kutnar et al. 2009). Based on the three different climate scenarios, the 

trend scenario, the hot-and-dry scenario, and the wet-and-less-hot scenario, the simulations showed 

that the spatial pattern of forest vegetation types would be altered significantly under impacts of 

predicted changes. In the following decades the vegetation type of major part of forest sites might 

change. Due to the predicted climate warming, the share of thermophilous forests might increase 

from the present 14% to range between 21% (wet-less-hot scenario) and 1% (hot-dry scenario). 

The share of thermophilous forests, which are economically less interesting and more fire-prone, will 

increase significantly by replacing mesic beech forests. From ecological-, nature-conservation- and 

forest-management points of view, the predicted decrease of the share of Dinaric fir-beech forest 

(omphalodo-Fagetum) is especially important (Kutnar, Kobler 200 , Kutnar et al. 2009). Taking 

into account the most pessimistic hot-dry scenario, and assuming the actual ecological niche of this 

forest would not change in the future, this forest type might disappear completely from the territory 

of Slovenia by the end of the 21st century. 

acknowledgements 

We are grateful to Dragan Matijašić, M.Sc., Head of the Department for Forest Management Planning 

of the Slovenia Forest Service (Ljubljana, Slovenia) for his cooperation, critical review and valuable 

comments. The work was supported financially by the Slovenian Research Agency and the Ministry 

for Agriculture, Forest and Food of the Republic of Slovenia in the frame of applied research project 

CRP-V4-0492 and COST Action E52. Conservation of forest genetic resources in Slovenia and tasks 

related to forest reproductive material and approval of basic material is part of public forest service 

231

after the Forest Act, financed by the Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry and Food RS. All research is 

part of the research programme Forest Biology, Ecology and Technology (P4-010 ) and research and 

developmental projects, financed primarily by the Slovenian Research Agency. The below-ground 

studies were part of COST E6 EUROSILVA, COST E38 Woody root processes and contribute to the 

new COST Action FP0803 Below-ground carbon turnover in European forests. 

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Reviewed 

contacts 

Dr. Gregor Božič 

Slovenian Forestry Institute 

Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia 

tel.: +386 1 200 8 21, fax: +386 1 25 35 89 

e-mail: gregor.bozic@gozdis.si 

235


(Fagus sylvatica L.) ForesT aNd GeNeTIc resources 

IN sPaIN 

236 

DIANA BARBA 1,3 – GUILLERMO MADRIGAL 1,3 – JOSE A. REQUE 2,3 – RICARDO ALÍA 1,3 

1 Dpto de Sistemas y Recursos Forestales. INIA.Carr. Coruña km .5 28040 Madrid 

2 Dpto de Producción Vegetal. Universidad de Valladolid. 

3 Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute UVa-INIA [SFM-RI] 

absTracT 

A summary of the current state of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Spain is provided, including 

information on the distribution, main typologies of beech forest, plant communities, site conditions, 

and forest management practices usually applied in Spain. Also include is information concerning 

genetic aspects of beech: regions of provenance, national register, and status for conservation of 

genetic resources. 

Key words: European beech, Fagus sylvatica, haya (in Spanish), distribution, Spain, genetic 

resources 

dIsTrIbuTIoN oF euroPeaN beech IN sPaIN 

European beech covers 330,000 ha in Spain, where it reaches the south-western limit of the species 

distribution. European beech is located at medium and high altitudes in the mountains (above 1,000 

meters), usually on north facing slopes. The distribution range covers the Cantabrian Mountain, 

Pyrenees and Iberian range, with scattered stands in the Coastal Catalonian Range, Beceite Mountains 

and Central Range (Fig. 1). 

The altitudinal range of the species is variable depending on the geographical area where it is located 

(Tab. 1). 


Typology of beech forests 

It is possible to distinguish four main types of beech forests in Spain depending on soil and climatic 

characteristics (Sainz 1992): 

1) The oligotrophous beech forests are distributed in continental and dry climate, with vegetation 

not very abundant and generally acidophilous. This type of forests reaches a lower density and 

height in comparison to the eutrophic beech forests.

1 

2 

Region of provenance Altitude (m) Annual rainfall (mm) DI Geological background 

1. Caurel and Ancares 800 – 1,200 1,972 0 Siliceous 

2. Western Cantabrian Range 800 – 1,600 1,713 0 Calcareous/Siliceous 

3. Southern Cantabrian Range 1,200 – 1,600 1,367 0.5 Calcareous/Siliceous 

4. Cantabrian/Asturias 600 – 1,000 1,824 0 Calcareous 

5. Eastern Cantabrian Range 800 – 1,600 1,562 0 Calcareous/Siliceous 

6. High Ebro River 800 – 1,200 771 1 Calcareous/Siliceous 

7. Litoral Vasco-Navarro 600 – 1,000 1,860 0 Calcareous/Siliceous 

8. Aralar and Urbasa-Enznia 800 – 1,200 1,380 0 Calcareous/Siliceous 

9. Western Pyrenees 800 – 1,600 1,650 0 Calcareous/Siliceous 

10. Navarra Mountains 800 – 1,200 898 0.2 Calcareous/Siliceous 

11. Aran Valley 1,000 – 1,800 955 0 Siliceous 

12. Central Pyrenees 1,200 – 1,600 1,134 0 Calcareous 

13. Eastern Pyrenees 1,000 – 1,400 945 0 Calcareous 

14. Montseny 1,000 – 1,400 906 0 Siliceous 

15. Beceite Mountains 1,200 789 1.5 Calcareous 

16. Moncayo Mountain 1,200 – 1,600 637 1.5 Siliceous 

17. Iberian System 1,000 – 1,600 910 0 Siliceous 

18. Ayllon Range 1,400 – 1 ,800 942 1.5 Siliceous 

DI – Length of drought season (no. of months with Rainfall < 2*Temperature) 

3 

5 

4 

6 

17 

18 

7 

8 

10 

16 

9 

12 

15 

11 

13 

14 

REGIONES DE PROCEDENCIA 

DE 

Fagus sylvatica L. 

1. Galicia y Sierra Ancares 10. Sierras Exteriores de Navarra 

2. Cordillera Cantábrica Occidental 11. Valle de Arán 

3. Cordillera Cantábrica Meridional 12. Pirineo Central 

4. Litoral Astur-Cantábrico 13. Pirineo Oriental 

5. Cordillera Cantábrica Oriental 14. Cordillera Litoral Catalana 

6. Cuenca del Alto Ebro 15. Puertos de Beceite 

7. Litoral Vasco-Navarro 16. Moncayo 

8. Aralar y Urbasa-Entzia 17. Sistema Ibérico 

9. Pirineo Occidental 18. Sierra de Ayllón 

Fig. 1: Distribution of European beech in Spain (including the regions of provenance of the species) 

Tab. 1: Altitudinal range and some ecological characteristics of European beech in Spain (AGUNDEZ et al. 1995) 

23

2) The eutrophic beech forests are found on deep soils which are rich in nutrients. They are located 

in flat areras or on low slopes, where this type of soil can develop under any type of substratum, 

being more frequent in lime soils. These beech forests are the most evolved ones being the 

habitats with a minor exploitation. In lower altitudes, they are mixed forests. When the climate 

has a major tendency towards a Mediterranean climate, the air and soil moisture is very low and 

the accompanying vegetation is very scarce. These zones represent the transition of the beech 

forests towards sub-Mediterranean type. 

3) The sub-Mediterranean calcareous beech forests are located in drier zones, in environments 

of transition towards the Mediterranean climate, where the importance of the accompanying 

vegetation is very important, due to low moisture and high pH of the soil. The fraction of area 

covered by the canopy is lower than in the previous types, which allows the penetration of 

light and the enrichment of the accompanying vegetation (especially Buxus sempervirens and 

Amelanchier ovalis). In some of these sites, the beech forests have low density, and low height, 

under stony and steep areas. 

4) And finally the beech-silver fir (Abies alba) forest, where the beech forms a continuous canopy 

that can reach 30 m in height, and the silver fir up to 35 m. It constitutes a very complex ecosystem, 

with high productivity and the maximum biological value of the forests of the temperate region. 

The structure of this type of forest is efficient in the use of water, light and soil resources. This 

type of formation is distributed principally between 1,000 and 1, 00 meters of altitude, occupying 

valleys, on shady and humid hillsides. 

seed production and regeneration 

In Spain seed production starts (commercially), when the trees are 60 – 80 years old, with a mean 

production of 3 – 10 kg/tree. Mast years occur every 4th – 6th year and are mainly dependent on 

weather; they can be detected for broad regions (Rodríguez-Guitián, Ferreiro 2005). 

Natural regeneration in beech forests is affected by different ecological and management practices. 

Limitations to regeneration are related to late frost in the Mediterranean region, mortality during 

the summer due to drought, low levels of air humidity, high levels of radiation, browsing by cattle, 

and by the existence of ancient coppice forest structures with older and decaying trees with low seed 

production. These factors have a higher impact under Mediterranean conditions. On the contrary, 

in the Cantabrian Range production of 900 seed/m2 have been reported. In this region densities of 

100,000 – 200,000 seedlings/ha are observed, with a survival of 10% after 10 years, and the seedlings 

are usually found in the gaps in the canopy (Blanco et al. 199 ). 

regulation and marketing of reproductive material 

Commercialization of beech reproductive material is regulated by EU Directive 105/CE, and Spanish 

RD 289/2003. According to these norms, regions of provenance of the species were defined (Agundez 

et al. 1995, Alía et al. 2009), and at present basic material (seed sources and stands) from 16 out of 

the 18 regions of provenance has been included in the Spanish National Register, for production of 

identified (26 seed sources and stands) or selected (20 stands) forest reproductive material. Seed 

transfer recommendations have also been established (Martín, Diaz-Fernández, de Miguel 

1998) to facilitate the use of forest reproductive material in Spain. 

238

sILvIcuLTure aNd ForesT maNaGemeNT 

In general, the beech forest in Spain has a medium to low productivity in comparison to other 

European countries. In natural forests, beech is usually found in even-aged stands (Madrigal 1992). 

In southern and mountainous areas, it is common to find uneven aged stands. Only in open stands it 

is possible to find uneven aged stands as a result of species mixture or stands of different ages. 

Clearcuttings are not used nor recommended in Spain, due to the special ecological characteristics 

of the stands. The silvicultural treatment most frequently used (to favour natural regeneration) is 

the shelterwood system (Madrigal 1992). Rotation age in even-aged stands varies from 100 to 

150 years, with a regeneration period of 20 to 30 years. In the Spanish beech forests, stands with age 

class structures close to uneven forests can often be found (Cirac 1992, Sánchez de Medina et al. 

2001). Generally these types of structure have their origin in poor silvicultural management or high 

grading. A major part of the beech forests has traditionally been managed as coppice forests for fuel 

wood which explains the broad representation of even-aged structures in mountain forests. In this 

case, low thinning of the pole-woods is the most common treatment. 

GroWTh aNd ProducTIoN 

In general, the growth and the production of the Spanish beech forests are lower than those 

from Continental Europe (Germany, NE France) and of Atlantic Europe (Great Britain, Belgium, 

W France). The mean value is 1.9 – 6.0 m 3 /ha/year. In Spain, the less productive sites correspond to 

the Mediterranean beech forest type. Among the different tools for forest management of the beech 

forests in Spain, can be mentioned the density functions (Ibáñez 1989): 

N = 10,000*exp [(-0,25+0,006 SI)*(H0-3)] 

where, N: no. of trees/ha; SI: site index in m, H0: top height in m. 

There are also different yield tables for the Spanish beech forests (Ibáñez 1989, Madrigal 1992). 

Table 2 includes the value of the mean annual growth, defined for a rotation age of 120 years, and 

comparing different yield tables for different zones of Europe and the two most representative types 

of Spain. 

Tab. 2: Mean annual increment (m3 /ha/year). Comparison among different site indexes, and for a rotation period 

of 120 years (MADRIGAL et al. 2008) 

Navarra, Spain 

(MADRIGAL 1992) 

La Rioja, Spain 

(IBÁÑEZ 1989) 

Great Britain Continental Europe 

- - 9.4 9.4 

- - 7.5 7.5 

6.1 - 5.8 - 

5.0 4.8 - 5.4 

3.9 3.6 4.0 - 

2.8 2.3 - 3.4 

1.9 1.2 - 1.7 

239

PesT aNd dIseases 

The effects of pollution in Spanish forests are lower than in other areas in Europe, although higher 

concentrations of some elements (Ca, Mg and S) or damages by ozone have been reported in some 

areas. Economically, the most important disease is the red heart, which depreciates the wood, being 

caused by the mycelia of some fungi (e. g. Ungulina marginata, ganoderma applanatum, Fomes 

connatus) penetrating by wound. In timber already cut, the first two fungi can result in red colorations 

and putrefactions. The insect euproctis chrysorrhoea consumes leaves, sprouts and flowers, the insect 

orchestes fagi consumes the leaves. 

euroPeaN beech GeNe PooL coNservaTIoN 

European beech is included as one of the priority species within the National Strategy for Forest 

Genetic Resources Conservation. Studies on the genetic variation of the species in Spain have shown 

large differences among populations for several traits of interest evaluated mainly in provenance 

tests. The results (Puertas 1992, Vega et al. 1992, Puertas, Traver, Olave 1995) show that no 

clear pattern of variation related to the origin is found in nursery or after 10 years in the field. 

Using isozymes (Comps et al. 1993) it is possible to distinguish three main groups of populations: 

Cantabrian Mountains, Pyrenees and an Iberian group. Genetic resources of European beech are 

not endangered in Spain as a whole, although some populations need some conservation activities 

(Goikoetxea, Agundez 2000) mainly due to new conditions derived from climatic change. Special 

attention needs to be paid to the correct use of forest reproductive material in afforestation and 

restoration programmes. 

reFereNces 

Agundez D., Martín S., de Miguel J., Galera R. M., Jimenez M. P., Diaz-Fernández P. 1995. 

Las regiones de procedencia de Fagus sylvatica L. en España. [Regions of provenance of Fagus 

sylvatica L. in Spain.] Madrid, ICONA: 51 p. 

Alía R., García del Barrio J. M., Iglesias S., Mancha J. A., de Miguel J., Nicolás J. L., Perez F., 

Sanchez de Ron D. 2009. Regiones de procedencia de especies forestales en España. [Regions of 

provenance of forest species in Spain.] Madrid, DGMNPF. 

Blanco E., Casado M. A, Costa M., Escribano R., García M., Génova M., Gómez M., Gómez F., 

Moreno J. C., Morla C., Regato P., Sainz H. 199 . Los Bosques ibéricos. [Iberian forests.] 

Barcelona, Ed. Planeta: 5 2 p. 

Cirac J. 1992. Algunos aspectos sobre la selvicultura en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Rioja. [Some 

aspects on the silviculture in the Autonomous Community of Rioja.] Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec 

For., Special Issue 1: 189-202. 

Comps B., Demesure B., Barrière G., Thiebaut B. 1993. Research on genetic variation of European 

beech stands (Fagus sylvatica L.). p. 145-156. In: Mush H., Wuehlisch G. (ed.): The scientific basis 

for the evaluation of the genetic resources of beech. 26 p. 

Goikoetxea P., Agundez D. 2000. Robles y hayas en España. Conservación de recursos genéticos. 

[Oaks and beech in Spain. Conservation of genetic resources]. Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec For., 9/4: 

125-142. 

240

Ibáñez J. I. 1989. El haya (Fagus sylvatica L.) en al Rioja. Selvicultura y Ordenación. [Beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.) in Rioja. Silviculture and Management.] Ph D. Thesis. Madrid, UPM: 414 p. 

Madrigal A. 1992. Selvicultura de hayedos. [Silviculture of beech.] Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec For., 

Special Issue 1: 33-60. 

Madrigal A., Calama R., Madrigal G., Aunós A., Reque J. A. 2008. Selvicultura de Fagus sylvatica 

L. [Silviculture of Fagus sylvatica L.] In: Serrada R., Montero G., Reque J. A. (eds.): Compendio de 

Selvicultura aplicada en España. [Applied silviculture in Spain.] Madrid, INIA: 155-185. 

Martín S., Diaz-Fernández P., de Miguel J. 1998. Regiones de procedencia de especies forestales 

españolas. Generos Abies, Fagus, Pinus, y Quercus. [Regions of provenance of forest species in 

Spain. Genera: Abies, Fagus, Pinus and Quercus.] Madrid, O. A. Parques Nacionales. 

Puertas F. 1992. Primeros resultados del estudio de ecotipos de Fagus sylvatica L. en Navarra. [First 

results of the study of ecotypes of Fagus sylvatica L. in Navarra.] Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec For., 

Special Issue 1: 29 -309. 

Puertas F., Traver C., Olave F. 1995. Stem form and 10 years growth of Fagus sylvatica L. 

provenances in Navarra. In: Madsen S. (ed.): Genetics and silviculture of beech. Proceedings 

from the 5th Beech Symposium of the IUFRO Project Group P1.10-00. 19 – 24 September 1994. 

Denmark. p. 51-68. 

Rodríguez-Guitián M. A., Ferreiro J. 2005. Primeros datos sobre la variabilidad interanual de la 

producción de semilla de Fagus sylvatica L. en el extremo occidental de la Cornisa Cantábrica. 

[First results on the annual variability in seed production of Fagus sylvatica L. in the western 

limit of the Cantabrian Mountains.] In: Proceedings IV Congreso Forestal Nacional. SECF-DGA. 

Zaragoza. 

Sainz H. 1992. Aproximación a una síntesis geobotánica de los hayedos ibéricos. [Geobotanical 

synthesis of the Iberian beech forests.] Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec For., Special Issue 1: 151-166. 

Sánchez de Medina A., García A., González C., Ayuga E. G., Martin S. 2001. Definición de 

estructuras básicas de los hayedos para su gestión. [Definition of basic structures of beech forest 

for management.] In: Proceedings III Congreso Forestal Español. Granada, SECF-EGMASA: 4: 

6 6-681. 

Vega G., Puertas F., Vega P., González C., Rosales M., Rodríguez Soalleiro R., Rodriguez S. 

1992. Ensayo de procedencias de Fagus sylvatica L. en el Norte de España. [Provenance test of 

Fagus sylvatica L. in the north of Spain.] Invest. Agrar: Sist y Rec For., Special Issue 1: 323-335. 

contacts 

Dr. Ricardo Alía 

Dpto de Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 

INIA.Carr. Coruña km .5 28040 Madrid, Spain 

Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute UVa-INIA [SFM-RI] 

e-mail: dbarba@inia.es, alia@inia.es 

Reviewed 

241

242 


(Fagus sylvatica L.) IN sWedeN 

ROLF ÖVERGAARD 1 – LARS-GÖRAN STENER 2 

1 Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, 

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P. O. Box 49, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden 

2 Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, S-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden 

absTracT 

More than half of Sweden is covered with forests. Beech migrated from more southern areas of 

Europe approximately 4,000 years ago and is today located in the very southernmost part of the 

country. Beech has been used for several industrial purposes over recent centuries. A large part of 

the original beech forests was converted into spruce woodland in the 20th century due to economical 

reasons. As a result the “Hardwood Tree Forestry Act” was approved with the aim to protect beech 

and other hardwood forests. Today beech forests are primarily regenerated naturally and managed 

using an intensive thinning program. The rotation period generally varies from 80 to 140 years. It is 

primarily recommended to use regeneration material from seed orchards or from approved seed 

stands close to the cultivation location. Research is mainly focused on cost-effective management, 

but also assesses issues relating to biodiversity, recreation and vitality (indicated by crown defoliation 

and reduction of soil pH). Tree breeding work with beech is very extensive. Future climate change is 

predicted to increase yield within the species present distribution and may also lead to an increase of 

the beech forest area in Sweden. 

Key words: European beech, Fagus sylvatica L., bok (in Swedish), Sweden, current state 

GeNeraL ForesT daTa oF sWedeN 

The major part of Sweden belongs to the boreal vegetation zone: in the southernmost part there is 

the nemoral zone and between, there is a transition zone called the boreo-nemoral or hemi-boreal 

vegetation zone (Ahti, Hämet-Ahti, Jalas 1968). The total land area of Sweden is 41.3 million 

hectares of which 23 million hectares (55%) is forest land. The total volume of growing stock is 

3 billion m 3 distributed as follows – 38% Scots pine, 42% Norway spruce, 11% birch, 2% hardwoods, 

3% other broadleaves and 3% dead trees. The mean growing stock per hectare is 132 m 3 . Since the 

1920s the growing stock in all of Sweden has increased by 80%, while in the southern part of Sweden 

it has more than doubled. The mean annual increment per hectare is 5.3 m 3 giving a total annual 

increment of 110 million m 3 . The annual cut is around 80 million m 3 (Swedish National Forest 

Inventory 2008).

GeNeraL INFormaTIoN abouT beech IN sWedeN 

The only beech species in Sweden is European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) which was a late migrant to 

Sweden. It arrived from the south about 4 000 years ago, at the same time as Norway spruce migrated 

from the north. When humans started to settle in southern Sweden, about 2 500 years ago, beech 

was mostly concentrated in the outlands, since it competed with different crop species. In the 1 th 

century beech and oak were the dominant tree species in the forests of southern Sweden. The sparse 

forests were at that time mostly used as pasture land for animals and for fuel-wood. In the 18th and 

19th centuries the beech forests were exploited for industrial purposes. Production of potash from 

beech, used for making soap, glass and gunpowder, was profitable. There was also a great need for 

beech barrels, used for storing herring. Since the need for arable land was high among farmers, large 

areas of beech forests were cut down. 

Beech was mostly found in areas belonging to the nobility, who could afford to keep forests for 

hunting purposes. That is the explanation why beech and other hardwood species are called “noble 

trees” (Eickhoff et al. 1995). During the 20th century many beech forests were converted into 

Norway spruce stands due to economical reasons and the beech forest area decreased dramatically 

(Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 1982). In 19 4 this resulted in the Beech Forestry 

Act, with the purpose to preserve the beech forests by appropriate management and forbidding 

conversion into other tree species (SOU 19 1: 1). It was replaced in 1984 by the Hardwood Tree 

Forestry Act with the same purpose, but also including other “noble” tree species such as ash 

(Fraxius excelsior), elm (Ulmus glabra), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), lime tree (Tilia cordata), 

maple (Acer platanoides), oak (Quercus petraea, Q. robur) and wild cherry (Prunus avium), (SOU 

1992: 6). An implication of the Hardwood Tree Forest Act is the prohibition on the conversion of 

low-yielding beech stands into stands consisting of other tree species potentially better suited to 

local site conditions. As a result there are many beech forests on sites which are inappropriate for 

beech production. 

Today the primary product of beech is mostly used for floors, furniture and carpentry. Beech is also 

used for production of high quality paper. There is a big price differential for different log qualities. 

Large trunks (> 50 cm) receive the highest financial returns. Beech forests often have a long continuity 

and are important for biodiversity. Many red-listed lichens and insects can be found in old trees. 

These forests are also very popular for recreation (Eickhoff et al. 1995). 

In Sweden beech grows up to around N 58° and up to 200 meter above sea level where the climate 

is maritime (Dahl 1998) (Fig. 1). Beech is often found on slopes and grows well on silt, calcareous 

moraines with good water supply. Mixtures with other broadleaved species are common, especially 

oak, ash and hornbeam, and in the northern parts of the distribution area also pine and spruce can 

be found. Beech covers an area of about 58,000 hectares defined as areas where more than 65% of 

the basal area is beech. The total volume is about 21 million m 3 . Trees with diameters of at least 

25 cm at 1.3 m above ground accounts for roughly 85% of the total volume. The annual increment 

is approximately 450,000 m 3 and the annual cut approximately 400,000 m 3 (Svensson 1995, The 

Swedish Forest Agency 2008). 

The Swedish name for beech is “bok”. Sometimes it is called “rödbok” (red beech) synonymous to the 

German “Rotbuche”. To separate it from “avenbok”, the Swedish name for hornbeam, beech is also 

sometimes named “vanlig bok” (common beech) (The Virtual Flora 2008). 

243

sILvIcuLTure aNd research 

The common way to regenerate beech is by natural regeneration. Mast years appear every second or 

third year, but large variation occurs, depending on the weather conditions (Övergaard, Gemmel, 

Karlsson 200 ). Soil preparation with the intention of exposing large areas of mineral soil should 

be done before the seed-fall. Seeds should then be covered with soil to protect them from seed-eating 

animals. During winter a heavy thinning is conducted, leaving just a sparse shelter of trees. This 

shelter is removed within a 10 – 20-year period by felling trees at 2 – 4 occasions in order to gradually 

increase the amount of light. Most often some retention trees are left for biodiversity reasons. Since 

the seedlings are abundant there is mostly no need for fencing. The management is intense in the 

young stands with at least two cleanings and frequent thinning. When the stand is older, the thinning 

intervals increase. The normal rotation period varies from 80 – 140 years, shorter on the more fertile 

sites, but also it depends on the quality of the stand, target diameter and timber prices. 

Establishment of beech plantations is often both a costly and risky business. Fencing is necessary and 

herbicides are needed, at least on former arable land. Using shelter trees, like larch, birch or alder, may 

be one way to protect the plants from extreme temperatures during the first years of establishment. 

Problems one always has to consider in new plantations are those caused by rodents and mice. 

Photo 1: A Swedish beech forest in the springtime (J. NORMAN) 

244

Cheaper and better ways to regenerate beech forests are important research issues. Sowing and 

planting are two methods with a big potential to improve as well as naturally regeneration on 

poor, acid soils. Examples of questions where the Swedish research tries to find answers are: 1) is it 

possible to minimize the costs for pre-commercial thinning and to shorten the rotation period with 

retained stem quality? 2) Could the thinning program be more rational, but less intensive without 

any major effect on growth and stem quality? Tree-living lichens in close-to-nature managed forests, 

biodiversity in beech production forests, innovations and use of the beech wood, and recreation and 

health-aspects of hardwood forests are other research fields also in progress (The broadleaf program 

2008). 

GeNeTIc resources aNd LeGIsLaTIoN 

Climatic adaptation is of great importance for practical forestry. If the reforestation material is not 

climatically adapted to the plantation site, there will be a considerable risk of damage, reducing growth 

and deteriorating timber quality, with resultant economic losses. Climatic adaptation is therefore one 

of the key traits for a successful establishment of high quality beech forests. 

Today there is a lack of good Swedish indigenous forest reproductive material of many broadleaved 

species, among others beech, which is compensated for by importing material mainly from Poland 

and Germany. However, our knowledge about north transfer effects on survival, vitality and growth 

is very limited, and might be crucial since the northern limit of natural distribution of many “noble 

hardwood” species is found in southern Sweden. Thus, it is recommended primarily to use material 

from seed orchards and as a second choice from approved seed stands close to the cultivation 

location. 

The tree breeding work with beech is very extensive. Earlier activities, in the 1940s and 1950s, had 

resulted in two seed orchards. Both orchards contain untested plus-trees from southern Sweden. 

The plus-trees are now being tested in two progeny tests established in year 1998. To increase 

the knowledge of the transferring effects of different beech material within Europe, two series of 

international beech provenance trials (1993/95 and 1996/98) were established throughout Europe. 

One trial in each of the series was established in Sweden. 

Only reproductive material from seed sources approved by each of the member countries of EU can 

be used commercially. In Sweden the application is examined by the Swedish Forest Agency. All 

approved seed sources in Sweden are registered in a national list which can be found on the web, 

http://www.svo.se/episerver4/templates/SNormalPage.aspx?id=11530. A seed source is approved 

when it is expected to produce forest stands with good prerequisites for good development and 

acceptable yield. 

In Sweden, the approved basic material is divided into seed orchards, seed collection stands and seed 

collection areas. The different seed sources are listed separately and maps over the seed collection 

areas are provided. The seed collection stands are selected based on factors stipulated by the OECD. 

The seed collection areas consist of several stands of genetically more or less homogenous, mainly 

autochthonous forests. Mixing of seeds is only allowed within a region of provenance (Fig. 2). Each 

seed orchard and seed collection area is considered to be a region of provenance. 

245

heaLTh sTaTe aNd ImPacT oF cLImaTe chaNGe 

special surveys of crown health condition of beech and oak forests in southern Sweden were carried 

out in 1988, 1993 and 1999, showing increased crown defoliation in the beech stands. The soil 

condition of the subsurface mineral layer at a depth of 20 – 30 cm was highly acid with a pH value 

less than 4.2 in 86% of the forest stands surveyed (Andersson, Sonesson 2000). 

The beech distribution area (Fig. 1) may be expanded in the future as an effect of climate change, since 

spring frost, which is an important limiting climatic factor, may be less frequent during flowering. 

Furthermore, an increased temperature will enhance the breaking-down process of organic material, 

liberating more nutrients in the soil. This will, together with high nitrogen deposition and longer 

growing season, promote yield and shorten the rotation period in the present beech distribution area 

(Berg et al. 200 ). 

Fig. 1: Beech distribution area Fig 2: Regions of provenances 

reFereNces 

Ahti T., Hämet-Ahti L., Jalas J. 1968. Vegetation zones and their sections in north western Europe. 

Ann. Bot. Fenn., 5: 169-211. 

Andersson S., Sonesson K. 2000. Skogsskadeinventering av bok och ek i Sydsverige 1999. [Survey 

on forest condition in beech and oak forests in southern Sweden 1999.] Report 2000: 6. Jönköping, 

Sweden, The Swedish Forest Agency. 

Berg J., Blennow K., Andersson M., Olofsson E., Nilsson U., Sallnäs O., Karlsson M. 200 . 

Effekter av ett förändrat klima på skogen och implikationer för skogsbruket. [Effects of a changed 

246

climate on forests and implications for forestry.] Arbetsrapport 34. Alnarp, Institutionen för 

sydsvensk skogsvetenskap, SLU. 

Dahl E. 1998. The phytogeography of Northern Europe: British Isles, Fennoscandia and adjacent 

areas. Cambridge University Press. 

Ebenhard T. 2004. Sveriges genomförande av Konventionen om biologisk mångfald med avseende 

på främmande arter och genotyper. [Swedens realization of the Convention of Biodiversity 

concerning foreign species and genotypes.] Swedish Biodiversity Centre 2004-2-22, p. 115. 

Eickhoff K., Nilsson S. G., Almgren G., Bjerregaard J., Ederlöf E., Fredriksson G., 

Gabrielsson N. Å., Johansson U., Malm R., Möller-Madsen E., Jönsson S., Hamilton G., 

Kabo-Stenberg C. 1995. BOKEN en ahandbok i bokskogsskötsel. [The beech, a manual for 

beech forestry.] Sydved AB, Sweden, p. 5- . 

Övergaard R., Gemmel P., Karlsson M. 200 . Effects of weather conditions on mast year frequency 

in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Sweden. Forestry, 80: 553-563. 

SOU 19 1: 1. Bokskogens bevarande. [Preservation of Beech Forests.] The Swedish Parliament, 

Stockholm, Sweden. 

SOU 1992: 6. Skogspolitiken inför 2000-talet. [Forest Policy at the Prospect of the 21st Century.] The 

Swedish Parliament, Stockholm, Sweden. 

Svensson S. A. 1995. Våra ädellövskogstillgångar. [Our hardwood stock.] In: Fredriksson G., Mirton 

A., Nihlgård B., Olsson U. (eds.): Hardwood in today and future forests. Kristianstad 23 – 24 

November. Alnarp, Sweden, The Oak Promotion Society and the Swedish Forest Agency. 

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1982. Ädellövskog: förslag till skydd och vård. [Hardwood 

forests: Suggestion to protection and preservation.] SNV PM 158 , Swedish Environmental 

Protection Agency, Solna, Sweden. 

Swedish National Forest Inventory, 2008. http://www.skogsstyrelsen.se/episerver4/templates/ 

SFileListing.aspx?id=16863. (In Swedish with English summary). 

The broadleaves program, 2008. http://www.zbt.m.se/lof/indexe.html 

The Swedish Forest Agency 2008. http://www.skogsstyrelsen.se 

The Virtual Flora 2008. http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/faga/fagus/fagusyl.html (in Swedish). 

contacts 

Dr. Rolf Övergaard 

Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre 

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 

P. O. Box 49, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden 

e-mail: rolf.overgaard@ess.slu.se 

Reviewed 

24

248 

resources oF beech IN sWITZerLaNd 

PASCALE WEBER 1 – ANDREA R. PLUESS 2 – URS MÜHLETHALER 3 

1 Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland 

2 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ETH, Zürich, Switzerland 

3 Bern University of applied Sciences SHL, Forest Ecology, Zollikofen, Switzerland 

absTracT 

Beech is the second most important tree species in Switzerland, covering a wide range of the forested 

area with varying site conditions. In many forest communities of the sub-montane and lower 

montane range, beech is the dominant tree species; whereas from the lower to middle montane zone, 

beech becomes less important in comparison to spruce and fir. Beech accounts for around 1 % of 

the Swiss total growing stock, which explains its importance for timber production. The rotation 

time for good quality timber is around 100 – 140 years. Since beech has been regenerated naturally 

for a long time, beech provenances for artificial regeneration have played only a marginal role so far. 

Nevertheless, in studies from the beginning of the 20th century, Swiss lowland provenances were 

compared to provenances from higher altitudes. Furthermore, in the Danish provenance trial, the 

two tested Swiss provenances Adliswil and Sihlwald were found to be of superior economic returns. 

However, Switzerland is not carrying out provenance trials under COST E52, although some Swiss 

provenances have been tested in other European countries. Recently, several projects have been 

undertaken studying environmental impacts on beech in Switzerland. Further investigations will 

be needed to understand better the impact of climatic changes and raising CO 2 on the distribution 

and growth of beech in Switzerland. At least model simulations suggest an altitudinal upward shift in 

beech distribution due to increasing drought, if beech does not have the plasticity or the evolutionary 

potential combined with the required time to adapt to future environmental conditions. 

Key words: Fagus sylvatica L., distribution range, provenance, Switzerland 

couNTry daTa 

Area: 41,285 km 2 

Elevation: between 193 m a. s. l. (Lago Maggiore) and 4,634 m a. s. l. (Dufourspitze) 

Climate data: annual precipitation: between 521 mm (Ackersand Stalden) and 2, 01 mm (Säntis) 

annual mean temperature: between - .9 °C (Jungfraujoch) and 11.6 °C (Lugano) 

Climate is regionally diverse. 

These climate data are norm values for the period 1961 – 1990 and are taken from the website of the 

Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss. 

Forest area: 12, 46 km², 31% of total area (FOEN/WSL 200 )

ecoLoGy aNd dIsTrIbuTIoN oF beech IN sWITZerLaNd 

Beech is the second most important tree species in Switzerland. After spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) 

(43.1%), beech covers 1 .9% of the forest area (Brassel, Brändli 1999). However, in the colline and 

sub-montane forest zones of the Jura and the Pre-Alps, beech is the most important tree species with 

35.1% and 31. % of stems, respectively (Brändli 1998). The current presence of beech, as monitored 

in the National Forest Inventory sample plots, conforms approximately to its suggested natural 

distribution area (cf. Fig. 1). Beech is very shade tolerant, and therefore, under natural regeneration, 

occupies a large ecological niche. As illustrated in figure 1, forest associations with beech have the 

potential to cover Swiss forests to a large part; beech is present from the colline to the subalpine 

forest zones. However, in particular in the Swiss Plateau (Mittelland), it is assumed that the portion 

of beech (23.8% of stems) has been replaced substantially by spruce (3 .1% of stems) due to former 

forest management (Brassel, Brändli 1999). Today, the Jura, the Swiss Plateau and the Pre-Alps are 

the most important regions for beech, with high density growing stock in the forest (Tab. 1). 

Fig. 1: Distribution map of beech according to BRÄNDLI (1998). Current distribution (presence on NFI sample 

plots) conforms more or less to natural distribution according to WELTEN, SUTTER (1982). 

Beech is present in more than half of the 1 forest associations that have been described for 

Switzerland (Ellenberg, Klötzli 19 2, in the following abbreviated EK). In forest associations 

which are dominated by beech (EK units 1 – 1 ), the basal area of beech reaches an average of 30% of 

total forest basal area (Brassel, Brändli 1999). These forest associations belong to the sub-alliances 

Luzulo-Fagion (EK units 1 – 4 on acidic soils), eu-Fagion (EK units 5 – 13 on nutrient-rich soils) and 

Cephalanthero-Fagion (EK units 14 – 1 on dry and nutrient-poor soils, often on steep slopes), and 

are mainly found in the sub-montane to lower montane forest zones (400 to 1,000 m a. s. l.). In forest 

associations of the silver fir-beech alliance (Abieti-Fagion) (EK units 18 – 21), beech makes up 18.3% 

of the basal area (Brassel, Brändli 1999). These forests are often found in the lower to middle 

montane zone (800 to 1,400 m a. s. l.). In the remaining broadleaved forest associations (EK units 22 

– 45), beech accounts for 12.5% of total forest basal area (Brasse, Brändli 1999). 

249

Tab. 1: Number of stems (DBH ≥ 12 cm), growing stock and timber use for beech according to the five production 

regions as estimated from the National Forest Inventory (NFI) (BRASSEL, BRÄNDLI 1999) 

Switzerland Jura Swiss Plateau Pre-Alps Alps 

South 

of the Alps 

Number of stems (1,000) 97,595 ± 2 29,148 ± 4 24,076 ± 4 19,425 ± 5 12,743 ± 8 12,202 ± 9 

Portion per region (%) 100.0 29.9 24.7 19.9 13.0 12.5 

Portion of all tree species 18.3 32.0 23.8 17.8 7.8 18.1 

Growing stock (1,000 m3 ) 70,770 ± 2 22,791 ± 4 22,068 ± 4 14,861 ± 6 6,674 ± 8 4,376 ± 10 

Portion per region (%) 100.0 32.2 31.2 21.0 9.4 6.2 

Portion of all tree species (%) 17.1 31.5 22.3 15.0 5.9 14.5 

Timber use (1,000 m3 ) 

Time span: NFI1-NFI2 = 10 yrs 

11,521 3,240 5,149 1,922 825 385 

GeNeTIc resources oF beech IN sWITZerLaNd 

At the beginning of the postglacial period, beech most likely expanded to Switzerland from the 

Slovenian refuge (Magri et al. 2006). The expansion along the North-Alpine forelands started before 

the beginning of large-scale Neolithic human activities and therefore, was mainly driven by climatic 

changes (Tinner, Lotter 2006). 

Most of the Swiss forest (around 80%) is regenerated naturally (Brassel, Brändli 1999) and artificial 

regeneration has ceased continually since 1965. Regarding beech, the portion of natural regeneration 

is near 100%, due to optimal regenerating conditions for this tree species over a wide area and the 

difficulties to obtain high quality timber by regenerating beech artificially. This high amount of 

natural regeneration allows for the conservation of the genetic diversity of native tree species in 

Switzerland (Bonfils, Rotach 2003). In the case of plantations, national regulations exist for seed 

collection and utilization (Art. 21), as well as for import and export of seeds (Art. 22) (Verordnung 

über den Wald). All tree species under these regulations are listed (Anhang 1: Verordnung über 

forstliches Vermehrungsgut). Seeds are collected and forest genetic resources are handled according 

to the OECD regulations. For this purpose, Switzerland is divided into 14 provenance regions, which 

belong to the five main production regions corresponding to geographical regions (Fig. 2). In case of 

artificial regeneration, foresters are obliged to use the closest available provenance. 

Although some Swiss provenances have been tested in different provenance trials in other European 

countries, no recent provenance trials have been undertaken within Switzerland. Some of the current 

provenance trials of COST E52 include the Swiss provenances Oberwil and Aarberg (Wühlisch et 

al. 2008). In an earlier Danish provenance trial, the provenances Sihlwald (cf. Fig. 3) and Adlisberg 

were tested among other European provenances. They were found to be superior in economic returns 

due to a higher frequency of trees with straight stems and long boles (Hansen, Jorgensen, Stoltze 

2003, Wühlisch 2005). Burger (1948) reported about early provenance tests with different beech 

provenances in Switzerland, e. g. differences in height growth between provenances of lower and 

higher altitudes. In these studies, it was shown that fast growing provenances from the lowlands 

might experience problems at higher altitudes. In recent germination tests at the Swiss Federal 

Institute WSL the germination capacity of different Swiss beech provenances ranged usually between 

50 – 80% (personal communication Anton Burkart). 

250

Fig. 2: Map of the Swiss provenance and production regions 

ForesT maNaGemeNT aNd TImber harvesTING 

Due to its high amount of growing stock (1 .1% across Switzerland, cf. Tab. 1), beech plays an 

important role in timber production, in particular in the beech regions Jura (324,000 m 3 /yr) and 

Swiss Plateau (514,900 m 3 /yr) (Tab. 1). 

Most of the beech trees grow in even-structured high forest ( 3%, cf. Brändli 1998). In accordance 

with earlier studies by Leibundgut, Auer, Wieland (19 1), Zingg et Ramp (2004) found that 

thinning in such forests improved stem quality of beech, but also led to a slightly reduced total 

production. In another study, Zingg (1996) recorded that, after 1950, the basal area increment of 

pure beech stands moved clearly above the values that were expected from yield tables. This deviation 

may be partly induced by a changing climate, nitrogen deposition or CO 2 -fertilization. However, the 

complex reasons are still under investigation. Noteworthy is the speciality “plenter forest” – a singletree 

management form, leading to a mixture of trees of different sizes, ages and heights – which is 

common in the Jura and the Emmental. In Switzerland this silvicultural technique is particularly 

abundant in the silver fir-beech forest in the montane forest belt. Alltogether, around 3% of beech 

trees grow in plenter forests (Brändli 1998). Along with this practice, Abies alba and Picea abies 

trees are often fostered at costs of Fagus sylvatica trees (Schütz 2001). 

251

The rotation time for growing high quality timber depends on the prevailing site conditions, but 

often is between 100 and 140 years. On the other hand, fuelwood, which is optimized for quantity, 

may be produced within a shorter time. Overall, one third of the Swiss beech forests exhibit a stand 

age of 80 – 120 years (Brändli 1998). Around 2% of the stands are estimated to be older than 160 

years, i. e. the amount of ecologically important old growth forest is comparably low. 

Within the European forestry community, it is well known that high quality timber of beech can 

be found in many places in Switzerland. It is not rare to identify tree heights of 40 m with straight 

stems up to 20 m (Fig. 3) (cf. Hansen, Jorgensen, Stoltze 2003). However, although the physical 

Fig. 3: Beech stand in the forest reserve “Sihlwald” (Picture: P. Weber) 

appearance is excellent, red heartwood is abundant. A few studies have been conducted on the 

occurrence and economic implications of red heartwood in beech in Switzerland (cf. Pöhler, 

Klingner, Künniger 2004). Red heartwood is developed facultatively and is difficult to diagnose 

in standing trees. In 2002, a survey of the cantonal forestry departments resulted in approximately 

50% of beech timber being affected by red heartwood, leading to a decrease of sometimes up to 50% 

in value. However, Pöhler, Klingner, Künniger (2004) demonstrated that the mechanical and 

technological properties of beech wood are not reduced due to red heartwood. 

252

eech uNder chaNGING eNvIroNmeNTaL FacTors 

The effect of the increasing atmospheric CO concentration on beech growth was tested in 

2 

Switzerland on saplings (e. g. Spinnler, Egli, Körner 2003) and adult trees (e. g. Asshoff, Zotz, 

Körner 2006). Spinnler, Egli, Körner (2003) demonstrated that growth of saplings under elevated 

atmospheric CO depends on the soil type with increased growth on calcareous and decreased 

2 

growth on acidic soils. Growth responses of the four tested provenances were highly variable 

(Spinnler, Egli, Körner 2003) but there was no indication that one of the provenances would be 

superior under elevated CO conditions. If approximately 100-year old beech trees are exposed to 

2 

elevated CO , stem basal area increased in two of four experimental years (Asshoff, Zotz, Körner 

2 

2006). However, Asshoff et al. (2006) stress the point that only three beech trees were exposed to 

the elevated CO treatment which is not enough to make the case for the whole species. In the same 

2 

experimental setup Leuzinger et al. (2005) found evidence for a CO driven mitigation during 

2 

the very hot and dry summer of 2003. Future CO concentration might thus counteract damage 

2 

by increased temperature and drought. Under ambient CO conditions during the exceptional year 

2 

2003, several beech trees throughout Switzerland shed their leaves earlier (Zingg, Brang 2003). 

However, it is difficult to tell whether this was already an indication that beech locally comes to its 

physiological limit, or whether beech will be able to adapt within its genetic/phenotypic flexibility 

to more frequent drought periods. 

According to forest model simulations for Switzerland under climate change (Zimmermann et al. 

2006), beech is suggested to retreat to higher altitudes and to lose its dominance in the sub-montane 

and lower montane zone where more drought tolerant species are expected to come to dominance. 

Currently, it is under investigation, how Mediterranean beech provenances germinate and grow in 

Switzerland (COST-Action FP0 032, Mühlethaler et al.) to potentially introduce such provenances 

to our natural beech stands. 

acknowledgement 

We would like to thank Ernst Fürst for providing us with information on the handling of beech 

genetic resources in Switzerland. We are grateful to Peter Brang for his comments on an earlier 

version of this manuscript. 

reFereNces 

Asshoff R., Zotz G., Körner C. 2006. Growth and phenology of mature temperate forest trees in 

elevated CO 2 . Global Change Biology, 12: 848-861. 

Bonfils P., Rotach P. 2003. Genetische Ressourcen von Waldbäumen. [Genetic resources of forest 

trees.] In: Bonfils P., Bolliger M. (eds.): Wälder von besonderem genetischen Interesse (BGI 

Wälder). Bern, Federal Office for the Enviroment: 13-26. 

Brassel P., Brändli U.-B. 1999. Das Schweizerische Landesforstinventar. Ergebnisse der 

Zweitaufnahme 1993 – 1995. [Swiss National Forest Inventory. Results of the second inventory 

1993 – 1995.] Birmensdorf, Eidg. Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft. Bern, 

Haupt Verlag. 

253

Brändli U.-B. 1998. Die häufigsten Waldbäume der Schweiz. Ergebnisse aus dem Landesforstinventar 

1983-85: Verbreitung, Standort und Häufigkeit von 30 Baumarten. [The most frequent tree 

species in Switzerland. Results from the national forest inventory 1983-85: Distribution, site and 

frequency of 30 tree species.] Second edition. Eidg. Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und 

Landschaft, Birmensdorf. 

Burger H. 1948. Einfluss der Herkunft des Samens auf die Eigenschaften forstlicher Holzgewächse. 

[Influence of seed provenance on characteristics of forest woody plants.] 6. Mitteilung. Die Buche. 

Mitt. Eidg. Anst. forstl. Versuchsw., 25: 28 -326. 

Ellenberg H., Klötzli F. 19 2. Waldgesellschaften und Waldstandorte der Schweiz. [Forest 

communities and forest sites in Switzerland.] Mitt. Eidg. Anst. forstl. Versuchsw., 48: 58 -930. 

FOEN/WSL 200 . Press release on first results of National Forest Inventory NFI 3 by the Federal 

Office for the Environment and the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL. 9. 11. 200 , Bern. 

http://www.wsl.ch/news/presse/pm_0 1109_DE 

Hansen J. K., Jorgensen B. B., Stoltze P. 2003. Variation of quality and predicted economic returns 

between European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances. Silvae Genetica, 52: 185-19 . 

Magri D., Vendramin G. G., Comps B., Dupanloup I., Geburek T., Gomory D., Latalowa M., 

Litt T., Paule L., Roure J. M., Tantau I., van der Knaap W. O., Petit R. J., de Beaulieu J. L. 


evidence and genetic consequences. New Phytol., 1 1: 199-221. 

Leibundgut H., Auer C., Wieland C. 19 1. Ergebnisse von Durchforstungsversuchen 1930 – 1965 

im Sihlwald. [Results of the thinning experiments in Sihlwald from 1930 – 1965.] Mitt. Eidg. 

Anst. forstl. Versuchsw., 4 : 25 -389. 

Leuzinger S., Zotz G., Asshoff R., Körner C. 2005. Responses of deciduous forest trees to severe 

drought in Central Europe. Tree Physiology, 25: 641-650. 

Pöhler E., Klingner R., Künniger T. 2004. Rotkerniges Buchenholz - Vorkommen, Eigenschaften 

und Verwendungsmöglichkeiten. [Red heartwood – Occurence, characteristics and utilisation.] 

Project Report Abteilung Holz, EMPA, Dübendorf. 

Schütz J. P. 2001. Der Plenterwald und weitere Formen strukturierter und gemischter Wälder. 

[Plenter forest and other forms of structured and mixed forests.] Berlin, Parey. 

Spinnler D., Egli P., Körner C. 2003. Provenance effects and allometry in beech and spruce under 

elevated CO 2 and nitrogen on two different forest soils. Basic and Applied Ecology, 4: 46 -4 8. 

Tinner W., Lotter A. F. 2006. Holocene expansions of Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba in Central 

Europe: where are we after eight decades of debate? Quat. Sci. Rev., 25: 526-549. 

Welten M., Sutter R. 1982. Verbreitungsatlas der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen der Schweiz. 

[Distribution maps of ferns and angiosperms in Switzerland.] Basel, Birkhäuser. 

Wühlisch von G. 2005. Herkunft und wirtschaftlicher Ertrag bei der Rotbuche. [Provenance and 

economic yield of beech.] AFZ-Der Wald, 20: 10 4-10 6. 

Wühlisch von G. et al. 2008. International provenance trials of European beech. First results of 

joint evaluations of survival and height. COST E52, online: http://www.bfafh.de/inst2/cost_ 

254

e52/wuehlisch.pdf Zimmermann N. E., Bolliger J., Gehrig-Fasel J., Guisan A., Kienast F., 

Lischke H., Rickebusch S., Wohlgemuth T. 2006. Wo wachsen die Bäume in 100 Jahren? 

[Where do trees grow in 100years?] Forum für Wissen: 63- 1. 

Zingg A. 1996. Diameter and basal area increment in permanent growth and yield plots in 

Switzerland. In: Spiecker H., Mielikainen K., Köhl M., Skovsgaard J. P. (eds.): Growth trends in 

European Forests. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer: 239-265. 

Zingg A., Brang P. 2003. Zuwachs von Buchen nach Trockenjahren. [Growth of beech after drought 

years.] Sterben Buchen wegen der Trockenheit? Wald und Holz, 9: 44-46. 

Zingg A., Ramp B. 2004. Thinning and stem quality in pure and mixed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

stands. In: Sagheb-Talebi K., Madsen P., Terazawa K. (eds.): Improvement and Silviculture of 

Beech. Proceedings from the th International Beech Symposium. IUFRO Research Group 

1.10.00, May 2004, Teheran, Iran, p. 169-1 9. 

contact 

Dr. Pascale Weber 

Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL 

Birmensdorf, Switzerland 

e-mail: pascale.weber@wsl.ch 

Reviewed 

255

curreNT sTaTe oF orIeNTaL beech (Fagus oriENtalis 

Lipsky) GeNeTIc resources coNservaTIoN IN TurKey 

256 

GAYE EREN KANDEMIR 

Turkish Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Forest Tree Seeds and Tree Breeding 

Research Directorate, Department of Biotechnology, Gazi Tesisleri, 06560 Ankara, Turkey 

absTracT 

The purpose of the following paper is to describe the current state of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis 

Lipsky) in Turkey. It provides information on the distribution of the species, together with details of 

breeding activities and related seed transfer zones. It also provides information on the conditions of 

forest stands with associated plant communities. Oriental beech natural distribution in Turkey is 1. 

million ha and it is the main broadleaved species. There are almost ,000 ha of in situ conservation 

areas of oriental beech in the country. 

Key words: oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky), kayin (in Turkish), distribution, gene-pool 

current state, Turkey, forestry research 

orIeNTaL beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN TurKey 

Forest land covers 21,188, 4 ha in Turkey out of a total area of ,846,000 ha. 10,621,221 ha of 

forests are productive while 10,56 ,526 ha are degraded. The composition of forest tree species 

is mainly represented by conifers (12, 2,654 ha). Deciduous forests cover 8,416,093 ha area and 

conifers-deciduous mixed forests are also included in these figures and account for 2,204,26 ha with 

the remainder made up of coppice and high forest (http://www.ogm.gov.tr/bilgi/orman_01.htm). 

Turkey has two species of beech, oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) and European beech (Fagus 

sylvatica L.). The main beech species is oriental beech while European beech has limited distribution. 

European beech is distributed in Kırklareli-Demirköy, Çanakkale-Bayramiç, Edremit-Kazdağları 

and Kütahya-Simav area in Turkey (Davis 1982) (Fig. 1). 

Oaks (6.4 million ha), consisting of 18 different oak species, are predominant in species composition. 

Pines are the next most important group with Turkish red pine (Pinus brutia) covering an area of 

5.4 million ha while European black pine (Pinus nigra) covers an area of 4.2 million ha. Beech covers 

an area of 1. million ha in Turkey (Anonymous 2006). In the past, most beech stands were felled 

and replaced generally by conifers and in some cases converted to agricultural lands, especially for 

the production of tea plantations and for hazelnut production. 

Oriental beech is distributed in the northern part of Turkey mainly on the slopes of the mountains 

overlooking the Black Sea. The optimal spreading areas of oriental beech are the lower slopes of the 

mountains of Black Sea Region and in the Marmara Region. Dense oriental beech forests in these

egions reach down to the Murat Mountain in the inner Aegian region. In addition to these dense 

oriental beech forests there are small marginal populations in central Anatolia and in the southern 

part of Turkey. The oriental beech forests in the southern part of Turkey, particularly in the Amanos 

Mountains and Adana-Maraş districts, are relic populations. In contrast, European beech which has 

its main distribution in the European subatlantic climatic regions has a very limited distribution in 

Turkey. There are also some scattered populations in the Kaz Mountains and in Kütahya-Simav. 

Optimal growing conditions for oriental beech are found at the altitude ranging from 00 m to 

1,200 m. As the thermal requirement for the species is higher than for fir and spruce, it cannot 

grow at high altitudes but there are some exceptions. The altitudinal minimum for oriental beech 

populations is in the locality of Sinop-Bektaşağa from sea level to 30 m along the Black Sea coast. The 

altitudinal maximum of oriental beech is recorded in the eastern Black Sea Region in the location 

of Artvin-Yusufeli at 2,100 m. From an economic viewpoint, oriental beech is the most important 

broadleaved species in Turkey. 

Proximity to the sea and climate have positive effects on length of beech vegetation period. Therefore 

the relatively more temperate, moist and high precipitation areas, as found in parts of the Black Sea 

region such as in parts of the Marmara Region, are the most suitable lands for growing beech. 

The wood of oriental beech has a reddish white colour and reddish brown heartwood formation 

occurs when the trees reach the age of 80 to 100 years. Beech wood is classified as of medium density 

(0.66 g.cm- ³). As a hardwood species, the wood is heavy, hard, strong and highly resistant to shock. It 

is also suitable for steam bending. Nevertheless, the main use of oriental beech wood is for fuel, but 

there are other uses such as particleboard, furniture, flooring veneer, mining poles (props), railway 

sleepers and the paper industry (Kandemir, Kaya 2009). According to research on the wood quality 

of beech from samples which were taken as cross sections from trees grown at different altitudes, 

Photo 1: Oriental beech forest compete with Rhododendron ponticum (KANDEMIR 2008) 

25

the widest annual rings and the highest number of trachea were found in samples from the optimal 

growth area (Kahvecí, Huss 2009). 

Dense vegetation cover, mainly Rhododendron ponticum L. and Rhododendron flaum Don., in oriental 

beech growing sites, causes problems for natural regeneration. Other species which have negative 

effects on the natural regeneration of beech forests are Ilex aquifolium L., Vaccinium arctostaphylos L., 

Prunus laurocerasus, blackberry (Kahveci, Huss 2009). Other factors which prevent regeneration 

in oriental beech forests in Turkey are the predators of seed such as rodents and infrequent seed 

formation. 

In the past, especially up to the 1980s, the wood quality of beech was considered to be poorer than 

that of conifers and therefore degraded and coppiced forests of beech were replaced by conifers 

(Kahveci, Huss 2009). 

In the past, oriental beech forest in Turkey suffered from the effect of improper silvicultural treatments 

and other anthropogenic factors (Çalikoğlu, Kavgaci 2001). These affected the quality of oriental 

beech timber and the genetic base of beech stands. The regeneration with seedlings resulted in 

genetic recombination and the provision of a larger genetic base needed for adaptation to existing 

or changing environmental conditions. Thus, regeneration of oriental beech forests in such places 

should be gradually replaced through seedlings rather than coppicing (Kandemir, Kaya 2009). 

Photo 2: An example of stem sprouting regeneration of oriental beech in Sinop (Black Sea Region of Turkey) 

(KANDEMIR 2008) 

258


Geographically, Turkey is mainly divided into three phytogeographical regions and the diversity of 

the species is depending on this division. These floristic regions are: 

a) The Euro-Siberian Floristic Region: Black Sea and Marmara Geographical regions are Euro- 

Siberian phytogeographical regions with vegetation types of broadleaved deciduous forests, 

humid and sub-humid forests, dry forests and pseudomaquis and maquis. In the eastern Black 

Sea region, oriental beech is in mixture with Picea orientalis, Alnus barbata, Castanea sativa and 

Abies nordmanniana. In the mid section of Black Sea region, productive beech forests are found 

together with Castanea sativa, Alnus barbata, Prunus spp., Carpinus betulus and Rhododendron 

flavum. At the low elevations of the western Black Sea region, oriental beech is in mixture with 

Tilia spp., Pinus brutia, Laurus, Castanea sativa and Carpinus betulus while Pinus sylvestris, Abies 

bornmulleriana, Rhododendron flavum, Taxus baccata, Quercus spp., Prunus spp., Acer spp., 

Cornus spp. generate the species mixture with F. orientalis at higher elevations. In the Marmara 

region, oriental beech Castanea sativa, Carpinus betulus and Quercus spp. are a typical species of 

low elevations and Abies spp., F. orientalis, Pinus nigra are characteristic at high elevations. 

b) Mediterranean (Aegean-Mediterranean) Floristic Region: This region occupies the northern 

coasts of the Marmara Sea, all of Mediterranean region and sub-region of the Aegean Geographical 

region. Mediterranean mountain forests are diverse. In the Mediterranean belts (800 – 1,200 m) 

oriental beech and hornbeam are present as a small group in the Amanos Mountains. 

c) Irano-Turanian Floristic Region: This region covers all central, eastern and south eastern Anatolia. 

Dry oak and Scots pine forests are the main vegetation types of this floristic region. There are 

some small patchy oriental beech groups in this floristic region (Zencirci et al. 1998). 

Oriental beech is the only broadleaved tree in Turkey which has been part of the National Breeding 

Program. The main purpose of oriental beech breeding is to enhance the height and volume growth, 

together with maintaining the quality of stem. The natural distribution area of oriental beech has 

been divided geographically into two main breeding zones based on the climatic and ecological 

conditions (Atalay 1992). The border between the Black Sea coastal and inland regions is along the 

first coastal mountains parallel to the Black Sea, where the climate changes slightly from maritime 

towards continental. The borderline follows township administration boundaries, except for Taşova 

which is divided by the Kelkit River. 

Tab. 1: Oriental beech breeding zones in Turkey (KOSKI, ANTOLA 1993), Fig. 2 

Breeding zones 

(Sub zones) 

Region 

Altitude 

(m a. s. l.) 

1 (1.2) Black Sea Region Coast (mid zone) 500 – 900 

1 (1.3) Black Sea Region Coast (High elevation zone) 901 – 1,300 

2 (2.3) Black Sea Region Inland (High elevation zone) 1,100 – 1,500 

3 (3.1) Marmara Region * (low elevation zone) 0 – 500 

3 (3.2) Marmara Region * (mid zone) 501 – 1,000 

3 (3.3) Marmara Region * (high elevation zone) 1,001 – 1,500 

4 (4.1) Amanos Mountains Region (gene conservation area) 

(high elevation zone) 

1,100 – 1,500 

* Thracia is not in the breeding zones, it is only for seed production. 

259

Under these two main breeding zones there are sub-breeding zones and one seed production zone 

(Tab. 1). 

In addition to these breeding zones there are also seed transfer zones for oriental beech in Turkey 

(Tab. 2, Fig. 2). There are three seed transfer zones and one gene conservation area which are 

delaminated by geographic, geomorphologic and climatic conditions (Atalay 1992). 

Tab. 2: Seed transfer zones and sub zones of oriental beech in Turkey 

260 

Seed transfer zones and subzones Regions 

1 BLACK SEA REGION 

1.1 Camili Basin 

1.2 Göktaş-Muratlı Çoruh Basin 

1.3 Sarp-Ordu 

1.4 Ordu-Sinop 

1.5 Sinop-Ereğli 

1.6 Ereğli-Akçakoca 

1.7 Çatalca-Kocaeli 

1.8 Samanlı Mountains 

1.9 Istranca Mountains Eastern site 

1.10 Istranca Mountains Mid and Western site 

1.11 Istranca Mountains Southern site 

2 BACKWARD REGION OF BLACK SEA 

2.1 Ortaköy and Dökmeci Basin 

2.2 Artvin Region 

2.3 Yukarı Altıparmak (Barhal) Basin 

2.4 Orta Harşit Basin 

2.5 Koyulhisar-Taşova, Northern site of Kelkit River 

2.6 Southern side of Kelkit River 

2.7 Ladik-Boyabat Basin 

2.8 Kastamonu Basin 

2.9 Araç River Basin (Karabük-Araç) 

2.10 Dokurcun Basin 

3 MARMARA REGION 

3.1 Samanlı Mountains western site 

3.2 Katırlı-Avdan Mountains northern site 

3.3 Southern Marmara (Kapıdağ-Karadağ) 

3.4 Uludağ-Domaniç Mountains 

3.5 Çatal-Ömeraltı Mountains 

3.6 Biga-Gönen 

3.7 Kazdağı 

3.8 Akdağ (Dursunbey) 

3.9 Demirci-Şaphane-Murat Mountains (North-East Aegean Site) 

4 GENE CONSERVATION REGION

Wide distribution of oriental beech in Turkey results in the creation of seed transfer zones to facilitate 

seed production and afforestation. Beech forests have different growing regions according to site 

quality, productivity and floristic composition. Therefore all ecological properties which affect the 

growth of beech are considered when establishing these seed transfer zones. Oriental beech forests 

are divided into four main seed transfer zones and 30 subzones which have been established taking 

into consideration precipitation, temperature, aspect, altitude and the floristic compositions of the 

regions (Atalay 1992). 

Oriental beech is important economically. Average prices of the third class beech round wood in 

Turkey was approximately 135 Turkish Liras (TL)/m 3 (83 €/m 3 ) in 2005, 138 TL/m 3 ( 0 €/m 3 ) (http:// 

www.ogm.gov.tr/ip1/index) in 2008, 165 TL (84 €/m 3 ) in 2010. 

GeNeTIc coNservaTIoN iN situ aNd EX situ 

Gene pool conservation of oriental beech in Turkey is mainly through in situ conservation. These are 

seed stands, gene conservation areas and national parks. In Turkey there are 23 gene conservation 

forests of oriental beech. The area of these gene conservation forests is 3,042.9 ha. There are 28 seed 

stands which cover 3,439.6 ha. 

The most important ex situ conservation activities are grafting and establishment of clonal archives 

and seed orchards. Although there are many seed orchards with conifers and some with broadleaves 

such as Liquidambar orientalis and Sorbus torminalis in Turkey, there is no seed orchard with oriental 

beech. There are other conservation programs in other locations such as National Parks and Nature 

Conservation areas where oriental beech stands can be used as seed sources if allowed. Seeds collected 

from these areas can be used for reforestation according to the seed transfer zones. 

Fig. 1: Natural distribution of oriental beech in Turkey 

261

Conservation of oriental beech genetic resources is done mainly by setting up seed stands and 

gene conservation forests through in situ programs. Seeds collected from these areas can be used 

for reforestation according to the seed transfer zones. In reforestation programs, although oriental 

beech is used, the minimum requirement is that the origin of the reproductive material is known 

and its adaptive characters appropriate for the ecological conditions at the regeneration site. For this 

purpose, the guidelines for oriental beech seed transfer zones (Atalay 1992) based on climate, soil 

and bedrock characteristics have been used until a more ecologically and genetically sound seed 

transfer set of guidelines is prepared. 

The establishment of ex situ conservation plantations of oriental beech may be necessary in order to 

conserve the genetic variation of threatened populations that cannot be maintained at the original 

site such as relic populations. The objective will be to establish a new population that maintains as 

much as possible of the original genetic variability and allows for long-term adaptation to the local 

conditions at the new planting site. 


Research on oriental beech in Turkey is generally concentrated on regeneration and afforestation 

studies. There is only limited research on the genetics of oriental beech. Because of the requirement 

of genetic diversity of oriental beech forests a couple of projects has started, supported by the Turkish 

Ministry of Environment and Forestry and The Scientific and Technological Research Council of 

Turkey. One of these projects contains 33 populations with representatives from all seed transfer 

Fig. 2: Breeding zones of oriental beech in Turkey 

262

zones and marginal populations and this will provide genetic reference data for effective gene 

conservation activities concerning oriental beech in the future. 

There are also research projects on provenance, seedling quality and other characteristics. Other 

studies include adaptive traits and information on height growth characteristics of various 

subpopulations under various site conditions. These research plots are of a long-term character, and 

will continue to provide results with increasing age. 

In addition, in the Forestry Faculties of Universities the main purpose of a number of ongoing projects 

is to study the genetic background, seeds germination-dormancy properties, adaptive properties of 

seedlings and is mainly directed to the protection and reproduction of oriental beech gene resources. 

These studies will contribute to creating conditions for preserving and increasing proportion of this 

species in the forest stands. 

reFereNces 

Anonymous. 2006. Orman Varlığımız. [Forest resources.] Ankara, OGM yayını. [Journal of General 

Directorate of Forest.] 

Anşin R., Özkan Z. C. 199 . Tohumlu bitkiler. Odunsu taksonlar. [Seed plants. Woody taxa.] KTÜ 

Or. Fak. Yayın no. 19 Trabzon. [Journal of Black Sea Technical University, 19.] 

Atalay İ. 1992. Kayın ormanlarının ekolojisi ve tohum transfer yönünden bölgelere ayrılması. 

[Forest Tree Seeds and Tree Breeding Research Directorate. Journal no. 5 p 209.] OATIAM Yayın 

no. 5, Ankara: 209 p. 

Aydinözü D. 2008. Avrupa kayını (Fagus sylvatica)’nın yıldız (Istranca) dağlarındaki yayılış alamları. 

[Distribution of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) in Istranca mountains. Journals of Istanbul 

University.] İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Bölümü, Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı 

1 . İstanbul: 46-56. [Istanbul University, Faculty of Art, Department of Geography, Journal of 

Geography, 1 : 46-56.] 

Çalikoğlu M., Kavgaci A. 2001. Biyolojik çeşitliliğin sürekliliği ve arttırılması açısından baltalıkların 

koruya dönüştürülmesi. [Conversion of coppice to high forests, in terms of continuity and 

increase of biological diversity.] İO Fak Der. Seri B, Cilt 51, vol. 1: 111-121. [Istanbul University 

Faculty of Forestry Journal, Serial B, 51/1: 111-112.] 

Davis P. H. 1982. Flora of Turkey and the east Aegean Island. Edinburgh Uni. Press. Volume VII. 

Huss J., Kahveci O. 2009. Türkiye’de Doğaya Yakın Yapraklı Orman İşletmeciliği. [Management of 

deciduous forests in Turkey.] Freiburg-Ankara, Ogem-Vak. 

Kandemir G., Kaya Z. 2009. EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use of 

oriental beech (Fagus orientalis). Rome, Italy, Bioversity International: 6 p. 

Koski V., Antola J. 1993. Türkiye Milli Ağaç Islahı ve Tohum Üretimi Programı. [National Tree 

Breeding and Seed Production Programme for Turkey. October 1993. Turkish-Finish Forestry 

Project.] Ankara. 

263

Zenciri N., Kaya Z., Anikster Y., Adams W. T. 1998. The Proceedings of International Symposium 

on in situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Diversity. Central Research Institute for Field Crops. 

Ankara, Turkey: 391 p. 

contact 

Dr. Gaye Eren Kandemir 

Turkish Ministry of Environment and Forestry 

Forest Tree Seeds and Tree Breeding Research Directorate 

Dept. of Biotechnology, Gazi Tesisleri, 3’nolu Bina, 06560 Ankara, Turkey 

tel.: (+90312)2126519/128 

e-mail: gayeeren@gmail.com 

264 

Reviewed

euroPeaN beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) 

ForesTs IN The uKraINe 

HRYHORIY KRYNYTSKYY 1 – VASYL PARPAN 2 – ROMAN KUZIV 1 

1 Ukrainian National Forestry University, Gen. Chuprynky Str. 103, 905 Lviv, Ukraine 

2 Ukrainian Research Institute of Mountain Silviculture 

Grushevskogo Str. 31, 9000 Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine 

absTracT 

Information on the distribution of European beech as a forest resource in the Ukraine is presented. 

The significance of this tree species is discussed, and information on beech virgin forests is also 

presented. The principal felling methods for beech forests are characterized. Fruiting data and natural 

reproduction of European beech are outlined. In the Ukraine, European beech occurs naturally only 

in the Carpathians (up to 1,400 m above the sea level), Sub-Carpathians and at higher elevations in 

the Volyn-Podillya highlands. The area of beech forests is 503,000 ha, of which beech virgin forests 

are around 39,000 ha. In the Ukraine beech is characterized by high productivity and an uneven 

age structure. The beech stands are generally managed under the shelterwood silvicultural system 

(on 90 – 94% of the area) while much less selective fellings are used (less than 5%) and clearcuts 

(1.5 – 2%). 

Key words: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), бук (in Ukrainian), Ukraine, distribution, forest 

resources, methods of principal felling systems, fruitage, natural reproduction 

euroPeaN beech dIsTrIbuTIoN IN uKraINe 

In the Ukraine, European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) occurs naturally only in the Carpathians, Sub- 

Carpathians and at higher elevations in the Volyn-Podillya highlands (Fig. 1). The modern border of 

the continuous distribution of European beech is almost identical with the border of the Carpathian 

sub-mountains. At the north-east of this border, beech has only isolated distribution. The border of 

this isolated distribution of European beech follows approximately the line Volodymyr-Volynskyy, 

Kremenets, Sataniv, Hermakivka, Kamyanets-Podilskyy (Molotkov 1966). Beyond this borderline, 

only individual trees or small groups of European beech are reported close to the village Goryngrad, 

situated 40 km east of Rivne (Molotkov 1966), in the Novomalyn forest of the State Enterprise “Ostrog 

forestry management” (south of Rivne) (Ivchenko, Voytyuk 19 8), north-east of Kremenetsk 

mountains in the Volyn forest of the State Enterprise “Kremenets forestry management” (Melnyk, 

Korinko 2005), close to the town Starokostyantynova in the Khmelnytsk area (Melnyk, Korinko 

2005, Postrygan 195 , Bilous 1962b), near Kuzminsk in the Vyshnivetske forest of the State 

Enterprise “Yarmolynets forestry management”, near Verbovets in the Grytsiv forest (Khmelnytsk 

area), close to the village of Stanislavchyk in the Khmelnytsk region and the village of Shenderivka 

265

Fig. 1: Distribution map of European beech and other species in Ukraine 

Source: developed by Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration named after G. N. Vysotsky (URIFFM) 

in the Mogyliv-Podilskyy region of the Vinnytsya area (Bilous 1962b, Zaveruha, Ivchenko 1986), 

close to the town of Murovani Kurylivtsi and the villages Berezove in the Murovane-Kyrylivetskyy 

region of the Vinnytsya area (Melnyk, Korinko 2005, Zaveruha, Ivchenko 1986). 

Beyond the north-east border of the distribution range in the vicinity of Cherkassy, Zhytomyr, 

Vinnytsya or Kyiv, European beech is partly present in artificially established stands, and despite 

a dry continental climate, it grows rather well (Bilous 1962a, c, 1995). 

In the Ukraine, the largest beech forest massifs are situated on the southwestern side of the Carpathian 

mountains, within an altitudinal span of 500 to 1,200 m, characterized by sufficient precipitations 

( 00 to 1,200 mm per year), high air humidity, and mild temperature without major fluctuations in 

the winter (Shelyag-Sosonko, Andriyenko 1985). Pure beech forests occur in the altitudinal belt 

between 600 and 800 (900) m a. s. l. This is the ecologically optimal altitudinal range, where beech 

almost completely out-competes all other species (Molotkov 1966). 

In the Carpathians European beech plays an essential role in forming tree stands up to 1,300 to 

1,350 m, and solitary beech trees reach elevations up to 1,400 – 1,450 m, for example at the mountain 

Goverla (Molotkov 1966). 

266 

Pine 

Spruce 

Oak 

Beech 

Hornbeam 

Ash, maple 

Acacia 

Birch 

Aspen 

Poplar, willow 

Alder 

Linden-tree 

Other 

Shrubs

On the eastern limit, beech occurs over 280 m above sea level (Melnyk, Korinko 2005). Here the 

climate and ecological conditions for European beech are very specific. Temperature fluctuations, 

particularly the winter minimum temperature, and a lower air humidity negatively influence 

European beech and limit its range (Molotkov 1966, Pogrebnyak 1968). 

ForesT resources oF euroPeaN beech IN uKraINe 

Stands with the prevalence of European beech in the Ukraine represent almost .4% of the forest area 

(Parpan, Stoyko 1995). The area of beech stands managed by the State Forestry Committee of the 

Ukraine in six western regions with an almost continuous natural distribution of European beech is 

502,889 ha, out of which 53.3% is situated in the Zakarpattya, 18.1% in the Lviv region, 1 .5% in the 

Ivano-Frankivsk region, 8.3% in the Chernivtsi region, and only 2.6% and 0.2% in the Ternopil and 

Khmelnytsk regions, respectively. 

In the mountains, 8.3% of beech forests grow and 21. % in the highlands. In the Zakarpattya region, 

mountain conditions represent 99. % of the area of beech forests, whereas in the Ivano-Frankivsk, 

Lviv and Chernivtsi regions these shares are 81.4%, 49.5% and 23.3%, respectively. 

In the mountains, 9. % of beech forests grow on very steep slopes (over 30º on south slopes and over 

35º on north slopes), 4 .9% slopes are steep (21 – 30º on south slopes and 21 – 35º on north slopes), 

and 35.0% are moderate (11 – 20º). Very steep and steep slopes are most frequent in the Zakarpattya 

region (11.8% and 52. %, respectively), which shows the important soil protection, water protection 

and water regulating function of beech forests in this region. 

Optimum, and nearly optimum sites (nutrient-rich fresh and moist soils) represent 64.6% of the 

beech stands area. Most fresh rich soils are present in the Ternopil and Khmelnytsk regions (90.9 

and 92.9% respectively), but a significant part can be found in the Chernivtsi region (41. %). In the 

Lviv and Zakarpattya regions, most beech sites are represented by wet rich soils (56.4 and 48. %, 

respectively), whereas in the Ivano-Frankivsk region, most represented are wet, moderately rich soils 

(53.5%). In total, of the range of European beech forests 35.4% are found on sites with fresh and 

moderately nutrient-rich soils. 

Growing mainly in favourable habitats, European beech forms highly productive forest stands: 32.2% 

of the beechwood area are classified as Ia quality class or higher, and in some places beech stands 

even of reach quality classes Ic and even Id. The largest percentage of highly productive stands is 

found in the area of Ternopil (43.5%), followed by Lviv (3 .2%), Chernivtsi (35.9%), Khmelnytsk 

(35.0%), Zakarpattya (33.6%), and Ivano-Frankivsk (18.9%). 

Because of poorly regulated control, and after the Second World War destruction of the forest, the 

current age structure of beech stands is extremely irregular. In particular, large areas are represented 

by forest stands of the third and fourth age class 1 (22.9% and 24.1%, respectively) and the proportion 

of the other age classes is quite small. For instance, the 8th, 9th and 10th age classes represent only 

between 2.8 and 3.9 of the beech stand area. Especially affected is the age structure of beech stands 

in the Ternopil area, where 43. % of stands belong to the 4th age class, 21.1% to the 5th, and 13.9% 

to the 3rd age class. Predominance of beech stands of the 3rd to 5th age classes (especially compared 

to older stands) is characteristic also for the Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk and Chernivtsi regions but is less 

pronounced in the Zakarpattya region. 

1 Age class span is 20 years. The oldest tree stands belong to the 16th age class. 

26

Pure stands represent 5 .4% of the beech area, while 42.6% of stands are mixed. The largest proportion 

of pure stands is found in the Zakarpattya area (64.9%), whereas they are considerably less represented 

in the other areas (Ivano-Frankivsk 52.3%, Lviv 48.9%, Ternopil 46.0%, Chernivtsi 43.0%), and the 

lowest proportion is found in the Khmelnytsk area (21.3%), which means that towards the northeastern 

limit, the area of pure beech stands is decreasing. 

beech vIrGIN ForesTs 

Beech virgin forests of Ukraine represent a unique natural area. A decision was made by World 

Heritage UNESCO in June 200 , to include it together with beech virgin forests of eastern Slovakia in 

the World Natural Heritage category under the designation “Beech Virgin Forests of Carpathians”. 

The series of UNESCO-protected beech virgin forests consists of ten separate forest complexes 

situated in a 185 km long east-west gradient from the Chornohirskyy Hrebet in the Ukraine to the 

Bukovske Verhy and Vihorlat mountains in Slovakia. 

Beech virgin forests in Ukraine occupy in total 38,680 ha. The largest massifs are located on the 

Polonyna ridge (13,500 ha) and in the Svydovets (11,240 ha). Beech virgin forests are also found in 

the Gorgany (6,094 ha), Chornohory (4,092 ha), Marmarosha regions (3,600 ha), and in the Volcanic 

Carpathians (154 ha). 

Most beech virgin forests are situated below the elevation of 1,000 m a. s. l., and fewer occur within 

the altitudinal range between 1,000 and 1,400 m and very rarely they are found over 1,400 m. Most 

frequently they occur on slopes of 20 to 30º inclination. 

A major part of beech virgin forests is formed of pure stands, but considerable areas are represented 

by mixtures with Picea abies (L.) Karst., Abies alba Mill., Acer pseudoplatanus L. and other tree 

species. 

Beech virgin forests are inhabited by many endemic, rare and endangered elements of flora and 

fauna. They have a very important aesthetic and recreational function. 

From the scientific point of view, beech virgin forests of Ukraine represent a valuable object for studies 

on the history of the development of vegetation cover during the postglacial period. Its structural 

organization with peculiarly high biotic diversity, developmental dynamics and decomposition 

processes can be used for building models of sustainable forest use, as well as for the transformation 

of the current forest use towards close-to-nature management models. 

ForesT maNaGemeNT IN beech sTaNds 

At present, beech stands in the Ukraine are generally managed under the shelterwood system. Much 

less selective fellings are used, and very rarely clearcuts. For the period 1999 to 2008, shelterwood 

fellings were planned on 93. % of the area while prescribed cutting, selective fellings and clearcutting 

were planned for 4.8% and 1.5%, respectively. 

However, even though clear fellings are avoided, natural regeneration of beech stands is not always 

warranted. During the period 1999 to 2008, beech forest stands were naturally regenerated on 69.3% 

268

of felling area only, whereas the remaining felling area (30. %) necessitated being reforested. This 

means that on a considerable area, beech natural regeneration was insufficient, not only after clear 

fellings, which is quite typical, but also after shelterwood fellings. However, as a rule, beech stands of 

artificial origin with the highest tree quality are regenerated naturally. 

There is not a regular periodicity educed in beech fruit set in the Carpathians (Maltsev 1980). 

Prolific beechnut crop occurs on average once in ten years, moderate crops are repeated more often, 

every four to six years (Molotkov 1966). In the western part of the Podillya highlands, good harvest 

of European beech nuts has been recorded once in 12 to 15 years, weak and moderate crops once on 

a two to four years cycle (Krynytskyy et al. 2004). 

Tab. 1: European beech fruitage dynamics in Volyn-Podillya highlands (north-eastern part of beech area) 

Year 

Nuts harvest, 

kg/ha 

Nuts quantity, 

1,000/ha 

total good quality 

The proportion of 

healthy nuts, % 

Mass 1,000 seed 

crops, g 

Crop capacity 

category 

2003 269 ± 24 2,124 ± 177 447 ± 37 21.0 133.2 very poor 

2004 17 ± 2 185 ± 29 0.6 ± 0.1 0.3 90.6 absence 

2005 320 ± 23 1,887 ± 129 1,249 ± 85 66.2 169.7 poor 

2006 351 ± 19 2,189 ± 181 1,265 ± 69 57.8 160.1 poor 

2007 102 ± 12 700 ± 86 227 ± 28 32.4 146.0 absence 

2008 323 ± 23 1,905 ± 123 1,095 ± 70 57.5 170.0 poor 

Within our research conducted at the Sukhodil beech site (western part of the Podillya highlands) 

during the period 2003 – 2008, findings show one year of absence of fruiting of European beech, two 

very poor and three poor crops were registered (Table 1). The proportion of filled living seeds ranged 

from 0.3 to 66.2%. A considerable part of the nut crop was empty (14.8 – 1.5%) and disease-affected 

(11.9 – 42. %). During the autumn and winter periods the healthiest nuts, and in some years even 

the entire seed crop (99.5%) were predated by murine rodents. 

In general, beech regeneration in the Carpathians is good (Golubets, Malynovskyy 1968, 

Gorshenin 19 4, 19 6, Hensiruk 1995, Krynytsky, Savych 19 3, Krynytsky et al. 2004, Parpan, 

Viter 1999, Saban 1995, Tretyak 1954 and others]. In mature and over-mature beech and oakbeech 

stands, up to 5,000 seedlings and undergrowth trees per hectare were recorded in 10% of beech 

stands, 5,000 to 10,000 seedlings per hectare on 24%, 10,000 to 20,000 seedlings per hectare on 38%, 

20,000 to 50,000 seedlings per hectare on 1 %, and 50,000 to 100,000 seedlings per hectare on 11% 

(Molotkov 1966). In optimum conditions, with the stocking of 0.6 – 0. and under a rich fruit set, 

almost 200,000 seedlings per hectare may appear (Krynytsky, Savych 19 3, Tretyak 1954). 

The relatively low success of natural regeneration in beech stands under current forestry practice 

is not caused by infrequent heavy-crop years, but rather by insufficient protection of the beech 

understory during the main felling operations. 

Our experiments conducted at the Sukhodil beech site showed that the main methods of shelterwood 

and selection fellings ensure a satisfactory natural regeneration of European beech. In 2003 – 2008, 

the highest number of seedlings and understory trees of beech appeared in the compartment where 

regular two-stage shelterwood felling was performed, namely 23,600 individuals per hectare. Slightly 

269

less seedlings were found in the compartment with the selection (“plenter”) fellings of moderate 

and high intensity (21,300 and 20,300 individuals per hectare). Considerably less seedlings and 

understory trees appeared in the compartments managed under the three-stage group-selection 

system, regular three-stage shelterwood cutting and three-stage group-shelterwood fellings (15,600, 

13,000 and 10,000 seedlings per hectare, respectively). In the compartments managed using group 

selection felling and Wagner irregular shelterwood fellings, 8,500 and ,000 seedling per hectare 

appeared, whereas on the control plot without any felling, understory density was 6,600 individuals 

per hectare. In the compartments with clear and strip fellings, the number of understory trees was 

even considerably smaller compared to the control plot, namely, 2,400 and 3,800 seedlings per 

hectare. 

reFereNces 

Bilous V. I. 1962a. Beech cultures in forestry enterprises of the Vinnytsya and Khmelnytsk districts 

of the Ukrainian SSR (in Russian). [Белоус В. И. Культуры бука в лесхозах Винницкой и 

Хмельницкой областей УССР.]Лесной журнал, no. 1: 32-33. 

Bilous V. I. 1962b. Distribution of European beech in Ukraine in the past (in Ukrainian). [Білоус 

В. І. Поширення лісового бука на Україні в минулому.] Вісник сільськогосподарської 

науки, no. 2: 80-84. 

Bilous V. I. 1962c. Methods of growing of seedlings and establishing beech cultures in the rightbank 

forest-steppe area of UkrSSR (in Russian). [Белоус В. И. Способы выращивания сеянцев 

и создание культур бука в районах Правобережной лесостепи УССР: Автореферат 

диссертации на соискание ученой степени кандидата сельскохозяйственных наук.] 1 p. 

Bilous V. I. 1995. Distribution of European beech in the right-bank Ukraine in the past (in 

Ukrainian). [Білоус В. І. Поширення європейського бука на правобережній Україні в 

минулому. Симпозіум IUFRO з проблем бука. Україна, Львів, 1 - 8 жовтня 1995 року. Тези 

доповідей, Львів, p. 12. 

Goeshenin N. M. 19 6. Fellings in the Carpathian mountain forests (in Russian). [Горшенин Н. М. 

Рубки в горных лесах Карпат.] 35 p. 

Golubets M. A., Malynovskyy K. A. 1968. Vegetation (in Ukrainian). [Голубець М. А., 

Малиновський К. А. Рослинність.] In: Геренчук К. І. (ed.): Природа Українських Карпат. 

Львів, Видавництво Львівського університету: 125-159. 

Gorshenin N. M. 19 4. Erosion of mountain forest soils and its mitigation (in Russian). [Горшенин 

Н. М. Эрозия горных лесных почв и борьба с ней.] Лесная промышленность: 125 p. 

Hensiruk S. A. 1995. Natural regeneration of beech and ways of its conservation (in Ukrainian). 

[Генсірук С. А. Природне поновлення бука і шляхи його збереження.]In: Симпозіум IUFRO 

з проблем бука. Україна, Львів, 1 - 8 жовтня 1995 року. Тези доповідей. Львів, p. 39. 

Ivchenko I. S., Voytyuk Yu. O. 19 8. Natural forests of Fagus sylvatica L. on the North-Eastern 

distribution limit (in Ukrainian).[Івченко І. С., Войтюк Ю. О. Природне зростання Fagus 

2 0

sylvatica L. на північно-східній межі ареалу.] Український ботанічний журнал, 35/2: 193- 

196. 

Krynytskyy H. T., Popadynets I. M., Bondarenko V. D., Kramarets V. O. 2004. Beech forests of 

the Western Podillya (in Ukrainian). [Криницький Г. Т., Попадинець І. М., Бондаренко В. Д., 

Крамарець В. О. Букові ліси Західного Поділля. – Тернопіль] Укрмедкнига, 168 p. 

Krynytskyy H. T., Savych I. P. 19 3. Preservation of the seedlings of beech and its accompanying 

tree species on cutting areas with different fellings methods in the Carpathians (in Russian). 

[Криницкий Г. Т., Савич И. П. Сохранность самосева бука и его спутников на лесосеках 

разных способов рубок в Карпатах.] Лесоводство и агролесомелиорация. Урожай, – Вып. 

32: p. 52-55. 

Maltsev V. P. 1980. Beech (in Russian). [Мальцев М. П. Бук. – М.] Лесная промышленность, 

80 p. 

Melnyk V. I., Korinko O. M. 2005. Beech forests of Podillya highlands (in Ukrainian).[Мельник В. 

І., Корінько О. М. Букові ліси Подільської височини. – К.]: Фітосоціоцентр: 152 p. 

Molotkov P. I. 1966. Beech forests and forestry (in Russian). [Молотков П. И. Буковые леса 

и хозяйство в них. – М.] Лесная промышленность, 224 p. 

Parpan V. I., Stoyko S. M. 1995. Ecological and phytocenotic characteristic of the Ukrainian beech 

forests formation (in Ukrainian). [Парпан В. І., Стойко С. М. Екологічна та фітоценотична 

характеристика формації букових лісів України.] In: Симпозіум IUFRO з проблем бука 

(Україна, Львів, 1 - 8 жовтня 1995 року). Тези доповідей. Львів, p. 26-2 . 

Parpan V. I., Viter R. M. 1999. Opillya beech forests and their natural regeneration (in Ukrainian). 

[Парпан В. І., Вітер Р. М. Букові ліси Опілля, їх природне відтворення.] Науковий вісник: 

Збірник науково-технічних праць. Львів, НЛТУ України, Вип. 9-10: p. 1 2-1 . 

Pogrebnyak P. S. 1968. General silviculture (in Russian). [Погребняк П. С. Общее лесоводство.] 

2-е переработ. изд. Колос: 440 p. 

Postrygan S. A. 195 . Starokostyantyniv beech forest – as precious achievement of nature (in 

Ukraine). [Постригань С. А. Старокостянтинівська бучина – цінний здобуток природи.] 

Охорона природи західних областей УРСР. Тези доповідей на нараді з охорони природи. 

Ч. 1. Львів: 22-24. 

Saban Ya. O. 1995. Beech regeneration and growth in association with fellings in the Carpathians 

(in Ukrainian). [Сабан Я. О. Відновлення і ріст бука в зв’язку з рубками в Карпатах.] In: 

Симпозіум IUFRO з проблем бука. Україна, Львів, 1 - 8 жовтня 1995 року. Тези доповідей. 

Львів, p. 48. 

Shelyag-Sosonko Yu. R., Andriyenko T. L. 1985. Vegetation of Ukraine (in Russian). [Шеляг- 

Сосонко Ю. Р., Андриенко Т. Л. Растительность Украины.] In: Андриенко Т. Л., Блюм О. 

Б., Вассер С. П. и др. (eds.): Природа Украинской ССР. Растительный мир. Наукова думка: 

130-200. 

2 1

Tretyak Yu. D. 1954. European beech fruit set in the UkrSSR (in Russian). [Третяк Ю. Д. 

Плодоношение бука европейского в УССР.] Научные труды Львовского лесотехнического 

института. Т. 1. Львов, Издательство Львовского государственного университета: p. 104- 

120. 

Zaveruha B. V., Ivchenko I. S. 1986. Fagus sylvatica L. Beech (in Russian). [Заверуха Б. В., Ивченко 

И. С. Род Fagus sylvatica L. Бук.] Хорология флоры Украины. Наукова думка: 50-51. 

contacts 

Prof. Hryhoriy Krynytskyy 

Ukrainian National Forestry University 

Gen. Chuprynky Str. 103, 905 Lviv, Ukraine 

e-mail: krynytsk@ukr.net 

2 2 

Reviewed

Reviewers Directory 

Prof. alexander h. alexandrov, d.sc. 


Kliment Ohridski Blvd. 132 

BG-1 56 Sofia 

Bulgaria 

E-mail: forestin@bas.bg 

ricardo alía, dr. 

INIA 

Avda A Coruña, km .5 

ES-28040 Madrid 

Spain 

E-mail: alia@inia.es 

Prof. alvaro aunós 

Univesity of Lleida 

Rovira Roure 191 

ES-25.198 Lleida 

Spain 

E-mail: alvaro.aunos@ull.es 

Gregor božič, dr.sc. 

Slovenian Forestry Institute 

Večna pot 2 

SI-1000 Ljubljana 

Slovenia 

E-mail: gregor.bozic@gozdis.si 

Peter brang, dr. 

WSL Swiss Federal Institute of Forest, 

Snow and Landscape Research 

Zuercherstrasse 111 

CH-8903 Birmensdorf 

Switzerland 

E-mail: brang@wsl.ch 

Prof. dr. harald bugmann 

Forest Ecology, Inst. of Terrestrial Ecosystems 

Dept. of Environmental Sciences 

ETH Zurich, CHN G 6.1 

CH-8092 Zurich 

Switzerland 

E-mail: harald.bugmann@env.ethz.ch 

dr. ir. Joukje buiteveld 

Alterra, Wageningen UR 

P. O. Box 4 

NL-6 00 AA Wageningen 


E-mail: joukje.buiteveld@wur.nl 

rNdr. václav buriánek 


Strnady 136 

CZ-156 04 Praha 5-Zbraslav 

Czech Republic 

E-mail: burianek@vulhm.cz 

Ing. rudolf bruchánik, Phd. 

Lesy SR, š. p. 

Námestie SNP 8 

SK-9 5 66 Banská Bystrica 

Slovakia 

E-mail: rudolf.bruchanik@lesy.sk 

dr. alexander delkov 


St. Kliment Ohridski Blvd.132 

BG-1 56 Sofia 

Bulgaria 

E-mail: forestin@bas.bg 

rumen dobrev, d.sc. 


Kliment Ohridski Blvd. 132 

BG-1 56 Sofia 

Bulgaria 

E-mail: r.d.dobrev@mail.bg 

dr. bruno Fady, senior scientist 

INRA-URFM 

Domaine St Paul 

FR-84914 Avignon 

France 

E-mail: fady@avignon.inra.fr 

John Fennessy, m.sc. 

Research Manager Tree Improvement & Non-wood Forest 

COFORD 

Department of Agriculture (4W) 

Kildare Street 

Dublin 2 

Ireland 

E-mail: john.fennessy@coford.ie 

Pd dr. matthias Fladung 

vTI, Institute of Forest Genetics 

Sieker Landstr. 2 

D-2292 Grosshansdorf 

Germany 

E-mail: matthias.fladung@vti.bund.de 

2 3

Norbert Frank Phd. 

associate professor 

Institute of Silviculture and Forest Protection 

Faculty of Forestry 

University of West Hungary 

Ady E. str. 5. 

HU-9400 Sopron 

Hungary 

E-mail: frank@emk.nyme.hu 

Ing. Josef Frýdl, csc. 


Strnady 136 

CZ-156 04 Praha 5-Zbraslav 

Czech Republic 

E-mail: frydl@vulhm.cz 

univ-doz. dr. dr. Thomas Geburek 

Federal Research Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards 

and Landscape 

Department of Genetics 

Hauptstraße , 

A-1140 Wien, 

Austria 

E-mail: thomas.geburek@bfw.gv.at 

doc. Ing. dušan Gömöry, drsc. 

Technical University in Zvolen 

TG Masaryka 24 

SK-960 53 Zvolen 

Slovakia 

E-mail: gomory@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

dr. bernhard Götz 

University of Applied Sciences 

Botanical Gardens 

Am Zainhammer 5 

D-16225 Eberswalde 

Germany 

E-mail: bgoetz@fh-eberswalde.de 

dr. Joso Gračan 

Hrvoja Macanovića 43 

HR-10 000 Zagreb 

Croatia 

E-mail: josog@sumins.hr 

Jon Kehlet hansen, dr. 

Senior Scientist 

Forest & Landscape Denmark 

Hørsholm Kongevej 11 

DK-29 0 Hørsholm 

Denmark 

E-mail: JKH@life.ku.dk 

2 4 

Prof. dr. hajri haska 

Director of Forest Directory 

Agency of Environment and Forestry 

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Water 

Administration 

Rruga : “Halil Bega”, Nr: 23, Tirane 

Albania 

E-mail: haskahajri@yahoo.com 

alwin Janßen, dr. forest. dipl.-Forstwirt, 

Northwest German Forest Research Institute 

Department of Forest Genetic Resources 

Prof.-Oelkers-Str. 6 

D-34346 Hann. Muenden 

Germany 

E-mail: alwin.janssen@nw-fva.de 

Ir. Jitze Kopinga 

Alterra Wageningen UR 

Postbus 4 



Email: jitze.kopinga@wur.nl 

dr. François Lefevre 

INRA, URFM - Ecologie des Forets Mediterraneennes 

Domaine Saint Paul, Site Agroparc, 

FR-84914 Avignon Cedex 9 

France 

E-mail: lefevre@avignon.inra.fr 

Ing. roman Longauer, csc. 

National Forest Centre – Forest Research Institute 

T. G. Masaryka 22 


Slovakia 

E-mail: Roman.Longauer@fris.sk 

doc. Ing. Ivan Lukáčik, csc. 




Slovakia 

E-mail: lukacik@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

Prof.dr.m.sc. valeriu-Norocel Nicolescu 

University “Transilvania” of Brasov 

Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering 

Sirul Beethoven nr. 1 

RO-500123 Brasov 

Romania 

E-mail: nvnicolescu@unitbv.ro

dr. eduardo Notivol 

C.I.T.A. – Government of Aragon 

Forest Resources Unit 

Zaragoza 

Spain 

E-mail: enotivol@aragon.es 

Prof. Ing. Ladislav Paule, Phd. 




Slovakia 

E-mail: paule@vsld.tuzvo.sk 

alistair Pfeifer, m.sc. 

Research Programme Manager 

Research Division, Department of Agriculture 

Kildare Street, Dublin 2 

Ireland 

E-mail: alistair.pfeifer@gmail.com 

dr. Flaviu Popescu 

Forest Research and Management Institut - Simeria 

Str. Biscaria. 1, 

Simeria, HUNEDOARA 

Romania 

E-mail: flaviu.popescu@rdslink.ro 

dr. Peter rotach 

Forest Management Group, Department of 

Environmental Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of 

Technology (ETH) 

Zürich 

Switzerland 

E-mail: peter.rotach@env.ethz.ch 

Prof. dr hab. Janusz sabor 

Al. 29 Listopada 46 

PL-31-425 Kraków 

Poland 

E-mail: rlsabor@cyf-kr.edu.pl 

heinz Peter schmitt, dr. 

Forstdirektor 

Am Hang 1 

D 598 2 Meschede 

Germany 

E-mail: Schmitt-Remblinghausen@t-online.de 

Prof. dr. Álvaro soto de viana 

Universidad Politécnica de Madrid 

ETSI Montes. UD Anatomía, Fisiología y Genética 

Ciudad Universitaria s/n 

ES-28040 Madrid 

Spain 

E-mail: alvaro.soto.deviana@upm.es 

Ing alain valadon 

Conservatoire Génétique des Arbres Forestiers 

USC ONF-INRA 

Centre de Recherches d’Orléans 

2163 Avenue de la pomme de pin 

CS 40001 ARDON 

F-45 0 5 OrleansS Cedex 2 

France 

E-mail: valadon@orleans.inra.fr 

Prof. dr. dragica vilotić 

Faculty of Forestry University in Belgrade 

Kneza Viseslava 1 

RS-11030 Belgrade 

Serbia 

E-mail: vilotic@ptt.rs 

Ir. sven m.G. de vries 

PO BOX 4 



E-mail: sven.devries@wur.nl 

dr. Georg von Wühlisch 

Institute for Forest Genetics 

Sieker Landstr. 2 

D-2292 Großhansdorf 

Germany 

E-mail: georg.wuehlisch@vti.bund.de 

asc.Prof.dr. Petar Zhelev 

University of Forestry 

BG-1 56 Sofia 

Bulgaria 

E-mail: zhelev@ltu.bg 

2 5


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338 Janine Pelikan, Folkhard Isermeyer, Frank Offermann, Jürn Sanders und Yelto Zimmer (2010) 

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339 Gerald Schwarz, Hiltrud Nieberg und Jürn Sanders (2010) 

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340 Shrini K. Upadhyaya, D. K. Giles, Silvia Haneklaus, and Ewald Schnug (Editors) (2010) 

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