TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, MADAGASCAR - BirdLife International
TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, MADAGASCAR - BirdLife International
TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, MADAGASCAR - BirdLife International
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<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong>,<br />
<strong>MADAGASCAR</strong><br />
Biological and socio-economic surveys, with<br />
conservation recommendations<br />
Edited by<br />
John Pilgrim, Narisoa Ramanitra, Jonathan Ekstrom, Andrew W. Tordoff and Roger J. Safford<br />
Fieldwork<br />
coordinated by<br />
Maps by<br />
Andriamandranto Ravoahangy<br />
Translation by<br />
Kobele Keita and Andry Rakotomalala<br />
Fieldwork funded<br />
and additional<br />
fieldwork by<br />
■<br />
Additional<br />
fieldwork by<br />
Additional<br />
fieldwork by<br />
French translation<br />
checked by
Recommended citation: <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> (2011) Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar. Biological and<br />
socio-economic surveys, with conservation recommendations. Cambridge, UK: <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>.<br />
© 2011 <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 0NA, United Kingdom<br />
Tel: +44 1223 277318 Fax: +44 1223 277200 email: birdlife@birdlife.org<br />
Internet: www.birdlife.org<br />
<strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> is a UK-registered charity 1042125<br />
ISBN 978-0-946888-78-8<br />
British Library-in-Publication Data<br />
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library<br />
First published 2011 by <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
Designed and produced by NatureBureau Limited, 36 Kingfisher Court, Hambridge Road, Newbury, Berkshire,<br />
RG14 5SJ, United Kingdom<br />
Printed by Information Press, Oxford, United Kingdom<br />
Available from the Natural History Book Service Ltd, 2–3 Wills Road, Totnes, Devon TQ9 5XN, UK.<br />
Tel: +44 1803 865913 Fax: +44 1803 865280 Email: nhbs@nhbs.co.uk<br />
Internet: www.nhbs.com/services/birdlife.html<br />
ii
■ CONTENTS<br />
iv Participants and authors<br />
vi Acknowledgements<br />
1 Introduction<br />
2 Summary of findings<br />
4 Ny alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Madagasikara<br />
Famintinana (Summary in Malagasy)<br />
6 Recommendations<br />
8 Ny alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Madagasikara<br />
Tolo-Kevitra (Recommendations in Malagasy)<br />
10 Chapter 1: Overview of the biological<br />
importance of Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
10 Background<br />
10 The surveys<br />
10 Vegetation and flora<br />
12 Mammals<br />
12 Reptiles and amphibians<br />
12 Birds<br />
14 Ants<br />
14 Other values of the Tsitongambarika Forests<br />
15 Socio-economic situation<br />
15 Management situation<br />
16 Relevance of survey results for conservation<br />
planning<br />
16 Direct payments project<br />
17 Chapter 2: The flora of Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest<br />
17 Introduction<br />
17 Objectives<br />
17 Study site<br />
17 Methodology<br />
17 Results<br />
22 Conservation<br />
22 Recommendations<br />
22 Conclusions<br />
23 Chapter 3: The bats of Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest<br />
23 Introduction<br />
23 Obectives<br />
25 Study sites<br />
25 Methods<br />
25 Results<br />
26 Discussion<br />
27 Recommendations<br />
28 Chapter 4: The lemurs of Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest<br />
28 Objectives<br />
28 Study sites<br />
28 Methods<br />
30 Results<br />
32 Discussion<br />
33 Conclusions<br />
33 Recommendations<br />
34 Chapter 5: The herpetofauna of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
34 Introduction<br />
34 Study sites<br />
36 Methods<br />
36 Results<br />
40 Discussion<br />
41 Conclusions<br />
41 Recommendations<br />
42 Chapter 6: The birds of Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
42 Objectives<br />
42 Methods<br />
45 Study sites<br />
47 Results<br />
53 Discussion<br />
55 Recommendations<br />
57 Chapter 7: The ants of the Ivohibe region of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
57 Introduction<br />
57 Study sites<br />
57 Survey methods<br />
57 Results and discussion<br />
60 Chapter 8: Socio-economic survey of the<br />
Tsitongambarika area<br />
60 Objectives<br />
60 Methodology<br />
60 Social organisation<br />
62 Demographic situation<br />
67 Discussion<br />
68 Importance of biodiversity to communities<br />
70 Threats to biodiversity<br />
71 Conservation of biodiversity<br />
72 Conclusions<br />
72 Recommendations<br />
74 References<br />
77 Appendix: Community involvement in<br />
management of Tsitongambarika Forest:<br />
2010 update<br />
iii
Lalao Andriamahefarivo (Botanist)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391,<br />
Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Maminiaina Andriamahenitsoa (Socio-economist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Patrice Antilahimena (Botanist)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391,<br />
Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Mara Berge (Guide and President of Antsotso<br />
Communauté de Base)<br />
Antsotso, Fort Dauphin/Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Chris Birkinshaw (Botanist)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391,<br />
Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Ramisy Edmond (Parataxonomist)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Jonathan Ekstrom (Editor)<br />
<strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, Wellbrook Court, Girton<br />
Road, Cambridge, UK<br />
Current address: The Biodiversity Consultancy,<br />
4 Woodend, Trumpington, Cambridge, UK<br />
Brian Fisher (Entomologist)<br />
California Academy of Sciences, 55 Music<br />
Concourse Drive, San Francisco, USA<br />
Soanary Claude Hery (Assistant)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/Tolagnaro,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Porter P. Lowry II (Botanist)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St.<br />
Louis, MO, 63166-0299, USA<br />
and Département Systématique et Evolution (UMR<br />
7205), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, CP<br />
39, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75213 Paris CEDEX 05, France<br />
Eric Lowry (Student, MBG trainee)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391,<br />
Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Tsibara Mbohoahy (Chiropterologist)<br />
Madagasikara Voakajy, BP 5181, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
and Biodiversité et environnement, Département de<br />
la Biologie, Faculté des Sciences de l’Université de<br />
Toliara, Toliara, Madagascar<br />
Current address: Biodiversité et Environnement,<br />
iv<br />
■ PARTICIPANTS AND AUTHORS<br />
Département de la Biologie, Faculté des Sciences de<br />
l’Université de Toliara, Toliara, Madagascar<br />
John Pilgrim (Editor)<br />
The Biodiversity Consultancy, 4 Woodend,<br />
Trumpington, Cambridge, UK<br />
Rivo Rabarisoa (Ornithologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Marc Rabenandrasana (Ornithologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Current addresses: Development and Biodiversity<br />
Conservation Action for Madagascar, Lot II A<br />
93L, Anjanahary, Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
and ECOMAR (Marine Ecology Laboratory),<br />
Sciences and Technology Faculty, University of<br />
La Réunion, 15 Avenue René Cassin, BP 7151 –<br />
97715 Saint-Denis, La Réunion.<br />
Johny Rabenantoandro (Botanist)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Marie Beatrice Yvonne Rahasinandrasana<br />
(Socio-economist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Rivo Rajoharison (Forestry Technician)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Mamy Julia Christobelle Ralavanirina<br />
(Primatologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
and Département Biologie Animale, Université<br />
d’Antananarivo<br />
Current address: 2 Allée du Collier, 40230 St<br />
Vincent de Tyrosse, France<br />
Jean Baptiste Ramanamanjato (Herpetologist)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Michael Ramanesimanana (Ornithologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
and Département Biologie Animale, Université<br />
d’Antananarivo<br />
Current address: Maromizaha Project Coordinator,<br />
GERP Madagascar (Groupe d’Etude et de Recherche<br />
sur les Primates), BP 779, Antananarivo, Madagascar
Narisoa Ramanitra (Ornithologist, Programme<br />
Coordinator and Editor)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
and Département Biologie Animale, Université<br />
d’Antananarivo<br />
Faly Randriatafika (Botanist)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Lovahasina Rasolondraibe (Ornithologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
and Département Biologie Animale, Université<br />
d’Antananarivo<br />
Current address: Biologist, GERP Madagascar<br />
(Groupe d’Etude et de Recherche sur les Primates),<br />
BP 779, Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Bruno Raveloson (Ornithologist)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Collared Nightjar Caprimulgus enarratus (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY)<br />
Andriamandranto Ravoahangy (Tsitongambarika<br />
Programme Coordinator)<br />
Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo,<br />
Madagascar<br />
Julien Razafimandimby (Assistant)<br />
Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro, Madagascar<br />
Richard Razakamalala (Botanist)<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391,<br />
Antananarivo, Madagascar<br />
Roger Safford (Editor)<br />
<strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, Wellbrook Court,<br />
Girton Road, Cambridge, UK<br />
Andrew W. (“Jack”) Tordoff (Editor)<br />
<strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, Wellbrook Court,<br />
Girton Road, Cambridge, UK<br />
Current address: Critical Ecosystem Partnership<br />
Fund, Conservation <strong>International</strong>, 2011 Crystal<br />
Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, Virginia, USA<br />
v
The biological survey and socio-economic study of<br />
Tsitongambarika forest and its surrounding areas<br />
were carried out with contributions from many<br />
organizations and individuals specialised in different<br />
disciplines and taxa.<br />
We first thank Rio Tinto and <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
who were jointly responsible for initiating this<br />
programme of surveys. In particular, we thank the<br />
partners of Rio Tinto and <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>,<br />
including Rio Tinto QMM (QIT Madagascar<br />
Minerals, QMM) and the <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
Madagascar Programme, and their partners Asity<br />
Madagascar (formerly Asity), the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden (MBG), and Madagasikara Voakajy.<br />
This study would not have been possible without<br />
the financial and logistical support of Rio Tinto<br />
and Rio Tinto QMM, where we especially thank Stuart<br />
Anstee and Manon Vincelette respectively.<br />
We also thank the Whitley Awards Foundation<br />
for <strong>International</strong> Nature Conservation: Rufford Small<br />
Grants for funding research in Tsitongambarika I and<br />
II in 2002. The design and organization of this program<br />
were facilitated by <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, at the time<br />
of the work operating through its Madagascar<br />
Programme; the <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> Madagascar<br />
Programme closed in 2008, when Asity Madagascar<br />
became the <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> Affiliate NGO in<br />
Madagascar and took on the management of <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
programmes in Madagascar. Logistics and<br />
herpetological studies were performed by Rio Tinto<br />
QMM. The coordination of the work, and<br />
ornithological, primatological and socio-economic<br />
surveys were carried out by Asity Madagascar. The<br />
flora survey was carried out by an MBG/Rio Tinto<br />
QMM team. Bat surveys were carried out by<br />
Madagasikara Voakajy.<br />
All members of the team strongly supported the<br />
field efforts and subsequent writing-up: Jean Baptiste<br />
Ramanamanjato, Ramisy Edmond, Johny<br />
vi<br />
■ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
Rabenantoandro, Faly Randriatafika, Julien<br />
Razafimandimby, Rivo Rajoharison and Soanary<br />
Claude Hery from Rio Tinto QMM; Tsibara<br />
Mbohoahy from Madagasikara Voakajy; Mamy Julia<br />
Christobelle Ralavanirina, Marc Rabenandrasana,<br />
Michael Ramanesimanana, Lovahasina<br />
Rasolondraibe, Maminiaina Andriamahenintsoa,<br />
Marie Beatrice Yvonne Rahasinandrasana and<br />
Andriamandranto Ravoahangy from Asity<br />
Madagascar; Richard Razakamalala, Pete Lowry,<br />
Chris Birkinshaw, Patrice Antilahimena and Eric<br />
Lowry from MBG; Mara Berge from CoBa Antsotso;<br />
Brian Fisher from the California Academy of Sciences;<br />
Jonathan Stacey and Luciana Vega from <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong>; and Helen Temple at The Biodiversity<br />
Consultancy. Our sincere thanks go also to the staff<br />
members of Fikambanana Mitanantana (FIMPIA,<br />
the community association at Sainte Luce), and the<br />
heads of other CoBas and heads of Districts for their<br />
efficient help during the field work. Jennifer Talbot<br />
assisted in completion of this volume in numerous<br />
ways. Maps were prepared by Andriamandranto<br />
Ravoahangy. Translation between English and<br />
French was carried out by Kobele Keita of The<br />
Biodiversity Consultancy, and Andry Rakotomalala,<br />
and the French finally checked by Marion Grassi of<br />
LPO (<strong>BirdLife</strong> in France). The Summary and<br />
Recommendations were translated into Malagasy by<br />
Voninavoko Raminoarisoa (Asity Madagascar).<br />
The work was kindly authorised by the Ministry of<br />
Environment, through the Directorate General of<br />
Environment, Water and Forest as well as its regional<br />
office (Circonscription Régionale de l’Environnement,<br />
des Eaux et Forêts) for Anosy Region in Fort Dauphin/<br />
Tolagnaro. The implementation of this work and the<br />
herpetological field data collection are the result of<br />
collaboration between Rio Tinto QMM, FIMPIA and<br />
the Committee of Protected Areas Management in the<br />
Sainte Luce area.
■ INTRODUCTION<br />
The biological and socio-economic studies in this<br />
volume were initiated as part of the Rio Tinto-<strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong> partnership. This partnership was<br />
established in 2001 in order for <strong>BirdLife</strong> to assist Rio<br />
Tinto in the development and implementation of its<br />
biodiversity strategy and goal of a Net Positive Impact<br />
(NPI) on biodiversity at mining operations, including<br />
the Rio Tinto QMM (QIT Madagascar Minerals,<br />
QMM) ilmenite project in Anosy region of south east<br />
Madagascar.<br />
The Rio Tinto QMM project was chosen as a pilot<br />
operation for NPI because of Madagascar’s highly<br />
endemic and threatened biodiversity, and the risks and<br />
opportunities that biodiversity presents to the site.<br />
Achievement of NPI is based on a mitigation hierarchy,<br />
which begins with the avoidance, mitigation and<br />
restoration of the impacts on biodiversity of a mining<br />
operation. When those have been optimised, NPI looks<br />
to the use of offsets as “quantifiable conservation<br />
actions taken to compensate for residual, unavoidable<br />
harm to biodiversity”.<br />
A biodiversity offsets strategy needs to account for<br />
biodiversity gains and losses in a transparent manner,<br />
consider intrinsic values (scientific, conservation) and<br />
service values (economic and cultural), involve relevant<br />
stakeholders at multiple levels and be based on<br />
adequate information (including both scientific and<br />
traditional knowledge). Offsets should be designed to<br />
achieve the best outcomes for conservation and<br />
traditional use and thus must consider similar habitat<br />
types to those impacted, consider opportunities for<br />
better conservation outcomes in other habitats, and<br />
may include actions to manage habitat that build<br />
capacity in institutions, people and knowledge, and<br />
that secure ecosystem services.<br />
In order to design a successful NPI strategy for<br />
the Rio Tinto QMM ilmenite project, it is thus<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
necessary to obtain relevant biological and socioeconomic<br />
information from potential offset sites<br />
within the Anosy region of Madagascar.<br />
Tsitongambarika humid forest was identified as a key<br />
conservation site with high biodiversity value and<br />
therefore an important potential offset site in Rio<br />
Tinto QMM’s NPI strategy.<br />
The Tsitongambarika Protected Area was created<br />
in 2008 by the Malagasy Ministry of Water and<br />
Forests with technical and financial support from<br />
Asity Madagascar (the country Affiliate of <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong>), Rio Tinto, Rio Tinto QMM, USAID,<br />
and Conservation <strong>International</strong>. It covers an area of<br />
over 60,000 hectares of humid lowland and midaltitude<br />
forest, located just north of the town of<br />
Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). In addition to being an<br />
important conservation area, protecting many<br />
endemic and threatened species, it also serves as the<br />
principal watershed for the region—providing water<br />
for irrigation as well as for Tolagnaro town. The<br />
forest also provides numerous other ecosystem goods<br />
and services that ensure the economic and cultural<br />
well-being of the surrounding population. The<br />
Tsitongambarika Protected Area is currently comanaged<br />
by Asity Madagascar and more than 60<br />
community forest management groups located<br />
around the forest.<br />
The research in this volume has been carried out to<br />
provide the biological data which Rio Tinto/Rio Tinto<br />
QMM and their conservation partners used to develop<br />
Rio Tinto QMM’s NPI strategy. The decision to<br />
publish these data and make them available to a wider<br />
public and scientific community serves not only to<br />
increase our collective knowledge of the biodiversity<br />
and socio-economic situation of Tsitongambarika,<br />
but will, we hope, stimulate and encourage future<br />
biological and socio-economic research in the area.<br />
Plate 1. View of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)<br />
1
Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most<br />
threatened vegetation types in Madagascar.<br />
Nonetheless, significant areas can still be found in<br />
south-eastern Madagascar, most notably the<br />
Andohahela and Tsitongambarika (Vohimena)<br />
forests in Anosy Region. Until recently, however,<br />
these forests had been the focus of little biodiversity<br />
study, and recognition of their biological importance<br />
was limited. The surveys presented in this report<br />
highlight the biological importance of the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests. In particular, they indicate<br />
that these forests are floristically and faunistically<br />
distinct from lowland humid evergreen forests<br />
elsewhere in Madagascar. Among the key findings of<br />
the surveys were the discoveries of several species of<br />
amphibian, reptile and plant new to science, and<br />
confirmation of the presence of a number of globally<br />
threatened and restricted-range species.<br />
The major conclusions from the surveys can be<br />
found below. In the following section, a number of<br />
recommendations are drawn from these conclusions<br />
for those considering conservation intervention within<br />
the Tsitongambarika massif, including altitudes, sites<br />
and species that deserve particular attention.<br />
VEGETATION AND FLORA<br />
While eastern humid forest is the most abundant<br />
natural forest formation in Madagascar, about 80%<br />
of it is mid-altitude forest between 800 and 1,500 m<br />
altitude, and relatively little remains at low elevations.<br />
However, the Tsitongambarika forests are mainly<br />
distributed below 800 m altitude, and, almost<br />
uniquely for humid forests in south-eastern<br />
Madagascar, include significant areas below 400 m.<br />
Surveys of flora focused on Bemangidy-Ivohibe<br />
Forest in Tsitongambarika III, which is notable for<br />
the presence of relatively undisturbed humid forest<br />
below 400 m altitude. In total, nearly 600 species were<br />
collected during the surveys, representing 366 genera<br />
in 121 families. Although identification of all<br />
specimens has yet to be completed, almost 70 plant<br />
species new to science may have been found in<br />
Tsitongambarika to date. The survey team estimated<br />
the flora of this area to exceed 1,000 species.<br />
MAMMALS<br />
Mammal surveys focused on lemurs and bats. Seven<br />
species of lemur were identified within<br />
2<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ SUMMARY OF FINDINGS<br />
Tsitongambarika, of which two (Collared Brown<br />
Lemur Eulemur collaris and Grey Gentle Lemur<br />
Hapalemur griseus 1 ) are globally threatened, one<br />
(Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis) is Near<br />
Threatened and two more are so poorly known<br />
that they are classified as Data Deficient. Although<br />
all three sites surveyed held all seven lemur<br />
species, Ivorona appeared to hold the highest<br />
densities. All of the lemur species recorded at<br />
Tsitongambarika can also be found at the nearby<br />
Andohahela National Park, where eight species have<br />
been recorded.<br />
Seven bat species were found during surveys,<br />
including two globally threatened (Vulnerable) species<br />
and one Data Deficient species. Particularly<br />
significant populations of the threatened Madagascar<br />
Flying-fox Pteropus rufus were found, numbering<br />
about 2,000 individuals among four roosts, notably<br />
at Ivolo. Given the relatively short survey period, it<br />
is likely that further surveys at Tsitongambarika<br />
would reveal additional bat species.<br />
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS<br />
The mountains of Anosy Region are one of the two<br />
areas in Madagascar with the highest number of<br />
globally threatened amphibian species, and the Anosy<br />
Region is also one of the richest in Madagascar for<br />
reptile species, with a number of species not known<br />
from elsewhere in the country. Comparison between<br />
amphibian and reptile species known from<br />
Tsitongambarika and those known from nearby<br />
littoral forests and the humid forests of Andohahela<br />
National Park reveals significant differences.<br />
Surveys of the Tsitongambarika forests to date,<br />
summarised in this report, have recorded 70 reptile<br />
species and 57 amphibian species. These include 12<br />
species believed restricted to the Anosy Region, six<br />
globally threatened species, four Near Threatened<br />
species, and six Data Deficient species. Although<br />
collections made during the 2006 survey have yet to<br />
be fully identified, they include four frogs (Boophis<br />
sp. and Mantidactylus spp.), a day gecko (Phelsuma<br />
sp.) and a snake (Liophidium sp.) that are thought<br />
probably to represent new species to science. Highest<br />
amphibian and reptile species richness has been<br />
recorded at Ivorona and Manantantely, but globally<br />
threatened and potentially new species are distributed<br />
patchily: all sites except Lakandava and Ivohibe held<br />
species of conservation concern not found at other<br />
sites.<br />
1 Under alternative taxonomic arrangements, the Hapalemur found at Tsitongambarika, here called H. griseus, is treated as the<br />
more geographically restricted Southern Bamboo Lemur H. meridionalis. Under either arrangement, the species is threatened;<br />
see end of Chapter 4.
BIRDS<br />
The avifauna of Tsitongambarika includes a number<br />
of lowland forest specialists—such as Scaly Groundroller<br />
Brachypteracias squamiger, Nuthatch Vanga<br />
Hypositta corallirostris and Red-tailed Newtonia<br />
Newtonia fanovanae — and other species<br />
characteristic of undisturbed humid forest, such as<br />
Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor, Short-legged<br />
Ground-roller Brachypteracias leptosomus, Pollen’s<br />
Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and Wedge-tailed Jery<br />
Neomixis flavoviridis. Because of its importance for<br />
globally threatened and restricted-range species,<br />
Tsitongambarika was recognised as an Important<br />
Bird Area by <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> (ZICOMA 1999).<br />
Surveys of the Tsitongambarika forests to date,<br />
summarised in this report, have recorded 97 bird<br />
species, 57 (59%) of which are endemic to<br />
Madagascar. These include eight globally threatened<br />
and six Near Threatened species, for which the most<br />
important sites surveyed were Ivohibe and Ivorona.<br />
The avifauna of Tsitongambarika does not appear<br />
to differ greatly from that of the nearby Andohahela<br />
National Park. Further surveys at higher altitudes of<br />
Tsitongambarika, which have not been surveyed to<br />
date, are likely to emphasise similarities to<br />
Andohahela.<br />
ANTS<br />
In addition to the <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>-coordinated<br />
surveys, an ant survey of Ivohibe Forest in<br />
Tsitongambarika III was conducted by scientists from<br />
California Academy of Sciences and the Madagascar<br />
Biodiversity Centre. A total of 105 species were<br />
recorded, with two species known only from this<br />
forest.<br />
OTHER VALUES<br />
In addition to their intrinsic biodiversity values, the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests are an important source of<br />
ecosystem goods and services. Socio-economic<br />
surveys presented in this report show that the forests<br />
are an important source of forest products for local<br />
people, including firewood, charcoal, construction<br />
materials, bushmeat and medicinal plants. Since the<br />
local economy is largely subsistence-based and there<br />
is a high incidence of poverty, local communities have<br />
a high level of dependence on forest products to meet<br />
their daily needs. Loss and degradation of forests thus<br />
has major implications for the livelihoods of local<br />
people.<br />
The Tsitongambarika forests also play an<br />
important role in carbon storage, prevention of soil<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
erosion, and protect the catchments of two of the<br />
Anosy region’s major rivers: the Manampanihy and<br />
Efaho. These rivers and their tributaries are the main<br />
source of water for agricultural irrigation and<br />
domestic use for rural communities in the east of the<br />
region. Further, the forests of Tsitongambarika I<br />
protect the water sources of the Lakandava pumping<br />
station and Lanirano Lake, which provide,<br />
respectively, 75% and 25% of the water for Fort<br />
Dauphin town.<br />
The Tsitongambarika forests also hold significant<br />
cultural importance for the local population. There<br />
is much evidence of historical settlement, burial sites,<br />
terraced rice cultivation and cattle pasturing within<br />
the village territories that have been designated as<br />
protected forest. In addition, the rivers, pools, and<br />
cliffs in the forest, along with actual and mythical<br />
forest creatures, are important to the traditions,<br />
beliefs and cultural identity of local people.<br />
<strong>FOREST</strong> IMPACTS AND<br />
CONSERVATION<br />
Forest clearance for shifting cultivation has the most<br />
significant impacts on the Tsitongambarika forests.<br />
Further forest clearance and degradation comes from<br />
poorly controlled fires, often set to clear cattle pasture,<br />
and timber harvesting. Although not at high levels,<br />
hunting and collecting of non-timber forest products<br />
are both starting to locally deplete some natural<br />
resources.<br />
At present, the major conservation potential has<br />
been seen to lie with the transfer of forest management<br />
to local associations. Unfortunately, since local<br />
cultural norms do not favour working in local<br />
associations and since these associations are seen as<br />
imposed by NGOs and the government, many of<br />
those that have been established remain weak. If there<br />
is agreement with the theory of these local<br />
associations, then significant support to these<br />
associations in terms of training, mentoring and<br />
oversight will be critical. However, these local<br />
associations may not be the ideal mechanism for<br />
managing the forest. There may be a need to look for<br />
a new model for working with local populations to<br />
manage the forest that recognises local rights, unequal<br />
power relations and fundamentally different value<br />
and belief systems among local, regional, national and<br />
international stakeholders. Whatever the case,<br />
multiple actors will need to commit to additional<br />
efforts in both research and management in order to<br />
ensure the long-term integrity of the Tsitongambarika<br />
forests for their unique biodiversity, for local<br />
livelihoods, well-being and culture, and for continued<br />
provision of ecosystem services for south-eastern<br />
Madagascar.<br />
3
Ireo ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina eny amin’ny<br />
haabo iva no anisan’ireo karazan-javamaniry<br />
tandindomin-doza indrindra. Na izany aza dia mbola<br />
ahitana faritra manan-danja amin’io haabo io any<br />
amin’ny faritra atsimo antsinanan’i Madagasikara :<br />
ny alan’Andohahela sy Tsitongambarika (Vohimena<br />
raha ny marimarina kokoa). Hatramin’izao anefa dia<br />
tsy mba anisan’ireo nanaovana fikarohana, na zara<br />
raha nisy, mikasika ny zava-boahary ao aminy ireo<br />
karazan’ala ireo, hany ka tsy dia fantatra loatra ny<br />
zava-dehibe ananany. Ny voka-pikarohana izay<br />
aseho ato anatin’ity tatitra ity dia mampiseho ny lanja<br />
ara-biolojika ananan’ny alan’i Tsitongambarika.<br />
Maneho indrindra izy ity fa miavaka ireo ala ireo raha<br />
mitaha amin’ny ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina<br />
amin’ny haabo iva hafa eto Madagasikara. Anisan’ny<br />
vokatry ny fikarohana misongadina dia ny<br />
fahitana karazana sahona sy reptilia ary zava-maniry<br />
vaovao ho an’ny siansa ; ao koa ny fahitana ireo<br />
karazan-java-manan’aina izay mila ho lany<br />
tamingana na koa tsy fahita raha tsy ao anatin’ny<br />
faritra voafetra.<br />
Ireo fehin-kevitra nisongadina tamin’io<br />
fikarohana io dia hita etsy ambany. Manarak’izany<br />
dia hisy tolo-kevitra maromaro nosintonina<br />
tamin’ireo voka-pikarohana, ho an’ireo mikasa<br />
hanao asa fiarovana ao amin’ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika. Anisan’izany ireo tolo-kevitra<br />
mahakasika ireo haabo sy ny toerana ary ny karazana<br />
zava-manan’aina izay mendrika fiheverana<br />
manokana.<br />
ZAVA-MANIRY<br />
Ny ala mando atsinanana no tangoron’ala natoraly<br />
betsaka indrindra eto Madagasikara. Manodidina ny<br />
80% ny velaran’ny ala amin’ny haabo antonony eo<br />
anelanelan’ny 800 sy 1500 m ary vitsy ihany no hita<br />
amin’ny haabo iva. Nefa kosa ny ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika dia manana velarana lehibe hita<br />
amin’ny haabo ambanin’ny 400 m, izay mampiavaka<br />
azy amin’ny ala atsimo atsinanana rehetra eto<br />
amin’ny nosy.<br />
Ny fanisana ireo karazana zava-maniry dia natao<br />
tao amin’ny alan’i Bemangidy-Ivohibe,<br />
Tsitongambarika faha-III, izay miavaka noho ny<br />
fisian’ny ala mbola tsara amin’io haabo latsaky ny<br />
400 m io. Eo amin’ny 600 karazana eo no zava-maniry<br />
voaiisa izay ahitana taranaka 366 sy fianakaviana<br />
121. Na dia mbola tokony ho vitaina aza ny<br />
famaritana ireo karazana ireo, dia mety eo amin’ny<br />
70 eo ny karazana zava-maniry vaovao hita ao<br />
Tsitongambarika ankehitriny. Ireo mpanao<br />
fikarohana dia manombana ho 1000 ny karazana<br />
zava-maniry ao aminy.<br />
4<br />
■ FAMINTINANA<br />
Ny Tsitongambarika alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Forest, Madagascar<br />
Madagasikara<br />
BIBY MAMPINONO<br />
Ny fanisana natao dia niompana tamin’ny gidro sy<br />
ny ramanavy. Fito ny karazana gidro hita tao<br />
Tsitongambarika ka ny roa amin’ireo (Eulemur<br />
collaris sy Hapalemur griseus) dia tandimdomin-doza<br />
maneran-tany, iray tandindomin-doza ary ny roa<br />
kosa dia tsy mbola fantatra ka nokilasiana ho “tsy<br />
ampy fahalalana”. Na dia samy nahitana ireo<br />
karazana gidro fito ireo aza ny toerana telo<br />
nanaovana ny fikarohana dia Ivorona no tena<br />
mananana azy maro indrindra. Ireo karazana gidro<br />
ireo dia hita ihany koa tao amin’ny alan’Andohahela,<br />
manakaiky an’i Tsitongambarika, izay ahitana<br />
karazana valo.<br />
Karazana Ramanavy fito no hita tao ka ny roa<br />
dia tandimdomin-doza maneran-tany ary ny iray dia<br />
tsy ampy fahalalana. Tangoron-dramanavy, Pteropus<br />
rufus, karazana tandindomin-doza ivondronana<br />
ramanavy 2000 isa, no hita tao amin’ny toeramponenany<br />
efatra, indrindra fa tao Ivolo. Koa satria<br />
fohy loatra ny fotoana nanaovana ny fikarohana dia<br />
inoana fa mety mbola hahita karazana ramanavy<br />
maro hafa amin’ny fanisana manaraka.<br />
SAHONA SY REPTILIA<br />
Ireo tendrombohitr’Anosy dia iray amin’ireo faritra<br />
roa ahitana karazana sahona tandimdomin-doza<br />
maneran-tany betsaka indrindra ary ny faritr’Anosy<br />
dia anisan’ny manankarena reptilia indrindra eto<br />
Madagasikara. Ny fampitahana ireo reptilia sy<br />
sahona hita ao amin’ ny alan’i Tsitongambarika<br />
amin’ireo hita manodidina toy ny ala amin’ny sisindrano<br />
sy ny ala ao anatin’ny valan-javaboaharin’i<br />
Andohahela dia maneho fahasamihafana goavana.<br />
Ny fanisana natao tao Tsitongambarika, voafintina<br />
ato anatin’ity tatitra ity, dia nahitana karazana<br />
reptilia 70 sy karazana sahona 57. Karazana 12<br />
amin’ireo dia heverina fa tsy ho hita raha tsy ao<br />
amin’ny faritra Anosy, enina tandimdomin-doza<br />
maneran-tany, karazana efatra tandimdomin-doza<br />
ary enina tsy tsy ampy fahalalana.<br />
Na dia mbola tsy tanteraka aza ny fikarohana<br />
mahakasika ny famaritana ny karazana izay natao<br />
tamin’ny 2006, dia fantatra fa misy karazana<br />
sahona 4 sy androngo iray vaovao ho an’ny siansa<br />
hita tao.<br />
Ny nahitana ny karazana sahona sy reptilia, maro<br />
indrindra dia ao Ivorona sy Manatantely. Ireo<br />
karazana efa tandidomin-doza sy ireo mety ho vaovao<br />
kosa dia samy manana ny azy. Ankoatr’ Ivohibe sy<br />
Lakandava anefa, ny toerana rehetra ao dia<br />
mananana karazana manan-daja ho an’ny fiarovana<br />
ary koa tsy fahita raha tsy ao amin’izy ireo ihany.
VORONA<br />
Ao Tsitongambarika dia misy Karazana voron’ala<br />
amin’ny haabo iva maromaro toy ny Brachypteracias<br />
squamiger, Newtonia fanovanae, Hypositta<br />
corallirostris. Ao koa ny karazana izay fahita any<br />
amin’ny ala mando mbola tsara toy ny Mesitornis<br />
unicolor, Brachypteracias leptosomus, Xenopirostris<br />
polleni sy Neomixis flavoviridis. Nohon’ ny fananany<br />
karazana vorona tandidomin-doza sy miparitaka<br />
amin’ny faritra voafetra, Tsitongambarika dia<br />
voakilasy ho Faritra manan-danja ho fiarovana ny<br />
vorona (ZICO), izay nofaritan’ny <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong>, eto Madagasikara (ZICOMA 1999).<br />
Ny fanisana vorona natao tao Tsitongambarika<br />
izay fintinina ato anatin’ity tatitra ity dia mampiseho<br />
97 karazana ka ny 57 (59%) amin’ireo dia tsy hita<br />
raha tsy eto Madagascar. Sivy amin’izy ireo dia<br />
tandimdomin-doza maneran-tany ary enina<br />
tandindomin-doza. Ny toerana manan-danja<br />
indrindra dia Ivorona sy Ivohibe.<br />
Tsy dia misy mahasamihafa azy amin’ny vorona<br />
hita ao amin’ny valan-javaboahary Andohahela izay<br />
manakaiky azy ny vorona ao amin’ny alan’ny<br />
Tsitongambarika. Ny fikarohana hafa hatao any<br />
amin’ny faritra avo, izay tsy mbola nisy fanisana koa<br />
dia mety mbola hampisongadina io fitoviana io.<br />
VITSIKA<br />
Ankoatry ny fanadihadiana notantanin’ny <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong> dia nisy koa fanisana karazana vitsika<br />
izay nataon’ireo manam-pahaizana avy ao amin’ny<br />
California Academy of Science sy ny Madagascar<br />
Biodiversity Centre tao amin’ny alan’Ivohibe<br />
Tsitongambarika III. Vitsika mitotaly 105 karazana<br />
no voaiisa ary karazana 2 amin’ireo ihany no efa<br />
fantatra fa efa nisy teo an-toerana taloha.<br />
LANJA HAFA<br />
Ankoatra ny fananana lanja ho an’ny zavaboahary,<br />
ireo alan’ny Tsitongambarika koa dia manan-danja<br />
amin’ny tolotra ara-rohy voahary. Ny fanadihadiana<br />
ara-tsosialy sy ekonomika natao dia mampiseho fa<br />
io ala io dia loharam-bokatry ny ala goavana ho an’ny<br />
mponina eny ifotony. Toy ny kitay, saribao, fitaovana<br />
fanorenana, hena dia, zava-maniry fanao fanafody.<br />
Koa satria ny harikarena eny ifotony dia mifototra<br />
amin’ny hoenti-mivelona ary koa nohon’ ny tahampahatrana<br />
avodia avo dia miantehatra amin’ny<br />
vokatry ny ala ny mponina mba hamaly ny filàny<br />
andavan’andro. Ny fahaverezana sy fahapotehan’ny<br />
ala izany dia misy fiantraikany mafy amin’ny<br />
fahafaha-mivelon’ny mponina eny ifotony. Ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika dia mandray anjara betsaka koa<br />
amin’ny fitehirizana karinbôna, ny fiarovana amin’ny<br />
asan’ny riaka ary amin’ny fiarovana ny ala mamefy<br />
ny renirano roa lehibe indrindra ao amin’ny faritra<br />
Ny Tsitongambarika alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Forest, Madagascar<br />
Madagasikara<br />
Anosy : Manampanihy sy Efaho. Ireo renirano lehibe<br />
ireo sy ny sampany no rano manondraka ny<br />
fambolena sy fampiasa ao an-tokatrano ho an’ireo<br />
mponina any atsinana amin’ny faritra. Ankoatr’izay,<br />
ny alan’i Tsitongambarika I dia miaro ny loharano<br />
ao amin’ny toerana fisintonan-drano ao Lakandava<br />
sy ny farihin’ny Lanirano izay miantoka 75% sy 25%<br />
ny rano ho an’ny tananan’i Tolagnaro. Manana lanja<br />
ara-koltoraly ho an’ny mponina ifotony koa ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika. Misy sisan-tanàna manan-tantara<br />
maro, toerana masina, voly vary am-bohitra, toerampiraofan’ny<br />
biby ao anatin’ny faritra heverina ho ala<br />
arovana. Ankoatr’izay dia ireo toerana voahary<br />
rehetra toy ny renirano, honahona, farihy sy ny ala<br />
dia manan-danja tokoa ho an’ny nentim-paharazana,<br />
ny finoana sy ny maha izy azy ara-kolotsain’ny<br />
mponina eny ifotony.<br />
FIANTRAIKAN’NY ALA SY NY<br />
FIAROVANA AZY<br />
Ny fandripahana ny ala avy amin’ny fanaovana Tavy<br />
no manana fiantraikany lehibe indrindra amin’ny<br />
alan’i Tsitongambarika. Ny fandripahana sasany dia<br />
avy amin’ny afo tsy voafehy izay matetika natao ho<br />
fanadiovana ny toerana firaofan’ny biby sy fakana<br />
hazo. Na tsy dia misy fiantraikany firy aza ny<br />
fihazana sy ny fakana ny vokatra hafa ao an’ala dia<br />
manomboka mandany ireo loharanon-karena<br />
voajanahary sasany koa izany.<br />
Ankehitriny, ireo fomba heverina ho mahomby<br />
indrindra amin’ny fiarovana dia ny famindrampitantanana<br />
ny ala amin’ireo fikambanan eny<br />
ifotony. Mampalahelo anefa fa tsy mety amin’ny<br />
fomba fiasan’ny fikambanana ny fenitra koltoraly eny<br />
ifotony ary koa ireo fikambanana ireo dia toy ny<br />
voaterin’ny ONG sy ny fitondram-panjakana ka dia<br />
maro amin’izy ireny no efa mijoro nefa dia mbola<br />
osa. Raha toa ka mahita fomba fifanarahana<br />
amin’ny fiainan’ny fikambanana eny ifotony dia ny<br />
fanampiana miompana amin’ny fiofanana, torohevitra<br />
sy fanarahamaso no tokony homena azy ireo.<br />
Na izany aza, mety tsy ny fampiasana ireo<br />
fikambanana ireo no tetika mahoby amin’ny<br />
fitantanana ny ala. Mety ho ilaina ny mahita modely<br />
vaovao ho fiaraha-miasa amin’ny olona eny ifotony<br />
izay mifanaraka amin’ny lalàna ambanivohitra,<br />
fifandraisan’ny fahefana tsy mitovy, ny lanja sy<br />
ny finoana izay tena samihafa tokoa ho an’n<br />
mpisehatra ifotony, rezionaly sy nasionaly ary<br />
iraisam-pirenena. Na inona na inona anefa ny<br />
vahaolana ho raisina, ireo mpisehatra rehatra dia<br />
tokony handray andraikitra amin’ny fanampin’ezaka<br />
maharitra, amin’ny fikarohana sy fitantanana mba<br />
hiantohana ny fahatomombana’ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika sy mba hikajina ireo zavaboahary<br />
tsy manampaharoa ireo, ireo fiveloman’ny mponina,<br />
ny fiainana sy ny kolotsaina ary mba hitohizan’ny<br />
tolotra ara-rohy voahary any atsimo atsinanan’i<br />
Madagasikara.<br />
5
Based on the findings of the report, a series of<br />
recommendations for those considering conservation<br />
intervention in the Tsitongambarika massif is<br />
given below. These recommendations are grouped<br />
in three categories—the first category includes<br />
recommendations on areas, sites and species deserving<br />
particular attention, the second and third focus on<br />
the kind of interventions that are needed to ensure<br />
that successful long-term biodiversity conservation<br />
is achieved without compromising the livelihoods and<br />
cultural values of local communities.<br />
PRIORITY AREAS, SITES AND SPECIES<br />
AT <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most<br />
threatened vegetation types in Madagascar.<br />
Almost uniquely for humid forests in south-eastern<br />
Madagascar, Tsitongambarika includes significant<br />
areas below 400 m. These lowland areas (e.g.<br />
Bemangidy-Ivohibe) are particularly high priorities<br />
for conservation, especially given their importance<br />
for restricted-range plant species.<br />
■ Flying foxes provide significant ecosystem service<br />
benefits (pollination) as well as being a threatened<br />
species. Flying fox roosts (four have been identified<br />
in Tsitongambarika, notably at Ivolo) are<br />
priorities for site protection.<br />
■ Cultural sites warrant particular attention.<br />
Historical settlements, burial sites, and spiritual sites<br />
linked to natural features such as rivers, pools and<br />
cliffs have been identified in the forest, and are<br />
potentially of significant importance to local people.<br />
Since these will differ among clan territories<br />
particular attention will need to be paid to these in<br />
each area.<br />
■ For some taxonomic groups—e.g. reptiles and<br />
amphibians—it is difficult to select priority sites<br />
because globally threatened and potentially new<br />
species are distributed patchily (all sites except<br />
Lakandava and Ivohibe hold species of<br />
conservation concern not found at other sites).<br />
Similarly, many ecosystem service values (e.g. nontimber<br />
forest products, broader-scale services such<br />
as water purification) are dispersed throughout the<br />
forest. Consequently conservation management for<br />
the whole of Tsitongambarika is needed, not just<br />
for particular special sites or species.<br />
■ Priority species include globally threatened and<br />
restricted-range species. Tsitongambarika is home<br />
to many such species, including some Endangered<br />
6<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
and site-endemic species which rank among the<br />
highest priorities.<br />
■ Species research should focus on information<br />
relevant to conservation management of priority<br />
species (e.g. distribution, threats, conservation<br />
actions needed and their effectiveness), taking into<br />
account that in many cases species will be most<br />
efficiently protected by measures aimed at<br />
preserving their habitat.<br />
■ Clarifying the status of species potentially new to<br />
science is a particular priority for species research.<br />
The surveys reported here found almost 70 plant<br />
species new to science and six reptile and<br />
amphibian species probably new to science.<br />
CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT NEEDS<br />
AT <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Management activities are needed that will ensure<br />
persistence of viable populations of priority species,<br />
maintain the integrity of habitats, provide<br />
alternative livelihoods to local communities for<br />
foregone unsustainable forest use, and address<br />
specific threats identified in this report.<br />
■ Although some conservation activities have been<br />
implemented at Tsitongambarika, infrastructure<br />
and capacity are limited. Any future programme<br />
would need to make significant investment in<br />
infrastructure, training and capacity building,<br />
coupled with ongoing mentoring and support.<br />
■ To assist with planning future conservation or<br />
offset programmes, a short-term recommendation<br />
is to produce a short report detailing biodiversity<br />
values, costs and opportunities for each area<br />
(Tsitongambarika I, II and III).<br />
■ At present, the main mechanism for conservation<br />
is the transfer of forest management to local<br />
associations. However, since local cultural norms<br />
do not favour working in local associations and<br />
since these associations are seen as imposed by<br />
NGOs and the government, these local<br />
associations may not be the ideal mechanism for<br />
managing the forest, and there may be a need to<br />
look for a new model (and/or significantly adjust<br />
the current model) for working with local<br />
populations to manage the forest.<br />
■ In the long term, conservation management at<br />
Tsitongambarika will only be successful if it<br />
addresses the underlying causes of biodiversity loss.
The main pressure on Tsitongambarika is<br />
clearance for subsistence agriculture with<br />
additional major pressures from illegal timber<br />
harvesting and hunting. High rates of poverty and<br />
rapid population growth exacerbate this pressure.<br />
■ Sustainable livelihood programmes are needed that<br />
reduce human pressures on biodiversity and link<br />
biodiversity conservation with alternative<br />
appropriate benefits. Villagers will only be willing<br />
to conserve (which inevitably causes short-term<br />
natural resource use restrictions) if they receive<br />
commensurate benefits, such as support for rural<br />
development.<br />
ENSURING THAT LOCAL<br />
COMMUNITIES BENEFIT FROM<br />
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AT<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Given that the Tsitongambarika Forest provides<br />
for local, regional, national, and international<br />
livelihoods and well being, research and<br />
programmes oriented on understanding and<br />
ensuring the continued supply of the diverse<br />
ecosystem services will be necessary.<br />
■ Given that the conservation and use of the forest<br />
are social endeavours at their core, future research<br />
and programmes need to focus on critical social<br />
research to increase our understanding of the local<br />
socio-cultural context including knowledge<br />
systems, traditions, and concepts and realities of<br />
forest management. It is only by better<br />
understanding these local socio-cultural contexts<br />
that we will be able to more effectively collaborate<br />
with the local forest managers, to manage and<br />
conserve the forest.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Given that there are very different and often<br />
contradictory perceptions of the forest held by<br />
stakeholders at the local, regional, national, and<br />
international levels, it will be important to recognise<br />
and address serious issues of unequal power<br />
relations, local rights, environmental justice, and<br />
fundamentally different value and belief systems<br />
among multiple stakeholders. This will be essential<br />
for conserving the Tsitongambarika forests for their<br />
unique biodiversity in a socially just way that also<br />
ensures local livelihoods, well-being and culture.<br />
■ Given the widely divergent stakeholder values<br />
regarding the biodiversity in the Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest, it may be necessary to broker agreements<br />
with communities to stop unsustainable use of<br />
forests in return for direct community development<br />
benefits. This will need to follow the principles of<br />
former, prior, and informed consent (FPIC). This<br />
will require culturally appropriate “deals”, rigorous<br />
external and local participatory monitoring, and<br />
adequate compensation.<br />
■ Given that the rural production systems and<br />
livelihoods in different areas around the forest are<br />
quite varied, programmes for forest conservation<br />
and livelihoods will need to be specifically tailored<br />
to local contexts and flexible enough to respond<br />
to local needs.<br />
■ Given that there are already more than 60<br />
community forest management groups in place<br />
throughout the forest, and that these are the de<br />
facto on-the-ground day-to-day managers of the<br />
forest, future efforts must ensure that these evolve<br />
into cultural appropriate operational and effective<br />
forest management mechanisms. The considerable<br />
support and attention that is necessary to achieve<br />
this should not be underestimated.<br />
7
Mifototra amin’ny voka-pikarohana avy amin’ity<br />
tatitra ity, dia misy tolo-kevitra maromaro izay<br />
napetraka mba ho an’ireo izay mety handray anjara<br />
amin’ny asa fiarovana ny alan’i Tsitongambarika,<br />
izay nosokajina telo. Ny sokajy voalohany dia ireo<br />
tolo-kevitra mahakasika ny faritra, toerana sy ny<br />
karazana ilaina fijerena manokana, ny faharoa sy ny<br />
fahatelo dia manasongadina ny karazana hetsika<br />
ilaina mba hiantohana ny fahombiazan’ny fiarovana<br />
ny zavaboahary amin’ny ho avy nefa tsy maningotra<br />
ny fahavelomana sy ny lanja ara kolotsain’ny<br />
fiarahamonina ifotony.<br />
IREO FARITRA, TOERANA SY<br />
KARAZANA LAHARAM-PAHAMEHANA<br />
AO <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Ny ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina amin’ny<br />
haabo iva dia iray amin’ny karazan-java-maniry<br />
tandidomin-doza indrindra eto Madagasikara.<br />
Amin’ny maha tsy manam-paharoa azy amin’ny<br />
ala atsimo atsinan’i Madagasikara, ny alan’i<br />
Tsitongambarika dia manana faritra lehibe<br />
amin’ny haabo ambanin’ny 400 m. Ireo faritra<br />
manana haabo iva ireo (oh Bemangidy-Ivohibe)<br />
dia laharam-pahamehana ho an’ny fiarovana<br />
noho ireo karazana zava-maniry manana<br />
fiparitahana voafetra ao amin’izy ireo.<br />
■ Ny ramanavy dia manana andraikitra tsara<br />
manokana ao anaty rohy voahary<br />
(fanaparitahana vovobony) na dia Karazana<br />
tandidomin-doza aza. Ireo toeram-pihantonan’izy<br />
ireo (misy efatra ao Tsitongambarika indrindra fa<br />
ao Ivolo) dia laharam-pahamehana amin’ny<br />
fiarovana ihany koa.<br />
■ Ireo toerana kolotoraly dia mila fiheverana<br />
manokana. Hita ao anaty ala ny tanàna manatantara,<br />
ny toerana fanaovana fomba sy<br />
fivavahana mifandraika amina singa natoraly toy<br />
ny renirano, honahona sy ny hantsana morondranomasina<br />
ary tena manan-danja tokoa ho<br />
an’ny mponina eny ifotony. Noho izy ireo<br />
samihafa isaky ny andiana foko dia ilaina ny<br />
fijerena manokana isaky ny faritra.<br />
■ Sarotra ny mamantatra ny toerana laharampahamehana<br />
ho an’ny fiarovana ny ny vondrona<br />
sasany toy ny sahona sy ny reptilia satria ireo<br />
karazana tandindomin-doza sy ireo karazana mety<br />
ho vaovao dia samy manana ny fiparitahany izay<br />
tsy mitovy (ireo toerana rehatra ankoatry<br />
Lakandava sy Ivohibe dia ahitana ireo karazana<br />
manan-danja amin’ny fiarovana manokana izay tsy<br />
8<br />
■ TOLO-KEVITRA<br />
Ny Tsitongambarika alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Forest, Madagascar<br />
Madagasikara<br />
hita any amin’ny toerana hafa). Toy izany koa ireo<br />
tolotra ara-rohy voahary manan-danja maro (toy<br />
ny vokatra tsy hazo, ireo tolotra avo lenta toy ny<br />
fanadiovana ny rano) dia miparitaka eran’ny ala.<br />
Noho izany dia ilaina ny miaro manontolo an’i<br />
Tsitongambarika fa tsy voafetra ho an’ny toerana na<br />
karazana voafaritra manokana fotsiny.<br />
■ Ny karazana manana lahara-pahamehana dia ireo<br />
karazana manana sata tandindomin-doza manerantany<br />
sy ny karazana manana fiparitahana voafetra.<br />
Tsitongambarika dia betsaka an’ireo karazana<br />
ireo, anisan’izany ny karazana efa ho lany<br />
tamingana sy ireo izay tsy fahita amin’ny toerankafa<br />
izay voakilasy ho anatin’ny laharampahamehana.<br />
■ Ny fikarohana mikasika ny karazana dia tokony<br />
hiompana amin’ireo fanadihadiana tena ilaina<br />
amin’ny fitantanana ny fiarovana ireo karazana<br />
manana laharam-pahamehana (oh Ny fiparitahana,<br />
ireo loza mitatao, ireo fepetra fiarovana tokony<br />
ho raisina sy ny fahombiazany) ireo, nohon’ny<br />
fahatsapana tamin’ny tranga hafa maro fa voaro<br />
kokoa ny karazana izay ampiharana fiarovana<br />
mikendry fikajiana ny toeram-ponenany.<br />
■ Ny fandalinanana ny satan’ireo karazana<br />
heverina ho vaovao eo amin’ny siansa dia<br />
laharam-pahamehana manokana ho an’ny<br />
fikarohana ny karazana. Ireo fanadihadiana<br />
naseho teto dia nanambara fa 70 ny karazana<br />
zava-maniry vaovao ary 6 kosa karazana ho an’ny<br />
sahona sy ny reptilia.<br />
NY TOKONY HATAO HO AN’NY<br />
FITATANANA NY FIAROVANA AO<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Ny asa fitantanana ilaina dia ireo izay miantoka<br />
ny faharetan’ny andiany tokony ho velona ho<br />
an’ireo Karazana manana laharam-pahamehana,<br />
mitana ny fahatsaran’ny toeram-ponenany ary<br />
manolotra solona fomba fivelomana ho an’ny<br />
mponina ifotony ho fanitsiana ny fampiasana tsy<br />
maharitra ireo ala, ary mijery manokana ireo loza<br />
mitatao voatanisa tato amin’ity tatitra ity.<br />
■ Na dia eo aza ireo asa fiarovana efa natomboka<br />
tao Tsitongambarika, ny foto-drafitr’asa sy ny<br />
fahaiza manao dia tsy ampy. Ny lamin’asa rehetra<br />
amin’ny ho avy dia tokony hampiasa vola betsaka<br />
amin’ny lafiny foto-drafitr’asa , fampiofanana sy<br />
fanamafisana fahaiza-manao arahina fanarahamaso<br />
sy fanampiana mitohy.
■ Hanampiana ny rafitr’asa fiarovna na ny<br />
lamin’asa onitra amin’ny ho avy dia misy fepetra<br />
tokony hatao avy hatrany dia ny famoahana<br />
tatitra fohy mikasika ireo lanja, ireo teti-bidy sy<br />
ireo zay tsara fanararaotra ho an’ny faritra<br />
tsirairay(Tsitongambarika I, II, III).<br />
■ Ankehitriny, ny fomba fiarovana misongadina dia<br />
ny Famindram-pitantanana ny ala amin’ireo<br />
fikambanan eny ifotony. Koa satria tsy mety<br />
amin’ny asa ao amin’ny fikambanana ny fenitra<br />
kolotoraly eny ifotony ary koa ireo fikambanana<br />
ireo dia toy ny voabaikon’ny ONG sy ny<br />
fitondram-panjakana, dia heverina fa tsy fomba<br />
idealy ny fampiasana ny fikambanana : tsy maintsy<br />
heverina ny hahita modely vaovao (sy/na hanova<br />
am-pitandremana ny modely efa misy ) hiarahamiasa<br />
amin’ny mponina mba hiarovana ny ala.<br />
■ Any aoriana any, ny fitantanana ny fiarovana an’i<br />
Tsitongambarika dia tsy hahomby raha tsy<br />
mahakasika ireo tena antony fototra mahatonga<br />
ny fahaverezan’ny zavaboahary. Ny tena tsindry<br />
mahazo an’i Tsitongambarika dia ny<br />
fandringanana ala hanaovana fambolena<br />
hivelomana, ampian’ny tsindry fanampiny sady<br />
manan-danja mifandraika amin’ny fihazana sy ny<br />
fakana tsy ara-dalana ireo hazo. Ny taha avon’ny<br />
fahantrana sy ny fitombon’’ny mponina dia vao<br />
maika manampy trotraka ireo tsindry ireo.<br />
■ Ny fisian’ny lamin’asa ho amin’ny fahafahamivelona<br />
maharitra dia ilaina mba hampihenana<br />
ny tsindry avy amin’olombelona amin’ny zavaboahary<br />
ary hampifandray ny fiarovana ny zavaboahary<br />
sy ny famoronana solon’antompivelomana<br />
mety. Tsy afaka hiaro ny voahary ny<br />
mponina (izay tsy azo ialana ny hisian’ny famerana<br />
ao anatin’ny fotoana fohy) raha tsy mahazo<br />
tombotsoa mifanaraka amin’izany toy ny<br />
fanampiana amin’ny fampandrosoana<br />
ambanivohitra.<br />
NY FIARAHA-MONINA ENY IFOTONY<br />
DIA MAHAZO TOMBONY AMIN’NY<br />
FIAROVANA NY ZAVA-BOAHARY AO<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
■ Koa satria ny alan’i Tsitongambarika dia<br />
manome fomba ahafaha-mivelonaho an’ny eny<br />
ifotony, rezionaly, nasionaly sy iraisam-pirenena,<br />
ny fikarohana sy ny lamin’asa ahazoana antoka<br />
sy ahafantarana fa ilaina ny tolotra rohy voahary<br />
samihafa dia tena ilaina tokoa.<br />
■ Koa satria ny fiarovana sy ny fampiasana ny ala<br />
dia mifototra indrindra amin’ ny ezaka aratsosialy,<br />
ny fikarohana sy ny lamina’asa amin’ny<br />
Ny Tsitongambarika alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Forest, Madagascar<br />
Madagasikara<br />
ho avy rehetra dia tokony hanasongadina ny<br />
fanadihadiana matotra mikasika ny ara-tsosialy<br />
izay mikendry ny fahazahoantsika bebe kokoa ny<br />
toe-draharaha ara kolotoraly sy soasialy eny<br />
ifotony, ao anatin’izany ny fahalalana, ireo nentimpaharazana<br />
ary ireo endrika sy zava-misy marina<br />
mifandraika amin’ny fitantananana ny ala. Ny<br />
fahazahoana tsara ireo endrika kolotoraly sy<br />
sosialy eny ifotony mantsy no ahafahantsika<br />
manana fiaraha-miasa mahomby miaraka<br />
amin’ireo mpitantana ala sy hitantanana ary<br />
hiarovana ny ala.<br />
■ Koa satria ny fahatsapan’ireo andaniny sy<br />
ankilany mpifanaiky eny ifotony, rezionaly,<br />
nationaly sy iraisam-pirenena dia tena samy hafa<br />
ary mifanohitra aza matetika dia tena ilaina<br />
arak’izany ny mahalala sy mijery ireo singa<br />
fototra toy ny fifandraisan’ny fananam-pahefana<br />
tsy mitovy, ny zo eny ifotony, ny fahamarinana aratontolo<br />
iainana, ary ny fahasamihafana fototra eo<br />
amin’ny lanja sy ny finoan’ny mpiray tan-tsoroka<br />
tsirairay. Ireo dia zava-dehibe amin’ny fiarovana<br />
ny alan’i Tsitongambarika, mba hiarovana io<br />
zava-boahary tokana aman-tany io amin’ny<br />
alalan’ny fiantohana ny fahaveloman’ny olona sy<br />
ny fiadanany ary ny kolo-tsaina.<br />
■ Eo anatrehan’ny karazana lanja ananan’ny<br />
andaniny sy ny ankilany mpifanaiky tsirairay<br />
mikasika ny zava-boahary ao Tsitongambarika<br />
dia tokony ilaina ny mandamina ny fifanarahana<br />
amin’ny rehetra mba hisorohana ny fampiasana<br />
tsy maharitra ny ala ho takalon’ny tombotsoa<br />
mivantana ho amin’ny fampandrosoana ny<br />
vahoaka. Amin’izany dia tokony harahina ny<br />
foto-kevitra (CLPE) fanekena malalaka, mialoha<br />
sady mazava . Mitaky fifanarahana ara-kolotsaina<br />
mifandrindra, fanaraha-maso iraisana avy ivelany<br />
sy ifotony matotra ary onitra azo ekena tsara izany.<br />
■ Nohon’ny fahasamihafana misy amin’ny fomba<br />
fahafaha-mivelona eny ambanivohitra ao amin’ireo<br />
faritra tsirairay manodidina ny ala, ireo lamin’asa<br />
amin’ny fiarovana ny ala sy ny fomba<br />
fiveloman’ny olona dia tokony hifanaraka tsara<br />
amin’ny zava-misy ary koa afaka amboarina mba<br />
hamaly ireo hetahetan’ireo mponina eny ifotony.<br />
■ Koa satria efa misy Fikambanana mpitantana ala<br />
60 isa ao ary izy ireo dia mpitantana isan’andro<br />
ny ala, ny hetsika rehetra amin’ny ho avy dia tsy<br />
maintsy hiantoka ny fivoaran’ireo vondrona ireo<br />
ho amin’ny fomba fitantanana mihodina sy<br />
mahomby ireo ala izay mifanentana tsara amin’ny<br />
kolotsaina. Tsy tokony hatao ambanin-javatra ny<br />
fanampiana sy ny fiheverana manokana<br />
mikasika ny fomba hatao mba hahatratrarana io<br />
tanjona io.<br />
9
BACKGROUND<br />
The Tsitongambarika forests comprise three forest<br />
management units (termed Tsitongambarika I, II and<br />
III) in Anosy Region, south-eastern Madagascar.<br />
These forests lie along the Vohimena mountains,<br />
which run north from Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) for<br />
a distance of around 100 km. These mountains run<br />
parallel to the Anosyenne mountains, where<br />
Andohahela National Park is situated. The Vohimena<br />
mountains reach a maximum altitude of 1,358 m,<br />
while the Anosyenne mountains are significantly<br />
higher, reaching a maximum altitude of 1,956 m.<br />
The Tsitongambarika forests are characterised by<br />
a mountainous relief, with steep slopes rising abruptly<br />
from the narrow coastal plain. Generally speaking,<br />
the soils of Tsitongambarika comprise laterites and<br />
ferralites, deposited on Pre-Cambian gneiss and<br />
granitic rocks (Bourgeat 1972). The soils are generally<br />
rich, humus-bearing and of varying depth; rock<br />
outcrops are frequent.<br />
Tolagnaro experiences a tropical climate, with an<br />
average annual rainfall of 1,679 mm, equivalent to<br />
140 mm per month. There are nine perhumid months<br />
per year but no dry months. Average annual<br />
temperature is 23.4°C, with relatively little seasonal<br />
variation. There appears to be a north-south gradient<br />
in rainfall along the Tsitongambarika forests, with<br />
Manantenina (near the northern end) receiving an<br />
average of 3,000 mm per year, compared with<br />
Nahampoana (near the southern end), which receives<br />
only 2,130 mm annually (Paulian et al. 1973). Moist<br />
easterly winds provide orographic rainfall on the<br />
windward slopes of the Vohimena and Anosyenne<br />
chains, leading to the development of humid forest;<br />
this contrast sharply with the semi-arid climate<br />
prevalent to the west of the Anosyenne mountains.<br />
Following the classification of Humbert (1955),<br />
the Tsitongambarika forests comprise humid forest<br />
at low altitude (0–800 m) and humid forest at medium<br />
altitude (800–2,000 m asl) of the eastern Madagascar<br />
Region. Humid forest at low altitude is the most<br />
endangered vegetation type in Madagascar (Langrand<br />
1990), particularly as a result of clearance for tavy<br />
(shifting cultivation) and exploitation for fuelwood.<br />
According to the results of the Inventaire Ecologique<br />
et Forestier National, in the mid 1990s, there were only<br />
around 2 million ha of lowland dense forests<br />
(including Sambirano formations) with little or no<br />
modification, plus around 500,000 ha in a degraded<br />
or secondary condition (Dufils 2003). According to<br />
Langrand (1990), the only large tracts of lowland<br />
humid forest remaining “are those surrounding the<br />
10<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE BIOLOGICAL<br />
IMPORTANCE OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
ANDREW W. TORDOFF<br />
Bay of Antongil and south of Mananara”.<br />
Nevertheless, significant areas of lowland humid<br />
forest can still be found in south-eastern Madagascar,<br />
most notably the Tsitongambarika forests. Until<br />
recently, these forests had been the focus of little<br />
biodiversity study, and recognition of their biological<br />
importance was limited.<br />
THE SURVEYS<br />
During 2005 and 2006, the Tsitongambarika forests<br />
were the focus of a series of biodiversity surveys<br />
conducted by a team of Malagasy and international<br />
scientists from Missouri Botanical Garden, Rio Tinto<br />
QMM (QIT Madagascar Minerals, QMM), and two<br />
Malagasy NGOs: Asity Madagascar and<br />
Madagasikara Voakajy. These surveys were<br />
coordinated by <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, and funded<br />
through <strong>BirdLife</strong>’s partnership with Rio Tinto, a<br />
leading mineral resources company, which is the<br />
major shareholder in Rio Tinto QMM.<br />
The surveys highlighted the biological importance<br />
of Tsitongambarika. In particular, they revealed that<br />
the Tsitongambarika forests include some of the most<br />
intact areas of primary humid forest remaining at very<br />
low elevations in south-eastern Madagascar, and<br />
indicated that they are floristically and faunistically<br />
distinct from lowland humid forests elsewhere in the<br />
country.<br />
VEGETATION AND FLORA<br />
Although the Tsitongambarika forests reach a<br />
maximum altitude of 1,358 m, they contain significant<br />
areas below 800 m, and, almost uniquely for humid<br />
forests in south-eastern Madagascar, include sizeable<br />
areas below 400 m. Although the humid forests of<br />
south-eastern Madagascar are south of the Tropic of<br />
Capricorn, they are typically tropical in structure and<br />
composition (Goodman et al. 1997). Indeed, at 25°S,<br />
Tsitongambarika is one of the lowest latitude<br />
“tropical” humid forests in the Old World (Goodman<br />
et al. 1997).<br />
While eastern humid forest is the most abundant<br />
natural forest formation in Madagascar, about 80%<br />
of it is mid-altitude forest between 800 and 1,500 m,<br />
and relatively little remains at low elevations (Morris<br />
and Hawkins 1998). In south-eastern Madagascar,<br />
lowland forest on lateritic soils is thought to have been<br />
previously extensive but little now remains, as a result<br />
of clearance for shifting cultivation (Goodman et al.
Map 1. Topographic map of vegetation<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
11
1997). It is not clear why the Tsitongambarika forests<br />
have survived while others growing on similar terrain<br />
have been cleared, although the fact that local people<br />
did not practice shifting cultivation until recently may<br />
offer a partial explanation (Nicoll 2003). This may<br />
reflect a relative unsuitability of the area for shifting<br />
cultivation, due to some underlying feature of climate,<br />
topography and/or geology.<br />
Three vegetation and flora surveys were conducted<br />
by the botanical team during November 2005,<br />
February 2006 and May 2006. These surveys focused<br />
on Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest in Tsitongambarika<br />
III. This area of forest is notable because of the<br />
presence of relatively undisturbed humid forest at<br />
altitudes below 100 m.<br />
To date, in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest and<br />
other sites in Tsitongambarika, nearly 600 species<br />
have been identified in 366 genera and 121 families,<br />
suggesting that the total flora of Tsitongambarika<br />
probably includes well over 1,000 species. Given the<br />
relative lack of previous botanical collections from<br />
lowland humid forests in south-eastern Madagascar,<br />
it is reasonable to expect that further surveys will<br />
reveal yet more new species.<br />
Newly described plant species from<br />
Tsitongambarika include Gnidia razakamalalana, a<br />
treelet in the Thymelaeaceae family, collected at 90<br />
m altitude. Based on a known area of occupancy of<br />
less than 10 km 2 , this species has been provisionally<br />
assessed as globally Endangered (P. Lowry in litt.<br />
2007). The new discoveries also include three species<br />
in the Araliaceae family: Polyscias bemangidiensis, an<br />
understorey shrub to treelet that is reasonably<br />
common at Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest; Polyscias<br />
emargiata, a small tree known only from a single<br />
population restricted to a granite slab at c.100 m<br />
altitude; and Schefflera bemangidiensis, a slender<br />
forest tree known only from Bemangidy-Ivohibe<br />
Forest (P. Lowry in litt. 2007).<br />
These species are currently known only from<br />
Tsitongambarika. While some of them may have had<br />
wider distributions previously, the extensive loss of<br />
lowland humid forest from other parts of southeastern<br />
Madagascar suggests that at least some of<br />
them may now be restricted to the Tsitongambarika<br />
forests.<br />
MAMMALS<br />
The mammal surveys recorded seven bat species,<br />
including four species of conservation concern:<br />
Madagascar Flying-fox Pteropus rufus (Vulnerable),<br />
Madagascan Fruit Bat Eidolon dupreanum<br />
(Vulnerable), Peter’s Sheath-tailed Bat Emballonura<br />
atrata (Vulnerable) and Madagascan Rousette<br />
Rousettus madagascariensis (Near Threatened). The<br />
population of Pteropus rufus is particularly<br />
significant, numbering around 2,000 individuals<br />
divided among four roosts. Also of note, Eidolon<br />
dupreanum was hitherto unknown from Anosy<br />
12<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Region. Considering the relatively short survey<br />
period, it is likely that further survey effort at<br />
Tsitongambarika would reveal additional bat<br />
species.<br />
In addition to bats, the mammal surveys also<br />
focused on lemurs. Seven species of lemur were<br />
identified, comprising two diurnal species (Collared<br />
Brown Lemur Eulemur collaris and Grey Gentle<br />
Lemur Hapalemur griseus) and five nocturnal species<br />
(Brown Mouse-lemur Microcebus rufus, Greater<br />
Dwarf Lemur Cheirogaleus major, Southern Woolly<br />
Lemur Avahi meridionalis, Greater Sportive Lemur<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus and Aye-aye Daubentonia<br />
madagascariensis). Two of these species (Collared<br />
Brown Lemur and Grey Gentle Lemur) are globally<br />
threatened. All of the lemur species recorded at<br />
Tsitongambarika can also be found at the nearby<br />
Andohahela National Park, where eight species have<br />
been recorded (Feistner and Schmid 1999).<br />
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS<br />
The Global Amphibian Assessment revealed that the<br />
Anosy (including Vohimena i.e. Tsitongambarika)<br />
mountains are one of the two areas in Madagascar<br />
with the highest number of globally threatened<br />
amphibian species, the other one being the northern<br />
and north-eastern highlands (Andreone et al. 2005).<br />
The Anosy Region is also one of the richest in<br />
Madagascar in terms of number of reptile species,<br />
with a number of species not known from elsewhere<br />
in the country.<br />
The reptile and amphibian surveys conducted<br />
during 2006 focused on two lowland humid forest sites<br />
within Tsitongambarika III: Ampasy Forest and<br />
Ivohibe Forest. These surveys complemented the<br />
results of earlier studies conducted at<br />
Tsitongambarika II in 2002 and Tsitongambarika I<br />
in 1989 and 1990 (Ramanamanjato 1993). Taken<br />
together, all surveys to date have recorded 70 species<br />
of reptile and 57 species of amphibian in the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests. These include 12 species<br />
known only from Anosy Region, such as Boophis<br />
haematopus (Vulnerable), Mantella haraldmeieri<br />
(Vulnerable), Paragehyra gabriellae, Zonosaurus<br />
anelanelany and Pseudoxyrhopus sokosoko. Although<br />
the collections made during the 2006 survey have yet<br />
to be fully identified, they include four frogs (two<br />
Boophis spp., one Gephyromantis sp. and one<br />
(Mantidactylus sp.) and two snakes (one Liophidium<br />
sp. and one Liopholidophis sp.) that are thought<br />
probably to represent new species to science.<br />
BIRDS<br />
The main bird survey of Tsitongambarika was<br />
conducted between December 2005 and January 2006,<br />
focusing on four sites between 85 and 775 m<br />
altitude. Supplementary observations made up to
2008 are also included. A total of 97 species were<br />
recorded, of which 57 are endemic to Madagascar and<br />
a further 25 are restricted to Madagascar and other<br />
Indian Ocean islands. Among the bird species<br />
recorded in the Tsitongambarika forests were five<br />
globally threatened species (Madagascar Red Owl<br />
Tyto soumagnei, Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor,<br />
Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias<br />
leptosomus, Scaly Ground-roller B. squamigera<br />
and Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia favovanae) all of<br />
which are assessed as Vulnerable, and six Near<br />
Threatened species (Madagascar Crested Ibis<br />
Lophotibis cristata, Madagascar Sparrowhawk<br />
Accipiter madagascariensis, Henst’s Goshawk A.<br />
henstii, Grey-crowned Tetraka Bernieria cinereiceps,<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Pollen’s Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and Wedge-tailed<br />
Jery Neomixis flavoviridis). In addition, the globally<br />
threatened Meller’s Duck Anas melleri, Madagascar<br />
Grebe Tachybaptus pelzelnii and Madagascar Pondheron<br />
Ardeola idae were recorded on wetlands close<br />
to, but outside, Tsitongambarika forest. Because of<br />
its importance for globally threatened and restrictedrange<br />
species, Tsitongambarika is recognised as an<br />
Important Bird Area by <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
(ZICOMA 1999).<br />
The avifauna of Tsitongambarika includes a<br />
number of species considered by Morris and Hawkins<br />
(1998) to be lowland forest specialists, or, at least,<br />
more common there than elsewhere. These include<br />
Scaly Ground-roller, Red-tailed Newtonia and<br />
Plate 2. The small<br />
noctural chameleon<br />
Brookesia nasus<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)<br />
Plate 3. Red-tailed<br />
Newtonia Newtonia<br />
fanovanae. This<br />
photograph, taken at<br />
Tsitongambarika, may be<br />
the first published of this<br />
rare lowland forest species<br />
(ANDRIANDRAOTAMALAZA<br />
BRUNO RAVELOSON)<br />
13
Nuthatch Vanga Hypositta corallirostris. Other<br />
species recorded at Tsitongambarika, including<br />
Brown Mesite, Short-legged Ground Roller, Pollen’s<br />
Vanga and Wedge-tailed Jery, are described by<br />
Langrand (1990) as being characteristic of<br />
undisturbed humid forest.<br />
On the basis of the survey results, the avifauna of<br />
Tsitongambarika does not differ greatly from that of<br />
the nearby Andohahela National Park. The major<br />
difference between the two avifaunas is the absence<br />
from Tsitongambarika of a number of species<br />
characteristic of upper elevation humid forest that are<br />
found at Andohahela. This difference can be readily<br />
explained by the very limited area of forest above<br />
1,200 m altitude at Tsitongambarika, and the fact that<br />
survey effort there was concentrated at elevations<br />
below 800 m.<br />
Although no evidence of either was found during<br />
the surveys, Tsitongambarika could potentially<br />
support two enigmatic bird taxa collected in the<br />
Tolagnaro area during the first half of the 20th<br />
century: Coua cristata maxima and Hypositta perdita.<br />
The former taxon was collected in humid forest near<br />
Tolagnaro in 1948 (Milon 1952). It was described as<br />
a new subspecies of Crested Coua (Milon 1950), from<br />
which it differs in terms of size and plumage<br />
coloration. The precise taxonomic status of the form<br />
is open to question, however, as it may possibly<br />
represent a full species or, even, a hybrid between<br />
Crested Coua and another coua species. A series of<br />
avifaunal surveys of south-eastern Madagascar<br />
conducted between 1983 and 1995 failed to record<br />
anything resembling C. c. maxima (Goodman et al.<br />
1997), as a result of which Goodman and Wilmé<br />
(2003) concluded that “the remaining forest blocks<br />
surrounding [Tolagnaro] are ornithologically well<br />
known, and it is certain that this form is extinct”.<br />
However, these surveys did not cover the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests, which, given what is known<br />
about the collecting locality of C. c. maxima, could<br />
conceivably still support the taxon.<br />
Peters (1996) described Hypositta perdita from two<br />
specimens collected by Bluntschli in 1931 near<br />
Eminiminy village, outside of Andohahela National<br />
Park. The specimens are juveniles, and several<br />
authorities (e.g. Goodman et al. 1997, Schulenberg<br />
2003) have speculated that they might represent the<br />
as-yet-undescribed juvenile of the congeneric<br />
Nuthatch Vanga. However, major differences in foot<br />
morphology render this hypothesis unlikely. If<br />
Hypositta perdita does represent a separate species, it<br />
is plausible that it still occurs at Tsitongambarika.<br />
ANTS<br />
Outside of the framework of the <strong>BirdLife</strong><br />
<strong>International</strong>-coordinated surveys, an ant survey of<br />
Ivohibe Forest in Tsitongambarika III was conducted<br />
in December 2006 by scientists from California<br />
Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Madagascar<br />
14<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Biodiversity Centre (MBC) of Parc Tsimbazaza. The<br />
results indicate that Ivohibe Forest has good<br />
ecosystem health, with high species richness and<br />
endemism. A total of 105 species were recorded, with<br />
two species, Camponotus MG038 and Pheidole<br />
MGs074, known only from this forest. One other<br />
species, Camponotus MG080, was discovered for the<br />
first time during this survey, although it has since been<br />
found at two other locations. Species composition<br />
changes over an elevation gradient between 200 and<br />
650 m asl, making it important to conserve forests at<br />
different elevations if the full diversity of ant species<br />
is to be conserved.<br />
CAS and MBC scientists have conducted arthropod<br />
inventories at over 175 sites across Madagascar, in all<br />
habitats and geological formations found on the island.<br />
These surveys allow the results of the December 2006<br />
survey to be analysed in context. Overall, the results<br />
demonstrate that Ivohibe Forest has high conservation<br />
importance at both regional and national levels. In<br />
particular, compared with nearby forests, where<br />
selective logging has degraded the majority of the forest<br />
and facilitated the arrival of invasive ant species,<br />
Ivohibe Forest is in a pristine condition, with<br />
disturbance limited to the forest edge. No invasive ant<br />
species were collected at Ivohibe.<br />
OTHER VALUES OF THE<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong>S<br />
In addition to their intrinsic biodiversity values, the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests are an important source of<br />
ecosystem goods and services. First of all, they are<br />
an important source of forest products, including<br />
firewood, charcoal, construction materials, bushmeat,<br />
Flagellaria indica lianas and Ravenala<br />
madagascariensis leaves. In the context of a largely<br />
subsistence economy with a high incidence of poverty,<br />
local communities exhibit a high level of dependence<br />
on forest products to meet their daily needs. Loss and<br />
degradation of forests has, therefore, major<br />
implications for the livelihoods of local people.<br />
Second, the Tsitongambarika forests are expected<br />
to play an important role in assisting the regeneration<br />
and restoration of littoral forests on Rio Tinto<br />
QMM’s mining leases. Recent studies show that,<br />
during the first succession stages following mining,<br />
frugivorous birds and fruit bats will be of great<br />
importance in dispersing pioneer and heliophilic<br />
species (Bollen and Donati 2006). In addition, fruit<br />
bats have been shown to be responsible for over 50%<br />
of the pollination within and around the conservation<br />
zones established by Rio Tinto QMM. It is significant,<br />
therefore, that almost all fruit bat roost sites close to<br />
the Rio Tinto QMM mining leases are located within<br />
or close to the Tsitongambarika forests, which also<br />
support large populations of frugivorous birds, such<br />
as pigeons, parrots and bulbuls.<br />
Third, the Tsitongambarika forests have a<br />
catchment protection function of potentially major,
albeit unquantified, economically importance. The<br />
forests protect the catchments of two of the Anosy<br />
region’s major rivers: the Manampanihy (which<br />
drains north-east and enters the sea at Manantenina)<br />
and Efaho (which drains south and meets the sea west<br />
of Tolagnaro). These rivers and their tributaries are<br />
the main source of water for irrigation (essential for<br />
paddy rice cultivation) and domestic use for rural<br />
communities in the east of the region. In addition,<br />
the forests of Tsitongambarika I protect the water<br />
sources of the Lakandava pumping station and<br />
Lanirano Lake, which provide, respectively, 75% and<br />
25% of the water for Tolagnaro town.<br />
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION<br />
Most of the local inhabitants living in and around<br />
the Tsitongambarika forests belong to the Antanosy,<br />
the majority ethnic group in Anosy Region. However,<br />
some communities on the eastern side of the<br />
Vohimena mountains originate from coastal areas to<br />
the north of Anosy Region, while some communities<br />
in Ranomafana valley, to the west of the mountains,<br />
belong to the Betsileo and Bara ethnic groups, which<br />
originate from the Malagasy highlands. These<br />
inhabitants have been joined by recent waves of<br />
immigrants from the south of Madagascar, who<br />
mainly belong to the Antandroy ethnic group.<br />
The local economy is largely subsistence-based.<br />
Local villagers cultivate food crops, such as rice,<br />
manioc (cassava), taro, yam and plantain, as well as<br />
varying amounts of cash crops, such as coffee, sugar<br />
cane, banana and other fruits. Coffee was previously<br />
an important source of income for many households<br />
but it is now less important than in the past, due to a<br />
drop in price and deterioration of the transport<br />
infrastructure. Most rural households have small<br />
numbers of livestock, principally pigs, zebu and<br />
poultry. Lobster fishing is an important source of<br />
income for many households, particularly those on<br />
the eastern (seaward) side of the Vohimena<br />
mountains, and has been reported to reduce<br />
communities’ dependence on forest resources.<br />
Hunting is practiced by a significant proportion<br />
of households, at least on an occasional basis. The<br />
main target species include lemurs, pigeons and fruit<br />
bats. There are some indications, however, that<br />
hunting at Tsitongambarika may be lower than<br />
elsewhere in Madagascar. For example, Brown Mesite<br />
(a target species for hunters throughout its range) is<br />
relatively common at Tsitongambarika. This<br />
contrasts with the situation at Andohahela National<br />
Park, where Goodman et al. (1997) failed to detect<br />
this species during seven weeks of intensive fieldwork<br />
in humid forest in 1995.<br />
Although hunting is a concern, the most serious<br />
threat to the intrinsic and service values of the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests is deforestation, which is<br />
being caused by expansion of tavy (shifting<br />
cultivation, principally of manioc) and, to a lesser<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
degree, unsustainable exploitation of fuelwood<br />
(firewood and charcoal). An analysis of forest cover<br />
change over the period 1990–2000 revealed a net loss<br />
of forest cover throughout the Tsitongambarika<br />
forests, especially in the north-east of Tsitongambarika<br />
III. Deforestation was concentrated at altitudes below<br />
800 m, which are the most suitable areas for shifting<br />
cultivation but, significantly, also the most important<br />
areas from a biodiversity conservation perspective. As<br />
a result, primary formations now tend to be<br />
concentrated in remoter areas, in the interior of the<br />
forest and at high elevations, particularly in rocky areas<br />
and on steep slopes.<br />
Local people report that expansion of shifting<br />
cultivation is being driven by shortage of irrigated<br />
rice land, declining agricultural productivity (due to<br />
a lack of fertilisers and drying up of water sources)<br />
and rapid population growth. The impact of shifting<br />
cultivation is compounded by the fact that cleared<br />
areas are generally not recolonised by forest, due to<br />
frequent fires. Local people report that deforestation<br />
is leading to low stream flows during the dry season<br />
and siltation of rice fields. Deforestation has also been<br />
reported to have negative impacts on water quality<br />
and sedimentation rates at the Lakandava pumping<br />
station, the main water source for Tolagnaro<br />
(Goodman et al. 1997).<br />
MANAGEMENT SITUATION<br />
The Tsitongambarika forests comprise three<br />
management units, with a combined area of<br />
67,703 ha. The southernmost units, Tsitongambarika<br />
I and II, were designated as Forêts Classées (Classified<br />
Forests) in 1965 and 1970, respectively. The<br />
northernmost unit, Tsitongambarika III, is<br />
designated as a Forêt Domaniale (Public Domain<br />
Forest).<br />
Beginning in 1999, management responsibility for<br />
Tsitongambarika I and II has been transferred to<br />
village associations (communautés de base, known as<br />
CoBas). There are more than 60 CoBas in total,<br />
covering the two forest management units, many of<br />
which have signed Transfer of Management (transfert<br />
de gestion) agreements with the Circonscription des<br />
Eaux et Forêts (regional Water and Forest Service of<br />
the Malagasy Government) in Tolagnaro for a period<br />
of three years. These CoBas have established<br />
management committees to oversee the<br />
implementation of the agreements but many of them<br />
are largely inactive and the government forestry<br />
service has limited capacity to support them. In<br />
Tsitongambarika III, Transfer of Management<br />
agreements are in process.<br />
In the absence of effective management, there are<br />
indications that pressures on the Tsitongambarika<br />
forests are increasing, due to population growth and<br />
depletion of fuelwood supplies elsewhere. There is a<br />
need, therefore, to strengthen management of the<br />
Tsitongambarika forests.<br />
15
RELEVANCE OF THE SURVEY RESULTS<br />
FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING<br />
The results of the surveys have relevance for<br />
conservation planning at sub-national and national<br />
levels. Tsitongambarika represents one of the last<br />
significant areas of lowland humid forest remaining<br />
in Madagascar, and the best remaining example of<br />
this ecosystem at low latitudes. Lowland humid forest<br />
is the most endangered vegetation type in<br />
Madagascar, and relatively little is included within<br />
the protected area system. In their review of<br />
Madagascar’s protected areas, Nicoll and Langrand<br />
(1989) calculated that only around 87,168 ha of the<br />
Eastern Domain (lowland dense forests) was included<br />
in protected areas, of which only an estimated 12,920<br />
ha was below 19°S, most of which was either heavily<br />
deforested or subject to continuing deforestation. As<br />
well as addressing a gap in the coverage of the national<br />
system, protection of Tsitongambarika forests in 2008<br />
has helped to fill gaps in the protected area coverage<br />
of Anosy Region. Because of the larger area of humid<br />
forest at low elevations, the habitat coverage of<br />
Tsitongambarika is complementary to that of<br />
Andohahela National Park, to which it is connected<br />
by a corridor of forest. Moreover, the preliminary<br />
results of the recent biological surveys indicate that,<br />
at least for some groups (e.g. plants, amphibians,<br />
reptiles and ants), there are significant differences in<br />
community composition between Tsitongambarika<br />
and Andohahela, with the former site potentially<br />
supporting a number of localised endemics.<br />
DIRECT PAYMENTS PROJECT<br />
In order to address pressing conservation issues on the<br />
ground, <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> and Asity Madagascar<br />
16<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
began implementing the Tsitongambarika Watershed<br />
Management Project in November 2006, with funding<br />
from Rio Tinto. This project combines participatory<br />
monitoring and direct payment approaches to promote<br />
more sustainable management of forest and forest<br />
resources among targeted communities. In this regard,<br />
the project draws on the experience of Durrell Wildlife<br />
Conservation Trust, which has had significant<br />
successes in Alaotra and Menabe using communitybased<br />
ecological monitoring competitions.<br />
The project was piloted in two villages in 2007,<br />
and was expanded to six villages in the two following<br />
years. In each pilot village, an initial period of<br />
awareness-raising is followed by participatory<br />
mapping with local communities, to map out forest<br />
areas with different management objectives (e.g.<br />
conservation, rehabilitation, sustainable use). This<br />
mapping is based upon the existing Transfer of<br />
Management agreements. The next stage is to assist<br />
the communities to select and monitor key indicators<br />
of biodiversity and ecosystem health (e.g. abundance<br />
of key species, number of cut stumps per hectare, area<br />
burnt per annum). The monitoring results are then<br />
presented at community festivals, where prizes are<br />
awarded in the form of money to be dedicated to<br />
development projects chosen by the community.<br />
Larger prizes are awarded if the state of the forest<br />
and its wildlife populations are shown to increase or<br />
if pressures are shown to decrease. The festivals<br />
introduce a competitive element among villages,<br />
thereby providing a further incentive for good<br />
environmental performance. If this pilot phase is<br />
successful (it continues at the time of writing), it is<br />
hoped that the direct payments project can be<br />
extended into other villages around Tsitongambarika<br />
in the future, to provide a mechanism for sustainable<br />
development and community co-management of<br />
forest resources.
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 2: THE FLORA OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
<strong>FOREST</strong><br />
RICHARD RAZAKAMALALA, JOHNY RABENANTOANDRO, PORTER P. LOWRY II,<br />
LALAO ANDRIAMAHEFARIVO AND CHRIS BIRKINSHAW<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
As part of the Tsitongambarika Project, funded in<br />
part by QIT Madagascar Minerals (Rio Tinto<br />
QMM)/Rio Tinto, botanical inventory activities were<br />
carried out in technical collaboration with the<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden (MBG), Rio Tinto QMM<br />
and <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>. These started in<br />
November–December 2005, focusing primarily on the<br />
forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe, with additional field<br />
work conducted in other parts of Tsitongambarika.<br />
This chapter focuses on the initial surveys in 2005,<br />
but includes results from later surveys to provide<br />
further detail across Tsitongambarika.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The Tsitongambarika III forest botanical survey of<br />
2005 aimed to:<br />
1. Carry out a botanical inventory of one of the most<br />
poorly known areas of Tsitongambarika and of<br />
Madagascar as a whole;<br />
2. Compare species richness and local endemism in<br />
the study area with those of other low- to midelevation<br />
humid forests in Madagascar;<br />
3. Assess pressures on and threats to the native<br />
vegetation of Tsitongambarika.<br />
STUDY SITE<br />
The Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest is part of the larger<br />
Tsitongambarika III Forest, which is situated in the<br />
Anosy Region, Iabakoho Commune, Antsotso Area,<br />
located to the west of PK 65 on the National Road<br />
12A to the North of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). The<br />
eastern boundary of the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest<br />
is located at 24º563.73 S, 047º204.44 E, about 5.5 km<br />
from the east coast and 3.6 km from National Road<br />
12A, making it quite easy to access. Altitude of the<br />
forest ranges from about 90 to 440 m.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
An inventory of all plant species encountered with<br />
flower and/or fruit (required for accurate<br />
identification) in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest was<br />
conducted using the standard protocol for botanical<br />
sampling developed and adopted by MBG. For every<br />
collection made, four or five individual pressed<br />
herbarium specimens were made for distribution to<br />
the major institutions with significant holdings of<br />
material from Madagascar (including the two main<br />
herbaria in Madagascar, the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden, and the Muséum National d’Histoire<br />
Naturelle in Paris) and to international specialists<br />
working at other institutions. The wide distribution<br />
of duplicate specimens is important for ensuring<br />
accurate identification of collections and greatly<br />
facilitates the recognition of species new to science.<br />
RESULTS<br />
■ Flora<br />
To date more than 75 days of botanical inventory work<br />
have been carried out in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest<br />
and other sites in Tsitongambarika. The field teams<br />
have made nearly 2,000 collections representing nearly<br />
600 species in 366 genera and 121 families, suggesting<br />
that the total flora of Tsitongambarika probably<br />
includes well over 1,000 species. Identification of recent<br />
collections, as well as some problematic specimens<br />
made over the last several years, is pending and will<br />
require comparison with the material in the Paris<br />
herbarium, which has by far the most complete<br />
representation of the Malagasy flora.<br />
Historically very few collections had been made<br />
at Tsitongambarika, but what little was known of the<br />
flora hinted at its richness and local endemism, as<br />
exemplified by Ixora bemangidiensis, collected in the<br />
1960s. The identification of the recent collections<br />
made to date has confirmed that this area indeed has<br />
a remarkable flora, with higher species diversity and<br />
a greater concentration of local endemics than was<br />
ever imagined. Current data (Table 1) indicate a total<br />
of 20 confirmed species new to science discovered<br />
during recent inventory work, and an additional 28<br />
possible or probable new species, joining 19<br />
previously described local and regional endemics—<br />
astonishing figures, even for a biodiversity-rich<br />
country such as Madagascar. The inventory work has<br />
also identified several species known to occur in the<br />
littoral forests of the Rio Tinto QMM mine site, in<br />
particular those at Sainte Luce.<br />
■ Vegetation and threats<br />
The main type of primary vegetation at<br />
Tsitongambarika is low- and mid-altitude humid<br />
forest, an increasingly rare vegetation type that is<br />
particularly threatened in Madagascar. Ivohibe Peak,<br />
17
18<br />
Map 2. Plant survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar
Table 1. Endemic plants of Tsitongambarika<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Taxon Collection number(s) from Tsitongambarika Endemicity<br />
New species awaiting publication (20 species)<br />
Croton “daphniphyllum” Radel, ined. Razakamalala 4339 Local<br />
Diospyros “bemangidiensis” G.E. Schatz & Lowry, ined. Lowry 6735 Local<br />
Diospyros “Sclerophylla group” sp. 14, ined. Rajoharison 118 Local<br />
Ivodia “anosiensis” Rabarimanarivo et al., ined. Rajoharison 185, Lowry 6679, 6725,<br />
Razakamalala 2316, 2594<br />
Local<br />
Hyperacanthus “rajeriarisoniae” Rakotonas. & A.P. Davis, ined. Razakamalala 4252 Local<br />
Hyperacanthus “gereaui” Rakotonas. & A.P. Davis, ined. Razakamalala 4221 Local<br />
“Lowryanthus” Pruski, ined. Lowry 6648, Antilahimena 4801,<br />
Razakamalala 2369, 3790<br />
Local<br />
Polyscias “bemangidiensis” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Birkinshaw 1621, Lowry 6701, 6704, 6705, 7171,<br />
Razakamalala 2308, 3793<br />
Local<br />
Polyscias “ericii” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Antilahimena 4833, 4862, Lowry 6702,<br />
Rabenantoandro 1894, Randriantafika 875,<br />
Razakamalala 4095<br />
Local<br />
Polyscias “manonae” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 6777, 7140, 7163, Rabenantoandro 1879 Local<br />
Polyscias “purpuristyla” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 7161, 7168 Local<br />
Polyscias “urceolata” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 7145, Rabenantoandro 1893,<br />
Rajoharison 200, Randriantafika 908,<br />
Razakamalala 2443, 3841, 3857, 4078, 4087,<br />
Ramison 580<br />
Local<br />
Schefflera “vohimensis” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 6703, 7142, 7156, 7157,<br />
Rabenantoandro 1908, Randriantafika 897,<br />
Razakamalala 3865<br />
Local<br />
Schizolaena “charlotteae” Lowry et al., ined. Service Forestier 28662, Ramison 581,<br />
Antilahimena 5786 Local<br />
Schrebera “trifoliata” C. Frasier & G.E. Schatz, ined. Razakamalala 2681 Local<br />
Tsebona sp. nov. Lowry 6657 Local<br />
Dypsis sp. nov. 1 Rakotoarinivo 531 Local<br />
Dypsis sp. nov. 2 Dransfield 7791 Local<br />
Dypsis sp. nov. 3 Rakotoarinivo 538 Local<br />
Ravenea sp. nov. Dransfield 7786, 7787 Local<br />
Previously described locally and regionally endemic species (19 species)<br />
Buxus rabenantoandroi G.E. Schatz & Lowry Razakamalala 4156 Regional<br />
Centauropsis antanosii (Scott-Elliot) Humbert Razakamalala 4319 Regional<br />
Dombeya mandenensis Arènes Razakamalala 4329 Regional<br />
Garcinia dauphinensis P. Sweeney & Z.S. Rogers Razakamalala 4217 Regional<br />
Gnidia razakamalalana Z.S. Rogers Rabenantoandro 1725, 1912,<br />
Razakamalala 2670, 3835<br />
Local<br />
Ixora bemangidiensis Guédès Service Forestier 22333 Local<br />
Leptolaena delphinensis G.E. Schatz & Lowry Razakamalala 4294 Regional<br />
Micronychia bemangidiensis Randrian. & Lowry Birkinshaw 1622, 1634 Local<br />
Barthlottia madagascariensis Eb. Fisch Razakamalala 4560, 5591<br />
Dypsis aquatilis Beentje Rakotoarinivo 539 Local<br />
Dypsis brevicaulis (Guillaumet) Beentje & J. Dransf. Rakotoarinivo 537 Local<br />
19
20<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 1 ... continued. Endemic plants of Tsitongambarika<br />
Taxon Collection number(s) from Tsitongambarika Endemicity<br />
Previously described locally and regionally endemic species ... continued<br />
Dypsis culminis Rakotoarin. & J. Dransf. Rakotoarinivo 532 Regional<br />
Dypsis elegans Beentje Rakotoarinivo 530 Regional<br />
Dypsis eriostachys J. Dransf. Dransfield 7783 Regional<br />
Dypsis nauseosa (Jum. & H. Perrier) Beentje & J. Dransf. Regional<br />
Dypsis prestoniana Beentje Regional<br />
Dypsis psammophila Beentje<br />
Dypsis saintelucei Beentje Rakotoarinivo 534 Local<br />
Ravenea hypoleuca Rakotoarin. & J. Dransf.<br />
Possible new species (28 species)<br />
Acalypha sp. nov. Randriatafika 811<br />
Acridocarpus sp. nov. Razakamalala 4585<br />
Ardisia sp. nov. Razakamalala 4180<br />
Brexia sp. nov. Razakamalala 4167, Randriatafika 911, Ramison 218<br />
Cremocarpon sp. nov. Rakotovao 5000<br />
Croton sp. 1 (= sp. nov?) Rajoharison 199, Razakamalala 2412, 2324, 3764<br />
Croton sp. 2 (= sp. nov?) Lowry 6767, Razakamalala 3928, 2426<br />
Croton sp. 4 (= sp. nov?) Rajoharison 226, Razakamalala 2668, 4005, 4133<br />
Croton sp. 6 (= sp. nov?) Razakamalala 3901<br />
Croton sp. 10 (= sp. nov?) Razakamalala 2351<br />
Elaeodendron sp. nov. Razakamalala 3939<br />
Galeola sp. nov. Razakamalala 3758<br />
Gravesia sp. nov. Razakamalala 5292<br />
Melicope sp. nov. Rakotovao 4975<br />
Noronhia sp. nov. Razakamalala 2565, Razakamalala 2666,<br />
Razakamalala 2424<br />
Oncostemum sp. nov. 1 Ramison 622<br />
Oncostemum sp. nov. 2 Razakamalala 5055<br />
Payera sp. nov. Rakotovao 4375<br />
Polyscias sp nov. Rakotovao 4341<br />
Phyllanthus sp. nov. (= P. bemangidiensis??) Razakamalala 4170<br />
Rousseauxia sp. nov. Lowry 6734, Razakamalala 2420<br />
Tabernaemontana sp. nov. Lowry 6776, Razakamalala 2425, 3842, 3774,<br />
Randriatafika 597, Antilahimena 4807<br />
Thunbergia sp nov. Razakamalala 4283<br />
Trichilia sp nov. Rakotovao 4366<br />
Vernonia sp. nov. 1 Razakamalala 4179<br />
Vernonia sp. nov. 2 Razakamalala 4561<br />
Viguieranthus sp. nov. Lowry 6728, Razakamalala 2452, 2366, 3914,<br />
Antilahimena 4847<br />
Weinmannia sp. nov. Service Forestier 28664, CB 1653, Randriatafika 643,<br />
Razakamalala 3760, 3930, 4026<br />
Note: Local endemism refers to species known only from Tsitongambarika, whereas regional endemics are also known from nearby areas, such as<br />
Ste. Luce or Andohahela National Park.
Plates 4a and 4b. “Lowryanthus” ined., a new and<br />
endemic genus of Asteraceae, not yet described,<br />
discovered in 2006 in lowland rain forest at<br />
Bemangidy (PORTER P. LOWRY II)<br />
which culminates at 677 m, is still surrounded by a<br />
block of almost entirely intact forest estimated to<br />
cover about 27,000 ha. In the 1960s, a sawmill was<br />
operated at Bemangidy as part of a timber industry<br />
project (indeed, the word ‘Bemangidy’, meaning “very<br />
bitter”, corresponds to the old campsite of the<br />
sawmill). The vast areas of forest that were once found<br />
in northern Ivohibe and in the gently sloped areas<br />
around the old Bemangidy campsite have been<br />
completely removed and today these areas are covered<br />
with highly degraded and biodiversity-poor secondary<br />
vegetation. Until recently, slash-and-burn agricultural<br />
practices were ravaging the low altitude forest on the<br />
eastern edge of Ivohibe, but according to Mara<br />
Berge—our guide and also the current president of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Plate 5. Polyscias “manonae”, a new, undescribed<br />
species of Araliaceae, discovered in 2006 at<br />
Bemangidy, of which only two populations are known,<br />
restricted to granite outcrops (PORTER P. LOWRY II)<br />
the local community forest management association<br />
(communauté de base, commonly known as a CoBa)—<br />
this activity has been reduced in recent years as the<br />
remaining forests, located on steep and rocky slopes,<br />
are harder to remove and it is easier to earn income<br />
from lobster fishing. However, if the prices offered<br />
for lobster drop or if lobsters become rare (due to<br />
overexploitation), the forests of Ivohibe will likely be<br />
subjected once again to intensive pressure from<br />
shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture.<br />
The village of Antsotso, directly to the east of<br />
Ivohibe, is settled essentially by fishermen who exploit<br />
lobsters, tuna and other commercial species from the<br />
sea. The forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe is primarily<br />
used by the local population for the selective<br />
harvesting of large trees more than 50 cm in diameter,<br />
which are prized for boat making. A boat made of<br />
Calophyllum inophyllum (known locally as vintagno)<br />
may be worth 300,000 Ariary (about $US 150, which<br />
represents a very significant amount in poor rural<br />
Madagascar). The forest also provides raw materials<br />
for making lobster traps, in particular the rachis<br />
(central axis) of the leaves of the Amboza palm and<br />
the trunk of Flagellaria indica (vahipiky). Logging for<br />
wood to construct huts and for other purposes has<br />
also been observed inside the forest, but at low levels<br />
that are thought to have very little impact on the<br />
structure and composition of the forest.<br />
21
Despite these pressures, the forest of Bemangidy-<br />
Ivohibe remains in good condition, and is<br />
characterised by a particularly rich flora with a high<br />
concentration of locally endemic species. The height<br />
and the diameter of the trunks of canopy trees (as<br />
exemplified by members of important timber genera<br />
such as Mimusops, Calophyllum, Symphonia and<br />
Uapaca) are particularly impressive. It must be<br />
noted, however, that in other parts of the Vohimena<br />
range, slash-and-burn agriculture is being practised<br />
in an increasingly intense way, and in some areas<br />
virtually no lowland forest remains, although other<br />
sites, such as Bevoay, located on the western<br />
slope directly across the range from Ivohibe, the local<br />
CoBa has successfully curtailed unsustainable shifting<br />
(slash-and-burn) cultivation and is keen to protect<br />
their remaining forests.<br />
CONSERVATION<br />
The long-term protection of the forest of Bemangidy-<br />
Ivohibe and other sites that still have large areas of<br />
forest at low- and mid-elevation should be integrated<br />
into the context of a broad programme of biodiversity<br />
conservation and sustainable natural resource<br />
management throughout the Vohimena range. This<br />
will require a programme of community-based<br />
conservation activities that are intimately linked to<br />
local development initiatives in order concurrently to<br />
achieve the twin goals of biodiversity conservation<br />
and improving the wellbeing of those living in the<br />
areas adjacent to new protected areas. Such a<br />
programme could include the following elements:<br />
1. Creation of new protected areas as part of<br />
Madagascar’s new initiative to expand the network<br />
of parks and reserves (known as the SAPM<br />
process), with the objective of protecting the most<br />
important parts of the remaining forest, which will<br />
without any doubt include Bemangidy-Ivohibe in<br />
the North;<br />
2. Sustainable management of forest in carefully<br />
managed buffer zones that are not included in the<br />
new protected areas;<br />
3. Restoration to maintain and reinforce forest<br />
corridors between blocks of intact forest and to<br />
facilitate the expansion of forest into abandoned<br />
agricultural land;<br />
4. Establishment of alternate sources of logs and<br />
firewood to reduce pressure on native forests. This<br />
22<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
should involve planting fast-growing exotic species<br />
in abandoned areas in conjunction with<br />
reforestation of the anthropic grasslands focusing<br />
on native species;<br />
5. Support for farming and other development<br />
activities that can introduce substitutes for slashand-burn<br />
agriculture.<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
In order to develop a conservation strategy for the<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, we propose the following<br />
activities:<br />
1. Continue botanical inventory work throughout<br />
Tsitongambarika, focusing on those watersheds<br />
with large remaining areas of forest and where the<br />
local community has expressed willingness and<br />
interest in developing a strategy that incorporates<br />
biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of<br />
natural resources;<br />
2. Socio-economic diagnoses in these areas involving<br />
detailed discussion with the full range of local<br />
stakeholders, and where possible and appropriate,<br />
the development and implementation of a plan that<br />
includes a proposal to establish new protected areas;<br />
3. Research throughout Tsitongambarika to gather<br />
information for a detailed description of current<br />
conditions and to evaluate alternative management<br />
strategies to ensure effective protection and<br />
sustainability.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
The botanical inventory work conducted to date,<br />
largely focusing on the humid low- and mid-elevation<br />
forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe, has clearly shown that<br />
the flora of Tsitongambarika is exceptionally rich and<br />
has a high level of local endemism. This is without<br />
doubt linked to the continued existence of intact forest<br />
at very low altitude, extending to below 100 m in some<br />
places, a situation that appears to be virtually unique<br />
in southeastern Madagascar. The establishment of a<br />
new protected area at Bemangidy-Ivohibe, as part of<br />
a well-designed and carefully implemented<br />
community-based project, must be regarded as a high<br />
priority, and must be integrated into a broader<br />
initiative targeting the conservation and sustainable<br />
management of key parts of the Vohimena range.
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 3: THE BATS OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
<strong>FOREST</strong><br />
TSIBARA MBOHOAHY<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
There are now thought to be close to 40 bat species on<br />
Madagascar, 70% of which are endemic (Racey et al.<br />
2009). The three Malagasy Old World fruit bat<br />
(Pteropodidae) species are important seed dispersers<br />
and pollinators, which face growing threats from the<br />
demand for bushmeat and damage to their roosting<br />
habitats (e.g. Ranivo 2001, Bollen and Van Elsacker<br />
2002, MacKinnon et al. 2003, Andriafidison et al. 2006,<br />
Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007).<br />
Madagascar’s diverse insectivorous bat fauna has<br />
associations with both Africa and Asia, and a number<br />
of new species have recently been described (e.g.<br />
Goodman et al. 2005b, 2006b, 2007, Bates et al. 2006).<br />
These bats are threatened by habitat degradation and<br />
some species are also hunted by people (Goodman<br />
2006). Only three insectivorous species (in comparison<br />
to all three fruit bat species) are considered of global<br />
consevation concern: Eptesicus malagasyensis<br />
(Endangered), Triaenops auritus (Vulnerable) and<br />
Hipposideros commersoni (Near Threatened).<br />
Bat conservation in Madagascar is in its infancy.<br />
Bats were omitted from many of the mammal<br />
inventories undertaken in the 1990s (e.g. Goodman<br />
and Rasolonandrasana 1999, Goodman and Wilmé<br />
2003) and have only relatively recently received the<br />
attention of biologists. None of Madagascar’s<br />
bats are protected under national wildlife laws (Durbin<br />
2007). Hunting is permitted between May and<br />
September for fruit bats, and between February and<br />
May for Hipposideros commersoni. The closed season<br />
is rarely respected, however, while the popularity of<br />
bat meat and the accessibility of bat colonies combine<br />
to result in high, and probably unsustainable, levels of<br />
hunting in some regions (MacKinnon et al. 2003).<br />
Bats spend the daylight hours in roosts, where<br />
they usually aggregate to form colonies. These sites<br />
are important for social contact, breeding and digestion<br />
(Kunz 1982). In Madagascar, they are also frequented<br />
by hunters or subject to other forms of disturbance<br />
from people (e.g. Jenkins et al. 2007, Rakotoarivelo<br />
and Randrianandriananina 2007). Because of the<br />
mobility of bats and their capacity for travelling long<br />
distances at night (particularly the Pteropodidae and<br />
Molossidae), roost sites are the obvious focus for<br />
abundance assessments and conservation efforts (e.g.<br />
Entwistle and Corp 1997, Entwistle et al. 1997,<br />
Sedgeley and O’Donnell 1999, Granek 2002). In<br />
Madagascar too, there have been calls for bat<br />
conservation to be focused on roost sites (Goodman<br />
et al. 2005a), and efforts are underway to protect some<br />
Pteropus rufus colonies in the Alaotra Mangoro Region<br />
(Jenkins et al. 2007). Malagasy bats roost in a number<br />
of different localities, either in cavities (caves, fissures,<br />
roof spaces of buildings, tree holes, etc.) or in foliage<br />
(suspended from branches, inside unfurled leaves, etc.).<br />
These features are not necessarily restricted to<br />
protected areas, and important roost sites are known<br />
to occur in areas without intact forest (e.g. Goodman<br />
et al. 2005a). The current expansion of Madagascar’s<br />
protected area system provides an ideal opportunity<br />
for bat roosts to be included within new conservation<br />
zones, even if the site, whether a small forest fragment<br />
or cave, is located outside of the priority forest areas<br />
for other animals and plants.<br />
This chapter presents the results of a short survey<br />
of the bat roosts in Tsitongambarika Forest of southeast<br />
Madagascar. Taxonomy and nomenclature here<br />
follow IUCN (2010), even though significant<br />
taxonomic changes continue to be made (e.g. see<br />
Goodman and Ranivo 2009 for a description of<br />
Triaenops menamena, formerly considered to be<br />
T. rufus 1 ). Previous field studies in the south-east of<br />
Anosy region reported 12 bat species but only five of<br />
these were found in Tsitongambarika Forest, at two<br />
low elevation sites (Creighton 1992, Jenkins et al. 2007).<br />
The littoral forests between the foothills of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest and the sea have been the<br />
subject of more intense surveys. In addition to the<br />
presence of insectivorous bat species like Myzopoda<br />
aurita and Hipposideros commersoni (Goodman 1999),<br />
these littoral forests also contain a number of Pteropus<br />
rufus roosts (Bollen and Van Elsacker 2002). Since<br />
there had been no previous survey of bat roosts in<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, the survey reported herein<br />
sought to complement simultaneous surveys for other<br />
fauna and flora by searching for important bat roost<br />
sites for possible inclusion in the proposed<br />
Tsitongambarika protected area.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The survey had three specific objectives:<br />
1. To locate bat roosts in and near Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest;<br />
2. To determine priority bat roosts for conservation<br />
and further study;<br />
3. To develop a framework for the inclusion of bat<br />
roosts within a new protected area.<br />
1 For consistency with the red list treatment (IUCN 2010), these animals are referred to as T. rufus here, although the new name<br />
should be used in future, including red list updates. Eds.<br />
23
24<br />
Map 3. Bat survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar
STUDY SITES<br />
The survey for bat roosts was conducted in all three<br />
sectors of Tsitongambarika Forest between 1 and 20<br />
December 2005 (Table 2).<br />
METHODS<br />
Survey effort was mainly restricted to sampling bat<br />
roosts. Mist nets at cave entrances, or direct<br />
observations within caves, were used (Table 3). Mist<br />
nets were occasionally placed across rivers in some<br />
sites. Surveys were undertaken with local guidance<br />
because most large bat colonies and roosts are known<br />
to local people. Local guides have been used<br />
successfully in the past in Madagascar (e.g.<br />
MacKinnon et al. 2003) and are the most efficient way<br />
of locating bat roosts in a short time.<br />
Identification was based on direct observation or<br />
after capture with mist nets. No voucher specimens<br />
were collected. The geographical location and habitat<br />
features of each roost were recorded, and an assessment<br />
of threats made. Bat abundance was counted directly<br />
(for Pteropus rufus) or estimated (for cave-roosting<br />
species).<br />
Table 2. Study sites for bat roost surveys in and<br />
around Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
Site Coordinates Nearest village Commune<br />
Ivohibe Forest 24°34’12”S 47°12’22”E Antsotso Iabakoho<br />
Volobe Forest 24°40’15”S 47°04’49”E Volobe Mahatalaky<br />
Ivorona Forest 24°50’18”S 46°56’44”E Ivorona Ifarantsa<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
RESULTS<br />
Table 3. Geographical positions of all roosts visited during the bat survey<br />
The roosts of six bat species were located during the<br />
survey (Table 3), comprising three fruit bat<br />
(Pteropodidae) species and three insectivorous<br />
species. Fourteen roost sites were visited, of which<br />
11 contained bats and three appeared to have been<br />
abandoned (Table 4). In addition, a single Myotis<br />
goudoti (Vespertilionidae) was mist-netted in forest<br />
over a small river near Ivorona (24°50’12”S<br />
46°56’44”E) in Ifarantsa Commune.<br />
■ Roost type<br />
Seven roosts were located in caves, including all of<br />
the Emballonura atrata (Emballonuridae), Triaenops<br />
rufus (Hipposideridae), Miniopterus sp. (probably<br />
petersoni based on distribution) (Vespertilionidae)<br />
and Rousettus madagascariensis (Pteropodidae)<br />
colonies. A single Eidolon dupreanum (Pteropodidae)<br />
colony was found on a cliff face, and four Pteropus<br />
rufus roosts were found in forest fragments (although<br />
one of these, at Antranopanihy, was not within the<br />
boundary of Tsitongambarika Forest).<br />
■ Abundance<br />
Colony size was generally small for the insectivorous<br />
bats with no roost site containing more than 60<br />
individuals. Fruit bat roosts were larger, numbering<br />
in the hundreds for Rousettus madagascariensis and<br />
up to a thousand for Pteropus rufus.<br />
■ Threats<br />
The insectivorous bats roosted in small caves that<br />
were in relatively open, deforested areas. On-going<br />
slash and burn agriculture appeared to threaten two<br />
of these roosts through their proximity to land that<br />
is regularly burned. Two of the Pteropus rufus roosts<br />
Roost name Commune Location Dates visited Bat species<br />
Mahatalaky Ambolo Ifarantsa 24°49’15.6"S 46°56’27.8"E 1–7 December 2005 No bats<br />
Tafiandahy Ifarantsa 24°49’47.0"S 46°56’35.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Emballonura atrata<br />
Andriankolo Ifarantsa 24°51’42.2"S 46°54’55.9"E 1–7 December 2005 Emballonura atrata<br />
Anjoliky Ifarantsa 24°50’04.9"S 46°57’34.0"E 1–7 December 2005 No bats<br />
Ivolo (1) Ifarantsa 24°55’37.7"S 46°54’57.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Pteropus rufus<br />
Ivolo (2) Ifarantsa 24°55’37.7"S 46°54’57.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Pteropus rufus<br />
Angavobe Ifarantsa 24°56’10.8"S 46°54’18.8"E 1–7 December 2005 Eidolon dupreanum<br />
[No local name] Iabakoho 24°33’54.1"S 47°12’47.9"E 11–14 December 2005 Emballonura atrata<br />
Antranopanihy Iabakoho 24°37’08.0"S 47°13’58.5"E 11–14 December 2005 Pteropus rufus<br />
Antranokananavy Iabakoho 24°35’50.2"S 47°11’10.1"E 11–14 December 2005 No bats<br />
Andakato Iabakoho 24°33’28.7"S 47°12’30.2"E 11–14 December 2005 Emballonura atrata<br />
Manantenina Iabakoho 24°31’53.5"S 47°12’13.7"E 11–14 December 2005 Rousettus madagascariensis<br />
& Triaenops rufus<br />
Volobe Iabakoho 24°41’10.4"S 47°05’44.5"E 16–19 December 2005 Pteropus rufus<br />
Esiasia Mahatalaky 24°44’35.1"S 47°00’24.0"E 16–19 December 2005 Miniopterus sp. (probably petersoni; DD)<br />
25
were subject to hunting by people with guns, and the<br />
Rousettus madagascariensis colony was also exploited<br />
for its meat by farmers using a trap made with local<br />
plants (170 bats were taken by this method in a single<br />
day).<br />
■ Conservation<br />
The Eidolon dupreanum roost, by virtue of its location<br />
in a high rock face, appeared well protected. Two of<br />
the Pteropus rufus roosts were in sacred forests where<br />
hunting is prohibited.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
The proposed new protected area at Tsitongambarika<br />
provides a unique opportunity to secure roosting<br />
colonies of bats, and the important ecological service<br />
they provide. This survey located 11 occupied bat<br />
roosts, including the first colonies of Rousettus<br />
madagascariensis and Eidolon dupreanum known to<br />
biologists in Tsitongambarika Forest.<br />
Four roosts of the small insectivorous bat<br />
Emballonura atrata were found during the survey.<br />
This species was once considered to occur throughout<br />
Madagascar but recent taxonomic studies revealed<br />
that it is restricted to the east, where it appears to be<br />
associated with relatively intact forest (Goodman et<br />
al. 2006a). This species was not recorded during<br />
surveys by Creighton (1992) but Peterson et al. (1995)<br />
noted its presence in the western Vohimena<br />
mountains. Triaenops rufus is a relatively widespread<br />
trident-nosed bat, more common in the west than in<br />
the east, but occasionally reported from Anosy region<br />
(Creighton 1992, Peterson et al. 1995). Miniopterus<br />
species and Myotis goudoti are common and<br />
26<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 4. Results of the survey of bat roosts in and around Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
Altitude Roost<br />
Roost name (m) type Habitat Protection Threats Bat species (and IUCN status*) Abundance<br />
Mahatalaky Ambolo 580 Cliff Agriculture None – No bats –<br />
Tafiandahy 220 Cave Humid forest None None Emballonura atrata 15–20<br />
Andriankolo 87 Cave Agriculture None Fire Emballonura atrata 10–15<br />
Anjoliky 410 Cliff Humid forest None – No bats –<br />
Ivolo (1) 73 Trees Humid forest Sacred forest None Pteropus rufus (VU) 1,000<br />
Ivolo (2) 73 Trees Eucalyptus plantation None Hunting (guns) Pteropus rufus (VU) 200<br />
Angavobe 343 Cliff Agriculture High position None Eidolon dupreanum (VU) 10–15<br />
[No local name] 227 Cliff Humid forest None None Emballonura atrata 10–20<br />
Antranopanihy 12 Trees Littoral forest None Hunting (guns) Pteropus rufus (VU) 100–150<br />
Antranokananavy 48 Cave Agriculture None – No bats –<br />
Andakato 226 Cave Agriculture None Fire Emballonura atrata 10–15<br />
Manantenina 143 Cave Agriculture None Hunting (traps) Rousettus madagascariensis (NT) 400–500<br />
& Triaenops rufus &
Pteropus rufus roost at Volobe, for example, had a<br />
small colony of bats but, as this site is a sacred forest,<br />
it may contain more individuals at different times of<br />
the year or in the future.<br />
Rousettus madagascariensis roosts in caves and,<br />
although they are frequently caught in nets by<br />
biologists, only a few roost sites are known<br />
(MacKinnon et al. 2003). The cave roost located in<br />
this study is, therefore, of major significance and<br />
requires protection. Cave-roosting bats are<br />
exceptionally vulnerable to hunting and, at<br />
Tsitongambarika, the Rousettus madagascariensis were<br />
reportedly collected at the roost entrance. It is unlikely<br />
that the colony could sustain the reported harvests<br />
unless there was movement and mixing with other, as<br />
yet undiscovered, roosts in the region. Being notably<br />
smaller than Pteropus rufus or Eidolon dupreanum,<br />
Rousettus madagascariensis is able to fly inside forests<br />
and appears to have a potentially unique role in<br />
pollination and seed dispersal. The Rousettus<br />
madagascariensis roost needs to be monitored and<br />
protected and a study conducted on the socio-economic<br />
value of the bat meat coming from it.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
1. Include the Ivolo, Vohidrahara, Volobe and<br />
Angavobe roosts within the new protected area at<br />
Tsitongambarika.<br />
2. Make visits every two months to each of the fruit<br />
bat roosts over a two-year period to provide a<br />
baseline for future monitoring and vital<br />
information on movement among roosts.<br />
3. Determine whether the communities at Ivolo and<br />
Volobe sacred forests require any assistance in<br />
maintaining current levels of forest protection.<br />
Possible activities include environmental education<br />
on bats in schools and villagers participating in<br />
bat counts.<br />
4. Conduct an assessment of bats as bushmeat in the<br />
area, to provide socio-economic information to<br />
inform future conservation plans to reduce or<br />
prohibit hunting.<br />
5. Visit insectivorous bat roosts twice a year.<br />
6. Continue to search for other bat roosts within the<br />
new protected area.<br />
27
OBJECTIVES<br />
A survey of lemurs of Tsitongambarika Forest was<br />
undertaken between 9 December 2005 and 14 January<br />
2006. The aims were to:<br />
1. Inventory the lemur species in Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest;<br />
2. Determine the relative abundance of the lemur<br />
species present;<br />
3. Identify sites of importance for lemurs (where<br />
conservation actions are required).<br />
STUDY SITES<br />
Study sites were chosen with reference to a<br />
cartographic map and by asking local authorities,<br />
such as the community forest management<br />
associations (communautés de base or CoBas), to<br />
indicate areas of forest that may provide suitable<br />
habitat for lemurs. Consequently, three sites were<br />
selected:<br />
1. Ivohibe Forest, near Antsotso Avaratra village,<br />
east of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Between 11 and<br />
19 December 2005, the survey team camped at<br />
24°34’12”S 47°12’23”E (altitude 148 m) and<br />
collected data along two transects located nearby<br />
(Table 5);<br />
2. Antsiriky Forest, in Mahatalaky Commune.<br />
Between 20 and 30 December 2005, the survey<br />
team camped at Analalava village (24°41’28”S<br />
47°01’30”E, altitude 306 m) and collected data<br />
along two transects about two hours’ walk away<br />
(Table 5);<br />
3. Ivorona Forest, in Ifarantsa Commune of Ivorona<br />
Sub-prefecture. Between 2 and 9 January 2006, the<br />
28<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 4: THE LEMURS OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
<strong>FOREST</strong> 1<br />
MAMY JULIA CHRISTOBELLE RALAVANIRINA<br />
survey team camped at 24°49’25”S 46°56’56”E<br />
(altitude 284 m) and collected data along two<br />
transects about one hour’s walk away (Table 5).<br />
METHODS<br />
Table 5. Description of the study sites in Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
All data were collected in lowland humid forest<br />
(between altitudes of 87 and 420 m; Table 5). Inventory<br />
of lemurs was made by using a linear transect method<br />
(e.g. Ganzhorn 1994). At each site, two transects were<br />
selected. The survey team chose existing trails that had<br />
been created by villagers or wild boars, in order not to<br />
damage the forest ecosystem by creating new trails.<br />
Transects were selected along different topographies,<br />
including ridge crests and slopes, and each varied in<br />
length according to the forest condition. Transects were<br />
marked with coloured plastic flags at 20 m intervals.<br />
The surveyors halted at these points, to listen for lemur<br />
vocalisations.<br />
Day-time observations were made between<br />
06h30 and 11h30, and again between 15h00 and<br />
17h30. Night-time observations were made between<br />
18h30 and 21h00, with the help of a head torch, in<br />
order to locate nocturnal lemurs from eye-shine. Once<br />
animals had been located, more powerful torches<br />
(Maglites) and a pair of binoculars were used to<br />
identify the species. Each visit (day or night) lasted<br />
for two hours, and the surveyors walked at a very<br />
low speed (0.5km/h).<br />
Each transect was visited between two and four<br />
times for night-time observations, and from six to<br />
eight times for day-time observations, and efforts were<br />
made to cover each transect in different directions.<br />
During each visit (day or night), all lemurs seen or<br />
heard were recorded, noting the observation time,<br />
location, canopy height, the number of animals<br />
observed, the position relative to the trail (left or<br />
Site Coordinates Altitude (m) Transect (m) Habitat<br />
Ivohibe 24°33’00”S 47°11’42”E 87 960 Ridge crest, open canopy (12–15 m high), dominated by Uapaca sp.<br />
24°34’09”S 47°12’26”E 302 1,000 Slope, semi-open canopy, dominated by Uapaca sp.<br />
Antsiriky 24°41’30”S 47°01’33”E 340 1,000 Ridge crest, open canopy (4–8 m high)<br />
24°41’21”S 47°01’31”E 420 1,200 Slope, semi-open canopy (10–12 m high), presence of Uapaca sp.<br />
Ivorona 24°49’35”S 46°57’03”E 282 1,000 Ridge crest, open canopy<br />
24°49’32”S 46°56’59”E 300 1,000 10–15 m high canopy, understorey dominated by lianas<br />
1 Nomenclature and taxonomy of lemurs has changed very significantly in recent years. The text of this chapter follows the<br />
author’s own treatment. A note at the end of the chapter relates this to a recent treatment, widely but not universally accepted,<br />
with many more species recognised (Mittermeier et al. 2010). Eds.
Map 4. Lemur survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
29
ight), the distance between the observer and the<br />
animal(s), and the behaviour of the animal(s).<br />
The linear transect method allows the relative<br />
abundance of each species inventoried per kilometre<br />
of transect walked to be calculated. At each site, other<br />
places away from the transects were also visited, in<br />
order to contribute additional presence-absence data<br />
on lemur species.<br />
For small nocturnal lemur species, a capturerelease<br />
method was also used. This involved installing<br />
Sherman traps baited with banana along each<br />
transect (Table 6). Traps were hung on trees, between<br />
1.5 and 2 m above the ground. Traps were placed at<br />
20 m intervals along each transect (or section of<br />
transect), and opened only from 17h30, because:<br />
(i) Small nocturnal lemurs do not start their activities<br />
until 18h00 onwards, so the scent of the banana<br />
should not be released until they come out;<br />
(ii) Capture of other small mammals and diurnal<br />
reptiles should be avoided as far as possible.<br />
Traps were checked early in the morning on the<br />
following day, and any small lemurs captured were<br />
brought to the camp site for measuring. After<br />
measuring, the animals were released very late in the<br />
afternoon at the place where they were captured. The<br />
capture-release method allowed identification of the<br />
lemurs captured. The survey period was too short and<br />
capture rates were too low to allow estimation of<br />
population size or density using this method.<br />
RESULTS<br />
■ Linear transect results<br />
During the survey of Tsitongambarika Forest, six<br />
transects were used. A total distance of 39.04 km was<br />
covered during day-time visits and 15.32 km during<br />
night-time visits. Two cathemeral species (species with<br />
irregular activity patterns) were recorded in<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest: Collared Brown Lemur<br />
Eulemur collaris (Vulnerable) and Grey Gentle Lemur<br />
Hapalemur griseus (Vulnerable). In addition, five<br />
strictly nocturnal species were recorded: Rufous<br />
Mouse-lemur Microcebus rufus, Greater Dwarf<br />
Lemur Cheirogaleus major, Eastern Woolly Lemur<br />
Avahi meridionalis (Data Deficient), Greater Sportive<br />
Lemur Lepilemur mustelinus (Data Deficient) and<br />
Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis (Near<br />
Threatened). All of these species were directly<br />
observed, except D. madagascariensis, which was<br />
30<br />
Table 6. Number of Sherman traps used at each site<br />
Site Altitude (m) Transect (m) Number of traps<br />
Ivohibe 87 960 48<br />
302 1,000 100<br />
Antsiriky 340 1,000 100<br />
420 1,200 50<br />
Ivorona 282 1,000 100<br />
300 1,000 50<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
recorded by observation of recent feeding signs and<br />
traces, and the presence of nests.<br />
Each site was found to support all seven lemur<br />
species recorded (Table 7). However, the sites differed<br />
in terms of relative abundance of different species<br />
(Tables 8 and 9). One site (Ivorona) appeared to<br />
support higher densities (individuals/km) of several<br />
species than the other two sites (Antsiriky and<br />
Ivohibe).<br />
The relative abundance of lemurs was greatest at<br />
Ivorona, and lowest at Antsiriky, where forest<br />
degradation was intense. At Antsiriky, a combination<br />
of forest exploitation and hunting appeared to be<br />
responsible for reduced abundance of lemurs.<br />
Microcebus rufus Rufous Mouse-lemur<br />
Microcebus rufus was observed at all three sites but<br />
was not recorded along the 420 m elevation transect<br />
Table 7. Lemur species recorded in lowland<br />
humid forest at Tsitongambarika<br />
Site Ivohibe Antsiriky Ivorona<br />
Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300<br />
Microcebus rufus + + + - + +<br />
Cheirogaleus major +* + + + + +<br />
Avahi meridionalis +* + + + + +<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus +* + +* + + +<br />
Daubentonia madagascariensis Tr Tr - Tr Tr Tr<br />
Eulemur fulvus collaris + + + + + +<br />
Hapalemur griseus + + + + + +<br />
Total species 7 7 6 6 7 7<br />
Notes: + = species observed; +* = species recorded through<br />
vocalisation or information provided by villagers; - = species not<br />
recorded; Tr = feeding traces and/or nest present.<br />
Table 8. Average number of individuals<br />
encountered per km at night at each study site<br />
Site Ivohibe Antsiriky Ivorona<br />
Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300<br />
Microcebus rufus 2.08 2 2 0 4 1<br />
Cheirogaleus major 0 0.75 0.5 0.8 3.5 2.33<br />
Avahi meridionalis 0 0.5 1 1.66 6 1.66<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus 0.5 0.5 0 0.41 3 1<br />
Total species 2 4 3 3 4 4<br />
Table 9. Average number of individuals encountered<br />
per km during the day-time at each study site<br />
Site Ivohibe Antsiriky Ivorona<br />
Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300<br />
Eulemur fulvus collaris 1.30 2.50 0.83 0.69 2.60 0.16<br />
Hapalemur griseus 0.78 0.25 0.33 0.13 1.60 0.60<br />
Total species 2 2 2 2 2 2
at Antsiriky. The relative abundance of M. rufus<br />
calculated by the linear transect method ranged from<br />
0–4 individuals/km across the six transects, with a<br />
maximum along the 282 m elevation transect at<br />
Ivorona. It is a very active species, seen everywhere<br />
but preferring lianas.<br />
Cheirogaleus major Greater Dwarf Lemur<br />
Cheirogaleus major was recorded at all three sites. The<br />
relative abundance of C. major ranged from 0 to 3.5<br />
individuals/km across the six transects; most<br />
abundantly at Ivorona. In general, this is a solitary<br />
species, which runs along large branches and jumps<br />
rarely.<br />
Avahi meridionalis Southern Woolly Lemur<br />
While Avahi meridionalis was relatively scarce at two<br />
study sites (Ivohibe and Antsiriky), it was the<br />
commonest lemur species encountered in Ivorona<br />
Forest, with a relative abundance of 6 individuals/<br />
km along the 282 m elevation transect. During the<br />
day, two adult and one juvenile A. meridionalis were<br />
seen at their nest in Ivorona Forest.<br />
Plate 6. Southern Woolly Lemur Avahi meridionalis<br />
(Data Deficient) (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY)<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Plate 7. Greater Sportive Lemur Lepilemur mustelinus<br />
(Data Deficient) (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY)<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus Greater Sportive Lemur<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus was the least abundant of the<br />
four nocturnal lemur species observed during the<br />
survey. At Ivorona, L. mustelinus was found in a<br />
tree hole (nest) during the day, with the entrance of<br />
the hole displaying their teeth marks. At night,<br />
L. mustelinus can be difficult to distinguish from<br />
A. meridionalis, if animals are high in trees.<br />
Eulemur collaris Collared Brown Lemur<br />
Eulemur collaris is a cathemeral species, which exhibits<br />
sexual dimorphism. It was usually encountered in<br />
groups, except along the 300 m elevation transect at<br />
Ivorona, where only a single male was found. The<br />
relative abundance of E. collaris was lowest at<br />
Antsiriky, where hunting appeared to be very intense.<br />
Away from the transects, a total of 46 individuals were<br />
observed incidentally at the three sites.<br />
Hapalemur griseus Grey Gentle Lemur<br />
Hapalemur griseus is a small lemur that is very active<br />
in the early morning and late afternoon. At<br />
Tsitongambarika, it generally frequents areas of<br />
shifting cultivation, where it feeds on rice and coffee.<br />
For this reason, H. griseus was recorded infrequently<br />
along the transect lines, with relative densities ranging<br />
from 0.13–1.16 individuals/km.<br />
Daubentonia madagascariensis Aye-aye<br />
Daubentonia madagascariensis was not observed<br />
directly during the survey. However, the species was<br />
recorded at all three study sites on the basis of recent<br />
feeding traces and the presence of nests. Several tree<br />
trunks or bamboos hollowed out by the animal’s teeth<br />
were observed. Many traces of this species were found<br />
at Ivohibe.<br />
■ Capture-release results<br />
Only one species, Microcebus rufus, was captured with<br />
the help of Sherman traps. The number of individuals<br />
31
captured was very low, and even zero at Antsiriky<br />
(Table 10). This low capture rate can be explained by<br />
the fact that natural food sources (fruit, insects, etc.)<br />
were abundant during the time of the survey, so<br />
animals were not attracted to the traps. Five<br />
individuals were trapped at Ivohibe, among which was<br />
a pregnant female.<br />
■ Incidental observations<br />
A number of incidental observations were made away<br />
from the linear transects. At Ivohibe, the survey team<br />
encountered three groups of Eulemur collaris, totalling<br />
12 individuals, plus two groups of Hapalemur<br />
griseus, totalling five animals. Encounter rates at<br />
Antsiriky, were similar, with two groups of E. collaris,<br />
totalling 10 individuals, and two groups of H. griseus,<br />
totalling five individuals, being observed. At Ivorona,<br />
significantly more incidental sightings of cathemeral<br />
lemurs were made; the survey team encountered<br />
four groups of E. collaris, composed of 24 individuals,<br />
as well as six H. griseus. These observations<br />
reinforced the findings from the linear transects that<br />
Ivorona Forest, among the three study sites, supports<br />
the highest lemur densities, with Ivohibe ranked<br />
second.<br />
Microcebus rufus, Eulemur collaris and Avahi<br />
meridionalis females with babies were often<br />
encountered during the survey. This suggests that the<br />
months of November and December are the breeding<br />
period for these lemur species at Tsitongambarika.<br />
■ Human pressures<br />
The human pressures (threats) on lemur populations<br />
and their habitats that were identified during the<br />
survey include: hunting, wood-cutting and shifting<br />
(slash-and-burn) cultivation (tavy). These pressures<br />
were found to be more intense at Ivohibe and<br />
Antsiriky than at Ivorona, perhaps accounting for<br />
the higher lemur densities at the latter site.<br />
Some local people reported that they hunted large<br />
lemurs for adding flavour to the stock that they<br />
prepared food with. Specialised lemur traps were seen<br />
during the survey. The protection of lemurs from<br />
hunting is an important step for conservation of<br />
biodiversity in the Anosy region.<br />
Local people practice shifting cultivation for<br />
growing coffee, bananas and other crops. Villagers<br />
reported that their objective was to get good yields<br />
and that, moreover, they did not have enough fertile<br />
land suitable for fixed cultivation. The practice of<br />
shifting cultivation appears to be resulting in soil<br />
erosion and deforestation. As well as practising<br />
shifting cultivation, villagers cut trees for a<br />
32<br />
Table 10. Capture/release results in the three sites<br />
Site Traps used Microcebus rufus captured<br />
Ivohibe 148 5<br />
Antsiriky 150 0<br />
Ivorona 150 1<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
number of reasons, including the manufacture of<br />
fishing boats.<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
During the survey, seven lemur species were recorded.<br />
The composition of the lemur community of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest is very similar to that of the<br />
nearby Andohahela National Park. The humid forest<br />
sector of Andohahela National Park (Parcel I)<br />
supports eight species of lemur (Feistner and Schmid<br />
1999), including all seven species found at<br />
Tsitongambarika. This indicates that there is no<br />
ecological barrier between the two forests; indeed,<br />
they are connected by a corridor of forest. Only one<br />
species is known from Andohahela Parcel I but not<br />
from Tsitongambarika: Fork-marked Lemur Phaner<br />
furcifer. Feistner and Schmid (1999) reported that<br />
they heard the call of this species only at an altitude<br />
of 1,500 m. Because the survey of Tsitongambarika<br />
focused on lowland humid forest (below 420 m), it is<br />
quite possible that Tsitongambarika supports P.<br />
furcifer at higher elevations.<br />
A comparison of the relative densities of lemur<br />
species at the three survey sites with those at<br />
Andohahela reveals that lemur densities at lower at<br />
Tsitongambarika. This is understandable, given that<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest is currently unprotected.<br />
Within Tsitongambarika, relative abundance of<br />
lemurs appears to be low in Ivohibe Forest and very<br />
low in Antsiriky Forest. Differences in the type and<br />
intensity of human pressures among the three study<br />
sites seem to explain these differences in relative lemur<br />
abundance.<br />
Recorded lemur species richness in<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest (only seven species) is low<br />
compared with that of the other humid forests. For<br />
example, 13 lemur species have been recorded at<br />
Andringitra Nature Reserve (Sterling and Ramaroson<br />
1996), 12 species have been recorded at Ranomafana<br />
National Park (Mittermeier et al. 1992), 10 species<br />
have been recorded at Anjanaharibe-Sud Special<br />
Reserve (Schmid and Smolker 1998), 11 species have<br />
been recorded in Zahamena Reserve, and 10 species<br />
have been recorded on the Masoala Peninsula<br />
(Sterling and Rakotoarison, 1998).<br />
The low richness of diurnal lemur species in<br />
Tsitgongambarika Forest can be partly explained by<br />
the low number of Hapalemur species. Only one<br />
species of Hapalemur was recorded at<br />
Tsitongambarika, compared with three species at<br />
Andringitra. Another factor was the absence of any<br />
strictly diurnal lemur species. For example, the Group<br />
for Study and Research on the Primates (Groupes<br />
d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Primates; GERP)<br />
of Madagascar confirmed that the humid forests of<br />
Maromizaha and Ambato (Moramanga) support<br />
four strictly diurnal lemur species: Indri Indri indri,<br />
Red-bellied Lemur Eulemur rubriventer, Black-andwhite<br />
Ruffed Lemur Varecia variegata variegata and
Diademed Sifaka Propithecus diadema (GERP 2003).<br />
None of these species was observed at<br />
Tsitongambarika. The geographical distribution of<br />
Eulemur rubriventer and Varecia variegata is limited<br />
to the south by the Mananara River, that of Indri<br />
indri by the Mangoro River, and that of Propithecus<br />
diadema by Andringitra National Park and the<br />
Rienana River.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
All seven lemur species recorded during the survey<br />
were found at all three study sites but at different<br />
relative abundances. The variation in abundance may<br />
be due to a combination of two pressures: forest<br />
destruction and hunting. Eulemur collaris seems to<br />
be the most susceptible to these threats, followed by<br />
Hapalemur griseus, Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur<br />
mustelinus. The pressures with the most irreversible<br />
impacts are wood cutting and clearance of forest<br />
through shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation, because<br />
these totally remove lemurs’ forest habitats.<br />
Although Tsitongambarika Forest does not<br />
appear to be as rich in lemur species as some other<br />
forests, it remains a high conservation priority<br />
because it includes a significant area of lowland humid<br />
forest, which supports two globally threatened lemurs,<br />
one Near Threatened and one Data Deficient lemur,<br />
as well as three other lemur species.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
1. All three study sites seem to require conservation<br />
action, as the relative abundance of lemurs appears<br />
low compared with other (protected) humid<br />
forests.<br />
2. Shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation is leading to<br />
deforestation and soil erosion. Local people should<br />
be taught different farming methods, and informed<br />
about the consequences of this harmful practice.<br />
3. To reduce the need for hunting to meet local<br />
people’s protein requirements, livestock-raising<br />
should be considered.<br />
4. The local population should be made aware of the<br />
need to protect the forest and its biodiversity, and<br />
more responsibility should be given to the local<br />
authorities.<br />
5. Ecotourism should be promoted as a source of<br />
income for local communities, and as an incentive<br />
for them to protect the forest. In this regard,<br />
Ivorona Forest has significant potential for<br />
ecotourism development, because it is the most<br />
accessible site for visitors from Tolagnaro, and the<br />
relative abundance of lemurs is still high compared<br />
with the other two sites.<br />
6. The results of the survey are not sufficient to<br />
precisely identify the most important sites for<br />
lemur conservation within Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest. Therefore, further studies should be carried<br />
out periodically, as in other protected areas.<br />
Editors’ note<br />
The following table assesses the likely identity of lemurs at Tsitongambarika, if the taxonomic arrangement of<br />
compares taxonomic treatment used in the field guide Lemurs of Madagascar, 3rd edition (Mittermeier et al.<br />
2010) were followed; IUCN adopts this taxonomy in threat assessment, and so threat categories are also given:<br />
VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Threatened; DD, Data Deficient; LC, Least Concern.<br />
Name used in this chapter<br />
Name used in Lemurs of Madagascar,<br />
3rd edition (Mittermeier et al. 2010),<br />
and IUCN 2010 threat level Notes from Mittermeier et al. (2010)<br />
Microcebus rufus Microcebus sp. No DNA studies carried out at Tsitongambarika; nearest animals<br />
Rufous Mouse-lemur unidentified mouse lemur tested (M. rufus) c.180 km away and unlikely to be same species.<br />
Cheirogaleus major Cheirogaleus major Animals from the “Vohimena mountains” i.e. Tsitongambarika<br />
Greater Dwarf Lemur Greater Dwarf Lemur (LC) specifically identified as C. major.<br />
Avahi meridionalis Avahi meridionalis<br />
Southern Woolly Lemur Southern Woolly Lemur (DD)<br />
Lepilemur mustelinus Lepilemur fleuretae Known only from Manangotry parcel of Andohahela National Park,<br />
Greater Sportive Lemur Andohahela Sportive Lemur (DD) and no other Lepilemur sp. is known in the region. Manangotry is<br />
contiguous with Tsitongambarika, so both may hold L. fleuretae.<br />
Eulemur collaris Eulemur collaris<br />
Collared Brown Lemur Red-collared Brown Lemur (VU)<br />
Hapalemur griseus Hapalemur meridionalis All Hapalemur in far SE Madagascar are mapped as this species<br />
Grey Gentle Lemur Southern Bamboo Lemur (VU)<br />
Daubentonia madagascariensis Daubentonia madagascariensis<br />
Aye-aye Aye-aye (NT)<br />
33
INTRODUCTION<br />
Reptiles and amphibians make up half of<br />
Madagascar’s vertebrate species, and are unique<br />
globally, with endemism of 95% and 99% respectively.<br />
235 amphibian and 370 reptile species are recognised<br />
for the island, not counting at least 150 new amphibian<br />
and 50 new reptile species discovered between 1994<br />
and 2007 but not yet described (Glaw and Vences,<br />
2007). The first studies initiated by Rio Tinto QMM<br />
(QIT Madagascar Minerals, QMM) to assess the<br />
effects of the implementation of its ilmenite project on<br />
the regional herpetofauna, in 1989 and 1990, showed<br />
that the Anosy region is one of special interest owing<br />
to the high degree of endemism and the presence of<br />
many amphibian and reptile species of conservation<br />
concern (Blanc 1985, Blommers-Schlösser and Blanc<br />
1991). The remaining forests of the Anosy region are<br />
subject to a diverse range of threats (Asity Madagascar<br />
2009), of which shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation,<br />
selective timber exploitation, charcoal production and<br />
hunting are the most important. The lowland rain<br />
forests, including those of Tsitongambarika, have been<br />
classified as one of the most threatened habitats in<br />
Madagascar and over 10% of the original extent of<br />
Tsitongambarika has been lost between 1999 and 2005<br />
(Andriamasimanana 2008, Asity Madagascar 2009).<br />
Knowledge of the distribution and status of the<br />
herpetofauna of Tsitongambarika dates back to<br />
surveys of Tsitongambarika I in 1990. More than a<br />
decade later, these were complemented by biological<br />
inventories of Tsitongambarika II and III. In the 2002<br />
rainy season, inventories were made at one site within<br />
Tsitongambarika II. In 2006, a further site in<br />
Tsitongambarika II and two sites in Tsitongambarika<br />
III were surveyed. Results from these surveys can be<br />
consolidated to provide a preliminary checklist of the<br />
herpetofauna of Tsitongambarika Forest, and<br />
compared with data from other sites in the Anosy<br />
region collected by QIT Madagascar Minerals SA over<br />
the last 15 years (Ramanamanjato 2007) and with the<br />
results of surveys by other scientists at Andohahela<br />
National Park.<br />
STUDY SITES<br />
Between 1990 and 2006, seven sites were visited inside<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest. These were all lowland<br />
humid forest sites, at elevations below 850 m:<br />
1. Manantantely, Lakandava and Farafara in<br />
Tsitongambarika I;<br />
34<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 5: THE HERPETOFAUNA OF<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
JEAN BAPTISTE RAMANAMANJATO AND SOANARY CLAUDE HERY<br />
2. Ivorona, and Maromoky in Tsitongambarika II;<br />
3. Ampasy and Ivohibe in Tsitongambarika III.<br />
■ Tsitongambarika I<br />
Herpetofauna inventories of three sites in<br />
Tsitongambarika I Classified Forest were carried out<br />
by Rio Tinto QMM in 1990 (Creighton 1992,<br />
Ramanamanjato 1993). Manantantely is situated on<br />
a south-facing catchment, 7 km from Tolagnaro (Fort<br />
Dauphin), while Lakandava is located on an eastfacing<br />
catchment, 10 km north of Tolagnaro. Both<br />
sites supported dense humid forest close to the<br />
transition zone between the dense humid forests of<br />
eastern Madagascar and the dry deciduous forests of<br />
western Madagascar. They experience marked<br />
seasonality, with a pronounced dry season.<br />
During the early 1990s, the forest at Manatantely<br />
and Lakandava played an important role in<br />
protecting catchments of streams and rivers essential<br />
for irrigated rice cultivation in Soanierana and<br />
Ampasy Nahampoana communes. Over the last<br />
decade, however, the deforestation rate has increased<br />
to 2.56% per year (Andriamasimanana 2008), mainly<br />
owing to shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation,<br />
extraction of construction timber and ebony (at<br />
Enato) and charcoal production (at Andranara).<br />
The village of Farafara is situated 23 km north of<br />
Tolagnaro, in Mahatalaky commune. The survey site<br />
was located nearby in Andohavolo Forest (24°50’42”S<br />
47°00’56”E), near the boundary between the classified<br />
forests of Tsitongambarika I and II.<br />
The Farafara survey site supports dense lowland<br />
humid evergreen forest with a closed canopy at 15–<br />
17 m (Ravelonahina and Ramarosandratana 2002).<br />
Several rivers have their sources in this forest before<br />
flowing north-east to the Indian Ocean, including the<br />
Antorendriky, the Mandromondromotra and the<br />
Anandrano.<br />
■ Tsitongambarika II<br />
Ivorona, located to the south of the Ebakika River,<br />
was surveyed in 2002 and Maramoky Forest, north<br />
of the Ebakika River but south of the Iaboakoho<br />
River, was surveyed in 2006.<br />
The village of Ivorona is located 24 km north-west<br />
of Tolagnaro, in Ifarantsa Commune. The survey site<br />
(24°49’36”S 46°57’05”E) was located 5 km north of<br />
Ivorona, in the southern limit of Tsitongambarika II.<br />
The site supports dense humid evergreen forest at low<br />
to medium elevations, with a closed canopy at 15–18<br />
m. It constitutes the only extant forest corridor linking<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest in the east with Andohahela<br />
National Park in the west. The Mamoareny and
Map 5. Herpetofauna survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
35
Marohala rivers both have their sources in Ivorona<br />
Forest, the former flowing south and the latter northeast.<br />
Maromoky Forest is situated at the northern limit<br />
of Tsitongambarika II, between the Ebakika and<br />
Vatomirindry rivers. The site supports lowland humid<br />
forest, with a closed canopy which can reach 15–20 m<br />
high. River valleys are very degraded by agriculture.<br />
The eastern slope of this forest used—a long time ago—<br />
to be linked to Sainte Luce littoral forest 20 km away.<br />
Shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation is prevalent<br />
in Tsitongambarika II, and constitutes a major threat<br />
to the forest. A community-based forest management<br />
programme has been initiated among the local<br />
villagers.<br />
■ Tsitongambarika III<br />
The forest north of Tsitongambarika II, provisionally<br />
called Tsitongambarika III, stretches across<br />
Mahatalaky, as far north as Manambato. It is limited<br />
to the north and west by the Manampanihy River. In<br />
2006, an inventory was made at Ampasy and Ivohibe<br />
forests, respectively south and north of the Iabakoho<br />
River. Both are dense lowland humid evergreen<br />
forests at 80–400 m elevation with a closed canopy at<br />
12–20 m. The forest is under considerable pressure,<br />
particularly from shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation<br />
which is causing very serious habitat fragmentation.<br />
METHODS<br />
Pitfall traps and direct observations were used to<br />
inventory herpetofauna at each study site. For every<br />
animal observed or captured, the following data were<br />
recorded: date, location, habitat type, micro-habitat<br />
type and behaviour.<br />
Direct observation aimed to record the maximum<br />
possible number of species, focusing particularly on<br />
globally threatened and locally endemic species (i.e.,<br />
those whose global ranges are entirely confined to<br />
south-east Madagascar).<br />
Systematic searches were made during the day and<br />
night of all locations where reptiles and amphibians<br />
were likely to hunt, shelter or breed, across all habitats<br />
and topography. A six volt head torch was used for<br />
night-time observations, in order to locate animals<br />
by their eye-shine (along transects, from nightfall to<br />
around midnight).<br />
At each site, two lines of pitfall traps were<br />
employed simultaneously, one in a valley and one on<br />
a hillside or ridge crest. Each trap line comprised 11<br />
15-litre plastic buckets, spaced at 10 m intervals. The<br />
buckets were set in the ground so that the brim was<br />
level with the ground, and were interspaced with a<br />
plastic fence, 50 cm high, constituting a barrier to<br />
animals and thus guiding them into the buckets. Trap<br />
lines were left functional for seven days in each<br />
location, and checked once a day.<br />
Where necessary, voucher specimens were<br />
collected for identification and to form a reference<br />
36<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
collection. Collected individuals were anaesthetised<br />
with chlorotone before being fixed with a 10%<br />
formalin solution. Afterwards, they were transferred<br />
into an aqueous mixture containing 20% formalin.<br />
Voucher specimens were deposited at the Terrestrial<br />
Population Laboratory at the Department of Animal<br />
Biology of the University of Antananarivo. All<br />
animals not retained as specimens were released where<br />
captured.<br />
RESULTS<br />
In total, 126 species were recorded in<br />
Tsitongambarika, comprising 57 amphibians and 69<br />
reptiles (Table 11). The chameleon Brookesia nasus<br />
has also been recorded by others, bringing the total<br />
to 70 reptiles. The full list of species recorded during<br />
the surveys is presented in Table 12. Of these, 12 are<br />
thought to be endemic to the Anosy region, and six<br />
(four amphibians and two reptiles) are probably new<br />
to science.<br />
Table 11. Species richness per site<br />
Amphibian Reptile Total<br />
Site species species species<br />
Manantantely 30 36 66<br />
Lakandava 24 16 40<br />
Ivorona 28 35 63<br />
Farafara 26 33 59<br />
Maromoky 28 23 51<br />
Ampasy 31 20 51<br />
Ivohibe 30 27 57<br />
Total 57 69 126<br />
Figure 1 shows herpetological species-accumulation<br />
curves for each site. It appears that plateaux of<br />
discovery were reached at some sites (e.g.<br />
Manantantely) by the last survey day, but that at<br />
others (e.g. Farafara, Ivohibe) further surveys would<br />
have uncovered even more species.<br />
Figure 1. Herpetological species-accumulation<br />
curves for each study site
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 12. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika<br />
TGK I TGK II TGK III<br />
1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN<br />
Species Manantantely Lakandava Farafara Ivorona Maromoky Ampasy Ivohibe sites status*<br />
AMPHIBIANS<br />
Agyptodactylus madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Anodonthyla boulengerii 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<br />
Anodonthyla nigrigularis 1 1 2 DD<br />
Blommersia domerguei 1 1<br />
Boehmantis microtympanum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 EN<br />
Boophis andohahela 1 1 2 DD<br />
Boophis brachychir 1 1 DD<br />
Boophis doulioti 1 1 2<br />
Boophis erythrodactylus 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Boophis luteus 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<br />
Boophis madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Boophis majori 1 1 2 NT<br />
Boophis miniatus 1 1<br />
Boophis opisthodon 1 1 1 3<br />
Boophis sp. n. 1 1 1 1 3<br />
Boophis sp. n. 2 1 1<br />
Gephyromantis asper 1 1 2<br />
Gephyromantis decaryi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 NT<br />
Gephyromantis eiselti 1 1 1 1 4 DD<br />
Gephyromantis klemmeri 1 1 VU<br />
Gephyromantis leucocephalus 1 1 1 3 NT<br />
Gephyromantis luteus 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Gephyromantis redimitus 1 1 1 3<br />
Gephyromantis thelenae 1 1 1 3 DD<br />
Gephyromantis ventrimaculatus 1 1<br />
Gephyromantis sp. n. 1 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Guibemantis bicalcaratus 1 1 2<br />
Guibemantis depressiceps 1 1 1 3<br />
Guibemantis liber 1 1 2<br />
Guibemantis tornieri 1 1 1 3<br />
Heterixalus boettgeri 1 1 1 3<br />
Laliostoma labrosum 1 1<br />
Mantella haraldmeieri 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 VU<br />
Mantidactylus aerumnalis 1 1 2<br />
Mantidactylus betsileanus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Mantidactylus biporus 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<br />
Mantidactylus curtus 1 1<br />
Mantidactylus femoralis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<br />
Mantidactylus grandidieri 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Mantidactylus aff. grandidieri 1 1<br />
Mantidactylus lugubris 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Mantidactylus majori 1 1<br />
Mantidactylus opiparis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<br />
Mantidactylus ulcerosus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Mantidactylus sp. n. 1 1 1 1 3<br />
Paradoxophyla palmata 1 1<br />
37
38<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 12 ... continued. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika<br />
TGK I TGK II TGK III<br />
1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN<br />
Species Manantantely Lakandava Farafara Ivorona Maromoky Ampasy Ivohibe sites status*<br />
Platypelis grandis 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Plethodontohyla bipunctata 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Plethodontohyla inguinalis 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Plethodontohyla notosticta 1 1 1 3<br />
Ptychadena mascareniensis 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Rhombophryne allaudi 1 1<br />
Scaphiophryne spinosa 1 1<br />
Spinomantis aglavei 1 1<br />
Spinomantis bertini 1 1 2 NT<br />
Spinomantis brunae 1 1 EN<br />
Stumpffia sp. aff. tetradactyla “Southeast” 1 1 1 1 1 5 DD<br />
Total number of species per site 30 24 26 28 28 31 30<br />
REPTILES<br />
Acrantophis dumerili 1 1 VU<br />
Amphiglossus macrocercus 1 1<br />
Amphiglossus melanurus 1 1 1 3<br />
Amphiglossus ornaticeps 1 1 2<br />
Amphiglossus punctatus 1 1<br />
Amphiglossus sp. 1 1<br />
Bibilava lateralis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Bibilava epistibes 1 1 2<br />
Bibilava infrasignatus 1 1 1 3<br />
Brookesia nasus 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Brookesia superciliaris 1 1 1 3<br />
Calumma nasutum 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Compsophis boulengeri 1 1 2<br />
Compsophis infralineata 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Crocodylus niloticus 1 1 1 3<br />
Dromicodryas bernieri 1 1 1 3<br />
Ebenavia inunguis 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Furcifer balteatus 1 1<br />
Furcifer lateralis 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Furcifer oustaleti 1 1<br />
Furcifer verrucosus 1 1 1 3<br />
Geckolepis maculate 1 1 1 3<br />
Geckolepis typical 1 1 2<br />
Hemidactylus mercatorius 1 1<br />
Ithycyphus goudoti 1 1 1 3<br />
Ithycyphus miniatus 1 1<br />
Ithycyphus oursi 1 1<br />
Ithycyphus perineti 1 1 2<br />
Langaha madagascariensis 1 1<br />
Leioheterodon madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Leioheterodon modestus 1 1 2<br />
Liophidium rhodogaster 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Liophidium torquatum 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Liophidium vaillanti 1 1
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 12 ... continued. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika<br />
TGK I TGK II TGK III<br />
1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN<br />
Species Manantantely Lakandava Farafara Ivorona Maromoky Ampasy Ivohibe sites status*<br />
Liophidium sp. n. 1 1<br />
Liopholidophis sp. n. 1 1 1 3<br />
Lygodactylus madagascariensis 1 1 1 3<br />
Lygodactylus miops 1 1 1 3<br />
Lygodactylus sp. 1 1<br />
Trachylepis elegans delphinensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Trachylepis gravenhorstii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Madagascarophis colubrinus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Madascincus igneocaudatus 1 1<br />
Madascincus melanopleura 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Micropisthodon ochraceus 1 1<br />
Mimophis mahfalensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7<br />
Oplurus quadrimaculatus 1 1 1 1 1 5<br />
Paragehyra gabriellae 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Phelsuma lineate 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Phelsuma madagascariensis 1 1 2<br />
Phelsuma modesta 1 1<br />
Phelsuma quadriocellata 1 1 1 3<br />
Phelsuma sp. 1 1 2<br />
Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus 1 1<br />
Pseudoxyrhopus microps 1 1 1 3<br />
Pseudoxyrhopus sokosoko 1 1<br />
Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus 1 1<br />
Sanzinia madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 VU<br />
Stenophis arctifasciatus 1 1 1 3<br />
Stenophis betsileanus 1 1 2<br />
Stenophis gaimardi 1 1<br />
Stenophis guentheri 1 1<br />
Typhlops ocularis 1 1<br />
Uroplatus malahelo 1 1<br />
Uroplatus sikorae 1 1 1 3<br />
Zonosaurus aeneus 1 1<br />
Zonosaurus anelanelany 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Zonosaurus laticaudatus 1 1 2<br />
Zonosaurus maximus 1 1 1 1 4<br />
Total number of species per site 36 16 33 35 23 20 27<br />
Unrecorded potential species<br />
AMPHIBIANS<br />
Madecassophryne truebae EN<br />
REPTILES<br />
Calumma brevicorne<br />
Calumma gastrotaenia<br />
Calumma oshaughnessyi<br />
Phelsuma antanosy CR<br />
Phelsuma malamakibo<br />
Pseudoxyrhopus kely EN<br />
Uroplatus malama<br />
Notes:* Global IUCN Red List status: CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; DD = Data Deficient.<br />
Taxonomy and nomenclature follows Glaw and Vences (2007) and IUCN (2010).<br />
39
■ Notes on threatened and restrictedrange<br />
species<br />
Boehmantis microtympanum is a globally Endangered<br />
Anosy endemic frog. This species was found<br />
abundantly on rocks of watercourse or the rivers in<br />
the closed-canopy forest. It is active during both<br />
daytime and night and is abundant in<br />
Tsitongambarika. However, some streams harbouring<br />
this species are now deprived of water except during<br />
the rainy season, perhaps owing to habitat loss or<br />
climate change.<br />
Heterixalus boettgeri is known from only six sites.<br />
It was observed on the leaves of vegetation located at<br />
the forest periphery.<br />
Mantella haraldmeieri (Plate 8) is a globally<br />
Vulnerable Anosy endemic. It was only found in<br />
Tsitongambarika I during this study. Males called<br />
during the daytime. Its habitats comprise herbaceous<br />
plants and rocks by watercourses near or in the forest,<br />
including the Marohala River at Ivorona. In Farafara<br />
Forest, this species appears to be threatened by<br />
microclimate change. Some streams harbouring this<br />
species now lack water except during the rainy season,<br />
perhaps owing to habitat loss or climate change.<br />
Paragehyra gabriellae (Plate 9) is an Anosy<br />
endemic gecko restricted to rocks in the humid dense<br />
forest of Ivorona and Farafara, and may well be<br />
40<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
globally threatened. It is a nocturnal species, staying<br />
in rocky cavities by day, and adheres its eggs to the<br />
underside of a sloping rock. Some rocks that provide<br />
shelter for Paragehyra gabriellae are exposed to sun in<br />
the study sites, owing to habitat loss. The species was<br />
discovered in 1990 during a study by Rio Tinto QMM<br />
in the forest of Ambatorongorongo and Manantantely<br />
(Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994) and recorded again<br />
by Ramanamanjato in 2001 (Ramanamanjato et al.<br />
2002).<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
South-east Madagascar holds a remarkable variety<br />
of natural habitats ranging from evergreen humid<br />
forests to sub-desert spiny bush, including littoral<br />
forests, coastal areas and high mountains (Goodman<br />
et al. 1997). According to data collected by Rio Tinto<br />
QMM (in 1989/90 and from 1998 on), and by the<br />
World Wide Fund for Nature (in 1995), only the<br />
humid forest of the Anosy mountain chain holds a<br />
comparable total vertebrate species richness to<br />
Tsitongambarika. In Anosy, the majority of species<br />
are also reptiles and amphibians.<br />
To date, within Tsitongambarika, the most<br />
amphibian and reptile species have been recorded at<br />
Plate 8. Mantella<br />
haraldmeieri (Vulnerable)<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)<br />
Plate 9. Paragehyra<br />
gabriellae<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)
Ivorona and Manantantely. The former is a unique<br />
corridor between the Vohimena and Anosy mountain<br />
chains and the latter constitutes a rare example of<br />
remaining habitat on the southern slope of the<br />
Vohimena chain.<br />
Some similarities can be seen among the humid<br />
forests of the region: on the one hand between littoral<br />
forests (Mandena and Sainte Luce) and the forest of<br />
Tsitongambarika, and on the other between the Anosy<br />
and Tsitongambarika mountain chains. For example,<br />
Tsitongambarika shares 19 amphibian and 42 reptile<br />
species with the littoral forests. Now, however, habitat<br />
fragmentation has led to a long period of isolation of<br />
Tsitongambarika from other areas. For example,<br />
Farafara has no direct contact with Andohahela<br />
National Park and now only Ivorona links<br />
Manangotry and Tsitongambarika, with a corridor<br />
that is now only about 0.5 to 1 km wide.<br />
If such habitat loss and fragmentation continues,<br />
the endemic and characteristic species of the region,<br />
particularly lowland species, may well disappear soon,<br />
leaving predominantly generalists (Ramanamanjato<br />
2000) and increased numbers of invasive exotic species<br />
such as Rattus rattus (Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn<br />
2001).<br />
Lowland forest has been most reduced, then dry<br />
forest, mid-altitude humid forest, and littoral forest.<br />
From 1950 to 1995, the area of Manantenina, in the<br />
northern Anosy region was most impacted—losing<br />
19,052 ha of lowland forest through shifting (slashand-burn)<br />
agriculture—followed by Analamary,<br />
which lost 9,518 ha. Unfortunately, eight species<br />
endemic to the Anosy region are found only in<br />
lowland forest, often very locally (e.g. Boehmantis<br />
microtympanum, Mantella haraldmeieri, Paragehyra<br />
gabriellae, Phelsuma antanosy and Pseudoxyrhopus<br />
kely). Habitat loss may cause the extinction of these<br />
species (Ramanamanjato 2000, Ramanamanjato et<br />
al. 2002).<br />
Six apparently new species were discovered during<br />
surveys (two Boophis, one Gephyromantis, one<br />
Mantidactylus, one Liophidium and one<br />
Liopholidophis). These are, on current knowledge,<br />
endemic solely to Tsitongambarika.<br />
The rare snake Micropisthodon ochraceus was<br />
observed at Ivorona. It is a littoral forest species<br />
known previously from Mananara, Itampolo in<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Fénérive Est and Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato<br />
unpublished data) and its presence in south-east<br />
Madagascar is a major range extension. Likewise,<br />
records of Ithycyphus perineti, known previously from<br />
the region of Perinet and Moramanga, from<br />
Tsitongambarika are the first in south-east<br />
Madagascar. The known distributions of Boehmantis<br />
microtympanum, Mantella haraldmeieri and<br />
Paragehyra gabriellae were extended northwards.<br />
These species are endemic to south-east Madagascar.<br />
A number of endemic species with very restricted<br />
distributions within south-east Madagascar were not<br />
recorded during surveys and may not occur at<br />
Tsitongambarika. These include Phelsuma antanosy,<br />
Phelsuma malamakibo and Calumma capuroni. The<br />
latter two remain known only from Andohahela<br />
National Park.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Twenty species of reptiles and amphibians, including<br />
12 found in Tsitongambarika, are not found anywhere<br />
in Madagascar except the Anosy region. Several of<br />
them are known only from two forest blocks totalling<br />
less than 10 km 2 . Moreover, little is known of the<br />
ecology and population dynamics of most of these<br />
species. This preliminary analysis shows the priority<br />
of lowland forest, of which the largest block is found<br />
in the Vohimena chain under 800 m. The restrictedrange<br />
species are sensitive to habitat changes, and<br />
even fragmentation of the Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
into three big blocks exposes several to risk. If habitat<br />
loss continues at its current speed, these Anosy<br />
endemic species may become extinct within the next<br />
ten years.<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
The massif of Tsitongambarika should be included<br />
in the Madagascar protected area network to ensure<br />
sustainable management, with a core conservation<br />
zone, a buffer zone for sustainable natural resource<br />
exploitation and another zone for social and economic<br />
activities. The forest corridor of Ivorona should be<br />
included in the core conservation zone.<br />
41
OBJECTIVES<br />
Bird surveys of Tsitongambarika Forest had the<br />
following objectives:<br />
1. Make an inventory of the avifauna that<br />
complements past studies;<br />
2. Collect information on species that trigger<br />
Important Bird Area (IBA) status for<br />
Tsitongambarika: globally threatened species<br />
(IBA category A1), restricted-range species (IBA<br />
category A2) and biome-restricted species (IBA<br />
category A3);<br />
3. Identify priority sites for the conservation of the<br />
avifauna of Tsitongambarika Forest where<br />
ecological monitoring, forest restoration and<br />
ecotourism programmes could be initiated in<br />
future;<br />
4. Briefly describe the micro-habitats and sites that<br />
support important forest bird species, and identify<br />
threats to forest birds and their habitats;<br />
5. Propose measures for reducing these threats;<br />
6. Propose an ecological monitoring programme for<br />
priority sites identified.<br />
METHODS<br />
■ Inventory and census of forest bird<br />
species<br />
As the main objective of the survey was to compile a<br />
biological inventory, the approach adopted was to<br />
look for the maximum number of species present in<br />
the forest areas that were studied. To this end, the<br />
following methods were used in a systematic manner:<br />
observation of birds from visual detection, a fixed<br />
watch point and call playback.<br />
Recording of birds by visual detection is possible<br />
when the observer is armed with a prior knowledge<br />
of the type of habitat used by the species. Species are<br />
identified with the help of a pair of binoculars or by<br />
listening to their characteristic calls. Rates of<br />
detection can be increased by: locating roosting birds<br />
by the presence of excrement beneath them; locating<br />
nests; and using a prior knowledge of the stratum used<br />
by the species in the forest (e.g. forest floor,<br />
undergrowth, forest canopy, etc.). These approaches<br />
allow many species to be easily located within<br />
appropriate habitat, even if they do not vocalise. The<br />
inventory was timed to coincide with the breeding<br />
season of many forest birds. Systematic searches for<br />
active nests enabled detailed observations to be made<br />
42<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 6: THE BIRDS OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong><br />
<strong>FOREST</strong><br />
MARC RABENANDRASANA, MICHAEL RAMANESIMANANA, LOVAHASINA RASOLONDRAIBE,<br />
BRUNO RAVELOSON AND RIVO RABARISOA<br />
of breeding pairs building their nests, feeding young,<br />
and leading dependent young away from the nest.<br />
Fixed watch points involved the observer stopping<br />
at a point affording a view over a large area of forest,<br />
particularly including the tops of trees. This allows<br />
bird species flying above the canopy, such as swallows<br />
and birds of prey, to be recorded. The observer may<br />
stay at the watch point for period of time ranging<br />
from a few minutes to a few hours.<br />
Call playback involves playing back a species’s<br />
characteristic calls from a cassette-player, CD player<br />
or MP3 player and listening to hear whether any birds<br />
respond to the call of their own species. This method<br />
can be used to ascertain the presence of particular<br />
bird species within a habitat. It is important that the<br />
surveyor has prior knowledge of the calls of the birds<br />
being surveyed for.<br />
■ Other complementary inventory<br />
methods<br />
The aforementioned methods were complemented by<br />
identifying birds on the basis of traces left by them,<br />
such as feathers, nests or pellets of waste regurgitated<br />
by birds of prey. During visits to the forest, surveyors<br />
aimed to cover as large an area as possible, in order<br />
to look for evidence of birds.<br />
During each visit to the forest, the survey team<br />
noted the presence of other vertebrate taxa<br />
encountered, particularly lemurs, and made a general<br />
assessment of threats facing the habitat being visited.<br />
Conversational and indirect questioning surveys were<br />
carried out with guides, local authorities and some<br />
villagers, to collect further information on threats to<br />
bird species and their habitats.<br />
■ Additional data collection after the<br />
main survey<br />
Following the main survey in 2005–2006, additional<br />
data on the avifauna of Tsitongambarika Forest were<br />
collected during various conservation activities<br />
implemented by the <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong><br />
Madagascar Programme, Asity Madagascar<br />
(formerly Asity) and Rio Tinto QMM (QIT<br />
Madagascar Minerals, QMM). These activities<br />
included participatory monitoring with local<br />
communities from Anka-Maromagniry and Enato<br />
villages on the eastern side of Tsitongambarika I (June<br />
and November 2007), a series of birdwatching events<br />
held in Ivorona Forest on the western side of<br />
Tsitongambarika I (November 2006 and October<br />
2007), and ad hoc observations made during visits by<br />
scientists and birdwatchers.
Map 6. Bird survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
43
■ Evaluation of the relative abundance of<br />
forest bird populations<br />
MacKinnon lists<br />
Bird surveys were timed to coincide with periods of<br />
high bird activity: from dawn until 10h00, from 16h00<br />
until 18h00 and 19h00 to 21h00. The observer walked<br />
along a predetermined track at an average speed of<br />
about 1.5 km per hour. All species detected during<br />
the journey were recorded in the form of MacKinnon<br />
lists. Occasionally, bird calls were recorded or<br />
photographs were taken.<br />
MacKinnon lists were compiled by recording the<br />
first 10 species encountered (whether individually or<br />
in groups). Species encountered were only added to<br />
the list if they were not previously included on it, and<br />
a new list was started once the previous one contained<br />
10 different species. No fixed itinerary is followed or<br />
Location<br />
IVOHIBE <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
Maximum elevation: 675 m<br />
Elevations visited: 87–307 m<br />
Campsite 1:<br />
24°34’11.7”S 47°12’22.9”E<br />
Located 2.5 hours’ walk west of<br />
Antsotso village<br />
Campsite 2:<br />
24°32’53.9”S 47°11’55.4”E<br />
Located 5 hours’ walk northwest<br />
of Antsotso village<br />
44<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
set distance covered during the compilation of<br />
MacKinnon lists. However, it is necessary to avoid<br />
inventorying the same route twice, in order to avoid<br />
repeat counts of the same individuals.<br />
The MacKinnon list method was chosen because<br />
it offers a robust method for collecting data on the<br />
relative abundance of different bird species in forest<br />
habitats. However the method has some limitations.<br />
It is not a reliable method for collecting data on the<br />
relative abundance of nocturnal species or species that<br />
are particularly rare, shy or cryptic. Moreover, the<br />
method tends to over-estimate the relative abundance<br />
of species that are particularly vocal or conspicuous.<br />
Jaccard Similarity Index<br />
The Jaccard Similarity Index was chosen for studying<br />
the differences between the specific composition of<br />
the bird communities at pairs of sites.<br />
Table 13. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses of and threats<br />
to bird species and their habitats<br />
Description<br />
This site is an area of eastern evergreen forest located on a very uneven relief formed by hills and valleys. Slopes<br />
on the windward side of the mountain, located directly in front of the coastal area, support drier forest<br />
vegetation. Slopes on the more sheltered western side of the mountain are covered with very thick rainforest.<br />
The forest canopy is only half-closed along ridge crests and on the summits of hills. In basins and valleys,<br />
however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the herbaceous layer is not well developed<br />
and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead leaves. Dominant understorey species<br />
include: Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae), Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species belonging to the<br />
Poaceae family.<br />
The shrub layer is formed of shrubs and very dense young trees measuring 3–8 m high. The canopy layer is<br />
formed of big trees, exceeding 20 m in height. The following species are present: Travellers’ Palm Ravenala<br />
madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae), Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae), Calophyllum sp. (Clusiaceae), Faucherea sp.<br />
(Sapotaceae) and Uapaca sp. (Phyllanthaceae). The latter three species are more abundant in the eastern side of<br />
the visited area. In places, very dense creeping bamboo (Poaceae) entirely covers the big trees and forms an<br />
undergrowth that is often impenetrable. On tree branches in the canopy layer, some orchid species of the genera<br />
Asplenium and Bulbophyllum can be found. Mosses are rare on the trees and cover only a tiny part of the trunks<br />
and the branches.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Uses<br />
• Collecting forest products (lianas) for the production of nets used by lobster fishermen;<br />
• Collecting medicinal plants and wild honey;<br />
• A community forest management association (communauté de base or CoBa) has recently been created to<br />
protect Ivohibe Forest, conserve biodiversity and support sustainable development.<br />
Threats<br />
• Selective logging for boat construction, particularly of Faucherea sp. (Sapotaceae) and Calophyllum sp.<br />
(Clusiaceae). Trees with slightly curved trunks are often the most highly sought after;<br />
• Five trees cut for boat construction were observed within the study site;<br />
• Collecting timber for house construction;<br />
• Clearing for shifting cultivation (or tavy). The most extensively cleared forest areas are located in the northeastern<br />
parts of valleys and hills with gentle slopes;<br />
• Poaching of terrestrial species.<br />
Bird species<br />
• Richness: 63<br />
• Madagascar-endemic species: 35<br />
• Threatened species: 2<br />
• Near Threatened species: 2
C<br />
Jaccard Similarity Index =<br />
N1 + N2 + C<br />
N1 : Number of species at site 1<br />
N2 : Number of species at site 2<br />
C : Number of species in common to both sites<br />
STUDY SITES<br />
The following sites were visited during the avifauna<br />
survey of Tsitongambarika Forest between 11<br />
December 2005 and 13 January 2006:<br />
1. Ivohibe Forest: located in the north-western part<br />
of Antsotso Fokontany in Tsitongambarika III.<br />
2. Tsitongambarika Pass: located along the trail<br />
between Androtsy and Mahatalaky Ambony in<br />
Tsitongambarika II.<br />
Location<br />
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> PASS<br />
(Andrasery and Etafaro Forests)<br />
Elevations visited: 216–774 m<br />
Campsite 1:<br />
24°41’28.4”S 47°01’29.8”E<br />
Located 1.5 days’ walk from<br />
Mahatalaky, via Analalava<br />
Androtsy, following the trail<br />
that leads to Ranomafana<br />
Commune<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
3. Ivorona Forest: located in the north-eastern part<br />
of Ivorona Fokontany, Ifarantsa Commune, in the<br />
west of Tsitongambarika I.<br />
4. Andranary Forest: located on the west of Pic St<br />
Louis, at the southern end of Tsitongambarika I.<br />
The forest of the Manantantely Private Reserve was<br />
not visited but data from this site were collated from<br />
reports on previous studies.<br />
After the main survey, additional data were<br />
collected from: Vatofotsy community forest near<br />
Enato village, Androkabe and Tsirandranina<br />
community forests near Anka Maromagniry village<br />
(both in Ampasy Nampoina Commune), the sacred<br />
lake of Isakatelo in Ifarantsa Commune, and<br />
Ankorabe forest near Beseva village. Additional visits<br />
were also made to Ivorona forest (Dutson 2006, Asity<br />
Madagascar pers. comm.).<br />
Table 13 ... continued. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses<br />
of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Description<br />
This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest distributed on a very uneven relief formed by<br />
steep-sided hills and valleys. Several rivers have their sources in this area, including the Etoketo River, which<br />
flows west into Ranomafana Commune, and the Betoho and Ebakika rivers, which flow east into the littoral<br />
plain. The site is crossed by a forest trail, Tsitongambarika Pass, which links Ranomafana Commune in the west<br />
with Mahatalaky Commune in the east.<br />
The site has a humid microclimate, which gets damper with increasing altitude. Forest at 100–300 m elevation is<br />
not very humid, as can be seen by the scarcity of moss on tree trunks and branches. Above 300 m, however, the<br />
forest becomes progressively more humid due to an abundance of orographic rainfall caused by the sudden change<br />
of altitude of the wind from the coast, which creates permanent damp cloud cover. Mosses and orchids of the genera<br />
Bulbophyllum and Asplenium are quite abundant and almost entirely cover the trunks and branches of trees.<br />
Along ridge crests and on the tops of hills, tree heights diminish to about 10 m and the canopy is more<br />
open. In basins and valleys, however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the herbaceous<br />
layer is not well developed and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead leaves. Dominant<br />
understorey species include: Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae), Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species<br />
belonging to the Poaceae family. The shrub layer is formed of young trees, 3–8 m in height, with abundant<br />
Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae) tree ferns and the presence of Vanilla madagascariensis (Orchidaceae). Pleomele<br />
Dracaena reflexa (Dracaenaceae), emergent palms and Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) are abundant near to rivers.<br />
The canopy layer is formed of big trees, at 20–25 m. In places, these are entirely covered by very dense<br />
creeping bamboo (Poaceae), which forms an undergrowth that is often impenetrable. The canopy layer is<br />
characterised by the presence of Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae), Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae),<br />
Oncostemum sp. (Myrsinaceae) and lianas.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Uses<br />
• Collecting forest products (lianas) for ropes to fasten the roofs of huts made of Ravenala madagascariensis;<br />
• Collecting palm trunks for making planks to build the walls of huts.<br />
Threats<br />
• Selective logging for boat making, particularly of Faucherea sp. (Sapotaceae) and Calophyllum sp.<br />
(Clusiaceae). Trees with slightly curved trunks are often the most highly sought after;<br />
• Three trees cut for boat making were observed within the study site;<br />
• Clearance for shifting cultivation (or tavy). The most extensively cleared forest areas are located near the<br />
villages of Volobe in the east and Mahatalaky Ambony in the west;<br />
• Poaching of terrestrial species and lemurs. Catapults are frequently used for these activities, which take<br />
place especially along the trail between Androtsy and Mahatalaky Ambony villages.<br />
Bird species<br />
• Richness: 55<br />
• Madagascar-endemic species: 32<br />
• Threatened species: 1<br />
• Near Threatened species: 2<br />
Note: The globally threatened Meller’s Duck Anas melleri was found in the Ebakika river outside the study site. It is not a<br />
forest species.Ivorona Forest<br />
45
Location<br />
IVORONA <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
(Ivorona and Ambato Forests)<br />
Maximum elevation: 1,312 m<br />
Elevations visited: 280–774 m<br />
Campsite 1:<br />
24°49’25.0”S 46°56’56.2”E<br />
Located 1 hour’s walk from<br />
Ivorona village, Ifarantsa<br />
Commune<br />
Location<br />
ANDRANARY <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
Maximum elevation: 1,312 m<br />
Visited elevations: 329–420 m<br />
Campsite 1:<br />
25°00’21.2”S 46°57’03.4”E<br />
46<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 13 ... continued. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses<br />
of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Description<br />
This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest distributed on very uneven rocky relief formed by<br />
steep-sided valleys. The study site is located on the western flank of the Vohimena range, and is crossed by the<br />
trail linking Ambazaha village in the east with Ivorona village in the west. The Ifarantsa River constitutes the<br />
main watercourse in the area.<br />
Ivorona Forest is characterised by an increasingly humid microclimate with increasing altitude. Forest at<br />
100–300 m elevation is not very humid, as can be seen by the scarcity of moss on tree trunks and branches.<br />
Above 300 m, however, the forest becomes progressively more humid due to an abundance of orographic<br />
rainfall caused by the sudden change of altitude of the wind from the coast, which creates permanent damp<br />
cloud cover. Mosses and orchids of the genera Bulbophyllum and Asplenium are quite abundant and almost<br />
entirely cover the trunks and branches of trees.<br />
Along ridge crests and on the tops of hills, tree heights diminish to about 10 m and the canopy is more<br />
open. In basin and valley regions, however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the<br />
herbaceous layer is not well developed and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead<br />
leaves. The dominant species of the understorey are Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species in the<br />
Poaceae family. The shrub layer is formed of young trees, 2 to 5 m in height, and tree ferns Cyathea sp.<br />
(Cyatheaceae). Creeping ferns on the trunks of young trees are common. Dracaena reflexa (Dracaenaceae) and<br />
emergent palms are abundant near watercourses. The canopy layer is formed of big trees, at 20–25 m. In places,<br />
these big trees are entirely covered by very dense creeping bamboo (Poaceae), which forms an undergrowth that<br />
is often impenetrable. The canopy layer is characterised by the presence of Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae), Dombeya<br />
sp. (Malvaceae), Ficus sp. (Moraceae), Weinmannia sp. (Cunoniaceae) and Ravenala madagascariensis<br />
(Strelitziaceae).<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Uses<br />
• Collecting forest products (lianas) for ropes to fasten the roofs of huts made of Ravenala madagascariensis;<br />
• Collecting palm trunks for making planks to build the walls of huts;<br />
• Ivorona CoBa has signed a management transfer agreement to co-manage the forest for a three-year period<br />
(2005–2008).<br />
Threats<br />
• The management transfer agreement, in the absence of any accompanying support or appropriate<br />
monitoring is contributing to forest exploitation that does not comply with the regulations in force. At<br />
Ivorona, the forest is being exploited in an anarchic way, with the selective cutting of big trees for making<br />
planks and square wood for sale to traders from Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin), particularly of ebony and<br />
rosewood for export overseas. In spite of the management transfer agreement, Ivorona CoBa seems to be<br />
powerless in the face of offences, whether these be clearance of forest for shifting cultivation or selective<br />
logging in areas where this is prohibited;<br />
• Nine cut ebony trees were seen in restricted areas of forest at the study site;<br />
• Clearance for shifting cultivation. Forest areas with gentle slopes are often the most extensively cleared;<br />
• Poaching of terrestrial species. Slipknot traps and catapults are frequently used for these activities, which<br />
take place especially along the trail between Ivorona and Mahatalaky Ambony villages.<br />
Bird species<br />
• Richness: 59<br />
• Madagascar-endemic species: 37<br />
• Threatened species: 2<br />
• Near Threatened species: 3<br />
Description<br />
This site is an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, located at the southernmost extent of the Vohimena range,<br />
west of Pic St Louis. Seen from a distance, the vegetation still appears in a good condition but in reality most of<br />
the big trees have already been cut down. Only the area along the ridge line is still covered with intact humid<br />
forest.<br />
Because the duration of the visit to this site was limited to two mornings, it was only possible to make a<br />
preliminary reconnaissance of the bird fauna.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Threats<br />
• Selective exploitation of big trees for making planks and square wood;<br />
• The proximity of the site to Tolagnaro makes it permanently vulnerable to human pressure.<br />
Bird species<br />
• Richness: 24<br />
• Madagascar-endemic species: 8<br />
• Threatened species: 0<br />
• Near Threatened species: 0
Location<br />
MANATANTELY<br />
PRIVATE RESERVE<br />
Elevation range: 50–600m<br />
Coordinates:<br />
24°59’S 46°55’E<br />
Location<br />
ENATO VILLAGE<br />
Elevation: 520 m<br />
Coordinates:<br />
24°55’16”S 46°59’18”E<br />
Location<br />
ANKA-MAROMAGNIRY<br />
VILLAGE<br />
Elevation range: 100–270 m<br />
Coordinates<br />
24°56’15”S 46°57’41”E<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 13 ... continued. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses<br />
of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Description<br />
This site is an area of eastern humid evergreen forest located on very uneven rocky relief formed by very abruptsided<br />
valleys. The forest is characterised by an increasingly humid microclimate with increasing elevation.<br />
Manatantely Private Reserve is a tourist site, easily accessible from Tolagnaro. It is managed by a private tour<br />
operator, which protects the forest.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Bird species<br />
• Richness: 37<br />
• Madagascar-endemic species: 22<br />
• Threatened species: 2<br />
• Near Threatened species: 0<br />
Note: Data were obtained from the report by Goodman et al. (1997). Further studies of Manatantely are needed.<br />
Description<br />
This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, characterised by a thin leaf litter layer, a clear<br />
herbaceous layer, a sparse shrub layer and a semi-open canopy on rocky slopes. Canopy trees reach 40–60 cm<br />
in diameter and 30 m in height.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Uses<br />
• The forest is managed by the community of Enato village.<br />
Threats<br />
• Logging;<br />
• Hunting and poaching.<br />
Description<br />
This site is similar to the preceding one, comprising an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, characterised by<br />
a thin leaf litter layer, a clear herbaceous layer, a sparse shrub layer and a semi-open canopy on rocky slopes.<br />
Canopy trees reach about 40–60 cm in diameter and 30 m in height.<br />
Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats<br />
Uses<br />
• The forest is managed by the community of Anka Maromagniry village.<br />
Threats<br />
• Logging;<br />
• Bushfire;<br />
• Hunting and poaching.<br />
The details of the geographical location, habitat<br />
types, threats and bird community composition for<br />
each study site are presented in Table 13.<br />
RESULTS<br />
Information on the avifauna of Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest has been collected by a number of biologists<br />
visiting south-east Madagascar over the years. The<br />
most detailed study prior to the one presented here<br />
was a one-week visit to Manantantely Private Reserve<br />
by Steven Goodman in 1990 (Goodman et al. 1997).<br />
The studies conducted during 2005–2006 represented<br />
the first ever surveys of the central and north-eastern<br />
parts of Tsitongambarika Forest. Subsequent to these<br />
studies, a number of additional species were recorded<br />
at Tsitongambarika Forest during birdwatching events<br />
at Ivorona (2006–2007) and during participatory<br />
monitoring activities with local communities (2007).<br />
During the 2005–2006 studies, 82 bird species were<br />
recorded at the four sites visited. An additional three<br />
species were recorded during the previous visit to<br />
Manantantely Private Reserve (Goodman et al. 1997),<br />
and a further 12 species were recorded during<br />
subsequent visits to Tsitongambarika Forest, bringing<br />
to 97 the total number of species recorded to date at<br />
Tsitongambarika (Table 14).<br />
These species occupy various habitats, including<br />
lakes, agricultural land and fallow land, but the<br />
majority depend on humid evergreen forest.<br />
Considering the variation in altitude among the study<br />
sites (80 to 787 m), the avifauna of Tsitongambarika<br />
is characterised by a very high endemicity rate: 57 of<br />
the 97 species recorded at Tsitongambarika (59%) are<br />
found only in Madagascar. Eight species are<br />
considered globally threatened (IUCN 2010):<br />
Madagascar Grebe Tachybaptus pelzelnii (VU),<br />
Madagascar Pond Heron Ardeola idea (EN), Meller’s<br />
Duck Anas melleri (EN), Brown Mesite Mesitornis<br />
unicolor (VU), Madagascar Red Owl Tyto soumagnei<br />
(VU; Plate 10), Short-legged Ground-roller<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus (VU), Scaly Ground-roller<br />
Brachypteracias squamiger (VU), and Red-tailed<br />
Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae (VU). Several of these<br />
records represent expansions of known distribution.<br />
47
Plate 10. Madagascar Red Owl Tyto soumagnei<br />
(Vulnerable). This bird, the first record in Anosy<br />
region, was discovered in Vatofotsy forest near Enato<br />
village (ANDRIANDRAOTOMALAZA BRUNO RAVELOSON)<br />
48<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 14. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
The composition of the avifauna of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest is quite similar to that of<br />
Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park (Jaccard<br />
Similarity Index = 0.74). Of the 93 species recorded at<br />
Tsitongambarika, 75 are known from Parcel 1 of<br />
Andohahela National Park (Hawkins and Goodman<br />
1999). Species so far found only at Tsitongambarika<br />
include three globally threatened waterbirds<br />
(Madagascar Grebe, Madagascar Pond Heron and<br />
Meller’s Duck) and one threatened forest bird<br />
(Madagascar Red Owl). The difference between the<br />
avifauna of the two sites is characterised mainly by<br />
the absence of several high-altitude species from the<br />
study sites at Tsitongambarika, including Yellowbellied<br />
Asity Neodrepanis hypoxantha, Brown Emutail<br />
Dromaeocercus brunneus, Madagascar Yellowbrow<br />
Crossleyia xanthophrys and Cryptic Warbler<br />
Cryptosylvicola randrianasoloi. These species are<br />
usually found at altitudes above 800 m, and some may<br />
be found at Tsitongambarika if the highest altitude<br />
sites in this forest are surveyed. Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest supports more globally threatened species<br />
(eight) than Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park<br />
(five) and is thus a very high priority for conservation.<br />
■ Avifauna of Ivohibe Forest<br />
The forest of Ivohibe was a rich site for birds, with<br />
65 species recorded at altitudes of 87–307 m. Thirtyeight<br />
(60%) of these species are endemic to<br />
Madagascar, and four are globally threatened or Near<br />
IUCN Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 TGK Total<br />
Species and English name Distribution Status IVHB TGKP IVOR ANDY MANT (87–774m)<br />
Dendrocygna viduata White-faced Whistling-duck B 1 1 1 1<br />
Anas melleri Meller’s Duck E EN 1 1<br />
Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Duck B 1 * 1*<br />
Tachybaptus pelzelnii Madagascar Grebe E VU 1* 1*<br />
Lophotibis cristata Madagascar Crested Ibis E NT 1* 1*<br />
Ardeola idae Madagascar Pond-heron Er EN 1* 1*<br />
Ardea cinerea Grey Heron B 1 1<br />
Ardea purpurea Purple Heron B 1* 1*<br />
Falco newtoni Madagascar Kestrel Er 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Falco eleonorae Eleonora’s Falcon M 1 1 1<br />
Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon B 1 1<br />
Aviceda madagascariensis Madagascar Baza E 1 1<br />
Macheiramphus alcinus Bat Hawk B 1 1<br />
Milvus migrans Black Kite B 1 1 1<br />
Polyboroides radiatus Madagascar Harrier-hawk E 1 1 1<br />
Accipiter francesiae Frances’s Sparrowhawk Er 1* 1 1<br />
Accipiter madagascariensis Madagascar Sparrowhawk E NT 1 1 1<br />
Accipiter henstii Henst’s Goshawk E NT 1 1<br />
Buteo brachypterus Madagascar Buzzard E 1 1 1 1 1 1
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 14 ... continued. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
IUCN Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 TGK Total<br />
Species and English name Distribution Status IVHB TGKP IVOR ANDY MANT (87–774m)<br />
Mesitornis unicolor Brown Mesite E VU 1 1 1<br />
Sarothrura insularis Madagascar Flufftail E 1 1* 1<br />
Canirallus kioloides Madagascar Wood Rail E 1 1 1 1<br />
Dryolimnas cuvieri White-throated Rail Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen B 1* 1*<br />
Turnxi nigricollis Madagascar Buttonquail Er 1*<br />
Nesoenas picturata Madagascar Turtle-dove Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Treron australis Madagascar Green-pigeon Er 1 1<br />
Alectroenas madagascariensis Madagascar Blue-pigeon E 1 1<br />
Agapornis canus Grey-headed Lovebird E 1*<br />
Coracopsis vasa Vasa Parrot Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Coracopsis nigra Black Parrot Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Cuculus rochii Madagascar Cuckoo E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Coua reynaudii Red-fronted Coua E 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Coua caerulea Blue Coua E 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Centropus toulou Madagascar Coucal Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Tyto soumagnei Madagascar Red Owl E VU 1*<br />
Otus rutilus Malagasy Scops-owl Er 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Ninox superciliaris White-browed Hawk-owl E 1 1<br />
Asio madagascariensis Madagascar Owl E 1 1 1<br />
Caprimulgus madagascariensis Madagascar Nightjar Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Caprimulgus enarratus Collared Nightjar E 1 1<br />
Zoonavena grandidieri Malagasy Spinetail Er 1 1<br />
Tachymarptis melba Alpine Swift B 1 1<br />
Eurystomus glaucurus Broad-billed Roller B 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus Short-legged Ground-roller E VU 1 1 1<br />
Brachypteracias squamiger Scaly Ground-roller E VU 1 1<br />
Atelornis pittoides Pitta-like Ground-roller E 1*<br />
Leptosomus discolor Cuckoo-roller Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Ceyx madagascariensis Madagascar Pygmy-kingfisher E 1 1 1 1<br />
Alcedo vintsioides Madagascar Kingfisher Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Merops superciliosus Madagascar Bee-eater B 1 1 1 1<br />
Philepitta castanea Velvet Asity E 1 1 1 1<br />
Neodrepanis coruscans Sunbird Asity E 1 1 1 1<br />
Calicalicus madagascariensis Red-tailed Vanga E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Vanga curvirostris Hook-billed Vanga E 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Xenopirostris polleni Pollen’s Vanga E NT 1 1 1<br />
Artamella viridis White-headed Vanga E 1 1 1<br />
Leptopterus chabert Chabert’s Vanga E 1 1 1 1<br />
Cyanolanius madagascarinus Blue Vanga Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Schetba rufa Rufous Vanga E 1 1 1 1<br />
Tylas eduardi Tylas Vanga E 1 1 1<br />
Hypositta corallirostris Nuthatch Vanga E 1 1 1<br />
Newtonia amphichroa Dark Newtonia E 1 1<br />
49
50<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 14 ... continued. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
IUCN Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 TGK Total<br />
Species and English name Distribution Status IVHB TGKP IVOR ANDY MANT (87–774m)<br />
Newtonia brunneicauda Common Newtonia E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Newtonia fanovanae Red-tailed Newtonia E VU 1 1<br />
Pseudobias wardi Ward’s Flycatcher E 1*<br />
Mystacornis crossleyi Crossley’s Babbler E 1*<br />
Coracina cinerea Ashy Cuckooshrike Er 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Dicrurus forficatus Crested Drongo Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Terpsiphone mutata Madagascar Paradise-flycatcher Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Corvus albus Pied Crow B 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Mirafra hova Madagascar Lark E 1 1 1<br />
Cisticola cherina Madagascar Cisticola Er 1 1<br />
Hypsipetes madagascariensis Madagascar Black Bulbul Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Nesillas typica Madagascar Brush-warbler Er 1 1 1 1<br />
Oxylabes madagascariensis White-throated Oxylabes E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Bernieria madagascariensis Common Tetraka E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Bernieria zosterops Spectacled Tetraka E 1 1 1* 1 1<br />
Bernieria cinereiceps Grey-crowned Tetraka E NT 1 1<br />
Randia pseudozosterops Rand’s Warbler E 1 1 1<br />
Neomixis tenella Common Jery E 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Neomixis viridis Green Jery E 1 1<br />
Neomixis striatigula Stripe-throated Jery E 1 1 1<br />
Neomixis flavoviridis Wedge-tailed Jery E NT 1 1<br />
Zosterops maderaspatanus Madagascar White-eye Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Saroglossa aurata Madagascar Starling E 1 1<br />
Copsychus albospecularis Madagascar Magpie-robin E 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Acridotheres tristis Common Myna I 1 1 1<br />
Saxicola torquatus Common Stonechat B 1 1 1<br />
Monticola sharpei Forest Rock-thrush E 1 1 1<br />
Nectarinia sovimanga Souimanga Sunbird Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Nectarinia notata Long-billed Green Sunbird Er 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Ploceus nelicourvi Nelicourvi Weaver E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Foudia madagascariensis Madagascar Red Fody E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Foudia omissa Forest Fody E 1 1 1 1 1<br />
Lonchura nana Madagascar Munia E 1 1 1<br />
Motacilla flaviventris Madagascar Wagtail E 1 1 1 1<br />
Species richness 63 55 65 24 37 97<br />
E: Endemic to Madagascar 33 31 38 7 21 57<br />
Er: Endemic to the region only (Madagascar and neighbouring islands) 22 16 19 13 15 25<br />
M: Migratory, non-breeding visitor 1 0 1 0 0 1<br />
B: Breeding resident/visitor 6 7 7 4 1 13<br />
I: Introduced 1 1 0 0 0 1<br />
EN: Endangered (IUCN 2010) 0 1 1 0 0 2<br />
VU: Vulnerable (IUCN 2010) 2 0 3 0 2 6<br />
NT: Near Threatened (IUCN 2010) 2 2 4 0 0 6<br />
Notes: IVHB = Ivohibe forest; TGKP = Tsitongambarika pass; IVOR = Ivorona forest; ANDY = Andranary forest; MANT = Manantantely Private Reserve;<br />
TGK = Tsitongambarika. * An asterisk indicates species not recorded in main surveys (January 2006) but found since, at one or more of the following sites:<br />
Ivorona, Enato, Anka, Ankorabe. Records close to but outside the site are indicated in bold.
Threatened: Mesitornis unicolor (VU),<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus (VU), Madagascar<br />
Sparrowhawk Accipiter madagascariensis (NT) and<br />
Pollen’s Vanga Xenopirostris polleni (NT).<br />
Analysis of the 16 MacKinnon lists compiled<br />
during the inventory of Ivohibe shows that the most<br />
frequently recorded species were Madagascar Black<br />
Bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis, Madagascar<br />
White-eye Zosterops maderaspatana and Black Parrot<br />
Coracopsis nigra (Table 16). These three species are<br />
easy to detect and their calls can be heard even from<br />
a distance.<br />
A number of species were considered rare, because<br />
they were only encountered once during the 10-day<br />
visit to Ivohibe, including Accipiter madagascariensis,<br />
Velvet Asity Philepitta castanea, White-throated<br />
Oxylabes Oxylabes madagascariensis, Blue Vanga<br />
Cyanolanius madagascarinus and Forest Fody Foudia<br />
omissa. Other species encountered only once during<br />
the visit to Ivohibe Forest were Madagascar Harrierhawk<br />
Polyboroides radiatus and Madagascar Starling<br />
Saroglossa aurata, but these are typically birds of forest<br />
edge, scrub and secondary vegetation, rather than<br />
forest. Madagascar Long-eared Owl Asio<br />
madagascariensis and Malagasy Scops-owl Otus rutilus<br />
were each recorded just once during the two nocturnal<br />
visits made to Ivohibe Forest. On the basis of these<br />
records, it is not possible to assess the relative<br />
abundance of these species. The presence of Mesitornis<br />
unicolor was confirmed during a reconnaissance visit<br />
to Ivohibe Forest, on the basis of the presence of an<br />
abandoned nest. Collared Nightjar Caprimulgus<br />
enarratus was also only recorded during the<br />
reconnaissance visit. Therefore, the relative abundance<br />
of these two species could not be evaluated.<br />
■ Avifauna of Ivorona Forest<br />
Ivorona Forest, at altitudes of 280–774 m, supports<br />
at least 68 bird species. Of these, 40 are endemic to<br />
Madagascar, including six globally threatened or<br />
Near Threatened forest species: Madagascar Crested<br />
Ibis Lophotibis cristata (NT), Brachypteracias<br />
leptosomus (VU), Newtonia fanovanae (VU), Henst’s<br />
Goshawk Accipiter henstii (NT), Wedge-tailed Jery<br />
Neomixis flavoviridis (NT) and Pollen’s Vanga<br />
Xenopirostris polleni (NT).<br />
Analysis of the 18 MacKinnon lists compiled<br />
during the survey of Ivorona shows that the most<br />
frequently recorded species were Hypsipetes<br />
madagascariensis, Zosterops maderaspatanus,<br />
Coracopsis nigra and Madagascar Paradise<br />
Flycatcher Terpsiphone mutata (Table 16).<br />
These species are all easy to find and their calls can<br />
be heard from a distance. Typical forest species<br />
considered rare at Ivorona, because they were<br />
found only once during the 10-day visit, were:<br />
Accipiter henstii, Madagascar Wood-rail Canirallus<br />
kioloides, Brachypteracias leptosomus, Forest<br />
Rock-thrush Monticola sharpei, Green Jery Neomixis<br />
viridis, Rand’s Warbler Randia pseudozosterops,<br />
Hook-billed Vanga Vanga curvirostris and<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Xenopirostris polleni. Madagascar Kestrel Falco<br />
newtoni and Madagascar Brush-warbler Nesillas<br />
typica were also recorded only once each in forest<br />
areas, but are both more frequent in forest edge and<br />
secondary vegetation.<br />
■ Avifauna of Tsitongambarika Pass<br />
Fifty-five species were recorded in the forest around<br />
Tsitongambarika Pass at altitudes of 217–774 m.<br />
Thirty-one of these are endemic to Madagascar, of<br />
which two forest species are globally Near<br />
Threatened: Accipiter madagascariensis and Greycrowned<br />
Tetraka Bernieria cinereiceps. In addition,<br />
the globally Endangered Anas melleri was found in<br />
the Ebakika River, a few kilometres from the edge of<br />
the forest. The forest around Tsitongambarika Pass<br />
is characterised by the presence of high-altitude<br />
species, such as Bernieria cinereiceps and Dark<br />
Newtonia Newtonia amphichroa.<br />
Analysis of the 23 MacKinnon lists compiled<br />
during inventory of the forest around<br />
Tsitongambarika Pass shows that the most frequently<br />
recorded species were Hypsipetes madagascariensis,<br />
Zosterops maderaspatanus, Coracopsis nigra and<br />
Madagascar Magpie Robin Copsychus albospecularis<br />
(Table 16). These are all easy to detect and their calls<br />
can be heard from a distance. Typical forest species<br />
considered rare at Tsitongambarika Pass, because<br />
they were found only once during the 10-day visit,<br />
were: Accipiter madagascariensis, Madagascar Baza<br />
Aviceda madagascariensis, Madagascar Pygmykingfisher<br />
Ceyx madagascariensis, White-headed<br />
Vanga Artamella viridis and Stripe-throated Jery<br />
Neomixis striatigula. Madagascar Buzzard Buteo<br />
brachypterus and Long-billed Green Sunbird<br />
Nectarinia notata were both also recorded only once,<br />
but these are not typical forest species. They are more<br />
common in scrub and agricultural land. Likewise,<br />
Malagasy Spinetail Zoonavena grandidieri was also<br />
found only once at Tsitongambarika Pass, but is more<br />
often found on rocky cliffs and steep slopes<br />
neighbouring the forest.<br />
■ Avifauna of Manatantely Private Reserve<br />
Manatantely Private Reserve, at 50–600 m elevation,<br />
supports at least 37 bird species, 21 of which are<br />
endemic to Madagascar and two of which are globally<br />
threatened: Mesitornis unicolor (VU) and<br />
Brachypteracias squamiger (VU). Ornithological<br />
inventory of Manatantely Private Reserve is far from<br />
complete, and the site deserves further survey.<br />
■ Avifauna of Andranary Forest<br />
Twenty-four species were recorded at Andranary<br />
Forest at 329–420 m elevation, including seven species<br />
endemic to Madagascar. No globally threatened or<br />
Near Threatened species have been recorded to<br />
date, although this may reflect limited survey<br />
effort. Ornithological inventory of Andranary Forest<br />
is far from complete, and the site deserves further<br />
survey.<br />
51
52<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 15. Relative abundance of bird species at three study sites<br />
IVOHIBE <strong>FOREST</strong> <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> PASS IVORNONA <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
No. Relative No. Relative No. Relative<br />
Species lists abundance Species lists abundance Species lists abundance<br />
Hypsipetes madagascariensis 15 0.94 Hypsipetes madagascariensis 20 0.87 Hypsipetes madagascariensis 17 0.94<br />
Zosterops maderaspatana 14 0.88 Zosterops maderaspatana 19 0.83 Zosterops maderasapatana 13 0.72<br />
Coracopsis nigra 13 0.81 Coracopsis nigra 16 0.7 Coracopsis nigra 11 0.61<br />
Nectarinia sovimanga 10 0.63 Copsychus albospecularis 11 0.48 Terpsiphone mutata 10 0.56<br />
Coua caerulea 10 0.63 Nectarinia sovimanga 8 0.35 Coracina cinerea 8 0.44<br />
Dicrurus forficatus 6 0.38 Leptosomus discolor 8 0.35 Tylas eduardi 7 0.39<br />
Coua reynaudii 6 0.38 Coua caerulea 8 0.35 Leptosomus discolor 7 0.39<br />
Calicalicus madagascariensis 6 0.38 Terpsiphone mutata 7 0.3 Calicalicus madagascariensis 7 0.39<br />
Nectarinia notata 5 0.31 Dicrurus forficatus 7 0.3 Foudia omissa 6 0.33<br />
Eurystomus glaucurus 5 0.31 Newtonia brunneicauda 6 0.26 Coracopsis vasa 6 0.33<br />
Coracopsis vasa 5 0.31 Foudia omissa 6 0.26 Newtonia brunneicauda 5 0.28<br />
Copsychus albospecularis 5 0.31 Cuculus rochii 6 0.26 Dicrurus forficatus 5 0.28<br />
Nesoenas picturata 4 0.25 Centropus toulou 6 0.26 Cyaniolanius madagascarinus 5 0.28<br />
Ploceus nelicourvi 4 0.25 Schetba rufa 5 0.22 Copsychus albospecularis 5 0.28<br />
Leptosomus discolor 4 0.25 Philepitta castanea 5 0.22 Bernieria madagascariensis 5 0.28<br />
Coracina cinerea 4 0.25 Cyanolanius madagascarinus 5 0.22 Alectroenas madagascariensis 5 0.28<br />
Bernieria zosterops 3 0.19 Bernieria madagascaraiensis 5 0.22 Nesoenas picturata 4 0.22<br />
Neomixis tenella 3 0.19 Coua reynaudii 4 0.17 Oxylabes madagascariensis 4 0.22<br />
Vanga curvirostris 2 0.13 Coracopsis vasa 4 0.17 Schetba rufa 3 0.17<br />
Terpsiphone mutata 2 0.13 Calicalicus madagascariensis 4 0.17 Philepitta castanea 3 0.17<br />
Schetba rufa 2 0.13 Nesoenas picturata 3 0.13 Nectarinia sovimanga 3 0.17<br />
Newtonia brunneicauda 2 0.13 Ploceus nelicourvi 3 0.13 Buteo brachypterus 3 0.17<br />
Buteo brachypterus 2 0.13 Neomixis tenella 3 0.13 Ploceus nelicourvi 2 0.11<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus 2 0.13 Neodrepanis coruscans 3 0.13 Newtonia fanovanae 2 0.11<br />
Bernieria madagascariensis 2 0.13 Eurystomus glaucurus 3 0.13 Neomixis tenella 2 0.11<br />
Xenopirostris polleni 1 0.06 Coracina cinerea 3 0.13 Nectarinia notata 2 0.11<br />
Saroglossa auratus 1 0.06 Bernieria zosterops 3 0.13 Ispidina madagascariensis 2 0.11<br />
Polyboroides radiatus 1 0.06 Vanga curvirostris 2 0.09 Foudia madagascariensis 2 0.11<br />
Philepitta castanea 1 0.06 Oxylabes madagascariensis 2 0.09 Eurystomus glaucurus 2 0.11<br />
Oxylabes madagascariensis 1 0.06 Newtonia amphichroa 2 0.09 Coua reynaudii 2 0.11<br />
Otus rutilus 1 0.06 Neomixis tenella 2 0.09 Coua caerulea 2 0.11<br />
Foudia omissa 1 0.06 Foudia madagascariensis 2 0.09 Centropus toulou 2 0.11<br />
Cyanolanius madagascarinus 1 0.06 Zoonavena grandidieri 1 0.04 Bernieria zosterops 2 0.11<br />
Asio madagascariensis 1 0.06 Neomixis striatigula 1 0.04 Xenopirostris poleni 1 0.06<br />
Accipiter madagascariensis 1 0.06 Nectarinia notata 1 0.04 Vanga curvirostris 1 0.06<br />
Monticola sharpei 1 0.04 Randia pseudozosterops 1 0.06<br />
Leptopterus viridis 1 0.04 Nesillas typica 1 0.06<br />
Leptopterus chabert 1 0.04 Neomixis viridis 1 0.06<br />
Ispidina madagascariensis 1 0.04 Moticolla sharpei 1 0.06<br />
Buteo brachypterus 1 0.04 Hypositta corallirostris 1 0.06<br />
Aviceda madagascariensis 1 0.04 Falco newtoni 1 0.06<br />
Accipiter madagascariensis 1 0.04 Cuculus rochii 1 0.06<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus 1 0.06<br />
Caniralus kioloides 1 0.06<br />
Falco eleonore 1 0.06<br />
Accipiter hestiii 1 0.06<br />
Notes:<br />
(i) The total number of MacKinnon lists compiled per site was 16 at Ivohibe, 23 at Tsitongambarika Pass, and 18 at Ivorona.<br />
(ii) Data from Andranary are not included because it was only visited for two half-days. Manatantely Private Reserve was not visited.<br />
(iii) Only species detected during compilation of MacKinnon lists have relative abundance ratings.
DISCUSSION<br />
■ Threats and pressures<br />
Boat making<br />
Selective cutting of trees for boat construction is quite<br />
common, particularly in areas near the coast or big<br />
rivers. The impact of this on the forest is not limited<br />
only to trees that are cut. The manufacture of a single<br />
boat requires at least 10 trees and shrubs to be cut<br />
down around the construction area, and its removal<br />
from the forest damages micro-habitats and terrestrial<br />
biodiversity. The removal of one boat from the forest<br />
takes 10–20 men an entire day. This threat is<br />
particularly prevalent in Ivohibe Forest and forest<br />
near Tsitongambarika Pass.<br />
Selective logging of timber<br />
Selective felling of timber trees for sale to traders<br />
is often in direct contravention of regulations<br />
governing forest management. The size of the trees<br />
selected and the felling technique adopted do not<br />
favour natural regeneration. Trees are cut down<br />
arbitrarily, without any consideration of optimal<br />
diameter. Some trees are cut at the roots, which allows<br />
no possibility of regeneration. Sometimes, trees<br />
appear to have been cut for no reason and then just<br />
left in the forest.<br />
Malfunctioning of CoBas<br />
A significant proportion of the forest area of<br />
Tstitongambarika has been transferred to CoBas on<br />
short-term management transfer agreements. It would<br />
appear, however, that CoBa members do not fully<br />
understand or, at least, are unable to enforce the forest<br />
management system governing transferred forest<br />
areas. In the future, this may constitute a serious<br />
threat to these forests. The organisations that initiated<br />
these management transfers should thus be vigilant,<br />
and a monitoring and evaluation programme should<br />
be initiated.<br />
An example of malfunction is provided by Ivorona<br />
CoBa, Ifarahantsa Commune. The management<br />
transfer to Ivorona CoBa was completed in April<br />
2005. However, even during this brief survey, a<br />
number of shortcomings were observed. First, the<br />
CoBa president issues logging permits and passes to<br />
buyers of forest products (square wood, planks, etc.)<br />
without other CoBa members, including the treasurer,<br />
being aware of these transactions. Second, there is<br />
no internal audit of CoBa function. Third, neither<br />
CoBa members nor other forest users respect the<br />
distinction between the timber harvesting zone (where<br />
forest can be exploited) and the conservation zone<br />
(which must be protected). During the survey, several<br />
people were observed logging or practising shifting<br />
cultivation within the conservation zone. Ebony<br />
extraction was noted within the conservation zone.<br />
According to the president of Ivorona Fokontany,<br />
this only started in October 2005 but within three<br />
months the whole area was affected.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Hunting and poaching<br />
Hunting and poaching of forest species is common in<br />
Tsitongambarika. Hunting tracks were encountered<br />
within Ivohibe Forest, the forest around<br />
Tsitongambarika Pass and Ivorona Forest. The most<br />
frequently encountered signs of hunting were traps<br />
designed for catching mammals, such as Fossa<br />
Cryptoprocta ferox and Bushpig Potamochoerus<br />
larvatus. These are hunted as crop pests. Large-bodied<br />
birds, terrestrial and arboreal, are uncommon close<br />
to trails owing to local people’s proficiency with<br />
catapults. Preferred quarry species are: Polyboroides<br />
radiatus, Madagascar Turtle-dove Nesoenas<br />
picturata, Madagascar Blue-pigeon Alectroenas<br />
madagascariensis, Madagascar Green-pigeon Treron<br />
australis and Blue Coua Coua caerulea.<br />
Transportation links inside the forest<br />
The presence of a track through the forest, linking<br />
localities on the west and east side of the Vohimena<br />
range, leads to increased human pressure on the forest<br />
ecosystem, particularly disturbance and incidental<br />
hunting. People were observed passing along the trail<br />
between Mahatalaky village in the east and<br />
Ranomafana village in the west at a rate of one person<br />
every 10–20 minutes.<br />
■ Conservation priorities<br />
The study sites are ranked below in order of bird<br />
conservation importance, on the basis of species<br />
richness, presence of globally threatened and Near<br />
Threatened species, current condition of forest<br />
habitat, and opportunities for conservation.<br />
1. Ivorona Forest<br />
Ivorona has the highest species richness and largest<br />
number of threatened and Near Threatened species<br />
of any site surveyed at Tsitongambarika. Further, this<br />
area of lowland forest (below 300 m) is very accessible<br />
from Tolagnaro and thus under high pressure.<br />
Reorganisation of, and support to, the CoBa are<br />
priorities for conservation of biodiversity and<br />
sustainable management of natural resources in<br />
Ivorona. Development of an ecotourism programme<br />
may be one option in the long-term.<br />
2. Ivohibe Forest<br />
With 65 bird species recorded, this site is one of the<br />
richest in Tsitongambarika. Difficulty of access is an<br />
obstacle to ecotourism because the forest is located<br />
on steep slopes. The western part of Ivohibe, which<br />
appears intact, could serve as a conservation zone or<br />
strict protection area. Support to farming activities,<br />
market gardening and cultivation of export crops<br />
(vanilla, cloves, etc.) in the Antsotso area might reduce<br />
pressures from wood cutting for boat construction.<br />
3. Tsitongambarika Pass<br />
As this site is used as a transport link between villages<br />
on either side of the Vohimena range, protection of<br />
forest here is a priority to prevent a permanent break<br />
53
in habitat connectivity along the mountain range. The<br />
areas to the north and south of the pass are apparently<br />
still covered with intact forest, and could serve as a<br />
conservation zone or strict protection area. Support<br />
to farming activities, market gardening and<br />
cultivation of export crops (vanilla, cloves, etc.) in<br />
the Analalava Androtsy, Volobe and Mahatalaky<br />
Ambony areas might reduce the need for forest<br />
clearance for shifting cultivation.<br />
4. Manantantely Forest<br />
With only 37 recorded species, avifaunal inventory<br />
of this area is far from complete. As the site is close<br />
to Tolagnaro, there is potential for ecotourism<br />
development. There is some existing ecotourism<br />
infrastructure, managed by the private sector, but<br />
construction of additional tracks across the site would<br />
improve accessibility for visitors. Further, the<br />
manager should promote the site to regional and<br />
national tour operators.<br />
5. Andranary Forest<br />
Conservation is difficult here owing to the proximity<br />
to Tolagnaro. Initial indications suggest the avifauna<br />
of this forest is depauperate, due to very intense<br />
exploitation for planks and beams to meet expanding<br />
demands in Tolagnaro. A long-term programme of<br />
assisted forest regeneration, using native forest<br />
species, is the main priority. Support to farming<br />
activities, market gardening and cultivation of export<br />
crops (e.g. vanilla and cloves) might reduce pressure<br />
on the forest from timber extraction.<br />
■ Avifauna<br />
In total, 97 species have been recorded in<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest. The composition of the<br />
avifauna is almost the same as that of Andohahela<br />
National Park. Owing to its high importance for<br />
globally threatened and restricted-range species,<br />
Tsitongambarika should be recognised as a very high<br />
priority for bird conservation.<br />
Crested Coua<br />
Crested Coua Coua cristata is represented in southern<br />
and eastern Madagascar by at least three subspecies:<br />
C. c. cristata, C. c. pyropyga and C. c. maxima.<br />
However, the taxonomic position of the third is subject<br />
to discussion, because its description by Milon (1950)<br />
was based on a single specimen captured near<br />
Tolagnaro. Since its description, C. c. maxima has<br />
never been observed in the wild by biologists.<br />
C. c. cristata is distributed in the eastern humid<br />
evergreen forest, from the massif of Anjanaharibe-<br />
Tsaratanana in the north to Manombo Special Reserve<br />
in the south (Nicoll and Langrand 1989), while C. c.<br />
pyropyga occupies the dry forest and spiny forest of<br />
the west of Madagascar (Goodman et al. 1997). If C.<br />
c. maxima is a valid subspecies, its distribution is thus<br />
likely to be centred on the lowlands of the far southeast<br />
of Madagascar, and perhaps Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest and/or the littoral forests around Tolagnaro.<br />
54<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
However, ornithological studies of littoral forests in<br />
the Tolagnaro area have not found C. cristata (Watson<br />
et al. 2004), except at Petriky Forest (Goodman et al.<br />
1997). An incidental observation, possibly referring to<br />
C. c. maxima, was reported in 1988 from lowland forest<br />
around Lanirano Lake, 2 km north of Tologaro, but<br />
subsequent visitors could not find the species<br />
(Goodman et al. 1997). During these surveys of<br />
Tsitongambarika, C. caerulea was frequently observed<br />
but no evidence of C. cristata was obtained. Continued<br />
studies in lowland forest in south-east Madagascar,<br />
particularly any remnants close to Tolagnaro, are a<br />
high priority to ascertain if C. c. maxima remains<br />
extant.<br />
Short-legged Ground-roller<br />
A single Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias<br />
leptosomus (Plate 11) was observed twice on a slope at<br />
204 m elevation in Ivohibe Forest. This area was visited<br />
on the two following days but the bird was not seen<br />
again. B. leptosomus was also observed in Ivorona<br />
Forest: an adult feeding two young was observed in<br />
forest near a ridge crest at 537 m elevation<br />
(24°48’49.1”S, 46°56’37.8”E). Previously, the known<br />
distribution of this species was limited to eastern humid<br />
evergreen forest between the massif of Tsaratanana in<br />
the north to Andohahela National Park in the south<br />
(Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998), with an<br />
isolated population in montane forest around Daraina<br />
(ZICOMA 1999). Records of the species from<br />
Tsitongambarika thus constitute a south-easterly<br />
extension to the known distribution.<br />
Plate 11. Short-legged Ground-roller<br />
Brachypteracias leptosomus (Vulnerable)<br />
(ANDRIANDRAOTOMALAZA BRUNO RAVELOSON)
Red-tailed Newtonia<br />
Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae was<br />
observed twice in Ivorona Forest, on 5 January 2006,<br />
about 300 m south-east of the campsite (24°49’25.0”S,<br />
46°56’56.2”E). N. fanovanae is distinguished from<br />
Common Newtonia N. brunneicauda by its<br />
characteristic call: a series of five or six notes “pitchipitchi-<br />
pitchi- pitchi- pitchi” followed, a few seconds<br />
later, by five or six notes “sweep- sweep- sweep- sweepsweep-”.<br />
As N. brunneicauda emits only the series<br />
“pitchi- pitchi- pitchi- pitchi- pitchi”, the birds observed<br />
were undoubtedly N. fanovanae. A male was observed:<br />
this is very similar in appearance to a female<br />
Red-tailed Vanga Calicalicus madagascariensis.<br />
However, N. fanovanae has a visibly lower tail, a red<br />
iris contrasting with a bluish-grey head and forehead,<br />
and lacks the pale cream eye ring present in female<br />
C. madagascariensis. N. fanovanae was observed<br />
within a mixed flock in the forest canopy, comprising:<br />
four Hypsipetes madagascariensis, two Cyanolanius<br />
madagascarinus, one Crested Drongo Dicrurus<br />
forficatus, two Terpsiphone mutata, a pair of<br />
Calicalicus madagascariensis, one N. brunneicauda,<br />
one Ashy Cuckooshrike Coracina cinerea, three<br />
Rufous Vanga Schetba rufa, one Tylas Vanga Tylas<br />
eduardi and about 10 Zosterops maderaspatanus.<br />
Several more records have followed since the main<br />
survey (Dutson 2006, Asity Madagascar pers. comm.;<br />
see also Plate 3).<br />
Prior to 1989, N. fanovanae was known only from<br />
specimens collected in 1931 around Fanovana Forest<br />
(Gyldenstolpe 1933). It is limited to eastern humid<br />
evergreen forest, within which it seems to have a very<br />
restricted distribution (ZICOMA 1999). Prior to this<br />
survey of Tsitongambarika, the species was only<br />
certainly known from eight localities: Marojejy<br />
National Park, Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve,<br />
Rantabe Maroantsetra Classified Forest,<br />
Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena National<br />
Park, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Vevembe<br />
Vondrozo Forest and Andohahela National Park<br />
Parcel 1 (Langrand and Sinclair 1994, Randrianasolo<br />
1996, Goodman et al. 1997, ZICOMA 1999). The<br />
presence of Newtonia fanovanae in the forest of<br />
Tsitongambarika constitutes a south-easterly<br />
extension of the known distribution of this species.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Bluntschli’s Vanga<br />
Bluntschli’s Vanga Hypositta perdita was described<br />
from two young specimens collected by Bluntschli in<br />
Eminiminy valley in south-east Madagascar in<br />
September 1931 (Peters 1996). The distribution of H.<br />
perdita could comprise lowland humid evergreen<br />
forest in south-east Madagascar, including<br />
Eminiminy valley and the nearby Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest. Comparison of the two H. perdita specimens<br />
with specimens of H. corallirostris have revealed<br />
apparently fundamental differences in foot structure.<br />
Since the collection of the type specimens, H. perdita<br />
has not been recorded. During this survey of<br />
Tsitongambarika, only H. corallirostris was observed.<br />
Further research, including comparison of juvenile<br />
H. corallirostris (currently undescribed) with the H.<br />
perdita specimens, may clarify the taxonomic position<br />
and/or distribution of the latter.<br />
■ Long-term ecological monitoring<br />
Conservation of Tsitongambarika requires a longterm<br />
ecological monitoring programme, which is<br />
likely to involve both local communities and<br />
supporting organisations, such as Asity Madagascar,<br />
<strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong>, Rio Tinto and Rio Tinto<br />
QMM. Possible activities and indicators for an<br />
ecological monitoring programme for the avifauna of<br />
Tsitongambarika are listed in Table 16. The most<br />
appropriate season for bird monitoring is between<br />
October and December. In addition to ecological<br />
monitoring, there is also a need to identify other<br />
priority sites for bird conservation within<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest. The main gap in survey<br />
coverage to date is forest areas at altitudes above<br />
800 m.<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
1. Identify additional priority sites by continuing<br />
biological inventory work in new areas, including:<br />
the far north-west of Ivohibe; the area between<br />
Eriampisaky and Maromoky in the east and<br />
Ampany Ambahiny in the west; the forest near<br />
Farafara, Mahatalaky Commune; and the area<br />
around Managotry pass linking Tsitongambarika<br />
Table 16. Possible activities and indicators for an ecological monitoring programme of the avifauna of<br />
Tsitongambarika<br />
Activities Quantifiable indicators Contributors<br />
Censuses by point counts and/or transects along<br />
forest tracks at:<br />
• Tsitongambarika Pass;<br />
• Ivorona to Mahatalaky;<br />
• Others to be identified.<br />
Relative abundance of bird species. Asity Madagascar<br />
Monitoring of human pressure on bird habitats: • Measurement of forest clearance over time. Number of Asity Madagascar, trained<br />
• Annual marking of the forest edge by GPS; trees cut (which can be compared to CoBa permits). local community members.<br />
• Counting trees that have been cut down; • Number of hunting and poaching incidents recorded<br />
• Recording frequency of hunting and poaching. by CoBas.<br />
55
to Andohahela National Park. Special attention<br />
should be given to surveying forest above 800 m<br />
elevation, which has not been visited during<br />
surveys to date.<br />
2. Initiate an ecological monitoring programme at<br />
identified priority sites, focusing on threatened<br />
species and those that are good indicators of<br />
disturbance. This programme should include<br />
measures of bird abundance and of human<br />
pressures. Implementation should begin with<br />
definition of quantifiable indicators, development<br />
of a database, and nomination of a responsible<br />
56<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
organisation. Analysed results should be published<br />
and provided to local communities and<br />
organisations working in the area.<br />
3. Initiate a programme to provide support to local<br />
communities for rational and sustainable<br />
management of natural resources. This could<br />
include creation of new CoBas and/or support<br />
to existing CoBas. Activities could include:<br />
forest regeneration, small-scale incomegeneration,<br />
training local communities in new or<br />
improved farming methods and development of<br />
ecotourism.
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 7: THE ANTS OF THE IVOHIBE REGION<br />
OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong><br />
BRIAN L. FISHER<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In December 2006, a survey was conducted of Ivohibe<br />
Mountain just east of Antsotso. The survey team<br />
consisted of Brian Fisher from California Academy<br />
of Sciences (CAS) and four members of the arthropod<br />
field team from the Madagascar Biodiversity Center<br />
(MBC) in Park Tsimbazaza. MBC is a Malagasy<br />
NGO incorporated in 2004, with a central mission to<br />
improve and accelerate individual and institutional<br />
capacity in biodiversity research in Madagascar,<br />
emphasising research on the island’s arthropods with<br />
an aim to broaden the scope of organisms routinely<br />
analysed when mapping biodiversity for conservation<br />
purposes. MBC includes training facilities for<br />
Malagasy students and provides an environment<br />
where practising Malagasy scientists can participate<br />
in conservation decision making.<br />
STUDY SITES<br />
Ants were intensively surveyed at 200 m (100–300 m<br />
from forest edge) and 650 m (the summit of Ivohibe)<br />
between 2–5 December 2006. The two sites were<br />
chosen to represent the largest elevation range of good<br />
forest available on the mountain. Specifically,<br />
inventories were conducted at the following localities:<br />
1. 55.0 km N Tolagnaro, 24°34.14’S, 47°12.24’E,<br />
200 m, 2–4.xii.2006; collections BLF15448-15553;<br />
2. 55.6 km N Tolagnaro, 24°33.70’S, 47°12.01’E,<br />
650 m, 4.xii.2006, collections BLF15554-15629.<br />
SURVEY METHODS<br />
Ants were often collected by hand. Areas searched<br />
included rotten logs and stumps, in both dead and<br />
live branches, in bamboo, on low vegetation, under<br />
canopy moss and epiphytes, and under stones.<br />
To capture flying insects, including winged ants<br />
(queens and males) we set up four Malaise traps and<br />
25 yellow pan traps at the 200 m site from 2–4<br />
December 2006.<br />
At the 200 m site, invertebrates were extracted<br />
from samples of leaf litter (leaf mold, rotten wood)<br />
using a modified form of the Winkler extractor. The<br />
leaf litter samples were sifted through a wire sieve of<br />
1 cm grid size. Before sifting, the leaf litter was<br />
chopped with a machete to disturb ant nests in small<br />
twigs and decayed logs. Ants and other invertebrates<br />
were extracted from the sifted litter during a 48-hour<br />
period in mini-Winkler sacks. At the 200 m site, we<br />
conducted nine trap extractions, with each trap<br />
holding eight liters of sifted litter.<br />
Ants on low vegetation and in arboreal habitats<br />
were sampled by holding a stretched 60 cm x 60 cm<br />
white canvas platform below the undergrowth and<br />
beating the trunk of a tree or clump vegetation three<br />
times with a stick. The ants dislodged onto the canvas<br />
platform were aspirated and placed in ethanol. This<br />
process was repeated by one collector for an entire<br />
day of collecting.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Previous arthropod inventories have been conducted<br />
at over 225 sites across Madagascar, in all habitats<br />
and geological formations. These surveys have<br />
included sites in the littoral, lowland and mountain<br />
forest in the Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) regions.<br />
The species collected from 2–5 December, 2006 are<br />
presented in Table 17. All specimens from the<br />
inventory and images of each species can be found at<br />
www.antweb.org/madagascar.jsp<br />
In the four days of field work, 105 species were<br />
recorded, with 81 species at 200 m and 40 species at<br />
650 m near the summit. Two species, Camponotus<br />
MG038 (Plate 12) and Pheidole MGs074 are known<br />
only from this forest. One other species, Camponotus<br />
MG080, was discovered for the first time during this<br />
Plate 12.<br />
Camponotus MG038,<br />
a new species of ant<br />
collected during<br />
surveys and so far<br />
known only from<br />
Ivohibe<br />
57
58<br />
Map 7. Ant survey site<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar
survey, although it has since been found at two other<br />
locations.<br />
The fauna is more diverse than similar sites in<br />
Andohahela National Park (see AntWeb.org). At<br />
Ivohibe, a higher diversity of ants were captured in a<br />
shorter amount of time.<br />
The 650 m site includes 23 species not recorded in<br />
the lowland site. The shift in species along the<br />
elevational gradient makes it important to include<br />
both habitats in conservation planning.<br />
Table 17. Ant species collected from Ivohibe<br />
Species 200 m 650 m<br />
Anochetus grandidieri 2 0<br />
Anochetus madagascarensis 7 0<br />
Camponotus christi 4 0<br />
Camponotus christi foersteri 1 1<br />
Camponotus dufouri 3 0<br />
Camponotus edmondi 0 1<br />
Camponotus gibber 0 2<br />
Camponotus gouldi 3 0<br />
Camponotus heteroclitus 0 6<br />
Camponotus hildebrandti 4 1<br />
Camponotus maculatus 0 1<br />
Camponotus MG024 1 0<br />
Camponotus MG038 2 1<br />
Camponotus MG048 1 0<br />
Camponotus MG051 1 0<br />
Camponotus MG054 4 3<br />
Camponotus MG074 1 0<br />
Camponotus MG079 2 0<br />
Camponotus MG080 0 2<br />
Camponotus MG082 6 0<br />
Camponotus MG089 0 5<br />
Camponotus mocquerysi 6 0<br />
Camponotus putatus 0 3<br />
Camponotus robustus 2 0<br />
Carebara MG01 1 0<br />
Carebara MG08 1 0<br />
Cataulacus oberthueri 2 0<br />
Cataulacus porcatus 15 1<br />
Cataulacus regularis 0 3<br />
Cerapachys L_MG10 1 0<br />
Cerapachys MG10 1 0<br />
Cerapachys P_MG02 1 0<br />
Cerapachys P_MG11 0 2<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Species 200 m 650 m<br />
Crematogaster BBB36 1 0<br />
Crematogaster BBB40 1 0<br />
Crematogaster BBB44 1 0<br />
Crematogaster BBB56 1 0<br />
Crematogaster BBB62 1 0<br />
Hypoponera MG017 2 0<br />
Hypoponera MG025 1 0<br />
Hypoponera MG033 1 1<br />
Hypoponera MG038 2 6<br />
Hypoponera MG062 0 1<br />
Hypoponera MG067 2 0<br />
Hypoponera MG082 1 0<br />
Hypoponera MG087 1 0<br />
Monomorium fisheri 0 2<br />
Monomorium gongromos 2 0<br />
Monomorium hanneli 1 0<br />
Monomorium hildebrandti 1 0<br />
Monomorium MG01 0 2<br />
Monomorium micrommaton 1 0<br />
Monomorium termitobium 1 3<br />
Mystrium MG01 1 0<br />
Mystrium rogeri 1 1<br />
Nesomyrmex madecassus 2 0<br />
Nesomyrmex MG07 2 0<br />
Nylanderia undetermined 10 6<br />
Pachycondyla cambouei 1 0<br />
Pachycondyla JCR05 0 1<br />
Pachycondyla perroti 0 1<br />
Pachycondyla sikorae 1 0<br />
Pachycondyla wasmannii 2 0<br />
Paraparatrechina undetermined 2 0<br />
Pheidole MG001 2 4<br />
Pheidole MG026 1 0<br />
Crematogaster BBB14 0 1 Pheidole MG078 0 1<br />
Crematogaster BBB32 1 0 Pheidole MG091 1 0<br />
Note: Species in bold are known only from Ivohibe Peak<br />
Unlike forests such as Lavasoa (Grand Lavasoa,<br />
25.9 km W Tolagnaro, 25°05.26’S, 46°44.94’E), where<br />
selective logging has degraded the majority of the<br />
forest, Ivohibe is in pristine condition. The forest edge<br />
represents the limit of disturbance. Once inside the<br />
forest, one quickly encounters mature growth. The<br />
resident ant species reflect the pristine nature of this<br />
forest. While secondary forests in the region as a<br />
whole are invariably inhabited by tramp ants, we did<br />
not collect any invasive species in Ivohibe forest.<br />
Species 200 m 650 m<br />
Pheidole MG121 0 3<br />
Pheidole MG126 1 6<br />
Pheidole MG151 1 0<br />
Pheidole MGs011 1 0<br />
Pheidole MGs059 1 0<br />
Pheidole MGs074 1 0<br />
Pheidole MGs106 1 0<br />
Pheidole oswaldi 2 0<br />
Plagiolepis alluaudi 3 1<br />
Plagiolepis madecassa 0 1<br />
Platythyrea bicuspis 1 0<br />
Prionopelta descarpentriesi 0 1<br />
Simopone MG02 1 0<br />
Strumigenys ampyx 0 3<br />
Strumigenys chilo 1 0<br />
Strumigenys origo 1 0<br />
Strumigenys sphera 1 0<br />
Technomyrmex madecassus 1 0<br />
Terataner MG11 9 3<br />
Tetramorium cognatum 0 1<br />
Tetramorium electrum 2 1<br />
Tetramorium latreillei 1 0<br />
Tetramorium MG035 2 0<br />
Tetramorium MG046 1 0<br />
Tetramorium MG062 0 5<br />
Tetramorium MG093 1 0<br />
Tetramorium MG106 2 0<br />
Tetramorium proximum 1 0<br />
Tetramorium severini 3 0<br />
Tetramorium tosii 3 0<br />
Tetraponera grandidieri 0 3<br />
Tetraponera merita 4 5<br />
Tetraponera MG06 1 0<br />
Tetraponera undetermined 8 4<br />
Total species 81 40<br />
59
OBJECTIVES<br />
Objectives of the socio-economic research were:<br />
1. Collection and analysis of socio-economic data<br />
potentially related to biodiversity;<br />
2. Identification of the importance of biodiversity for<br />
local communities;<br />
3. Identification of traditions (e.g. farming and<br />
cultural) that impact the Tsitongambarika Forest;<br />
4. Collection of demographic data.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
This survey was conducted in 2005 in four of the 15<br />
communes (municipalities) around Tsitongambarika.<br />
The communes surveyed were Mahatalaky, Iabakoho,<br />
and Manantenina communes on the eastern side of<br />
Tsitongambarika and Ifarantsa Commune on the<br />
western side. The methodology was as follows:<br />
1. Consultations: to collect data from existing entities<br />
and organisations;<br />
2. Village household surveys: to gather socioeconomic<br />
data;<br />
3. Qualitative Interviews: to cross-check data collected<br />
during household surveys;<br />
4. Meetings with local communities: to assess<br />
community involvement in biodiversity<br />
conservation and to assess community flexibility<br />
to adjust cultural or farming traditions in a future<br />
environmental conservation programme<br />
5. Observations (direct and participative): to verify<br />
and complete data collected through other<br />
methods.<br />
SOCIAL ORGANISATION<br />
■ Manantenina, Iabakoho and<br />
Ifarantsa communes<br />
Background<br />
The origin of populations living in these three<br />
communes is the same, especially for the coastal<br />
populations on the east side of Tsitongambarika I<br />
and II. It is said that they are descendants of two<br />
Antesaka brothers (the Zafisery) from a tribe in<br />
Sandravinany–Vangaindrano in the north. These<br />
populations have always lived a part from other ethnic<br />
groups and only marry amongst themselves. As a<br />
result, the majority of the population in these<br />
60<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Chapter 8: SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF<br />
THE <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> AREA<br />
MAMINIAINA ANDRIAMAHENITSOA AND MARIE BEATRICE YVONNE RAHASINANDRASANA<br />
communes is essentially Antesaka as in the case of<br />
Manambato. However, it is said that the Antanosy<br />
settled this region in the past, but later moved to the<br />
western part of Tsitongambarika Forest, for example<br />
to Ivorona. Two factors prompted the Antesaka to<br />
migrate to this region. First, was better ocean fishing<br />
(particularly of lobster). Second, was colonial timber<br />
harvesting. The Antesaka would leave their homes in<br />
the North to come south to Bemangidy to work in<br />
the colonial lumber mill. Nowadays, Bemangidy,<br />
which was once a large settlement, is nothing more<br />
than a small hamlet of four houses, having been<br />
abandoned by its previous inhabitants. Since the<br />
arrival of the Antesaka, there has been no more<br />
significant immigration. The few additional people<br />
who come to settle in this region are essentially<br />
merchants, constituting barely 1% of the population.<br />
Family structure<br />
In villages, houses are built far away from one another<br />
because inhabitants are prone to impulsiveness and<br />
conflicts. Thus, when a family becomes large it leaves<br />
a village to establish another hamlet. At Antsotso, there<br />
are up to 10 hamlets of 4–30 houses each, suggesting a<br />
desire for independence and self-sufficiency.<br />
In these communities, men, fulfilling their roles as<br />
fathers and husbands, are responsible for household<br />
income (assisted by their wives). The populations<br />
practice traditional marriage, do not approve of<br />
polygamy and have 2–8 children per family. In general,<br />
girls marry from the age of 15, with boys a little later.<br />
Women are respected in the home, participate in family<br />
discussions, give their opinions and make relevant<br />
decisions.<br />
Authorities<br />
The villages are managed by legal authorities since<br />
the people are all immigrants and thus do not have<br />
traditional authorities. The legal authority is the chef<br />
de quartier, who is the local leader and has close ties<br />
to the community. All decisions must pass by this<br />
central authority, who governs the communities and<br />
solves disputes. Nonetheless, there are other village<br />
elders called lonaky who hold power inside their own<br />
family groups. The situation is the same for religious<br />
leaders. There is an exception to this general rule in<br />
Iabakoho where the local teachers (with a 9th grade<br />
education) are also highly respected, consulted, and<br />
are influential in the community.<br />
Taboos, beliefs and dina<br />
All villages commonly respect rivers and lakes. It is<br />
forbidden (taboo) to urinate and defecate near these
Map 8. Socio-economic survey sites<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
61
waters, probably because these are daily water sources<br />
for the population. It is also forbidden to bring<br />
recently-cut firewood into the village. It must stay<br />
outside the village until it is dry. Some particular<br />
species are subject to local beliefs, and these are<br />
discussed later. Collective agreements (dina) adopted<br />
by the community and legal authorities (the mayor<br />
and Ministry of Water and Forests) are intended to<br />
motivate people to work and to respect their<br />
neighbours.<br />
■ Mahatalaky Commune<br />
Background<br />
The main ethnic group in this commune is the<br />
Antanosy. Migration within the commune is frequent,<br />
particularly to the administrative centre of the<br />
commune because of food insecurity in other<br />
fokontany (the smallest Malagasy adminstrative unit,<br />
often comprised of one or more villages).<br />
Intercommunal and interregional migration is not<br />
significant, except into South Volobe Fokontany<br />
where forest clearing is very intense. The people who<br />
have settled on the hillsides of Tsitongambarika come<br />
from Manantenina Commune. Since in-migration is<br />
practically non-existent, there is not much inter-ethnic<br />
co-habitation or interaction and thus there are only<br />
Antanosy living in the study sites.<br />
Marriage<br />
Marriage with close relatives is frequent between the<br />
descendants of two brothers or those of a brother and<br />
a sister. However, the descendants of two sisters<br />
cannot marry. For marriage of the descendants of a<br />
brother and sister, a taboo between them must be<br />
lifted, by sacrificing a zebu (ox) or a rooster and<br />
holding a ceremony known as Manandra-arim-belo.<br />
After the ceremony, every guest receives a piece of<br />
meat called tahala and the bride and groom are<br />
acknowledged by the community to be married. For<br />
marriages between people from two different families,<br />
the husband offers zebu to his future wife’s parents,<br />
the number depending on the agreement between the<br />
families.<br />
Death and burial<br />
If a community member dies, the bad news spreads<br />
quickly and far. Families and representatives of other<br />
clans come to comfort the family of the dead by<br />
bringing money or rice. As a result, there is enough<br />
rice and meat to cook for the whole family in a funeral<br />
ceremony known as famaha. The duration of the<br />
famaha depends on the wealth of the family. If the<br />
family is too poor, the dead relative is buried as<br />
quickly as possible but usually the family is obliged<br />
to go into debt to hold the famaha.<br />
Every clan (whose identity is recognised through<br />
a mark on their cows’ ears) has a burial place (known<br />
as an amonike or kibory), essentially a small wood<br />
with several big stones surrounded by bare land. The<br />
dead are buried under these rocks; men and women<br />
62<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
separately. These woods are sacred places that it is<br />
forbidden to visit (except during an actual burial) or<br />
collect firewood. When the burial ground is full, the<br />
clan looks for another site.<br />
For a widow or widower, the mourning ritual is<br />
strict. The widowed have to wear the same black<br />
clothing for a six-month period without washing<br />
themselves or their clothes. They also have to stay at<br />
their house all day long, except to use the toilet. This<br />
period of mourning is called milobona. Mourning can<br />
have a harmful psychological impact on young<br />
individuals, who may suffer from personality change<br />
and depression during this period.<br />
DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION<br />
Summary demographic data are presented in Table<br />
18. Those aged 0–5 do not yet attend school and<br />
remain with their mothers. Those aged 6–10 attend<br />
elementary school. They still live with their parents<br />
or sometimes with members of their family who live<br />
close to their schools. Very few of those aged 11–17<br />
still study. Boys help their fathers and learn their<br />
father’s profession (fishing, etc.) and girls help their<br />
mother in household and agricultural chores. This is<br />
the period when the youth are preparing their adult<br />
life and begin to be interested in earning money. At<br />
the ages of 18–60, people already have their own<br />
livelihoods and family. This age group is closely tied<br />
to its traditions and is hesitant to adopt new ideas or<br />
visions, even if outwardly they profess to be interested.<br />
Their conservative tendencies often slow down or even<br />
hinder new projects, such as the creation of an<br />
association. Those aged over 60 are the leading<br />
citizens of the community. Despite their age, they still<br />
participate in their family’s daily activities: men collect<br />
firewood and are in charge of village cleanliness while<br />
women carry out household chores, make mats and<br />
fishing traps, and assist the men.<br />
■ Manantenina Commune<br />
Fokontany Ankaramany<br />
Ankaramany is located 19 km south of Manantenina<br />
along national road 12A and constitutes the northern<br />
boundary of Tsitongambarika Forest. It comprises<br />
five main villages: Antsapa, Andamasinina, Enakao,<br />
Sakorihina and Ankaramany. This fokontany has a<br />
public elementary school. More than 70% of<br />
households fish as their main livelihood activity. The<br />
others are farmers in the plain on the edge of<br />
Tsitongambarika. During the official fishing season,<br />
these farmers occasionally move to the coast to<br />
become fishermen. Their temporary campsites may<br />
become permanent, as in the case of Enakao village.<br />
There is a fishermen’s association in the fokontany.<br />
There is not yet a community forest management<br />
association (communauté de base, commonly known<br />
as a CoBa) here, which may explain the scale of forest<br />
clearing in this area.
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Table 18. Demographic data from four surveyed communes<br />
No. 0–5 6–10<br />
Age (years)<br />
11–17 18–60 >60<br />
Commune Fokontany Site households Population Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
Manantenina Ankaramany N/A N/A 1,556 171 189 124 137 120 128 315 329 23 20<br />
Manambato N/A N/A 606 68 69 48 53 46 49 124 135 6 8<br />
Antanitsara N/A N/A 1,040 106 81 70 99 88 73 239 258 14 12<br />
Iabakoho Iabakoho N/A N/A 703 71 84 56 63 53 69 137 149 13 8<br />
Ambanihazo N/A N/A 712 62 69 58 71 68 51 135 179 11 8<br />
Antsotso N/A N/A 692 78 84 52 61 53 64 136 147 10 7<br />
Vatomirindry N/A N/A 618 65 69 42 52 51 47 128 149 7 8<br />
Ifarantsa Ifarantsa N/A N/A 1,862 249 250 142 197 108 179 330 361 20 26<br />
Vatomivarina N/A N/A 1,041 115 120 80 103 90 76 209 233 9 6<br />
Efangera N/A N/A 1,102 155 152 81 107 85 75 194 227 16 10<br />
Fanjahira N/A N/A 1,046 97 88 64 85 83 75 264 253 15 22<br />
Evonje N/A N/A 755 63 99 71 67 70 60 155 147 13 10<br />
Ivolo N/A N/A 1,000 151 95 140 102 60 81 184 155 17 15<br />
Andanivato N/A N/A 918 106 143 78 70 75 78 163 195 7 3<br />
Ivorona N/A N/A 2,137 271 269 168 180 184 176 419 428 29 13<br />
Ankera N/A N/A 923 77 82 59 55 50 60 251 259 16 14<br />
Sub-total 16,711 1,905 1,943 1,333 1,502 1,284 1,341 3,383 3,604 226 190<br />
Total 16,711 3,848 2,835 2,625 6,987 416<br />
Percentage 100% 23% 17% 16% 41.5% 2.5%<br />
Age (years)<br />
No. 0–5 6–17 18–60 >60<br />
Commune Fokontany Site households Population Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
Mahatakaly Anaviavy N/A 22 104 12 13 16 15 23 25 N/A N/A<br />
Androangabe N/A 29 133 3 9 25 20 35 41 N/A N/A<br />
Beantafa N/A 46 243 27 20 38 35 60 63 N/A N/A<br />
Sarondrano N/A 21 119 12 10 22 21 24 30 N/A N/A<br />
Emanevy N/A 64 359 45 34 69 61 71 79 N/A N/A<br />
Sahamaro N/A 52 262 33 33 44 40 56 56 N/A N/A<br />
Tsihalagna Tsihalagna 24 332 57 49 41 46 60 76 2 1<br />
Marovato 15 95 13 14 16 7 16 20 5 4<br />
Marofotry 15 76 7 7 16 11 17 17 0 1<br />
Tsianoriha Tsianoriha 42 180 18 21 27 21 43 44 2 4<br />
Ankazomasy 49 210 22 23 26 29 47 53 4 6<br />
Andramanàka Andriamanàka 40 217 30 26 35 26 48 49 1 2<br />
Ambarakotry 32 145 16 15 20 21 35 35 2 1<br />
Analalava 80 425 50 50 62 61 100 92 3 7<br />
Ankazomasy 16 75 11 8 16 5 17 16 1 1<br />
Amboniria 33 172 17 11 41 29 28 39 3 4<br />
Mananara I Mananara I<br />
and hamlets 50 288 31 30 56 56 53 53 5 4<br />
Volobe Sud Analamagnasa 231 1,333 146 170 205 221 246 260 14 71<br />
Tanandava 65 339 41 41 51 54 72 68 4 8<br />
Fandramanitra 62 356 50 51 59 47 66 77 6 0<br />
Andanivato 102 580 57 76 103 104 120 104 9 7<br />
Volobe Nord North Volobe 135 530 50 73 103 103 104 92 4 1<br />
Maromoky 80 448 49 54 91 71 88 88 4 3<br />
Esinda 40 216 25 26 42 28 47 44 2 2<br />
Eforo 17 88 11 8 15 19 18 15 1 1<br />
South Ebakika South Ebakika 89 459 45 45 74 84 98 96 8 9<br />
Sub-total 1,451 7,784 878 917 1,313 1,235 1,592 1,632 80 137<br />
Total 1,795 2,548 3,224 217<br />
Percentage 100% 23% 33% 41% 3%<br />
Source: Commune statistics for 2004 (Iabokoho and Ifarantsa); survey results (Mahatalaky and Manantenina)<br />
63
Fokontany Manambato<br />
Manambato has two villages, Manambato and<br />
Ambalantenina, and is 31 km south of Manantenina,<br />
on national road 12A. It has a total population of<br />
606 inhabitants and has a public elementary school<br />
and a basic health centre. About 80% of villagers are<br />
primarily fishermen but become farmers for part of<br />
the year, clearing the forest for cultivation. There is<br />
not yet a CoBa in this fokontany.<br />
Fokontany Antanitsara<br />
Antanitsara is 6 km west of Manambato, and is<br />
composed of several hamlets, including Antamenaka,<br />
Morafeno, Fenoandala, Antanandava, Antanambao,<br />
Antanamasy, Ambohimahasoa, Mahasoa,<br />
Amboahangy and Tsiangafiafy. It has an public<br />
elementary school in the main village, Fenoandala.<br />
There is no health centre and thus traditional medicine<br />
is well developed. About 90% of the population farm<br />
as their main livelihood activity. Agricultural yields<br />
are satisfactory because the soil is reasonably fertile.<br />
However, there is insufficient irrigation in the lowland<br />
rice fields and also flooding during the rainy seasons.<br />
There are very few families who do not practice forest<br />
clearing in this fokontany. There is no CoBa yet in<br />
this fokontany.<br />
■ Iabakoho Commune<br />
This comprises the fokontanys of Iabakoho,<br />
Ambanihazo, Antsotso and Vatomirindry, with a<br />
total population of 2,725. Iabakoho is 60 km north<br />
of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) on national road 12A.<br />
It is bounded by Manantenina Commune in the north,<br />
and Mahatalaky Commune in the south, and is about<br />
15 km long. Every fokontany has at least an<br />
elementary school (public or private) but there is a<br />
serious lack of school teachers. About 90% of the<br />
households practice both fishing and farming and, as<br />
in neighbouring communes, forest clearing is<br />
practised in Iabakoho. CoBas are being established<br />
in the commune, but farmers continue to use<br />
traditional agricultural practices.<br />
■ Ifarantsa Commune<br />
Ifaransta Commune is 234 km² in size and is located<br />
on the western side of Tsitongambarika. It is bounded<br />
by Isaka Ivondro Commune to the north, Soanierana<br />
Commune to the south and Mandiso Commune to<br />
the north-west. The total population is 10,784. This<br />
commune comprises the fokontanys of Ifarantsa,<br />
Vatomivarina, Efangera, Ivorona, Fanjahira, Evonje,<br />
Andanivato, Ankera and Ivolo. The commune has a<br />
basic health centre (Centre de santé de base II, or<br />
CSB II) and a middle school (College d’Enseignement<br />
Général, or CEG) at Ifarantsa. There have been<br />
public elementary schools in each fokontany since<br />
2005.<br />
Animal husbandry plays an important role in the<br />
local economy. Cassava, rice, sweet potato and fruit<br />
tree cultivation are also significant. Agricultural<br />
practices do clear the forest but less than in other<br />
64<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
communes. Some produce is consumed locally and<br />
some sold to commercial buyers at the Ifarantsa<br />
market. Poor irrigation management, lack of fertiliser<br />
and existence of agricultural pests are among the<br />
many obstacles to agricultural development in this<br />
commune.<br />
An inventory of non-governmental organisations<br />
(NGOs) working on rural development in the<br />
commune, included CARE <strong>International</strong>, FAFAFI<br />
(Fanentanana, Fambolena, Fiompiana; a Malagasy<br />
NGO specialising in rural agriculture and animal<br />
husbandry), and ASOS (Action, Santé, Organisation,<br />
Secours; a Malagasy NGO specialising in rural public<br />
health, water and sanitation). Village associations<br />
exist in many fields, including: lychee, chilli, and red<br />
peppercorn-producing associations; a women’s<br />
association; and an association for management of<br />
Fanjahira Forest. Forest clearing occurs in the<br />
commune but much less so than in other communes.<br />
Bushfires have always existed in this commune. There<br />
are CoBas at Ifarantsa, Talakifeno, Marovitsika,<br />
Ankera, Ivorona, Androtsy, Maliovola,<br />
Vohibandrika and Andanivato.<br />
In the communes of Manantenina, Iabokoho and<br />
Ifarantsa the Education, Health and Communication<br />
situation can be summarised as follows:<br />
Education<br />
All of the fokontanys of Manantenina, Iabokoho and<br />
Ifarantsa have at least one public elementary school<br />
and Ifarantsa has had a public middle school (CEG)<br />
since 2005. Parents are proud of sending their children<br />
to school even though the classrooms (two classrooms<br />
for five classes), teachers, and school furniture and<br />
supplies are insufficient. The hamlets are located far<br />
from one another, which means that small children<br />
have difficulty travelling 3–4 km to schools which are,<br />
in rainy seasons, inaccessible because of floods or<br />
washed-out bridges.<br />
Health<br />
Most of the fokontanys in Manantenina, Iabokoho<br />
and Ifarantsa have or will soon have a basic health<br />
centre. The health sector faces the same problems as<br />
the education sector such as:<br />
1. Lack of medical staff;<br />
2. Distance from the hamlets to the health centre;<br />
3. Inaccessibility of the road when it rains.<br />
Due to these challenges, people use traditional<br />
medicine to treat illnesses.<br />
Communication<br />
The national road 12A that links Tolagnaro and<br />
Manantenina goes through the villages located in the<br />
eastern part of Tsitongambarika. Although it is not<br />
paved, it is accessible almost year round. To travel<br />
between Iabokoho and Manantenina, there are four<br />
ferry crossings, which can be problematic if a ferry is<br />
broken.
■ Mahatalaky Commune<br />
The administrative centre of the commune is<br />
comprised of six fokontany: Anaviavy, Androangabe,<br />
Beantafa, Sarondrano, Emanevy and Sahamaro.<br />
Migration within the commune is frequent,<br />
particularly to this centre to avoid the food insecurity<br />
situation in the rural areas. In this centre there are<br />
public elementary schools and a middle school as in<br />
other commune centres. School attendance is high at<br />
the elementary level, but decreases at the secondary<br />
level as children start to work. The commune has a<br />
basic health centre (CSB II), with a doctor, midwife,<br />
and small pharmacy with basic medicines. The<br />
population uses the health centre especially on market<br />
day. Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent, and the<br />
majority of the population has severe dental issues<br />
due to lack of calcium in the water and their diet.<br />
Agriculture is the main livelihood activity,<br />
followed by animal husbandry, fishing and hunting.<br />
Major crops include irrigated and pluvial rice, sweet<br />
potato, corn, bemako (a type of cultivated tuber,<br />
Dioscorea sp.), taro root (saonjo), sugar cane, banana<br />
(cultivated in the forest), fruit trees, and vanilla.<br />
Except for coffee and banana cultivation, agriculture<br />
uses shifting (slash-and-burn or tavy) techniques.<br />
Communities say they use this practice because ‘the<br />
soil is too cold for cultivation and would not produce<br />
enough without being burnt’. Ash serves as a fertiliser<br />
and basic hand tools are used (spade, machete-like<br />
knife, and axe). Animal husbandry includes cattle,<br />
pigs, and poultry. Few people fish since this<br />
administrative centre is far from the sea, but there is<br />
heavy involvement in trading fish and shellfish. Most<br />
of the communities hunt occasionally, targeting tenrec<br />
species, Collared Brown Lemur (Eulemur collaris,<br />
known as varika), Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida<br />
meleagris, known as akanga), Madagascar<br />
Buttonquail (Turnix nigricollis, known as kibobo) and<br />
quails (Coturnix sp., known as trahotraho). In<br />
Mahatalaky Fokontany, basketwork is an essential<br />
source of income for households during the annual<br />
five-month period of food insecurity.<br />
■ Tsihalagna Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
Tsihalagna is close to Tsitongambarika. It comprises<br />
four villages of which three were visited during<br />
surveys. Among all survey areas, Tsihalagna is the<br />
most vulnerable to food insecurity. Local people eat<br />
pape (a wild forest tuber, Dioscorea sp.) during the<br />
most severe food insecurity periods. Pape is highly<br />
poisonous and requires meticulous preparation<br />
(peeling, drying for several days, and then immersing<br />
in a creek or stream for a week) before it can be<br />
consumed.<br />
There is an elementary school in the centre of the<br />
fokontany, with one teacher responsible for the three<br />
classes (grades 1–3). There were two assistants but<br />
these resigned because they did not get their salary<br />
on time. Less than 10% of children who should attend<br />
school do so. Attendance is low because children are<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
helping their parents with family livelihood activities<br />
and household chores. The nearest basic health centre<br />
is in Mahatalaky Commune, a three-hour walk away.<br />
Local people treat ailments with medicinal plants, and<br />
only go to the health centre when ailments become<br />
serious. Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent. Even<br />
births take place in villages, assisted by an experienced<br />
elderly woman (often the mother of the woman giving<br />
birth).<br />
Shifting agriculture is also prevalent here.<br />
Populations cultivate pluvial and irrigated rice,<br />
cassava, taro, coffee and banana. Rice production is<br />
low, and a given harvest can only feed a family for a<br />
week to a month depending on household size.<br />
Cassava lasts longer and ensures household survival<br />
if it is not stolen, but crop theft is frequent in this<br />
area. Cattle, pigs, and poultry are raised. Cattle<br />
manure fertilises rice crops, and livestock are only<br />
sold in times of need. Basketwork is produced,<br />
especially mats for household use, with any surplus<br />
sold at the Mahatalaky market. Some people hunt<br />
species such as tenrec species, Collared Brown Lemur,<br />
Helmeted Guineafowl, Madagascar Buttonquail and<br />
Common Quail, within the fokontany’s delimited<br />
forest reserve.<br />
■ Tsianoriha Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
Tsianoriha is located near Tsitongambarika and is<br />
very similar to Tsihalagna. The majority of the<br />
population is concentrated in Tsianoriha village. The<br />
standard of living is higher than that of Tsihalagna,<br />
due to various economic activities. There is one<br />
concrete public elementary school, with one teacher<br />
responsible for the three classes (grades 1–3). This is<br />
the only fokontany where half of school-age children<br />
actually attend. The health situation in Tsianoriha is<br />
similar to other places with a prevalence of malaria<br />
and diarrhoea. Tsianoriha is not far from the<br />
Mahatalaky health centre.<br />
Agriculture, livestock farming and fishing are the<br />
main livelihood activities of the community, with<br />
salaried work as a secondary activity. Crops are<br />
primarily irrigated and pluvial rice, cassava, sweet<br />
potato, banana and sugar cane. Agriculture is shifting,<br />
either in the valleys/plains or in the hills/forest. Forest<br />
is cleared and planted during three years’, and then<br />
left fallow, while another area is cleared. This<br />
agriculture is in a ‘local use zone’ defined by the World<br />
Wide Fund for Nature and the Ministry of Water and<br />
Forests during the forestry zoning process with the<br />
community. However, the community is dissatisfied<br />
with the extent of this area and complains of poverty.<br />
Indeed, since the forestry zoning there has been severe<br />
food insecurity because the agricultural production<br />
in the local use zone was insufficient. Cattle, pigs, and<br />
poultry are raised in the fokontany. Subsistence<br />
fishing occurs in the Tsianoriha River. Baskets and<br />
mats are woven for household use and sold to<br />
purchase basic food stuffs. During the yearly period<br />
of food insecurity, men may travel long distances to<br />
65
search for paid work as work as porters, agricultural<br />
workers, etc.<br />
■ Andramanàka Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
Andramanàka is near Tsitongambarika, and is made<br />
up of five villages: Ambarokotry, Analalava,<br />
Ankazomasy, Amboniria, and Andriamanàka.<br />
People tend to settle right next to the forest and carry<br />
out many activities related to the forest. This<br />
fokontany has a higher standard of living than others,<br />
because several NGOs work there (British NGO<br />
Azafady, and Malagasy NGOs FAFAFI, and ASOS).<br />
There is a public elementary school, with three<br />
teachers in charge of grades 1–5. There are 10–15<br />
children per class, although only five pupils remain<br />
in grade 5. Pupils do not attend school regularly due<br />
to the food insecurity situation. They come two or<br />
three times and then miss class for a month. Disease<br />
prevalence is identical to that of other fokontany. The<br />
nearest basic health centre is at Mahatalaky.<br />
As it is near Tsitongambarika, this community has<br />
diverse livelihoods, but shifting cultivation is the<br />
mainstay. The main crops are irrigated and pluvial<br />
rice, cassava, sweet potato, corn, coffee, banana,<br />
sugar cane and taro root. Generally, the field burning<br />
period (doro-asa) is between August and October. As<br />
recommended by the CoBa, a 4 m fire break is made<br />
(to ensure that the fire stays under control and does<br />
not leave the area that is intended for burning) and<br />
some members of the community also stand guard to<br />
extinguish any fire that leaves the intended area.<br />
Intentional fires that go out of control can cause<br />
bushfires and burn down the forest (e.g. a one month<br />
fire near Andramanàka). Cattle, pigs, and poultry are<br />
raised. Baskets are made for household use. Women<br />
here work more in the fields than on basket weaving.<br />
Some men produce traditional alcohol (toaka gasy)<br />
to sell in the administrative centre of the commune.<br />
This is so profitable that some people have abandoned<br />
cassava cultivation. The community tends to settle<br />
right on the edge of the forest to facilitate their natural<br />
resource extraction activities. People in Analalava<br />
hunt wild boar, that destroy crops, Collared Brown<br />
Lemur and other edible animals.<br />
■ Mananara I Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
This is a small fokontany composed of six hamlets.<br />
The forest is divided into:<br />
1. Conservation zone (commonly known as ala faly<br />
though it is not technically, as this term suggests,<br />
taboo forest): Eberohy Forest;<br />
2. Commercial timber harvesting zone:<br />
Finomandrano Forest;<br />
3. Local use zone: Vohimainty.<br />
There is little flat agricultural land, and the population<br />
only has access to the Vohimainty Forest, so natural<br />
resource management is rigorous and effective. There<br />
66<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
is no school in this fokontany, even though there are<br />
many school aged children. The community built a<br />
school building, but there is no teacher. The nearest<br />
health centre is in the administrative centre of the<br />
commune but the community appears healthy, with<br />
little malnutrition.<br />
There is no cultivatable plain in this fokontany,<br />
given the topography. This local use zone,<br />
Vohimainty, is the only area that the community<br />
has to cultivate, in addition to the lowland rice<br />
fields. Crops include irrigated and pluvial rice,<br />
cassava, sweet potato, taro, coffee and sugar cane.<br />
Slash-and-burn agriculture is practised but, after<br />
forest delimitation by the Ministry of Water and<br />
Forests in 2001, certain crops are no longer planted<br />
in the local use zone (e.g. banana, sweet potato<br />
and taro). Cassava is the only crop cultivated on the<br />
lower slopes. Cattle, pigs, and poultry are raised.<br />
Cattle are particularly valued for manure to fertilise<br />
rice fields. There is a clear difference in the yields of<br />
fertilised versus non fertilised rice fields. Baskets are<br />
made for household use, but women have to go to<br />
Sainte Luce to find Lepironia articulata reeds<br />
(mahampy) for this. Hunting (often of tenrec species)<br />
is only practised alongside other activities such as<br />
collecting wood.<br />
■ Volobe Sud Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
Among the visited fokontanys, this is the largest and<br />
most populated with its four villages. There is a<br />
considerable amount of forest clearance. At<br />
Analamagnasa, people live in the forest and clear it<br />
regardless of demarcation by the Ministry of Water<br />
and Forests. These people are not local. The majority<br />
are migrant outsiders of the Antesaka (not Antanosy)<br />
ethnic group from Manantenina Commune who are<br />
breaking local forest management dina. These<br />
migrants have fled the food insecurity situation in<br />
Manantenina. There is a dilapidated public<br />
elementary school with two teachers and one<br />
assistant. Only a small proportion of children attend<br />
school, and thus teachers also teach irregularly,<br />
focusing instead on farming. Malnutrition<br />
(particularly among children), malaria, diarrhoea and<br />
filariasis (testicle swelling in men) are prevalent. There<br />
is a basic pharmacy at Analamagnasa.<br />
Shifting agriculture is practised by this community.<br />
The main crops are irrigated and rainfed rice, cassava,<br />
banana, taro, igname tubers, bemako (Dioscorea sp.),<br />
coffee, greens (Chinese cabbage) and sugar cane.<br />
Banana and coffee are traded. Cattle, pigs, and<br />
poultry are raised. Often, burning to renew pasture<br />
forage grasses causes bushfires. Women spend a lot<br />
of time weaving baskets and mats in addition to their<br />
main work in the agricultural fields. The production<br />
of traditional alcohol is an additional activity for some<br />
people. The community members claim that they do<br />
not hunt, but it would seem likely that people who<br />
live in the hills at the edge and in the forest do hunt<br />
to supplement their diet.
■ Volobe Nord Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
The community in Volobe Nord respects the Ministry<br />
of Water and Forests forest demarcation, but extracts<br />
wood for building and boat construction without<br />
paying fees to the CoBa. The community complains<br />
that the suitable land available to them for<br />
cultivation has decreased since the demarcation of the<br />
local use zone and they request that the Ministry<br />
modify the boundaries. Nonetheless, the community<br />
has managed to increase agricultural yields in the<br />
lowland areas. There is a school in the fokontany,<br />
but with similar constraints to other fokontanys.<br />
Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent, with other<br />
diseases less so. Access to health care is poor since<br />
the nearest health centre is far away and people lack<br />
money to visit it. A new health care centre is being<br />
planned.<br />
Crop farming is the main livelihood activity in the<br />
lowland areas and valleys, the plains, and the forest<br />
(in the local use zone). The community farms on land<br />
previously used for shifting cultivation and now left<br />
fallow (known as hindy), and no longer clears new<br />
forest areas for cultivation. Main crops are irrigated<br />
and pluvial rice, cassava, banana, sugar cane, taro,<br />
pineapple and sweet potato. The shifting cultivation<br />
system is unlikely to change due to long-standing<br />
traditional practices, basic agricultural hand tools and<br />
the type of soil. Cattle, pigs, poultry and (by one<br />
household) Collared Brown Lemur are raised. Cattle<br />
are kept far from villages and are tended to by<br />
community members using a rotation system.<br />
Weaving mats constitutes a source of income for<br />
households even though women must travel far to<br />
obtain the necessary Lepironia articulata reeds in<br />
Ebakika and Vatomirindra. Some people produce<br />
traditional alcohol as a secondary activity, generating<br />
an average income of 30,000 Ariary per 20 litre jerry<br />
can. There is occasional hunting of tenrec species, wild<br />
boar, and birds.<br />
■ South Ebakika Fokontany,<br />
Mahatalaky Commune<br />
South Ebakika and North Ebakika are separated<br />
by a river, and traversed by national road 12A<br />
linking Tolagnaro to Manantenina. Ebakika Sud is<br />
more developed than other fokontanys owing to<br />
the existence of roads and local incomegenerating<br />
activities. There is a public elementary<br />
school, which the majority of school-age children<br />
attend. The fokontany has just received a new<br />
classroom building constructed by Rio Tinto/Rio<br />
Tinto QMM.<br />
Fishing is the main activity, with a daily lobster<br />
catch of 10 kg per day per fisherman in the high season<br />
and 1 kg in the low season. Crops farmed in the plains<br />
and lowlands include irrigated and pluvial rice,<br />
cassava and sweet potato. Cattle, pigs, and poultry<br />
are also raised. Only a few households make<br />
handicrafts because the community already has<br />
substantial income from lobster fishing.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
DISCUSSION<br />
■ Social aspects<br />
In summary, the Tsitongambarika area has a<br />
subsistence economy. As the human population is<br />
growing continuously, there is an imbalance between<br />
production and population growth leading to<br />
increased poverty. For the Anosy region, the<br />
population growth rate is 2.8% per year and the birth<br />
rate is 3.7 children per couple (Institut National de la<br />
Statistique, 1993). The survey showed that the interval<br />
between two births is 13–18 months, women stop<br />
giving birth at the ages of 35, girls marry at an average<br />
age of 15 and boys at 17, and work generally starts<br />
from the age of 15. Migration is almost non-existent<br />
in the study area except to Volobe Sud Fokontany,<br />
particularly at Analamagnasa.<br />
Education is generally precarious, with only a<br />
minority of school-age children attending school, and<br />
those irregularly. Those who leave school after grade<br />
5 have forgotten almost all that they learned. The<br />
majority of the communities are illiterate, which is<br />
an obstacle for any development programme.<br />
The fokontanys visited for this survey each have<br />
access to only one health centre or clinic, located at<br />
the commune administrative centre. For other more<br />
isolated villages, the centre is very distant and people<br />
do not travel there unless seriously ill, instead using<br />
medicinal plants. Malaria is the main cause of<br />
mortality.<br />
■ Economic aspects<br />
The primary sector dominates in the region,<br />
particularly agricultural production and animal<br />
husbandry, and fishing. There is no industry or<br />
tourism. No infrastructure exists outside the environs<br />
of Tolagnaro. Lobster collecting companies play an<br />
important economic role in the region, with collector–<br />
delivery man networks in fishing villages. These<br />
collectors and delivery men are the intermediaries<br />
between export companies and fishermen, with daily<br />
deliveries during the open season.<br />
Agriculture<br />
This is a major activity, but cannot meet the needs of<br />
the population. Household rice production cannot<br />
cover two months’ consumption. Cassava fills this<br />
gap, including dried cassava from Ambovombe. Cash<br />
crops (such as coffee, vanilla and cloves) also exist.<br />
Farmers are also starting to try growing vanilla, with<br />
NGO training.<br />
There are two main types of farmland. First, there<br />
are the plains surrounding the mountains. On the<br />
eastern slope of Tsitongambarika the cultivable plains<br />
are not very extensive because they quickly turn into<br />
less fertile sandy soils of the coastal plain. However,<br />
good uncultivated soil can be found, as at<br />
Antanitsara–Manambato. On the western side of<br />
Tsitongambarika, the plains are relatively extensive.<br />
Second, clearance of forest for shifting cultivation is<br />
common, particularly in the east of Tsitongambarika.<br />
67
From Iabakoho to Ankaramamy (Manantenina<br />
Commune), forest clearing has become a tradition.<br />
Clearing is still very intense between Antsotso and<br />
Antsaha (Ankaramany Fokontany). Nevertheless, in<br />
areas where CoBas have been established, this practice<br />
has been reduced. Lands cleared for shifting<br />
cultivation are exploitable only for two or three<br />
seasons, after which they are left uncultivated for a<br />
few years and then the cycle starts again. Shifting<br />
cultivation is practised because the plains are no<br />
longer sufficiently extensive, yields in currently<br />
cultivated fields are decreasing, only simple farming<br />
tools are available, and there are lowland areas<br />
available for paddy rice cultivation but fertilisers and<br />
irrigation are lacking.<br />
Whether on the plains or on the cleared hillsides,<br />
farmers cultivate rice, cassava, corn, melons, bananas<br />
and pineapple and they use the same simple hand tools<br />
to grow their crops. Only in the commune of Ifarantsa<br />
do people use ox driven ploughs.<br />
Generally, most production is for subsistence and<br />
requires a considerable time investment to protect<br />
crops from pests, such as wild boars and birds. Money<br />
earned from any quantity sold will be used for<br />
household necessities (kerosene for lamps, sugar, etc.).<br />
The situation in Ifarantsa is slightly different, because<br />
it is much more productive (e.g. up to 23,000 metric<br />
tons of cassava can be produced each year).<br />
Animal husbandry<br />
This is generally relatively limited in eastern<br />
Tsitongambarika I and II, where there are very few<br />
cattle. They are not actively used in agricultural<br />
production but are raised to be sacrificed<br />
for traditional family events (e.g. weddings and<br />
funerals). However, on the west side of<br />
Tsitongambarika, cattle breeding is rather important<br />
and cattle are used for ploughing. For example, at<br />
Ifarantsa 30,889 zebu cattle have been catalogued by<br />
local authorities.<br />
Every village has pigs, commonly called lambo,<br />
with every man having a herd of 2–10 animals. The<br />
pigs feed only on rubbish and as a result are<br />
undernourished and cause village conflict by attacking<br />
crops. During this survey, at Melokany, a conflict of<br />
this kind was being solved by the mayor’s office. Pigs<br />
are a particular source of income during the holidays.<br />
Poultry farming is identical to that of pigs; they<br />
live in the open and feed on whatever they find. Most<br />
families have 2–3 hens, ducks, geese or guinea fowl,<br />
with sales of birds providing a small contribution to<br />
household needs.<br />
A beekeepers’ association has been founded at<br />
Sainte Luce by an NGO which has given initial<br />
training and equipment. However, continued<br />
technical assistance is necessary to foster this new<br />
activity. Conversely, in other areas, beekeeping<br />
already exists. For example, at Iabakoho it is<br />
practised in a traditional manner in Tsitongambarika<br />
Forest. Nonetheless, it is a small-scale activity<br />
contributing little to livelihoods.<br />
68<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Fishing<br />
Fishing, particularly lobster-fishing, is the most<br />
important economic activity in the east of<br />
Tsitongambarika I and II, and is how the majority of<br />
people in the littoral area earn their living. Every<br />
village has its own association of fishermen. These<br />
associations commonly have management and<br />
organisational problems and internal conflicts.<br />
During lobster-fishing seasons, all members of the<br />
family actively participate: men go fishing, and<br />
women and children make lobster traps and other<br />
accessories. Lobster fishing is practised in a traditional<br />
way, with a 6–10 m-long boat that accommodates up<br />
to seven people. It is very lucrative. In 2005, lobsters<br />
were sold at 5,000–10,000 Ariary/kg. In January 2006,<br />
a kilogram cost 8,000 Ariary, with prices rising as<br />
the end of the season approaching in September.<br />
During the open season, a fisherman catches 2–10 kg/<br />
day and during the closed season only 1kg/day.<br />
Unfortunately, income from lobster-fishing is<br />
poorly managed and so does not have a significant<br />
positive impact on fishermen’s lives. When lobster<br />
season is closed, fishermen thus return to shifting<br />
agriculture.<br />
Hunting<br />
Hunting is not widely practised except for by children<br />
who catch birds. There is however a threat to Collared<br />
Brown Lemur that hunters catch and resell.<br />
Handicrafts<br />
Unlike those in the west of Tsitongambarika, women<br />
in the east are gifted in making handicrafts,<br />
particularly baskets, for which potential raw materials<br />
abound. Handicrafts thus constitute a significant<br />
economic resource, and are the sole source of income<br />
during the food insecurity period. This could be a<br />
promising sector if it is given a little support at<br />
different points along the value chain. Even though<br />
trees are abundant and diverse, only unprocessed<br />
wood is sold.<br />
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY<br />
TO COMMUNITIES<br />
■ Wood<br />
Wood is much used as material in all fields,<br />
particularly in building and boat construction,<br />
furniture-making, and for firewood. Particular species<br />
are used for different purposes. For example, in house<br />
building, the pillar may be made of Asteropeia sp.<br />
(fagnola), Intsia bijuga (harandrato), Eucalyptus sp.<br />
(kininina), Polycardia sp. (taimbarika), Calophyllum<br />
sp. (vitagno; also used in mortar making) or<br />
Phyllarthron sp. (zehana; a hard wood). Ravenala<br />
madagascariensis (Traveler’s Palm or ravinala) is<br />
commonly used as a building material. There are three<br />
varieties of R. madagascariensis: fotsimamy, hiragna<br />
and horoko. Apart from the roots, all parts of these<br />
can be used:
1. The trunk (vakaky) is split along its length and<br />
planks obtained from this used for partitions or<br />
the floor. These may last 6–10 years;<br />
2. Branches (falafa) are also used for making<br />
partitions. These last only three years, but are in<br />
much demand at market and so constitute an<br />
important income source. For instance, a bundle<br />
of 100 cost 3,000 Ariary at Ifarantsa in 2005;<br />
3. The leaves (raty) are used for the roof of the house<br />
and last for seven years. At Ifarantsa, leaves cost<br />
3,000–5,000 Ariary for a bundle of 100 and are a<br />
significant income source.<br />
Other tree species used for construction include: Intsia<br />
bijuga, Harungana madagascariensis (harongoana),<br />
Phylloxylon xylophylloides (sotro), Calophyllum sp.<br />
(vitaony/vitaogny/vintagno/vintagnon), Coffea sp.<br />
(raotry), Eugenia sp. (rotsy), Faucherea sp. (nato),<br />
Mammea sp. (hazignina), Polycardia sp. (taimbarika),<br />
Uapaca sp. (voampaky), Weinmannia sp. (lalona),<br />
amboatavy, ankalo, tendronkazo, teza and vahatra.<br />
These are collected every year or two from the forests<br />
of Tsitongambarika, Manafiafy, Sainte Luce and<br />
surrounding Mahatalaky.<br />
For boat construction, Harungana<br />
madagascariensis, Mammea sp. (hazignina), and<br />
Calophyllum sp. (vitaony/vitaogny/vintagno/vintagnon)<br />
are the best and most-used species. A boat made of<br />
these woods may last five years. At Iabakoho, one<br />
boat costs 120,000 Ariary and takes about one month<br />
to build.<br />
The use of a given wood is also linked to traditions<br />
and beliefs. People do not build a house with<br />
Faucherea sp. (nato), hendranendra or tombobitsy<br />
because these woods are forbidden. Likewise, it is<br />
believed that a husband and wife living in a house<br />
made of Diospyros myriophylla (korofoky) will end<br />
up separated.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Axes are the only tools used to cut wood. Even so,<br />
now people must go progressively further to find<br />
firewood. Generally, firewood from the local area is<br />
collected every day or two. Common species include:<br />
Aphloia theiformis (fandramana), Cynometra cloiselii<br />
(mapay), Harungana madagascariensis (arongana),<br />
Melia azedarach (voandelaka), Asteropeia sp. (fanola),<br />
Brexia sp. (voakarepoka), Bronchoneura sp. (mafotra),<br />
Canthium spp. (fasikaitra), Croton sp. (hela),<br />
Eucalyptus sp. (kininina), Eugenia sp. (rotsy), Psidium<br />
sp. (goavy), Tambourissa spp. (ambora), Thilachium<br />
sp. (borisaty), Voacanga sp. (votaka), Weinmannia sp.<br />
(lalona), Xylopia sp. (fotsivavo), azavily, hendraendra,<br />
tsirakaraka and voaraozy, but even precious wood like<br />
Dalbergia spp. (magnary) was observed during<br />
surveys.<br />
Regarding charcoal, only producers in Ifarantsa<br />
Commune were encountered during the surveys. One<br />
sack (30 kg) of charcoal costs 1,100–2,000 Ariary and<br />
is sent to Tolagnaro, which currently consumes 11,120<br />
metric tons of firewood and 170,000 sacks of charcoal<br />
each year. The main suppliers are the villages along<br />
regional road RIP 118 from Evohibandrika to<br />
Ranomafana, in the western part of Tsitongambarika.<br />
■ Plant fibres<br />
Plant fibres are one of the most used natural resources<br />
around Tsitongambarika, and even as far as<br />
Tolagnaro. Fibres of Pandanus spp. (vakoa) and<br />
Lepironia articulata reeds are used for making mats.<br />
As these are frequently used, these plants are heavily<br />
depleted in some places. Fibres are also used in place<br />
of nails in the building of housing and fences.<br />
Tokampototry, vahizaha and vahimaramany are<br />
considered best and very hardy.<br />
To make lobster traps, people use the fibres of the<br />
liana Flagellaria indica (vahikipy). These are relatively<br />
solid and resist seawater well. They can be used for up<br />
Plate 13. Local people<br />
collecting Cyathea sp.<br />
to make flower pots for<br />
sale in Tolagnaro<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)<br />
69
to one month. This species is now very difficult to find<br />
and Ravenala madagascariensis is more often used, but<br />
lobster traps made of R. madagascariensis are easily<br />
damaged (in 3–5 days at most). Agalea sp. (vahimenty),<br />
vahiginenina, vahihazo, vahitogna, vahikarabo and<br />
vahidengo are used for the ropes on lobster traps.<br />
In addition to fibres, bark of Grewia sp. (valotra)<br />
and vignoa is used instead of nails in house building.<br />
These species are now very rare.<br />
Apart from some species which grow by water, all<br />
of these fibres come from trees of the<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest.<br />
■ Medicinal plants<br />
As health care centres are often distant from hamlets<br />
and villages, it is difficult for people to travel there<br />
when sick. Thus, medicinal plants are commonly used,<br />
including: tonga; ravim-boahangy, fagnalabe and<br />
famonty (for stomach ache). Ravitsipanga is used for<br />
stomach ache in cows and vahikambo is used for<br />
healing wounds. Cedrelopsis sp. (katrafaha) is used<br />
for stomach ache but its bark is also an additive in<br />
the making of local rum.<br />
Most of those plants are found around villages<br />
but some are picked in Tsitongambarika Forest.<br />
Considering the small quantities needed, it seems<br />
likely that use of these plants has no significant<br />
negative impact on the forest.<br />
■ Water resources<br />
As there are many rivers emerging from the<br />
Tsitongambarika mountains, the population of the<br />
area has almost no water resource problems. As<br />
mentioned earlier, the eastern part of<br />
Tsitongambarika could be much more agriculturally<br />
70<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
productive if suitable irrigation schemes were<br />
developed. Drinking water is fine at all localities<br />
visited during the survey, except Ambandrika–Sainte<br />
Luce where the quality is poor. In the wet season,<br />
when the rate flow is high and continuous, villages<br />
are isolated as roads are flooded. However this<br />
situation does not usually last long as high<br />
topography facilitates drainage.<br />
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY<br />
■ Forest clearance<br />
Forest clearance is the most serious threat to<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest. Reasons for the prevalence<br />
of shifting cultivation were discussed earlier. There<br />
are two main reasons why it is more prevalent in the<br />
eastern part of Tsitongambarika than in the western<br />
part:<br />
1. Geology: soil on the eastern side is sandy and so<br />
less productive than the fertile plains of the western<br />
side. Shifting cultivation on forested land is<br />
considered easier, faster, and more productive than<br />
other agricultural types on the infertile plains<br />
available in the east.<br />
2. Tradition: Shifting cultivation has been practised<br />
for several successive generations (especially<br />
among the Antesaka ethnic group) in<br />
Tsitongambarika. This is a more entrenched habit<br />
in the east because this is where seasonal fishermen<br />
prevail. Fishermen are the first to clear forest<br />
because they return to farming when the lobster<br />
season is closed, and have had no time to prepare<br />
land for farming during the open season.<br />
Plate 14. Forest clearance<br />
at Tsitongambarika<br />
(ANDRIAMANDRANTO<br />
RAVOAHANGY)
Thus, forest clearance is one of the principle threats<br />
to the conservation of Tsitongambarika. Three of the<br />
main causes are population pressure, sandy and<br />
unproductive plains, and relatively fertile land in the<br />
forest once it is cleared and burned.<br />
■ Bushfires<br />
Bushfires often occur after intentional fires burn out<br />
of control. Such fires can be very destructive and are<br />
particularly damaging to Ravenala madagascariensis,<br />
which grows on the forest edge. Around Mahatalaky<br />
there are four main reasons for these fires. First, fires<br />
used to stimulate regrowth of cattle forage pasture<br />
may burn out of control (90% of villages visited use<br />
such fires). Second, fires from intentional burning to<br />
clear forest or fields for planting burn out of<br />
control. Third, young cattle herders light fires to grill<br />
cassava, but do not put them out. Last, strong winds<br />
may reignite a fire that was not completely<br />
extinguished.<br />
■ Timber harvesting<br />
This dates back to the colonial period. At that time,<br />
a logging company’s head office was established at<br />
Bemangidy (Antsotso). Elders in the region claimed<br />
that there were wild horses in the forest of<br />
Tsitongambarika that were scared off, along with<br />
other animals, by the noise of the lumber mill. Later,<br />
Malagasy companies took over, and there is currently<br />
a logging company at Antsapa Andamasinina<br />
(Ankaramany Fokontany). According to the person<br />
in charge of this sawmill, woodcutters’ camps were<br />
established about every 30 ha as work progressed.<br />
Nowadays, Ministry of Water and Forest officials<br />
and the CoBa demarcate exploitable forests, but illicit<br />
exploitation is regular, particularly for ebony and<br />
rosewood, and especially around Manambato where<br />
there is not yet a CoBa. As Manambato is a<br />
fishermen’s village, timber trade is most prevalent<br />
outside the lobster-fishing season. During the survey,<br />
wood seized by authorities was observed at<br />
Ankaramany and Antsapa Andamasinina. According<br />
to local people, ebony wood 150 x 25 cm would sell<br />
for about 6,000 Ariary. The final destination of such<br />
timber is reported to be the Indian Ocean islands via<br />
Tolagnaro.<br />
■ Conversion of wetlands into rice fields<br />
Demographic pressure and low rice yields encourage<br />
people to convert wetlands into rice fields, as in<br />
Mahatalaky and Mananara I Fokontanys.<br />
■ Hunting and collecting forest products<br />
People who go to the forest tend to hunt or capture<br />
animals, particularly Collared Brown Lemur which<br />
are sold for 3,000–15,000 Ariary/animal. Young<br />
animals are sold for domestication, others for meat.<br />
Lemur capture was observed during surveys at<br />
Soaharena, Antanitsara (Manambato) and Ianakony<br />
(Iabakoho). At Ifarantsa, people reported that such<br />
hunting ceased when the CoBa was established.<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
The making of lobster traps with Ravenala<br />
madagascariensis fibres threatens this tree. Such traps<br />
do not last long, and are only made because previous<br />
materials have already been depleted. R.<br />
madagascariensis lobster traps are a good source of<br />
income for women who sell them for 200–500 Ariary<br />
to fishermen who use 5–10 every four days. A similar<br />
situation exists with Lepironia articulata, which is now<br />
rare in some localities owing to overexploitation for<br />
basketwork.<br />
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY<br />
Traditional burial woods are sacred places where<br />
people cannot collect forest products, and are thus<br />
de facto conserved by local populations.<br />
People are conscious of degradation of<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, but rely on its exploitation<br />
for their survival. They cooperate in conservation in<br />
return for support to increase agricultural production<br />
through technical training and provision of<br />
equipment and materials.<br />
The Tolagnaro office of the Ministry of Water and<br />
Forests, in collaboration with various NGOs, made a<br />
major effort to develop and implement a Forest<br />
Resource Management Project. One achievement is the<br />
transfer of management of part of the classified forest<br />
of Tsitongambarika to local communities via CoBas.<br />
In all fokontany visited during this survey, forest<br />
management has already been transferred to CoBas<br />
responsible for sustainable natural resources<br />
management. The Ministry of Water and Forests<br />
demarcated the forest for every fokontany and<br />
subdivided it into conservation, exploitation, and local<br />
use zones.<br />
CoBas are tasked with ensuring that demarcations<br />
and regulations are respected:<br />
1. Conservation zones cannot be used for collection<br />
of forest products or for cultivation;<br />
2. Exploitation areas can be used if fees are paid to<br />
the CoBa. For example, for the Volobe Nord CoBa,<br />
timber for house construction can be harvested for<br />
500 Ariary/tree by CoBa members and 1,000 Ariary<br />
/tree by non-members. Timber can be harvested for<br />
boat construction for 3,000 Ariary /tree by members<br />
and 5,000 Ariary /tree by non-members;<br />
3. Local use zones allow farming by the community<br />
if rules decreed by the CoBa dina are respected.<br />
Offences are punishable by fines. For example,<br />
setting fire to the forest is a serious offence<br />
punishable by a 10,000 Ariary fine.<br />
Established CoBas are rather weak, perhaps because<br />
they are still recent in some areas and therefore not<br />
experienced enough, especially in application of dina.<br />
Besides their nascent capacity to manage the CoBas,<br />
some leaders have also shown flagrant abuse of power<br />
concerning application of dina. For example, some<br />
local forest rangers have made threats against people<br />
71
cutting down trees even when they have appropriate<br />
permits, but have not stopped other people (who they<br />
know) from illegally cutting timber in protected<br />
forests.<br />
On 8 January 2006, the survey team witnessed<br />
illegal ebony harvesting in Mamoareny protected<br />
forest, part of 71 ha monitored by the Ivorona CoBa<br />
(Ifarantsa Commune). The majority of the population<br />
of Ivorona continues to take wood from this forest,<br />
particularly ebony at Mamoareny, even though a well<br />
demarcated forest is allocated to them. Ebony is not<br />
exploitable under the dina of the Ivorona CoBa.<br />
Exploitation is permitted at Ankera Fokontany,<br />
Ifarantsa Commune, under article 20 of the Ankera<br />
CoBa dina. However, since the fokontany of Ivorona<br />
and Ankera are close to each other and Ankera is<br />
inaccessible by truck, the ebony is sold at the Ivorona<br />
market. Since buyers do not care about the origin of<br />
the wood, villagers harvest wood in both the Ivorona<br />
and Ankera areas to sell to buyers. If measures are<br />
not taken, illegal exploitation of ebony at Ivorona<br />
may spin out of control.<br />
The list of offences observed during surveys is a<br />
long one and worthy of in-depth investigations. We<br />
conclude that, despite the existence of dina, the<br />
CoBas—themselves signatories of the dina—have<br />
difficulty meeting their commitments (at least in some<br />
localities). CoBas also face serious problems of<br />
management and organisation. In surveyed villages,<br />
CoBa members complained about a lack of<br />
transparency in financial management of CoBas<br />
despite dina stipulations. This has led to serious unrest<br />
and conflicts among members, and may result in<br />
dissolution of these CoBas and/or failure to establish<br />
new CoBas at other localities.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Natural resources are important for local<br />
communities. They are aware of environmental<br />
degradation, but do not get involved in environmental<br />
protection. Biodiversity conservation should function<br />
through CoBas. Even though these are well structured<br />
associations at community levels they have some<br />
management issues, including collusion between<br />
members of the community and CoBa leaders to<br />
disrespect dina. Alternatively, they may strictly<br />
follow the dina and create enemies in the community<br />
leading to intra-village conflict. The management<br />
transfers were probably made too soon, since<br />
members of these poor communities face serious<br />
social and cultural obstacles to effectively implement<br />
self-enforcement.<br />
Natural resource exploitation plays a predominant<br />
role in local daily life, notably of wood for house and<br />
boat construction and firewood, of vegetal fibres for<br />
handicrafts and lobster traps, and of medicinal plants.<br />
It would be difficult for local people to live without<br />
these forest products, and the classified forest of<br />
Tsitongambarika is key in providing them.<br />
72<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest is being degraded by<br />
human pressures. Forest clearance for agriculture,<br />
particularly by fishermen on the eastern side, is the<br />
primary cause. Hunting of animals such as lemurs is<br />
another issue. Moreover, even though CoBas are<br />
operational, management of Tsitongambarika Forest<br />
is far from satisfactory and illegal exploitation of the<br />
forest persists.<br />
The three fokontany that have the most impact on<br />
the forest are Andramanakàna, Volobe Sud and<br />
Volobe Nord, since they are located right next to the<br />
forest. Other fokontany use the forest with less intensity<br />
since they are further away. The local population uses<br />
the forest for several different reasons:<br />
• The forest is the basis of subsistence for local<br />
populations, especially the most isolated ones;<br />
• Low yield for irrigated and rain-fed rice<br />
production and other crops leads to increased<br />
forest use;<br />
• A growing population cannot obtain its food<br />
requirements from existing low crop yields;<br />
• Extreme poverty of the local populations.<br />
The Antanosy ethnic group does not traditionally<br />
migrate and thus is not exposed to exchanges and new<br />
ideas, which reinforces a reliance on traditional<br />
methods.<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
■ Reduce human pressure<br />
1. Provide education and training in household<br />
management to ensure finances (e.g. from lobsterfishing)<br />
are wisely managed, thus reducing the need<br />
to turn to shifting agriculture during the fishing<br />
closed season;<br />
2. Support improved agricultural methods, especially<br />
through building or irrigation infrastructure<br />
(dams, canals, etc.), to reduce the need for shifting<br />
cultivation methods and increase cultivation and<br />
yields in the currently underutilised plains;<br />
3. Effectively enforce the law, especially regarding<br />
forest exploitation offences.<br />
■ Build capacity of community-based<br />
organisations<br />
1. Continuously train CoBa members in<br />
organisation, negotiation, simplified bookkeeping,<br />
conflict management, etc;<br />
2. Reinforce trainings with follow-up monitoring<br />
visits and assessments;<br />
3. Support CoBas to carry out their mission through<br />
qualified coaching, to facilitate learning through<br />
practice and adaptive management.<br />
■ Promote conservation of biodiversity<br />
through communication and education<br />
1. Develop an environmental education programme:<br />
(a) For children (as future forest stewards);
(b) For women (as those who have most influence<br />
on families);<br />
(c) For men (as those who use the forest most<br />
intensely);<br />
2. Develop and implement awareness programmes<br />
about the importance of biodiversity conservation;<br />
3. Develop an open communication system (not only<br />
one way but with feedback) for exchange of<br />
experience among different actors (CoBas, NGOs,<br />
etc.)<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Link biodiversity conservation<br />
programmes with rural development<br />
1. Promote development projects compatible with<br />
biodiversity conservation;<br />
2. Provide economic incentives (e.g. grants) to<br />
communes to adopt biodiversity conservation<br />
programmes;<br />
3. Meet development needs (e.g. infrastructure);<br />
4. Encourage NGOs to actively participate in rural<br />
development programmes.<br />
73
74<br />
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Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
■ Appendix: COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN<br />
MANAGEMENT OF <strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong>:<br />
2010 UPDATE<br />
ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY<br />
Tsitongambarika I (19,530 ha) and Tsitongambarika<br />
II (29,400 ha) Classified Forests are located,<br />
respectively, in the southern and central parts of the<br />
Vohimena mountain chain. Between 1997 and 2005,<br />
management of these forests was transferred from the<br />
Water and Forests Service to the local community.<br />
The objective of this transfer was to empower local<br />
stakeholders to manage forest resources. In<br />
particular, it was expected that, if the local community<br />
was allowed to exploit the forest for income in a<br />
sustainable manner in carefully defined zones, then<br />
they would value the forest and be less tempted to<br />
convert forest to cultivation.<br />
At Tsitongambarika I and II, the method adopted<br />
for the Transfer of Management was originally<br />
Secured Local Management (within the legal<br />
framework of the 1997 Forestry Policy in the second<br />
phase of the National Environmental Action Plan)<br />
and then a simplified version known as the<br />
Contractualised Management of Forests, whose legal<br />
framework was adopted by Decree 2001-122,<br />
February 14, 2001. In 1997, with financial support<br />
from USAID (which funded Agents for the Protection<br />
of Nature) and the Dutch Government, granted in<br />
the context of the WWF Programme – Debt for<br />
Nature, WWF established the Forestry Support<br />
Framework (within the Water and Forests Service)<br />
which aimed to develop Transfer of Management<br />
programmes in six sites throughout Madagascar. One<br />
of these sites, Tolagnaro, is in Tsitongambarika I<br />
Classified Forest. Between 2000 and 2005, working<br />
alongside the Forestry Support Framework, WWF<br />
implemented a second Transfer of Management<br />
programme in Tsitongambarika II Classified Forest.<br />
This programme was funded by the European Union<br />
and resulted in the creation of 27 Transfers of<br />
Management.<br />
Both programmes adopted the same methods,<br />
including the following key elements:<br />
• creation of an association (“Communauté de Base”<br />
in French, or CoBa for short) in each village near<br />
or within the protected forest. CoBa members are<br />
responsible for implementing development plans<br />
and are among beneficiaries of the sale of timber<br />
taken from the production zone;<br />
• training of CoBa members in the sustainable use<br />
of forest resources;<br />
• training and support for the Water and Forests<br />
Service so that it can support Transfer of<br />
Management;<br />
• awareness-raising for the local community about<br />
the importance of conserving forest.<br />
• development of a forest management plan for<br />
areas associated with villages — normally, the plan<br />
must include three or four zones: a production<br />
zone, where sustainable harvesting of logs for trade<br />
would be permitted; a sustainable use zone, where<br />
exploitation of forest products would be permitted<br />
for local use; a rehabilitation zone, where<br />
reforestation should be carried out to meet local<br />
needs or for trade; and a conservation zone, where<br />
no exploitation would be permitted;<br />
• negotiation of a system for the equitable sharing<br />
of benefits obtained in the production zone and<br />
the rehabilitation zone;<br />
• delimitation of zones;<br />
• development and implementation of local<br />
regulations or dina controlling forest resources;<br />
• preparation of terms of reference and contracts;<br />
• implementation of activities described in the<br />
management plan through annual work plans;<br />
• introduction of measures to improve livelihood<br />
conditions of villagers and in particular the<br />
introduction of new farming techniques to provide<br />
an alternative to shifting cultivation (“tavy”).<br />
In Tsitongambarika III, 12 Transfers of Management<br />
to local communities took place in 2010. The steps<br />
performed are summarised as follows:<br />
• election of CoBa staff members;<br />
• development of regulations and statutes of each<br />
CoBa;<br />
• capacity strengthening of CoBas for forest<br />
management.<br />
Physical demarcation of zones will be subject to<br />
additional funding.<br />
Transfer of Management was grouped into sectors<br />
(depending on location) and, for each sector, two<br />
Agents for the Protection of Nature were responsible<br />
for overseeing implementation of the above activities,<br />
assisted by a technician from the Water and Forests<br />
Service.<br />
Until recently, when the New Protected Areas<br />
System (SAPM) process suspended all log production<br />
in potential areas for conservation identified by the<br />
SAPM Decree in October 2004, 10 Transfers of<br />
Management in the Vohimena range could be<br />
considered functional in terms of profit generated<br />
from logs operations according to their sustainable<br />
77
development plan. It is clear that support to other<br />
CoBas is required if other Transfers of Management<br />
are to be completed. It is generally agreed that CoBas<br />
in existing Transfers of Management will require two<br />
or three more years of support before being fully<br />
autonomous. This support requires a small team of<br />
Agents for the Protection of Nature (probably six for<br />
Tsitongambarika I and II), two forest technicians of<br />
the Water and Forests Service, and secretarial support.<br />
78<br />
Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar<br />
An evaluation of CoBas in Tsitongambarika I<br />
and Tsitongambarika II was carried out in 2008.<br />
Only five CoBas among 54 benefited from a renewal<br />
of contract for 10 years, namely Ampasy<br />
Nahampoana, Anka Maromagniry, Enato, Farafara<br />
and Mananara I. Other CoBas need at least a year of<br />
restructuring and revitalisation, supported by NGOs<br />
such as Asity Madagascar, ASOS, CARE, FAFAFI<br />
and WWF.
<strong>TSITONGAMBARIKA</strong> <strong>FOREST</strong>,<br />
<strong>MADAGASCAR</strong><br />
Biological and socio-economic surveys, with<br />
conservation recommendations<br />
The biodiversity of Madagascar is well known to be exceptionally rich and highly<br />
threatened. Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most threatened vegetation<br />
types, but significant areas can still be found in the far south-east, notably at<br />
Tsitongambarika forest.<br />
This book presents the results of a series of biological and socio-economic surveys at<br />
Tsitongambarika. These clearly demonstrate the very great importance of this site, and<br />
point towards to approaches needed to conserve it.<br />
The work was coordinated by Asity Madagascar, with primary support and<br />
sponsorship from Rio Tinto, <strong>BirdLife</strong> <strong>International</strong> and Rio Tinto QMM.