TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, MADAGASCAR - BirdLife International

TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, 

MADAGASCAR 

Biological and socio-economic surveys, with 

conservation recommendations 

Edited by 

John Pilgrim, Narisoa Ramanitra, Jonathan Ekstrom, Andrew W. Tordoff and Roger J. Safford 

Fieldwork 

coordinated by 

Maps by 

Andriamandranto Ravoahangy 

Translation by 

Kobele Keita and Andry Rakotomalala 

Fieldwork funded 

and additional 

fieldwork by 

■ 

Additional 

fieldwork by 

Additional 

fieldwork by 

French translation 

checked by

Recommended citation: BirdLife International (2011) Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar. Biological and 

socio-economic surveys, with conservation recommendations. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. 

© 2011 BirdLife International 

Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 0NA, United Kingdom 

Tel: +44 1223 277318 Fax: +44 1223 277200 email: birdlife@birdlife.org 

Internet: www.birdlife.org 

BirdLife International is a UK-registered charity 1042125 

ISBN 978-0-946888-78-8 

British Library-in-Publication Data 

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 

First published 2011 by BirdLife International 

Designed and produced by NatureBureau Limited, 36 Kingfisher Court, Hambridge Road, Newbury, Berkshire, 

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Printed by Information Press, Oxford, United Kingdom 

Available from the Natural History Book Service Ltd, 2–3 Wills Road, Totnes, Devon TQ9 5XN, UK. 

Tel: +44 1803 865913 Fax: +44 1803 865280 Email: nhbs@nhbs.co.uk 

Internet: www.nhbs.com/services/birdlife.html 

ii

■ CONTENTS 

iv Participants and authors 

vi Acknowledgements 

1 Introduction 

2 Summary of findings 

4 Ny alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Madagasikara 

Famintinana (Summary in Malagasy) 

6 Recommendations 

8 Ny alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Madagasikara 

Tolo-Kevitra (Recommendations in Malagasy) 

10 Chapter 1: Overview of the biological 

importance of Tsitongambarika Forest 

10 Background 

10 The surveys 

10 Vegetation and flora 

12 Mammals 

12 Reptiles and amphibians 

12 Birds 

14 Ants 

14 Other values of the Tsitongambarika Forests 

15 Socio-economic situation 

15 Management situation 

16 Relevance of survey results for conservation 

planning 

16 Direct payments project 

17 Chapter 2: The flora of Tsitongambarika 

Forest 


17 Objectives 

17 Study site 

17 Methodology 

17 Results 

22 Conservation 


22 Conclusions 

23 Chapter 3: The bats of Tsitongambarika 

Forest 


23 Obectives 

25 Study sites 

25 Methods 

25 Results 

26 Discussion 


28 Chapter 4: The lemurs of Tsitongambarika 

Forest 

28 Objectives 


28 Methods 

30 Results 

32 Discussion 



34 Chapter 5: The herpetofauna of 

Tsitongambarika Forest 



36 Methods 

36 Results 

40 Discussion 



42 Chapter 6: The birds of Tsitongambarika Forest 

42 Objectives 

42 Methods 


47 Results 

53 Discussion 


57 Chapter 7: The ants of the Ivohibe region of 




57 Survey methods 

57 Results and discussion 

60 Chapter 8: Socio-economic survey of the 

Tsitongambarika area 

60 Objectives 

60 Methodology 

60 Social organisation 

62 Demographic situation 

67 Discussion 

68 Importance of biodiversity to communities 

70 Threats to biodiversity 

71 Conservation of biodiversity 



74 References 

77 Appendix: Community involvement in 

management of Tsitongambarika Forest: 

2010 update 

iii

Lalao Andriamahefarivo (Botanist) 

Missouri Botanical Garden, BP 3391, 

Antananarivo, Madagascar 

Maminiaina Andriamahenitsoa (Socio-economist) 

Asity Madagascar, BP 1074, Antananarivo, 

Madagascar 

Patrice Antilahimena (Botanist) 



Mara Berge (Guide and President of Antsotso 

Communauté de Base) 

Antsotso, Fort Dauphin/Tolagnaro, Madagascar 

Chris Birkinshaw (Botanist) 



Ramisy Edmond (Parataxonomist) 

Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/ 

Tolagnaro, Madagascar 

Jonathan Ekstrom (Editor) 

BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton 

Road, Cambridge, UK 

Current address: The Biodiversity Consultancy, 

4 Woodend, Trumpington, Cambridge, UK 

Brian Fisher (Entomologist) 

California Academy of Sciences, 55 Music 

Concourse Drive, San Francisco, USA 

Soanary Claude Hery (Assistant) 

Rio Tinto QMM, BP 225, Fort Dauphin/Tolagnaro, 

Madagascar 

Porter P. Lowry II (Botanist) 

Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. 

Louis, MO, 63166-0299, USA 

and Département Systématique et Evolution (UMR 

7205), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, CP 

39, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75213 Paris CEDEX 05, France 

Eric Lowry (Student, MBG trainee) 



Tsibara Mbohoahy (Chiropterologist) 

Madagasikara Voakajy, BP 5181, Antananarivo, 

Madagascar 

and Biodiversité et environnement, Département de 

la Biologie, Faculté des Sciences de l’Université de 

Toliara, Toliara, Madagascar 

Current address: Biodiversité et Environnement, 

iv 

■ PARTICIPANTS AND AUTHORS 

Département de la Biologie, Faculté des Sciences de 

l’Université de Toliara, Toliara, Madagascar 

John Pilgrim (Editor) 

The Biodiversity Consultancy, 4 Woodend, 

Trumpington, Cambridge, UK 

Rivo Rabarisoa (Ornithologist) 


Madagascar 

Marc Rabenandrasana (Ornithologist) 


Madagascar 

Current addresses: Development and Biodiversity 

Conservation Action for Madagascar, Lot II A 

93L, Anjanahary, Antananarivo, Madagascar 

and ECOMAR (Marine Ecology Laboratory), 

Sciences and Technology Faculty, University of 

La Réunion, 15 Avenue René Cassin, BP 7151 – 

97715 Saint-Denis, La Réunion. 

Johny Rabenantoandro (Botanist) 



Marie Beatrice Yvonne Rahasinandrasana 

(Socio-economist) 


Madagascar 

Rivo Rajoharison (Forestry Technician) 



Mamy Julia Christobelle Ralavanirina 

(Primatologist) 


Madagascar 

and Département Biologie Animale, Université 

d’Antananarivo 

Current address: 2 Allée du Collier, 40230 St 

Vincent de Tyrosse, France 

Jean Baptiste Ramanamanjato (Herpetologist) 



Michael Ramanesimanana (Ornithologist) 


Madagascar 



Current address: Maromizaha Project Coordinator, 

GERP Madagascar (Groupe d’Etude et de Recherche 

sur les Primates), BP 779, Antananarivo, Madagascar

Narisoa Ramanitra (Ornithologist, Programme 

Coordinator and Editor) 


Madagascar 



Faly Randriatafika (Botanist) 



Lovahasina Rasolondraibe (Ornithologist) 


Madagascar 



Current address: Biologist, GERP Madagascar 

(Groupe d’Etude et de Recherche sur les Primates), 

BP 779, Antananarivo, Madagascar 

Bruno Raveloson (Ornithologist) 


Madagascar 

Collared Nightjar Caprimulgus enarratus (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY) 

Andriamandranto Ravoahangy (Tsitongambarika 

Programme Coordinator) 


Madagascar 

Julien Razafimandimby (Assistant) 



Richard Razakamalala (Botanist) 



Roger Safford (Editor) 

BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, 

Girton Road, Cambridge, UK 

Andrew W. (“Jack”) Tordoff (Editor) 

BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, 

Girton Road, Cambridge, UK 

Current address: Critical Ecosystem Partnership 

Fund, Conservation International, 2011 Crystal 

Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, Virginia, USA 

v

The biological survey and socio-economic study of 

Tsitongambarika forest and its surrounding areas 

were carried out with contributions from many 

organizations and individuals specialised in different 

disciplines and taxa. 

We first thank Rio Tinto and BirdLife International 

who were jointly responsible for initiating this 

programme of surveys. In particular, we thank the 

partners of Rio Tinto and BirdLife International, 

including Rio Tinto QMM (QIT Madagascar 

Minerals, QMM) and the BirdLife International 

Madagascar Programme, and their partners Asity 

Madagascar (formerly Asity), the Missouri Botanical 

Garden (MBG), and Madagasikara Voakajy. 

This study would not have been possible without 

the financial and logistical support of Rio Tinto 

and Rio Tinto QMM, where we especially thank Stuart 

Anstee and Manon Vincelette respectively. 

We also thank the Whitley Awards Foundation 

for International Nature Conservation: Rufford Small 

Grants for funding research in Tsitongambarika I and 

II in 2002. The design and organization of this program 

were facilitated by BirdLife International, at the time 

of the work operating through its Madagascar 

Programme; the BirdLife International Madagascar 

Programme closed in 2008, when Asity Madagascar 

became the BirdLife International Affiliate NGO in 

Madagascar and took on the management of BirdLife 

programmes in Madagascar. Logistics and 

herpetological studies were performed by Rio Tinto 

QMM. The coordination of the work, and 

ornithological, primatological and socio-economic 

surveys were carried out by Asity Madagascar. The 

flora survey was carried out by an MBG/Rio Tinto 

QMM team. Bat surveys were carried out by 

Madagasikara Voakajy. 

All members of the team strongly supported the 

field efforts and subsequent writing-up: Jean Baptiste 

Ramanamanjato, Ramisy Edmond, Johny 

vi 

■ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Rabenantoandro, Faly Randriatafika, Julien 

Razafimandimby, Rivo Rajoharison and Soanary 

Claude Hery from Rio Tinto QMM; Tsibara 

Mbohoahy from Madagasikara Voakajy; Mamy Julia 

Christobelle Ralavanirina, Marc Rabenandrasana, 

Michael Ramanesimanana, Lovahasina 

Rasolondraibe, Maminiaina Andriamahenintsoa, 

Marie Beatrice Yvonne Rahasinandrasana and 

Andriamandranto Ravoahangy from Asity 

Madagascar; Richard Razakamalala, Pete Lowry, 

Chris Birkinshaw, Patrice Antilahimena and Eric 

Lowry from MBG; Mara Berge from CoBa Antsotso; 

Brian Fisher from the California Academy of Sciences; 

Jonathan Stacey and Luciana Vega from BirdLife 

International; and Helen Temple at The Biodiversity 

Consultancy. Our sincere thanks go also to the staff 

members of Fikambanana Mitanantana (FIMPIA, 

the community association at Sainte Luce), and the 

heads of other CoBas and heads of Districts for their 

efficient help during the field work. Jennifer Talbot 

assisted in completion of this volume in numerous 

ways. Maps were prepared by Andriamandranto 

Ravoahangy. Translation between English and 

French was carried out by Kobele Keita of The 

Biodiversity Consultancy, and Andry Rakotomalala, 

and the French finally checked by Marion Grassi of 

LPO (BirdLife in France). The Summary and 

Recommendations were translated into Malagasy by 

Voninavoko Raminoarisoa (Asity Madagascar). 

The work was kindly authorised by the Ministry of 

Environment, through the Directorate General of 

Environment, Water and Forest as well as its regional 

office (Circonscription Régionale de l’Environnement, 

des Eaux et Forêts) for Anosy Region in Fort Dauphin/ 

Tolagnaro. The implementation of this work and the 

herpetological field data collection are the result of 

collaboration between Rio Tinto QMM, FIMPIA and 

the Committee of Protected Areas Management in the 

Sainte Luce area.

■ INTRODUCTION 

The biological and socio-economic studies in this 

volume were initiated as part of the Rio Tinto-BirdLife 

International partnership. This partnership was 

established in 2001 in order for BirdLife to assist Rio 

Tinto in the development and implementation of its 

biodiversity strategy and goal of a Net Positive Impact 

(NPI) on biodiversity at mining operations, including 

the Rio Tinto QMM (QIT Madagascar Minerals, 

QMM) ilmenite project in Anosy region of south east 

Madagascar. 

The Rio Tinto QMM project was chosen as a pilot 

operation for NPI because of Madagascar’s highly 

endemic and threatened biodiversity, and the risks and 

opportunities that biodiversity presents to the site. 

Achievement of NPI is based on a mitigation hierarchy, 

which begins with the avoidance, mitigation and 

restoration of the impacts on biodiversity of a mining 

operation. When those have been optimised, NPI looks 

to the use of offsets as “quantifiable conservation 

actions taken to compensate for residual, unavoidable 

harm to biodiversity”. 

A biodiversity offsets strategy needs to account for 

biodiversity gains and losses in a transparent manner, 

consider intrinsic values (scientific, conservation) and 

service values (economic and cultural), involve relevant 

stakeholders at multiple levels and be based on 

adequate information (including both scientific and 

traditional knowledge). Offsets should be designed to 

achieve the best outcomes for conservation and 

traditional use and thus must consider similar habitat 

types to those impacted, consider opportunities for 

better conservation outcomes in other habitats, and 

may include actions to manage habitat that build 

capacity in institutions, people and knowledge, and 

that secure ecosystem services. 

In order to design a successful NPI strategy for 

the Rio Tinto QMM ilmenite project, it is thus 

Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar 

necessary to obtain relevant biological and socioeconomic 

information from potential offset sites 

within the Anosy region of Madagascar. 

Tsitongambarika humid forest was identified as a key 

conservation site with high biodiversity value and 

therefore an important potential offset site in Rio 

Tinto QMM’s NPI strategy. 

The Tsitongambarika Protected Area was created 

in 2008 by the Malagasy Ministry of Water and 

Forests with technical and financial support from 

Asity Madagascar (the country Affiliate of BirdLife 

International), Rio Tinto, Rio Tinto QMM, USAID, 

and Conservation International. It covers an area of 

over 60,000 hectares of humid lowland and midaltitude 

forest, located just north of the town of 

Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). In addition to being an 

important conservation area, protecting many 

endemic and threatened species, it also serves as the 

principal watershed for the region—providing water 

for irrigation as well as for Tolagnaro town. The 

forest also provides numerous other ecosystem goods 

and services that ensure the economic and cultural 

well-being of the surrounding population. The 

Tsitongambarika Protected Area is currently comanaged 

by Asity Madagascar and more than 60 

community forest management groups located 

around the forest. 

The research in this volume has been carried out to 

provide the biological data which Rio Tinto/Rio Tinto 

QMM and their conservation partners used to develop 

Rio Tinto QMM’s NPI strategy. The decision to 

publish these data and make them available to a wider 

public and scientific community serves not only to 

increase our collective knowledge of the biodiversity 

and socio-economic situation of Tsitongambarika, 

but will, we hope, stimulate and encourage future 

biological and socio-economic research in the area. 

Plate 1. View of 


(ANDRIAMANDRANTO 

RAVOAHANGY) 

1

Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most 

threatened vegetation types in Madagascar. 

Nonetheless, significant areas can still be found in 

south-eastern Madagascar, most notably the 

Andohahela and Tsitongambarika (Vohimena) 

forests in Anosy Region. Until recently, however, 

these forests had been the focus of little biodiversity 

study, and recognition of their biological importance 

was limited. The surveys presented in this report 

highlight the biological importance of the 

Tsitongambarika forests. In particular, they indicate 

that these forests are floristically and faunistically 

distinct from lowland humid evergreen forests 

elsewhere in Madagascar. Among the key findings of 

the surveys were the discoveries of several species of 

amphibian, reptile and plant new to science, and 

confirmation of the presence of a number of globally 

threatened and restricted-range species. 

The major conclusions from the surveys can be 

found below. In the following section, a number of 

recommendations are drawn from these conclusions 

for those considering conservation intervention within 

the Tsitongambarika massif, including altitudes, sites 

and species that deserve particular attention. 

VEGETATION AND FLORA 

While eastern humid forest is the most abundant 

natural forest formation in Madagascar, about 80% 

of it is mid-altitude forest between 800 and 1,500 m 

altitude, and relatively little remains at low elevations. 

However, the Tsitongambarika forests are mainly 

distributed below 800 m altitude, and, almost 

uniquely for humid forests in south-eastern 

Madagascar, include significant areas below 400 m. 

Surveys of flora focused on Bemangidy-Ivohibe 

Forest in Tsitongambarika III, which is notable for 

the presence of relatively undisturbed humid forest 

below 400 m altitude. In total, nearly 600 species were 

collected during the surveys, representing 366 genera 

in 121 families. Although identification of all 

specimens has yet to be completed, almost 70 plant 

species new to science may have been found in 

Tsitongambarika to date. The survey team estimated 

the flora of this area to exceed 1,000 species. 

MAMMALS 

Mammal surveys focused on lemurs and bats. Seven 

species of lemur were identified within 

2 


■ SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 

Tsitongambarika, of which two (Collared Brown 

Lemur Eulemur collaris and Grey Gentle Lemur 

Hapalemur griseus 1 ) are globally threatened, one 

(Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis) is Near 

Threatened and two more are so poorly known 

that they are classified as Data Deficient. Although 

all three sites surveyed held all seven lemur 

species, Ivorona appeared to hold the highest 

densities. All of the lemur species recorded at 

Tsitongambarika can also be found at the nearby 

Andohahela National Park, where eight species have 

been recorded. 

Seven bat species were found during surveys, 

including two globally threatened (Vulnerable) species 

and one Data Deficient species. Particularly 

significant populations of the threatened Madagascar 

Flying-fox Pteropus rufus were found, numbering 

about 2,000 individuals among four roosts, notably 

at Ivolo. Given the relatively short survey period, it 

is likely that further surveys at Tsitongambarika 

would reveal additional bat species. 

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 

The mountains of Anosy Region are one of the two 

areas in Madagascar with the highest number of 

globally threatened amphibian species, and the Anosy 

Region is also one of the richest in Madagascar for 

reptile species, with a number of species not known 

from elsewhere in the country. Comparison between 

amphibian and reptile species known from 

Tsitongambarika and those known from nearby 

littoral forests and the humid forests of Andohahela 

National Park reveals significant differences. 

Surveys of the Tsitongambarika forests to date, 

summarised in this report, have recorded 70 reptile 

species and 57 amphibian species. These include 12 

species believed restricted to the Anosy Region, six 

globally threatened species, four Near Threatened 

species, and six Data Deficient species. Although 

collections made during the 2006 survey have yet to 

be fully identified, they include four frogs (Boophis 

sp. and Mantidactylus spp.), a day gecko (Phelsuma 

sp.) and a snake (Liophidium sp.) that are thought 

probably to represent new species to science. Highest 

amphibian and reptile species richness has been 

recorded at Ivorona and Manantantely, but globally 

threatened and potentially new species are distributed 

patchily: all sites except Lakandava and Ivohibe held 

species of conservation concern not found at other 

sites. 

1 Under alternative taxonomic arrangements, the Hapalemur found at Tsitongambarika, here called H. griseus, is treated as the 

more geographically restricted Southern Bamboo Lemur H. meridionalis. Under either arrangement, the species is threatened; 

see end of Chapter 4.

BIRDS 

The avifauna of Tsitongambarika includes a number 

of lowland forest specialists—such as Scaly Groundroller 

Brachypteracias squamiger, Nuthatch Vanga 

Hypositta corallirostris and Red-tailed Newtonia 

Newtonia fanovanae — and other species 

characteristic of undisturbed humid forest, such as 

Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor, Short-legged 

Ground-roller Brachypteracias leptosomus, Pollen’s 

Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and Wedge-tailed Jery 

Neomixis flavoviridis. Because of its importance for 

globally threatened and restricted-range species, 

Tsitongambarika was recognised as an Important 

Bird Area by BirdLife International (ZICOMA 1999). 

Surveys of the Tsitongambarika forests to date, 

summarised in this report, have recorded 97 bird 

species, 57 (59%) of which are endemic to 

Madagascar. These include eight globally threatened 

and six Near Threatened species, for which the most 

important sites surveyed were Ivohibe and Ivorona. 

The avifauna of Tsitongambarika does not appear 

to differ greatly from that of the nearby Andohahela 

National Park. Further surveys at higher altitudes of 

Tsitongambarika, which have not been surveyed to 

date, are likely to emphasise similarities to 

Andohahela. 

ANTS 

In addition to the BirdLife International-coordinated 

surveys, an ant survey of Ivohibe Forest in 

Tsitongambarika III was conducted by scientists from 

California Academy of Sciences and the Madagascar 

Biodiversity Centre. A total of 105 species were 

recorded, with two species known only from this 

forest. 

OTHER VALUES 

In addition to their intrinsic biodiversity values, the 

Tsitongambarika forests are an important source of 

ecosystem goods and services. Socio-economic 

surveys presented in this report show that the forests 

are an important source of forest products for local 

people, including firewood, charcoal, construction 

materials, bushmeat and medicinal plants. Since the 

local economy is largely subsistence-based and there 

is a high incidence of poverty, local communities have 

a high level of dependence on forest products to meet 

their daily needs. Loss and degradation of forests thus 

has major implications for the livelihoods of local 

people. 

The Tsitongambarika forests also play an 

important role in carbon storage, prevention of soil 


erosion, and protect the catchments of two of the 

Anosy region’s major rivers: the Manampanihy and 

Efaho. These rivers and their tributaries are the main 

source of water for agricultural irrigation and 

domestic use for rural communities in the east of the 

region. Further, the forests of Tsitongambarika I 

protect the water sources of the Lakandava pumping 

station and Lanirano Lake, which provide, 

respectively, 75% and 25% of the water for Fort 

Dauphin town. 

The Tsitongambarika forests also hold significant 

cultural importance for the local population. There 

is much evidence of historical settlement, burial sites, 

terraced rice cultivation and cattle pasturing within 

the village territories that have been designated as 

protected forest. In addition, the rivers, pools, and 

cliffs in the forest, along with actual and mythical 

forest creatures, are important to the traditions, 

beliefs and cultural identity of local people. 

FOREST IMPACTS AND 

CONSERVATION 

Forest clearance for shifting cultivation has the most 

significant impacts on the Tsitongambarika forests. 

Further forest clearance and degradation comes from 

poorly controlled fires, often set to clear cattle pasture, 

and timber harvesting. Although not at high levels, 

hunting and collecting of non-timber forest products 

are both starting to locally deplete some natural 

resources. 

At present, the major conservation potential has 

been seen to lie with the transfer of forest management 

to local associations. Unfortunately, since local 

cultural norms do not favour working in local 

associations and since these associations are seen as 

imposed by NGOs and the government, many of 

those that have been established remain weak. If there 

is agreement with the theory of these local 

associations, then significant support to these 

associations in terms of training, mentoring and 

oversight will be critical. However, these local 

associations may not be the ideal mechanism for 

managing the forest. There may be a need to look for 

a new model for working with local populations to 

manage the forest that recognises local rights, unequal 

power relations and fundamentally different value 

and belief systems among local, regional, national and 

international stakeholders. Whatever the case, 

multiple actors will need to commit to additional 

efforts in both research and management in order to 

ensure the long-term integrity of the Tsitongambarika 

forests for their unique biodiversity, for local 

livelihoods, well-being and culture, and for continued 

provision of ecosystem services for south-eastern 

Madagascar. 

3

Ireo ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina eny amin’ny 

haabo iva no anisan’ireo karazan-javamaniry 

tandindomin-doza indrindra. Na izany aza dia mbola 

ahitana faritra manan-danja amin’io haabo io any 

amin’ny faritra atsimo antsinanan’i Madagasikara : 

ny alan’Andohahela sy Tsitongambarika (Vohimena 

raha ny marimarina kokoa). Hatramin’izao anefa dia 

tsy mba anisan’ireo nanaovana fikarohana, na zara 

raha nisy, mikasika ny zava-boahary ao aminy ireo 

karazan’ala ireo, hany ka tsy dia fantatra loatra ny 

zava-dehibe ananany. Ny voka-pikarohana izay 

aseho ato anatin’ity tatitra ity dia mampiseho ny lanja 

ara-biolojika ananan’ny alan’i Tsitongambarika. 

Maneho indrindra izy ity fa miavaka ireo ala ireo raha 

mitaha amin’ny ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina 

amin’ny haabo iva hafa eto Madagasikara. Anisan’ny 

vokatry ny fikarohana misongadina dia ny 

fahitana karazana sahona sy reptilia ary zava-maniry 

vaovao ho an’ny siansa ; ao koa ny fahitana ireo 

karazan-java-manan’aina izay mila ho lany 

tamingana na koa tsy fahita raha tsy ao anatin’ny 

faritra voafetra. 

Ireo fehin-kevitra nisongadina tamin’io 

fikarohana io dia hita etsy ambany. Manarak’izany 

dia hisy tolo-kevitra maromaro nosintonina 

tamin’ireo voka-pikarohana, ho an’ireo mikasa 

hanao asa fiarovana ao amin’ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika. Anisan’izany ireo tolo-kevitra 

mahakasika ireo haabo sy ny toerana ary ny karazana 

zava-manan’aina izay mendrika fiheverana 

manokana. 

ZAVA-MANIRY 

Ny ala mando atsinanana no tangoron’ala natoraly 

betsaka indrindra eto Madagasikara. Manodidina ny 

80% ny velaran’ny ala amin’ny haabo antonony eo 

anelanelan’ny 800 sy 1500 m ary vitsy ihany no hita 

amin’ny haabo iva. Nefa kosa ny ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika dia manana velarana lehibe hita 

amin’ny haabo ambanin’ny 400 m, izay mampiavaka 

azy amin’ny ala atsimo atsinanana rehetra eto 

amin’ny nosy. 

Ny fanisana ireo karazana zava-maniry dia natao 

tao amin’ny alan’i Bemangidy-Ivohibe, 

Tsitongambarika faha-III, izay miavaka noho ny 

fisian’ny ala mbola tsara amin’io haabo latsaky ny 

400 m io. Eo amin’ny 600 karazana eo no zava-maniry 

voaiisa izay ahitana taranaka 366 sy fianakaviana 

121. Na dia mbola tokony ho vitaina aza ny 

famaritana ireo karazana ireo, dia mety eo amin’ny 

70 eo ny karazana zava-maniry vaovao hita ao 

Tsitongambarika ankehitriny. Ireo mpanao 

fikarohana dia manombana ho 1000 ny karazana 

zava-maniry ao aminy. 

4 

■ FAMINTINANA 

Ny Tsitongambarika alan’ i Tsitongambarika, Forest, Madagascar 

Madagasikara 

BIBY MAMPINONO 

Ny fanisana natao dia niompana tamin’ny gidro sy 

ny ramanavy. Fito ny karazana gidro hita tao 

Tsitongambarika ka ny roa amin’ireo (Eulemur 

collaris sy Hapalemur griseus) dia tandimdomin-doza 

maneran-tany, iray tandindomin-doza ary ny roa 

kosa dia tsy mbola fantatra ka nokilasiana ho “tsy 

ampy fahalalana”. Na dia samy nahitana ireo 

karazana gidro fito ireo aza ny toerana telo 

nanaovana ny fikarohana dia Ivorona no tena 

mananana azy maro indrindra. Ireo karazana gidro 

ireo dia hita ihany koa tao amin’ny alan’Andohahela, 

manakaiky an’i Tsitongambarika, izay ahitana 

karazana valo. 

Karazana Ramanavy fito no hita tao ka ny roa 

dia tandimdomin-doza maneran-tany ary ny iray dia 

tsy ampy fahalalana. Tangoron-dramanavy, Pteropus 

rufus, karazana tandindomin-doza ivondronana 

ramanavy 2000 isa, no hita tao amin’ny toeramponenany 

efatra, indrindra fa tao Ivolo. Koa satria 

fohy loatra ny fotoana nanaovana ny fikarohana dia 

inoana fa mety mbola hahita karazana ramanavy 

maro hafa amin’ny fanisana manaraka. 

SAHONA SY REPTILIA 

Ireo tendrombohitr’Anosy dia iray amin’ireo faritra 

roa ahitana karazana sahona tandimdomin-doza 

maneran-tany betsaka indrindra ary ny faritr’Anosy 

dia anisan’ny manankarena reptilia indrindra eto 

Madagasikara. Ny fampitahana ireo reptilia sy 

sahona hita ao amin’ ny alan’i Tsitongambarika 

amin’ireo hita manodidina toy ny ala amin’ny sisindrano 

sy ny ala ao anatin’ny valan-javaboaharin’i 

Andohahela dia maneho fahasamihafana goavana. 

Ny fanisana natao tao Tsitongambarika, voafintina 

ato anatin’ity tatitra ity, dia nahitana karazana 

reptilia 70 sy karazana sahona 57. Karazana 12 

amin’ireo dia heverina fa tsy ho hita raha tsy ao 

amin’ny faritra Anosy, enina tandimdomin-doza 

maneran-tany, karazana efatra tandimdomin-doza 

ary enina tsy tsy ampy fahalalana. 

Na dia mbola tsy tanteraka aza ny fikarohana 

mahakasika ny famaritana ny karazana izay natao 

tamin’ny 2006, dia fantatra fa misy karazana 

sahona 4 sy androngo iray vaovao ho an’ny siansa 

hita tao. 

Ny nahitana ny karazana sahona sy reptilia, maro 

indrindra dia ao Ivorona sy Manatantely. Ireo 

karazana efa tandidomin-doza sy ireo mety ho vaovao 

kosa dia samy manana ny azy. Ankoatr’ Ivohibe sy 

Lakandava anefa, ny toerana rehetra ao dia 

mananana karazana manan-daja ho an’ny fiarovana 

ary koa tsy fahita raha tsy ao amin’izy ireo ihany.

VORONA 

Ao Tsitongambarika dia misy Karazana voron’ala 

amin’ny haabo iva maromaro toy ny Brachypteracias 

squamiger, Newtonia fanovanae, Hypositta 

corallirostris. Ao koa ny karazana izay fahita any 

amin’ny ala mando mbola tsara toy ny Mesitornis 

unicolor, Brachypteracias leptosomus, Xenopirostris 

polleni sy Neomixis flavoviridis. Nohon’ ny fananany 

karazana vorona tandidomin-doza sy miparitaka 

amin’ny faritra voafetra, Tsitongambarika dia 

voakilasy ho Faritra manan-danja ho fiarovana ny 

vorona (ZICO), izay nofaritan’ny BirdLife 

International, eto Madagasikara (ZICOMA 1999). 

Ny fanisana vorona natao tao Tsitongambarika 

izay fintinina ato anatin’ity tatitra ity dia mampiseho 

97 karazana ka ny 57 (59%) amin’ireo dia tsy hita 

raha tsy eto Madagascar. Sivy amin’izy ireo dia 

tandimdomin-doza maneran-tany ary enina 

tandindomin-doza. Ny toerana manan-danja 

indrindra dia Ivorona sy Ivohibe. 

Tsy dia misy mahasamihafa azy amin’ny vorona 

hita ao amin’ny valan-javaboahary Andohahela izay 

manakaiky azy ny vorona ao amin’ny alan’ny 

Tsitongambarika. Ny fikarohana hafa hatao any 

amin’ny faritra avo, izay tsy mbola nisy fanisana koa 

dia mety mbola hampisongadina io fitoviana io. 

VITSIKA 

Ankoatry ny fanadihadiana notantanin’ny BirdLife 

International dia nisy koa fanisana karazana vitsika 

izay nataon’ireo manam-pahaizana avy ao amin’ny 

California Academy of Science sy ny Madagascar 

Biodiversity Centre tao amin’ny alan’Ivohibe 

Tsitongambarika III. Vitsika mitotaly 105 karazana 

no voaiisa ary karazana 2 amin’ireo ihany no efa 

fantatra fa efa nisy teo an-toerana taloha. 

LANJA HAFA 

Ankoatra ny fananana lanja ho an’ny zavaboahary, 

ireo alan’ny Tsitongambarika koa dia manan-danja 

amin’ny tolotra ara-rohy voahary. Ny fanadihadiana 

ara-tsosialy sy ekonomika natao dia mampiseho fa 

io ala io dia loharam-bokatry ny ala goavana ho an’ny 

mponina eny ifotony. Toy ny kitay, saribao, fitaovana 

fanorenana, hena dia, zava-maniry fanao fanafody. 

Koa satria ny harikarena eny ifotony dia mifototra 

amin’ny hoenti-mivelona ary koa nohon’ ny tahampahatrana 

avodia avo dia miantehatra amin’ny 

vokatry ny ala ny mponina mba hamaly ny filàny 

andavan’andro. Ny fahaverezana sy fahapotehan’ny 

ala izany dia misy fiantraikany mafy amin’ny 

fahafaha-mivelon’ny mponina eny ifotony. Ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika dia mandray anjara betsaka koa 

amin’ny fitehirizana karinbôna, ny fiarovana amin’ny 

asan’ny riaka ary amin’ny fiarovana ny ala mamefy 

ny renirano roa lehibe indrindra ao amin’ny faritra 


Madagasikara 

Anosy : Manampanihy sy Efaho. Ireo renirano lehibe 

ireo sy ny sampany no rano manondraka ny 

fambolena sy fampiasa ao an-tokatrano ho an’ireo 

mponina any atsinana amin’ny faritra. Ankoatr’izay, 

ny alan’i Tsitongambarika I dia miaro ny loharano 

ao amin’ny toerana fisintonan-drano ao Lakandava 

sy ny farihin’ny Lanirano izay miantoka 75% sy 25% 

ny rano ho an’ny tananan’i Tolagnaro. Manana lanja 

ara-koltoraly ho an’ny mponina ifotony koa ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika. Misy sisan-tanàna manan-tantara 

maro, toerana masina, voly vary am-bohitra, toerampiraofan’ny 

biby ao anatin’ny faritra heverina ho ala 

arovana. Ankoatr’izay dia ireo toerana voahary 

rehetra toy ny renirano, honahona, farihy sy ny ala 

dia manan-danja tokoa ho an’ny nentim-paharazana, 

ny finoana sy ny maha izy azy ara-kolotsain’ny 

mponina eny ifotony. 

FIANTRAIKAN’NY ALA SY NY 

FIAROVANA AZY 

Ny fandripahana ny ala avy amin’ny fanaovana Tavy 

no manana fiantraikany lehibe indrindra amin’ny 

alan’i Tsitongambarika. Ny fandripahana sasany dia 

avy amin’ny afo tsy voafehy izay matetika natao ho 

fanadiovana ny toerana firaofan’ny biby sy fakana 

hazo. Na tsy dia misy fiantraikany firy aza ny 

fihazana sy ny fakana ny vokatra hafa ao an’ala dia 

manomboka mandany ireo loharanon-karena 

voajanahary sasany koa izany. 

Ankehitriny, ireo fomba heverina ho mahomby 

indrindra amin’ny fiarovana dia ny famindrampitantanana 

ny ala amin’ireo fikambanan eny 

ifotony. Mampalahelo anefa fa tsy mety amin’ny 

fomba fiasan’ny fikambanana ny fenitra koltoraly eny 

ifotony ary koa ireo fikambanana ireo dia toy ny 

voaterin’ny ONG sy ny fitondram-panjakana ka dia 

maro amin’izy ireny no efa mijoro nefa dia mbola 

osa. Raha toa ka mahita fomba fifanarahana 

amin’ny fiainan’ny fikambanana eny ifotony dia ny 

fanampiana miompana amin’ny fiofanana, torohevitra 

sy fanarahamaso no tokony homena azy ireo. 

Na izany aza, mety tsy ny fampiasana ireo 

fikambanana ireo no tetika mahoby amin’ny 

fitantanana ny ala. Mety ho ilaina ny mahita modely 

vaovao ho fiaraha-miasa amin’ny olona eny ifotony 

izay mifanaraka amin’ny lalàna ambanivohitra, 

fifandraisan’ny fahefana tsy mitovy, ny lanja sy 

ny finoana izay tena samihafa tokoa ho an’n 

mpisehatra ifotony, rezionaly sy nasionaly ary 

iraisam-pirenena. Na inona na inona anefa ny 

vahaolana ho raisina, ireo mpisehatra rehatra dia 

tokony handray andraikitra amin’ny fanampin’ezaka 

maharitra, amin’ny fikarohana sy fitantanana mba 

hiantohana ny fahatomombana’ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika sy mba hikajina ireo zavaboahary 

tsy manampaharoa ireo, ireo fiveloman’ny mponina, 

ny fiainana sy ny kolotsaina ary mba hitohizan’ny 

tolotra ara-rohy voahary any atsimo atsinanan’i 

Madagasikara. 

5

Based on the findings of the report, a series of 

recommendations for those considering conservation 

intervention in the Tsitongambarika massif is 

given below. These recommendations are grouped 

in three categories—the first category includes 

recommendations on areas, sites and species deserving 

particular attention, the second and third focus on 

the kind of interventions that are needed to ensure 

that successful long-term biodiversity conservation 

is achieved without compromising the livelihoods and 

cultural values of local communities. 

PRIORITY AREAS, SITES AND SPECIES 

AT TSITONGAMBARIKA 

■ Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most 

threatened vegetation types in Madagascar. 

Almost uniquely for humid forests in south-eastern 

Madagascar, Tsitongambarika includes significant 

areas below 400 m. These lowland areas (e.g. 

Bemangidy-Ivohibe) are particularly high priorities 

for conservation, especially given their importance 

for restricted-range plant species. 

■ Flying foxes provide significant ecosystem service 

benefits (pollination) as well as being a threatened 

species. Flying fox roosts (four have been identified 

in Tsitongambarika, notably at Ivolo) are 

priorities for site protection. 

■ Cultural sites warrant particular attention. 

Historical settlements, burial sites, and spiritual sites 

linked to natural features such as rivers, pools and 

cliffs have been identified in the forest, and are 

potentially of significant importance to local people. 

Since these will differ among clan territories 

particular attention will need to be paid to these in 

each area. 

■ For some taxonomic groups—e.g. reptiles and 

amphibians—it is difficult to select priority sites 

because globally threatened and potentially new 

species are distributed patchily (all sites except 

Lakandava and Ivohibe hold species of 

conservation concern not found at other sites). 

Similarly, many ecosystem service values (e.g. nontimber 

forest products, broader-scale services such 

as water purification) are dispersed throughout the 

forest. Consequently conservation management for 

the whole of Tsitongambarika is needed, not just 

for particular special sites or species. 

■ Priority species include globally threatened and 

restricted-range species. Tsitongambarika is home 

to many such species, including some Endangered 

6 


■ RECOMMENDATIONS 

and site-endemic species which rank among the 

highest priorities. 

■ Species research should focus on information 

relevant to conservation management of priority 

species (e.g. distribution, threats, conservation 

actions needed and their effectiveness), taking into 

account that in many cases species will be most 

efficiently protected by measures aimed at 

preserving their habitat. 

■ Clarifying the status of species potentially new to 

science is a particular priority for species research. 

The surveys reported here found almost 70 plant 

species new to science and six reptile and 

amphibian species probably new to science. 

CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT NEEDS 

AT TSITONGAMBARIKA 

■ Management activities are needed that will ensure 

persistence of viable populations of priority species, 

maintain the integrity of habitats, provide 

alternative livelihoods to local communities for 

foregone unsustainable forest use, and address 

specific threats identified in this report. 

■ Although some conservation activities have been 

implemented at Tsitongambarika, infrastructure 

and capacity are limited. Any future programme 

would need to make significant investment in 

infrastructure, training and capacity building, 

coupled with ongoing mentoring and support. 

■ To assist with planning future conservation or 

offset programmes, a short-term recommendation 

is to produce a short report detailing biodiversity 

values, costs and opportunities for each area 

(Tsitongambarika I, II and III). 

■ At present, the main mechanism for conservation 

is the transfer of forest management to local 

associations. However, since local cultural norms 

do not favour working in local associations and 

since these associations are seen as imposed by 

NGOs and the government, these local 

associations may not be the ideal mechanism for 

managing the forest, and there may be a need to 

look for a new model (and/or significantly adjust 

the current model) for working with local 

populations to manage the forest. 

■ In the long term, conservation management at 

Tsitongambarika will only be successful if it 

addresses the underlying causes of biodiversity loss.

The main pressure on Tsitongambarika is 

clearance for subsistence agriculture with 

additional major pressures from illegal timber 

harvesting and hunting. High rates of poverty and 

rapid population growth exacerbate this pressure. 

■ Sustainable livelihood programmes are needed that 

reduce human pressures on biodiversity and link 

biodiversity conservation with alternative 

appropriate benefits. Villagers will only be willing 

to conserve (which inevitably causes short-term 

natural resource use restrictions) if they receive 

commensurate benefits, such as support for rural 

development. 

ENSURING THAT LOCAL 

COMMUNITIES BENEFIT FROM 

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AT 

TSITONGAMBARIKA 

■ Given that the Tsitongambarika Forest provides 

for local, regional, national, and international 

livelihoods and well being, research and 

programmes oriented on understanding and 

ensuring the continued supply of the diverse 

ecosystem services will be necessary. 

■ Given that the conservation and use of the forest 

are social endeavours at their core, future research 

and programmes need to focus on critical social 

research to increase our understanding of the local 

socio-cultural context including knowledge 

systems, traditions, and concepts and realities of 

forest management. It is only by better 

understanding these local socio-cultural contexts 

that we will be able to more effectively collaborate 

with the local forest managers, to manage and 

conserve the forest. 


■ Given that there are very different and often 

contradictory perceptions of the forest held by 

stakeholders at the local, regional, national, and 

international levels, it will be important to recognise 

and address serious issues of unequal power 

relations, local rights, environmental justice, and 

fundamentally different value and belief systems 

among multiple stakeholders. This will be essential 

for conserving the Tsitongambarika forests for their 

unique biodiversity in a socially just way that also 

ensures local livelihoods, well-being and culture. 

■ Given the widely divergent stakeholder values 

regarding the biodiversity in the Tsitongambarika 

Forest, it may be necessary to broker agreements 

with communities to stop unsustainable use of 

forests in return for direct community development 

benefits. This will need to follow the principles of 

former, prior, and informed consent (FPIC). This 

will require culturally appropriate “deals”, rigorous 

external and local participatory monitoring, and 

adequate compensation. 

■ Given that the rural production systems and 

livelihoods in different areas around the forest are 

quite varied, programmes for forest conservation 

and livelihoods will need to be specifically tailored 

to local contexts and flexible enough to respond 

to local needs. 

■ Given that there are already more than 60 

community forest management groups in place 

throughout the forest, and that these are the de 

facto on-the-ground day-to-day managers of the 

forest, future efforts must ensure that these evolve 

into cultural appropriate operational and effective 

forest management mechanisms. The considerable 

support and attention that is necessary to achieve 

this should not be underestimated. 

7

Mifototra amin’ny voka-pikarohana avy amin’ity 

tatitra ity, dia misy tolo-kevitra maromaro izay 

napetraka mba ho an’ireo izay mety handray anjara 

amin’ny asa fiarovana ny alan’i Tsitongambarika, 

izay nosokajina telo. Ny sokajy voalohany dia ireo 

tolo-kevitra mahakasika ny faritra, toerana sy ny 

karazana ilaina fijerena manokana, ny faharoa sy ny 

fahatelo dia manasongadina ny karazana hetsika 

ilaina mba hiantohana ny fahombiazan’ny fiarovana 

ny zavaboahary amin’ny ho avy nefa tsy maningotra 

ny fahavelomana sy ny lanja ara kolotsain’ny 

fiarahamonina ifotony. 

IREO FARITRA, TOERANA SY 

KARAZANA LAHARAM-PAHAMEHANA 

AO TSITONGAMBARIKA 

■ Ny ala mando tsy mihintsan-dravina amin’ny 

haabo iva dia iray amin’ny karazan-java-maniry 

tandidomin-doza indrindra eto Madagasikara. 

Amin’ny maha tsy manam-paharoa azy amin’ny 

ala atsimo atsinan’i Madagasikara, ny alan’i 

Tsitongambarika dia manana faritra lehibe 

amin’ny haabo ambanin’ny 400 m. Ireo faritra 

manana haabo iva ireo (oh Bemangidy-Ivohibe) 

dia laharam-pahamehana ho an’ny fiarovana 

noho ireo karazana zava-maniry manana 

fiparitahana voafetra ao amin’izy ireo. 

■ Ny ramanavy dia manana andraikitra tsara 

manokana ao anaty rohy voahary 

(fanaparitahana vovobony) na dia Karazana 

tandidomin-doza aza. Ireo toeram-pihantonan’izy 

ireo (misy efatra ao Tsitongambarika indrindra fa 

ao Ivolo) dia laharam-pahamehana amin’ny 

fiarovana ihany koa. 

■ Ireo toerana kolotoraly dia mila fiheverana 

manokana. Hita ao anaty ala ny tanàna manatantara, 

ny toerana fanaovana fomba sy 

fivavahana mifandraika amina singa natoraly toy 

ny renirano, honahona sy ny hantsana morondranomasina 

ary tena manan-danja tokoa ho 

an’ny mponina eny ifotony. Noho izy ireo 

samihafa isaky ny andiana foko dia ilaina ny 

fijerena manokana isaky ny faritra. 

■ Sarotra ny mamantatra ny toerana laharampahamehana 

ho an’ny fiarovana ny ny vondrona 

sasany toy ny sahona sy ny reptilia satria ireo 

karazana tandindomin-doza sy ireo karazana mety 

ho vaovao dia samy manana ny fiparitahany izay 

tsy mitovy (ireo toerana rehatra ankoatry 

Lakandava sy Ivohibe dia ahitana ireo karazana 

manan-danja amin’ny fiarovana manokana izay tsy 

8 

■ TOLO-KEVITRA 


Madagasikara 

hita any amin’ny toerana hafa). Toy izany koa ireo 

tolotra ara-rohy voahary manan-danja maro (toy 

ny vokatra tsy hazo, ireo tolotra avo lenta toy ny 

fanadiovana ny rano) dia miparitaka eran’ny ala. 

Noho izany dia ilaina ny miaro manontolo an’i 

Tsitongambarika fa tsy voafetra ho an’ny toerana na 

karazana voafaritra manokana fotsiny. 

■ Ny karazana manana lahara-pahamehana dia ireo 

karazana manana sata tandindomin-doza manerantany 

sy ny karazana manana fiparitahana voafetra. 

Tsitongambarika dia betsaka an’ireo karazana 

ireo, anisan’izany ny karazana efa ho lany 

tamingana sy ireo izay tsy fahita amin’ny toerankafa 

izay voakilasy ho anatin’ny laharampahamehana. 

■ Ny fikarohana mikasika ny karazana dia tokony 

hiompana amin’ireo fanadihadiana tena ilaina 

amin’ny fitantanana ny fiarovana ireo karazana 

manana laharam-pahamehana (oh Ny fiparitahana, 

ireo loza mitatao, ireo fepetra fiarovana tokony 

ho raisina sy ny fahombiazany) ireo, nohon’ny 

fahatsapana tamin’ny tranga hafa maro fa voaro 

kokoa ny karazana izay ampiharana fiarovana 

mikendry fikajiana ny toeram-ponenany. 

■ Ny fandalinanana ny satan’ireo karazana 

heverina ho vaovao eo amin’ny siansa dia 

laharam-pahamehana manokana ho an’ny 

fikarohana ny karazana. Ireo fanadihadiana 

naseho teto dia nanambara fa 70 ny karazana 

zava-maniry vaovao ary 6 kosa karazana ho an’ny 

sahona sy ny reptilia. 

NY TOKONY HATAO HO AN’NY 

FITATANANA NY FIAROVANA AO 


■ Ny asa fitantanana ilaina dia ireo izay miantoka 

ny faharetan’ny andiany tokony ho velona ho 

an’ireo Karazana manana laharam-pahamehana, 

mitana ny fahatsaran’ny toeram-ponenany ary 

manolotra solona fomba fivelomana ho an’ny 

mponina ifotony ho fanitsiana ny fampiasana tsy 

maharitra ireo ala, ary mijery manokana ireo loza 

mitatao voatanisa tato amin’ity tatitra ity. 

■ Na dia eo aza ireo asa fiarovana efa natomboka 

tao Tsitongambarika, ny foto-drafitr’asa sy ny 

fahaiza manao dia tsy ampy. Ny lamin’asa rehetra 

amin’ny ho avy dia tokony hampiasa vola betsaka 

amin’ny lafiny foto-drafitr’asa , fampiofanana sy 

fanamafisana fahaiza-manao arahina fanarahamaso 

sy fanampiana mitohy.

■ Hanampiana ny rafitr’asa fiarovna na ny 

lamin’asa onitra amin’ny ho avy dia misy fepetra 

tokony hatao avy hatrany dia ny famoahana 

tatitra fohy mikasika ireo lanja, ireo teti-bidy sy 

ireo zay tsara fanararaotra ho an’ny faritra 

tsirairay(Tsitongambarika I, II, III). 

■ Ankehitriny, ny fomba fiarovana misongadina dia 

ny Famindram-pitantanana ny ala amin’ireo 

fikambanan eny ifotony. Koa satria tsy mety 

amin’ny asa ao amin’ny fikambanana ny fenitra 

kolotoraly eny ifotony ary koa ireo fikambanana 

ireo dia toy ny voabaikon’ny ONG sy ny 

fitondram-panjakana, dia heverina fa tsy fomba 

idealy ny fampiasana ny fikambanana : tsy maintsy 

heverina ny hahita modely vaovao (sy/na hanova 

am-pitandremana ny modely efa misy ) hiarahamiasa 

amin’ny mponina mba hiarovana ny ala. 

■ Any aoriana any, ny fitantanana ny fiarovana an’i 

Tsitongambarika dia tsy hahomby raha tsy 

mahakasika ireo tena antony fototra mahatonga 

ny fahaverezan’ny zavaboahary. Ny tena tsindry 

mahazo an’i Tsitongambarika dia ny 

fandringanana ala hanaovana fambolena 

hivelomana, ampian’ny tsindry fanampiny sady 

manan-danja mifandraika amin’ny fihazana sy ny 

fakana tsy ara-dalana ireo hazo. Ny taha avon’ny 

fahantrana sy ny fitombon’’ny mponina dia vao 

maika manampy trotraka ireo tsindry ireo. 

■ Ny fisian’ny lamin’asa ho amin’ny fahafahamivelona 

maharitra dia ilaina mba hampihenana 

ny tsindry avy amin’olombelona amin’ny zavaboahary 

ary hampifandray ny fiarovana ny zavaboahary 

sy ny famoronana solon’antompivelomana 

mety. Tsy afaka hiaro ny voahary ny 

mponina (izay tsy azo ialana ny hisian’ny famerana 

ao anatin’ny fotoana fohy) raha tsy mahazo 

tombotsoa mifanaraka amin’izany toy ny 

fanampiana amin’ny fampandrosoana 

ambanivohitra. 

NY FIARAHA-MONINA ENY IFOTONY 

DIA MAHAZO TOMBONY AMIN’NY 

FIAROVANA NY ZAVA-BOAHARY AO 


■ Koa satria ny alan’i Tsitongambarika dia 

manome fomba ahafaha-mivelonaho an’ny eny 

ifotony, rezionaly, nasionaly sy iraisam-pirenena, 

ny fikarohana sy ny lamin’asa ahazoana antoka 

sy ahafantarana fa ilaina ny tolotra rohy voahary 

samihafa dia tena ilaina tokoa. 

■ Koa satria ny fiarovana sy ny fampiasana ny ala 

dia mifototra indrindra amin’ ny ezaka aratsosialy, 

ny fikarohana sy ny lamina’asa amin’ny 


Madagasikara 

ho avy rehetra dia tokony hanasongadina ny 

fanadihadiana matotra mikasika ny ara-tsosialy 

izay mikendry ny fahazahoantsika bebe kokoa ny 

toe-draharaha ara kolotoraly sy soasialy eny 

ifotony, ao anatin’izany ny fahalalana, ireo nentimpaharazana 

ary ireo endrika sy zava-misy marina 

mifandraika amin’ny fitantananana ny ala. Ny 

fahazahoana tsara ireo endrika kolotoraly sy 

sosialy eny ifotony mantsy no ahafahantsika 

manana fiaraha-miasa mahomby miaraka 

amin’ireo mpitantana ala sy hitantanana ary 

hiarovana ny ala. 

■ Koa satria ny fahatsapan’ireo andaniny sy 

ankilany mpifanaiky eny ifotony, rezionaly, 

nationaly sy iraisam-pirenena dia tena samy hafa 

ary mifanohitra aza matetika dia tena ilaina 

arak’izany ny mahalala sy mijery ireo singa 

fototra toy ny fifandraisan’ny fananam-pahefana 

tsy mitovy, ny zo eny ifotony, ny fahamarinana aratontolo 

iainana, ary ny fahasamihafana fototra eo 

amin’ny lanja sy ny finoan’ny mpiray tan-tsoroka 

tsirairay. Ireo dia zava-dehibe amin’ny fiarovana 

ny alan’i Tsitongambarika, mba hiarovana io 

zava-boahary tokana aman-tany io amin’ny 

alalan’ny fiantohana ny fahaveloman’ny olona sy 

ny fiadanany ary ny kolo-tsaina. 

■ Eo anatrehan’ny karazana lanja ananan’ny 

andaniny sy ny ankilany mpifanaiky tsirairay 

mikasika ny zava-boahary ao Tsitongambarika 

dia tokony ilaina ny mandamina ny fifanarahana 

amin’ny rehetra mba hisorohana ny fampiasana 

tsy maharitra ny ala ho takalon’ny tombotsoa 

mivantana ho amin’ny fampandrosoana ny 

vahoaka. Amin’izany dia tokony harahina ny 

foto-kevitra (CLPE) fanekena malalaka, mialoha 

sady mazava . Mitaky fifanarahana ara-kolotsaina 

mifandrindra, fanaraha-maso iraisana avy ivelany 

sy ifotony matotra ary onitra azo ekena tsara izany. 

■ Nohon’ny fahasamihafana misy amin’ny fomba 

fahafaha-mivelona eny ambanivohitra ao amin’ireo 

faritra tsirairay manodidina ny ala, ireo lamin’asa 

amin’ny fiarovana ny ala sy ny fomba 

fiveloman’ny olona dia tokony hifanaraka tsara 

amin’ny zava-misy ary koa afaka amboarina mba 

hamaly ireo hetahetan’ireo mponina eny ifotony. 

■ Koa satria efa misy Fikambanana mpitantana ala 

60 isa ao ary izy ireo dia mpitantana isan’andro 

ny ala, ny hetsika rehetra amin’ny ho avy dia tsy 

maintsy hiantoka ny fivoaran’ireo vondrona ireo 

ho amin’ny fomba fitantanana mihodina sy 

mahomby ireo ala izay mifanentana tsara amin’ny 

kolotsaina. Tsy tokony hatao ambanin-javatra ny 

fanampiana sy ny fiheverana manokana 

mikasika ny fomba hatao mba hahatratrarana io 

tanjona io. 

9

BACKGROUND 

The Tsitongambarika forests comprise three forest 

management units (termed Tsitongambarika I, II and 

III) in Anosy Region, south-eastern Madagascar. 

These forests lie along the Vohimena mountains, 

which run north from Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) for 

a distance of around 100 km. These mountains run 

parallel to the Anosyenne mountains, where 

Andohahela National Park is situated. The Vohimena 

mountains reach a maximum altitude of 1,358 m, 

while the Anosyenne mountains are significantly 

higher, reaching a maximum altitude of 1,956 m. 

The Tsitongambarika forests are characterised by 

a mountainous relief, with steep slopes rising abruptly 

from the narrow coastal plain. Generally speaking, 

the soils of Tsitongambarika comprise laterites and 

ferralites, deposited on Pre-Cambian gneiss and 

granitic rocks (Bourgeat 1972). The soils are generally 

rich, humus-bearing and of varying depth; rock 

outcrops are frequent. 

Tolagnaro experiences a tropical climate, with an 

average annual rainfall of 1,679 mm, equivalent to 

140 mm per month. There are nine perhumid months 

per year but no dry months. Average annual 

temperature is 23.4°C, with relatively little seasonal 

variation. There appears to be a north-south gradient 

in rainfall along the Tsitongambarika forests, with 

Manantenina (near the northern end) receiving an 

average of 3,000 mm per year, compared with 

Nahampoana (near the southern end), which receives 

only 2,130 mm annually (Paulian et al. 1973). Moist 

easterly winds provide orographic rainfall on the 

windward slopes of the Vohimena and Anosyenne 

chains, leading to the development of humid forest; 

this contrast sharply with the semi-arid climate 

prevalent to the west of the Anosyenne mountains. 

Following the classification of Humbert (1955), 

the Tsitongambarika forests comprise humid forest 

at low altitude (0–800 m) and humid forest at medium 

altitude (800–2,000 m asl) of the eastern Madagascar 

Region. Humid forest at low altitude is the most 

endangered vegetation type in Madagascar (Langrand 

1990), particularly as a result of clearance for tavy 

(shifting cultivation) and exploitation for fuelwood. 

According to the results of the Inventaire Ecologique 

et Forestier National, in the mid 1990s, there were only 

around 2 million ha of lowland dense forests 

(including Sambirano formations) with little or no 

modification, plus around 500,000 ha in a degraded 

or secondary condition (Dufils 2003). According to 

Langrand (1990), the only large tracts of lowland 

humid forest remaining “are those surrounding the 

10 


■ Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF THE BIOLOGICAL 

IMPORTANCE OF TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST 

ANDREW W. TORDOFF 

Bay of Antongil and south of Mananara”. 

Nevertheless, significant areas of lowland humid 

forest can still be found in south-eastern Madagascar, 

most notably the Tsitongambarika forests. Until 

recently, these forests had been the focus of little 

biodiversity study, and recognition of their biological 

importance was limited. 

THE SURVEYS 

During 2005 and 2006, the Tsitongambarika forests 

were the focus of a series of biodiversity surveys 

conducted by a team of Malagasy and international 

scientists from Missouri Botanical Garden, Rio Tinto 

QMM (QIT Madagascar Minerals, QMM), and two 

Malagasy NGOs: Asity Madagascar and 

Madagasikara Voakajy. These surveys were 

coordinated by BirdLife International, and funded 

through BirdLife’s partnership with Rio Tinto, a 

leading mineral resources company, which is the 

major shareholder in Rio Tinto QMM. 

The surveys highlighted the biological importance 

of Tsitongambarika. In particular, they revealed that 

the Tsitongambarika forests include some of the most 

intact areas of primary humid forest remaining at very 

low elevations in south-eastern Madagascar, and 

indicated that they are floristically and faunistically 

distinct from lowland humid forests elsewhere in the 

country. 

VEGETATION AND FLORA 

Although the Tsitongambarika forests reach a 

maximum altitude of 1,358 m, they contain significant 

areas below 800 m, and, almost uniquely for humid 

forests in south-eastern Madagascar, include sizeable 

areas below 400 m. Although the humid forests of 

south-eastern Madagascar are south of the Tropic of 

Capricorn, they are typically tropical in structure and 

composition (Goodman et al. 1997). Indeed, at 25°S, 

Tsitongambarika is one of the lowest latitude 

“tropical” humid forests in the Old World (Goodman 

et al. 1997). 

While eastern humid forest is the most abundant 

natural forest formation in Madagascar, about 80% 

of it is mid-altitude forest between 800 and 1,500 m, 

and relatively little remains at low elevations (Morris 

and Hawkins 1998). In south-eastern Madagascar, 

lowland forest on lateritic soils is thought to have been 

previously extensive but little now remains, as a result 

of clearance for shifting cultivation (Goodman et al.

Map 1. Topographic map of vegetation 


11

1997). It is not clear why the Tsitongambarika forests 

have survived while others growing on similar terrain 

have been cleared, although the fact that local people 

did not practice shifting cultivation until recently may 

offer a partial explanation (Nicoll 2003). This may 

reflect a relative unsuitability of the area for shifting 

cultivation, due to some underlying feature of climate, 

topography and/or geology. 

Three vegetation and flora surveys were conducted 

by the botanical team during November 2005, 

February 2006 and May 2006. These surveys focused 

on Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest in Tsitongambarika 

III. This area of forest is notable because of the 

presence of relatively undisturbed humid forest at 

altitudes below 100 m. 

To date, in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest and 

other sites in Tsitongambarika, nearly 600 species 

have been identified in 366 genera and 121 families, 

suggesting that the total flora of Tsitongambarika 

probably includes well over 1,000 species. Given the 

relative lack of previous botanical collections from 

lowland humid forests in south-eastern Madagascar, 

it is reasonable to expect that further surveys will 

reveal yet more new species. 

Newly described plant species from 

Tsitongambarika include Gnidia razakamalalana, a 

treelet in the Thymelaeaceae family, collected at 90 

m altitude. Based on a known area of occupancy of 

less than 10 km 2 , this species has been provisionally 

assessed as globally Endangered (P. Lowry in litt. 

2007). The new discoveries also include three species 

in the Araliaceae family: Polyscias bemangidiensis, an 

understorey shrub to treelet that is reasonably 

common at Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest; Polyscias 

emargiata, a small tree known only from a single 

population restricted to a granite slab at c.100 m 

altitude; and Schefflera bemangidiensis, a slender 

forest tree known only from Bemangidy-Ivohibe 

Forest (P. Lowry in litt. 2007). 

These species are currently known only from 

Tsitongambarika. While some of them may have had 

wider distributions previously, the extensive loss of 

lowland humid forest from other parts of southeastern 

Madagascar suggests that at least some of 

them may now be restricted to the Tsitongambarika 

forests. 

MAMMALS 

The mammal surveys recorded seven bat species, 

including four species of conservation concern: 

Madagascar Flying-fox Pteropus rufus (Vulnerable), 

Madagascan Fruit Bat Eidolon dupreanum 

(Vulnerable), Peter’s Sheath-tailed Bat Emballonura 

atrata (Vulnerable) and Madagascan Rousette 

Rousettus madagascariensis (Near Threatened). The 

population of Pteropus rufus is particularly 

significant, numbering around 2,000 individuals 

divided among four roosts. Also of note, Eidolon 

dupreanum was hitherto unknown from Anosy 

12 


Region. Considering the relatively short survey 

period, it is likely that further survey effort at 

Tsitongambarika would reveal additional bat 

species. 

In addition to bats, the mammal surveys also 

focused on lemurs. Seven species of lemur were 

identified, comprising two diurnal species (Collared 

Brown Lemur Eulemur collaris and Grey Gentle 

Lemur Hapalemur griseus) and five nocturnal species 

(Brown Mouse-lemur Microcebus rufus, Greater 

Dwarf Lemur Cheirogaleus major, Southern Woolly 

Lemur Avahi meridionalis, Greater Sportive Lemur 

Lepilemur mustelinus and Aye-aye Daubentonia 

madagascariensis). Two of these species (Collared 

Brown Lemur and Grey Gentle Lemur) are globally 

threatened. All of the lemur species recorded at 

Tsitongambarika can also be found at the nearby 

Andohahela National Park, where eight species have 

been recorded (Feistner and Schmid 1999). 

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 

The Global Amphibian Assessment revealed that the 

Anosy (including Vohimena i.e. Tsitongambarika) 

mountains are one of the two areas in Madagascar 

with the highest number of globally threatened 

amphibian species, the other one being the northern 

and north-eastern highlands (Andreone et al. 2005). 

The Anosy Region is also one of the richest in 

Madagascar in terms of number of reptile species, 

with a number of species not known from elsewhere 

in the country. 

The reptile and amphibian surveys conducted 

during 2006 focused on two lowland humid forest sites 

within Tsitongambarika III: Ampasy Forest and 

Ivohibe Forest. These surveys complemented the 

results of earlier studies conducted at 

Tsitongambarika II in 2002 and Tsitongambarika I 

in 1989 and 1990 (Ramanamanjato 1993). Taken 

together, all surveys to date have recorded 70 species 

of reptile and 57 species of amphibian in the 

Tsitongambarika forests. These include 12 species 

known only from Anosy Region, such as Boophis 

haematopus (Vulnerable), Mantella haraldmeieri 

(Vulnerable), Paragehyra gabriellae, Zonosaurus 

anelanelany and Pseudoxyrhopus sokosoko. Although 

the collections made during the 2006 survey have yet 

to be fully identified, they include four frogs (two 

Boophis spp., one Gephyromantis sp. and one 

(Mantidactylus sp.) and two snakes (one Liophidium 

sp. and one Liopholidophis sp.) that are thought 

probably to represent new species to science. 

BIRDS 

The main bird survey of Tsitongambarika was 

conducted between December 2005 and January 2006, 

focusing on four sites between 85 and 775 m 

altitude. Supplementary observations made up to

2008 are also included. A total of 97 species were 

recorded, of which 57 are endemic to Madagascar and 

a further 25 are restricted to Madagascar and other 

Indian Ocean islands. Among the bird species 

recorded in the Tsitongambarika forests were five 

globally threatened species (Madagascar Red Owl 

Tyto soumagnei, Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor, 

Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias 

leptosomus, Scaly Ground-roller B. squamigera 

and Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia favovanae) all of 

which are assessed as Vulnerable, and six Near 

Threatened species (Madagascar Crested Ibis 

Lophotibis cristata, Madagascar Sparrowhawk 

Accipiter madagascariensis, Henst’s Goshawk A. 

henstii, Grey-crowned Tetraka Bernieria cinereiceps, 


Pollen’s Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and Wedge-tailed 

Jery Neomixis flavoviridis). In addition, the globally 

threatened Meller’s Duck Anas melleri, Madagascar 

Grebe Tachybaptus pelzelnii and Madagascar Pondheron 

Ardeola idae were recorded on wetlands close 

to, but outside, Tsitongambarika forest. Because of 

its importance for globally threatened and restrictedrange 

species, Tsitongambarika is recognised as an 

Important Bird Area by BirdLife International 

(ZICOMA 1999). 

The avifauna of Tsitongambarika includes a 

number of species considered by Morris and Hawkins 

(1998) to be lowland forest specialists, or, at least, 

more common there than elsewhere. These include 

Scaly Ground-roller, Red-tailed Newtonia and 

Plate 2. The small 

noctural chameleon 

Brookesia nasus 


RAVOAHANGY) 

Plate 3. Red-tailed 

Newtonia Newtonia 

fanovanae. This 

photograph, taken at 

Tsitongambarika, may be 

the first published of this 

rare lowland forest species 

(ANDRIANDRAOTAMALAZA 

BRUNO RAVELOSON) 

13

Nuthatch Vanga Hypositta corallirostris. Other 

species recorded at Tsitongambarika, including 

Brown Mesite, Short-legged Ground Roller, Pollen’s 

Vanga and Wedge-tailed Jery, are described by 

Langrand (1990) as being characteristic of 

undisturbed humid forest. 

On the basis of the survey results, the avifauna of 

Tsitongambarika does not differ greatly from that of 

the nearby Andohahela National Park. The major 

difference between the two avifaunas is the absence 

from Tsitongambarika of a number of species 

characteristic of upper elevation humid forest that are 

found at Andohahela. This difference can be readily 

explained by the very limited area of forest above 

1,200 m altitude at Tsitongambarika, and the fact that 

survey effort there was concentrated at elevations 

below 800 m. 

Although no evidence of either was found during 

the surveys, Tsitongambarika could potentially 

support two enigmatic bird taxa collected in the 

Tolagnaro area during the first half of the 20th 

century: Coua cristata maxima and Hypositta perdita. 

The former taxon was collected in humid forest near 

Tolagnaro in 1948 (Milon 1952). It was described as 

a new subspecies of Crested Coua (Milon 1950), from 

which it differs in terms of size and plumage 

coloration. The precise taxonomic status of the form 

is open to question, however, as it may possibly 

represent a full species or, even, a hybrid between 

Crested Coua and another coua species. A series of 

avifaunal surveys of south-eastern Madagascar 

conducted between 1983 and 1995 failed to record 

anything resembling C. c. maxima (Goodman et al. 

1997), as a result of which Goodman and Wilmé 

(2003) concluded that “the remaining forest blocks 

surrounding [Tolagnaro] are ornithologically well 

known, and it is certain that this form is extinct”. 

However, these surveys did not cover the 

Tsitongambarika forests, which, given what is known 

about the collecting locality of C. c. maxima, could 

conceivably still support the taxon. 

Peters (1996) described Hypositta perdita from two 

specimens collected by Bluntschli in 1931 near 

Eminiminy village, outside of Andohahela National 

Park. The specimens are juveniles, and several 

authorities (e.g. Goodman et al. 1997, Schulenberg 

2003) have speculated that they might represent the 

as-yet-undescribed juvenile of the congeneric 

Nuthatch Vanga. However, major differences in foot 

morphology render this hypothesis unlikely. If 

Hypositta perdita does represent a separate species, it 

is plausible that it still occurs at Tsitongambarika. 

ANTS 

Outside of the framework of the BirdLife 

International-coordinated surveys, an ant survey of 

Ivohibe Forest in Tsitongambarika III was conducted 

in December 2006 by scientists from California 

Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Madagascar 

14 


Biodiversity Centre (MBC) of Parc Tsimbazaza. The 

results indicate that Ivohibe Forest has good 

ecosystem health, with high species richness and 

endemism. A total of 105 species were recorded, with 

two species, Camponotus MG038 and Pheidole 

MGs074, known only from this forest. One other 

species, Camponotus MG080, was discovered for the 

first time during this survey, although it has since been 

found at two other locations. Species composition 

changes over an elevation gradient between 200 and 

650 m asl, making it important to conserve forests at 

different elevations if the full diversity of ant species 

is to be conserved. 

CAS and MBC scientists have conducted arthropod 

inventories at over 175 sites across Madagascar, in all 

habitats and geological formations found on the island. 

These surveys allow the results of the December 2006 

survey to be analysed in context. Overall, the results 

demonstrate that Ivohibe Forest has high conservation 

importance at both regional and national levels. In 

particular, compared with nearby forests, where 

selective logging has degraded the majority of the forest 

and facilitated the arrival of invasive ant species, 

Ivohibe Forest is in a pristine condition, with 

disturbance limited to the forest edge. No invasive ant 

species were collected at Ivohibe. 

OTHER VALUES OF THE 

TSITONGAMBARIKA FORESTS 

In addition to their intrinsic biodiversity values, the 

Tsitongambarika forests are an important source of 

ecosystem goods and services. First of all, they are 

an important source of forest products, including 

firewood, charcoal, construction materials, bushmeat, 

Flagellaria indica lianas and Ravenala 

madagascariensis leaves. In the context of a largely 

subsistence economy with a high incidence of poverty, 

local communities exhibit a high level of dependence 

on forest products to meet their daily needs. Loss and 

degradation of forests has, therefore, major 

implications for the livelihoods of local people. 

Second, the Tsitongambarika forests are expected 

to play an important role in assisting the regeneration 

and restoration of littoral forests on Rio Tinto 

QMM’s mining leases. Recent studies show that, 

during the first succession stages following mining, 

frugivorous birds and fruit bats will be of great 

importance in dispersing pioneer and heliophilic 

species (Bollen and Donati 2006). In addition, fruit 

bats have been shown to be responsible for over 50% 

of the pollination within and around the conservation 

zones established by Rio Tinto QMM. It is significant, 

therefore, that almost all fruit bat roost sites close to 

the Rio Tinto QMM mining leases are located within 

or close to the Tsitongambarika forests, which also 

support large populations of frugivorous birds, such 

as pigeons, parrots and bulbuls. 

Third, the Tsitongambarika forests have a 

catchment protection function of potentially major,

albeit unquantified, economically importance. The 

forests protect the catchments of two of the Anosy 

region’s major rivers: the Manampanihy (which 

drains north-east and enters the sea at Manantenina) 

and Efaho (which drains south and meets the sea west 

of Tolagnaro). These rivers and their tributaries are 

the main source of water for irrigation (essential for 

paddy rice cultivation) and domestic use for rural 

communities in the east of the region. In addition, 

the forests of Tsitongambarika I protect the water 

sources of the Lakandava pumping station and 

Lanirano Lake, which provide, respectively, 75% and 

25% of the water for Tolagnaro town. 

SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION 

Most of the local inhabitants living in and around 

the Tsitongambarika forests belong to the Antanosy, 

the majority ethnic group in Anosy Region. However, 

some communities on the eastern side of the 

Vohimena mountains originate from coastal areas to 

the north of Anosy Region, while some communities 

in Ranomafana valley, to the west of the mountains, 

belong to the Betsileo and Bara ethnic groups, which 

originate from the Malagasy highlands. These 

inhabitants have been joined by recent waves of 

immigrants from the south of Madagascar, who 

mainly belong to the Antandroy ethnic group. 

The local economy is largely subsistence-based. 

Local villagers cultivate food crops, such as rice, 

manioc (cassava), taro, yam and plantain, as well as 

varying amounts of cash crops, such as coffee, sugar 

cane, banana and other fruits. Coffee was previously 

an important source of income for many households 

but it is now less important than in the past, due to a 

drop in price and deterioration of the transport 

infrastructure. Most rural households have small 

numbers of livestock, principally pigs, zebu and 

poultry. Lobster fishing is an important source of 

income for many households, particularly those on 

the eastern (seaward) side of the Vohimena 

mountains, and has been reported to reduce 

communities’ dependence on forest resources. 

Hunting is practiced by a significant proportion 

of households, at least on an occasional basis. The 

main target species include lemurs, pigeons and fruit 

bats. There are some indications, however, that 

hunting at Tsitongambarika may be lower than 

elsewhere in Madagascar. For example, Brown Mesite 

(a target species for hunters throughout its range) is 

relatively common at Tsitongambarika. This 

contrasts with the situation at Andohahela National 

Park, where Goodman et al. (1997) failed to detect 

this species during seven weeks of intensive fieldwork 

in humid forest in 1995. 

Although hunting is a concern, the most serious 

threat to the intrinsic and service values of the 

Tsitongambarika forests is deforestation, which is 

being caused by expansion of tavy (shifting 

cultivation, principally of manioc) and, to a lesser 


degree, unsustainable exploitation of fuelwood 

(firewood and charcoal). An analysis of forest cover 

change over the period 1990–2000 revealed a net loss 

of forest cover throughout the Tsitongambarika 

forests, especially in the north-east of Tsitongambarika 

III. Deforestation was concentrated at altitudes below 

800 m, which are the most suitable areas for shifting 

cultivation but, significantly, also the most important 

areas from a biodiversity conservation perspective. As 

a result, primary formations now tend to be 

concentrated in remoter areas, in the interior of the 

forest and at high elevations, particularly in rocky areas 

and on steep slopes. 

Local people report that expansion of shifting 

cultivation is being driven by shortage of irrigated 

rice land, declining agricultural productivity (due to 

a lack of fertilisers and drying up of water sources) 

and rapid population growth. The impact of shifting 

cultivation is compounded by the fact that cleared 

areas are generally not recolonised by forest, due to 

frequent fires. Local people report that deforestation 

is leading to low stream flows during the dry season 

and siltation of rice fields. Deforestation has also been 

reported to have negative impacts on water quality 

and sedimentation rates at the Lakandava pumping 

station, the main water source for Tolagnaro 

(Goodman et al. 1997). 

MANAGEMENT SITUATION 

The Tsitongambarika forests comprise three 

management units, with a combined area of 

67,703 ha. The southernmost units, Tsitongambarika 

I and II, were designated as Forêts Classées (Classified 

Forests) in 1965 and 1970, respectively. The 

northernmost unit, Tsitongambarika III, is 

designated as a Forêt Domaniale (Public Domain 

Forest). 

Beginning in 1999, management responsibility for 

Tsitongambarika I and II has been transferred to 

village associations (communautés de base, known as 

CoBas). There are more than 60 CoBas in total, 

covering the two forest management units, many of 

which have signed Transfer of Management (transfert 

de gestion) agreements with the Circonscription des 

Eaux et Forêts (regional Water and Forest Service of 

the Malagasy Government) in Tolagnaro for a period 

of three years. These CoBas have established 

management committees to oversee the 

implementation of the agreements but many of them 

are largely inactive and the government forestry 

service has limited capacity to support them. In 

Tsitongambarika III, Transfer of Management 

agreements are in process. 

In the absence of effective management, there are 

indications that pressures on the Tsitongambarika 

forests are increasing, due to population growth and 

depletion of fuelwood supplies elsewhere. There is a 

need, therefore, to strengthen management of the 

Tsitongambarika forests. 

15

RELEVANCE OF THE SURVEY RESULTS 

FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING 

The results of the surveys have relevance for 

conservation planning at sub-national and national 

levels. Tsitongambarika represents one of the last 

significant areas of lowland humid forest remaining 

in Madagascar, and the best remaining example of 

this ecosystem at low latitudes. Lowland humid forest 

is the most endangered vegetation type in 

Madagascar, and relatively little is included within 

the protected area system. In their review of 

Madagascar’s protected areas, Nicoll and Langrand 

(1989) calculated that only around 87,168 ha of the 

Eastern Domain (lowland dense forests) was included 

in protected areas, of which only an estimated 12,920 

ha was below 19°S, most of which was either heavily 

deforested or subject to continuing deforestation. As 

well as addressing a gap in the coverage of the national 

system, protection of Tsitongambarika forests in 2008 

has helped to fill gaps in the protected area coverage 

of Anosy Region. Because of the larger area of humid 

forest at low elevations, the habitat coverage of 

Tsitongambarika is complementary to that of 

Andohahela National Park, to which it is connected 

by a corridor of forest. Moreover, the preliminary 

results of the recent biological surveys indicate that, 

at least for some groups (e.g. plants, amphibians, 

reptiles and ants), there are significant differences in 

community composition between Tsitongambarika 

and Andohahela, with the former site potentially 

supporting a number of localised endemics. 

DIRECT PAYMENTS PROJECT 

In order to address pressing conservation issues on the 

ground, BirdLife International and Asity Madagascar 

16 


began implementing the Tsitongambarika Watershed 

Management Project in November 2006, with funding 

from Rio Tinto. This project combines participatory 

monitoring and direct payment approaches to promote 

more sustainable management of forest and forest 

resources among targeted communities. In this regard, 

the project draws on the experience of Durrell Wildlife 

Conservation Trust, which has had significant 

successes in Alaotra and Menabe using communitybased 

ecological monitoring competitions. 

The project was piloted in two villages in 2007, 

and was expanded to six villages in the two following 

years. In each pilot village, an initial period of 

awareness-raising is followed by participatory 

mapping with local communities, to map out forest 

areas with different management objectives (e.g. 

conservation, rehabilitation, sustainable use). This 

mapping is based upon the existing Transfer of 

Management agreements. The next stage is to assist 

the communities to select and monitor key indicators 

of biodiversity and ecosystem health (e.g. abundance 

of key species, number of cut stumps per hectare, area 

burnt per annum). The monitoring results are then 

presented at community festivals, where prizes are 

awarded in the form of money to be dedicated to 

development projects chosen by the community. 

Larger prizes are awarded if the state of the forest 

and its wildlife populations are shown to increase or 

if pressures are shown to decrease. The festivals 

introduce a competitive element among villages, 

thereby providing a further incentive for good 

environmental performance. If this pilot phase is 

successful (it continues at the time of writing), it is 

hoped that the direct payments project can be 

extended into other villages around Tsitongambarika 

in the future, to provide a mechanism for sustainable 

development and community co-management of 

forest resources.


■ Chapter 2: THE FLORA OF TSITONGAMBARIKA 

FOREST 

RICHARD RAZAKAMALALA, JOHNY RABENANTOANDRO, PORTER P. LOWRY II, 

LALAO ANDRIAMAHEFARIVO AND CHRIS BIRKINSHAW 

INTRODUCTION 

As part of the Tsitongambarika Project, funded in 

part by QIT Madagascar Minerals (Rio Tinto 

QMM)/Rio Tinto, botanical inventory activities were 

carried out in technical collaboration with the 

Missouri Botanical Garden (MBG), Rio Tinto QMM 

and BirdLife International. These started in 

November–December 2005, focusing primarily on the 

forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe, with additional field 

work conducted in other parts of Tsitongambarika. 

This chapter focuses on the initial surveys in 2005, 

but includes results from later surveys to provide 

further detail across Tsitongambarika. 

OBJECTIVES 

The Tsitongambarika III forest botanical survey of 

2005 aimed to: 

1. Carry out a botanical inventory of one of the most 

poorly known areas of Tsitongambarika and of 

Madagascar as a whole; 

2. Compare species richness and local endemism in 

the study area with those of other low- to midelevation 

humid forests in Madagascar; 

3. Assess pressures on and threats to the native 

vegetation of Tsitongambarika. 

STUDY SITE 

The Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest is part of the larger 

Tsitongambarika III Forest, which is situated in the 

Anosy Region, Iabakoho Commune, Antsotso Area, 

located to the west of PK 65 on the National Road 

12A to the North of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). The 

eastern boundary of the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest 

is located at 24º563.73 S, 047º204.44 E, about 5.5 km 

from the east coast and 3.6 km from National Road 

12A, making it quite easy to access. Altitude of the 

forest ranges from about 90 to 440 m. 

METHODOLOGY 

An inventory of all plant species encountered with 

flower and/or fruit (required for accurate 

identification) in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest was 

conducted using the standard protocol for botanical 

sampling developed and adopted by MBG. For every 

collection made, four or five individual pressed 

herbarium specimens were made for distribution to 

the major institutions with significant holdings of 

material from Madagascar (including the two main 

herbaria in Madagascar, the Missouri Botanical 

Garden, and the Muséum National d’Histoire 

Naturelle in Paris) and to international specialists 

working at other institutions. The wide distribution 

of duplicate specimens is important for ensuring 

accurate identification of collections and greatly 

facilitates the recognition of species new to science. 

RESULTS 

■ Flora 

To date more than 75 days of botanical inventory work 

have been carried out in the Bemangidy-Ivohibe Forest 

and other sites in Tsitongambarika. The field teams 

have made nearly 2,000 collections representing nearly 

600 species in 366 genera and 121 families, suggesting 

that the total flora of Tsitongambarika probably 

includes well over 1,000 species. Identification of recent 

collections, as well as some problematic specimens 

made over the last several years, is pending and will 

require comparison with the material in the Paris 

herbarium, which has by far the most complete 

representation of the Malagasy flora. 

Historically very few collections had been made 

at Tsitongambarika, but what little was known of the 

flora hinted at its richness and local endemism, as 

exemplified by Ixora bemangidiensis, collected in the 

1960s. The identification of the recent collections 

made to date has confirmed that this area indeed has 

a remarkable flora, with higher species diversity and 

a greater concentration of local endemics than was 

ever imagined. Current data (Table 1) indicate a total 

of 20 confirmed species new to science discovered 

during recent inventory work, and an additional 28 

possible or probable new species, joining 19 

previously described local and regional endemics— 

astonishing figures, even for a biodiversity-rich 

country such as Madagascar. The inventory work has 

also identified several species known to occur in the 

littoral forests of the Rio Tinto QMM mine site, in 

particular those at Sainte Luce. 

■ Vegetation and threats 

The main type of primary vegetation at 

Tsitongambarika is low- and mid-altitude humid 

forest, an increasingly rare vegetation type that is 

particularly threatened in Madagascar. Ivohibe Peak, 

17

18 

Map 2. Plant survey sites 

Tsitongambarika Forest, Madagascar

Table 1. Endemic plants of Tsitongambarika 


Taxon Collection number(s) from Tsitongambarika Endemicity 

New species awaiting publication (20 species) 

Croton “daphniphyllum” Radel, ined. Razakamalala 4339 Local 

Diospyros “bemangidiensis” G.E. Schatz & Lowry, ined. Lowry 6735 Local 

Diospyros “Sclerophylla group” sp. 14, ined. Rajoharison 118 Local 

Ivodia “anosiensis” Rabarimanarivo et al., ined. Rajoharison 185, Lowry 6679, 6725, 

Razakamalala 2316, 2594 

Local 

Hyperacanthus “rajeriarisoniae” Rakotonas. & A.P. Davis, ined. Razakamalala 4252 Local 

Hyperacanthus “gereaui” Rakotonas. & A.P. Davis, ined. Razakamalala 4221 Local 

“Lowryanthus” Pruski, ined. Lowry 6648, Antilahimena 4801, 


Local 

Polyscias “bemangidiensis” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Birkinshaw 1621, Lowry 6701, 6704, 6705, 7171, 


Local 

Polyscias “ericii” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Antilahimena 4833, 4862, Lowry 6702, 

Rabenantoandro 1894, Randriantafika 875, 

Razakamalala 4095 

Local 

Polyscias “manonae” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 6777, 7140, 7163, Rabenantoandro 1879 Local 

Polyscias “purpuristyla” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 7161, 7168 Local 

Polyscias “urceolata” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 7145, Rabenantoandro 1893, 

Rajoharison 200, Randriantafika 908, 

Razakamalala 2443, 3841, 3857, 4078, 4087, 

Ramison 580 

Local 

Schefflera “vohimensis” Lowry & G.M. Plunkett, ined. Lowry 6703, 7142, 7156, 7157, 

Rabenantoandro 1908, Randriantafika 897, 


Local 

Schizolaena “charlotteae” Lowry et al., ined. Service Forestier 28662, Ramison 581, 

Antilahimena 5786 Local 

Schrebera “trifoliata” C. Frasier & G.E. Schatz, ined. Razakamalala 2681 Local 

Tsebona sp. nov. Lowry 6657 Local 

Dypsis sp. nov. 1 Rakotoarinivo 531 Local 

Dypsis sp. nov. 2 Dransfield 7791 Local 

Dypsis sp. nov. 3 Rakotoarinivo 538 Local 

Ravenea sp. nov. Dransfield 7786, 7787 Local 

Previously described locally and regionally endemic species (19 species) 

Buxus rabenantoandroi G.E. Schatz & Lowry Razakamalala 4156 Regional 

Centauropsis antanosii (Scott-Elliot) Humbert Razakamalala 4319 Regional 

Dombeya mandenensis Arènes Razakamalala 4329 Regional 

Garcinia dauphinensis P. Sweeney & Z.S. Rogers Razakamalala 4217 Regional 

Gnidia razakamalalana Z.S. Rogers Rabenantoandro 1725, 1912, 


Local 

Ixora bemangidiensis Guédès Service Forestier 22333 Local 

Leptolaena delphinensis G.E. Schatz & Lowry Razakamalala 4294 Regional 

Micronychia bemangidiensis Randrian. & Lowry Birkinshaw 1622, 1634 Local 

Barthlottia madagascariensis Eb. Fisch Razakamalala 4560, 5591 

Dypsis aquatilis Beentje Rakotoarinivo 539 Local 

Dypsis brevicaulis (Guillaumet) Beentje & J. Dransf. Rakotoarinivo 537 Local 

19

20 


Table 1 ... continued. Endemic plants of Tsitongambarika 

Taxon Collection number(s) from Tsitongambarika Endemicity 

Previously described locally and regionally endemic species ... continued 

Dypsis culminis Rakotoarin. & J. Dransf. Rakotoarinivo 532 Regional 

Dypsis elegans Beentje Rakotoarinivo 530 Regional 

Dypsis eriostachys J. Dransf. Dransfield 7783 Regional 

Dypsis nauseosa (Jum. & H. Perrier) Beentje & J. Dransf. Regional 

Dypsis prestoniana Beentje Regional 

Dypsis psammophila Beentje 

Dypsis saintelucei Beentje Rakotoarinivo 534 Local 

Ravenea hypoleuca Rakotoarin. & J. Dransf. 

Possible new species (28 species) 

Acalypha sp. nov. Randriatafika 811 

Acridocarpus sp. nov. Razakamalala 4585 

Ardisia sp. nov. Razakamalala 4180 

Brexia sp. nov. Razakamalala 4167, Randriatafika 911, Ramison 218 

Cremocarpon sp. nov. Rakotovao 5000 

Croton sp. 1 (= sp. nov?) Rajoharison 199, Razakamalala 2412, 2324, 3764 

Croton sp. 2 (= sp. nov?) Lowry 6767, Razakamalala 3928, 2426 

Croton sp. 4 (= sp. nov?) Rajoharison 226, Razakamalala 2668, 4005, 4133 

Croton sp. 6 (= sp. nov?) Razakamalala 3901 

Croton sp. 10 (= sp. nov?) Razakamalala 2351 

Elaeodendron sp. nov. Razakamalala 3939 

Galeola sp. nov. Razakamalala 3758 

Gravesia sp. nov. Razakamalala 5292 

Melicope sp. nov. Rakotovao 4975 

Noronhia sp. nov. Razakamalala 2565, Razakamalala 2666, 


Oncostemum sp. nov. 1 Ramison 622 

Oncostemum sp. nov. 2 Razakamalala 5055 

Payera sp. nov. Rakotovao 4375 

Polyscias sp nov. Rakotovao 4341 

Phyllanthus sp. nov. (= P. bemangidiensis??) Razakamalala 4170 

Rousseauxia sp. nov. Lowry 6734, Razakamalala 2420 

Tabernaemontana sp. nov. Lowry 6776, Razakamalala 2425, 3842, 3774, 

Randriatafika 597, Antilahimena 4807 

Thunbergia sp nov. Razakamalala 4283 

Trichilia sp nov. Rakotovao 4366 

Vernonia sp. nov. 1 Razakamalala 4179 

Vernonia sp. nov. 2 Razakamalala 4561 

Viguieranthus sp. nov. Lowry 6728, Razakamalala 2452, 2366, 3914, 

Antilahimena 4847 

Weinmannia sp. nov. Service Forestier 28664, CB 1653, Randriatafika 643, 

Razakamalala 3760, 3930, 4026 

Note: Local endemism refers to species known only from Tsitongambarika, whereas regional endemics are also known from nearby areas, such as 

Ste. Luce or Andohahela National Park.

Plates 4a and 4b. “Lowryanthus” ined., a new and 

endemic genus of Asteraceae, not yet described, 

discovered in 2006 in lowland rain forest at 

Bemangidy (PORTER P. LOWRY II) 

which culminates at 677 m, is still surrounded by a 

block of almost entirely intact forest estimated to 

cover about 27,000 ha. In the 1960s, a sawmill was 

operated at Bemangidy as part of a timber industry 

project (indeed, the word ‘Bemangidy’, meaning “very 

bitter”, corresponds to the old campsite of the 

sawmill). The vast areas of forest that were once found 

in northern Ivohibe and in the gently sloped areas 

around the old Bemangidy campsite have been 

completely removed and today these areas are covered 

with highly degraded and biodiversity-poor secondary 

vegetation. Until recently, slash-and-burn agricultural 

practices were ravaging the low altitude forest on the 

eastern edge of Ivohibe, but according to Mara 

Berge—our guide and also the current president of 


Plate 5. Polyscias “manonae”, a new, undescribed 

species of Araliaceae, discovered in 2006 at 

Bemangidy, of which only two populations are known, 

restricted to granite outcrops (PORTER P. LOWRY II) 

the local community forest management association 

(communauté de base, commonly known as a CoBa)— 

this activity has been reduced in recent years as the 

remaining forests, located on steep and rocky slopes, 

are harder to remove and it is easier to earn income 

from lobster fishing. However, if the prices offered 

for lobster drop or if lobsters become rare (due to 

overexploitation), the forests of Ivohibe will likely be 

subjected once again to intensive pressure from 

shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture. 

The village of Antsotso, directly to the east of 

Ivohibe, is settled essentially by fishermen who exploit 

lobsters, tuna and other commercial species from the 

sea. The forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe is primarily 

used by the local population for the selective 

harvesting of large trees more than 50 cm in diameter, 

which are prized for boat making. A boat made of 

Calophyllum inophyllum (known locally as vintagno) 

may be worth 300,000 Ariary (about $US 150, which 

represents a very significant amount in poor rural 

Madagascar). The forest also provides raw materials 

for making lobster traps, in particular the rachis 

(central axis) of the leaves of the Amboza palm and 

the trunk of Flagellaria indica (vahipiky). Logging for 

wood to construct huts and for other purposes has 

also been observed inside the forest, but at low levels 

that are thought to have very little impact on the 

structure and composition of the forest. 

21

Despite these pressures, the forest of Bemangidy- 

Ivohibe remains in good condition, and is 

characterised by a particularly rich flora with a high 

concentration of locally endemic species. The height 

and the diameter of the trunks of canopy trees (as 

exemplified by members of important timber genera 

such as Mimusops, Calophyllum, Symphonia and 

Uapaca) are particularly impressive. It must be 

noted, however, that in other parts of the Vohimena 

range, slash-and-burn agriculture is being practised 

in an increasingly intense way, and in some areas 

virtually no lowland forest remains, although other 

sites, such as Bevoay, located on the western 

slope directly across the range from Ivohibe, the local 

CoBa has successfully curtailed unsustainable shifting 

(slash-and-burn) cultivation and is keen to protect 

their remaining forests. 

CONSERVATION 

The long-term protection of the forest of Bemangidy- 

Ivohibe and other sites that still have large areas of 

forest at low- and mid-elevation should be integrated 

into the context of a broad programme of biodiversity 

conservation and sustainable natural resource 

management throughout the Vohimena range. This 

will require a programme of community-based 

conservation activities that are intimately linked to 

local development initiatives in order concurrently to 

achieve the twin goals of biodiversity conservation 

and improving the wellbeing of those living in the 

areas adjacent to new protected areas. Such a 

programme could include the following elements: 

1. Creation of new protected areas as part of 

Madagascar’s new initiative to expand the network 

of parks and reserves (known as the SAPM 

process), with the objective of protecting the most 

important parts of the remaining forest, which will 

without any doubt include Bemangidy-Ivohibe in 

the North; 

2. Sustainable management of forest in carefully 

managed buffer zones that are not included in the 

new protected areas; 

3. Restoration to maintain and reinforce forest 

corridors between blocks of intact forest and to 

facilitate the expansion of forest into abandoned 

agricultural land; 

4. Establishment of alternate sources of logs and 

firewood to reduce pressure on native forests. This 

22 


should involve planting fast-growing exotic species 

in abandoned areas in conjunction with 

reforestation of the anthropic grasslands focusing 

on native species; 

5. Support for farming and other development 

activities that can introduce substitutes for slashand-burn 

agriculture. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

In order to develop a conservation strategy for the 

Tsitongambarika Forest, we propose the following 

activities: 

1. Continue botanical inventory work throughout 

Tsitongambarika, focusing on those watersheds 

with large remaining areas of forest and where the 

local community has expressed willingness and 

interest in developing a strategy that incorporates 

biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of 

natural resources; 

2. Socio-economic diagnoses in these areas involving 

detailed discussion with the full range of local 

stakeholders, and where possible and appropriate, 

the development and implementation of a plan that 

includes a proposal to establish new protected areas; 

3. Research throughout Tsitongambarika to gather 

information for a detailed description of current 

conditions and to evaluate alternative management 

strategies to ensure effective protection and 

sustainability. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The botanical inventory work conducted to date, 

largely focusing on the humid low- and mid-elevation 

forest of Bemangidy-Ivohibe, has clearly shown that 

the flora of Tsitongambarika is exceptionally rich and 

has a high level of local endemism. This is without 

doubt linked to the continued existence of intact forest 

at very low altitude, extending to below 100 m in some 

places, a situation that appears to be virtually unique 

in southeastern Madagascar. The establishment of a 

new protected area at Bemangidy-Ivohibe, as part of 

a well-designed and carefully implemented 

community-based project, must be regarded as a high 

priority, and must be integrated into a broader 

initiative targeting the conservation and sustainable 

management of key parts of the Vohimena range.


■ Chapter 3: THE BATS OF TSITONGAMBARIKA 


TSIBARA MBOHOAHY 

INTRODUCTION 

There are now thought to be close to 40 bat species on 

Madagascar, 70% of which are endemic (Racey et al. 

2009). The three Malagasy Old World fruit bat 

(Pteropodidae) species are important seed dispersers 

and pollinators, which face growing threats from the 

demand for bushmeat and damage to their roosting 

habitats (e.g. Ranivo 2001, Bollen and Van Elsacker 

2002, MacKinnon et al. 2003, Andriafidison et al. 2006, 

Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). 

Madagascar’s diverse insectivorous bat fauna has 

associations with both Africa and Asia, and a number 

of new species have recently been described (e.g. 

Goodman et al. 2005b, 2006b, 2007, Bates et al. 2006). 

These bats are threatened by habitat degradation and 

some species are also hunted by people (Goodman 

2006). Only three insectivorous species (in comparison 

to all three fruit bat species) are considered of global 

consevation concern: Eptesicus malagasyensis 

(Endangered), Triaenops auritus (Vulnerable) and 

Hipposideros commersoni (Near Threatened). 

Bat conservation in Madagascar is in its infancy. 

Bats were omitted from many of the mammal 

inventories undertaken in the 1990s (e.g. Goodman 

and Rasolonandrasana 1999, Goodman and Wilmé 

2003) and have only relatively recently received the 

attention of biologists. None of Madagascar’s 

bats are protected under national wildlife laws (Durbin 

2007). Hunting is permitted between May and 

September for fruit bats, and between February and 

May for Hipposideros commersoni. The closed season 

is rarely respected, however, while the popularity of 

bat meat and the accessibility of bat colonies combine 

to result in high, and probably unsustainable, levels of 

hunting in some regions (MacKinnon et al. 2003). 

Bats spend the daylight hours in roosts, where 

they usually aggregate to form colonies. These sites 

are important for social contact, breeding and digestion 

(Kunz 1982). In Madagascar, they are also frequented 

by hunters or subject to other forms of disturbance 

from people (e.g. Jenkins et al. 2007, Rakotoarivelo 

and Randrianandriananina 2007). Because of the 

mobility of bats and their capacity for travelling long 

distances at night (particularly the Pteropodidae and 

Molossidae), roost sites are the obvious focus for 

abundance assessments and conservation efforts (e.g. 

Entwistle and Corp 1997, Entwistle et al. 1997, 

Sedgeley and O’Donnell 1999, Granek 2002). In 

Madagascar too, there have been calls for bat 

conservation to be focused on roost sites (Goodman 

et al. 2005a), and efforts are underway to protect some 

Pteropus rufus colonies in the Alaotra Mangoro Region 

(Jenkins et al. 2007). Malagasy bats roost in a number 

of different localities, either in cavities (caves, fissures, 

roof spaces of buildings, tree holes, etc.) or in foliage 

(suspended from branches, inside unfurled leaves, etc.). 

These features are not necessarily restricted to 

protected areas, and important roost sites are known 

to occur in areas without intact forest (e.g. Goodman 

et al. 2005a). The current expansion of Madagascar’s 

protected area system provides an ideal opportunity 

for bat roosts to be included within new conservation 

zones, even if the site, whether a small forest fragment 

or cave, is located outside of the priority forest areas 

for other animals and plants. 

This chapter presents the results of a short survey 

of the bat roosts in Tsitongambarika Forest of southeast 

Madagascar. Taxonomy and nomenclature here 

follow IUCN (2010), even though significant 

taxonomic changes continue to be made (e.g. see 

Goodman and Ranivo 2009 for a description of 

Triaenops menamena, formerly considered to be 

T. rufus 1 ). Previous field studies in the south-east of 

Anosy region reported 12 bat species but only five of 

these were found in Tsitongambarika Forest, at two 

low elevation sites (Creighton 1992, Jenkins et al. 2007). 

The littoral forests between the foothills of 

Tsitongambarika Forest and the sea have been the 

subject of more intense surveys. In addition to the 

presence of insectivorous bat species like Myzopoda 

aurita and Hipposideros commersoni (Goodman 1999), 

these littoral forests also contain a number of Pteropus 

rufus roosts (Bollen and Van Elsacker 2002). Since 

there had been no previous survey of bat roosts in 

Tsitongambarika Forest, the survey reported herein 

sought to complement simultaneous surveys for other 

fauna and flora by searching for important bat roost 

sites for possible inclusion in the proposed 

Tsitongambarika protected area. 

OBJECTIVES 

The survey had three specific objectives: 

1. To locate bat roosts in and near Tsitongambarika 

Forest; 

2. To determine priority bat roosts for conservation 

and further study; 

3. To develop a framework for the inclusion of bat 

roosts within a new protected area. 

1 For consistency with the red list treatment (IUCN 2010), these animals are referred to as T. rufus here, although the new name 

should be used in future, including red list updates. Eds. 

23

24 

Map 3. Bat survey sites 


STUDY SITES 

The survey for bat roosts was conducted in all three 

sectors of Tsitongambarika Forest between 1 and 20 

December 2005 (Table 2). 

METHODS 

Survey effort was mainly restricted to sampling bat 

roosts. Mist nets at cave entrances, or direct 

observations within caves, were used (Table 3). Mist 

nets were occasionally placed across rivers in some 

sites. Surveys were undertaken with local guidance 

because most large bat colonies and roosts are known 

to local people. Local guides have been used 

successfully in the past in Madagascar (e.g. 

MacKinnon et al. 2003) and are the most efficient way 

of locating bat roosts in a short time. 

Identification was based on direct observation or 

after capture with mist nets. No voucher specimens 

were collected. The geographical location and habitat 

features of each roost were recorded, and an assessment 

of threats made. Bat abundance was counted directly 

(for Pteropus rufus) or estimated (for cave-roosting 

species). 

Table 2. Study sites for bat roost surveys in and 

around Tsitongambarika Forest 

Site Coordinates Nearest village Commune 

Ivohibe Forest 24°34’12”S 47°12’22”E Antsotso Iabakoho 

Volobe Forest 24°40’15”S 47°04’49”E Volobe Mahatalaky 

Ivorona Forest 24°50’18”S 46°56’44”E Ivorona Ifarantsa 


RESULTS 

Table 3. Geographical positions of all roosts visited during the bat survey 

The roosts of six bat species were located during the 

survey (Table 3), comprising three fruit bat 

(Pteropodidae) species and three insectivorous 

species. Fourteen roost sites were visited, of which 

11 contained bats and three appeared to have been 

abandoned (Table 4). In addition, a single Myotis 

goudoti (Vespertilionidae) was mist-netted in forest 

over a small river near Ivorona (24°50’12”S 

46°56’44”E) in Ifarantsa Commune. 

■ Roost type 

Seven roosts were located in caves, including all of 

the Emballonura atrata (Emballonuridae), Triaenops 

rufus (Hipposideridae), Miniopterus sp. (probably 

petersoni based on distribution) (Vespertilionidae) 

and Rousettus madagascariensis (Pteropodidae) 

colonies. A single Eidolon dupreanum (Pteropodidae) 

colony was found on a cliff face, and four Pteropus 

rufus roosts were found in forest fragments (although 

one of these, at Antranopanihy, was not within the 

boundary of Tsitongambarika Forest). 

■ Abundance 

Colony size was generally small for the insectivorous 

bats with no roost site containing more than 60 

individuals. Fruit bat roosts were larger, numbering 

in the hundreds for Rousettus madagascariensis and 

up to a thousand for Pteropus rufus. 

■ Threats 

The insectivorous bats roosted in small caves that 

were in relatively open, deforested areas. On-going 

slash and burn agriculture appeared to threaten two 

of these roosts through their proximity to land that 

is regularly burned. Two of the Pteropus rufus roosts 

Roost name Commune Location Dates visited Bat species 

Mahatalaky Ambolo Ifarantsa 24°49’15.6"S 46°56’27.8"E 1–7 December 2005 No bats 

Tafiandahy Ifarantsa 24°49’47.0"S 46°56’35.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Emballonura atrata 

Andriankolo Ifarantsa 24°51’42.2"S 46°54’55.9"E 1–7 December 2005 Emballonura atrata 

Anjoliky Ifarantsa 24°50’04.9"S 46°57’34.0"E 1–7 December 2005 No bats 

Ivolo (1) Ifarantsa 24°55’37.7"S 46°54’57.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Pteropus rufus 

Ivolo (2) Ifarantsa 24°55’37.7"S 46°54’57.5"E 1–7 December 2005 Pteropus rufus 

Angavobe Ifarantsa 24°56’10.8"S 46°54’18.8"E 1–7 December 2005 Eidolon dupreanum 

[No local name] Iabakoho 24°33’54.1"S 47°12’47.9"E 11–14 December 2005 Emballonura atrata 

Antranopanihy Iabakoho 24°37’08.0"S 47°13’58.5"E 11–14 December 2005 Pteropus rufus 

Antranokananavy Iabakoho 24°35’50.2"S 47°11’10.1"E 11–14 December 2005 No bats 

Andakato Iabakoho 24°33’28.7"S 47°12’30.2"E 11–14 December 2005 Emballonura atrata 

Manantenina Iabakoho 24°31’53.5"S 47°12’13.7"E 11–14 December 2005 Rousettus madagascariensis 

& Triaenops rufus 

Volobe Iabakoho 24°41’10.4"S 47°05’44.5"E 16–19 December 2005 Pteropus rufus 

Esiasia Mahatalaky 24°44’35.1"S 47°00’24.0"E 16–19 December 2005 Miniopterus sp. (probably petersoni; DD) 

25

were subject to hunting by people with guns, and the 

Rousettus madagascariensis colony was also exploited 

for its meat by farmers using a trap made with local 

plants (170 bats were taken by this method in a single 

day). 

■ Conservation 

The Eidolon dupreanum roost, by virtue of its location 

in a high rock face, appeared well protected. Two of 

the Pteropus rufus roosts were in sacred forests where 

hunting is prohibited. 

DISCUSSION 

The proposed new protected area at Tsitongambarika 

provides a unique opportunity to secure roosting 

colonies of bats, and the important ecological service 

they provide. This survey located 11 occupied bat 

roosts, including the first colonies of Rousettus 

madagascariensis and Eidolon dupreanum known to 

biologists in Tsitongambarika Forest. 

Four roosts of the small insectivorous bat 

Emballonura atrata were found during the survey. 

This species was once considered to occur throughout 

Madagascar but recent taxonomic studies revealed 

that it is restricted to the east, where it appears to be 

associated with relatively intact forest (Goodman et 

al. 2006a). This species was not recorded during 

surveys by Creighton (1992) but Peterson et al. (1995) 

noted its presence in the western Vohimena 

mountains. Triaenops rufus is a relatively widespread 

trident-nosed bat, more common in the west than in 

the east, but occasionally reported from Anosy region 

(Creighton 1992, Peterson et al. 1995). Miniopterus 

species and Myotis goudoti are common and 

26 


Table 4. Results of the survey of bat roosts in and around Tsitongambarika Forest 

Altitude Roost 

Roost name (m) type Habitat Protection Threats Bat species (and IUCN status*) Abundance 

Mahatalaky Ambolo 580 Cliff Agriculture None – No bats – 

Tafiandahy 220 Cave Humid forest None None Emballonura atrata 15–20 

Andriankolo 87 Cave Agriculture None Fire Emballonura atrata 10–15 

Anjoliky 410 Cliff Humid forest None – No bats – 

Ivolo (1) 73 Trees Humid forest Sacred forest None Pteropus rufus (VU) 1,000 

Ivolo (2) 73 Trees Eucalyptus plantation None Hunting (guns) Pteropus rufus (VU) 200 

Angavobe 343 Cliff Agriculture High position None Eidolon dupreanum (VU) 10–15 

[No local name] 227 Cliff Humid forest None None Emballonura atrata 10–20 

Antranopanihy 12 Trees Littoral forest None Hunting (guns) Pteropus rufus (VU) 100–150 

Antranokananavy 48 Cave Agriculture None – No bats – 

Andakato 226 Cave Agriculture None Fire Emballonura atrata 10–15 

Manantenina 143 Cave Agriculture None Hunting (traps) Rousettus madagascariensis (NT) 400–500 

& Triaenops rufus &

Pteropus rufus roost at Volobe, for example, had a 

small colony of bats but, as this site is a sacred forest, 

it may contain more individuals at different times of 

the year or in the future. 

Rousettus madagascariensis roosts in caves and, 

although they are frequently caught in nets by 

biologists, only a few roost sites are known 

(MacKinnon et al. 2003). The cave roost located in 

this study is, therefore, of major significance and 

requires protection. Cave-roosting bats are 

exceptionally vulnerable to hunting and, at 

Tsitongambarika, the Rousettus madagascariensis were 

reportedly collected at the roost entrance. It is unlikely 

that the colony could sustain the reported harvests 

unless there was movement and mixing with other, as 

yet undiscovered, roosts in the region. Being notably 

smaller than Pteropus rufus or Eidolon dupreanum, 

Rousettus madagascariensis is able to fly inside forests 

and appears to have a potentially unique role in 

pollination and seed dispersal. The Rousettus 

madagascariensis roost needs to be monitored and 

protected and a study conducted on the socio-economic 

value of the bat meat coming from it. 



1. Include the Ivolo, Vohidrahara, Volobe and 

Angavobe roosts within the new protected area at 

Tsitongambarika. 

2. Make visits every two months to each of the fruit 

bat roosts over a two-year period to provide a 

baseline for future monitoring and vital 

information on movement among roosts. 

3. Determine whether the communities at Ivolo and 

Volobe sacred forests require any assistance in 

maintaining current levels of forest protection. 

Possible activities include environmental education 

on bats in schools and villagers participating in 

bat counts. 

4. Conduct an assessment of bats as bushmeat in the 

area, to provide socio-economic information to 

inform future conservation plans to reduce or 

prohibit hunting. 

5. Visit insectivorous bat roosts twice a year. 

6. Continue to search for other bat roosts within the 

new protected area. 

27

OBJECTIVES 

A survey of lemurs of Tsitongambarika Forest was 

undertaken between 9 December 2005 and 14 January 

2006. The aims were to: 

1. Inventory the lemur species in Tsitongambarika 

Forest; 

2. Determine the relative abundance of the lemur 

species present; 

3. Identify sites of importance for lemurs (where 

conservation actions are required). 

STUDY SITES 

Study sites were chosen with reference to a 

cartographic map and by asking local authorities, 

such as the community forest management 

associations (communautés de base or CoBas), to 

indicate areas of forest that may provide suitable 

habitat for lemurs. Consequently, three sites were 

selected: 

1. Ivohibe Forest, near Antsotso Avaratra village, 

east of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Between 11 and 

19 December 2005, the survey team camped at 

24°34’12”S 47°12’23”E (altitude 148 m) and 

collected data along two transects located nearby 

(Table 5); 

2. Antsiriky Forest, in Mahatalaky Commune. 

Between 20 and 30 December 2005, the survey 

team camped at Analalava village (24°41’28”S 

47°01’30”E, altitude 306 m) and collected data 

along two transects about two hours’ walk away 

(Table 5); 

3. Ivorona Forest, in Ifarantsa Commune of Ivorona 

Sub-prefecture. Between 2 and 9 January 2006, the 

28 


■ Chapter 4: THE LEMURS OF TSITONGAMBARIKA 

FOREST 1 

MAMY JULIA CHRISTOBELLE RALAVANIRINA 

survey team camped at 24°49’25”S 46°56’56”E 

(altitude 284 m) and collected data along two 

transects about one hour’s walk away (Table 5). 

METHODS 

Table 5. Description of the study sites in Tsitongambarika Forest 

All data were collected in lowland humid forest 

(between altitudes of 87 and 420 m; Table 5). Inventory 

of lemurs was made by using a linear transect method 

(e.g. Ganzhorn 1994). At each site, two transects were 

selected. The survey team chose existing trails that had 

been created by villagers or wild boars, in order not to 

damage the forest ecosystem by creating new trails. 

Transects were selected along different topographies, 

including ridge crests and slopes, and each varied in 

length according to the forest condition. Transects were 

marked with coloured plastic flags at 20 m intervals. 

The surveyors halted at these points, to listen for lemur 

vocalisations. 

Day-time observations were made between 

06h30 and 11h30, and again between 15h00 and 

17h30. Night-time observations were made between 

18h30 and 21h00, with the help of a head torch, in 

order to locate nocturnal lemurs from eye-shine. Once 

animals had been located, more powerful torches 

(Maglites) and a pair of binoculars were used to 

identify the species. Each visit (day or night) lasted 

for two hours, and the surveyors walked at a very 

low speed (0.5km/h). 

Each transect was visited between two and four 

times for night-time observations, and from six to 

eight times for day-time observations, and efforts were 

made to cover each transect in different directions. 

During each visit (day or night), all lemurs seen or 

heard were recorded, noting the observation time, 

location, canopy height, the number of animals 

observed, the position relative to the trail (left or 

Site Coordinates Altitude (m) Transect (m) Habitat 

Ivohibe 24°33’00”S 47°11’42”E 87 960 Ridge crest, open canopy (12–15 m high), dominated by Uapaca sp. 

24°34’09”S 47°12’26”E 302 1,000 Slope, semi-open canopy, dominated by Uapaca sp. 

Antsiriky 24°41’30”S 47°01’33”E 340 1,000 Ridge crest, open canopy (4–8 m high) 

24°41’21”S 47°01’31”E 420 1,200 Slope, semi-open canopy (10–12 m high), presence of Uapaca sp. 

Ivorona 24°49’35”S 46°57’03”E 282 1,000 Ridge crest, open canopy 

24°49’32”S 46°56’59”E 300 1,000 10–15 m high canopy, understorey dominated by lianas 

1 Nomenclature and taxonomy of lemurs has changed very significantly in recent years. The text of this chapter follows the 

author’s own treatment. A note at the end of the chapter relates this to a recent treatment, widely but not universally accepted, 

with many more species recognised (Mittermeier et al. 2010). Eds.

Map 4. Lemur survey sites 


29

ight), the distance between the observer and the 

animal(s), and the behaviour of the animal(s). 

The linear transect method allows the relative 

abundance of each species inventoried per kilometre 

of transect walked to be calculated. At each site, other 

places away from the transects were also visited, in 

order to contribute additional presence-absence data 

on lemur species. 

For small nocturnal lemur species, a capturerelease 

method was also used. This involved installing 

Sherman traps baited with banana along each 

transect (Table 6). Traps were hung on trees, between 

1.5 and 2 m above the ground. Traps were placed at 

20 m intervals along each transect (or section of 

transect), and opened only from 17h30, because: 

(i) Small nocturnal lemurs do not start their activities 

until 18h00 onwards, so the scent of the banana 

should not be released until they come out; 

(ii) Capture of other small mammals and diurnal 

reptiles should be avoided as far as possible. 

Traps were checked early in the morning on the 

following day, and any small lemurs captured were 

brought to the camp site for measuring. After 

measuring, the animals were released very late in the 

afternoon at the place where they were captured. The 

capture-release method allowed identification of the 

lemurs captured. The survey period was too short and 

capture rates were too low to allow estimation of 

population size or density using this method. 

RESULTS 

■ Linear transect results 

During the survey of Tsitongambarika Forest, six 

transects were used. A total distance of 39.04 km was 

covered during day-time visits and 15.32 km during 

night-time visits. Two cathemeral species (species with 

irregular activity patterns) were recorded in 

Tsitongambarika Forest: Collared Brown Lemur 

Eulemur collaris (Vulnerable) and Grey Gentle Lemur 

Hapalemur griseus (Vulnerable). In addition, five 

strictly nocturnal species were recorded: Rufous 

Mouse-lemur Microcebus rufus, Greater Dwarf 

Lemur Cheirogaleus major, Eastern Woolly Lemur 

Avahi meridionalis (Data Deficient), Greater Sportive 

Lemur Lepilemur mustelinus (Data Deficient) and 

Aye-aye Daubentonia madagascariensis (Near 

Threatened). All of these species were directly 

observed, except D. madagascariensis, which was 

30 

Table 6. Number of Sherman traps used at each site 

Site Altitude (m) Transect (m) Number of traps 

Ivohibe 87 960 48 

302 1,000 100 

Antsiriky 340 1,000 100 

420 1,200 50 

Ivorona 282 1,000 100 

300 1,000 50 


recorded by observation of recent feeding signs and 

traces, and the presence of nests. 

Each site was found to support all seven lemur 

species recorded (Table 7). However, the sites differed 

in terms of relative abundance of different species 

(Tables 8 and 9). One site (Ivorona) appeared to 

support higher densities (individuals/km) of several 

species than the other two sites (Antsiriky and 

Ivohibe). 

The relative abundance of lemurs was greatest at 

Ivorona, and lowest at Antsiriky, where forest 

degradation was intense. At Antsiriky, a combination 

of forest exploitation and hunting appeared to be 

responsible for reduced abundance of lemurs. 

Microcebus rufus Rufous Mouse-lemur 

Microcebus rufus was observed at all three sites but 

was not recorded along the 420 m elevation transect 

Table 7. Lemur species recorded in lowland 

humid forest at Tsitongambarika 

Site Ivohibe Antsiriky Ivorona 

Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300 

Microcebus rufus + + + - + + 

Cheirogaleus major +* + + + + + 

Avahi meridionalis +* + + + + + 

Lepilemur mustelinus +* + +* + + + 

Daubentonia madagascariensis Tr Tr - Tr Tr Tr 

Eulemur fulvus collaris + + + + + + 

Hapalemur griseus + + + + + + 

Total species 7 7 6 6 7 7 

Notes: + = species observed; +* = species recorded through 

vocalisation or information provided by villagers; - = species not 

recorded; Tr = feeding traces and/or nest present. 

Table 8. Average number of individuals 

encountered per km at night at each study site 


Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300 

Microcebus rufus 2.08 2 2 0 4 1 

Cheirogaleus major 0 0.75 0.5 0.8 3.5 2.33 

Avahi meridionalis 0 0.5 1 1.66 6 1.66 

Lepilemur mustelinus 0.5 0.5 0 0.41 3 1 

Total species 2 4 3 3 4 4 

Table 9. Average number of individuals encountered 

per km during the day-time at each study site 


Altitude (m) 87 302 340 420 282 300 

Eulemur fulvus collaris 1.30 2.50 0.83 0.69 2.60 0.16 

Hapalemur griseus 0.78 0.25 0.33 0.13 1.60 0.60 

Total species 2 2 2 2 2 2

at Antsiriky. The relative abundance of M. rufus 

calculated by the linear transect method ranged from 

0–4 individuals/km across the six transects, with a 

maximum along the 282 m elevation transect at 

Ivorona. It is a very active species, seen everywhere 

but preferring lianas. 

Cheirogaleus major Greater Dwarf Lemur 

Cheirogaleus major was recorded at all three sites. The 

relative abundance of C. major ranged from 0 to 3.5 

individuals/km across the six transects; most 

abundantly at Ivorona. In general, this is a solitary 

species, which runs along large branches and jumps 

rarely. 

Avahi meridionalis Southern Woolly Lemur 

While Avahi meridionalis was relatively scarce at two 

study sites (Ivohibe and Antsiriky), it was the 

commonest lemur species encountered in Ivorona 

Forest, with a relative abundance of 6 individuals/ 

km along the 282 m elevation transect. During the 

day, two adult and one juvenile A. meridionalis were 

seen at their nest in Ivorona Forest. 

Plate 6. Southern Woolly Lemur Avahi meridionalis 

(Data Deficient) (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY) 


Plate 7. Greater Sportive Lemur Lepilemur mustelinus 

(Data Deficient) (ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY) 

Lepilemur mustelinus Greater Sportive Lemur 

Lepilemur mustelinus was the least abundant of the 

four nocturnal lemur species observed during the 

survey. At Ivorona, L. mustelinus was found in a 

tree hole (nest) during the day, with the entrance of 

the hole displaying their teeth marks. At night, 

L. mustelinus can be difficult to distinguish from 

A. meridionalis, if animals are high in trees. 

Eulemur collaris Collared Brown Lemur 

Eulemur collaris is a cathemeral species, which exhibits 

sexual dimorphism. It was usually encountered in 

groups, except along the 300 m elevation transect at 

Ivorona, where only a single male was found. The 

relative abundance of E. collaris was lowest at 

Antsiriky, where hunting appeared to be very intense. 

Away from the transects, a total of 46 individuals were 

observed incidentally at the three sites. 

Hapalemur griseus Grey Gentle Lemur 

Hapalemur griseus is a small lemur that is very active 

in the early morning and late afternoon. At 

Tsitongambarika, it generally frequents areas of 

shifting cultivation, where it feeds on rice and coffee. 

For this reason, H. griseus was recorded infrequently 

along the transect lines, with relative densities ranging 

from 0.13–1.16 individuals/km. 

Daubentonia madagascariensis Aye-aye 

Daubentonia madagascariensis was not observed 

directly during the survey. However, the species was 

recorded at all three study sites on the basis of recent 

feeding traces and the presence of nests. Several tree 

trunks or bamboos hollowed out by the animal’s teeth 

were observed. Many traces of this species were found 

at Ivohibe. 

■ Capture-release results 

Only one species, Microcebus rufus, was captured with 

the help of Sherman traps. The number of individuals 

31

captured was very low, and even zero at Antsiriky 

(Table 10). This low capture rate can be explained by 

the fact that natural food sources (fruit, insects, etc.) 

were abundant during the time of the survey, so 

animals were not attracted to the traps. Five 

individuals were trapped at Ivohibe, among which was 

a pregnant female. 

■ Incidental observations 

A number of incidental observations were made away 

from the linear transects. At Ivohibe, the survey team 

encountered three groups of Eulemur collaris, totalling 

12 individuals, plus two groups of Hapalemur 

griseus, totalling five animals. Encounter rates at 

Antsiriky, were similar, with two groups of E. collaris, 

totalling 10 individuals, and two groups of H. griseus, 

totalling five individuals, being observed. At Ivorona, 

significantly more incidental sightings of cathemeral 

lemurs were made; the survey team encountered 

four groups of E. collaris, composed of 24 individuals, 

as well as six H. griseus. These observations 

reinforced the findings from the linear transects that 

Ivorona Forest, among the three study sites, supports 

the highest lemur densities, with Ivohibe ranked 

second. 

Microcebus rufus, Eulemur collaris and Avahi 

meridionalis females with babies were often 

encountered during the survey. This suggests that the 

months of November and December are the breeding 

period for these lemur species at Tsitongambarika. 

■ Human pressures 

The human pressures (threats) on lemur populations 

and their habitats that were identified during the 

survey include: hunting, wood-cutting and shifting 

(slash-and-burn) cultivation (tavy). These pressures 

were found to be more intense at Ivohibe and 

Antsiriky than at Ivorona, perhaps accounting for 

the higher lemur densities at the latter site. 

Some local people reported that they hunted large 

lemurs for adding flavour to the stock that they 

prepared food with. Specialised lemur traps were seen 

during the survey. The protection of lemurs from 

hunting is an important step for conservation of 

biodiversity in the Anosy region. 

Local people practice shifting cultivation for 

growing coffee, bananas and other crops. Villagers 

reported that their objective was to get good yields 

and that, moreover, they did not have enough fertile 

land suitable for fixed cultivation. The practice of 

shifting cultivation appears to be resulting in soil 

erosion and deforestation. As well as practising 

shifting cultivation, villagers cut trees for a 

32 

Table 10. Capture/release results in the three sites 

Site Traps used Microcebus rufus captured 

Ivohibe 148 5 

Antsiriky 150 0 

Ivorona 150 1 


number of reasons, including the manufacture of 

fishing boats. 

DISCUSSION 

During the survey, seven lemur species were recorded. 

The composition of the lemur community of 

Tsitongambarika Forest is very similar to that of the 

nearby Andohahela National Park. The humid forest 

sector of Andohahela National Park (Parcel I) 

supports eight species of lemur (Feistner and Schmid 

1999), including all seven species found at 

Tsitongambarika. This indicates that there is no 

ecological barrier between the two forests; indeed, 

they are connected by a corridor of forest. Only one 

species is known from Andohahela Parcel I but not 

from Tsitongambarika: Fork-marked Lemur Phaner 

furcifer. Feistner and Schmid (1999) reported that 

they heard the call of this species only at an altitude 

of 1,500 m. Because the survey of Tsitongambarika 

focused on lowland humid forest (below 420 m), it is 

quite possible that Tsitongambarika supports P. 

furcifer at higher elevations. 

A comparison of the relative densities of lemur 

species at the three survey sites with those at 

Andohahela reveals that lemur densities at lower at 

Tsitongambarika. This is understandable, given that 

Tsitongambarika Forest is currently unprotected. 

Within Tsitongambarika, relative abundance of 

lemurs appears to be low in Ivohibe Forest and very 

low in Antsiriky Forest. Differences in the type and 

intensity of human pressures among the three study 

sites seem to explain these differences in relative lemur 

abundance. 

Recorded lemur species richness in 

Tsitongambarika Forest (only seven species) is low 

compared with that of the other humid forests. For 

example, 13 lemur species have been recorded at 

Andringitra Nature Reserve (Sterling and Ramaroson 

1996), 12 species have been recorded at Ranomafana 

National Park (Mittermeier et al. 1992), 10 species 

have been recorded at Anjanaharibe-Sud Special 

Reserve (Schmid and Smolker 1998), 11 species have 

been recorded in Zahamena Reserve, and 10 species 

have been recorded on the Masoala Peninsula 

(Sterling and Rakotoarison, 1998). 

The low richness of diurnal lemur species in 

Tsitgongambarika Forest can be partly explained by 

the low number of Hapalemur species. Only one 

species of Hapalemur was recorded at 

Tsitongambarika, compared with three species at 

Andringitra. Another factor was the absence of any 

strictly diurnal lemur species. For example, the Group 

for Study and Research on the Primates (Groupes 

d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Primates; GERP) 

of Madagascar confirmed that the humid forests of 

Maromizaha and Ambato (Moramanga) support 

four strictly diurnal lemur species: Indri Indri indri, 

Red-bellied Lemur Eulemur rubriventer, Black-andwhite 

Ruffed Lemur Varecia variegata variegata and

Diademed Sifaka Propithecus diadema (GERP 2003). 

None of these species was observed at 

Tsitongambarika. The geographical distribution of 

Eulemur rubriventer and Varecia variegata is limited 

to the south by the Mananara River, that of Indri 

indri by the Mangoro River, and that of Propithecus 

diadema by Andringitra National Park and the 

Rienana River. 

CONCLUSIONS 

All seven lemur species recorded during the survey 

were found at all three study sites but at different 

relative abundances. The variation in abundance may 

be due to a combination of two pressures: forest 

destruction and hunting. Eulemur collaris seems to 

be the most susceptible to these threats, followed by 

Hapalemur griseus, Avahi meridionalis and Lepilemur 

mustelinus. The pressures with the most irreversible 

impacts are wood cutting and clearance of forest 

through shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation, because 

these totally remove lemurs’ forest habitats. 

Although Tsitongambarika Forest does not 

appear to be as rich in lemur species as some other 

forests, it remains a high conservation priority 

because it includes a significant area of lowland humid 

forest, which supports two globally threatened lemurs, 

one Near Threatened and one Data Deficient lemur, 

as well as three other lemur species. 



1. All three study sites seem to require conservation 

action, as the relative abundance of lemurs appears 

low compared with other (protected) humid 

forests. 

2. Shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation is leading to 

deforestation and soil erosion. Local people should 

be taught different farming methods, and informed 

about the consequences of this harmful practice. 

3. To reduce the need for hunting to meet local 

people’s protein requirements, livestock-raising 

should be considered. 

4. The local population should be made aware of the 

need to protect the forest and its biodiversity, and 

more responsibility should be given to the local 

authorities. 

5. Ecotourism should be promoted as a source of 

income for local communities, and as an incentive 

for them to protect the forest. In this regard, 

Ivorona Forest has significant potential for 

ecotourism development, because it is the most 

accessible site for visitors from Tolagnaro, and the 

relative abundance of lemurs is still high compared 

with the other two sites. 

6. The results of the survey are not sufficient to 

precisely identify the most important sites for 

lemur conservation within Tsitongambarika 

Forest. Therefore, further studies should be carried 

out periodically, as in other protected areas. 

Editors’ note 

The following table assesses the likely identity of lemurs at Tsitongambarika, if the taxonomic arrangement of 

compares taxonomic treatment used in the field guide Lemurs of Madagascar, 3rd edition (Mittermeier et al. 

2010) were followed; IUCN adopts this taxonomy in threat assessment, and so threat categories are also given: 

VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Threatened; DD, Data Deficient; LC, Least Concern. 

Name used in this chapter 

Name used in Lemurs of Madagascar, 

3rd edition (Mittermeier et al. 2010), 

and IUCN 2010 threat level Notes from Mittermeier et al. (2010) 

Microcebus rufus Microcebus sp. No DNA studies carried out at Tsitongambarika; nearest animals 

Rufous Mouse-lemur unidentified mouse lemur tested (M. rufus) c.180 km away and unlikely to be same species. 

Cheirogaleus major Cheirogaleus major Animals from the “Vohimena mountains” i.e. Tsitongambarika 

Greater Dwarf Lemur Greater Dwarf Lemur (LC) specifically identified as C. major. 

Avahi meridionalis Avahi meridionalis 

Southern Woolly Lemur Southern Woolly Lemur (DD) 

Lepilemur mustelinus Lepilemur fleuretae Known only from Manangotry parcel of Andohahela National Park, 

Greater Sportive Lemur Andohahela Sportive Lemur (DD) and no other Lepilemur sp. is known in the region. Manangotry is 

contiguous with Tsitongambarika, so both may hold L. fleuretae. 

Eulemur collaris Eulemur collaris 

Collared Brown Lemur Red-collared Brown Lemur (VU) 

Hapalemur griseus Hapalemur meridionalis All Hapalemur in far SE Madagascar are mapped as this species 

Grey Gentle Lemur Southern Bamboo Lemur (VU) 

Daubentonia madagascariensis Daubentonia madagascariensis 

Aye-aye Aye-aye (NT) 

33

INTRODUCTION 

Reptiles and amphibians make up half of 

Madagascar’s vertebrate species, and are unique 

globally, with endemism of 95% and 99% respectively. 

235 amphibian and 370 reptile species are recognised 

for the island, not counting at least 150 new amphibian 

and 50 new reptile species discovered between 1994 

and 2007 but not yet described (Glaw and Vences, 

2007). The first studies initiated by Rio Tinto QMM 

(QIT Madagascar Minerals, QMM) to assess the 

effects of the implementation of its ilmenite project on 

the regional herpetofauna, in 1989 and 1990, showed 

that the Anosy region is one of special interest owing 

to the high degree of endemism and the presence of 

many amphibian and reptile species of conservation 

concern (Blanc 1985, Blommers-Schlösser and Blanc 

1991). The remaining forests of the Anosy region are 

subject to a diverse range of threats (Asity Madagascar 

2009), of which shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation, 

selective timber exploitation, charcoal production and 

hunting are the most important. The lowland rain 

forests, including those of Tsitongambarika, have been 

classified as one of the most threatened habitats in 

Madagascar and over 10% of the original extent of 

Tsitongambarika has been lost between 1999 and 2005 

(Andriamasimanana 2008, Asity Madagascar 2009). 

Knowledge of the distribution and status of the 

herpetofauna of Tsitongambarika dates back to 

surveys of Tsitongambarika I in 1990. More than a 

decade later, these were complemented by biological 

inventories of Tsitongambarika II and III. In the 2002 

rainy season, inventories were made at one site within 

Tsitongambarika II. In 2006, a further site in 

Tsitongambarika II and two sites in Tsitongambarika 

III were surveyed. Results from these surveys can be 

consolidated to provide a preliminary checklist of the 

herpetofauna of Tsitongambarika Forest, and 

compared with data from other sites in the Anosy 

region collected by QIT Madagascar Minerals SA over 

the last 15 years (Ramanamanjato 2007) and with the 

results of surveys by other scientists at Andohahela 

National Park. 

STUDY SITES 

Between 1990 and 2006, seven sites were visited inside 

Tsitongambarika Forest. These were all lowland 

humid forest sites, at elevations below 850 m: 

1. Manantantely, Lakandava and Farafara in 

Tsitongambarika I; 

34 


■ Chapter 5: THE HERPETOFAUNA OF 

TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST 

JEAN BAPTISTE RAMANAMANJATO AND SOANARY CLAUDE HERY 

2. Ivorona, and Maromoky in Tsitongambarika II; 

3. Ampasy and Ivohibe in Tsitongambarika III. 

■ Tsitongambarika I 

Herpetofauna inventories of three sites in 

Tsitongambarika I Classified Forest were carried out 

by Rio Tinto QMM in 1990 (Creighton 1992, 

Ramanamanjato 1993). Manantantely is situated on 

a south-facing catchment, 7 km from Tolagnaro (Fort 

Dauphin), while Lakandava is located on an eastfacing 

catchment, 10 km north of Tolagnaro. Both 

sites supported dense humid forest close to the 

transition zone between the dense humid forests of 

eastern Madagascar and the dry deciduous forests of 

western Madagascar. They experience marked 

seasonality, with a pronounced dry season. 

During the early 1990s, the forest at Manatantely 

and Lakandava played an important role in 

protecting catchments of streams and rivers essential 

for irrigated rice cultivation in Soanierana and 

Ampasy Nahampoana communes. Over the last 

decade, however, the deforestation rate has increased 

to 2.56% per year (Andriamasimanana 2008), mainly 

owing to shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation, 

extraction of construction timber and ebony (at 

Enato) and charcoal production (at Andranara). 

The village of Farafara is situated 23 km north of 

Tolagnaro, in Mahatalaky commune. The survey site 

was located nearby in Andohavolo Forest (24°50’42”S 

47°00’56”E), near the boundary between the classified 

forests of Tsitongambarika I and II. 

The Farafara survey site supports dense lowland 

humid evergreen forest with a closed canopy at 15– 

17 m (Ravelonahina and Ramarosandratana 2002). 

Several rivers have their sources in this forest before 

flowing north-east to the Indian Ocean, including the 

Antorendriky, the Mandromondromotra and the 

Anandrano. 

■ Tsitongambarika II 

Ivorona, located to the south of the Ebakika River, 

was surveyed in 2002 and Maramoky Forest, north 

of the Ebakika River but south of the Iaboakoho 

River, was surveyed in 2006. 

The village of Ivorona is located 24 km north-west 

of Tolagnaro, in Ifarantsa Commune. The survey site 

(24°49’36”S 46°57’05”E) was located 5 km north of 

Ivorona, in the southern limit of Tsitongambarika II. 

The site supports dense humid evergreen forest at low 

to medium elevations, with a closed canopy at 15–18 

m. It constitutes the only extant forest corridor linking 

Tsitongambarika Forest in the east with Andohahela 

National Park in the west. The Mamoareny and

Map 5. Herpetofauna survey sites 


35

Marohala rivers both have their sources in Ivorona 

Forest, the former flowing south and the latter northeast. 

Maromoky Forest is situated at the northern limit 

of Tsitongambarika II, between the Ebakika and 

Vatomirindry rivers. The site supports lowland humid 

forest, with a closed canopy which can reach 15–20 m 

high. River valleys are very degraded by agriculture. 

The eastern slope of this forest used—a long time ago— 

to be linked to Sainte Luce littoral forest 20 km away. 

Shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation is prevalent 

in Tsitongambarika II, and constitutes a major threat 

to the forest. A community-based forest management 

programme has been initiated among the local 

villagers. 

■ Tsitongambarika III 

The forest north of Tsitongambarika II, provisionally 

called Tsitongambarika III, stretches across 

Mahatalaky, as far north as Manambato. It is limited 

to the north and west by the Manampanihy River. In 

2006, an inventory was made at Ampasy and Ivohibe 

forests, respectively south and north of the Iabakoho 

River. Both are dense lowland humid evergreen 

forests at 80–400 m elevation with a closed canopy at 

12–20 m. The forest is under considerable pressure, 

particularly from shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation 

which is causing very serious habitat fragmentation. 

METHODS 

Pitfall traps and direct observations were used to 

inventory herpetofauna at each study site. For every 

animal observed or captured, the following data were 

recorded: date, location, habitat type, micro-habitat 

type and behaviour. 

Direct observation aimed to record the maximum 

possible number of species, focusing particularly on 

globally threatened and locally endemic species (i.e., 

those whose global ranges are entirely confined to 

south-east Madagascar). 

Systematic searches were made during the day and 

night of all locations where reptiles and amphibians 

were likely to hunt, shelter or breed, across all habitats 

and topography. A six volt head torch was used for 

night-time observations, in order to locate animals 

by their eye-shine (along transects, from nightfall to 

around midnight). 

At each site, two lines of pitfall traps were 

employed simultaneously, one in a valley and one on 

a hillside or ridge crest. Each trap line comprised 11 

15-litre plastic buckets, spaced at 10 m intervals. The 

buckets were set in the ground so that the brim was 

level with the ground, and were interspaced with a 

plastic fence, 50 cm high, constituting a barrier to 

animals and thus guiding them into the buckets. Trap 

lines were left functional for seven days in each 

location, and checked once a day. 

Where necessary, voucher specimens were 

collected for identification and to form a reference 

36 


collection. Collected individuals were anaesthetised 

with chlorotone before being fixed with a 10% 

formalin solution. Afterwards, they were transferred 

into an aqueous mixture containing 20% formalin. 

Voucher specimens were deposited at the Terrestrial 

Population Laboratory at the Department of Animal 

Biology of the University of Antananarivo. All 

animals not retained as specimens were released where 

captured. 

RESULTS 

In total, 126 species were recorded in 

Tsitongambarika, comprising 57 amphibians and 69 

reptiles (Table 11). The chameleon Brookesia nasus 

has also been recorded by others, bringing the total 

to 70 reptiles. The full list of species recorded during 

the surveys is presented in Table 12. Of these, 12 are 

thought to be endemic to the Anosy region, and six 

(four amphibians and two reptiles) are probably new 

to science. 

Table 11. Species richness per site 

Amphibian Reptile Total 

Site species species species 

Manantantely 30 36 66 

Lakandava 24 16 40 

Ivorona 28 35 63 

Farafara 26 33 59 

Maromoky 28 23 51 

Ampasy 31 20 51 

Ivohibe 30 27 57 

Total 57 69 126 

Figure 1 shows herpetological species-accumulation 

curves for each site. It appears that plateaux of 

discovery were reached at some sites (e.g. 

Manantantely) by the last survey day, but that at 

others (e.g. Farafara, Ivohibe) further surveys would 

have uncovered even more species. 

Figure 1. Herpetological species-accumulation 

curves for each study site


Table 12. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika 

TGK I TGK II TGK III 

1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN 

Species Manantantely Lakandava Farafara Ivorona Maromoky Ampasy Ivohibe sites status* 

AMPHIBIANS 

Agyptodactylus madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Anodonthyla boulengerii 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 

Anodonthyla nigrigularis 1 1 2 DD 

Blommersia domerguei 1 1 

Boehmantis microtympanum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 EN 

Boophis andohahela 1 1 2 DD 

Boophis brachychir 1 1 DD 

Boophis doulioti 1 1 2 

Boophis erythrodactylus 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Boophis luteus 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 

Boophis madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Boophis majori 1 1 2 NT 

Boophis miniatus 1 1 

Boophis opisthodon 1 1 1 3 

Boophis sp. n. 1 1 1 1 3 

Boophis sp. n. 2 1 1 

Gephyromantis asper 1 1 2 

Gephyromantis decaryi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 NT 

Gephyromantis eiselti 1 1 1 1 4 DD 

Gephyromantis klemmeri 1 1 VU 

Gephyromantis leucocephalus 1 1 1 3 NT 

Gephyromantis luteus 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Gephyromantis redimitus 1 1 1 3 

Gephyromantis thelenae 1 1 1 3 DD 

Gephyromantis ventrimaculatus 1 1 

Gephyromantis sp. n. 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Guibemantis bicalcaratus 1 1 2 

Guibemantis depressiceps 1 1 1 3 

Guibemantis liber 1 1 2 

Guibemantis tornieri 1 1 1 3 

Heterixalus boettgeri 1 1 1 3 

Laliostoma labrosum 1 1 

Mantella haraldmeieri 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 VU 

Mantidactylus aerumnalis 1 1 2 

Mantidactylus betsileanus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Mantidactylus biporus 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 

Mantidactylus curtus 1 1 

Mantidactylus femoralis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 

Mantidactylus grandidieri 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Mantidactylus aff. grandidieri 1 1 

Mantidactylus lugubris 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Mantidactylus majori 1 1 

Mantidactylus opiparis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 

Mantidactylus ulcerosus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Mantidactylus sp. n. 1 1 1 1 3 

Paradoxophyla palmata 1 1 

37

38 


Table 12 ... continued. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika 


1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN 


Platypelis grandis 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Plethodontohyla bipunctata 1 1 1 1 4 

Plethodontohyla inguinalis 1 1 1 1 4 

Plethodontohyla notosticta 1 1 1 3 

Ptychadena mascareniensis 1 1 1 1 4 

Rhombophryne allaudi 1 1 

Scaphiophryne spinosa 1 1 

Spinomantis aglavei 1 1 

Spinomantis bertini 1 1 2 NT 

Spinomantis brunae 1 1 EN 

Stumpffia sp. aff. tetradactyla “Southeast” 1 1 1 1 1 5 DD 

Total number of species per site 30 24 26 28 28 31 30 

REPTILES 

Acrantophis dumerili 1 1 VU 

Amphiglossus macrocercus 1 1 

Amphiglossus melanurus 1 1 1 3 

Amphiglossus ornaticeps 1 1 2 

Amphiglossus punctatus 1 1 

Amphiglossus sp. 1 1 

Bibilava lateralis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Bibilava epistibes 1 1 2 

Bibilava infrasignatus 1 1 1 3 

Brookesia nasus 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Brookesia superciliaris 1 1 1 3 

Calumma nasutum 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Compsophis boulengeri 1 1 2 

Compsophis infralineata 1 1 1 1 4 

Crocodylus niloticus 1 1 1 3 

Dromicodryas bernieri 1 1 1 3 

Ebenavia inunguis 1 1 1 1 4 

Furcifer balteatus 1 1 

Furcifer lateralis 1 1 1 1 4 

Furcifer oustaleti 1 1 

Furcifer verrucosus 1 1 1 3 

Geckolepis maculate 1 1 1 3 

Geckolepis typical 1 1 2 

Hemidactylus mercatorius 1 1 

Ithycyphus goudoti 1 1 1 3 

Ithycyphus miniatus 1 1 

Ithycyphus oursi 1 1 

Ithycyphus perineti 1 1 2 

Langaha madagascariensis 1 1 

Leioheterodon madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 4 

Leioheterodon modestus 1 1 2 

Liophidium rhodogaster 1 1 1 1 4 

Liophidium torquatum 1 1 1 1 4 

Liophidium vaillanti 1 1


Table 12 ... continued. Full list of amphibian and reptile species recorded at Tsitongambarika 


1990 1990 2002 2002 2006 2006 2006 No. IUCN 


Liophidium sp. n. 1 1 

Liopholidophis sp. n. 1 1 1 3 

Lygodactylus madagascariensis 1 1 1 3 

Lygodactylus miops 1 1 1 3 

Lygodactylus sp. 1 1 

Trachylepis elegans delphinensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Trachylepis gravenhorstii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Madagascarophis colubrinus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Madascincus igneocaudatus 1 1 

Madascincus melanopleura 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Micropisthodon ochraceus 1 1 

Mimophis mahfalensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 

Oplurus quadrimaculatus 1 1 1 1 1 5 

Paragehyra gabriellae 1 1 1 1 4 

Phelsuma lineate 1 1 1 1 4 

Phelsuma madagascariensis 1 1 2 

Phelsuma modesta 1 1 

Phelsuma quadriocellata 1 1 1 3 

Phelsuma sp. 1 1 2 

Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus 1 1 

Pseudoxyrhopus microps 1 1 1 3 

Pseudoxyrhopus sokosoko 1 1 

Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus 1 1 

Sanzinia madagascariensis 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 VU 

Stenophis arctifasciatus 1 1 1 3 

Stenophis betsileanus 1 1 2 

Stenophis gaimardi 1 1 

Stenophis guentheri 1 1 

Typhlops ocularis 1 1 

Uroplatus malahelo 1 1 

Uroplatus sikorae 1 1 1 3 

Zonosaurus aeneus 1 1 

Zonosaurus anelanelany 1 1 1 1 4 

Zonosaurus laticaudatus 1 1 2 

Zonosaurus maximus 1 1 1 1 4 

Total number of species per site 36 16 33 35 23 20 27 

Unrecorded potential species 

AMPHIBIANS 

Madecassophryne truebae EN 

REPTILES 

Calumma brevicorne 

Calumma gastrotaenia 

Calumma oshaughnessyi 

Phelsuma antanosy CR 

Phelsuma malamakibo 

Pseudoxyrhopus kely EN 

Uroplatus malama 

Notes:* Global IUCN Red List status: CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; DD = Data Deficient. 

Taxonomy and nomenclature follows Glaw and Vences (2007) and IUCN (2010). 

39

■ Notes on threatened and restrictedrange 

species 

Boehmantis microtympanum is a globally Endangered 

Anosy endemic frog. This species was found 

abundantly on rocks of watercourse or the rivers in 

the closed-canopy forest. It is active during both 

daytime and night and is abundant in 

Tsitongambarika. However, some streams harbouring 

this species are now deprived of water except during 

the rainy season, perhaps owing to habitat loss or 

climate change. 

Heterixalus boettgeri is known from only six sites. 

It was observed on the leaves of vegetation located at 

the forest periphery. 

Mantella haraldmeieri (Plate 8) is a globally 

Vulnerable Anosy endemic. It was only found in 

Tsitongambarika I during this study. Males called 

during the daytime. Its habitats comprise herbaceous 

plants and rocks by watercourses near or in the forest, 

including the Marohala River at Ivorona. In Farafara 

Forest, this species appears to be threatened by 

microclimate change. Some streams harbouring this 

species now lack water except during the rainy season, 

perhaps owing to habitat loss or climate change. 

Paragehyra gabriellae (Plate 9) is an Anosy 

endemic gecko restricted to rocks in the humid dense 

forest of Ivorona and Farafara, and may well be 

40 


globally threatened. It is a nocturnal species, staying 

in rocky cavities by day, and adheres its eggs to the 

underside of a sloping rock. Some rocks that provide 

shelter for Paragehyra gabriellae are exposed to sun in 

the study sites, owing to habitat loss. The species was 

discovered in 1990 during a study by Rio Tinto QMM 

in the forest of Ambatorongorongo and Manantantely 

(Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1994) and recorded again 

by Ramanamanjato in 2001 (Ramanamanjato et al. 

2002). 

DISCUSSION 

South-east Madagascar holds a remarkable variety 

of natural habitats ranging from evergreen humid 

forests to sub-desert spiny bush, including littoral 

forests, coastal areas and high mountains (Goodman 

et al. 1997). According to data collected by Rio Tinto 

QMM (in 1989/90 and from 1998 on), and by the 

World Wide Fund for Nature (in 1995), only the 

humid forest of the Anosy mountain chain holds a 

comparable total vertebrate species richness to 

Tsitongambarika. In Anosy, the majority of species 

are also reptiles and amphibians. 

To date, within Tsitongambarika, the most 

amphibian and reptile species have been recorded at 

Plate 8. Mantella 

haraldmeieri (Vulnerable) 


RAVOAHANGY) 

Plate 9. Paragehyra 

gabriellae 


RAVOAHANGY)

Ivorona and Manantantely. The former is a unique 

corridor between the Vohimena and Anosy mountain 

chains and the latter constitutes a rare example of 

remaining habitat on the southern slope of the 

Vohimena chain. 

Some similarities can be seen among the humid 

forests of the region: on the one hand between littoral 

forests (Mandena and Sainte Luce) and the forest of 

Tsitongambarika, and on the other between the Anosy 

and Tsitongambarika mountain chains. For example, 

Tsitongambarika shares 19 amphibian and 42 reptile 

species with the littoral forests. Now, however, habitat 

fragmentation has led to a long period of isolation of 

Tsitongambarika from other areas. For example, 

Farafara has no direct contact with Andohahela 

National Park and now only Ivorona links 

Manangotry and Tsitongambarika, with a corridor 

that is now only about 0.5 to 1 km wide. 

If such habitat loss and fragmentation continues, 

the endemic and characteristic species of the region, 

particularly lowland species, may well disappear soon, 

leaving predominantly generalists (Ramanamanjato 

2000) and increased numbers of invasive exotic species 

such as Rattus rattus (Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn 

2001). 

Lowland forest has been most reduced, then dry 

forest, mid-altitude humid forest, and littoral forest. 

From 1950 to 1995, the area of Manantenina, in the 

northern Anosy region was most impacted—losing 

19,052 ha of lowland forest through shifting (slashand-burn) 

agriculture—followed by Analamary, 

which lost 9,518 ha. Unfortunately, eight species 

endemic to the Anosy region are found only in 

lowland forest, often very locally (e.g. Boehmantis 

microtympanum, Mantella haraldmeieri, Paragehyra 

gabriellae, Phelsuma antanosy and Pseudoxyrhopus 

kely). Habitat loss may cause the extinction of these 

species (Ramanamanjato 2000, Ramanamanjato et 

al. 2002). 

Six apparently new species were discovered during 

surveys (two Boophis, one Gephyromantis, one 

Mantidactylus, one Liophidium and one 

Liopholidophis). These are, on current knowledge, 

endemic solely to Tsitongambarika. 

The rare snake Micropisthodon ochraceus was 

observed at Ivorona. It is a littoral forest species 

known previously from Mananara, Itampolo in 


Fénérive Est and Sainte Luce (Ramanamanjato 

unpublished data) and its presence in south-east 

Madagascar is a major range extension. Likewise, 

records of Ithycyphus perineti, known previously from 

the region of Perinet and Moramanga, from 

Tsitongambarika are the first in south-east 

Madagascar. The known distributions of Boehmantis 

microtympanum, Mantella haraldmeieri and 

Paragehyra gabriellae were extended northwards. 

These species are endemic to south-east Madagascar. 

A number of endemic species with very restricted 

distributions within south-east Madagascar were not 

recorded during surveys and may not occur at 

Tsitongambarika. These include Phelsuma antanosy, 

Phelsuma malamakibo and Calumma capuroni. The 

latter two remain known only from Andohahela 

National Park. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Twenty species of reptiles and amphibians, including 

12 found in Tsitongambarika, are not found anywhere 

in Madagascar except the Anosy region. Several of 

them are known only from two forest blocks totalling 

less than 10 km 2 . Moreover, little is known of the 

ecology and population dynamics of most of these 

species. This preliminary analysis shows the priority 

of lowland forest, of which the largest block is found 

in the Vohimena chain under 800 m. The restrictedrange 

species are sensitive to habitat changes, and 

even fragmentation of the Tsitongambarika Forest 

into three big blocks exposes several to risk. If habitat 

loss continues at its current speed, these Anosy 

endemic species may become extinct within the next 

ten years. 


The massif of Tsitongambarika should be included 

in the Madagascar protected area network to ensure 

sustainable management, with a core conservation 

zone, a buffer zone for sustainable natural resource 

exploitation and another zone for social and economic 

activities. The forest corridor of Ivorona should be 

included in the core conservation zone. 

41

OBJECTIVES 

Bird surveys of Tsitongambarika Forest had the 

following objectives: 

1. Make an inventory of the avifauna that 

complements past studies; 

2. Collect information on species that trigger 

Important Bird Area (IBA) status for 

Tsitongambarika: globally threatened species 

(IBA category A1), restricted-range species (IBA 

category A2) and biome-restricted species (IBA 

category A3); 

3. Identify priority sites for the conservation of the 

avifauna of Tsitongambarika Forest where 

ecological monitoring, forest restoration and 

ecotourism programmes could be initiated in 

future; 

4. Briefly describe the micro-habitats and sites that 

support important forest bird species, and identify 

threats to forest birds and their habitats; 

5. Propose measures for reducing these threats; 

6. Propose an ecological monitoring programme for 

priority sites identified. 

METHODS 

■ Inventory and census of forest bird 

species 

As the main objective of the survey was to compile a 

biological inventory, the approach adopted was to 

look for the maximum number of species present in 

the forest areas that were studied. To this end, the 

following methods were used in a systematic manner: 

observation of birds from visual detection, a fixed 

watch point and call playback. 

Recording of birds by visual detection is possible 

when the observer is armed with a prior knowledge 

of the type of habitat used by the species. Species are 

identified with the help of a pair of binoculars or by 

listening to their characteristic calls. Rates of 

detection can be increased by: locating roosting birds 

by the presence of excrement beneath them; locating 

nests; and using a prior knowledge of the stratum used 

by the species in the forest (e.g. forest floor, 

undergrowth, forest canopy, etc.). These approaches 

allow many species to be easily located within 

appropriate habitat, even if they do not vocalise. The 

inventory was timed to coincide with the breeding 

season of many forest birds. Systematic searches for 

active nests enabled detailed observations to be made 

42 


■ Chapter 6: THE BIRDS OF TSITONGAMBARIKA 


MARC RABENANDRASANA, MICHAEL RAMANESIMANANA, LOVAHASINA RASOLONDRAIBE, 

BRUNO RAVELOSON AND RIVO RABARISOA 

of breeding pairs building their nests, feeding young, 

and leading dependent young away from the nest. 

Fixed watch points involved the observer stopping 

at a point affording a view over a large area of forest, 

particularly including the tops of trees. This allows 

bird species flying above the canopy, such as swallows 

and birds of prey, to be recorded. The observer may 

stay at the watch point for period of time ranging 

from a few minutes to a few hours. 

Call playback involves playing back a species’s 

characteristic calls from a cassette-player, CD player 

or MP3 player and listening to hear whether any birds 

respond to the call of their own species. This method 

can be used to ascertain the presence of particular 

bird species within a habitat. It is important that the 

surveyor has prior knowledge of the calls of the birds 

being surveyed for. 

■ Other complementary inventory 

methods 

The aforementioned methods were complemented by 

identifying birds on the basis of traces left by them, 

such as feathers, nests or pellets of waste regurgitated 

by birds of prey. During visits to the forest, surveyors 

aimed to cover as large an area as possible, in order 

to look for evidence of birds. 

During each visit to the forest, the survey team 

noted the presence of other vertebrate taxa 

encountered, particularly lemurs, and made a general 

assessment of threats facing the habitat being visited. 

Conversational and indirect questioning surveys were 

carried out with guides, local authorities and some 

villagers, to collect further information on threats to 

bird species and their habitats. 

■ Additional data collection after the 

main survey 

Following the main survey in 2005–2006, additional 

data on the avifauna of Tsitongambarika Forest were 

collected during various conservation activities 

implemented by the BirdLife International 

Madagascar Programme, Asity Madagascar 

(formerly Asity) and Rio Tinto QMM (QIT 

Madagascar Minerals, QMM). These activities 

included participatory monitoring with local 

communities from Anka-Maromagniry and Enato 

villages on the eastern side of Tsitongambarika I (June 

and November 2007), a series of birdwatching events 

held in Ivorona Forest on the western side of 

Tsitongambarika I (November 2006 and October 

2007), and ad hoc observations made during visits by 

scientists and birdwatchers.

Map 6. Bird survey sites 


43

■ Evaluation of the relative abundance of 

forest bird populations 

MacKinnon lists 

Bird surveys were timed to coincide with periods of 

high bird activity: from dawn until 10h00, from 16h00 

until 18h00 and 19h00 to 21h00. The observer walked 

along a predetermined track at an average speed of 

about 1.5 km per hour. All species detected during 

the journey were recorded in the form of MacKinnon 

lists. Occasionally, bird calls were recorded or 

photographs were taken. 

MacKinnon lists were compiled by recording the 

first 10 species encountered (whether individually or 

in groups). Species encountered were only added to 

the list if they were not previously included on it, and 

a new list was started once the previous one contained 

10 different species. No fixed itinerary is followed or 

Location 

IVOHIBE FOREST 

Maximum elevation: 675 m 

Elevations visited: 87–307 m 

Campsite 1: 

24°34’11.7”S 47°12’22.9”E 

Located 2.5 hours’ walk west of 

Antsotso village 

Campsite 2: 

24°32’53.9”S 47°11’55.4”E 

Located 5 hours’ walk northwest 

of Antsotso village 

44 


set distance covered during the compilation of 

MacKinnon lists. However, it is necessary to avoid 

inventorying the same route twice, in order to avoid 

repeat counts of the same individuals. 

The MacKinnon list method was chosen because 

it offers a robust method for collecting data on the 

relative abundance of different bird species in forest 

habitats. However the method has some limitations. 

It is not a reliable method for collecting data on the 

relative abundance of nocturnal species or species that 

are particularly rare, shy or cryptic. Moreover, the 

method tends to over-estimate the relative abundance 

of species that are particularly vocal or conspicuous. 

Jaccard Similarity Index 

The Jaccard Similarity Index was chosen for studying 

the differences between the specific composition of 

the bird communities at pairs of sites. 

Table 13. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses of and threats 

to bird species and their habitats 

Description 

This site is an area of eastern evergreen forest located on a very uneven relief formed by hills and valleys. Slopes 

on the windward side of the mountain, located directly in front of the coastal area, support drier forest 

vegetation. Slopes on the more sheltered western side of the mountain are covered with very thick rainforest. 

The forest canopy is only half-closed along ridge crests and on the summits of hills. In basins and valleys, 

however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the herbaceous layer is not well developed 

and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead leaves. Dominant understorey species 

include: Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae), Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species belonging to the 

Poaceae family. 

The shrub layer is formed of shrubs and very dense young trees measuring 3–8 m high. The canopy layer is 

formed of big trees, exceeding 20 m in height. The following species are present: Travellers’ Palm Ravenala 

madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae), Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae), Calophyllum sp. (Clusiaceae), Faucherea sp. 

(Sapotaceae) and Uapaca sp. (Phyllanthaceae). The latter three species are more abundant in the eastern side of 

the visited area. In places, very dense creeping bamboo (Poaceae) entirely covers the big trees and forms an 

undergrowth that is often impenetrable. On tree branches in the canopy layer, some orchid species of the genera 

Asplenium and Bulbophyllum can be found. Mosses are rare on the trees and cover only a tiny part of the trunks 

and the branches. 

Uses of and threats to bird species and their habitats 

Uses 

• Collecting forest products (lianas) for the production of nets used by lobster fishermen; 

• Collecting medicinal plants and wild honey; 

• A community forest management association (communauté de base or CoBa) has recently been created to 

protect Ivohibe Forest, conserve biodiversity and support sustainable development. 

Threats 

• Selective logging for boat construction, particularly of Faucherea sp. (Sapotaceae) and Calophyllum sp. 

(Clusiaceae). Trees with slightly curved trunks are often the most highly sought after; 

• Five trees cut for boat construction were observed within the study site; 

• Collecting timber for house construction; 

• Clearing for shifting cultivation (or tavy). The most extensively cleared forest areas are located in the northeastern 

parts of valleys and hills with gentle slopes; 

• Poaching of terrestrial species. 

Bird species 

• Richness: 63 

• Madagascar-endemic species: 35 

• Threatened species: 2 

• Near Threatened species: 2

C 

Jaccard Similarity Index = 

N1 + N2 + C 

N1 : Number of species at site 1 

N2 : Number of species at site 2 

C : Number of species in common to both sites 

STUDY SITES 

The following sites were visited during the avifauna 

survey of Tsitongambarika Forest between 11 

December 2005 and 13 January 2006: 

1. Ivohibe Forest: located in the north-western part 

of Antsotso Fokontany in Tsitongambarika III. 

2. Tsitongambarika Pass: located along the trail 

between Androtsy and Mahatalaky Ambony in 

Tsitongambarika II. 

Location 

TSITONGAMBARIKA PASS 

(Andrasery and Etafaro Forests) 


Campsite 1: 

24°41’28.4”S 47°01’29.8”E 

Located 1.5 days’ walk from 

Mahatalaky, via Analalava 

Androtsy, following the trail 

that leads to Ranomafana 

Commune 


3. Ivorona Forest: located in the north-eastern part 

of Ivorona Fokontany, Ifarantsa Commune, in the 

west of Tsitongambarika I. 

4. Andranary Forest: located on the west of Pic St 

Louis, at the southern end of Tsitongambarika I. 

The forest of the Manantantely Private Reserve was 

not visited but data from this site were collated from 

reports on previous studies. 

After the main survey, additional data were 

collected from: Vatofotsy community forest near 

Enato village, Androkabe and Tsirandranina 

community forests near Anka Maromagniry village 

(both in Ampasy Nampoina Commune), the sacred 

lake of Isakatelo in Ifarantsa Commune, and 

Ankorabe forest near Beseva village. Additional visits 

were also made to Ivorona forest (Dutson 2006, Asity 

Madagascar pers. comm.). 

Table 13 ... continued. Location and description of each study site, with a summary of uses 

of and threats to bird species and their habitats 

Description 

This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest distributed on a very uneven relief formed by 

steep-sided hills and valleys. Several rivers have their sources in this area, including the Etoketo River, which 

flows west into Ranomafana Commune, and the Betoho and Ebakika rivers, which flow east into the littoral 

plain. The site is crossed by a forest trail, Tsitongambarika Pass, which links Ranomafana Commune in the west 

with Mahatalaky Commune in the east. 

The site has a humid microclimate, which gets damper with increasing altitude. Forest at 100–300 m elevation is 

not very humid, as can be seen by the scarcity of moss on tree trunks and branches. Above 300 m, however, the 

forest becomes progressively more humid due to an abundance of orographic rainfall caused by the sudden change 

of altitude of the wind from the coast, which creates permanent damp cloud cover. Mosses and orchids of the genera 

Bulbophyllum and Asplenium are quite abundant and almost entirely cover the trunks and branches of trees. 

Along ridge crests and on the tops of hills, tree heights diminish to about 10 m and the canopy is more 

open. In basins and valleys, however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the herbaceous 

layer is not well developed and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead leaves. Dominant 

understorey species include: Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae), Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species 

belonging to the Poaceae family. The shrub layer is formed of young trees, 3–8 m in height, with abundant 

Cyathea sp. (Cyatheaceae) tree ferns and the presence of Vanilla madagascariensis (Orchidaceae). Pleomele 

Dracaena reflexa (Dracaenaceae), emergent palms and Pandanus sp. (Pandanaceae) are abundant near to rivers. 

The canopy layer is formed of big trees, at 20–25 m. In places, these are entirely covered by very dense 

creeping bamboo (Poaceae), which forms an undergrowth that is often impenetrable. The canopy layer is 

characterised by the presence of Ravenala madagascariensis (Strelitziaceae), Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae), 

Oncostemum sp. (Myrsinaceae) and lianas. 


Uses 

• Collecting forest products (lianas) for ropes to fasten the roofs of huts made of Ravenala madagascariensis; 

• Collecting palm trunks for making planks to build the walls of huts. 

Threats 

• Selective logging for boat making, particularly of Faucherea sp. (Sapotaceae) and Calophyllum sp. 

(Clusiaceae). Trees with slightly curved trunks are often the most highly sought after; 

• Three trees cut for boat making were observed within the study site; 

• Clearance for shifting cultivation (or tavy). The most extensively cleared forest areas are located near the 

villages of Volobe in the east and Mahatalaky Ambony in the west; 

• Poaching of terrestrial species and lemurs. Catapults are frequently used for these activities, which take 

place especially along the trail between Androtsy and Mahatalaky Ambony villages. 

Bird species 




• Near Threatened species: 2 

Note: The globally threatened Meller’s Duck Anas melleri was found in the Ebakika river outside the study site. It is not a 

forest species.Ivorona Forest 

45

Location 

IVORONA FOREST 

(Ivorona and Ambato Forests) 

Maximum elevation: 1,312 m 


Campsite 1: 

24°49’25.0”S 46°56’56.2”E 

Located 1 hour’s walk from 

Ivorona village, Ifarantsa 

Commune 

Location 

ANDRANARY FOREST 

Maximum elevation: 1,312 m 

Visited elevations: 329–420 m 

Campsite 1: 

25°00’21.2”S 46°57’03.4”E 

46 




Description 

This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest distributed on very uneven rocky relief formed by 

steep-sided valleys. The study site is located on the western flank of the Vohimena range, and is crossed by the 

trail linking Ambazaha village in the east with Ivorona village in the west. The Ifarantsa River constitutes the 

main watercourse in the area. 

Ivorona Forest is characterised by an increasingly humid microclimate with increasing altitude. Forest at 

100–300 m elevation is not very humid, as can be seen by the scarcity of moss on tree trunks and branches. 

Above 300 m, however, the forest becomes progressively more humid due to an abundance of orographic 

rainfall caused by the sudden change of altitude of the wind from the coast, which creates permanent damp 

cloud cover. Mosses and orchids of the genera Bulbophyllum and Asplenium are quite abundant and almost 

entirely cover the trunks and branches of trees. 

Along ridge crests and on the tops of hills, tree heights diminish to about 10 m and the canopy is more 

open. In basin and valley regions, however, the canopy is closed, the forest undergrowth is very dark, the 

herbaceous layer is not well developed and the ground is sometimes covered with very thick piles of dead 

leaves. The dominant species of the understorey are Pteridium sp. (Pteridaceae) and herbaceous species in the 

Poaceae family. The shrub layer is formed of young trees, 2 to 5 m in height, and tree ferns Cyathea sp. 

(Cyatheaceae). Creeping ferns on the trunks of young trees are common. Dracaena reflexa (Dracaenaceae) and 

emergent palms are abundant near watercourses. The canopy layer is formed of big trees, at 20–25 m. In places, 

these big trees are entirely covered by very dense creeping bamboo (Poaceae), which forms an undergrowth that 

is often impenetrable. The canopy layer is characterised by the presence of Ocotea sp. (Lauraceae), Dombeya 

sp. (Malvaceae), Ficus sp. (Moraceae), Weinmannia sp. (Cunoniaceae) and Ravenala madagascariensis 

(Strelitziaceae). 


Uses 

• Collecting forest products (lianas) for ropes to fasten the roofs of huts made of Ravenala madagascariensis; 

• Collecting palm trunks for making planks to build the walls of huts; 

• Ivorona CoBa has signed a management transfer agreement to co-manage the forest for a three-year period 

(2005–2008). 

Threats 

• The management transfer agreement, in the absence of any accompanying support or appropriate 

monitoring is contributing to forest exploitation that does not comply with the regulations in force. At 

Ivorona, the forest is being exploited in an anarchic way, with the selective cutting of big trees for making 

planks and square wood for sale to traders from Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin), particularly of ebony and 

rosewood for export overseas. In spite of the management transfer agreement, Ivorona CoBa seems to be 

powerless in the face of offences, whether these be clearance of forest for shifting cultivation or selective 

logging in areas where this is prohibited; 

• Nine cut ebony trees were seen in restricted areas of forest at the study site; 

• Clearance for shifting cultivation. Forest areas with gentle slopes are often the most extensively cleared; 

• Poaching of terrestrial species. Slipknot traps and catapults are frequently used for these activities, which 

take place especially along the trail between Ivorona and Mahatalaky Ambony villages. 

Bird species 





Description 

This site is an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, located at the southernmost extent of the Vohimena range, 

west of Pic St Louis. Seen from a distance, the vegetation still appears in a good condition but in reality most of 

the big trees have already been cut down. Only the area along the ridge line is still covered with intact humid 

forest. 

Because the duration of the visit to this site was limited to two mornings, it was only possible to make a 

preliminary reconnaissance of the bird fauna. 


Threats 

• Selective exploitation of big trees for making planks and square wood; 

• The proximity of the site to Tolagnaro makes it permanently vulnerable to human pressure. 

Bird species 




• Near Threatened species: 0

Location 

MANATANTELY 

PRIVATE RESERVE 

Elevation range: 50–600m 

Coordinates: 

24°59’S 46°55’E 

Location 

ENATO VILLAGE 

Elevation: 520 m 

Coordinates: 

24°55’16”S 46°59’18”E 

Location 

ANKA-MAROMAGNIRY 

VILLAGE 

Elevation range: 100–270 m 

Coordinates 

24°56’15”S 46°57’41”E 




Description 

This site is an area of eastern humid evergreen forest located on very uneven rocky relief formed by very abruptsided 

valleys. The forest is characterised by an increasingly humid microclimate with increasing elevation. 

Manatantely Private Reserve is a tourist site, easily accessible from Tolagnaro. It is managed by a private tour 

operator, which protects the forest. 


Bird species 





Note: Data were obtained from the report by Goodman et al. (1997). Further studies of Manatantely are needed. 

Description 

This site comprises an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, characterised by a thin leaf litter layer, a clear 

herbaceous layer, a sparse shrub layer and a semi-open canopy on rocky slopes. Canopy trees reach 40–60 cm 

in diameter and 30 m in height. 


Uses 

• The forest is managed by the community of Enato village. 

Threats 

• Logging; 

• Hunting and poaching. 

Description 

This site is similar to the preceding one, comprising an area of eastern humid evergreen forest, characterised by 

a thin leaf litter layer, a clear herbaceous layer, a sparse shrub layer and a semi-open canopy on rocky slopes. 

Canopy trees reach about 40–60 cm in diameter and 30 m in height. 


Uses 

• The forest is managed by the community of Anka Maromagniry village. 

Threats 

• Logging; 

• Bushfire; 

• Hunting and poaching. 

The details of the geographical location, habitat 

types, threats and bird community composition for 

each study site are presented in Table 13. 

RESULTS 

Information on the avifauna of Tsitongambarika 

Forest has been collected by a number of biologists 

visiting south-east Madagascar over the years. The 

most detailed study prior to the one presented here 

was a one-week visit to Manantantely Private Reserve 

by Steven Goodman in 1990 (Goodman et al. 1997). 

The studies conducted during 2005–2006 represented 

the first ever surveys of the central and north-eastern 

parts of Tsitongambarika Forest. Subsequent to these 

studies, a number of additional species were recorded 

at Tsitongambarika Forest during birdwatching events 

at Ivorona (2006–2007) and during participatory 

monitoring activities with local communities (2007). 

During the 2005–2006 studies, 82 bird species were 

recorded at the four sites visited. An additional three 

species were recorded during the previous visit to 

Manantantely Private Reserve (Goodman et al. 1997), 

and a further 12 species were recorded during 

subsequent visits to Tsitongambarika Forest, bringing 

to 97 the total number of species recorded to date at 

Tsitongambarika (Table 14). 

These species occupy various habitats, including 

lakes, agricultural land and fallow land, but the 

majority depend on humid evergreen forest. 

Considering the variation in altitude among the study 

sites (80 to 787 m), the avifauna of Tsitongambarika 

is characterised by a very high endemicity rate: 57 of 

the 97 species recorded at Tsitongambarika (59%) are 

found only in Madagascar. Eight species are 

considered globally threatened (IUCN 2010): 

Madagascar Grebe Tachybaptus pelzelnii (VU), 

Madagascar Pond Heron Ardeola idea (EN), Meller’s 

Duck Anas melleri (EN), Brown Mesite Mesitornis 

unicolor (VU), Madagascar Red Owl Tyto soumagnei 

(VU; Plate 10), Short-legged Ground-roller 

Brachypteracias leptosomus (VU), Scaly Ground-roller 

Brachypteracias squamiger (VU), and Red-tailed 

Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae (VU). Several of these 

records represent expansions of known distribution. 

47

Plate 10. Madagascar Red Owl Tyto soumagnei 

(Vulnerable). This bird, the first record in Anosy 

region, was discovered in Vatofotsy forest near Enato 

village (ANDRIANDRAOTOMALAZA BRUNO RAVELOSON) 

48 


Table 14. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest 

The composition of the avifauna of 

Tsitongambarika Forest is quite similar to that of 

Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park (Jaccard 

Similarity Index = 0.74). Of the 93 species recorded at 

Tsitongambarika, 75 are known from Parcel 1 of 

Andohahela National Park (Hawkins and Goodman 

1999). Species so far found only at Tsitongambarika 

include three globally threatened waterbirds 

(Madagascar Grebe, Madagascar Pond Heron and 

Meller’s Duck) and one threatened forest bird 

(Madagascar Red Owl). The difference between the 

avifauna of the two sites is characterised mainly by 

the absence of several high-altitude species from the 

study sites at Tsitongambarika, including Yellowbellied 

Asity Neodrepanis hypoxantha, Brown Emutail 

Dromaeocercus brunneus, Madagascar Yellowbrow 

Crossleyia xanthophrys and Cryptic Warbler 

Cryptosylvicola randrianasoloi. These species are 

usually found at altitudes above 800 m, and some may 

be found at Tsitongambarika if the highest altitude 

sites in this forest are surveyed. Tsitongambarika 

Forest supports more globally threatened species 

(eight) than Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park 

(five) and is thus a very high priority for conservation. 

■ Avifauna of Ivohibe Forest 

The forest of Ivohibe was a rich site for birds, with 

65 species recorded at altitudes of 87–307 m. Thirtyeight 

(60%) of these species are endemic to 

Madagascar, and four are globally threatened or Near 

IUCN Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 TGK Total 

Species and English name Distribution Status IVHB TGKP IVOR ANDY MANT (87–774m) 

Dendrocygna viduata White-faced Whistling-duck B 1 1 1 1 

Anas melleri Meller’s Duck E EN 1 1 

Anas erythrorhyncha Red-billed Duck B 1 * 1* 

Tachybaptus pelzelnii Madagascar Grebe E VU 1* 1* 

Lophotibis cristata Madagascar Crested Ibis E NT 1* 1* 

Ardeola idae Madagascar Pond-heron Er EN 1* 1* 

Ardea cinerea Grey Heron B 1 1 

Ardea purpurea Purple Heron B 1* 1* 

Falco newtoni Madagascar Kestrel Er 1 1 1 1 1 

Falco eleonorae Eleonora’s Falcon M 1 1 1 

Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon B 1 1 

Aviceda madagascariensis Madagascar Baza E 1 1 

Macheiramphus alcinus Bat Hawk B 1 1 

Milvus migrans Black Kite B 1 1 1 

Polyboroides radiatus Madagascar Harrier-hawk E 1 1 1 

Accipiter francesiae Frances’s Sparrowhawk Er 1* 1 1 

Accipiter madagascariensis Madagascar Sparrowhawk E NT 1 1 1 

Accipiter henstii Henst’s Goshawk E NT 1 1 

Buteo brachypterus Madagascar Buzzard E 1 1 1 1 1 1


Table 14 ... continued. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest 



Mesitornis unicolor Brown Mesite E VU 1 1 1 

Sarothrura insularis Madagascar Flufftail E 1 1* 1 

Canirallus kioloides Madagascar Wood Rail E 1 1 1 1 

Dryolimnas cuvieri White-throated Rail Er 1 1 1 1 

Gallinula chloropus Common Moorhen B 1* 1* 

Turnxi nigricollis Madagascar Buttonquail Er 1* 

Nesoenas picturata Madagascar Turtle-dove Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Treron australis Madagascar Green-pigeon Er 1 1 

Alectroenas madagascariensis Madagascar Blue-pigeon E 1 1 

Agapornis canus Grey-headed Lovebird E 1* 

Coracopsis vasa Vasa Parrot Er 1 1 1 1 

Coracopsis nigra Black Parrot Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Cuculus rochii Madagascar Cuckoo E 1 1 1 1 1 

Coua reynaudii Red-fronted Coua E 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Coua caerulea Blue Coua E 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Centropus toulou Madagascar Coucal Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Tyto soumagnei Madagascar Red Owl E VU 1* 

Otus rutilus Malagasy Scops-owl Er 1 1 1 1 1 

Ninox superciliaris White-browed Hawk-owl E 1 1 

Asio madagascariensis Madagascar Owl E 1 1 1 

Caprimulgus madagascariensis Madagascar Nightjar Er 1 1 1 1 

Caprimulgus enarratus Collared Nightjar E 1 1 

Zoonavena grandidieri Malagasy Spinetail Er 1 1 

Tachymarptis melba Alpine Swift B 1 1 

Eurystomus glaucurus Broad-billed Roller B 1 1 1 1 1 

Brachypteracias leptosomus Short-legged Ground-roller E VU 1 1 1 

Brachypteracias squamiger Scaly Ground-roller E VU 1 1 

Atelornis pittoides Pitta-like Ground-roller E 1* 

Leptosomus discolor Cuckoo-roller Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Ceyx madagascariensis Madagascar Pygmy-kingfisher E 1 1 1 1 

Alcedo vintsioides Madagascar Kingfisher Er 1 1 1 1 

Merops superciliosus Madagascar Bee-eater B 1 1 1 1 

Philepitta castanea Velvet Asity E 1 1 1 1 

Neodrepanis coruscans Sunbird Asity E 1 1 1 1 

Calicalicus madagascariensis Red-tailed Vanga E 1 1 1 1 1 

Vanga curvirostris Hook-billed Vanga E 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Xenopirostris polleni Pollen’s Vanga E NT 1 1 1 

Artamella viridis White-headed Vanga E 1 1 1 

Leptopterus chabert Chabert’s Vanga E 1 1 1 1 

Cyanolanius madagascarinus Blue Vanga Er 1 1 1 1 

Schetba rufa Rufous Vanga E 1 1 1 1 

Tylas eduardi Tylas Vanga E 1 1 1 

Hypositta corallirostris Nuthatch Vanga E 1 1 1 

Newtonia amphichroa Dark Newtonia E 1 1 

49

50 


Table 14 ... continued. List of bird species recorded in Tsitongambarika Forest 



Newtonia brunneicauda Common Newtonia E 1 1 1 1 1 

Newtonia fanovanae Red-tailed Newtonia E VU 1 1 

Pseudobias wardi Ward’s Flycatcher E 1* 

Mystacornis crossleyi Crossley’s Babbler E 1* 

Coracina cinerea Ashy Cuckooshrike Er 1 1 1 1 1 

Dicrurus forficatus Crested Drongo Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Terpsiphone mutata Madagascar Paradise-flycatcher Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Corvus albus Pied Crow B 1 1 1 1 1 

Mirafra hova Madagascar Lark E 1 1 1 

Cisticola cherina Madagascar Cisticola Er 1 1 

Hypsipetes madagascariensis Madagascar Black Bulbul Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Nesillas typica Madagascar Brush-warbler Er 1 1 1 1 

Oxylabes madagascariensis White-throated Oxylabes E 1 1 1 1 1 

Bernieria madagascariensis Common Tetraka E 1 1 1 1 1 

Bernieria zosterops Spectacled Tetraka E 1 1 1* 1 1 

Bernieria cinereiceps Grey-crowned Tetraka E NT 1 1 

Randia pseudozosterops Rand’s Warbler E 1 1 1 

Neomixis tenella Common Jery E 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Neomixis viridis Green Jery E 1 1 

Neomixis striatigula Stripe-throated Jery E 1 1 1 

Neomixis flavoviridis Wedge-tailed Jery E NT 1 1 

Zosterops maderaspatanus Madagascar White-eye Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Saroglossa aurata Madagascar Starling E 1 1 

Copsychus albospecularis Madagascar Magpie-robin E 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Acridotheres tristis Common Myna I 1 1 1 

Saxicola torquatus Common Stonechat B 1 1 1 

Monticola sharpei Forest Rock-thrush E 1 1 1 

Nectarinia sovimanga Souimanga Sunbird Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Nectarinia notata Long-billed Green Sunbird Er 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Ploceus nelicourvi Nelicourvi Weaver E 1 1 1 1 1 

Foudia madagascariensis Madagascar Red Fody E 1 1 1 1 1 

Foudia omissa Forest Fody E 1 1 1 1 1 

Lonchura nana Madagascar Munia E 1 1 1 

Motacilla flaviventris Madagascar Wagtail E 1 1 1 1 

Species richness 63 55 65 24 37 97 

E: Endemic to Madagascar 33 31 38 7 21 57 

Er: Endemic to the region only (Madagascar and neighbouring islands) 22 16 19 13 15 25 

M: Migratory, non-breeding visitor 1 0 1 0 0 1 

B: Breeding resident/visitor 6 7 7 4 1 13 

I: Introduced 1 1 0 0 0 1 

EN: Endangered (IUCN 2010) 0 1 1 0 0 2 

VU: Vulnerable (IUCN 2010) 2 0 3 0 2 6 

NT: Near Threatened (IUCN 2010) 2 2 4 0 0 6 

Notes: IVHB = Ivohibe forest; TGKP = Tsitongambarika pass; IVOR = Ivorona forest; ANDY = Andranary forest; MANT = Manantantely Private Reserve; 

TGK = Tsitongambarika. * An asterisk indicates species not recorded in main surveys (January 2006) but found since, at one or more of the following sites: 

Ivorona, Enato, Anka, Ankorabe. Records close to but outside the site are indicated in bold.

Threatened: Mesitornis unicolor (VU), 

Brachypteracias leptosomus (VU), Madagascar 

Sparrowhawk Accipiter madagascariensis (NT) and 

Pollen’s Vanga Xenopirostris polleni (NT). 

Analysis of the 16 MacKinnon lists compiled 

during the inventory of Ivohibe shows that the most 

frequently recorded species were Madagascar Black 

Bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis, Madagascar 

White-eye Zosterops maderaspatana and Black Parrot 

Coracopsis nigra (Table 16). These three species are 

easy to detect and their calls can be heard even from 

a distance. 

A number of species were considered rare, because 

they were only encountered once during the 10-day 

visit to Ivohibe, including Accipiter madagascariensis, 

Velvet Asity Philepitta castanea, White-throated 

Oxylabes Oxylabes madagascariensis, Blue Vanga 

Cyanolanius madagascarinus and Forest Fody Foudia 

omissa. Other species encountered only once during 

the visit to Ivohibe Forest were Madagascar Harrierhawk 

Polyboroides radiatus and Madagascar Starling 

Saroglossa aurata, but these are typically birds of forest 

edge, scrub and secondary vegetation, rather than 

forest. Madagascar Long-eared Owl Asio 

madagascariensis and Malagasy Scops-owl Otus rutilus 

were each recorded just once during the two nocturnal 

visits made to Ivohibe Forest. On the basis of these 

records, it is not possible to assess the relative 

abundance of these species. The presence of Mesitornis 

unicolor was confirmed during a reconnaissance visit 

to Ivohibe Forest, on the basis of the presence of an 

abandoned nest. Collared Nightjar Caprimulgus 

enarratus was also only recorded during the 

reconnaissance visit. Therefore, the relative abundance 

of these two species could not be evaluated. 

■ Avifauna of Ivorona Forest 

Ivorona Forest, at altitudes of 280–774 m, supports 

at least 68 bird species. Of these, 40 are endemic to 

Madagascar, including six globally threatened or 

Near Threatened forest species: Madagascar Crested 

Ibis Lophotibis cristata (NT), Brachypteracias 

leptosomus (VU), Newtonia fanovanae (VU), Henst’s 

Goshawk Accipiter henstii (NT), Wedge-tailed Jery 

Neomixis flavoviridis (NT) and Pollen’s Vanga 

Xenopirostris polleni (NT). 


during the survey of Ivorona shows that the most 

frequently recorded species were Hypsipetes 

madagascariensis, Zosterops maderaspatanus, 

Coracopsis nigra and Madagascar Paradise 

Flycatcher Terpsiphone mutata (Table 16). 

These species are all easy to find and their calls can 

be heard from a distance. Typical forest species 

considered rare at Ivorona, because they were 

found only once during the 10-day visit, were: 

Accipiter henstii, Madagascar Wood-rail Canirallus 

kioloides, Brachypteracias leptosomus, Forest 

Rock-thrush Monticola sharpei, Green Jery Neomixis 

viridis, Rand’s Warbler Randia pseudozosterops, 

Hook-billed Vanga Vanga curvirostris and 


Xenopirostris polleni. Madagascar Kestrel Falco 

newtoni and Madagascar Brush-warbler Nesillas 

typica were also recorded only once each in forest 

areas, but are both more frequent in forest edge and 

secondary vegetation. 

■ Avifauna of Tsitongambarika Pass 

Fifty-five species were recorded in the forest around 

Tsitongambarika Pass at altitudes of 217–774 m. 

Thirty-one of these are endemic to Madagascar, of 

which two forest species are globally Near 

Threatened: Accipiter madagascariensis and Greycrowned 

Tetraka Bernieria cinereiceps. In addition, 

the globally Endangered Anas melleri was found in 

the Ebakika River, a few kilometres from the edge of 

the forest. The forest around Tsitongambarika Pass 

is characterised by the presence of high-altitude 

species, such as Bernieria cinereiceps and Dark 

Newtonia Newtonia amphichroa. 


during inventory of the forest around 

Tsitongambarika Pass shows that the most frequently 

recorded species were Hypsipetes madagascariensis, 

Zosterops maderaspatanus, Coracopsis nigra and 

Madagascar Magpie Robin Copsychus albospecularis 

(Table 16). These are all easy to detect and their calls 

can be heard from a distance. Typical forest species 

considered rare at Tsitongambarika Pass, because 

they were found only once during the 10-day visit, 

were: Accipiter madagascariensis, Madagascar Baza 

Aviceda madagascariensis, Madagascar Pygmykingfisher 

Ceyx madagascariensis, White-headed 

Vanga Artamella viridis and Stripe-throated Jery 

Neomixis striatigula. Madagascar Buzzard Buteo 

brachypterus and Long-billed Green Sunbird 

Nectarinia notata were both also recorded only once, 

but these are not typical forest species. They are more 

common in scrub and agricultural land. Likewise, 

Malagasy Spinetail Zoonavena grandidieri was also 

found only once at Tsitongambarika Pass, but is more 

often found on rocky cliffs and steep slopes 

neighbouring the forest. 

■ Avifauna of Manatantely Private Reserve 

Manatantely Private Reserve, at 50–600 m elevation, 

supports at least 37 bird species, 21 of which are 

endemic to Madagascar and two of which are globally 

threatened: Mesitornis unicolor (VU) and 

Brachypteracias squamiger (VU). Ornithological 

inventory of Manatantely Private Reserve is far from 

complete, and the site deserves further survey. 

■ Avifauna of Andranary Forest 

Twenty-four species were recorded at Andranary 

Forest at 329–420 m elevation, including seven species 

endemic to Madagascar. No globally threatened or 

Near Threatened species have been recorded to 

date, although this may reflect limited survey 

effort. Ornithological inventory of Andranary Forest 

is far from complete, and the site deserves further 

survey. 

51

52 


Table 15. Relative abundance of bird species at three study sites 

IVOHIBE FOREST TSITONGAMBARIKA PASS IVORNONA FOREST 

No. Relative No. Relative No. Relative 

Species lists abundance Species lists abundance Species lists abundance 

Hypsipetes madagascariensis 15 0.94 Hypsipetes madagascariensis 20 0.87 Hypsipetes madagascariensis 17 0.94 

Zosterops maderaspatana 14 0.88 Zosterops maderaspatana 19 0.83 Zosterops maderasapatana 13 0.72 

Coracopsis nigra 13 0.81 Coracopsis nigra 16 0.7 Coracopsis nigra 11 0.61 

Nectarinia sovimanga 10 0.63 Copsychus albospecularis 11 0.48 Terpsiphone mutata 10 0.56 

Coua caerulea 10 0.63 Nectarinia sovimanga 8 0.35 Coracina cinerea 8 0.44 

Dicrurus forficatus 6 0.38 Leptosomus discolor 8 0.35 Tylas eduardi 7 0.39 

Coua reynaudii 6 0.38 Coua caerulea 8 0.35 Leptosomus discolor 7 0.39 

Calicalicus madagascariensis 6 0.38 Terpsiphone mutata 7 0.3 Calicalicus madagascariensis 7 0.39 

Nectarinia notata 5 0.31 Dicrurus forficatus 7 0.3 Foudia omissa 6 0.33 

Eurystomus glaucurus 5 0.31 Newtonia brunneicauda 6 0.26 Coracopsis vasa 6 0.33 

Coracopsis vasa 5 0.31 Foudia omissa 6 0.26 Newtonia brunneicauda 5 0.28 

Copsychus albospecularis 5 0.31 Cuculus rochii 6 0.26 Dicrurus forficatus 5 0.28 

Nesoenas picturata 4 0.25 Centropus toulou 6 0.26 Cyaniolanius madagascarinus 5 0.28 

Ploceus nelicourvi 4 0.25 Schetba rufa 5 0.22 Copsychus albospecularis 5 0.28 

Leptosomus discolor 4 0.25 Philepitta castanea 5 0.22 Bernieria madagascariensis 5 0.28 

Coracina cinerea 4 0.25 Cyanolanius madagascarinus 5 0.22 Alectroenas madagascariensis 5 0.28 

Bernieria zosterops 3 0.19 Bernieria madagascaraiensis 5 0.22 Nesoenas picturata 4 0.22 

Neomixis tenella 3 0.19 Coua reynaudii 4 0.17 Oxylabes madagascariensis 4 0.22 

Vanga curvirostris 2 0.13 Coracopsis vasa 4 0.17 Schetba rufa 3 0.17 

Terpsiphone mutata 2 0.13 Calicalicus madagascariensis 4 0.17 Philepitta castanea 3 0.17 

Schetba rufa 2 0.13 Nesoenas picturata 3 0.13 Nectarinia sovimanga 3 0.17 

Newtonia brunneicauda 2 0.13 Ploceus nelicourvi 3 0.13 Buteo brachypterus 3 0.17 

Buteo brachypterus 2 0.13 Neomixis tenella 3 0.13 Ploceus nelicourvi 2 0.11 

Brachypteracias leptosomus 2 0.13 Neodrepanis coruscans 3 0.13 Newtonia fanovanae 2 0.11 

Bernieria madagascariensis 2 0.13 Eurystomus glaucurus 3 0.13 Neomixis tenella 2 0.11 

Xenopirostris polleni 1 0.06 Coracina cinerea 3 0.13 Nectarinia notata 2 0.11 

Saroglossa auratus 1 0.06 Bernieria zosterops 3 0.13 Ispidina madagascariensis 2 0.11 

Polyboroides radiatus 1 0.06 Vanga curvirostris 2 0.09 Foudia madagascariensis 2 0.11 

Philepitta castanea 1 0.06 Oxylabes madagascariensis 2 0.09 Eurystomus glaucurus 2 0.11 

Oxylabes madagascariensis 1 0.06 Newtonia amphichroa 2 0.09 Coua reynaudii 2 0.11 

Otus rutilus 1 0.06 Neomixis tenella 2 0.09 Coua caerulea 2 0.11 

Foudia omissa 1 0.06 Foudia madagascariensis 2 0.09 Centropus toulou 2 0.11 

Cyanolanius madagascarinus 1 0.06 Zoonavena grandidieri 1 0.04 Bernieria zosterops 2 0.11 

Asio madagascariensis 1 0.06 Neomixis striatigula 1 0.04 Xenopirostris poleni 1 0.06 

Accipiter madagascariensis 1 0.06 Nectarinia notata 1 0.04 Vanga curvirostris 1 0.06 

Monticola sharpei 1 0.04 Randia pseudozosterops 1 0.06 

Leptopterus viridis 1 0.04 Nesillas typica 1 0.06 

Leptopterus chabert 1 0.04 Neomixis viridis 1 0.06 

Ispidina madagascariensis 1 0.04 Moticolla sharpei 1 0.06 

Buteo brachypterus 1 0.04 Hypositta corallirostris 1 0.06 

Aviceda madagascariensis 1 0.04 Falco newtoni 1 0.06 

Accipiter madagascariensis 1 0.04 Cuculus rochii 1 0.06 

Brachypteracias leptosomus 1 0.06 

Caniralus kioloides 1 0.06 

Falco eleonore 1 0.06 

Accipiter hestiii 1 0.06 

Notes: 

(i) The total number of MacKinnon lists compiled per site was 16 at Ivohibe, 23 at Tsitongambarika Pass, and 18 at Ivorona. 

(ii) Data from Andranary are not included because it was only visited for two half-days. Manatantely Private Reserve was not visited. 

(iii) Only species detected during compilation of MacKinnon lists have relative abundance ratings.

DISCUSSION 

■ Threats and pressures 

Boat making 

Selective cutting of trees for boat construction is quite 

common, particularly in areas near the coast or big 

rivers. The impact of this on the forest is not limited 

only to trees that are cut. The manufacture of a single 

boat requires at least 10 trees and shrubs to be cut 

down around the construction area, and its removal 

from the forest damages micro-habitats and terrestrial 

biodiversity. The removal of one boat from the forest 

takes 10–20 men an entire day. This threat is 

particularly prevalent in Ivohibe Forest and forest 

near Tsitongambarika Pass. 

Selective logging of timber 

Selective felling of timber trees for sale to traders 

is often in direct contravention of regulations 

governing forest management. The size of the trees 

selected and the felling technique adopted do not 

favour natural regeneration. Trees are cut down 

arbitrarily, without any consideration of optimal 

diameter. Some trees are cut at the roots, which allows 

no possibility of regeneration. Sometimes, trees 

appear to have been cut for no reason and then just 

left in the forest. 

Malfunctioning of CoBas 

A significant proportion of the forest area of 

Tstitongambarika has been transferred to CoBas on 

short-term management transfer agreements. It would 

appear, however, that CoBa members do not fully 

understand or, at least, are unable to enforce the forest 

management system governing transferred forest 

areas. In the future, this may constitute a serious 

threat to these forests. The organisations that initiated 

these management transfers should thus be vigilant, 

and a monitoring and evaluation programme should 

be initiated. 

An example of malfunction is provided by Ivorona 

CoBa, Ifarahantsa Commune. The management 

transfer to Ivorona CoBa was completed in April 

2005. However, even during this brief survey, a 

number of shortcomings were observed. First, the 

CoBa president issues logging permits and passes to 

buyers of forest products (square wood, planks, etc.) 

without other CoBa members, including the treasurer, 

being aware of these transactions. Second, there is 

no internal audit of CoBa function. Third, neither 

CoBa members nor other forest users respect the 

distinction between the timber harvesting zone (where 

forest can be exploited) and the conservation zone 

(which must be protected). During the survey, several 

people were observed logging or practising shifting 

cultivation within the conservation zone. Ebony 

extraction was noted within the conservation zone. 

According to the president of Ivorona Fokontany, 

this only started in October 2005 but within three 

months the whole area was affected. 


Hunting and poaching 

Hunting and poaching of forest species is common in 

Tsitongambarika. Hunting tracks were encountered 

within Ivohibe Forest, the forest around 

Tsitongambarika Pass and Ivorona Forest. The most 

frequently encountered signs of hunting were traps 

designed for catching mammals, such as Fossa 

Cryptoprocta ferox and Bushpig Potamochoerus 

larvatus. These are hunted as crop pests. Large-bodied 

birds, terrestrial and arboreal, are uncommon close 

to trails owing to local people’s proficiency with 

catapults. Preferred quarry species are: Polyboroides 

radiatus, Madagascar Turtle-dove Nesoenas 

picturata, Madagascar Blue-pigeon Alectroenas 

madagascariensis, Madagascar Green-pigeon Treron 

australis and Blue Coua Coua caerulea. 

Transportation links inside the forest 

The presence of a track through the forest, linking 

localities on the west and east side of the Vohimena 

range, leads to increased human pressure on the forest 

ecosystem, particularly disturbance and incidental 

hunting. People were observed passing along the trail 

between Mahatalaky village in the east and 

Ranomafana village in the west at a rate of one person 

every 10–20 minutes. 

■ Conservation priorities 

The study sites are ranked below in order of bird 

conservation importance, on the basis of species 

richness, presence of globally threatened and Near 

Threatened species, current condition of forest 

habitat, and opportunities for conservation. 

1. Ivorona Forest 

Ivorona has the highest species richness and largest 

number of threatened and Near Threatened species 

of any site surveyed at Tsitongambarika. Further, this 

area of lowland forest (below 300 m) is very accessible 

from Tolagnaro and thus under high pressure. 

Reorganisation of, and support to, the CoBa are 

priorities for conservation of biodiversity and 

sustainable management of natural resources in 

Ivorona. Development of an ecotourism programme 

may be one option in the long-term. 

2. Ivohibe Forest 

With 65 bird species recorded, this site is one of the 

richest in Tsitongambarika. Difficulty of access is an 

obstacle to ecotourism because the forest is located 

on steep slopes. The western part of Ivohibe, which 

appears intact, could serve as a conservation zone or 

strict protection area. Support to farming activities, 

market gardening and cultivation of export crops 

(vanilla, cloves, etc.) in the Antsotso area might reduce 

pressures from wood cutting for boat construction. 

3. Tsitongambarika Pass 

As this site is used as a transport link between villages 

on either side of the Vohimena range, protection of 

forest here is a priority to prevent a permanent break 

53

in habitat connectivity along the mountain range. The 

areas to the north and south of the pass are apparently 

still covered with intact forest, and could serve as a 

conservation zone or strict protection area. Support 

to farming activities, market gardening and 

cultivation of export crops (vanilla, cloves, etc.) in 

the Analalava Androtsy, Volobe and Mahatalaky 

Ambony areas might reduce the need for forest 

clearance for shifting cultivation. 

4. Manantantely Forest 

With only 37 recorded species, avifaunal inventory 

of this area is far from complete. As the site is close 

to Tolagnaro, there is potential for ecotourism 

development. There is some existing ecotourism 

infrastructure, managed by the private sector, but 

construction of additional tracks across the site would 

improve accessibility for visitors. Further, the 

manager should promote the site to regional and 

national tour operators. 

5. Andranary Forest 

Conservation is difficult here owing to the proximity 

to Tolagnaro. Initial indications suggest the avifauna 

of this forest is depauperate, due to very intense 

exploitation for planks and beams to meet expanding 

demands in Tolagnaro. A long-term programme of 

assisted forest regeneration, using native forest 

species, is the main priority. Support to farming 

activities, market gardening and cultivation of export 

crops (e.g. vanilla and cloves) might reduce pressure 

on the forest from timber extraction. 

■ Avifauna 

In total, 97 species have been recorded in 

Tsitongambarika Forest. The composition of the 

avifauna is almost the same as that of Andohahela 

National Park. Owing to its high importance for 

globally threatened and restricted-range species, 

Tsitongambarika should be recognised as a very high 

priority for bird conservation. 

Crested Coua 

Crested Coua Coua cristata is represented in southern 

and eastern Madagascar by at least three subspecies: 

C. c. cristata, C. c. pyropyga and C. c. maxima. 

However, the taxonomic position of the third is subject 

to discussion, because its description by Milon (1950) 

was based on a single specimen captured near 

Tolagnaro. Since its description, C. c. maxima has 

never been observed in the wild by biologists. 

C. c. cristata is distributed in the eastern humid 

evergreen forest, from the massif of Anjanaharibe- 

Tsaratanana in the north to Manombo Special Reserve 

in the south (Nicoll and Langrand 1989), while C. c. 

pyropyga occupies the dry forest and spiny forest of 

the west of Madagascar (Goodman et al. 1997). If C. 

c. maxima is a valid subspecies, its distribution is thus 

likely to be centred on the lowlands of the far southeast 

of Madagascar, and perhaps Tsitongambarika 

Forest and/or the littoral forests around Tolagnaro. 

54 


However, ornithological studies of littoral forests in 

the Tolagnaro area have not found C. cristata (Watson 

et al. 2004), except at Petriky Forest (Goodman et al. 

1997). An incidental observation, possibly referring to 

C. c. maxima, was reported in 1988 from lowland forest 

around Lanirano Lake, 2 km north of Tologaro, but 

subsequent visitors could not find the species 

(Goodman et al. 1997). During these surveys of 

Tsitongambarika, C. caerulea was frequently observed 

but no evidence of C. cristata was obtained. Continued 

studies in lowland forest in south-east Madagascar, 

particularly any remnants close to Tolagnaro, are a 

high priority to ascertain if C. c. maxima remains 

extant. 

Short-legged Ground-roller 

A single Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias 

leptosomus (Plate 11) was observed twice on a slope at 

204 m elevation in Ivohibe Forest. This area was visited 

on the two following days but the bird was not seen 

again. B. leptosomus was also observed in Ivorona 

Forest: an adult feeding two young was observed in 

forest near a ridge crest at 537 m elevation 

(24°48’49.1”S, 46°56’37.8”E). Previously, the known 

distribution of this species was limited to eastern humid 

evergreen forest between the massif of Tsaratanana in 

the north to Andohahela National Park in the south 

(Langrand 1990, Morris and Hawkins 1998), with an 

isolated population in montane forest around Daraina 

(ZICOMA 1999). Records of the species from 

Tsitongambarika thus constitute a south-easterly 

extension to the known distribution. 

Plate 11. Short-legged Ground-roller 

Brachypteracias leptosomus (Vulnerable) 

(ANDRIANDRAOTOMALAZA BRUNO RAVELOSON)

Red-tailed Newtonia 

Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae was 

observed twice in Ivorona Forest, on 5 January 2006, 

about 300 m south-east of the campsite (24°49’25.0”S, 

46°56’56.2”E). N. fanovanae is distinguished from 

Common Newtonia N. brunneicauda by its 

characteristic call: a series of five or six notes “pitchipitchi- 

pitchipitchi- pitchi” followed, a few seconds 

later, by five or six notes “sweepsweep- sweep- sweepsweep-”. 

As N. brunneicauda emits only the series 

“pitchipitchi- pitchipitchi- pitchi”, the birds observed 

were undoubtedly N. fanovanae. A male was observed: 

this is very similar in appearance to a female 

Red-tailed Vanga Calicalicus madagascariensis. 

However, N. fanovanae has a visibly lower tail, a red 

iris contrasting with a bluish-grey head and forehead, 

and lacks the pale cream eye ring present in female 

C. madagascariensis. N. fanovanae was observed 

within a mixed flock in the forest canopy, comprising: 

four Hypsipetes madagascariensis, two Cyanolanius 

madagascarinus, one Crested Drongo Dicrurus 

forficatus, two Terpsiphone mutata, a pair of 

Calicalicus madagascariensis, one N. brunneicauda, 

one Ashy Cuckooshrike Coracina cinerea, three 

Rufous Vanga Schetba rufa, one Tylas Vanga Tylas 

eduardi and about 10 Zosterops maderaspatanus. 

Several more records have followed since the main 

survey (Dutson 2006, Asity Madagascar pers. comm.; 

see also Plate 3). 

Prior to 1989, N. fanovanae was known only from 

specimens collected in 1931 around Fanovana Forest 

(Gyldenstolpe 1933). It is limited to eastern humid 

evergreen forest, within which it seems to have a very 

restricted distribution (ZICOMA 1999). Prior to this 

survey of Tsitongambarika, the species was only 

certainly known from eight localities: Marojejy 

National Park, Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve, 

Rantabe Maroantsetra Classified Forest, 

Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena National 

Park, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Vevembe 

Vondrozo Forest and Andohahela National Park 

Parcel 1 (Langrand and Sinclair 1994, Randrianasolo 

1996, Goodman et al. 1997, ZICOMA 1999). The 

presence of Newtonia fanovanae in the forest of 

Tsitongambarika constitutes a south-easterly 

extension of the known distribution of this species. 


Bluntschli’s Vanga 

Bluntschli’s Vanga Hypositta perdita was described 

from two young specimens collected by Bluntschli in 

Eminiminy valley in south-east Madagascar in 

September 1931 (Peters 1996). The distribution of H. 

perdita could comprise lowland humid evergreen 

forest in south-east Madagascar, including 

Eminiminy valley and the nearby Tsitongambarika 

Forest. Comparison of the two H. perdita specimens 

with specimens of H. corallirostris have revealed 

apparently fundamental differences in foot structure. 

Since the collection of the type specimens, H. perdita 

has not been recorded. During this survey of 

Tsitongambarika, only H. corallirostris was observed. 

Further research, including comparison of juvenile 

H. corallirostris (currently undescribed) with the H. 

perdita specimens, may clarify the taxonomic position 

and/or distribution of the latter. 

■ Long-term ecological monitoring 

Conservation of Tsitongambarika requires a longterm 

ecological monitoring programme, which is 

likely to involve both local communities and 

supporting organisations, such as Asity Madagascar, 

BirdLife International, Rio Tinto and Rio Tinto 

QMM. Possible activities and indicators for an 

ecological monitoring programme for the avifauna of 

Tsitongambarika are listed in Table 16. The most 

appropriate season for bird monitoring is between 

October and December. In addition to ecological 

monitoring, there is also a need to identify other 

priority sites for bird conservation within 

Tsitongambarika Forest. The main gap in survey 

coverage to date is forest areas at altitudes above 

800 m. 


1. Identify additional priority sites by continuing 

biological inventory work in new areas, including: 

the far north-west of Ivohibe; the area between 

Eriampisaky and Maromoky in the east and 

Ampany Ambahiny in the west; the forest near 

Farafara, Mahatalaky Commune; and the area 

around Managotry pass linking Tsitongambarika 

Table 16. Possible activities and indicators for an ecological monitoring programme of the avifauna of 

Tsitongambarika 

Activities Quantifiable indicators Contributors 

Censuses by point counts and/or transects along 

forest tracks at: 

• Tsitongambarika Pass; 

• Ivorona to Mahatalaky; 

• Others to be identified. 

Relative abundance of bird species. Asity Madagascar 

Monitoring of human pressure on bird habitats: • Measurement of forest clearance over time. Number of Asity Madagascar, trained 

• Annual marking of the forest edge by GPS; trees cut (which can be compared to CoBa permits). local community members. 

• Counting trees that have been cut down; • Number of hunting and poaching incidents recorded 

• Recording frequency of hunting and poaching. by CoBas. 

55

to Andohahela National Park. Special attention 

should be given to surveying forest above 800 m 

elevation, which has not been visited during 

surveys to date. 

2. Initiate an ecological monitoring programme at 

identified priority sites, focusing on threatened 

species and those that are good indicators of 

disturbance. This programme should include 

measures of bird abundance and of human 

pressures. Implementation should begin with 

definition of quantifiable indicators, development 

of a database, and nomination of a responsible 

56 


organisation. Analysed results should be published 

and provided to local communities and 

organisations working in the area. 

3. Initiate a programme to provide support to local 

communities for rational and sustainable 

management of natural resources. This could 

include creation of new CoBas and/or support 

to existing CoBas. Activities could include: 

forest regeneration, small-scale incomegeneration, 

training local communities in new or 

improved farming methods and development of 

ecotourism.


■ Chapter 7: THE ANTS OF THE IVOHIBE REGION 

OF TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST 

BRIAN L. FISHER 

INTRODUCTION 

In December 2006, a survey was conducted of Ivohibe 

Mountain just east of Antsotso. The survey team 

consisted of Brian Fisher from California Academy 

of Sciences (CAS) and four members of the arthropod 

field team from the Madagascar Biodiversity Center 

(MBC) in Park Tsimbazaza. MBC is a Malagasy 

NGO incorporated in 2004, with a central mission to 

improve and accelerate individual and institutional 

capacity in biodiversity research in Madagascar, 

emphasising research on the island’s arthropods with 

an aim to broaden the scope of organisms routinely 

analysed when mapping biodiversity for conservation 

purposes. MBC includes training facilities for 

Malagasy students and provides an environment 

where practising Malagasy scientists can participate 

in conservation decision making. 

STUDY SITES 

Ants were intensively surveyed at 200 m (100–300 m 

from forest edge) and 650 m (the summit of Ivohibe) 

between 2–5 December 2006. The two sites were 

chosen to represent the largest elevation range of good 

forest available on the mountain. Specifically, 

inventories were conducted at the following localities: 

1. 55.0 km N Tolagnaro, 24°34.14’S, 47°12.24’E, 

200 m, 2–4.xii.2006; collections BLF15448-15553; 

2. 55.6 km N Tolagnaro, 24°33.70’S, 47°12.01’E, 

650 m, 4.xii.2006, collections BLF15554-15629. 

SURVEY METHODS 

Ants were often collected by hand. Areas searched 

included rotten logs and stumps, in both dead and 

live branches, in bamboo, on low vegetation, under 

canopy moss and epiphytes, and under stones. 

To capture flying insects, including winged ants 

(queens and males) we set up four Malaise traps and 

25 yellow pan traps at the 200 m site from 2–4 

December 2006. 

At the 200 m site, invertebrates were extracted 

from samples of leaf litter (leaf mold, rotten wood) 

using a modified form of the Winkler extractor. The 

leaf litter samples were sifted through a wire sieve of 

1 cm grid size. Before sifting, the leaf litter was 

chopped with a machete to disturb ant nests in small 

twigs and decayed logs. Ants and other invertebrates 

were extracted from the sifted litter during a 48-hour 

period in mini-Winkler sacks. At the 200 m site, we 

conducted nine trap extractions, with each trap 

holding eight liters of sifted litter. 

Ants on low vegetation and in arboreal habitats 

were sampled by holding a stretched 60 cm x 60 cm 

white canvas platform below the undergrowth and 

beating the trunk of a tree or clump vegetation three 

times with a stick. The ants dislodged onto the canvas 

platform were aspirated and placed in ethanol. This 

process was repeated by one collector for an entire 

day of collecting. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Previous arthropod inventories have been conducted 

at over 225 sites across Madagascar, in all habitats 

and geological formations. These surveys have 

included sites in the littoral, lowland and mountain 

forest in the Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) regions. 

The species collected from 2–5 December, 2006 are 

presented in Table 17. All specimens from the 

inventory and images of each species can be found at 

www.antweb.org/madagascar.jsp 

In the four days of field work, 105 species were 

recorded, with 81 species at 200 m and 40 species at 

650 m near the summit. Two species, Camponotus 

MG038 (Plate 12) and Pheidole MGs074 are known 

only from this forest. One other species, Camponotus 

MG080, was discovered for the first time during this 

Plate 12. 

Camponotus MG038, 

a new species of ant 

collected during 

surveys and so far 

known only from 

Ivohibe 

57

58 

Map 7. Ant survey site 


survey, although it has since been found at two other 

locations. 

The fauna is more diverse than similar sites in 

Andohahela National Park (see AntWeb.org). At 

Ivohibe, a higher diversity of ants were captured in a 

shorter amount of time. 

The 650 m site includes 23 species not recorded in 

the lowland site. The shift in species along the 

elevational gradient makes it important to include 

both habitats in conservation planning. 

Table 17. Ant species collected from Ivohibe 

Species 200 m 650 m 

Anochetus grandidieri 2 0 

Anochetus madagascarensis 7 0 

Camponotus christi 4 0 

Camponotus christi foersteri 1 1 

Camponotus dufouri 3 0 

Camponotus edmondi 0 1 

Camponotus gibber 0 2 

Camponotus gouldi 3 0 

Camponotus heteroclitus 0 6 

Camponotus hildebrandti 4 1 

Camponotus maculatus 0 1 

Camponotus MG024 1 0 










Camponotus mocquerysi 6 0 

Camponotus putatus 0 3 

Camponotus robustus 2 0 

Carebara MG01 1 0 

Carebara MG08 1 0 

Cataulacus oberthueri 2 0 

Cataulacus porcatus 15 1 

Cataulacus regularis 0 3 

Cerapachys L_MG10 1 0 

Cerapachys MG10 1 0 

Cerapachys P_MG02 1 0 

Cerapachys P_MG11 0 2 



Crematogaster BBB36 1 0 





Hypoponera MG017 2 0 








Monomorium fisheri 0 2 

Monomorium gongromos 2 0 

Monomorium hanneli 1 0 

Monomorium hildebrandti 1 0 

Monomorium MG01 0 2 

Monomorium micrommaton 1 0 

Monomorium termitobium 1 3 

Mystrium MG01 1 0 

Mystrium rogeri 1 1 

Nesomyrmex madecassus 2 0 

Nesomyrmex MG07 2 0 

Nylanderia undetermined 10 6 

Pachycondyla cambouei 1 0 

Pachycondyla JCR05 0 1 

Pachycondyla perroti 0 1 

Pachycondyla sikorae 1 0 

Pachycondyla wasmannii 2 0 

Paraparatrechina undetermined 2 0 

Pheidole MG001 2 4 


Crematogaster BBB14 0 1 Pheidole MG078 0 1 

Crematogaster BBB32 1 0 Pheidole MG091 1 0 

Note: Species in bold are known only from Ivohibe Peak 

Unlike forests such as Lavasoa (Grand Lavasoa, 

25.9 km W Tolagnaro, 25°05.26’S, 46°44.94’E), where 

selective logging has degraded the majority of the 

forest, Ivohibe is in pristine condition. The forest edge 

represents the limit of disturbance. Once inside the 

forest, one quickly encounters mature growth. The 

resident ant species reflect the pristine nature of this 

forest. While secondary forests in the region as a 

whole are invariably inhabited by tramp ants, we did 

not collect any invasive species in Ivohibe forest. 





Pheidole MGs011 1 0 




Pheidole oswaldi 2 0 

Plagiolepis alluaudi 3 1 

Plagiolepis madecassa 0 1 

Platythyrea bicuspis 1 0 

Prionopelta descarpentriesi 0 1 

Simopone MG02 1 0 

Strumigenys ampyx 0 3 

Strumigenys chilo 1 0 

Strumigenys origo 1 0 

Strumigenys sphera 1 0 

Technomyrmex madecassus 1 0 

Terataner MG11 9 3 

Tetramorium cognatum 0 1 

Tetramorium electrum 2 1 

Tetramorium latreillei 1 0 

Tetramorium MG035 2 0 





Tetramorium proximum 1 0 

Tetramorium severini 3 0 

Tetramorium tosii 3 0 

Tetraponera grandidieri 0 3 

Tetraponera merita 4 5 

Tetraponera MG06 1 0 

Tetraponera undetermined 8 4 

Total species 81 40 

59

OBJECTIVES 

Objectives of the socio-economic research were: 

1. Collection and analysis of socio-economic data 

potentially related to biodiversity; 

2. Identification of the importance of biodiversity for 

local communities; 

3. Identification of traditions (e.g. farming and 

cultural) that impact the Tsitongambarika Forest; 

4. Collection of demographic data. 

METHODOLOGY 

This survey was conducted in 2005 in four of the 15 

communes (municipalities) around Tsitongambarika. 

The communes surveyed were Mahatalaky, Iabakoho, 

and Manantenina communes on the eastern side of 

Tsitongambarika and Ifarantsa Commune on the 

western side. The methodology was as follows: 

1. Consultations: to collect data from existing entities 

and organisations; 

2. Village household surveys: to gather socioeconomic 

data; 

3. Qualitative Interviews: to cross-check data collected 

during household surveys; 

4. Meetings with local communities: to assess 

community involvement in biodiversity 

conservation and to assess community flexibility 

to adjust cultural or farming traditions in a future 

environmental conservation programme 

5. Observations (direct and participative): to verify 

and complete data collected through other 

methods. 

SOCIAL ORGANISATION 

■ Manantenina, Iabakoho and 

Ifarantsa communes 

Background 

The origin of populations living in these three 

communes is the same, especially for the coastal 

populations on the east side of Tsitongambarika I 

and II. It is said that they are descendants of two 

Antesaka brothers (the Zafisery) from a tribe in 

Sandravinany–Vangaindrano in the north. These 

populations have always lived a part from other ethnic 

groups and only marry amongst themselves. As a 

result, the majority of the population in these 

60 


■ Chapter 8: SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF 

THE TSITONGAMBARIKA AREA 

MAMINIAINA ANDRIAMAHENITSOA AND MARIE BEATRICE YVONNE RAHASINANDRASANA 

communes is essentially Antesaka as in the case of 

Manambato. However, it is said that the Antanosy 

settled this region in the past, but later moved to the 

western part of Tsitongambarika Forest, for example 

to Ivorona. Two factors prompted the Antesaka to 

migrate to this region. First, was better ocean fishing 

(particularly of lobster). Second, was colonial timber 

harvesting. The Antesaka would leave their homes in 

the North to come south to Bemangidy to work in 

the colonial lumber mill. Nowadays, Bemangidy, 

which was once a large settlement, is nothing more 

than a small hamlet of four houses, having been 

abandoned by its previous inhabitants. Since the 

arrival of the Antesaka, there has been no more 

significant immigration. The few additional people 

who come to settle in this region are essentially 

merchants, constituting barely 1% of the population. 

Family structure 

In villages, houses are built far away from one another 

because inhabitants are prone to impulsiveness and 

conflicts. Thus, when a family becomes large it leaves 

a village to establish another hamlet. At Antsotso, there 

are up to 10 hamlets of 4–30 houses each, suggesting a 

desire for independence and self-sufficiency. 

In these communities, men, fulfilling their roles as 

fathers and husbands, are responsible for household 

income (assisted by their wives). The populations 

practice traditional marriage, do not approve of 

polygamy and have 2–8 children per family. In general, 

girls marry from the age of 15, with boys a little later. 

Women are respected in the home, participate in family 

discussions, give their opinions and make relevant 

decisions. 

Authorities 

The villages are managed by legal authorities since 

the people are all immigrants and thus do not have 

traditional authorities. The legal authority is the chef 

de quartier, who is the local leader and has close ties 

to the community. All decisions must pass by this 

central authority, who governs the communities and 

solves disputes. Nonetheless, there are other village 

elders called lonaky who hold power inside their own 

family groups. The situation is the same for religious 

leaders. There is an exception to this general rule in 

Iabakoho where the local teachers (with a 9th grade 

education) are also highly respected, consulted, and 

are influential in the community. 

Taboos, beliefs and dina 

All villages commonly respect rivers and lakes. It is 

forbidden (taboo) to urinate and defecate near these

Map 8. Socio-economic survey sites 


61

waters, probably because these are daily water sources 

for the population. It is also forbidden to bring 

recently-cut firewood into the village. It must stay 

outside the village until it is dry. Some particular 

species are subject to local beliefs, and these are 

discussed later. Collective agreements (dina) adopted 

by the community and legal authorities (the mayor 

and Ministry of Water and Forests) are intended to 

motivate people to work and to respect their 

neighbours. 

■ Mahatalaky Commune 

Background 

The main ethnic group in this commune is the 

Antanosy. Migration within the commune is frequent, 

particularly to the administrative centre of the 

commune because of food insecurity in other 

fokontany (the smallest Malagasy adminstrative unit, 

often comprised of one or more villages). 

Intercommunal and interregional migration is not 

significant, except into South Volobe Fokontany 

where forest clearing is very intense. The people who 

have settled on the hillsides of Tsitongambarika come 

from Manantenina Commune. Since in-migration is 

practically non-existent, there is not much inter-ethnic 

co-habitation or interaction and thus there are only 

Antanosy living in the study sites. 

Marriage 

Marriage with close relatives is frequent between the 

descendants of two brothers or those of a brother and 

a sister. However, the descendants of two sisters 

cannot marry. For marriage of the descendants of a 

brother and sister, a taboo between them must be 

lifted, by sacrificing a zebu (ox) or a rooster and 

holding a ceremony known as Manandra-arim-belo. 

After the ceremony, every guest receives a piece of 

meat called tahala and the bride and groom are 

acknowledged by the community to be married. For 

marriages between people from two different families, 

the husband offers zebu to his future wife’s parents, 

the number depending on the agreement between the 

families. 

Death and burial 

If a community member dies, the bad news spreads 

quickly and far. Families and representatives of other 

clans come to comfort the family of the dead by 

bringing money or rice. As a result, there is enough 

rice and meat to cook for the whole family in a funeral 

ceremony known as famaha. The duration of the 

famaha depends on the wealth of the family. If the 

family is too poor, the dead relative is buried as 

quickly as possible but usually the family is obliged 

to go into debt to hold the famaha. 

Every clan (whose identity is recognised through 

a mark on their cows’ ears) has a burial place (known 

as an amonike or kibory), essentially a small wood 

with several big stones surrounded by bare land. The 

dead are buried under these rocks; men and women 

62 


separately. These woods are sacred places that it is 

forbidden to visit (except during an actual burial) or 

collect firewood. When the burial ground is full, the 

clan looks for another site. 

For a widow or widower, the mourning ritual is 

strict. The widowed have to wear the same black 

clothing for a six-month period without washing 

themselves or their clothes. They also have to stay at 

their house all day long, except to use the toilet. This 

period of mourning is called milobona. Mourning can 

have a harmful psychological impact on young 

individuals, who may suffer from personality change 

and depression during this period. 

DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION 

Summary demographic data are presented in Table 

18. Those aged 0–5 do not yet attend school and 

remain with their mothers. Those aged 6–10 attend 

elementary school. They still live with their parents 

or sometimes with members of their family who live 

close to their schools. Very few of those aged 11–17 

still study. Boys help their fathers and learn their 

father’s profession (fishing, etc.) and girls help their 

mother in household and agricultural chores. This is 

the period when the youth are preparing their adult 

life and begin to be interested in earning money. At 

the ages of 18–60, people already have their own 

livelihoods and family. This age group is closely tied 

to its traditions and is hesitant to adopt new ideas or 

visions, even if outwardly they profess to be interested. 

Their conservative tendencies often slow down or even 

hinder new projects, such as the creation of an 

association. Those aged over 60 are the leading 

citizens of the community. Despite their age, they still 

participate in their family’s daily activities: men collect 

firewood and are in charge of village cleanliness while 

women carry out household chores, make mats and 

fishing traps, and assist the men. 

■ Manantenina Commune 

Fokontany Ankaramany 

Ankaramany is located 19 km south of Manantenina 

along national road 12A and constitutes the northern 

boundary of Tsitongambarika Forest. It comprises 

five main villages: Antsapa, Andamasinina, Enakao, 

Sakorihina and Ankaramany. This fokontany has a 

public elementary school. More than 70% of 

households fish as their main livelihood activity. The 

others are farmers in the plain on the edge of 

Tsitongambarika. During the official fishing season, 

these farmers occasionally move to the coast to 

become fishermen. Their temporary campsites may 

become permanent, as in the case of Enakao village. 

There is a fishermen’s association in the fokontany. 

There is not yet a community forest management 

association (communauté de base, commonly known 

as a CoBa) here, which may explain the scale of forest 

clearing in this area.


Table 18. Demographic data from four surveyed communes 

No. 0–5 6–10 

Age (years) 

11–17 18–60 >60 

Commune Fokontany Site households Population Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 

Manantenina Ankaramany N/A N/A 1,556 171 189 124 137 120 128 315 329 23 20 

Manambato N/A N/A 606 68 69 48 53 46 49 124 135 6 8 

Antanitsara N/A N/A 1,040 106 81 70 99 88 73 239 258 14 12 

Iabakoho Iabakoho N/A N/A 703 71 84 56 63 53 69 137 149 13 8 

Ambanihazo N/A N/A 712 62 69 58 71 68 51 135 179 11 8 

Antsotso N/A N/A 692 78 84 52 61 53 64 136 147 10 7 

Vatomirindry N/A N/A 618 65 69 42 52 51 47 128 149 7 8 

Ifarantsa Ifarantsa N/A N/A 1,862 249 250 142 197 108 179 330 361 20 26 

Vatomivarina N/A N/A 1,041 115 120 80 103 90 76 209 233 9 6 

Efangera N/A N/A 1,102 155 152 81 107 85 75 194 227 16 10 

Fanjahira N/A N/A 1,046 97 88 64 85 83 75 264 253 15 22 

Evonje N/A N/A 755 63 99 71 67 70 60 155 147 13 10 

Ivolo N/A N/A 1,000 151 95 140 102 60 81 184 155 17 15 

Andanivato N/A N/A 918 106 143 78 70 75 78 163 195 7 3 

Ivorona N/A N/A 2,137 271 269 168 180 184 176 419 428 29 13 

Ankera N/A N/A 923 77 82 59 55 50 60 251 259 16 14 

Sub-total 16,711 1,905 1,943 1,333 1,502 1,284 1,341 3,383 3,604 226 190 

Total 16,711 3,848 2,835 2,625 6,987 416 

Percentage 100% 23% 17% 16% 41.5% 2.5% 

Age (years) 

No. 0–5 6–17 18–60 >60 

Commune Fokontany Site households Population Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 

Mahatakaly Anaviavy N/A 22 104 12 13 16 15 23 25 N/A N/A 

Androangabe N/A 29 133 3 9 25 20 35 41 N/A N/A 

Beantafa N/A 46 243 27 20 38 35 60 63 N/A N/A 

Sarondrano N/A 21 119 12 10 22 21 24 30 N/A N/A 

Emanevy N/A 64 359 45 34 69 61 71 79 N/A N/A 

Sahamaro N/A 52 262 33 33 44 40 56 56 N/A N/A 

Tsihalagna Tsihalagna 24 332 57 49 41 46 60 76 2 1 

Marovato 15 95 13 14 16 7 16 20 5 4 

Marofotry 15 76 7 7 16 11 17 17 0 1 

Tsianoriha Tsianoriha 42 180 18 21 27 21 43 44 2 4 

Ankazomasy 49 210 22 23 26 29 47 53 4 6 

Andramanàka Andriamanàka 40 217 30 26 35 26 48 49 1 2 

Ambarakotry 32 145 16 15 20 21 35 35 2 1 

Analalava 80 425 50 50 62 61 100 92 3 7 

Ankazomasy 16 75 11 8 16 5 17 16 1 1 

Amboniria 33 172 17 11 41 29 28 39 3 4 

Mananara I Mananara I 

and hamlets 50 288 31 30 56 56 53 53 5 4 

Volobe Sud Analamagnasa 231 1,333 146 170 205 221 246 260 14 71 

Tanandava 65 339 41 41 51 54 72 68 4 8 

Fandramanitra 62 356 50 51 59 47 66 77 6 0 

Andanivato 102 580 57 76 103 104 120 104 9 7 

Volobe Nord North Volobe 135 530 50 73 103 103 104 92 4 1 

Maromoky 80 448 49 54 91 71 88 88 4 3 

Esinda 40 216 25 26 42 28 47 44 2 2 

Eforo 17 88 11 8 15 19 18 15 1 1 

South Ebakika South Ebakika 89 459 45 45 74 84 98 96 8 9 

Sub-total 1,451 7,784 878 917 1,313 1,235 1,592 1,632 80 137 

Total 1,795 2,548 3,224 217 

Percentage 100% 23% 33% 41% 3% 

Source: Commune statistics for 2004 (Iabokoho and Ifarantsa); survey results (Mahatalaky and Manantenina) 

63

Fokontany Manambato 

Manambato has two villages, Manambato and 

Ambalantenina, and is 31 km south of Manantenina, 

on national road 12A. It has a total population of 

606 inhabitants and has a public elementary school 

and a basic health centre. About 80% of villagers are 

primarily fishermen but become farmers for part of 

the year, clearing the forest for cultivation. There is 

not yet a CoBa in this fokontany. 

Fokontany Antanitsara 

Antanitsara is 6 km west of Manambato, and is 

composed of several hamlets, including Antamenaka, 

Morafeno, Fenoandala, Antanandava, Antanambao, 

Antanamasy, Ambohimahasoa, Mahasoa, 

Amboahangy and Tsiangafiafy. It has an public 

elementary school in the main village, Fenoandala. 

There is no health centre and thus traditional medicine 

is well developed. About 90% of the population farm 

as their main livelihood activity. Agricultural yields 

are satisfactory because the soil is reasonably fertile. 

However, there is insufficient irrigation in the lowland 

rice fields and also flooding during the rainy seasons. 

There are very few families who do not practice forest 

clearing in this fokontany. There is no CoBa yet in 

this fokontany. 

■ Iabakoho Commune 

This comprises the fokontanys of Iabakoho, 

Ambanihazo, Antsotso and Vatomirindry, with a 

total population of 2,725. Iabakoho is 60 km north 

of Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) on national road 12A. 

It is bounded by Manantenina Commune in the north, 

and Mahatalaky Commune in the south, and is about 

15 km long. Every fokontany has at least an 

elementary school (public or private) but there is a 

serious lack of school teachers. About 90% of the 

households practice both fishing and farming and, as 

in neighbouring communes, forest clearing is 

practised in Iabakoho. CoBas are being established 

in the commune, but farmers continue to use 

traditional agricultural practices. 

■ Ifarantsa Commune 

Ifaransta Commune is 234 km² in size and is located 

on the western side of Tsitongambarika. It is bounded 

by Isaka Ivondro Commune to the north, Soanierana 

Commune to the south and Mandiso Commune to 

the north-west. The total population is 10,784. This 

commune comprises the fokontanys of Ifarantsa, 

Vatomivarina, Efangera, Ivorona, Fanjahira, Evonje, 

Andanivato, Ankera and Ivolo. The commune has a 

basic health centre (Centre de santé de base II, or 

CSB II) and a middle school (College d’Enseignement 

Général, or CEG) at Ifarantsa. There have been 

public elementary schools in each fokontany since 

2005. 

Animal husbandry plays an important role in the 

local economy. Cassava, rice, sweet potato and fruit 

tree cultivation are also significant. Agricultural 

practices do clear the forest but less than in other 

64 


communes. Some produce is consumed locally and 

some sold to commercial buyers at the Ifarantsa 

market. Poor irrigation management, lack of fertiliser 

and existence of agricultural pests are among the 

many obstacles to agricultural development in this 

commune. 

An inventory of non-governmental organisations 

(NGOs) working on rural development in the 

commune, included CARE International, FAFAFI 

(Fanentanana, Fambolena, Fiompiana; a Malagasy 

NGO specialising in rural agriculture and animal 

husbandry), and ASOS (Action, Santé, Organisation, 

Secours; a Malagasy NGO specialising in rural public 

health, water and sanitation). Village associations 

exist in many fields, including: lychee, chilli, and red 

peppercorn-producing associations; a women’s 

association; and an association for management of 

Fanjahira Forest. Forest clearing occurs in the 

commune but much less so than in other communes. 

Bushfires have always existed in this commune. There 

are CoBas at Ifarantsa, Talakifeno, Marovitsika, 

Ankera, Ivorona, Androtsy, Maliovola, 

Vohibandrika and Andanivato. 

In the communes of Manantenina, Iabokoho and 

Ifarantsa the Education, Health and Communication 

situation can be summarised as follows: 

Education 

All of the fokontanys of Manantenina, Iabokoho and 

Ifarantsa have at least one public elementary school 

and Ifarantsa has had a public middle school (CEG) 

since 2005. Parents are proud of sending their children 

to school even though the classrooms (two classrooms 

for five classes), teachers, and school furniture and 

supplies are insufficient. The hamlets are located far 

from one another, which means that small children 

have difficulty travelling 3–4 km to schools which are, 

in rainy seasons, inaccessible because of floods or 

washed-out bridges. 

Health 

Most of the fokontanys in Manantenina, Iabokoho 

and Ifarantsa have or will soon have a basic health 

centre. The health sector faces the same problems as 

the education sector such as: 

1. Lack of medical staff; 

2. Distance from the hamlets to the health centre; 

3. Inaccessibility of the road when it rains. 

Due to these challenges, people use traditional 

medicine to treat illnesses. 

Communication 

The national road 12A that links Tolagnaro and 

Manantenina goes through the villages located in the 

eastern part of Tsitongambarika. Although it is not 

paved, it is accessible almost year round. To travel 

between Iabokoho and Manantenina, there are four 

ferry crossings, which can be problematic if a ferry is 

broken.

■ Mahatalaky Commune 

The administrative centre of the commune is 

comprised of six fokontany: Anaviavy, Androangabe, 

Beantafa, Sarondrano, Emanevy and Sahamaro. 

Migration within the commune is frequent, 

particularly to this centre to avoid the food insecurity 

situation in the rural areas. In this centre there are 

public elementary schools and a middle school as in 

other commune centres. School attendance is high at 

the elementary level, but decreases at the secondary 

level as children start to work. The commune has a 

basic health centre (CSB II), with a doctor, midwife, 

and small pharmacy with basic medicines. The 

population uses the health centre especially on market 

day. Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent, and the 

majority of the population has severe dental issues 

due to lack of calcium in the water and their diet. 

Agriculture is the main livelihood activity, 

followed by animal husbandry, fishing and hunting. 

Major crops include irrigated and pluvial rice, sweet 

potato, corn, bemako (a type of cultivated tuber, 

Dioscorea sp.), taro root (saonjo), sugar cane, banana 

(cultivated in the forest), fruit trees, and vanilla. 

Except for coffee and banana cultivation, agriculture 

uses shifting (slash-and-burn or tavy) techniques. 

Communities say they use this practice because ‘the 

soil is too cold for cultivation and would not produce 

enough without being burnt’. Ash serves as a fertiliser 

and basic hand tools are used (spade, machete-like 

knife, and axe). Animal husbandry includes cattle, 

pigs, and poultry. Few people fish since this 

administrative centre is far from the sea, but there is 

heavy involvement in trading fish and shellfish. Most 

of the communities hunt occasionally, targeting tenrec 

species, Collared Brown Lemur (Eulemur collaris, 

known as varika), Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida 

meleagris, known as akanga), Madagascar 

Buttonquail (Turnix nigricollis, known as kibobo) and 

quails (Coturnix sp., known as trahotraho). In 

Mahatalaky Fokontany, basketwork is an essential 

source of income for households during the annual 

five-month period of food insecurity. 

■ Tsihalagna Fokontany, 

Mahatalaky Commune 

Tsihalagna is close to Tsitongambarika. It comprises 

four villages of which three were visited during 

surveys. Among all survey areas, Tsihalagna is the 

most vulnerable to food insecurity. Local people eat 

pape (a wild forest tuber, Dioscorea sp.) during the 

most severe food insecurity periods. Pape is highly 

poisonous and requires meticulous preparation 

(peeling, drying for several days, and then immersing 

in a creek or stream for a week) before it can be 

consumed. 

There is an elementary school in the centre of the 

fokontany, with one teacher responsible for the three 

classes (grades 1–3). There were two assistants but 

these resigned because they did not get their salary 

on time. Less than 10% of children who should attend 

school do so. Attendance is low because children are 


helping their parents with family livelihood activities 

and household chores. The nearest basic health centre 

is in Mahatalaky Commune, a three-hour walk away. 

Local people treat ailments with medicinal plants, and 

only go to the health centre when ailments become 

serious. Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent. Even 

births take place in villages, assisted by an experienced 

elderly woman (often the mother of the woman giving 

birth). 

Shifting agriculture is also prevalent here. 

Populations cultivate pluvial and irrigated rice, 

cassava, taro, coffee and banana. Rice production is 

low, and a given harvest can only feed a family for a 

week to a month depending on household size. 

Cassava lasts longer and ensures household survival 

if it is not stolen, but crop theft is frequent in this 

area. Cattle, pigs, and poultry are raised. Cattle 

manure fertilises rice crops, and livestock are only 

sold in times of need. Basketwork is produced, 

especially mats for household use, with any surplus 

sold at the Mahatalaky market. Some people hunt 

species such as tenrec species, Collared Brown Lemur, 

Helmeted Guineafowl, Madagascar Buttonquail and 

Common Quail, within the fokontany’s delimited 

forest reserve. 

■ Tsianoriha Fokontany, 


Tsianoriha is located near Tsitongambarika and is 

very similar to Tsihalagna. The majority of the 

population is concentrated in Tsianoriha village. The 

standard of living is higher than that of Tsihalagna, 

due to various economic activities. There is one 

concrete public elementary school, with one teacher 

responsible for the three classes (grades 1–3). This is 

the only fokontany where half of school-age children 

actually attend. The health situation in Tsianoriha is 

similar to other places with a prevalence of malaria 

and diarrhoea. Tsianoriha is not far from the 

Mahatalaky health centre. 

Agriculture, livestock farming and fishing are the 

main livelihood activities of the community, with 

salaried work as a secondary activity. Crops are 

primarily irrigated and pluvial rice, cassava, sweet 

potato, banana and sugar cane. Agriculture is shifting, 

either in the valleys/plains or in the hills/forest. Forest 

is cleared and planted during three years’, and then 

left fallow, while another area is cleared. This 

agriculture is in a ‘local use zone’ defined by the World 

Wide Fund for Nature and the Ministry of Water and 

Forests during the forestry zoning process with the 

community. However, the community is dissatisfied 

with the extent of this area and complains of poverty. 

Indeed, since the forestry zoning there has been severe 

food insecurity because the agricultural production 

in the local use zone was insufficient. Cattle, pigs, and 

poultry are raised in the fokontany. Subsistence 

fishing occurs in the Tsianoriha River. Baskets and 

mats are woven for household use and sold to 

purchase basic food stuffs. During the yearly period 

of food insecurity, men may travel long distances to 

65

search for paid work as work as porters, agricultural 

workers, etc. 

■ Andramanàka Fokontany, 


Andramanàka is near Tsitongambarika, and is made 

up of five villages: Ambarokotry, Analalava, 

Ankazomasy, Amboniria, and Andriamanàka. 

People tend to settle right next to the forest and carry 

out many activities related to the forest. This 

fokontany has a higher standard of living than others, 

because several NGOs work there (British NGO 

Azafady, and Malagasy NGOs FAFAFI, and ASOS). 

There is a public elementary school, with three 

teachers in charge of grades 1–5. There are 10–15 

children per class, although only five pupils remain 

in grade 5. Pupils do not attend school regularly due 

to the food insecurity situation. They come two or 

three times and then miss class for a month. Disease 

prevalence is identical to that of other fokontany. The 

nearest basic health centre is at Mahatalaky. 

As it is near Tsitongambarika, this community has 

diverse livelihoods, but shifting cultivation is the 

mainstay. The main crops are irrigated and pluvial 

rice, cassava, sweet potato, corn, coffee, banana, 

sugar cane and taro root. Generally, the field burning 

period (doro-asa) is between August and October. As 

recommended by the CoBa, a 4 m fire break is made 

(to ensure that the fire stays under control and does 

not leave the area that is intended for burning) and 

some members of the community also stand guard to 

extinguish any fire that leaves the intended area. 

Intentional fires that go out of control can cause 

bushfires and burn down the forest (e.g. a one month 

fire near Andramanàka). Cattle, pigs, and poultry are 

raised. Baskets are made for household use. Women 

here work more in the fields than on basket weaving. 

Some men produce traditional alcohol (toaka gasy) 

to sell in the administrative centre of the commune. 

This is so profitable that some people have abandoned 

cassava cultivation. The community tends to settle 

right on the edge of the forest to facilitate their natural 

resource extraction activities. People in Analalava 

hunt wild boar, that destroy crops, Collared Brown 

Lemur and other edible animals. 

■ Mananara I Fokontany, 


This is a small fokontany composed of six hamlets. 

The forest is divided into: 

1. Conservation zone (commonly known as ala faly 

though it is not technically, as this term suggests, 

taboo forest): Eberohy Forest; 

2. Commercial timber harvesting zone: 

Finomandrano Forest; 

3. Local use zone: Vohimainty. 

There is little flat agricultural land, and the population 

only has access to the Vohimainty Forest, so natural 

resource management is rigorous and effective. There 

66 


is no school in this fokontany, even though there are 

many school aged children. The community built a 

school building, but there is no teacher. The nearest 

health centre is in the administrative centre of the 

commune but the community appears healthy, with 

little malnutrition. 

There is no cultivatable plain in this fokontany, 

given the topography. This local use zone, 

Vohimainty, is the only area that the community 

has to cultivate, in addition to the lowland rice 

fields. Crops include irrigated and pluvial rice, 

cassava, sweet potato, taro, coffee and sugar cane. 

Slash-and-burn agriculture is practised but, after 

forest delimitation by the Ministry of Water and 

Forests in 2001, certain crops are no longer planted 

in the local use zone (e.g. banana, sweet potato 

and taro). Cassava is the only crop cultivated on the 

lower slopes. Cattle, pigs, and poultry are raised. 

Cattle are particularly valued for manure to fertilise 

rice fields. There is a clear difference in the yields of 

fertilised versus non fertilised rice fields. Baskets are 

made for household use, but women have to go to 

Sainte Luce to find Lepironia articulata reeds 

(mahampy) for this. Hunting (often of tenrec species) 

is only practised alongside other activities such as 

collecting wood. 

■ Volobe Sud Fokontany, 


Among the visited fokontanys, this is the largest and 

most populated with its four villages. There is a 

considerable amount of forest clearance. At 

Analamagnasa, people live in the forest and clear it 

regardless of demarcation by the Ministry of Water 

and Forests. These people are not local. The majority 

are migrant outsiders of the Antesaka (not Antanosy) 

ethnic group from Manantenina Commune who are 

breaking local forest management dina. These 

migrants have fled the food insecurity situation in 

Manantenina. There is a dilapidated public 

elementary school with two teachers and one 

assistant. Only a small proportion of children attend 

school, and thus teachers also teach irregularly, 

focusing instead on farming. Malnutrition 

(particularly among children), malaria, diarrhoea and 

filariasis (testicle swelling in men) are prevalent. There 

is a basic pharmacy at Analamagnasa. 

Shifting agriculture is practised by this community. 

The main crops are irrigated and rainfed rice, cassava, 

banana, taro, igname tubers, bemako (Dioscorea sp.), 

coffee, greens (Chinese cabbage) and sugar cane. 

Banana and coffee are traded. Cattle, pigs, and 

poultry are raised. Often, burning to renew pasture 

forage grasses causes bushfires. Women spend a lot 

of time weaving baskets and mats in addition to their 

main work in the agricultural fields. The production 

of traditional alcohol is an additional activity for some 

people. The community members claim that they do 

not hunt, but it would seem likely that people who 

live in the hills at the edge and in the forest do hunt 

to supplement their diet.

■ Volobe Nord Fokontany, 


The community in Volobe Nord respects the Ministry 

of Water and Forests forest demarcation, but extracts 

wood for building and boat construction without 

paying fees to the CoBa. The community complains 

that the suitable land available to them for 

cultivation has decreased since the demarcation of the 

local use zone and they request that the Ministry 

modify the boundaries. Nonetheless, the community 

has managed to increase agricultural yields in the 

lowland areas. There is a school in the fokontany, 

but with similar constraints to other fokontanys. 

Malaria and diarrhoea are prevalent, with other 

diseases less so. Access to health care is poor since 

the nearest health centre is far away and people lack 

money to visit it. A new health care centre is being 

planned. 

Crop farming is the main livelihood activity in the 

lowland areas and valleys, the plains, and the forest 

(in the local use zone). The community farms on land 

previously used for shifting cultivation and now left 

fallow (known as hindy), and no longer clears new 

forest areas for cultivation. Main crops are irrigated 

and pluvial rice, cassava, banana, sugar cane, taro, 

pineapple and sweet potato. The shifting cultivation 

system is unlikely to change due to long-standing 

traditional practices, basic agricultural hand tools and 

the type of soil. Cattle, pigs, poultry and (by one 

household) Collared Brown Lemur are raised. Cattle 

are kept far from villages and are tended to by 

community members using a rotation system. 

Weaving mats constitutes a source of income for 

households even though women must travel far to 

obtain the necessary Lepironia articulata reeds in 

Ebakika and Vatomirindra. Some people produce 

traditional alcohol as a secondary activity, generating 

an average income of 30,000 Ariary per 20 litre jerry 

can. There is occasional hunting of tenrec species, wild 

boar, and birds. 

■ South Ebakika Fokontany, 


South Ebakika and North Ebakika are separated 

by a river, and traversed by national road 12A 

linking Tolagnaro to Manantenina. Ebakika Sud is 

more developed than other fokontanys owing to 

the existence of roads and local incomegenerating 

activities. There is a public elementary 

school, which the majority of school-age children 

attend. The fokontany has just received a new 

classroom building constructed by Rio Tinto/Rio 

Tinto QMM. 

Fishing is the main activity, with a daily lobster 

catch of 10 kg per day per fisherman in the high season 

and 1 kg in the low season. Crops farmed in the plains 

and lowlands include irrigated and pluvial rice, 

cassava and sweet potato. Cattle, pigs, and poultry 

are also raised. Only a few households make 

handicrafts because the community already has 

substantial income from lobster fishing. 


DISCUSSION 

■ Social aspects 

In summary, the Tsitongambarika area has a 

subsistence economy. As the human population is 

growing continuously, there is an imbalance between 

production and population growth leading to 

increased poverty. For the Anosy region, the 

population growth rate is 2.8% per year and the birth 

rate is 3.7 children per couple (Institut National de la 

Statistique, 1993). The survey showed that the interval 

between two births is 13–18 months, women stop 

giving birth at the ages of 35, girls marry at an average 

age of 15 and boys at 17, and work generally starts 

from the age of 15. Migration is almost non-existent 

in the study area except to Volobe Sud Fokontany, 

particularly at Analamagnasa. 

Education is generally precarious, with only a 

minority of school-age children attending school, and 

those irregularly. Those who leave school after grade 

5 have forgotten almost all that they learned. The 

majority of the communities are illiterate, which is 

an obstacle for any development programme. 

The fokontanys visited for this survey each have 

access to only one health centre or clinic, located at 

the commune administrative centre. For other more 

isolated villages, the centre is very distant and people 

do not travel there unless seriously ill, instead using 

medicinal plants. Malaria is the main cause of 

mortality. 

■ Economic aspects 

The primary sector dominates in the region, 

particularly agricultural production and animal 

husbandry, and fishing. There is no industry or 

tourism. No infrastructure exists outside the environs 

of Tolagnaro. Lobster collecting companies play an 

important economic role in the region, with collector– 

delivery man networks in fishing villages. These 

collectors and delivery men are the intermediaries 

between export companies and fishermen, with daily 

deliveries during the open season. 

Agriculture 

This is a major activity, but cannot meet the needs of 

the population. Household rice production cannot 

cover two months’ consumption. Cassava fills this 

gap, including dried cassava from Ambovombe. Cash 

crops (such as coffee, vanilla and cloves) also exist. 

Farmers are also starting to try growing vanilla, with 

NGO training. 

There are two main types of farmland. First, there 

are the plains surrounding the mountains. On the 

eastern slope of Tsitongambarika the cultivable plains 

are not very extensive because they quickly turn into 

less fertile sandy soils of the coastal plain. However, 

good uncultivated soil can be found, as at 

Antanitsara–Manambato. On the western side of 

Tsitongambarika, the plains are relatively extensive. 

Second, clearance of forest for shifting cultivation is 

common, particularly in the east of Tsitongambarika. 

67

From Iabakoho to Ankaramamy (Manantenina 

Commune), forest clearing has become a tradition. 

Clearing is still very intense between Antsotso and 

Antsaha (Ankaramany Fokontany). Nevertheless, in 

areas where CoBas have been established, this practice 

has been reduced. Lands cleared for shifting 

cultivation are exploitable only for two or three 

seasons, after which they are left uncultivated for a 

few years and then the cycle starts again. Shifting 

cultivation is practised because the plains are no 

longer sufficiently extensive, yields in currently 

cultivated fields are decreasing, only simple farming 

tools are available, and there are lowland areas 

available for paddy rice cultivation but fertilisers and 

irrigation are lacking. 

Whether on the plains or on the cleared hillsides, 

farmers cultivate rice, cassava, corn, melons, bananas 

and pineapple and they use the same simple hand tools 

to grow their crops. Only in the commune of Ifarantsa 

do people use ox driven ploughs. 

Generally, most production is for subsistence and 

requires a considerable time investment to protect 

crops from pests, such as wild boars and birds. Money 

earned from any quantity sold will be used for 

household necessities (kerosene for lamps, sugar, etc.). 

The situation in Ifarantsa is slightly different, because 

it is much more productive (e.g. up to 23,000 metric 

tons of cassava can be produced each year). 

Animal husbandry 

This is generally relatively limited in eastern 

Tsitongambarika I and II, where there are very few 

cattle. They are not actively used in agricultural 

production but are raised to be sacrificed 

for traditional family events (e.g. weddings and 

funerals). However, on the west side of 

Tsitongambarika, cattle breeding is rather important 

and cattle are used for ploughing. For example, at 

Ifarantsa 30,889 zebu cattle have been catalogued by 

local authorities. 

Every village has pigs, commonly called lambo, 

with every man having a herd of 2–10 animals. The 

pigs feed only on rubbish and as a result are 

undernourished and cause village conflict by attacking 

crops. During this survey, at Melokany, a conflict of 

this kind was being solved by the mayor’s office. Pigs 

are a particular source of income during the holidays. 

Poultry farming is identical to that of pigs; they 

live in the open and feed on whatever they find. Most 

families have 2–3 hens, ducks, geese or guinea fowl, 

with sales of birds providing a small contribution to 

household needs. 

A beekeepers’ association has been founded at 

Sainte Luce by an NGO which has given initial 

training and equipment. However, continued 

technical assistance is necessary to foster this new 

activity. Conversely, in other areas, beekeeping 

already exists. For example, at Iabakoho it is 

practised in a traditional manner in Tsitongambarika 

Forest. Nonetheless, it is a small-scale activity 

contributing little to livelihoods. 

68 


Fishing 

Fishing, particularly lobster-fishing, is the most 

important economic activity in the east of 

Tsitongambarika I and II, and is how the majority of 

people in the littoral area earn their living. Every 

village has its own association of fishermen. These 

associations commonly have management and 

organisational problems and internal conflicts. 

During lobster-fishing seasons, all members of the 

family actively participate: men go fishing, and 

women and children make lobster traps and other 

accessories. Lobster fishing is practised in a traditional 

way, with a 6–10 m-long boat that accommodates up 

to seven people. It is very lucrative. In 2005, lobsters 

were sold at 5,000–10,000 Ariary/kg. In January 2006, 

a kilogram cost 8,000 Ariary, with prices rising as 

the end of the season approaching in September. 

During the open season, a fisherman catches 2–10 kg/ 

day and during the closed season only 1kg/day. 

Unfortunately, income from lobster-fishing is 

poorly managed and so does not have a significant 

positive impact on fishermen’s lives. When lobster 

season is closed, fishermen thus return to shifting 

agriculture. 

Hunting 

Hunting is not widely practised except for by children 

who catch birds. There is however a threat to Collared 

Brown Lemur that hunters catch and resell. 

Handicrafts 

Unlike those in the west of Tsitongambarika, women 

in the east are gifted in making handicrafts, 

particularly baskets, for which potential raw materials 

abound. Handicrafts thus constitute a significant 

economic resource, and are the sole source of income 

during the food insecurity period. This could be a 

promising sector if it is given a little support at 

different points along the value chain. Even though 

trees are abundant and diverse, only unprocessed 

wood is sold. 

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY 

TO COMMUNITIES 

■ Wood 

Wood is much used as material in all fields, 

particularly in building and boat construction, 

furniture-making, and for firewood. Particular species 

are used for different purposes. For example, in house 

building, the pillar may be made of Asteropeia sp. 

(fagnola), Intsia bijuga (harandrato), Eucalyptus sp. 

(kininina), Polycardia sp. (taimbarika), Calophyllum 

sp. (vitagno; also used in mortar making) or 

Phyllarthron sp. (zehana; a hard wood). Ravenala 

madagascariensis (Traveler’s Palm or ravinala) is 

commonly used as a building material. There are three 

varieties of R. madagascariensis: fotsimamy, hiragna 

and horoko. Apart from the roots, all parts of these 

can be used:

1. The trunk (vakaky) is split along its length and 

planks obtained from this used for partitions or 

the floor. These may last 6–10 years; 

2. Branches (falafa) are also used for making 

partitions. These last only three years, but are in 

much demand at market and so constitute an 

important income source. For instance, a bundle 

of 100 cost 3,000 Ariary at Ifarantsa in 2005; 

3. The leaves (raty) are used for the roof of the house 

and last for seven years. At Ifarantsa, leaves cost 

3,000–5,000 Ariary for a bundle of 100 and are a 

significant income source. 

Other tree species used for construction include: Intsia 

bijuga, Harungana madagascariensis (harongoana), 

Phylloxylon xylophylloides (sotro), Calophyllum sp. 

(vitaony/vitaogny/vintagno/vintagnon), Coffea sp. 

(raotry), Eugenia sp. (rotsy), Faucherea sp. (nato), 

Mammea sp. (hazignina), Polycardia sp. (taimbarika), 

Uapaca sp. (voampaky), Weinmannia sp. (lalona), 

amboatavy, ankalo, tendronkazo, teza and vahatra. 

These are collected every year or two from the forests 

of Tsitongambarika, Manafiafy, Sainte Luce and 

surrounding Mahatalaky. 

For boat construction, Harungana 

madagascariensis, Mammea sp. (hazignina), and 

Calophyllum sp. (vitaony/vitaogny/vintagno/vintagnon) 

are the best and most-used species. A boat made of 

these woods may last five years. At Iabakoho, one 

boat costs 120,000 Ariary and takes about one month 

to build. 

The use of a given wood is also linked to traditions 

and beliefs. People do not build a house with 

Faucherea sp. (nato), hendranendra or tombobitsy 

because these woods are forbidden. Likewise, it is 

believed that a husband and wife living in a house 

made of Diospyros myriophylla (korofoky) will end 

up separated. 


Axes are the only tools used to cut wood. Even so, 

now people must go progressively further to find 

firewood. Generally, firewood from the local area is 

collected every day or two. Common species include: 

Aphloia theiformis (fandramana), Cynometra cloiselii 

(mapay), Harungana madagascariensis (arongana), 

Melia azedarach (voandelaka), Asteropeia sp. (fanola), 

Brexia sp. (voakarepoka), Bronchoneura sp. (mafotra), 

Canthium spp. (fasikaitra), Croton sp. (hela), 

Eucalyptus sp. (kininina), Eugenia sp. (rotsy), Psidium 

sp. (goavy), Tambourissa spp. (ambora), Thilachium 

sp. (borisaty), Voacanga sp. (votaka), Weinmannia sp. 

(lalona), Xylopia sp. (fotsivavo), azavily, hendraendra, 

tsirakaraka and voaraozy, but even precious wood like 

Dalbergia spp. (magnary) was observed during 

surveys. 

Regarding charcoal, only producers in Ifarantsa 

Commune were encountered during the surveys. One 

sack (30 kg) of charcoal costs 1,100–2,000 Ariary and 

is sent to Tolagnaro, which currently consumes 11,120 

metric tons of firewood and 170,000 sacks of charcoal 

each year. The main suppliers are the villages along 

regional road RIP 118 from Evohibandrika to 

Ranomafana, in the western part of Tsitongambarika. 

■ Plant fibres 

Plant fibres are one of the most used natural resources 

around Tsitongambarika, and even as far as 

Tolagnaro. Fibres of Pandanus spp. (vakoa) and 

Lepironia articulata reeds are used for making mats. 

As these are frequently used, these plants are heavily 

depleted in some places. Fibres are also used in place 

of nails in the building of housing and fences. 

Tokampototry, vahizaha and vahimaramany are 

considered best and very hardy. 

To make lobster traps, people use the fibres of the 

liana Flagellaria indica (vahikipy). These are relatively 

solid and resist seawater well. They can be used for up 

Plate 13. Local people 

collecting Cyathea sp. 

to make flower pots for 

sale in Tolagnaro 


RAVOAHANGY) 

69

to one month. This species is now very difficult to find 

and Ravenala madagascariensis is more often used, but 

lobster traps made of R. madagascariensis are easily 

damaged (in 3–5 days at most). Agalea sp. (vahimenty), 

vahiginenina, vahihazo, vahitogna, vahikarabo and 

vahidengo are used for the ropes on lobster traps. 

In addition to fibres, bark of Grewia sp. (valotra) 

and vignoa is used instead of nails in house building. 

These species are now very rare. 

Apart from some species which grow by water, all 

of these fibres come from trees of the 

Tsitongambarika Forest. 

■ Medicinal plants 

As health care centres are often distant from hamlets 

and villages, it is difficult for people to travel there 

when sick. Thus, medicinal plants are commonly used, 

including: tonga; ravim-boahangy, fagnalabe and 

famonty (for stomach ache). Ravitsipanga is used for 

stomach ache in cows and vahikambo is used for 

healing wounds. Cedrelopsis sp. (katrafaha) is used 

for stomach ache but its bark is also an additive in 

the making of local rum. 

Most of those plants are found around villages 

but some are picked in Tsitongambarika Forest. 

Considering the small quantities needed, it seems 

likely that use of these plants has no significant 

negative impact on the forest. 

■ Water resources 

As there are many rivers emerging from the 

Tsitongambarika mountains, the population of the 

area has almost no water resource problems. As 

mentioned earlier, the eastern part of 

Tsitongambarika could be much more agriculturally 

70 


productive if suitable irrigation schemes were 

developed. Drinking water is fine at all localities 

visited during the survey, except Ambandrika–Sainte 

Luce where the quality is poor. In the wet season, 

when the rate flow is high and continuous, villages 

are isolated as roads are flooded. However this 

situation does not usually last long as high 

topography facilitates drainage. 

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY 

■ Forest clearance 

Forest clearance is the most serious threat to 

Tsitongambarika Forest. Reasons for the prevalence 

of shifting cultivation were discussed earlier. There 

are two main reasons why it is more prevalent in the 

eastern part of Tsitongambarika than in the western 

part: 

1. Geology: soil on the eastern side is sandy and so 

less productive than the fertile plains of the western 

side. Shifting cultivation on forested land is 

considered easier, faster, and more productive than 

other agricultural types on the infertile plains 

available in the east. 

2. Tradition: Shifting cultivation has been practised 

for several successive generations (especially 

among the Antesaka ethnic group) in 

Tsitongambarika. This is a more entrenched habit 

in the east because this is where seasonal fishermen 

prevail. Fishermen are the first to clear forest 

because they return to farming when the lobster 

season is closed, and have had no time to prepare 

land for farming during the open season. 

Plate 14. Forest clearance 

at Tsitongambarika 


RAVOAHANGY)

Thus, forest clearance is one of the principle threats 

to the conservation of Tsitongambarika. Three of the 

main causes are population pressure, sandy and 

unproductive plains, and relatively fertile land in the 

forest once it is cleared and burned. 

■ Bushfires 

Bushfires often occur after intentional fires burn out 

of control. Such fires can be very destructive and are 

particularly damaging to Ravenala madagascariensis, 

which grows on the forest edge. Around Mahatalaky 

there are four main reasons for these fires. First, fires 

used to stimulate regrowth of cattle forage pasture 

may burn out of control (90% of villages visited use 

such fires). Second, fires from intentional burning to 

clear forest or fields for planting burn out of 

control. Third, young cattle herders light fires to grill 

cassava, but do not put them out. Last, strong winds 

may reignite a fire that was not completely 

extinguished. 

■ Timber harvesting 

This dates back to the colonial period. At that time, 

a logging company’s head office was established at 

Bemangidy (Antsotso). Elders in the region claimed 

that there were wild horses in the forest of 

Tsitongambarika that were scared off, along with 

other animals, by the noise of the lumber mill. Later, 

Malagasy companies took over, and there is currently 

a logging company at Antsapa Andamasinina 

(Ankaramany Fokontany). According to the person 

in charge of this sawmill, woodcutters’ camps were 

established about every 30 ha as work progressed. 

Nowadays, Ministry of Water and Forest officials 

and the CoBa demarcate exploitable forests, but illicit 

exploitation is regular, particularly for ebony and 

rosewood, and especially around Manambato where 

there is not yet a CoBa. As Manambato is a 

fishermen’s village, timber trade is most prevalent 

outside the lobster-fishing season. During the survey, 

wood seized by authorities was observed at 

Ankaramany and Antsapa Andamasinina. According 

to local people, ebony wood 150 x 25 cm would sell 

for about 6,000 Ariary. The final destination of such 

timber is reported to be the Indian Ocean islands via 

Tolagnaro. 

■ Conversion of wetlands into rice fields 

Demographic pressure and low rice yields encourage 

people to convert wetlands into rice fields, as in 

Mahatalaky and Mananara I Fokontanys. 

■ Hunting and collecting forest products 

People who go to the forest tend to hunt or capture 

animals, particularly Collared Brown Lemur which 

are sold for 3,000–15,000 Ariary/animal. Young 

animals are sold for domestication, others for meat. 

Lemur capture was observed during surveys at 

Soaharena, Antanitsara (Manambato) and Ianakony 

(Iabakoho). At Ifarantsa, people reported that such 

hunting ceased when the CoBa was established. 


The making of lobster traps with Ravenala 

madagascariensis fibres threatens this tree. Such traps 

do not last long, and are only made because previous 

materials have already been depleted. R. 

madagascariensis lobster traps are a good source of 

income for women who sell them for 200–500 Ariary 

to fishermen who use 5–10 every four days. A similar 

situation exists with Lepironia articulata, which is now 

rare in some localities owing to overexploitation for 

basketwork. 

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY 

Traditional burial woods are sacred places where 

people cannot collect forest products, and are thus 

de facto conserved by local populations. 

People are conscious of degradation of 

Tsitongambarika Forest, but rely on its exploitation 

for their survival. They cooperate in conservation in 

return for support to increase agricultural production 

through technical training and provision of 

equipment and materials. 

The Tolagnaro office of the Ministry of Water and 

Forests, in collaboration with various NGOs, made a 

major effort to develop and implement a Forest 

Resource Management Project. One achievement is the 

transfer of management of part of the classified forest 

of Tsitongambarika to local communities via CoBas. 

In all fokontany visited during this survey, forest 

management has already been transferred to CoBas 

responsible for sustainable natural resources 

management. The Ministry of Water and Forests 

demarcated the forest for every fokontany and 

subdivided it into conservation, exploitation, and local 

use zones. 

CoBas are tasked with ensuring that demarcations 

and regulations are respected: 

1. Conservation zones cannot be used for collection 

of forest products or for cultivation; 

2. Exploitation areas can be used if fees are paid to 

the CoBa. For example, for the Volobe Nord CoBa, 

timber for house construction can be harvested for 

500 Ariary/tree by CoBa members and 1,000 Ariary 

/tree by non-members. Timber can be harvested for 

boat construction for 3,000 Ariary /tree by members 

and 5,000 Ariary /tree by non-members; 

3. Local use zones allow farming by the community 

if rules decreed by the CoBa dina are respected. 

Offences are punishable by fines. For example, 

setting fire to the forest is a serious offence 

punishable by a 10,000 Ariary fine. 

Established CoBas are rather weak, perhaps because 

they are still recent in some areas and therefore not 

experienced enough, especially in application of dina. 

Besides their nascent capacity to manage the CoBas, 

some leaders have also shown flagrant abuse of power 

concerning application of dina. For example, some 

local forest rangers have made threats against people 

71

cutting down trees even when they have appropriate 

permits, but have not stopped other people (who they 

know) from illegally cutting timber in protected 

forests. 

On 8 January 2006, the survey team witnessed 

illegal ebony harvesting in Mamoareny protected 

forest, part of 71 ha monitored by the Ivorona CoBa 

(Ifarantsa Commune). The majority of the population 

of Ivorona continues to take wood from this forest, 

particularly ebony at Mamoareny, even though a well 

demarcated forest is allocated to them. Ebony is not 

exploitable under the dina of the Ivorona CoBa. 

Exploitation is permitted at Ankera Fokontany, 

Ifarantsa Commune, under article 20 of the Ankera 

CoBa dina. However, since the fokontany of Ivorona 

and Ankera are close to each other and Ankera is 

inaccessible by truck, the ebony is sold at the Ivorona 

market. Since buyers do not care about the origin of 

the wood, villagers harvest wood in both the Ivorona 

and Ankera areas to sell to buyers. If measures are 

not taken, illegal exploitation of ebony at Ivorona 

may spin out of control. 

The list of offences observed during surveys is a 

long one and worthy of in-depth investigations. We 

conclude that, despite the existence of dina, the 

CoBas—themselves signatories of the dina—have 

difficulty meeting their commitments (at least in some 

localities). CoBas also face serious problems of 

management and organisation. In surveyed villages, 

CoBa members complained about a lack of 

transparency in financial management of CoBas 

despite dina stipulations. This has led to serious unrest 

and conflicts among members, and may result in 

dissolution of these CoBas and/or failure to establish 

new CoBas at other localities. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Natural resources are important for local 

communities. They are aware of environmental 

degradation, but do not get involved in environmental 

protection. Biodiversity conservation should function 

through CoBas. Even though these are well structured 

associations at community levels they have some 

management issues, including collusion between 

members of the community and CoBa leaders to 

disrespect dina. Alternatively, they may strictly 

follow the dina and create enemies in the community 

leading to intra-village conflict. The management 

transfers were probably made too soon, since 

members of these poor communities face serious 

social and cultural obstacles to effectively implement 

self-enforcement. 

Natural resource exploitation plays a predominant 

role in local daily life, notably of wood for house and 

boat construction and firewood, of vegetal fibres for 

handicrafts and lobster traps, and of medicinal plants. 

It would be difficult for local people to live without 

these forest products, and the classified forest of 

Tsitongambarika is key in providing them. 

72 


Tsitongambarika Forest is being degraded by 

human pressures. Forest clearance for agriculture, 

particularly by fishermen on the eastern side, is the 

primary cause. Hunting of animals such as lemurs is 

another issue. Moreover, even though CoBas are 

operational, management of Tsitongambarika Forest 

is far from satisfactory and illegal exploitation of the 

forest persists. 

The three fokontany that have the most impact on 

the forest are Andramanakàna, Volobe Sud and 

Volobe Nord, since they are located right next to the 

forest. Other fokontany use the forest with less intensity 

since they are further away. The local population uses 

the forest for several different reasons: 

• The forest is the basis of subsistence for local 

populations, especially the most isolated ones; 

• Low yield for irrigated and rain-fed rice 

production and other crops leads to increased 

forest use; 

• A growing population cannot obtain its food 

requirements from existing low crop yields; 

• Extreme poverty of the local populations. 

The Antanosy ethnic group does not traditionally 

migrate and thus is not exposed to exchanges and new 

ideas, which reinforces a reliance on traditional 

methods. 


■ Reduce human pressure 

1. Provide education and training in household 

management to ensure finances (e.g. from lobsterfishing) 

are wisely managed, thus reducing the need 

to turn to shifting agriculture during the fishing 

closed season; 

2. Support improved agricultural methods, especially 

through building or irrigation infrastructure 

(dams, canals, etc.), to reduce the need for shifting 

cultivation methods and increase cultivation and 

yields in the currently underutilised plains; 

3. Effectively enforce the law, especially regarding 

forest exploitation offences. 

■ Build capacity of community-based 

organisations 

1. Continuously train CoBa members in 

organisation, negotiation, simplified bookkeeping, 

conflict management, etc; 

2. Reinforce trainings with follow-up monitoring 

visits and assessments; 

3. Support CoBas to carry out their mission through 

qualified coaching, to facilitate learning through 

practice and adaptive management. 

■ Promote conservation of biodiversity 

through communication and education 

1. Develop an environmental education programme: 

(a) For children (as future forest stewards);

(b) For women (as those who have most influence 

on families); 

(c) For men (as those who use the forest most 

intensely); 

2. Develop and implement awareness programmes 

about the importance of biodiversity conservation; 

3. Develop an open communication system (not only 

one way but with feedback) for exchange of 

experience among different actors (CoBas, NGOs, 

etc.) 


■ Link biodiversity conservation 

programmes with rural development 

1. Promote development projects compatible with 

biodiversity conservation; 

2. Provide economic incentives (e.g. grants) to 

communes to adopt biodiversity conservation 

programmes; 

3. Meet development needs (e.g. infrastructure); 

4. Encourage NGOs to actively participate in rural 

development programmes. 

73

74 

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■ Appendix: COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN 

MANAGEMENT OF TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST: 

2010 UPDATE 

ANDRIAMANDRANTO RAVOAHANGY 

Tsitongambarika I (19,530 ha) and Tsitongambarika 

II (29,400 ha) Classified Forests are located, 

respectively, in the southern and central parts of the 

Vohimena mountain chain. Between 1997 and 2005, 

management of these forests was transferred from the 

Water and Forests Service to the local community. 

The objective of this transfer was to empower local 

stakeholders to manage forest resources. In 

particular, it was expected that, if the local community 

was allowed to exploit the forest for income in a 

sustainable manner in carefully defined zones, then 

they would value the forest and be less tempted to 

convert forest to cultivation. 

At Tsitongambarika I and II, the method adopted 

for the Transfer of Management was originally 

Secured Local Management (within the legal 

framework of the 1997 Forestry Policy in the second 

phase of the National Environmental Action Plan) 

and then a simplified version known as the 

Contractualised Management of Forests, whose legal 

framework was adopted by Decree 2001-122, 

February 14, 2001. In 1997, with financial support 

from USAID (which funded Agents for the Protection 

of Nature) and the Dutch Government, granted in 

the context of the WWF Programme – Debt for 

Nature, WWF established the Forestry Support 

Framework (within the Water and Forests Service) 

which aimed to develop Transfer of Management 

programmes in six sites throughout Madagascar. One 

of these sites, Tolagnaro, is in Tsitongambarika I 

Classified Forest. Between 2000 and 2005, working 

alongside the Forestry Support Framework, WWF 

implemented a second Transfer of Management 

programme in Tsitongambarika II Classified Forest. 

This programme was funded by the European Union 

and resulted in the creation of 27 Transfers of 

Management. 

Both programmes adopted the same methods, 

including the following key elements: 

• creation of an association (“Communauté de Base” 

in French, or CoBa for short) in each village near 

or within the protected forest. CoBa members are 

responsible for implementing development plans 

and are among beneficiaries of the sale of timber 

taken from the production zone; 

• training of CoBa members in the sustainable use 

of forest resources; 

• training and support for the Water and Forests 

Service so that it can support Transfer of 

Management; 

• awareness-raising for the local community about 

the importance of conserving forest. 

• development of a forest management plan for 

areas associated with villages — normally, the plan 

must include three or four zones: a production 

zone, where sustainable harvesting of logs for trade 

would be permitted; a sustainable use zone, where 

exploitation of forest products would be permitted 

for local use; a rehabilitation zone, where 

reforestation should be carried out to meet local 

needs or for trade; and a conservation zone, where 

no exploitation would be permitted; 

• negotiation of a system for the equitable sharing 

of benefits obtained in the production zone and 

the rehabilitation zone; 

• delimitation of zones; 

• development and implementation of local 

regulations or dina controlling forest resources; 

• preparation of terms of reference and contracts; 

• implementation of activities described in the 

management plan through annual work plans; 

• introduction of measures to improve livelihood 

conditions of villagers and in particular the 

introduction of new farming techniques to provide 

an alternative to shifting cultivation (“tavy”). 

In Tsitongambarika III, 12 Transfers of Management 

to local communities took place in 2010. The steps 

performed are summarised as follows: 

• election of CoBa staff members; 

• development of regulations and statutes of each 

CoBa; 

• capacity strengthening of CoBas for forest 

management. 

Physical demarcation of zones will be subject to 

additional funding. 

Transfer of Management was grouped into sectors 

(depending on location) and, for each sector, two 

Agents for the Protection of Nature were responsible 

for overseeing implementation of the above activities, 

assisted by a technician from the Water and Forests 

Service. 

Until recently, when the New Protected Areas 

System (SAPM) process suspended all log production 

in potential areas for conservation identified by the 

SAPM Decree in October 2004, 10 Transfers of 

Management in the Vohimena range could be 

considered functional in terms of profit generated 

from logs operations according to their sustainable 

77

development plan. It is clear that support to other 

CoBas is required if other Transfers of Management 

are to be completed. It is generally agreed that CoBas 

in existing Transfers of Management will require two 

or three more years of support before being fully 

autonomous. This support requires a small team of 

Agents for the Protection of Nature (probably six for 

Tsitongambarika I and II), two forest technicians of 

the Water and Forests Service, and secretarial support. 

78 


An evaluation of CoBas in Tsitongambarika I 

and Tsitongambarika II was carried out in 2008. 

Only five CoBas among 54 benefited from a renewal 

of contract for 10 years, namely Ampasy 

Nahampoana, Anka Maromagniry, Enato, Farafara 

and Mananara I. Other CoBas need at least a year of 

restructuring and revitalisation, supported by NGOs 

such as Asity Madagascar, ASOS, CARE, FAFAFI 

and WWF.

TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, 

MADAGASCAR 

Biological and socio-economic surveys, with 

conservation recommendations 

The biodiversity of Madagascar is well known to be exceptionally rich and highly 

threatened. Lowland humid evergreen forest is one of the most threatened vegetation 

types, but significant areas can still be found in the far south-east, notably at 

Tsitongambarika forest. 

This book presents the results of a series of biological and socio-economic surveys at 

Tsitongambarika. These clearly demonstrate the very great importance of this site, and 

point towards to approaches needed to conserve it. 

The work was coordinated by Asity Madagascar, with primary support and 

sponsorship from Rio Tinto, BirdLife International and Rio Tinto QMM.

TSITONGAMBARIKA FOREST, MADAGASCAR - BirdLife International

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