This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [41,45,47,58,143,144,147]).
Aboveground characteristics: Common mullein is a densely woolly, sturdy biennial that may reach more than 7 feet (2 m) tall in its flowering year [36,66,113,144]. Annual and triennial forms occasionally occur [110]. A basal rosette of large furry leaves and a substantial crown are produced in the first year [10]. In the second year, common mullein typically produces a single, stout (>1 cm thick), erect flowering stem. One or more erect branches near the base of the inflorescence are normal [56,104,131]. Basal leaves are simple, measure 3 to 20 inches (8-50 cm) long, and may be persistent. Stem leaves are alternate, and their size is reduced toward the inflorescence [30,104,144]. The thick coating of branched hairs on the stems and leaves breaks the force of surface winds and prevents water loss to evaporation [10].
Common mullein flowers are densely arranged on a spike-like, terminal inflorescence [59,78,106]. Flowers are short-lived. They are open to pollination for 1 day from just before dawn to midafternoon (Thompson, personal communication, cited in [52]). Branching of the inflorescence can occur with herbivory or clipping damage [87,89], and duration of flowering is a function of flowering stalk length. Long stalks may flower late into the growing season [52]. Fasciation or unregulated tissue growth that forms a large, bulbous inflorescence occurs often in Hawaiian common mullein populations. The frequency of fasciated flowers ranges from 0% to 45%, and fasciated plants have occurred on the Island for 50 years or more [7,33]. This phenomenon is discussed more in Seed production and Impacts and Control.Fasciated inflorescence
© Gerald D. Carr
Common mullein produces hairy, egg-shaped, two-celled capsules. Capsules are 6 to 10 mm long, split at maturity, and contain numerous seeds. Seeds are small, 0.4 to 0.8 mm long, and average 0.064 mg. Seeds are wingless and not adapted for long-distance dispersal [52,53,56,58,97,104,144]. The rod-like spike of fruits often persists through the winter [143].
Belowground characteristics: Thick, deep taproots with fibrous lateral roots are produced in the first year of rosette growth. Root growth nearly stops when common mullein bolts (Reinartz, unpublished data, cited in [111]), [10,104,144]. As of this writing (2008), no excavation studies reported taproot size or rooting depth. A study by Reinartz [111], however, suggests that root size and rooting depth may vary by site. When common mullein plants from seed collected at increasing latitudes were grown in a common garden, plants from southern seed sources (Texas or Georgia) had a significantly (P<0.01) greater proportion of root biomass than plants from seed collected in North Carolina or southern Canada.
Common mullein is a nonnative species that occurs throughout most of North America. In Canada, common mullein is found in all southern provinces. In the United States, common mullein occurs in all states including Alaska and Hawaii [7,104,113,139]. Within the contiguous United States, common mullein is often described as common, widespread, conspicuous, or everywhere [36,41,47,66,92,106,130,143,147]. Plants Database provides a map of common mullein's North American distribution.
In much of the United States, common mullein is considered adventive or naturalized [47,96,97,144]. Common mullein was likely introduced to the eastern United States more than 230 years ago. Before the Revolutionary War, common mullein seeds were brought and cultivated by early settlers for the easy collection of fish [148]. It is likely other initial introductions occurred as well, and given the many uses of common mullein, it was likely transported and cultivated by US settlers and tribes. For more on the use of common mullein by early European settlers and Native Americans, see Other Uses.
While the method and speed of common mullein's spread across the United States is not well known, it was noted as a common weed in Boulder County, Colorado, in 1905 [154] and was observed in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, in 1932 [124]. Introduction(s) into Alaska may have been more recent, as common mullein was not recorded in the state's flora published in 1968 [61]. Common mullein was first reported in Hawaii in 1932, and as of 1990, it occupied an area greater than 770 mile² (2,000 km²) [31].
In most places, common mullein is limited to disturbed areas and rarely persists beyond the earliest stages of succession. A 2004 report from the Forest Service's Eastern Region lists common mullein as a widespread nonnative species typically restricted to disturbed areas and not particularly invasive in undisturbed habitats [138]. However, persistent and unusually dense populations are reported in some Hawaii [33] and California [16] habitats. Potential effects of common mullein's persistence in these areas are addressed in Impacts and Control.
Fire adaptations: Common mullein is typical in early postfire communities [14,23,24,86]. In most cases, common mullein establishes from soil-stored seed on burned sites. For additional information, see Plant Response to Fire.
FIRE REGIMES: The prevailing fire regime in which common mullein evolved is not described in the available literature. FIRE REGIMES in North American common mullein habitats are difficult to characterize, since common mullein occurs in nearly any vegetation type. Because common mullein is a rapidly reproducing, early-seral species, it is unlikely that frequent fire would eliminate it. The persistent common mullein seed bank suggests that long fire-return intervals would likely be tolerated too.
Common mullein fuel characteristics were not described in the reviewed literature, and dense common mullein populations are normally short-lived. Persistent dense populations are described in California meadows and in subalpine and alpine regions of Hawaii. As of this writing (2008), effects of these persistent common mullein stands on fire frequency or fire severity were not described. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Common mullein occupies open sites. It is often described on disturbed sites such as roadsides, shores, fields, clearings, and vacant lots throughout its range [30,78,104,143,147] but is possible in any habitat without dense cover [41].
Climate: Common mullein tolerates a wide variety of growing conditions. Wide ecological amplitude has likely been more important than adaptation to local conditions in establishment and spread of this species. When common mullein seed collected from different elevations (246-7,421 feet (75-2,262 m)) in California [102] and in Hawaii [7] was grown in a common garden, relationships between elevation and distinctive plant traits were rare. Researchers in California suggested that common mullein has a "general-purpose genotype" [102]. Results were similar when seedlings from seed collected in Texas, Colorado, and Alberta were grown in a common area. Seedlings had similar photosynthetic rates at temperatures from 68 to 95 °F (20-35 °C). Although photosynthetic rates were higher at the coldest temperatures for plants from seed collected in cool habitats, researchers indicated that wide-ranging tolerances and not rapid local adaptation was most important to common mullein's wide distribution and success [149].
Differences in climate, latitude, and associated vegetation may affect development and life history of common mullein populations from southern Canada, North Carolina, Texas, and Georgia. In southern Canada, the growing season is short and precipitation ample and reliable. In North Carolina and Georgia, precipitation is abundant, and the growing season is long. In Texas, the growing season can be cut short by drought conditions. Sites in southern Canada with sparse vegetation had the most common mullein plants that did not flower until 3 or 4 years old. Annual common mullein plants were most common in Georgia, where associated vegetation cover increased to nearly 100% in 2 growing seasons. The most rapid annual development occurred in populations from southwestern Texas, where annual precipitation was lowest and hard frosts were uncommon [109,110]. The largest common mullein plants occurred on Texas sites with favorable moisture [111].
Life history differences between common mullein populations from southern Canada to Texas and Georgia [110] Population location, number Probability of fruitingProportion fruiting as
annuals biennials triennials Southern Canada, n=10 0.52 0 0.92 0.13 North Carolina, n=6 0.64 0 0.93 0.05 Texas, n=6; Georgia, n=2 0.62 0.27 0.73 0.01Elevation: In Hawaii, common mullein occupies sites from near sea level to 4,596 m (15,080 feet) [7]. Elevation tolerances are not as wide for the rest of the United States.
Elevation range for common mullein in the western United States State Elevation (feet) Arizona 5,000-7,000 [67]Soils: Soil type is probably not important in limiting common mullein establishment or successful reproduction. Common mullein is described on "light" soils in Nova Scotia [113], "heavy" soils in Wisconsin [32], coarse soils in the Great Plains [131], and well-drained soils in the Adirondack Uplands [75]. Reinartz, who studied common mullein populations from southern Canada to Georgia and Texas, indicated that common mullein "thrives" on dry, infertile, highly calcareous soils as long as sunlight is abundant [109].
Impacts: In many areas and vegetation types, common mullein is a short-lived member of disturbed communities whose abundance decreases with increased time since disturbance. In 1999 the California Invasive Plant Council listed common mullein as a "wildland pest plant of lesser invasiveness" because its spread and degree of habitat disruption were less than the area's other pest plants [20]. As of 2004, a Forest Service report lists common mullein as a widespread nonnative species that is generally restricted to disturbed sites and not especially invasive in undisturbed habitats in the eastern United States [138]. However, in parts of California and in Hawaii, common mullein may form dense and persistent populations [7,16,31,144].
In moist meadows and drainages of California's Mono Lake and Owens Valley, common mullein populations can be abundant. Common mullein has also colonized intact and undisturbed meadows in this area. In the western Sierra Nevada, common mullein establishes almost immediately following fire. Although common mullein is eventually replaced by regenerating shrubs, it may restrict the establishment of native early-seral forbs and grasses and disrupt normal succession in the Sierra Nevada [16].
High density common mullein populations are common in Hawaii. Common mullein has colonized habitats from near sea level to near the Mauna Kea summit at 15,080 feet (4,600 m) [7,33]. As of a 1990 review, common mullein occupied over 2,000 km² area. Densities as high as 190 plants/100 m² have been reported on disturbed areas of Mauna Kea, although common mullein is also widely established and often abundant and persistent in relatively undisturbed subalpine grasslands dominated by alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena), subalpine woodlands dominated by ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), and in alpine desert communities [7,31,144]. Common mullein plants in Hawaii frequently form an odd-shaped, fasciated inflorescence capable of seed production 3 times that of normal flowers (Daehler, unpublished data, cited in [33]).
Common mullein is also considered disruptive to the recruitment of native flora in Hawaii [33]. In subalpine vegetation on Mauna Kea, removal of common mullein from experimental plots increased the cover of all grasses. Mauna Kea subalpine vegetation is species poor, and there are abundant bare sites. Grass cover was significantly greater (P<0.05) on sites where common mullein and associated litter were removed for all 3 years of the study. However, cover of forbs was lower in treatment plots, and by the third year of the study, forbs were significantly (P<0.05) lower on plots without common mullein. The presence of common mullein may have altered natural competitive interactions between grasses and forbs in this area [7]. Juvik and Juvik (as cited in [31]) suggest that grazing by feral sheep and goats in areas of Hawaii may have facilitated the establishment, spread, and persistence of common mullein in niches once occupied by the endangered Hawaii silversword (Argyroxiphium sandwicense subsp. sandwicense). Feral sheep and goats likely avoided common mullein in favor of other more palatable forage [31].
Control: Minimizing disturbances may be the most effective and economical method of common mullein control. Limiting open sites restricts common mullein's success. However, the very long-lived seed bank suggests that eradication of common mullein is unlikely, and even minimal disturbances may encourage common mullein establishment. In many areas, common mullein populations do not persist and abundance is dramatically reduced as time since disturbance increases. Potential control methods are discussed below.
Prevention: As a biennial species with a persistent seed bank, common mullein is adapted for widespread dispersal through time. The sudden appearance of common mullein is likely after disturbances expose buried seeds to light [13]. High levels of germination are possible in a wide range of temperatures, and germination percentages can be increased by 38% after only 5 seconds of light exposure [51].
Given the long-lived seed bank and wide range occupied by common mullein, transportion of soil may introduce or encourage common mullein establishment. Common mullein seedlings emerged from soil collected in a wetland constructed by a Department of Transportation mitigation project on New Jersey's Delaware River but did not emerge from soil taken from preexisting, nearby natural marshes [85].
Increased levels and frequencies of disturbances may increase the density of the common mullein seed bank. In northern Arizona, the density of common mullein seedlings emerging from soil samples increased with increased levels of past land use. There were 940 seedlings/m² in high disturbance areas and 566 seedlings/m² from areas with more moderate levels of disturbance [73].
Physical/mechanical: Physical control methods may be an effective method of removing small aboveground common mullein populations. Plants severed through the root crown below the basal leaves do not sprout [16]. Flowering stalks should be removed from the site to limit additions to the seed bank. In greenhouse experiments, common mullein did not survive defoliation in low-nitrogen environments [140].
Fire: See Fire Management Considerations.
Biological: There have been no purposeful introductions of common mullein biological control agents. In Europe, common mullein is most negatively affected by weevils (Gymnaetron tetrum) and mullein moths (Cucullia verbasci) [93]. Weevils were accidentally introduced in North America. Weevils can destroy all seeds within a capsule but rarely infest all capsules. Weevils may destroy up to 50% of common mullein seeds [16].
Chemical: Egler [42] reports that first year rosettes are easily killed by herbicide but that second year plants are more resistant. However, a review reports that common mullein's extreme hairiness reduces the effectiveness of herbicides. Aiming herbicides directly into the center of the rosette may increase herbicide effectiveness [16].
Integrated management: In the available literature, there was little mention of integrated management methods for common mullein. In a review by Reed [108], guidelines are provided for limiting the establishment and evaluating the potential impacts of nonnative and/or invasive species in restoration projects. Reed presents plans to limit and prepare for potential weedy species establishment as well as decision-making guidelines on whether to actively manage the weeds.
Deer, elk, mountain goats, and small mammals feed on common mullein. Deer and elk primarily utilize common mullein in the winter. Domestic grazing animals typically do not consume common mullein unless other forage is unavailable.
Elk and deer: Common mullein can be important in elk and deer winter diets. In South Dakota, researchers observed elk feeding on dry common mullein leaves when other forage was unavailable [64]. On the Threemile winter range in western Montana, the highest average relative density of common mullein in elk feces was 16.1% in January collections. Amounts of common mullein were much lower (0-2.2%) in December, February, March, and April [82].
On the Los Alamos National Laboratory in north-central New Mexico, common mullein was a predominant forage for deer in the winter and for elk in the fall and winter. Although common mullein had only trace cover in the study area, it made up 9% of elk and 7% of deer diets for all seasons evaluated over a 2-year period. Common mullein was 12% and 14% of fall and winter elk diets, respectively, and 17% of winter deer diets [117].
In Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas, researchers listed common mullein as 1 of 12 major mule deer food plants, although its average relative density was 1% of the annual diets [74]. On the Calf Creek winter range in western Montana, the greatest average relative density of common mullein was 2.5% in mule deer feces collections [82]. White-tailed deer in Michigan's Wilderness State Park defoliated common mullein rapidly after the first snow when the Park was near or over carrying capacity and winter food was "approaching a critical stage". White-tailed deer consumed common mullein leaves and chewed some flowering stalks [60].
Mountain goats: On Chopaka Mountain in north-central Washington, the high relative density of common mullein was 1.5% in summer-collected fecal samples. Over the 3-year period, the relative density of common mullein was lower, 0.1% to 0.3% in fall, winter, and spring samples. Mule deer or cattle fecal samples collected over a 2-year period contained no common mullein [21].
Small mammals: Common mullein is likely a food source for small mammals throughout its range, but studies and observations are generally lacking. In South Dakota, common mullein seeds and fruits provide food for chipmunks, prairie dogs, and other small mammals [64,69]. In Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, researchers observed prairie dogs feeding on common mullein. Plants over 3 feet (1 m) tall were clipped by prairie dogs throughout the summer to maintain visibility in their town. Portions, likely fruits and seeds, were consumed, and the rest of the plant was "destroyed" [69].
Livestock: Livestock typically avoid common mullein (Isley, personal communication, cited in [52]). Some suggest that common mullein is poor forage and is "never grazed" [62,103]. In the mixed-conifer zone of California's Blodgett Forest Research Station, however, the abundance of common mullein in cow summer diets ranged from 0% to 3.5%. Fecal samples were collected for 2 years in an area stocked at 16 ha/AU [68].
Insects: Grasshoppers avoid feeding on common mullein's hairiest immature leaves. During field experiments in northern Arizona, young and immature leaves with the densest and longest hairs were fed on significantly less (P<0.001) than mature leaves [151].
Given a seed source and a canopy opening, common mullein is a potential
inhabitant of nearly any vegetation or community type. It has been described in
meadows, prairies, desert shrublands, chaparral, deciduous woodlands, and
coniferous forests throughout North America [16,32,123,135,152].
Common mullein typically produces ephemeral populations on disturbed sites.
Local extinction is common as succession progresses in most vegetation types.
Many common mullein studies have been conducted in abandoned agricultural fields.
Throughout this review, the age of old fields refers to time since abandonment or
time since last cultivation. For example, "1-year-old fields" have been
out of cultivation or left fallow for 1 year. In southwestern Michigan, common mullein
seedling establishment and survival was restricted to 1-year-old fields when seeds
were sown in both 1-year-old and 15-year-old fields [53]. Often common mullein is
not present in aboveground vegetation but appears soon after a disturbance. Establishment
on disturbed sites is most often the result of germination from a persistent seed bank.
These topics are discussed in more detail in Seed banking, Seedling establishment/growth, and Successional Status.
European cultures had a variety of uses for common mullein. These many uses likely encouraged the early transport and introduction of this species into nonnative areas. Parker [103] has aptly called common mullein "a waif of civilization". In as early as the 4th century BC, yellow common mullein flowers were used to dye hair [64]. Romans dipped flowering stalks in tallow and used them as torches [66]. In a review of folk medicine, common mullein was said to be used to treat respiratory disorders such as asthma, tuberculosis, bronchitis, and pneumonia; to combat tumor formation; and to treat urinary tract infections and skin diseases. Hemorrhoids, diarrhea, warts, migraines, frost bite, and ringworm were also treated with common mullein [137]. In Europe, concoctions of common mullein leaves and roots were used to treat many respiratory and alimentary conditions [10].
Native Americans also utilized common mullein. Southwestern tribes, including the Hopi, smoked dried common mullein leaves and flowers with giant-trumpets (Macromeria viridiflora) or other plants to treat mental illness [66,67]. Potawatomis, Mohegans, Penobscots, and Menominess smoked dried common mullein leaves to treat colds, bronchitis, and asthma. Catawbas made a cough syrup from boiled common mullein roots, and a poultice of mashed leaves was used to relieve bruises, wounds, and sprains. Choctaws used a poultice of leaves for headaches [10].
Early European settlers in the eastern United States used common mullein seed to sting or poison fish. Common mullein seeds were crushed and put into diked areas of slow moving water. Fish breathing was severely reduced or stopped by the toxic seeds. Fish "stings" were an easy method of food collection and often turned into community events. Sometime before the Revolutionary War, common mullein seeds were brought from Europe and cultivated for this purpose [148]. Colonial women rubbed common mullein leaves on their cheeks to redden them [146].
Today common mullein is one of several plants used in herbal ear drops used to treat earaches in children (>5 years) [119]. Common mullein leaves and flowers, capsules, alcohol extracts, and flower oil are available for medicinal use in the United States, and a recent (2002) study of common mullein extracts revealed antibacterial and antitumor properties [136,137]. In a Northwest floral guide, basal common mullein leaves are noted as potential insoles for weary hikers [104].
Common mullein rosettes often remain green through the winter [64]. Plants on a south-facing slope in Colorado's Gregory Canyon had high photosynthetic rates when leaves were sampled from 10 to 22 January [4]. Flower stalks often persist through the winter [64].
Southern common mullein populations flowered earlier and longer than northern populations when 24 populations from southern Canada, North Carolina, Texas, and Georgia were studied. A vernalization period was not required in southern populations [110].
Timing of common mullein development by state or region State/region Timing of reproductive development Arizona, north-central flowers mid-July to mid-September, seeds mid-October [25] California flowers June-September [97] Florida reproductive season summer-fall; flowers as early as June, fruits by September [27,153] Illinois flowers May-September [96] Kansas flowers June-September [10] Nevada flowers June-September [66] New York (Adirondack Uplands) flowers July-August [75] North and South Carolina flowers June-September [106] Texas flowers May-July, rarely later [36] Virginia flowers June-September [130] Atlantic and Gulf coasts flowers March-November [41] Blue Ridge Province flowers June-September [150] Eastern United States flowers June-September [45] Great Plains flowers June-July [47] Intermountain West flowers June-July [30] New England flowers middle July-middle August [121] Canada flowering begins late June, tall stalks may flower into late September, October [52] Nova Scotia flowers July-August [113]Germination of on-site seed is the predominant postfire regeneration method for common mullein. It is often present in the first postfire growing season, regardless of the timing of the fire. However, postfire emergence can be delayed and population persistence may be extended on sites burned in high-severity fires.
Seed survival: Common mullein seed in the soil is likely to survive and germinate after fire. However, high-severity fires with extended smoldering such as slash pile burns may kill a greater proportion of the common mullein seed bank [72,122]. In several studies, common mullein seedlings emerged from soils collected on burned sites. Emergence can be greater from soil samples collected on less severely [63] and less recently burned sites [125]. Yet germination from severely burned sites in the first postfire growing season is possible as well [63,122]. It is important to note that common mullein seed bank estimates can be affected by sample size, sample location, and experimental method. Abundant seed production and limited dispersal means that soil samples collected near or far away from a site once occupied by a prolific parent plant could affect findings [52,53,73].
Postfire establishment of common mullein may be delayed on some sites. Common mullein seedlings emerged from soil samples taken from 5-year-old burned but not from 1-year-old burned Douglas-fir forests in south-central British Columbia. Seedlings emerged from 7% of samples on 5-year-old burned sites and 41% of samples in 10-year-old clearcuts. On clearcut sites, common mullein's aboveground frequency was 6% [125]. Reasons for delayed postfire emergence are unknown. Severe fires likely consume more common mullein seeds since they typically consume the surface organic horizons. On less severely burned sites, it is possible that seed stored for an extended period in the mineral soil may require more time to germinate under field conditions. In a greenhouse study, dark germination of common mullein seed was lower after 2 years of burial than after 1 year of burial; researchers speculated that unknown factors associated with burial may prevent immediate germination [13]. A controlled study of the effects of heat on common mullein seed would improve the understanding of its seed bank dynamics on burned sites.
Common mullein emergence is sometimes lower on high-severity than low- or moderate-severity burned sites in the first 1 to 2 postfire growing seasons. Common mullein seedlings emerged from soils collected on low- and high-severity burned ponderosa pine forests in northern New Mexico's Rendija Canyon. The Cerro Grande fire burned in May 2000, and soil was collected in the fall of 2001. Forty-three, 0, and 1 seedlings emerged from plots sampled in low-, moderate-, and high-severity burned sites, respectively [63]. Common mullein was the dominant emergent from soil samples collected 10 feet (3 m) outside slash burn scars in ponderosa pine forests in Arizona's Coconino National Forest. Soil samples were taken 3 and 15 months after burning. There were 368 common mullein seedlings/m² in soil samples collected outside the burn scar. Density of common mullein from soil collected inside the scar was not given, but total seedling emergence (all species) from inside the scar was less than 50 emergents/m². These results suggest that some common mullein seed is killed by high-severity slash pile fires [72].
Fire may stimulate germination of common mullein seeds through chemical cues from smoke. Liquid smoke treatments increased common mullein emergence from soils collected in open-canopy ponderosa pine forests in northern Arizona. Common mullein averaged 35% frequency in the aboveground vegetation. Density of common mullein was 126 seedlings/m² in untreated soils and 252 seedlings/m² in soils treated with 60 mL of 10% liquid smoke [3].
Common mullein reproduces entirely by seed and has no means of vegetative regeneration [48].
Pollination and breeding system: Self and cross pollination of common mullein flowers are both possible. If by the end of the day an open flower has not been visited by a pollinator, it is self pollinated ("delayed selfing") [10,52]. While common mullein flowers are visited by a variety of insects, only short- and long-tongued bees are effective pollinators (Pennell 1935, cited in [52]), [22]. In field and greenhouse studies, researchers found that flowers fertilized by natural, delayed selfing set less seed than flowers that were outcrossed. Flowers pollinated by delayed selfing produced 75% of maximum fruit set. Delayed selfing may be important to small common mullein populations that may fail to attract pollinators [39].
Plant height likely affects pollinator visits and method of pollination. Taller plant heights significantly (P<0.02) increased outcrossing rates for 3 populations of common mullein in northeastern Georgia and southwestern North Carolina. Plants over 4.9 feet (1.5 m) tall experienced 21% more outcrossing than shorter plants [22]. Findings were similar for 6 common mullein populations near Kingston, Ontario. Significantly (P<0.0001) more pollen was deposited on tall plants with a median height of 5.6 feet (1.7 m) and an average of 13.5 flowers than on short plants with a median height of 2.6 feet (0.8 m) and an average of 5.5 flowers. Flowers at the top of an inflorescence also received significantly (P=0.0003) more pollen than flowers at the bottom [88]. Researchers in both studies concluded that taller plants attracted more pollinators than short ones [22,88].
Seed production: Common mullein produces abundant seed, and branching and fasciation of the flower stalk can lead to even greater seed production. In a 3-year-old abandoned field in Michigan, common mullein produced between 0 and 749 seeds/capsule for an average of 208 seeds/capsule. Total seeds per plant averaged 175,000 [52]. In 1- to 4-year-old fields in southwestern Michigan, common mullein averaged 100,000 seeds/plant [53]. An "average, well developed" common mullein plant in North Dakota, "growing with little competition" and sampled at a time when seed production was likely at a maximum, produced 223,200 seeds [127,128].
Studies have shown that common mullein rosettes must reach a minimum size before flowering. In a 4-year-old field in Kalamazoo County, Michigan, all rosettes greater than 6.1 inches (15.5 cm) in diameter flowered. In the greenhouse, however, rosettes beyond that size did not flower, suggesting a vernalization period may be necessary for flowering in temperate areas [49,54].
Branched inflorescences produced significantly (P<0.0001) more seeds than unbranched inflorescences in common mullein populations near Kingston, Ontario. The likelihood of branching increased significantly (P=0.0001) with plant height and decreased significantly (P=0.049) with population size. Branching was also associated with weevil damage. There was a significantly (P=0.0195) greater proportion of fruits damaged in branched plants [90].
While branching was affected by several factors, the reason for fasciation of common mullein spikes in Hawaii has not been determined. Ansari [7] found no difference between the prevalence of bacteria in normal and fasciated flowers, and physical damage to the flowering spike actually decreased fasciation rates. Evidence of single gene inheritance was also lacking, since there was no statistical difference in the prevalence of fasciation in normal and fasciated progeny [7]. Fasciated plants produced up to 3 times the seed of normal plants [33].
Seed dispersal: Common mullein seeds have no morphological adaptations for long-distance dispersal. Most seeds fall very near the parent plant [52,53]. Maximum dispersal distances of up to 36 feet (11 m) are possible, but the median dispersal distance is 3 feet (1 m) [52,54]. In natural settings, long-distance seed dispersal is rare. However, the long-lived common mullein seed bank makes transport of soil from areas where common mullein currently or historically occurred a potential long-distance dispersal event [16].
Seed banking: The common mullein seed bank is persistent. Seeds have germinated after 100 years or more in the soil [71,99]. The method used to determine seed bank composition and size, however, may affect common mullein seed bank findings. Seed bank estimates are much greater with the seedling emergence method than with the seed extraction method [19]. Seed bank estimates may also be affected by sample size and sample location. Because abundant common mullein seed is produced and dispersal is limited, soil samples collected near a site once occupied by a prolific parent plant could skew seed bank findings [52,53,73].
In Denmark, common mullein seed germinated from archaeological soil samples dated to 1300 AD [99]. In the late 1800s in Michigan, Dr. W J Beal buried seeds and soil in open jars about 3 feet (1 m) below the soil surface. Later jars were exhumed and germination of the soil samples was monitored in the greenhouse. Common mullein germinated from soil buried for 5, 15, 20, and 35 years [34]. Common mullein also germinated from soil buried 100 years [71]. In a similar study initiated by Dr Duvel in 1902, seeds were buried with soil in pots at increasing depths: 8 inches (20 cm), 22 inches (56 cm), and 42 inches (107 cm). Some common mullein seed germinated from all depths and from all periods tested between 1 and 21 years of burial. Germination percentages, however, were erratic and did not vary consistently with depth or length of burial [46]. After 39 years of burial, common mullein germination rates were 48% and 35% from 22 (56 cm)- and 42 (107 cm)-inch depths, respectively [133]. Seeds have also germinated at low percentages (3%) after 60 months in the water of Washington's Chandler Power Canal. Germination was much higher (82%) after 60 months of dry storage [28].
Methods of detection compared: Common mullein seed bank density estimates using the seed extraction method were much lower than those from the emergence method on soil samples collected in southern Ontario. Very small common mullein seeds were likely washed away or otherwise missed in the extraction method. Overall, the 2 methods provided very different pictures of the site's seed bank composition and density [19].
Frequency and density of common mullein seed in soil collected from a 2-year-old woodland clearcut in southern Ontario using extraction and emergence methods [19] Method Frequency (%) Density Seed extraction 6 87 seeds/m² Seedling emergence 90 1,299 emergents/m²Vegetation types compared: In most seed bank studies, common mullein was either absent or present at very low densities in the aboveground vegetation but still predominant in the seed bank. The common mullein seed bank can vary by vegetation type; however, patterns of variation are not consistent. It is likely that the soil area sampled and past land use are more important than current vegetation type. This idea is also discussed in Impacts and Control.
Common mullein seeds emerged from soil samples collected from 5 different vegetation types in the Mt Trumbull and Mt Logan Wilderness Areas of northern Arizona. Emergence was greatest from sites dominated by New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana) and lowest from sites dominated by old-growth ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Soil samples were collected in mid-September [123].
Common mullein seedling emergence from various vegetation types in northern Arizona [123] Canopy type Old-growth ponderosa pine Dense, pole-sized ponderosa pine Gambel oakOn limestone soils in Pennsylvania, common mullein seedlings emerged from soil samples taken from prairie, ecotone, and deciduous forest types. Common mullein was not present in the aboveground vegetation but emerged from 7 of 20 prairie, 6 of 20 ecotone, and 2 of 20 forest soil samples [81]. In the southern Appalachians, common mullein did not emerge from soil samples taken from a floodplain dominated by sedges (Carex spp.) or from soils taken from an adjacent site dominated by sapling red maple (Acer rubrum). A single common mullein seedling germinated from soil collected in a closed-canopy red maple forest [114].
Shrub-steppe: On ungrazed to heavily grazed areas dominated by antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) in the Okanagen Valley of British Columbia, common mullein occurred with much greater density in aboveground vegetation than in the seed bank. Aboveground density was 65 plants/m², while seed bank density was 0.2 seeds/m² [26]. It is important to note that researchers used the seed extraction method to characterize the seed bank. This method has been shown to underestimate common mullein seed abundance [19].
Coniferous forest: From 47-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in North Carolina, 840 common mullein seedlings/m² emerged from soil collections. The researcher noted that common mullein likely had not been present on the sites since canopy development [109]. The density of common mullein seedlings emerging from open-canopy ponderosa pine forests in northern Arizona was staggering. At depths up to 2 inches (5 cm), 4583 seedlings/m² emerged, and from 2- to 4-inch (5-10 cm) depths, 2,083 seedlings/m² emerged. Common mullein occurred in aboveground vegetation with an average frequency of 35% [3].
Deciduous forest: Common mullein seedlings emerged from soil collected in 6 of 8 deciduous forests in Tennessee's Anderson and Campbell counties. Stands were over 47 years old, and common mullein was not present in aboveground vegetation. Seedling density was greatest (93 seedlings/m²) in soil collected from yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)-dominated sites, and the greatest abundance of common mullein seedlings came from 2- to 4-inch (5-10 cm) depths [37]. In 70- to 90-year-old mixed deciduous stands in the Yale-Myers Forest of northeastern Connecticut, common mullein seedlings emerged from mineral soil samples taken from midslope (33/m²) and ridgetop (17/m²) positions but not from valley sites. Soil samples to were taken to a depth of 2 inches (5 cm) [9].
Germination: Light and warm temperatures produce the greatest common mullein germination rates; however, some germination is possible in the dark and at burial depths of 1.1 inches (3 cm). Common mullein seeds are either nondormant or conditionally dormant. Seed collected from temperate climates is typically not dormant when temperatures are cool, but as temperatures increase, seeds show conditional dormancy or a narrowed range of suitable conditions for germination (Baskin and Baskin, cited in [12]).
Light, temperature and seed size: Common mullein seed germinates best with exposure to full light and warm temperatures, but several studies have shown that seeds exposed to cool or hot temperatures, drastically fluctuating temperatures, dark conditions, and very brief light exposure may also germinate. Soil disturbances can expose common mullein seeds to the light and increase germination. For more information, see Impacts and Control.
Seed size can also affect germination. Smaller common mullein seeds collected from old fields and roadsides of Michigan and Ohio had significantly (P<0.05) lower germination than medium and large seeds. Small seeds had the lowest and large seeds had the highest germination rates in both light and dark conditions [50].
Germination of small-, medium-, and large-sized common mullein seeds after 3 weeks in greenhouse [50] Seed size Average seed weight (mg) Percent germination in light Percent germination in dark Small 0.041 71.2% 19.2% Medium 0.056 90.4% 26.4% Large 0.070 92.8% 35.2%Germination of common mullein seed is generally low in dark conditions, but increased temperatures may improve dark germination. In the laboratory, newly harvested common mullein seeds collected from the University of Michigan's Botanical Gardens germinated at over 90% in the light and about 2% in the dark. Older seeds were also light sensitive. When seeds were in soil or sand, germination in dark conditions was better, 24% to 34% [44]. No common mullein seeds collected from 2-year-old fields in southwestern Michigan germinated in the dark. However, germination increased to 38% after 5 seconds of light exposure; after 30 seconds of light exposure, germination increased to 63%, which was not statistically different from germination in full light [51]. Temperature affected successful germination in a dark germinator. Germination was very low in sustained cold temperatures but increased some when fluctuating temperatures reached highs of 68 °F (20 °C) or more [101]. When controlled studies were conducted on common mullein seed collected from low- and high-elevation roadside sites in western Nevada and northern California, germination percentages reached a high of 98% in the dark at alternating warm temperatures of 77 and 95 °F (25/35 °C). In the light, common mullein seed germinated at constant 104 °F (40 °C) and at alternating 0 and 104 °F (0/40 °C) temperatures [120].
Using field and greenhouse studies, researchers concluded that common mullein seed germination is possible throughout most of the year in light conditions. Seed was collected in early September from Wilson County, Tennessee, buried under 2.8 inches (7 cm) of soil in Lexington, Kentucky, for 1 to 25 months, and exhumed at monthly intervals. Germination rates of fresh-harvested seed were 0% at alternating temperatures of 56 °F and 43 °F (15/6 °C), 8% at 68/50 °F (20/10 °C), 97% at 86/56 °F (30/15 °C), and 95% at 95/68 °F (35/20 °C). Germination rates varied with season. Seeds removed in the winter had lower temperature requirements for germination. At high temperatures, 10% of seeds germinated in dark conditions, while none germinated in the dark at low temperatures [13].
Burial/canopy cover: Common mullein seed germinates best on the soil surface in areas with low canopy cover. Germination success generally decreases with increased depth of burial and increased canopy cover.
Emergence of common mullein in established Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) was significantly lower than emergence in litter or bare soil (P<0.0001). In litter or bare soil, emergence of common mullein was rapid and synchronous, and nearly 50% of maximum emergence occurred within 15 days of being sown [50]. Seed collected from 2-year-old fields in southwestern Michigan germinated at much lower percentages under a simulated canopy than under full light conditions [51]. After 2,500 seeds were sown in 1-year-old, 5-year-old, and 15-year-old fields at the W K Kellogg Biological Station, Michigan, common mullein emergence was greatest in 1-year-old fields with the greatest amount of bare ground. Survival of seedlings was evaluated in 1-year-old and 15-year-old fields; results are presented in Seedling establishment/growth below [53,54].
Seedling emergence with increasing field age and decreasing bare ground availability [53,54] Field age Percentage of bare ground Number of seedlings emerged 1 year 66 20.85a 5 years 10.8 6.3b 15 years <1 2.75b Emergence values followed by different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)Factors other than darkness associated with burial may prevent germination. Using field and greenhouse studies, researchers found that fewer common mullein seeds germinated in the dark at spring temperatures after 2 years of burial than after 1 year of burial [13]. Common mullein seeds collected from northern California roadsides and tested in a greenhouse study germinated better under a litter layer than under a soil layer, and increasing depth of burial corresponded to decreased germination percentages [120].
Percentage of common mullein germination with increasing depth of burial [120] Burial depth (cm) Seed source Sierra County, CA Lassen County, CA Donner Summit, CA Elevation: 1,510 mSeedling establishment/growth: Predictions regarding common mullein's survival and flowering success can be made by measuring its rosette size. Successful establishment and rosette size are affected by site conditions and the availability of open sites.
Probability of common mullein survival and flowering generally increase as rosette size increases. In 4-year-old fields in Kalamazoo, Michigan, rosettes less than 3.5 inches (9 cm) in diameter failed to flower in the subsequent year, but all those greater than 16 inches (41 cm) flowered. Of the 1,006 plants studied, very few survived more than 2 years, and none survived more than 3 years [49]. Probability of dying or not flowering was greatest for small-sized rosettes in 24 common mullein populations from southern Canada, North Carolina, Texas, and Georgia. Very large rosettes over 28 inches (70 cm) in diameter also had a lower probability of survival than those of intermediate diameter. As latitude of the population increased, so did the likelihood that plants with small rosettes would remain vegetative (P<0.001) [110]. Findings were similar on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Common mullein's probability of dying without flowering decreased and probability of flowering increased with increasing rosette size, which was typically greatest at the highest elevation sites. Rosettes over 10 inches (25.5 cm) in diameter had a 0.08 probability of dying, a 0.15 probability of remaining vegetative, and a 0.77 probability of flowering [7].
Emergence timing may or may not affect common mullein germination, rosette size, flowering, or survival. At sites ranging from 5,540 to 8,860 feet (1,690-2,700 m) elevation on Mauna Kea, common mullein survival and reproductive success were not affected by timing of cohort emergence [7], but timing of cohort emergence was critical to common mullein's survival and reproductive success in southwestern Michigan [48]. The fate of more than 7,000 common mullein seedlings was monitored for 3 years on the island of Hawaii. There were 4 emergence cohorts, but timing of emergence did not affect germination, rosette size, flowering, or survival. Some variation appeared to be related to elevation. Seedling density, rosette diameter, and leaf number were greater at high-elevation sites than at low-elevation sites, which had greater precipitation and more associated vegetation. However, probability of flowering was greatest at the lowest elevation sites. The proportion of plants that delayed flowering beyond 2 years of age was greatest at high-elevation sites [7].
Common mullein seedlings emerged in mid-May, mid-June, and mid-August, generally after 3 to 4 days of rain, in a 3-year-old field at Michigan's W K Kellogg Biological Station. None of the seedlings that emerged in August, the largest cohort, survived the winter. When neighboring vegetation was removed, survival increased [48].
Fate of common mullein plants with timing of emergence in a 3-year-old field in Michigan [48] Cohort Number of seedlings Probability of surviving winter Number of flowering plants Mean height of flowering plants (cm) Mean number of seeds/plant Overall probability of reproducing May 116 0.50 4 92.1 2,050 0.035 June 2,640 0.75 6 38.1 380 0.003 August 29,060 0 0 0 0 0.000Open site availability: Like seed germination, common mullein seedling establishment is best on open sites. Time since disturbance and its relationship to open-site availability affects seedling size, survival, and reproductive success. Seedling growth was dramatically lower when seeds were sown in containers with established Kentucky bluegrass than when planted in litter or bare soil [50].
Final average dry mass (mg) of common mullein seedlings* in containers with bare soil, litter, or established Kentucky bluegrass [50] Bare soil Litter Kentucky bluegrass Kentucky bluegrass and litter 874-1,013 1,003-1,147 0.07-0.22 0.09-0.16 *First number is average for seedlings from small-sized seeds; last number is average for seedlings from large-sized seeds.In southwestern Michigan, common mullein seedlings established and survived only in 1-year-old fields when seeds were sown in 1- and 15-year-old fields. Seedlings that survived to the end of the growing season (~20 weeks) on 1-year-old fields were restricted to bare areas. When openings were created in 15-year-old fields, seedling emergence increased and some seedlings established [53,54].
Decreased germination, lower survival, and delayed reproduction were typical in common mullein populations in North Carolina's Piedmont as time since disturbance increased. Common mullein seedlings that established 2 to 3 years after a disturbance had a greater chance of remaining vegetative in their 2nd year than those established in the 1st postdisturbance year. When areas were artificially disturbed, seedlings had a high probability of flowering in their 2nd year. The researcher concluded that the "successional age of the habitat determined the relative fitness of the biennial and triennial plants" [112].
Seedling density and seedling survival with increasing time since disturbance. Ranges include information from 2 to 6 common mullein populations [112] Time since disturbance (years) 1 2 3 Seedlings/m² 98.9-127.6 0-14.1 0-3.8 Fraction of seed pool germinating (%) 11.2-26.6 0-2.9 0-0.02 Seedlings surviving to end of 1st growing season (%) 14.9-17.8 0-2.5 0-7.1Vegetative regeneration: Common mullein has no means of vegetative regeneration [48].
Common mullein is an early-seral species. On disturbed sites, common mullein emerges from soil-stored seed. Common mullein rarely persists beyond the first few postdisturbance years. However, in some meadows of California and sparsely vegetated alpine sites in Hawaii, common mullein is not restricted to disturbed sites and has not been replaced in natural succession. For more on these exceptions, see Impacts and Control.
Rarely is common mullein described in undisturbed communities. The creation of sunny, open sites by heavy grazing, severe storms, logging, fire, or other disturbances is generally necessary for common mullein establishment, growth, and reproductive success. On south-facing slopes of Gregory Canyon near Boulder, Colorado, common mullein did not grow on "deeply-shaded sites" [4]. Even large-sized common mullein plants typically die or fail to reproduce on shaded sites (Reinartz, unpublished data cited in [110]). In West Yellowstone, common mullein was found only at sites with less than 30% canopy cover, and most occurrences (75%) were at sites with ≤5% canopy cover [6]. In coastal upland habitats of southern New England and adjacent New York, common mullein occurred only on open plots and not on any of the 56 heath-dominated, 175 shrubland, or 446 forested plots [142].
Postdisturbance common mullein populations are typically ephemeral, and as time since disturbance increases, common mullein abundance normally decreases. Old-field succession was evaluated on many sites in southwestern Michigan. Common mullein was often abundant only in fields less than 5 years old [53]. Common mullein established from long-lived seeds present in the seed bank at the time of disturbance. As time since disturbance increased, the proportion of open space decreased as did the probability of successful establishment. In old fields, local common mullein extinctions are rapid, but long-lived, soil-stored seed emergence is likely with the next disturbances [48,54]. Common mullein populations in southern Canada, North Carolina, Texas, and Georgia rarely persisted more than 4 years after disturbance. Of the 24 populations monitored, only 2 had germination in the year after initial postdisturbance population establishment [110].
Vegetation type and disturbance severity may affect the persistence of common mullein in early-seral communities. In the Yale-Myers Forest of northeastern Connecticut, common mullein was present the first year after all vegetation was removed from 85-year-old northern red oak (Q. rubra) stands but was not present the third year after vegetation removal. On sites where only the canopy was removed, common mullein did not occur [5]. In ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest, common mullein may occur in low abundance up to 30 years after severe fire [14].
Grazing: Common mullein is often described on severely grazed sites. In British Columbia and Montana rangelands, common mullein does not normally occur in "climax" grasslands, but its abundance increases as range condition deteriorates [77,94]. In southwestern Utah, common mullein was one of several species noted on "depleted," "severely grazed" Gambel oak types [18]. On overgrazed sties in South Dakota, common mullein is "especially prevalent" and "extremely abundant" [64]. In Wisconsin's Coon Valley, common mullein often appears when there is grazing in black oak (Q. velutina) communities [91]. Common mullein is also common on heavily grazed cleared forests and bluegrass grasslands attacked by June beetle larvae. In these areas, the tall weedy forb community can become an "impenetrable jungle-like thicket 4 to 7 feet (1.2-2 m) tall" [32].
While increased abundance of common mullein on grazed sites is normal, on the Blandy Experimental Farm in Virginia, common mullein decreased more rapidly on old fields with herbivore pressure than on those without. Direct use of common mullein by the grazers was not evaluated, and consumption of seeds or plants may have affected results [17].
Change in percent cover with time and herbivore exclusion treatments in Virginia [17] Time span ControlStorms: Severe storm events that cause tree mortality and create canopy openings provide early-seral habitat for common mullein. Four years after Hurricane Fran (1996), common mullein occurred in plots that were damaged on North Carolina's Duke University Forest. The hurricane created patchy forest openings [132]. In Minnesota's Cedar Creek Natural History Area, common mullein frequency ranged from 2.2% to 42% in areas where eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) trees were uprooted by a July windstorm that reduced tree density from 1,104 to 446 trees/ha. Fourteen years after the storm, common mullein frequency still ranged from 3.8% to 16.1% [100].
Logging and fire: Common mullein frequently occupies newly cut forest sites throughout its range. Common mullein was abundant in the first year after 100-year-old eastern white pine stands were clearcut in northwestern Connecticut. Sites were bulldozed following cutting to expose mineral soil. There were over 100 common mullein plants on the two 5,000 m² treated plots [35]. Common mullein frequency was 23% three years after a mixed-conifer forest was clearcut and burned in northeastern Oregon's Wallowa Mountains. By 14 years after the treatment, common mullein frequency was reduced to 3% or less [95]. In ponderosa pine forests on Mt Trumbull in northern Arizona, common mullein occurred on skid trails and in areas where slash was piled during a thinning operation. Common mullein did not occur on undisturbed sites, and density on treated sites averaged 2.9 plants/m² [123].
Common mullein frequency increased with increasing intensity of cutting in ponderosa pine forests on Arizona's Coconino National Forest. Common mullein frequency was greatest on sites with the greatest tree reduction. Common mullein frequency increased from the 3rd to the 6th posttreatment year on the most heavily thinned plots. Thinned sites were also burned in strip head fires [1,2].
Frequency of common mullein with increased intensity of thinning of ponderosa pine forests [1] Treatment intensity Pretreatment density of ponderosa pine (trees/ha) Posttreatment density of ponderosa pine (trees/ha) Frequency of common mullein (%) 3 years after treatments Frequency of common mullein (%) 6 years after treatments [2] Control 1,188 1,188 0 0 Low 1,044 243 <1 no data Medium 1,492 170 12 11 High 956 140 14 56On the same sites discussed above, researchers experimentally scarified soils with increasing intensity and evaluated common mullein frequency. On unthinned plots, soil disturbance was followed by little change (≤6%) in common mullein frequency. On thinned plots common mullein frequency increased 0% to 28% after soil disturbance [2].
Frequency of common mullein was much greater on bulldozed than burned sites after a severe fire in alvar woodlands near Ottawa, Ontario. Common mullein frequency was 8% fifteen months after the fire. In the bulldozed area of the adjacent unburned site, the frequency of common mullein was 50% [23,24].
For more on common mullein and fire, see Fire Effects.
The scientific name of common mullein is Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophulariaceae)
[47,58,65,144,153].
Hybridization occurs within the genus. Common mullein ÃÂ white mullein (V. lychnitis)
hybrids are suspected in Michigan [143], and common mullein ÃÂ orange mullein (V. phlomoides)
hybrids, V. ÃÂ kerneri Fritsch, occur in the Northeast [45].
Verbascum thapsus, popularmente llamáu morga ye una especie de la familia Scrophulariaceae natural d'Europa, Asia occidental, África, Norteamérica y nel Himalaya, crez en terrenes incultos, turries y praderíes seques.
Ye una planta yerbácea bienal qu'algama 2 m d'altor. Tarmu erecto ramificáu y llanudu. Les fueyes d'hasta 50 cm de llongura son ovales llanceolaes, alternes, afieltraes de pelusa blanca o plateada, formando una roseta basal el primer añu. Mientres el segundu añu álzase un únicu tarmu floral de 1 a 2 m d'altor, ésti termina nuna inflorescencia, constituyida por un recímanu trupu con numberoses flores de color mariellu claru.
Les flores son pentámeras, casi sésiles y con pedículos bien curtios (2 mm). Tienen cinco estames de dos tipos: trés cimeros más curtios con filamentos cubiertos de vellu mariellu o blancuciu y anteres pequeñes, ente que los dos inferiores tienen filamentos glabros y anteres mayores, toos ellos tán fundíos a los pétalos. El mota ye tubular de cinco lóbulos y una corola de cinco pétalos, el postreru de los cualos ye de color mariellu claru y 2,5 cm más estrechu.
Esta planta produz pequeñes cápsules ovoides (6 mm) que se parten en dos mitad. Cada cápsula tien gran númberu de diminutes granes marrones (menos de 1 mm)
Verbascum thapsus describióse por Carlos Linneo y espublizóse en Species Plantarum 1: 177. 1753.[1]
Númberu de cromosomes de Verbascum thapsus (Fam. Scrophulariaceae) y táxones infraespecíficos: 2n=36[2]
Verbascum: nome xenéricu que remanez del vocablu llatín Barbascum (barba), refiriéndose a la vellosidá que cubre la planta.
thapsus: epítetu xeográficu qu'alude al so localización en (Tapso (Italia)) Sicilia.[3]
Esta páxina forma parte del wikiproyeutu Botánica, un esfuerciu collaborativu col fin d'ameyorar y organizar tolos conteníos rellacionaos con esti tema. Visita la páxina d'alderique del proyeutu pa collaborar y facer entrugues o suxerencies. Verbascum thapsus, popularmente llamáu morga ye una especie de la familia Scrophulariaceae natural d'Europa, Asia occidental, África, Norteamérica y nel Himalaya, crez en terrenes incultos, turries y praderíes seques.
Ayıqulaq sığırquyruğu (lat. Verbascum thapsus)[1] - sığırquyruğu cinsinə aid bitki növü.[2]
Ayıqulaq sığırquyruğu (lat. Verbascum thapsus) - sığırquyruğu cinsinə aid bitki növü.
L'herba blenera, trepó joanal o candelera (Verbascum thapsus L.) és una espècie de planta de la família escrofulariàcia.
És originària d'Euràsia. Als Països Catalans hi ha tres subespècies essent rar o nul en les contrades molt poc plujoses. A Catalunya arriba fins als 2000 metres d'altitud. Floreix de juny a novembre.[1]
És una planta herbàcia biennal que arriba fins a una alçada de dos metres. És densament estel·lato-tomentosa grisenca o groguenca no glandulosa. Les fulles, que tenen disposició alternada i tacte com de cotó, el primer any creixen en forma de roseta i el segon s'espiguen i poden arribar a 2 metres d'alt. Les flors es fan en una inflorescència amb aspecte d'espiga compacta, són grogues i els fruits en càpsula.
És una planta medicinal i amb molts usos folklòrics.
L'herba blenera, trepó joanal o candelera (Verbascum thapsus L.) és una espècie de planta de la família escrofulariàcia.
És originària d'Euràsia. Als Països Catalans hi ha tres subespècies essent rar o nul en les contrades molt poc plujoses. A Catalunya arriba fins als 2000 metres d'altitud. Floreix de juny a novembre.
És una planta herbàcia biennal que arriba fins a una alçada de dos metres. És densament estel·lato-tomentosa grisenca o groguenca no glandulosa. Les fulles, que tenen disposició alternada i tacte com de cotó, el primer any creixen en forma de roseta i el segon s'espiguen i poden arribar a 2 metres d'alt. Les flors es fan en una inflorescència amb aspecte d'espiga compacta, són grogues i els fruits en càpsula.
És una planta medicinal i amb molts usos folklòrics.
Planhigyn blodeuol yw Pannog felen sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Scrophulariaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Verbascum thapsus a'r enw Saesneg yw Great mullein.[1] Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pannog Melyn, Blewog, Cannwyll yr Adar, Clust y Fuwch, Clust yr Oen, Clust y Tarw, Chwyn Ffagl, Dail y Dargod, Dail Melfed, Hanner Pan, Llafn Ffagl, Llwgr y Tewlaeth, Llwyn y Tewlaeth, Melfedog, Rhosgampau, Siaced y Melinydd,Sircyn y Melinydd, Tapr Dunos, Tapr Mair, Tapr Mawr, Tewbannog, Tewbannog Blewog.
Maent yn frodorol o rannau cynnes a throfannol Cyfandir America.
Planhigyn blodeuol yw Pannog felen sy'n enw benywaidd. Mae'n perthyn i'r teulu Scrophulariaceae. Yr enw gwyddonol (Lladin) yw Verbascum thapsus a'r enw Saesneg yw Great mullein. Ceir enwau Cymraeg eraill ar y planhigyn hwn gan gynnwys Pannog Melyn, Blewog, Cannwyll yr Adar, Clust y Fuwch, Clust yr Oen, Clust y Tarw, Chwyn Ffagl, Dail y Dargod, Dail Melfed, Hanner Pan, Llafn Ffagl, Llwgr y Tewlaeth, Llwyn y Tewlaeth, Melfedog, Rhosgampau, Siaced y Melinydd,Sircyn y Melinydd, Tapr Dunos, Tapr Mair, Tapr Mawr, Tewbannog, Tewbannog Blewog.
Maent yn frodorol o rannau cynnes a throfannol Cyfandir America.
Filtbladet kongelys (Verbascum thapsus) er en op til 1,5 meter høj urt, der i Danmark vokser eksempelvis på strandoverdrev og i grusgrave. Den ligner uldbladet kongelys, men bladenes filt er grå (ikke gullighvid) og blomsterne har en krone, der højst er 2,5 cm bred. Den er også kaldt Filtet kongelys.
Filtbladet kongelys er en toårig plante med en opret vækst. Det første år danner planten kun en grundstillet bladroset. Fra og med andet år skyder en stiv og kraftig stængel til vejrs med skruestillede blade og en endestillet blomstestand. Bladene (både de grundstillede og stængelbladene) er ægformede til elliptiske med nedløbende stilke, som giver stænglen et vinget udseende. Bladranden er rundtakket og begge sider af bladet er tæt gråfiltede.
Blomstringen sker i juli-august, hvor de gule blomster sidder samlet i et aks, som dækker den yderste halvdel af skuddet. Blomsterne er 5-tallige og svagt uregelmæssige med 3 hvidhårede, korte støvdragere og 2 lange, næsten hårløse. Frugterne er kapsler med mange bittesmå frø.
Rodnettet består af en kraftig og dybtgående pælerod med mange kraftige siderødder.
Højde x bredde og årlig tilvækst: 1,50 x 0,35 m (150 x 35 cm/år).
Filtbladet kongelys findes naturligt udbredt over et stort område mellem de Kanariske øer og det vestlige Kina og fra Middelhavet og op til Skandinavien og Sibirien. Den er naturaliseret i Nordamerika, hvor nybyggerne indførte den som lægeplante, og i Japan, Australien, New Zealand og Sydamerika. Den foretrækker lysåbne, gerne helt nøgne flader uden konkurrence fra andre planter, og den vokser bedst på rå og gruset jord.
I Danmark findes den hist og her i Østdanmark på strandoverdrev og skrænter, grusgrave og udyrket jord.
Ved Gudhem klosterruin i Västergötland i Sverige findes den sammen med bl.a. alm. akeleje, sæbeurt, alm. torskemund, voldtimian, gråbynke, gul snerre, martsviol, prikbladet perikon, ru kulsukker og svaleurt.[1]
Filtbladet kongelys (Verbascum thapsus) er en op til 1,5 meter høj urt, der i Danmark vokser eksempelvis på strandoverdrev og i grusgrave. Den ligner uldbladet kongelys, men bladenes filt er grå (ikke gullighvid) og blomsterne har en krone, der højst er 2,5 cm bred. Den er også kaldt Filtet kongelys.
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze (Verbascum thapsus) ist eine Pflanzenart in der Familie der Braunwurzgewächse (Scrophulariaceae).
Weitere Trivialnamen sind Kleinblüten-Königskerze, Echte Königskerze, Marienkerze, Frauenkerze, Wollblume, Kleinblütiges Wollkraut, Himmelsbrand, Fackelkraut, Wetterkerze, Feldkerze, Brennkraut; in englischer Sprache: Flannelleaf, Flannelplant, Great Mullein.[1]
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze wächst als zweijährige oder mehrjährig hapaxanthe, immergrüne, krautige Pflanze und erreicht Wuchshöhen von 30 bis 200 Zentimetern. Als Speicherorgan dient eine rübenähnlich verdickte Hauptwurzel sowie das verdickte Hypokotyl und Epikotyl. Die Sprossachse gliedert sich in einen gestauchten rosettenbildenden und einen gestreckten laubblatttragenden Abschnitt. Im ersten Jahr wird gewöhnlich eine Rosette großer Blätter angelegt, im zweiten Jahr erfolgt die Ausbildung des langen, reichbeblätterten Stängels. Typisch für die Kleinblütige Königskerze ist die dichte Behaarung mit weiß-gräulich gelben Sternhaaren.[2]
Die bis 50 Zentimeter langen Grundblätter sind sehr kurz und undeutlich gestielt. Die Blattspreite ist verkehrt-eiförmig, -lanzettlich gestaltet und spitz bis stumpf. Der Blattrand ist gekerbt oder gezähnt bis fast ganz. Die spitzen und sitzenden Stängelblätter sind wechselständig am Stängel angeordnet. Die Länge beträgt bis 30 und die Breite bis 10 Zentimeter.[3] Ihre Größe nimmt vom unteren Stängelabschnitt nach oben hin kontinuierlich ab. An ihrer Basis laufen die oberen Stängelblätter mit ihren Rändern am Stängel herab, die unteren sind halbstängelumfassend. Die Spreitenform variiert von eiförmig oder verkehrt-eiförmig, spatelförmig. Blattober- und -unterseite bilden eine dicht wollig-filzig Behaarung aus.[4][2]
Die Blüten entspringen den Achseln immer kleiner werdender Tragblätter[5] und stehen dicht in kleinen Knäueln zusammengefasst. Dieser langgestreckte, zylindrische bis leicht pyramidale Blütenstand erreicht eine Länge bis zu 30–60 Zentimetern, die Breite beträgt etwa 2 Zentimeter. Die Blütenstiele sind relativ kurz.
Die zwittrigen und fünfzähligen Blüten besitzen eine doppelte Blütenhülle (Perianth). Der becherförmige, außen behaarte Kelch weist eiförmige Lappen und eine Länge von etwa 7–8 Millimetern auf. Der Durchmesser der Blütenkrone beträgt 12 bis 20 Millimeter. Die Krone ist trichterförmig. Die außen behaarten und kurz verwachsenen Kronblätter zeigen eine gelbe, seltener weißliche Farbe. Die fünf, relativ kurzen Staubblätter sind in zwei längere und drei kürzere aufgeteilt. Die zwei längeren Staubfäden sind kahl, selten wird hier im unteren Staubfadenbereich eine Behaarung ausgebildet. Die kürzeren Staubfäden besitzen nierenförmige Staubbeutel und weisen eine weißwollige Behaarung auf. Die Staubbeutel der längeren Staubfäden laufen an diesen kurz herab und werden etwa 1,5 bis 2 Millimeter lang. Das Längenverhältnis Staubbeutel zu Staubfaden beträgt hier 1:3 bis 1:4.[6] Der oberständige Fruchtknoten ist unzerteilt. Die nierenförmige Narbe läuft nicht am schlanken Griffel herab. Die Blütezeit erstreckt sich von Juni bis August.[4]
Aus dem Fruchtknoten entwickelt sich eine eiförmige, behaarte Kapselfrucht. Sie ist in etwa so lang wie der bleibende Kelch. Die Fruchtzeit erstreckt sich von Juli bis Oktober.[2] Die zahlreichen, sehr kleinen, braunen und kegelstumpfförmigen bis länglichen, rippigen, skulptierten, etwa 0,5–1 Millimeter langen Samen werden über den Wind ausgebreitet. Sie sind Lichtkeimer.[7]
Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 32 oder 36.[8]
Da die Überdauerungsorgane dicht an der Erdoberfläche liegen, wird die Kleinblütige Königskerze zu den Hemikryptophyten gezählt.[4] Die Kleinblütige Königskerze ist eine Halbrosettenpflanze.[9]
Die zwittrigen Blüten sind blütenbiologisch nach Kugler Lippenblumen vom Verbascum-Typ, d. h., schwach zweiseitig-symmetrische Pollen-Scheibenblumen. Die Kleinblütige Königskerze besitzt keinen Nektar, bietet aber ihren Bestäubern reichlich Pollen an. Typische Bestäuber sind kurzrüsselige Bienen, Syrphiden, Käfer und Fliegen. Innerhalb der Blüte reifen die weiblichen Geschlechtsorgane – Griffel und Narbe – vor den männlichen Fortpflanzungsorganen, den Staubbeuteln, wobei jedoch eine längere zeitliche Überlappung der männlichen und weiblichen Blütenphase besteht. Dieser Mechanismus, botanisch schwache Proterogynie genannt, fördert leicht Fremdbestäubung im Vergleich zur Selbstbestäubung. Dies wird dadurch unterstützt, dass die Insekten Blüten ährenförmiger Blütenstände gewöhnlich von unten nach oben anfliegen. In der Regel erfolgt Fremdbestäubung, bei Ausbleiben dieser findet spontane Selbstbestäubung statt.[9][7]
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze ist wichtige Futterpflanze für einige Eulenfalter-Arten. Die Gammaeule (Autographa gamma) ist polyphager Nutzer der Kleinblütigen Königskerze. Der verschollene Königskerzen-Mönch Shargacucullia thapsiphaga (gilt in Deutschland als verschollen) und der Königskerzen-Mönch Shargacucullia verbasci sind oligophag auf diese Art angewiesen.[10][11]
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze kann vom Rostpilz Uromyces verbasci befallen werden.[12]
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze kommt in fast ganz Europa, in Makaronesien, in Algerien, Marokko, in West- und Zentralasien, im Kaukasusraum, in Sibirien, China, Indien, Nepal, Bhutan und Pakistan vor.[13] Sie ist ein Neophyt auf den Azoren, in Sri Lanka, Japan, Australien, Neuseeland, auf Réunion, auf Hawaii, in Kanada, in den Vereinigten Staaten, in Argentinien und in Chile.[13]
Sie wächst an sonnigen, steinigen sowie mäßig trockenen Wegrändern, in Ruderalstellen (Kiesgruben, Schotterfluren), Waldschlägen sowie an Dämmen und Ufern. Die Pflanze ist ein Nitrifizierungsanzeiger.[6][14] In den Allgäuer Alpen steigt sie im Tiroler Teil zwischen Elbigenalp und Bernhardseck bis zu 1550 m Meereshöhe auf.[15] In Mitteleuropa ist sie eine Charakterart der Ordnung Atropetalia.[8]
Die Art Verbascum thapsus wurde von Carl von Linné 1753 in Species Plantarum, S. 177, erstveröffentlicht.[16] Synonyme für Verbascum thapsus L. sind: Verbascum macrurum Lange, Verbascum simplex Hoffmanns. & Link.[17]
Von Verbascum thapsus gibt es etwa drei Unterarten:[17]
Häufig kommt es bei Verbascum thapsus auch zur Bildung von Hybriden mit anderen Verbascum-Arten.
Wichtige Inhaltsstoffe der Kleinblütigen Königskerze sind Saponine, Schleimstoffe, Flavonoide, Zucker sowie gelbe Farbstoffe und ätherische Öle.[18][19]
Aus den Blättern oder Blüten kann ein Tee, eine Tinktur oder ein Sirup hergestellt werden, welche bei Reizhusten, Bronchitis oder Asthma eingesetzt werden können, da die Inhaltsstoffe schleimlösend und auswurffördernd wirken. Des Weiteren wird das Abheilen von Hautwunden unterstützt.[19][18] Auch die Samen können medizinisch genutzt werden, sie können auch als Fischgift, Barbasco, verwendet werden.
Die Stängel der Königskerzen-Arten wurden früher in Harz oder Pech getaucht und als Fackeln verwendet.[20] Auch zum Färben wurden die Pflanze verwendet.[21]
Nach altem, bereits vorchristlichem und später christianisiertem Brauchtum ist die Königskerze vielerorts in katholischen Gegenden Bestandteil des sogenannten Würzbüschels.[22]
Der Volksglaube meint, dass mit Hilfe der Wollblume eine Wettervorhersage für den kommenden Winter möglich sei: Locker besetzte Blütenstände sollten auf schneearme Perioden, kleine Blütenstände auf schneearme Winter, besonders lange Blütenstände mit dichtem Blütenbesatz auf lange, schneereiche Winter hinweisen.[23]
Die Kleinblütige Königskerze (Verbascum thapsus) ist eine Pflanzenart in der Familie der Braunwurzgewächse (Scrophulariaceae).
Dónderpele of toorts (Verbascum thapsus; Nederlands: koningskaars) ies 'n plant oet de helmkroedfamilie. Zès soorte kómme in 't wild veur in Nederland en Belsj. De Thapsus ies 2-jaorig mèt viltige behaorde versjpreid sjtaonde blaar aan eine sjtengel, dae 2 m. hoag kèn weure. Liech-gael blome van juli tot okt. in aorvörmige bleuj. Kump veur in de duine en Zuud-Limburg. De plant ies 'n ónderdeil van de kroedwösj, dat verklaort 't woorddeil dónder.
In anger dialekte weurt 't ouch waal gael kaersj of paoskaersj geneump.
Ander toortse:
Φλόμος είναι η κοινή ονομασία στα ελληνικά του φυτού που φέρει το επιστημονικό όνομα Verbascum thapsus στα Λατινικά (Φλόμος ο θάψος) και ανήκει στην οικογένεια των Σκροφουλαριιδών (Scrophulariaceae). Πρόκειται για βότανο αυτοφυές και αρκετά κοινό σε Ευρώπη, Βόρεια Αφρική και Ασία, ενώ έχει μεταφερθεί και στην Αμερική και την Ωκεανία. Στην Ελλάδα ευδοκιμεί σε όλες τις περιοχές και κατά τόπους είναι γνωστό με διάφορα ονόματα, όπως μελισσαντρό, βερμπάσκο, καλάνθρωπος, γλώσσα, σπλόνος, λαμπάδα του Αγίου Ιωάννη, αγκάθαρος, αλισφακιά, αλεπουκιά, αϊκέρι, ασπίωνας[1], λέπενο (Αρκαδία).
Ο φλόμος είναι φυτό διετές, δικοτυλήδονο που φυτρώνει σε εδάφη ακαλλιέργητα, πετρώδη, στις άκρες δρόμων, σε λιβάδια και σε όχθες. Το φυτό αποτελείται συνήθως από έναν κεντρικό κορμό, αν και μπορεί να διακλαδίζεται και φθάνει σε ύψος μέχρι τα 2 μέτρα. Τον πρώτο χρόνο βγάζει μόνο φύλλα και αναπτύσσει τον κορμό του. Γύρω από αυτόν αναπτύσσονται σε αστεροειδή διάταξη πολλά πράσινα λογχοειδή, παχιά και ελαφρώς τριχωτά φύλλα.[2] Το δεύτερο χρόνο της ζωής του, στην κορυφή του φυτού εμφανίζονται τα άνθη του που έχουν κίτρινο χρώμα, είναι μικρά με διάμετρο 1.5-3 εκατοστά, με πολύ μικρό μίσχο, ενώ διαθέτουν πέντε κάλυκες και πέντε στήμονες. Η εποχή της ανθοφορίας του είναι από τον Μάιο έως τον Σεπτέμβριο. Ο καρπός του είναι σε κάψα με ωοειδή μορφή και οι σπόροι του είναι μικροί και ακανόνιστου σχήματος. Υπάρχουν πολλά είδη του φυτού και περίπου 44 από αυτά βρίσκονται στην Ελλάδα.[1]
Το φυτό φλόμος ήταν γνωστό από την αρχαιότητα και το χρησιμοποιούσαν για τις φαρμακευτικές του ιδιότητες. Στον Θεόφραστο οφείλει το επίθετο "θάψος", καθώς αυτός έγραψε για ένα απροσδιόριστο βότανο στην αρχαία ελληνική αποικία Θάψος, κοντά στις Συρακούσες.[3] Ο Διοσκουρίδης το αναφέρει ως "βερμπάσκο το μέλαν", ενώ και ο Πλίνιος αναφέρεται στις θεραπευτικές του ιδιότητες.[1] Όταν τον 19ο αι. η Αθήνα έγινε πρωτεύουσα του νεοσύστατου ελληνικού κράτους στερούνταν αποχετευτικού δικτύου και στα λιμνάζοντα νερά φυόταν ο φλόμος σε μεγάλους αριθμούς και δημιουργούσε δυσάρεστη ατμόσφαιρα. Έτσι προήλθε η φράση "μας φλόμωσε", ενώ έχει και την έννοια του "ζαλίζω" καθώς χρησίμευε και στο ψάρεμα για να ζαλίζει τα ψάρια.[4]
Από την αρχαιότητα η κατ εξοχήν χρήση του φυτού ήταν η φαρμακευτική. Αλλά και η σύγχρονη βοτανολογία του αποδίδει θεραπευτικές ιδιότητες και για αυτό το σκοπό μάλιστα καλλιεργείται. Για την παρασκευή φυσικών φαρμακευτικών σκευασμάτων χρησιμοποιούνται κυρίως τα άνθη και τα φύλλα του φυτού αφού αποξηρανθούν. Παραδοσιακά η χρήση του, μετά από κατάλληλη επεξεργασία, αποσκοπούσε στη θεραπεία αναπνευστικών προβλημάτων, στην αντιμετώπιση του βήχα, αλλά και διάφορων γαστρεντερικών διαταραχών. Αναφέρεται επίσης ότι διαθέτει διουρητικές, μαλακτικές, καταπραϋντικές, αντιβιοτικές και αντιφλεγμονώδεις ιδιότητες.[1][2][5][6][7] Σύγχρονες μελέτες ενισχύουν τις παραδοσιακές απόψεις για τις φαρμακευτικές χρήσεις του φλόμου.[8]
Μία ακόμη ενδιαφέρουσα παραδοσιακή χρήση του φυτού αυτού ήταν κατά το ψάρεμα σε ποτάμια, αλλά και στη θάλασσα. Οι παραδοσιακοί ψαράδες κοπάνιζαν αποξηραμένα φύλλα και κορμούς του φλόμου και τα κατέβαζαν μέσα σε σάκους στο βυθό της θάλασσα, σε σημεία όπου υπήρχαν ψάρια, και αυτά ζαλίζονταν και είτε έπεφταν εύκολα στα δίχτυα ή αναδύονταν. Με παρόμοιο τρόπο και σε ποτάμιες περιοχές χτυπούσαν φυτά φλόμου σε πέτρες και τα έριχναν στο νερό με αποτέλεσμα τα ψάρια να ζαλίζονται και να συλλέγονται. Πρέπει να σημειωθεί ότι σήμερα απαγορεύεται η αυστηρά η χρήση φυτικών ή χημικών ή εκρηκτικών ουσιών στο ψάρεμα.[9][10]
.jpg)
|accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια); Εξωτερικός σύνδεσμος στο |website= (βοήθεια) |accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια) |accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια) |accessdate= (βοήθεια) |accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια) |accessdate= (βοήθεια) |accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια) |accessdate=, |date= (βοήθεια); Εξωτερικός σύνδεσμος στο |website= (βοήθεια) Φλόμος είναι η κοινή ονομασία στα ελληνικά του φυτού που φέρει το επιστημονικό όνομα Verbascum thapsus στα Λατινικά (Φλόμος ο θάψος) και ανήκει στην οικογένεια των Σκροφουλαριιδών (Scrophulariaceae). Πρόκειται για βότανο αυτοφυές και αρκετά κοινό σε Ευρώπη, Βόρεια Αφρική και Ασία, ενώ έχει μεταφερθεί και στην Αμερική και την Ωκεανία. Στην Ελλάδα ευδοκιμεί σε όλες τις περιοχές και κατά τόπους είναι γνωστό με διάφορα ονόματα, όπως μελισσαντρό, βερμπάσκο, καλάνθρωπος, γλώσσα, σπλόνος, λαμπάδα του Αγίου Ιωάννη, αγκάθαρος, αλισφακιά, αλεπουκιά, αϊκέρι, ασπίωνας, λέπενο (Αρκαδία).
Verbascum thapsus, the great mullein, greater mullein or common mullein is a species of mullein native to Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, and introduced in the Americas and Australia.[1]
It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 m tall or more. Its small, yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem, which grows from a large rosette of leaves. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, but prefers well-lit, disturbed soils, where it can appear soon after the ground receives light, from long-lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank. It is a common weedy plant that spreads by prolifically producing seeds, and has become invasive in temperate world regions.[1] It is a minor problem for most agricultural crops, since it is not a competitive species, being intolerant of shade from other plants and unable to survive tilling. It also hosts many insects, some of which can be harmful to other plants. Although individuals are easy to remove by hand, populations are difficult to eliminate permanently.
Although commonly used in traditional medicine, no approved drugs are made from this plant.[2] It has been used to make dyes and torches.[1]
V. thapsus is a dicotyledonous plant that produces a rosette of leaves in its first year of growth.[3][4] The leaves are large, up to 50 cm long. The second-year plants normally produce a single unbranched stem, usually 1–2 m tall. In the eastern part of its range in China, it is, however, only reported to grow up to 1.5 m tall.[5] The tall, pole-like stems end in a dense spike of flowers[3] that can occupy up to half the stem length. All parts of the plants are covered with star-shaped trichomes.[5][6] This cover is particularly thick on the leaves, giving them a silvery appearance. The species' chromosome number is 2n = 36.[7]
On flowering plants, the leaves are alternately arranged up the stem. They are thick and decurrent, with much variation in leaf shape between the upper and lower leaves on the stem, ranging from oblong to oblanceolate, and reaching sizes up to 50 cm long and 14 cm across (19 inches long and 5 inches wide).[8][9] They become smaller higher up the stem,[3][4] and less strongly decurrent down the stem.[3] The flowering stem is solid and 2–2.5 cm (nearly an inch) across, and occasionally branched just below the inflorescence,[4] usually following damage.[10] After flowering and seed release, the stem and fruits usually persist in winter,[11] drying into dark brown, stiff structures of densely packed, ovoid-shaped, and dry seed capsules. The dried stems may persist into the following spring or even the next summer. The plant produces a shallow taproot.[9]
Flowers are pentamerous with (usually) five stamen, a five-lobed calyx tube, and a five-petalled corolla, the latter bright yellow and an 1.5–3 cm (0.59–1.18 in) wide. The flowers are almost sessile, with very short pedicels (2 mm, 0.08 in). The five stamens are of two types, with the three upper stamens being shorter, their filaments covered by yellow or whitish hairs, and having smaller anthers, while the lower two stamens have glabrous filaments and larger anthers.[6][note 1] The plant produces small, ovoid (6 mm, 0.24 in) capsules that split open by way of two valves, each capsule containing large numbers of minute, brown seeds less than 1 mm (0.04 in)[12] in size, marked with longitudinal ridges. A white-flowered form, V. thapsus f. candicans, is known to occur.[13] Flowering lasts up to three months from early to late summer (June to August in northern Europe),[4] with flowering starting at the bottom of the spike and progressing irregularly upward; each flower opens for part of a day and only a few open at the same time around the stem.[11]
For the purpose of botanical nomenclature, Verbascum thapsus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum. The specific epithet thapsus had been first used by Theophrastus (as Θάψος, Thapsos)[14] for an unspecified herb from the Ancient Greek settlement of Thapsos, near modern Syracuse, Sicily,[14][15] though it is often assimilated to the ancient Tunisian city of Thapsus.[16]
At the time, no type specimen was specified, as the practice only arose later, in the 19th century. When a lectotype (type selected amongst original material) was designated, it was assigned to specimen 242.1 of Linnaeus' herbarium, the only V. thapsus specimen.[note 2] The species had previously been designated as type species for Verbascum.[18] European plants exhibit considerable phenotypical variation,[19] which has led to the plant acquiring many synonyms over the years.[17][20] Introduced American populations show much less variation.[19]
The taxonomy of Verbascum has not undergone any significant revision since Svanve Mürbeck's monographs in the 1930s, with the exception of the work of Arthur Huber-Morath, who used informal grouping in organizing the genus for the florae of Iran and Turkey to account for many intermediate species. Since Huber-Morath's groups are not taxonomical, Mürbeck's treatment is the most current one available, as no study has yet sought to apply genetic or molecular data extensively to the genus. In Mürbeck's classification, V. thapsus is placed in sect. Bothrospermae subsect. Fasciculata alongside species such as Verbascum nigrum (black or dark mullein), Verbascum lychnitis (white mullein), and Verbascum sinuatum (wavy-leaved mullein).[21][22][23][24]. As Verbascum thapsus is the type species of the genus the application of article 22 of the ICNafp gives sect. Verbascum subsect. Verbascum as the correct nomenclature for this placement.
The three usually recognized subspecies are:
In all subspecies but the type, the lower stamens are also hairy.[28] In V. t. crassifolium, the hairiness is less dense and often absent from the upper part of the anthers, while lower leaves are hardly decurrent and have longer petioles.[27] In V. t. giganteum, the hairs are densely white tomentose, and lower leaves are strongly decurrent. V. t. crassifolium also differs from the type in having slightly larger flowers, which measure 15–30 mm wide, whereas in the type, they are 12–20 mm in diameter.[27] Both V. t. giganteum and V. t. crassifolium were originally described as species.[3] Due to its morphological variation, V. thapsus has had a great many subspecies described. A recent revision led its author to maintain V. giganteum but sink V. crassifolium into synonymy.[24]
The plant is also parent to several hybrids (see table). Of these, the most common is V. × semialbum Chaub. (× V. nigrum).[7] All occur in Eurasia,[7] and three, V. × kerneri Fritsch, V. × pterocaulon Franch. and V. × thapsi L. (syn. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch), have also been reported in North America.[25][29]
V. thapsus is known by a variety of names. European reference books call it "great mullein".[30][31][32] In North America, "common mullein" is used[33][34] while western United States residents commonly refer to mullein as "cowboy toilet paper".[35][36]
In the 19th century, it had well over 40 different common names in English alone. Some of the more whimsical ones included "hig candlewick", "Indian rag weed", "bullicks lungwort", "Adams-rod", "hare's-beard", and "ice-leaf".[37] Vernacular names include innumerable references to the plant's hairiness: "woolly mullein", "velvet mullein", or "blanket mullein",[32][38] "beggar's blanket", "Moses' blanket", "poor man's blanket", "Our Lady's blanket", or "old man's blanket",[31][34][39] and "feltwort", and so on ("flannel" is another common generic name). "Mullein" itself derives from the French word for "soft".[40]
Some names refer to the plant's size and shape: "shepherd's club(s)" or "staff", "Aaron's rod"[41] (a name it shares with a number of other plants with tall, yellow inflorescences), and a plethora of other "X's staff" and "X's rod".[31][34][42] The name "velvet dock" or "mullein dock" is also recorded, where "dock" is a British name applied to any broad-leaved plant.[43]
V. thapsus has a wide native range including Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, from the Azores and Canary Islands east to western China, north to the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Siberia, and south to the Himalayas.[5][44][45] In northern Europe, it grows from sea level up to 1,850 m altitude,[4] while in China it grows at 1,400–3,200 m altitude.[5]
It has been introduced throughout the temperate world, and is established as a weed in Australia, New Zealand, tropical Asia, La Réunion, North America, Hawaii, Chile, Hispaniola, and Argentina.[45][46][47][48] It has also been reported in Japan.[49]
In the United States, it was imported very early in the 18th[note 3] century and cultivated for its medicinal and piscicide properties. By 1818, it had begun spreading so much that Amos Eaton thought it was a native plant.[note 4][9][50] In 1839, it was already reported in Michigan and in 1876, in California.[9] It is now found commonly in all the states.[51] In Canada, it is most common in the Maritime Provinces and southern Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia, with scattered populations in between.[19][52]
Great mullein most frequently grows as a colonist of bare and disturbed soil, usually on sandy or chalky ones.[7] It grows best in dry, sandy, or gravelly soils, although it can grow in a variety of habitats, including banksides, meadows, roadsides, forest clearings, and pastures. This ability to grow in a wide range of habitats has been linked to strong phenotype variation rather than adaptation capacities.[53]
Great mullein is a biennial and generally requires winter dormancy before it can flower.[10] This dormancy is linked to starch degradation activated by low temperatures in the root, and gibberellin application bypasses this requirement.[54] Seeds germinate almost solely in bare soil, at temperatures between 10 and 40 °C.[10] While they can germinate in total darkness if proper conditions are present (tests give a 35% germination rate under ideal conditions), in the wild, they in practice only do so when exposed to light, or very close to the soil surface, which explains the plant's habitat preferences. While it can also grow in areas where some vegetation already exists, growth of the rosettes on bare soil is four to seven times more rapid.[10]
Seeds germinate in spring and summer. Those that germinate in autumn produce plants that overwinter if they are large enough, while rosettes less than 15 cm (6 in) across die in winter. After flowering, the entire plant usually dies at the end of its second year,[10] but some individuals, especially in the northern parts of the range, require a longer growth period and flower in their third year. Under better growing conditions, some individuals flower in the first year.[55] Triennial individuals have been found to produce fewer seeds than biennial and annual ones. While year of flowering and size are linked to the environment, most other characteristics appear to be genetic.[56]
A given flower is open only for a single day, opening before dawn and closing in the afternoon.[19] Flowers are self-fecundating and protogynous (with female parts maturing first),[19] and will self-pollinate if they have not been pollinated by insects during the day. While many insects visit the flowers, only some bees actually accomplish pollination. The flowering period of V. thapsus lasts from June to August in most of its range, extending to September or October in warmer climates.[9][10][12] Visitors include halictid bees and hoverflies.[11] The hair on lower stamens may serve to provide footholds for visitors.[19]
The seeds maintain their germinative powers for decades, up to 100 years, according to some studies.[57] Because of this, and because the plant is an extremely prolific seed bearer (each plant produces hundreds of capsules, each containing up to 700 seeds,[19] with a total up to 180,000[9][10] or 240,000[12] seeds), it remains in the soil seed bank for extended periods of time, and can sprout from apparently bare ground,[10] or shortly after forest fires long after previous plants have died.[12] Its population pattern typically consists of an ephemeral adult population followed by a long period of dormancy as seeds.[19] Great mullein rarely establishes on new grounds without human intervention because its seeds do not disperse very far. Seed dispersion requires the stem to be moved by wind or animal movement; 75% of the seeds fall within 1 m of the parent plant, and 93% fall within 5 m.[10]
Megachilid bees of the genus Anthidium use the hair (amongst that of various woolly plants) in making their nests.[58] The seeds are generally too small for birds to feed on,[11] although the American goldfinch has been reported to consume them.[59] Other bird species have been reported to consume the leaves (Hawaiian goose)[60] or flowers (palila),[61] or to use the plant as a source when foraging for insects (white-headed woodpecker).[62] Additionally, deer and elk eat the leaves.[63]
Seeds of V. thapsus have been recorded from part of the Cromer Forest Bed series and at West Wittering in Sussex from some parts of the Ipswichian interglacial layers.[64]
Because it cannot compete with established plants, great mullein is no longer considered a serious agricultural weed and is easily crowded out in cultivation,[19] except in areas where vegetation is sparse to begin with, such as Californian semidesertic areas of the eastern Sierra Nevada. In such ecological contexts, it crowds out native herbs and grasses; its tendency to appear after forest fires also disturbs the normal ecological succession.[10][12] Although not an agricultural threat, its presence can be very difficult to eradicate and is especially problematic in overgrazed pastures.[9][10][12] The species is legally listed as a noxious weed in the US state of Colorado (class C)[65] and Hawaii,[66] and the Australian state of Victoria (regionally prohibited in the West Gippsland region, and regionally controlled in several others).[67]
Despite not being an agricultural weed in itself, it hosts a number of insects and diseases, including both pests and beneficial insects.[68] It is also a potential reservoir of the cucumber mosaic virus, Erysiphum cichoraceum (the cucurbit powdery mildew) and Texas root rot.[19][69] A study found V. thapsus hosts insects from 29 different families. Most of the pests found were western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), Lygus species such as the tarnished plant bug (L. lineolaris), and various spider mites from the family Tetranychidae. These make the plant a potential reservoir for overwintering pests.[68]
Other insects commonly found on great mullein feed exclusively on Verbascum species in general or V. thapsus in particular. They include mullein thrips (Haplothrips verbasci),[68] Gymnaetron tetrum (whose larva consume the seeds), and the mullein moth (Cucullia verbasci).[9] Useful insects are also hosted by great mullein, including predatory mites of the genera Galendromus, Typhlodromus, and Amblyseius, the minute pirate bug Orius tristicolor,[68] and the mullein plant bug (Campylomma verbasci).[70] The plant's ability to host both pests and beneficials makes it potentially useful to maintain stable populations of insects used for biological control in other cultures, like Campylomma verbasci and Dicyphus hesperus (Miridae), a predator of whiteflies.[71][72] A number of pest Lepidoptera species, including the stalk borer (Papaipema nebris) and gray hairstreak (Strymon melinus), also use V. thapsus as a host plant.[73]
Control of the plant, when desired, is best managed via mechanical means, such as hand pulling and hoeing, preferably followed by sowing of native plants. Animals rarely graze it because of its irritating hairs, and liquid herbicides require surfactants to be effective, as the hair causes water to roll off the plant, much like the lotus effect. Burning is ineffective, as it only creates new bare areas for seedlings to occupy.[9][10][12] G. tetrum and Cucullia verbasci usually have little effect on V. thapsus populations as a whole.[12] Goats and chickens have also been proposed to control mullein.[10] Effective (when used with a surfactant) contact herbicides include glyphosate,[9][12] triclopyr[9] and sulfurometuron-methyl.[12] Ground herbicides, like tebuthiuron, are also effective, but recreate bare ground and require repeated application to prevent regrowth.[10]
Phytochemicals in V. thapsus flowers and leaves include saponins, polysaccharides, mucilage, flavonoids, tannins, iridoid and lignin glycosides, and essential oils.[2] The plant's leaves, in addition to the seeds, have been reported to contain rotenone, although quantities are unknown.[74]
Although long used in herbal medicine, no drugs are manufactured from its components.[2] Dioscorides first recommended the plant 2000 years ago, considering it useful as a folk medicine for pulmonary diseases.[75] Leaves were smoked to attempt to treat lung ailments, a tradition that in America was rapidly transmitted to Native American peoples.[31][76] The Zuni people, however, use the plant in poultices of powdered root applied to sores, rashes, and skin infections. An infusion of the root is also used to treat athlete's foot.[77] All preparations meant to be drunk have to be finely filtered to eliminate the irritating hairs.[54]
Oil from the flowers was used against catarrhs, colics, earaches, frostbite, eczema, and other external conditions.[31] Topical application of various V. thapsus-based preparations was recommended for the treatment of warts,[78] boils, carbuncles, hemorrhoids, and chilblains, amongst others.[31][76] Glycyrrhizin compounds with bactericide effects in vitro were isolated from flowers.[79] The German Commission E describes uses of the plant for respiratory infections.[80] It was also part of the National Formulary in the United States[76] and United Kingdom.[31]
The plant has been used in an attempt to treat colds, croup, sunburn, and other skin irritations.[81]
Roman soldiers are said to have dipped the plant stalks in grease for use as torches. Other cultures use the leaves as wicks.[81] Native Americans and American colonists lined their shoes with leaves from the plant to keep out the cold.[81][31][76]
Mullein may be cultivated as an ornamental plant.[1] As for many plants, (Pliny the Elder described it in his Naturalis Historia),[note 5] great mullein was linked to witches,[31] although the relationship remained generally ambiguous, and the plant was also widely held to ward off curses and evil spirits.[31][54][75][76] The seeds contain several compounds (saponins, glycosides, coumarin, rotenone) that are toxic to fish, and have been widely used as piscicide for fishing.[9][83]
Due to its weedy capacities, the plant, unlike other species of the genus (such as V. phoeniceum), is not often cultivated.[1]
Verbascum thapsus, the great mullein, greater mullein or common mullein is a species of mullein native to Europe, northern Africa, and Asia, and introduced in the Americas and Australia.
It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 m tall or more. Its small, yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem, which grows from a large rosette of leaves. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, but prefers well-lit, disturbed soils, where it can appear soon after the ground receives light, from long-lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank. It is a common weedy plant that spreads by prolifically producing seeds, and has become invasive in temperate world regions. It is a minor problem for most agricultural crops, since it is not a competitive species, being intolerant of shade from other plants and unable to survive tilling. It also hosts many insects, some of which can be harmful to other plants. Although individuals are easy to remove by hand, populations are difficult to eliminate permanently.
Although commonly used in traditional medicine, no approved drugs are made from this plant. It has been used to make dyes and torches.
Tapso (Verbascum thapsus) estas planto el la familio de la Skrofulariacoj (Scrophulariaceae). La planto kreskas en dunaj kaj kretajterenoj kaj estas tie sufiĉe ĝenerala. La foliojn kaj la tigon kovras densa laneca triĥomo.
La floroj estas flavaj kaj havas diametron de 1,5-3 cm. Estas kvin petaloj kiuj estas deformitaj ĉe la piedo. Estas kvin sepaloj kaj kvin stamenoj, el kiuj tri havas flavajn aŭ blankajn triĥometojn.
Ili formas densan spikon. La planto floras de julio ĝis la aŭtuno.
La supraj folioj malsupreniras ĝis la sekva folio. La plej malsupraj folioj havas flugilhavan pedunklon.
Ĝi havas kapsulon kiu enhavas etajn semojn.
Jam antaŭ du miljaroj Dioskorido rekomendis tapson por la kuracado de la pulmaj malsanoj kaj ĝis nun uzata enm la kuracado de bronkoj kaj supraj pulmo-duktoj. Efika en la kompresoj en la kuracado de ekomozo kaj edemo kaj kiel balsamo por sanigi vundojn kaj kiel oleo el la floraj petaloj por mildigi neŭralgion, doloron de la artikoj kaj muskoloj. La tapsa dekokto (tizano) efikas: urinige (diureze), kontraŭdolore kaj trankvilige. Uzebla en disenterio, diareo, gastrito, iktero kaj hepatito. Oni uzas ĝin en: malvarmumo, en la inflamoj de buŝo kaj gorĝo.
rozeto en la unua jaro
Tapso (Verbascum thapsus) estas planto el la familio de la Skrofulariacoj (Scrophulariaceae). La planto kreskas en dunaj kaj kretajterenoj kaj estas tie sufiĉe ĝenerala. La foliojn kaj la tigon kovras densa laneca triĥomo.
Verbascum thapsus, popularmente llamado verbasco o gordolobo (al igual que otras especies), es una especie de la familia Scrophulariaceae natural de Europa, Asia occidental, África, Norteamérica, Sudamérica y en el Himalaya, crece en terrenos incultos, taludes y praderas secas.
Es una planta herbácea bienal que alcanza 2 m de altura. Tallo erecto ramificado y lanoso. Las hojas de hasta 50 cm de largo son ovales lanceoladas, alternas, afieltradas de pelusa blanca o plateada, formando una roseta basal el primer año. Durante el segundo año se alza un único tallo floral de 1 a 2 m de altura, este termina en una inflorescencia, constituida por un racimo denso con numerosas flores de color amarillo claro.
Las flores son pentámeras, casi sésiles y con pedículos muy cortos (2 mm). Poseen cinco estambres de dos tipos: tres superiores más cortos con filamentos cubiertos de vello amarillo o blancuzco y anteras pequeñas, mientras que los dos inferiores tienen filamentos glabros y anteras mayores, todos ellos están fundidos a los pétalos. El cáliz es tubular de cinco lóbulos y una corola de cinco pétalos, el último de los cuales es de color amarillo claro y 2,5 cm más estrecho.
Esta planta produce pequeñas cápsulas ovoides (6 mm) que se parten en dos mitades. Cada cápsula tiene gran número de diminutas semillas marrones (menos de 1 mm)
- Categoría: aditivos organolépticos. - Grupo funcional: Compuestos aromatizantes. Destinado a pollos, pavos, conejos, cerdos y terneros, corderos y cabritos de engorde, Salmónidos, excepto con fines de reproducción. El aditivo se incorporará al pienso en forma de premezcla. REGLAMENTO DE EJECUCIÓN (UE) 2022/702 DE LA COMISIÓN de 5 de mayo de 2022, relativo a la autorización de la tintura de gordolobo/candelaria como aditivo en piensos para determinadas especies animales https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32022R0702&from=ES
Verbascum thapsus fue descrita por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Species Plantarum 1: 177. 1753.[1]
Número de cromosomas de Verbascum thapsus (Fam. Scrophulariaceae) y táxones infraespecíficos: 2n=36[2]
Verbascum: nombre genérico que deriva del vocablo latino Barbascum (barba), refiriéndose a la vellosidad que cubre la planta.
thapsus: epíteto geográfico que alude a su localización en (Tapso (Italia)) Sicilia.[3]
[4]
Acerones, anagálide acuática, barbasco, barbasco grande, berula, candela regia, candelaria, candelera, casamo, engordalobo, engordolobo, friegaplatos, gordolobo, gordolobo blanco macho, gordolobo común, gordolobo macho, guardalobo, guardalobos, guardilobo, guardolobo, guardolobos, hopo de zorra, jopo de zorra, moñigas de lobo, oreja de lobo, orejas de lobo, palo, pencas de verdelobo, rabasco, tripo, turciburci, verbasco, verdelobo.[5] En Sudamérica: Yerba de paño.[6]
Verbascum thapsus, popularmente llamado verbasco o gordolobo (al igual que otras especies), es una especie de la familia Scrophulariaceae natural de Europa, Asia occidental, África, Norteamérica, Sudamérica y en el Himalaya, crece en terrenos incultos, taludes y praderas secas.
Üheksavägine (Verbascum thapsus) on mailaseliste sugukonda vägiheina perekonda kuuluv mitmeaastane rohttaime liik.
Teaduslikku nimetust vägiheina jaoks ei ole muudetud pärast Carl von Linnéd (1707–1778), kes tutvustas seda oma raamatus "Species plantarum" 1753. aastal. Nimetus (Verbascum) tuleb ladina keelest. Nimetus sarnaneb väga ladinakeelse nimetusega barbascum (tähendab 'habemega taim', ladinakeelsest sõnast barba 'habe'), viidates taime habemesarnasele välimusele.[1]
Rahvapäraseid nimetusi: üheksamehejõud, üheksatseltsi-imetlemisrohi, üheksahaava-lehed, üheksamatsu-suits,[2] üheksaväeline, hunditubak, sajamehevõim, üheksamaõied.[3]
Eestis kasvab kaks vägiheina perekonna liiki – üheksavägine (Verbascum thapsus) ja must vägihein (Verbascum nigrum) – ning harvemini nende hübriid. Kõik kolm liiki eelistavad liivmulda.[4]
Põhja-Ameerikasse viidi üheksavägine sisse ravimtaimena. 18. sajandi algusaastatel levis ta kiiresti üle kogu Virginia osariigi, kus teda tutvustati kalamürgina. Juba 1818. aastal kirjeldati teda kui looduslikku liiki.[5] Praeguseks on tegu hulgaliselt naturaliseerunud umbrohuga.[6]
Kasvab teeservadel, kruusakarjäärides, kuival, kivisel ja kruusasel pinnasel. Paiguti tavalisem Põhja- ja Lääne-Eestis.[7]
Üheksavägise populatsioonid koloniseerivad lühiajaliselt kindlat paika. Üheksavägine ei kasva tiheda taimestikuga aladel, pigem just häiringujärgsetes paikades, kus liike on vähe. Üheksavägine on kaheaastane taim. Populatsiooni püsimajäämine sõltub tema võimest ala taaskoloniseerida. Uuesti koloniseerimine sõltub kohalikust levikust ja vaba maa hulgast. Teistest taimedest vaba maapinna vähenemine viib selleni, et ainult üksikutel seemnetel õnnestub idaneda ja populatsioon kaob.[5]
Populatsiooni püsimajäämine sõltub pika idanemisvõimega seemnetest. Seemnete pikk eluiga võimaldab üheksavägisel idaneda pärast suurt häiringut, kui taime arenguks on tekkinud sobivad tingimused. Stabiilsetes elupaikades on üheksavägise populatsioon väga lühiealine.[5]
Üheksavägine on kaheaastane 30–200 cm kõrgune tihedalt viltjas rohttaim.[8] Õitega kaetud vars on silmatorkav.[7][8] Esimesel aastal kasvab madal kuni 60 cm diameetriga lehekodarik. Järgmisel suvel kasvab lihav tihedalt villaste harunenud karvakestega kaetud õisikuvars, millele kinnituvad krobelised lehed.[5]
Lehed on piklikmunajad, varrel laskuvad.[4] Lehed on 10–40 cm pikad koos leherootsuga.[5] Varre alumises osas on lehed suuremad kui üleval pool.[8] Lehtede süsteem on niivõrd hästi korraldatud, et tipus olevatelt pisematelt lehtedelt voolab vesi suurematele lehtedele allpool, mis juhivad vee juurtele. See on oluline korraldus, kuna vägihein kasvab enamasti kuival pinnasel.[6] Lehtedel tihedalt paiknevad kiirjad karvakesed on taimele mitmes mõttes kaitsekihiks. Need kontrollivad taime niiskustaset, muudavad keeruliseks putukate liikumise ning tekitavad rohusööjatel intensiivse limaskesta ärrituse, mistõttu jäetakse taim puutumata.[6] Karvad ei paikne ainult lehtedel, vaid kogu taimevarrel, tupplehtedel, kroonlehtedel, nii et kogu taim näeb välja valkjas või hall.[6]
Enne esimese talve lõppu on oht hukkuda taimedel, mille lehekodariku läbimõõduks on vähem kui 15 cm. Esimesel aastal ei õitse taimed, mille läbimõõt oktoobriks on vähem kui 9 cm. Järgmisel aastal puhkevad õide taimed, mille lehekodarik on saavutanud oktoobriks diameetri 41 cm. Tõenäosus õitseda suureneb lehekodariku läbimõõdu suurenedes.[5]
Taim hakkab õitsema teisel aastal.[8] Õisik on odaja kujuga, tähkjas ja tihe. Õisiku pikkus 20–50 cm ja diameeter umbes 3 cm.[5][7] Harva võib tipmine õis kasvada üle tipmistest lehtedest.[5]
Õied kinnituvad ümber varre korrapäratult ja ühekaupa, lühema kui 2 mm õierao abil[4]. Õie läbimõõt on 20–25 mm.[5] Õiekroon on helekollane, ratasjalt lehterjas, õieraod on tupest lühemad.[4] Õied, mis asuvad lopsakal varrel, koosnevad viiest kroonlehest.[8] Kroonlehed on nooljad või ovaalsed, pikkuseks 7–9 mm, kinnitus kaasa arvatud.[5]
Õisiku keskel on viis tolmukat, kolm neist on lühemad kui kaks ülejäänut. Tolmukaniidid on punakad ja need on kaetud tihedalt pisikeste valgete karvakestega. Karvakesed on täis mahla ja arvatakse, et need on lisapeibutiseks putukatest tolmeldajatele.[6]
Õied valmivad varrel alt üles järjestikuses spiraalis. Mida ülespoole, seda vähem on kobaras selgelt eristatav spiraalmuster. Õisiku kasv on piiramatu. Varre pikkus on seotud õitsemisperioodi pikkusega. Pikemate õisikutega taimed õitsevad hilisseptembrini ja varaoktoobrini.[5] Õitsemine saab alguse teise aasta juunis ja lõpeb augustis. Kolmeaastaseid taimi leidub väga harva.[5] Õite avanemine on juhuslik, avanedes siin ja seal varrel. Tegu ei ole regulaarse protsessiga alt üles. Õied sulguvad villastesse tupplehtedesse.[6]
Kuigi õisi külastavad erinevad putukad, on ainult teatud tüüpi mesilased efektiivsed tolmeldajad. Üheksavägine on autogaamne: õied isetolmlevad juhul kui võõrtolmlemist ei toimunud. Pärast ainsat paljunemiskorda kogu taim hukkub.[5]
Viljaks on munajas, tähkjas, karvane 3–6 mm pikk kupar, mis jaguneb küpsedes kaheks. Valmides kupar avaneb. Suured loomad ja tuul liigutavad taime sedavõrd, et seemned pudenevad kupardest.
Üheksavägine produtseerib hulgaliselt pruune 0,5–1,0 mm pikki seemneid, mis on kuuekülgsed, krobelised, auguridadega.[5] Üks taim võib toota 100 000 – 180 000 seemet. Iga seeme kaalub keskmiselt 0,067 mg ja ei ole võimeline kaugele levima. Leviku kauguseks ei ole rohkem kui 11 m, enamik (93%) kukub 5 m kaugusele.[5]
Seemnete eluiga on pikk, üle saja aasta. Kasvukõlblikke seemneid on leitud mullaproovidest, mis arheoloogiliselt määrati 1300. aastat eKr.[5]
Lima (kuni 3%, selle hüdrolüüsil vabaneb 47% D-galaktoosi, 25% arabinoosi, 14% D-glükoosi, 6% D-ksüloosi, 4% L-ramnoosi, peale nende D-mannoosi, L-fukoosi ja uroonhapet), iridoidid (aukubiin, 6-β-ksülosüülaukubiin, katalpool, 6-β-ksülosüülkatalpool, metüülkatalpool, isokatalpool), saponiinid (verbaskosaponiin, hemolüütilise indeksiga u 350), flavonoidid (u 4%; apigeniin ja luteoliin ning nende 7-O-glükosiidid, kempferool, rutiin), sahhariidid (sahharoos), karotenoidid, eeterlik õli, orgaanilised happed, kumariinid, steroidid, pigmentained (β-krotsetiin).[4]
Droogina kasutatakse ainult õite kroonlehti, mis eraldatakse tupplehtedest. Neid tuleb koguda kuiva ilmaga ning mitte muljuda, kuna see teeks kollased õied pruuniks. Samal põhjusel ei tohi koguda pudenenud kroonlehti. Õitsemine kestab ainult paar päeva, seepärast on tõhusam koguda droogi kultuuris kasvatatavatelt taimedelt. Droog kuivatatakse ühekordse kihina temperatuuril 40–50 °C. Droog koosneb kroonlehtedest ja tolmukatest, see on nõrga lõhnaga ja maitselt magusavõitu. Õisi ei tasu segi ajada musta vägiheina õitega (tolmukaniidid lillad).[4]
Mähkiv, pehmendav ja röga lahtistav. Kasutatakse peamiselt ülemiste hingamisteede põletiku, eriti köha korral, välispidiselt limaskestapõletiku puhul.[4] Kogu taim näib omavat rahustavat ja narkootilist toimet.[6] Samatoimeliste taimedega võrreldes (harilik lina, mets-kassinaeris, harilik altee, teeleht, paiseleht) on üheksavägisel ülekaalus sekreeti veeldav ja röga lahtistav toime, limasisaldus on väiksem. Päevane annus 3–4 grammi droogi.[4]
Kasutatakse kollase värvi saamiseks: kui üheksavägist töödelda lahjendatud väävelhappega, tekib hall värvaine, mis leelise lisamisel muutub pruuniks. Vesitõmmisega antakse heledatele juustele kollakas toon. Vähesel määral tarvitusel putukamürgina.[4]
Aristoteles märkis taime üles kui kalamürgi.[5] Seemned on kaladele mürgised, kui neid vette visata. Seemneid kasutavad salakütid, kuna see mõjub kaladele uimastavalt.[6] Tihti kasvatatakse taime ilu pärast.[5]
Rahvameditsiinis kasutatakse üheksavägist välispidiselt samamoodi nagu teelehte ja paiselehte. Seespidiselt tarvitatakse seda neeru- ja põiehaiguste korral.[4]
Eestis on üheksavägiste abil ennustatud sõja kulgu: kummassegi kätte võeti taime tugev vars nagu mõõk ning löödi teineteisele vastu, kummal pea maha langes, oli kaotaja pool.[2]
Maagiline üheksavägine kordub paljudes rahvapärastes nimetustes. Imevõim avaldus eriti koduloomade ärategemise vastu, mille puhul aitas üheksavägisega suitsutamine. Saksa keeles kannab taim tõlkes "kuninga küünla" nimetust, mis on kahtlemata tabav ka õitsva taime kohta, kuid võib-olla viitab ka kuivanud varte kasutamisviisile suitsutamistõrvikuna. Saksamaal usuti, et talli ukse kohale kinnitatud üheksavägine kaitseb loomi nõiduste eest. Õite paiknemise järgi pikas õisikus võis ka eelolevat talve ennustada – kui rohkem õisi alumises otsas, siis oli oodata varajast talve. Õisikus olevate lehtede asetuse hulga järgi ennustati ka sulaperioode.[2]
Üheksavägine (Verbascum thapsus) on mailaseliste sugukonda vägiheina perekonda kuuluv mitmeaastane rohttaime liik.
Apo-belarra (Verbascum thapsus) Scrophulariaceae familiako landare biurterokoa da, jatorriz Europa, Ipar Afrika eta Asiakoa, eta bertakotua Australia eta Ameriketan. Euskaraz ostaza edo apo-lili ere esaten zaio[1][2].
Landare biurteroko iletsua da, 2m garai edo gehiago izatera iritsi ahal dena. Lore hori eta txikiak trinkotuta hazten dira zurtoin luze batean, zeina hosto-erroseta batetik hazten den.
Apo-belarra landare dikotiledoneo eta biurterokoa da, lehen urtean hosto-erroseta bat eratzen duena[3][4]. Hostoak handiak dira, 50cm luze izateraino. Bigarren urtean, landareek zurtoin bakarra garatu ohi dute, 1 eta 2m artekoa. Txinako ekialdean, ez dira izaten 1,5m baino luzeagoak[5]. Zurtoina lore multzo trinkoan amaitzen da, luzeraren erdia hartzeraino.
Landarearen zati guztiak ilez estalita daude, izar itxurakoak. Estaldura hau bereziki lodia da hostoen gainean, itxura zilarkara emanez.
Espeziearen kromosoma kopurua 2n = 36 da[6].
Erroseta zurtoin gabea
Loreen xehetasuna
Landare loratuetan, hostoak txandakatuak dira zurtoinean zehar. Lodiak eta dekurrenteak dira, itxura desberdintasun handiarekin zurtoinaren goiko edo behekoen artean, luzangatik lantzeolatura, 50cm luze eta 14cm zabal izateraino[7]. Zurtoinaren goialdean txikiagoak dira, eta behealdean ez hain dekurrenteak. Zurtoina sendos da eta diámetros 2 eta 2,5cm artekoa, eta batzuetan adarkatua infloreszentziaren azpian justu[4], bereziki kalte baten ondoren (haustura...)[8].
Loratu eta haziak askatu ondoren, zurtoinak eta fruituek bertan jarraitu ohi dute negu osoan, idorturik. Zurtoin idorrak marroiak izan ohi dira, eta udaberria arte, baita uda arte, jarraitzen dute. Landareak ez du sustrai-ardatz oso sakona.
Loreak pentameroak dira, bost estaminedunak petaloei atxikiak. Hori bizikoak dira, diametroa 1,5 eta 3cm artekoak.
Zilarrezko txanpon bat apo-belarraren hosto baten bilduta eramateak baso ilunak gurutzatu behar zituzten bidaiariak babesten omen zituen gizotso, otso eta gainerako piztiengandik[9].
Hilobi baten gainean edo ondoan apo-belarra dagoenean, hildakoaren arima oraindik purgatorioan dagoela esaten da[9].
Apo-belarra (Verbascum thapsus) Scrophulariaceae familiako landare biurterokoa da, jatorriz Europa, Ipar Afrika eta Asiakoa, eta bertakotua Australia eta Ameriketan. Euskaraz ostaza edo apo-lili ere esaten zaio.
Landare biurteroko iletsua da, 2m garai edo gehiago izatera iritsi ahal dena. Lore hori eta txikiak trinkotuta hazten dira zurtoin luze batean, zeina hosto-erroseta batetik hazten den.
Ukontulikukka (Verbascum thapsus) on kaksivuotinen ruohovartinen kasvi.
Ukontulikukka kasvattaa ensimmäisenä vuonna hopeankarvaisen lehtiruusukkeen. Toisena vuonna nousee jopa kaksi metriä korkea haaraton kukkavarsi, jossa puhkeavat heinäkuussa lämpimänkeltaiset kukat.[1]
Ukontulikukkaa tavataan Skandinavian eteläosissa sekä Keski- ja Etelä-Euroopassa.[1] Ukontulikukka voi olla puutarhakarkulainen tai rautakautisen asutuksen indikaattorikasvi.[2]
Lehdiltään ja varreltaan tummempi sekä matalampi tummatulikukka (Verbascum nigrum) muistuttaa ukontulikukkaa.
Ukontulikukka (Verbascum thapsus) on kaksivuotinen ruohovartinen kasvi.
Ukontulikukka kasvattaa ensimmäisenä vuonna hopeankarvaisen lehtiruusukkeen. Toisena vuonna nousee jopa kaksi metriä korkea haaraton kukkavarsi, jossa puhkeavat heinäkuussa lämpimänkeltaiset kukat.
Ukontulikukkaa tavataan Skandinavian eteläosissa sekä Keski- ja Etelä-Euroopassa. Ukontulikukka voi olla puutarhakarkulainen tai rautakautisen asutuksen indikaattorikasvi.
Lehdiltään ja varreltaan tummempi sekä matalampi tummatulikukka (Verbascum nigrum) muistuttaa ukontulikukkaa.
Verbascum thapsus • Molène Bouillon-blanc, Grande molène, Bouillon-blanc, Herbe de saint Fiacre
La Molène Bouillon-blanc (Verbascum thapsus L.), « herbe de Saint-Fiacre » en Europe ou Grande molène au Canada, est une espèce de plantes bisannuelles qui fait partie des Molènes de la famille des Scrophulariaceae. C'est une plante médicinale traditionnelle. La hampe était utilisée au Moyen Âge comme torche. Les feuilles étaient enlevées et la tige enduite de poix, d'où le surnom de cierge de Notre-Dame donné à la plante, parmi de nombreux autres.
Verbascum thapsus est une plante dicotylédone qui produit une rosette de feuilles dans sa première année de croissance[1],[2]. Les feuilles sont grandes, pouvant atteindre 50 cm de long. La deuxième année, les plantes produisent généralement une seule tige ramifiée atteignant habituellement 1 à 2 m de haut. Dans l'Est de sa répartition en Chine, elle ne dépasse pas 1,5 m de hauteur[3]. La haute hampe se termine en un épi dense de fleurs qui peuvent occuper jusqu'à la moitié de la longueur de la tige. Toutes les parties de la plante sont couvertes de poils en forme d'étoile. Cette couverture est particulièrement épaisse sur les feuilles, leur donnant un aspect argenté. Le nombre de chromosomes de l'espèce est 2n = 36[4].
Sur les plantes fleuries, les feuilles sont alternes le long de la tige. Elles sont épaisses et décurrentes, avec de nombreuses variations dans la forme entre les feuilles supérieures et les feuilles inférieures de la tige, allant de oblongues à oblancéolées, et atteignant 50 cm de long et 14 cm de large[5]. Elles deviennent plus petites en haut de la tige, et moins fortement décurrentes vers le bas. La tige florale est solide, d'un diamètre compris entre 2 et 2,5 cm et, occasionnellement, ramifiée juste au-dessous de l'inflorescence[2], généralement à la suite de dommages (cassures…)[6]. Après la floraison et la libération des graines, la tige et les fruits persistent généralement en hiver après s'être desséchés. Les tiges sèches sont le plus souvent brun foncé, et persistent souvent jusqu'au printemps suivant, voire l'été suivant. La plante produit une racine pivotante peu profonde.
Les fleurs sont pentamères, avec cinq étamines attachées aux pétales, un tube du calice à cinq lobes et une corolle à cinq pétales, jaune vif, mesurant 1,5 à 3 cm de diamètre. Les fleurs sont presque sessiles, avec un pédicelle très courts (2 mm). Les cinq étamines sont de deux types : les trois étamines supérieure sont plus courtes, leurs filets couverts de poils jaunes ou blanchâtres, et ont des anthères plus petites, alors que les deux inférieures ont des filets glabres et des anthères plus grandes[7]. La plante produit des capsules ovoïdes de petite taille (6 mm) qui s'ouvrent par deux valves ; chaque capsule contient un grand nombre de minuscules graines brunes, chacune mesurant moins d'un millimètre, marquées par des crêtes longitudinales. Il existe une forme à fleurs blanches, V. thapsus f. candicans[8]. La floraison dure jusqu'à trois mois, du début à la fin de l'été (juin à août dans le nord de l'Europe). La floraison commence en bas de l'épi et progresse de façon irrégulière vers le haut ; chaque fleur s'ouvre pendant une partie d'une journée et seules quelques-unes sont ouvertes en même temps sur la tige.
L'aire de répartition spontanée de Verbascum thapsus est vaste et inclut l'Europe, l'Afrique du Nord et l'Asie, depuis les Açores, les îles Canaries et les îles Britanniques à l'ouest jusqu'à la Chine à l'est, et depuis la Scandinavie et la Sibérie au nord jusqu'à l'Himalaya au sud[9],[10],[11]. Dans le nord de l'Europe, elle pousse depuis le niveau de la mer jusqu'à 1 800 mètres d'altitude[12], tandis qu'en Chine on la trouve entre 1400 et 3 200 mètres d'altitude[10].
Elle a été introduite dans les régions tempérées du globe, et s'est établie comme adventice en Australie, en Nouvelle-Zélande, en Asie tropicale, à La Réunion, en Amérique du Nord, à Hawaii, au Chili, à Hispaniola et en Argentine[11],[1],[13],[14]. Elle a également été signalée au Japon[15].
Le Bouillon blanc est une plante bisannuelle qui a besoin généralement d'une dormance hivernale avant la floraison[6]. Cette dormance est liée à la dégradation de l'amidon activée par des températures basses dans la racine, et une application de gibbérellines permet de contourner cette exigence[16]. Les graines germent presque exclusivement dans un sol nu, à des températures comprises entre 10 °C et 40 °C[6]. Bien qu'elles puissent germer dans l'obscurité totale si les conditions nécessaires sont présentes (les essais donnent un taux de germination de 35 % dans des conditions idéales), dans la nature, elles ne germent que lorsqu'elles sont exposées à la lumière, ou très près de la surface du sol, ce qui explique les préférences de la plante en termes d'habitats. Si la plante peut aussi pousser dans les zones où il existe déjà une végétation peu importante, la croissance des rosettes sur un sol nu est de quatre à sept fois plus rapide[6].
Les graines germent au printemps et en été. Celles qui germent à l'automne produisent des plantes qui peuvent passer l'hiver si elles sont assez grandes, mais des rosettes de moins de 15 cm de diamètre meurent en hiver. Après la floraison, la plante entière meurt le plus souvent à la fin de sa deuxième année[6], mais certains individus, surtout dans les zones septentrionales de la répartition, nécessitent une plus longue période de croissance et fleurissent dans leur troisième année. Dans de meilleures conditions de croissance, certains individus fleurissent dans la première année[17]. Il semble que les individus triannuels produisent moins de graines que les bisannuels et les annuels. Alors que l'année de la floraison et la taille sont liés à l'environnement, la plupart des autres caractéristiques semblent avoir une origine génétique[18].
Une fleur donnée est ouverte pendant une seule journée, s'ouvrant avant l'aube et se fermant dans l'après-midi[19]. Les fleurs sont autogames et protogynes (les pièces femelles arrivent à maturité avant les mâles)[19], et s'auto-polliniseront si elles n'ont pas été fécondées par des insectes durant la journée. Alors que de nombreux insectes visitent les fleurs, seules quelques espèces d'abeilles permettent effectivement la pollinisation. Parmi les visiteurs, on trouve des halictides et des syrphes. Les poils sur les étamines inférieures peuvent servir de points d'appui pour les insectes.
Les graines conservent leur pouvoir germinatif pendant des décennies, jusqu'à une centaine d'années, selon certaines études[20]. Pour cette raison, et parce que la plante produit énormément de graines (chaque plante produit des centaines de capsules, chacune contenant jusqu'à 700 graines[19], avec un total allant jusqu'à 180 000[21],[6] ou 240 000[22] graines), elles restent dans le sol pendant de longues périodes, et peuvent germer à partir du sol, apparemment nu, ou peu après des incendies de forêt. La population se compose généralement d'une population adulte éphémère suivie par une longue période de dormance sous forme de graines. Le Bouillon blanc s'établit rarement sur de nouveaux espaces sans intervention humaine, car ses graines ne se dispersent pas très loin. La dispersion des graines nécessite que la tige soit transportée par le vent ou des animaux ; 75 % des graines tombent à moins d'un mètre de la plante mère, et 93 % tombent à moins de cinq mètres[6].
Les abeilles du genre Anthidium utilisent les poils de V. thapsus (ainsi que ceux de diverses plantes laineuses) pour faire leurs nids[23]. Les graines sont généralement trop petites pour être consommées par les oiseaux. D'autres espèces d'oiseaux ont été observées consommant les feuilles (la Bernache néné[24]) ou de fleurs, ou recherchant des insectes hébergés par la plante (le Pic à tête blanche[25] ).
C'est une plante hôte pour de nombreux insectes. Parmi ceux-ci, les chenilles de la cucullie du bouillon blanc se nourrissent des feuilles lors de leur cycle de développement avant de se laisser tomber au sol et d'effectuer leur nymphose dans des cocons enterrés.
Dans le cadre de la nomenclature botanique, Verbascum thapsus a été décrite pour la première fois par Linné dans son Species Plantarum paru en 1753. L'épithète spécifique thapsus a été emprunté à Théophraste ( θάψος, thapsos)[26] qui l'employait pour désigner une herbe non spécifiée de la ville grecque antique de Thapsos, près de la Syracuse actuelle en Sicile[27],[26] bien qu'elle soit souvent assimilée à Thapsus, ancienne ville de Tunisie[28]. Dans le genre Verbascum, l'espèce est classée dans la section Bothrosperma subsect. Fasciculata[29].
À l'époque, aucun spécimen type n'a été spécifié, cette pratique n'étant apparue que plus tard, au cours du XIXe siècle. Quand un lectotype (type sélectionné parmi les échantillons originels) a été désigné, il a été assigné au spécimen 242.1, l'unique spécimen de Verbascum thapsus de l'herbier de Linné. L'espèce avait été auparavant désignée comme l'espèce type du genre Verbascum[30]. Les plantes européennes montrent d'importantes variations phénotypiques[19], ce qui a conduit à donner à la plante de nombreux synonymes au fil des années[31],[32]. Les populations introduites en Amérique sont beaucoup plus homogènes[19].
Spécimens types :
Il existe trois sous-espèces :
Chez toutes les sous-espèces, à l'exception du type, les étamines inférieures sont aussi pileuses (avec de rares poils longs et souples)[36]. Chez la sous-espèce crassifolium, la pilosité est moins dense et souvent absente dans la partie supérieure des anthères, et les feuilles inférieures sont à peine décurrentes avec un pétiole plus long[35], tandis que chez la sous-espèce giganteum, les poils sont densément tomenteux et blancs, et les feuilles inférieures nettement décurrentes. La sous-espèce crassifolium diffère également du type par ses fleurs légèrement plus grandes, de 15 à 30 mm de diamètre contre 12 à 20 mm chez le type[35].
Les deux sous-espèces giganteum et crassifolium ont été décrites à l'origine en tant qu'espèces[39]. Parmi les autres sous-espèces qui n'ont pas été généralement reconnues figurent la sous-espèce martinezii (Valdés) A.Galán et J.A.V.Orellana (=Verbascum giganteum subsp. martinezii Valdés), la sous-espèce litigiosum (=Verbascum litigiosum Samp.)[40] et la sous-espèce langei.
La plante est également à l'origine de plusieurs hybrides (Cf. tableau). Parmi ceux-ci, le plus commun est Verbascum × semialbum Chaub. (× Verbascum nigrum)[4]. Tous ont une répartition eurasienne[4] et trois d'entre eux, Verbascum × kerneri Fritsch, Verbascum × pterocaulon Franch. et Verbascum × thapsi L. (syn. Verbascum × spurium W.D.J.Koch), ont également été signalés en Amérique du Nord[37],[41].
Le Bouillon blanc a été utilisé depuis longtemps comme un remède pour la peau, la gorge et les affections respiratoires. Il a longtemps eu une réputation médicinale, en particulier comme astringent et émollient, car il contient du mucilage, des saponines, de la coumarine et des glycosides. Dioscoride le recommandait pour les maladies des poumons et il est aujourd'hui largement disponible dans les herboristeries. Les utilisations non médicales incluent des teintures et la fabrication de torches.
Dioscoride recommandait la plante il y a 2 000 ans, contre les maladies pulmonaires[49]. Des décoctions et infusions de feuilles ont été utilisées pour l'expectoration, la toux sèche, la bronchite, les maux de gorge et les hémorroïdes[réf. nécessaire]. Les feuilles étaient également fumées pour traiter les affections pulmonaires, une tradition qui en Amérique a été rapidement transmise aux peuples autochtones[50],[51] qui l'utilisait déjà contre l'asthme[52].
La combinaison de saponines expectorantes et du mucilage émollient rendrait la plante utilisable contre la toux[réf. nécessaire]. Toutes les préparations destinées à être bues doivent être finement filtrées pour éliminer les poils irritants[16].
Les fleurs séchées sont associées à celles de Coquelicot, de Mauve et de Tussilage dans la célèbre tisane des « quatre fleurs » utilisée dans les affections trachéo-bronchiques : toux, catarrhes et asthme[53]. Une variante de cette tisane comprend sept plantes mélangées à parts égales : mauve, guimauve, gnaphale, tussilage, coquelicot, violette et bouillon-blanc[réf. souhaitée].
Les feuilles ou fleurs bouillies dans du lait en cataplasme sont réputées pour résorber les petites hémorroïdes et irritations cutanées[54].
L'huile essentielle de la fleur était utilisée contre les catarrhes et les coliques, et, en Allemagne, contre les otites, les engelures, l'eczéma et d'autres affections externes[50]. L'application locale de diverses préparations à base de V. thapsus a été utilisée pour le traitement de la gale[55], de brûlures, des hémorroïdes, entre autres[50],[51]. Des études récentes ont constaté que le Bouillon blanc contient des composés de type glycyrrhizine ayant une potentielle action bactéricide et anti-tumorale[réf. nécessaire]. Ces composés sont concentrés dans les fleurs[56]. Différents extraits ont des niveaux variables d'activité contre les bactéries[16]. La Commission E allemande a autorisé l'usage médicinal de la plante contre les catarrhes[57]. Elle a également fait partie de la pharmacopée nationale aux États-Unis[51] et au Royaume-Uni[50]. Les feuilles de la plante, ainsi que les semences, contiennent de la roténone, en quantités inconnues[58].
Comme beaucoup d'anciennes plantes médicinales (Pline l'Ancien le décrit dans son Histoire naturelle[59]), le Bouillon Blanc était lié aux sorcières[50], bien que la relation soit restée généralement ambiguë, et la plante a également été largement réputée pour conjurer les malédictions et les mauvais esprits[50],[16],[49],[51]. Les graines contiennent plusieurs composés (saponines, glucosides, coumarine, roténone) qui provoquent des problèmes respiratoires chez les poissons, et ont été largement utilisées comme piscicide pour la pêche[21],[60].
Les fleurs fournissent des colorants jaune vif ou vert, qui ont été utilisés pour la teinture des cheveux[50],[58] et comme plante tinctoriale pour les textiles. Les feuilles séchées et les poils étaient transformés en mèches de bougies ou mises dans les chaussures pour aider à les isoler. Les tiges séchées étaient également trempées dans le suif ou la cire pour faire des torches[50],[51]. En raison de sa réputation de mauvaise herbe, la plante, contrairement à d'autres espèces du genre (telles que Verbascum phoeniceum), n'est pas souvent cultivée.
Il est aussi utilisé dans des macérations pour la fabrication du schnaps[réf. nécessaire] et du sirop de bouillon blanc.
Observée au 15 août, la molène permettrait de prévoir les chutes de neige entre l'automne et le printemps suivants, selon le Bavarois Josef Haslinger[61],[62].
Rosette de feuilles
Verbascum thapsus • Molène Bouillon-blanc, Grande molène, Bouillon-blanc, Herbe de saint Fiacre
La Molène Bouillon-blanc (Verbascum thapsus L.), « herbe de Saint-Fiacre » en Europe ou Grande molène au Canada, est une espèce de plantes bisannuelles qui fait partie des Molènes de la famille des Scrophulariaceae. C'est une plante médicinale traditionnelle. La hampe était utilisée au Moyen Âge comme torche. Les feuilles étaient enlevées et la tige enduite de poix, d'où le surnom de cierge de Notre-Dame donné à la plante, parmi de nombreux autres.
O verbasco[1] ou chopo[2] Verbascum thapsus, é unha especie da familia Scrophulariaceae natural de Europa, Asia occidental, África, América do Norte e o Himalaia, medra en terreos incultos, noiros e pradeiras secas.
É unha planta herbácea bienal que acada 2 m de altura. Talo erecto ramificado e con lanuxe. As follas de até 50 cm de longo son ovais lanceoladas, alternas, aveludadas cunha peluxe branca ou prateada, formando unha roseta basal o primeiro ano. Durante o segundo ano érguese un único talo floral de 1 a 2 m de altura, este remata nunha inflorescencia, constituída por un acio mesto con numerosas flores de cor amarelo clara. As flores son pentámeras, case sésiles e con pedículos moi curtos (2 mm). Posúen cinco estames de dous tipos: tres superiores máis curtos con filamentos cubertos de vilosidades amarelas ou abrancazadas e anteras pequenas, mentres que os dous inferiores teñen filamentos glabros e anteras maiores, todos eles están fundidos aos pétalos. O cáliz é tubular de cinco lóbulos e unha corola de cinco pétalos, o último dos cales é de cor amarela clara e 2,5 cm máis estreito. O chopo produce pequenas cápsulas ovoides (6 mm) que se parten en dúas metades. Cada cápsula ten gran número de sementes miúdas de cor marrón (menos de 1 mm).
Verbascum thapsus foi descrita por Carl von Linné e publicado en Species Plantarum 1: 177. 1753.[3]
Número de cromosomas de Verbascum thapsus (Fam. Scrophulariaceae) e táxones infraespecíficos: 2n=36[4]
Verbascum: nome xenérico que deriva do vocábulo latino Barbascum (barba), refiríndose á vilosidade que cobre a planta.
thapsus: epíteto xeográfico que alude á súa localización en (Tapso, Italia) Sicilia.[5]
O verbasco ou chopo Verbascum thapsus, é unha especie da familia Scrophulariaceae natural de Europa, Asia occidental, África, América do Norte e o Himalaia, medra en terreos incultos, noiros e pradeiras secas.
Małokwětkata dźiwizna (Verbascum thapsus) je rostlina ze swójby trudownikowych rostlinow (Scrophulariaceae).
Małokwětkata dźiwizna (Verbascum thapsus) je rostlina ze swójby trudownikowych rostlinow (Scrophulariaceae).
Il verbasco (nome scientifico Verbascum thapsus L., volgarmente detto anche tasso barbasso) è una pianta erbacea biennale appartenente alla famiglia delle Scrofulariaceae. Cresce fino a oltre 2 metri di altezza, è ricoperta di fitta e soffice peluria. I fiori sono gialli e hanno un diametro di 1,5–3 cm.
È rappresentato anche nei quadri del Caravaggio, ad esempio ai piedi del san Giovanni Battista con il significato di "radice di Jesse", Isaia XI,1.
Smulkiažiedė tūbė (lot. Verbascum thapsus, angl. Great mullein, vok. Kleinblütige Königskerze) – bervidinių (Scrophulariaceae) šeimos, tūbių (Verbascum) genties augalas.
Dvimetis, 30-200 cm aukščio žolinis augalas. Stiebas stačias, storas, lapuotas, dažniausiai nešakotas, užsibaigiantis varpos pavidalo žiedynu. Pamatiniai lapai pailgi, karbuoti arba lygiakraščiai, beveik bekočiai, žemutiniai – bekočiai, siaurais sparneliais stiebu nusileidžiantys, viršutiniai – karbuoti arba lygiakraščiai, prie pamato pleištiškais sparneliais nusileidžiantys iki žemiau esančio lapo. Žiedų kamuolėliai tankūs, vainikėlis geltonas, retai baltas, gelsvo atspalvio. Vaisius – plačiai elipsiška arba kūgiška dėžutė. Sėklos smulkios.
Žydi birželio – rugpjūčio mėn. Sėklos subręsta rugpjūčio – spalio mėn. Dauginasi sėklomis.
Auga saulėtose smėlėtose bei akmenuotose vietose, pamiškėse, skardžiuose, šlaituose.
Vaistams vartojami vainiklapiai su kuokeliais. Jie renkami augalams žydint. Žaliavoje yra 2,5 % gleivių, apie 22 % cukraus, saponinų, eterinio aliejaus, dažinių medžiagų, sakų, 4,3-6 % mineralinių medžiagų.
Tūbių vainiklapių preparatai neturi jokio pašalinio poveikio, sėklos nuodingos kai kurioms žuvų rūšims.
Parastais deviņvīruspēks (latīņu: Verbascum thapsus) ir līdz 150 cm augsts, divgadīgs cūknātru dzimtas lakstaugs ar spēcīgu, mazzarainu mietsakni. Pirmajā gadā tam attīstās lapu rozete, bet otrajā gadā mazzarains stumbrs ar ziediem. Lapas balti vai dzeltenīgi tūbainas, 15—30 cm garas, 5—10 cm platas, apakšējās lapas ar kātu, iegarenas, augšējās olveida, sēdošas vai nolaidenas, pamīšus. Lapu mala gluda vai strupi zobaina. Ziedi dzelteni, pa 2—7 pušķos, kuri savukārt sakopoti blīvā ķekarā. Zied no jūnija līdz septembrim. Aug saulainos pakalnos, upju krastmalās, mežmalās, smilšainās un grantainās augsnēs.
De koningskaars (Verbascum thapsus) is een plant uit de helmkruidfamilie (Scrophulariaceae). De plant groeit in het duin- en krijtgebied en is daar vrij algemeen. In andere delen van Nederland is de soort zeldzaam.
De bloemen zijn geel en hebben een doorsnede van 1,5-3 cm. Er zijn vijf kroonbladeren die aan de voet zijn vergroeid. Er zijn vijf kelkbladen en vijf meeldraden, waarvan er drie gele of witte haartjes hebben. De bloemen vormen een dichte aar. De plant bloeit van juli tot de herfst. Een bloeiende plant kan een lengte van twee meter bereiken.
De bovenste bladeren zijn aflopend tot het volgende blad. De onderste bladeren hebben een gevleugelde steel. De bladeren en de stengel zijn bedekt met een dichte wollige beharing.
Koningskaars draagt een doosvrucht die kleine zaadjes bevat.
De bloemen van de plant werden gebruikt om het ophoesten te bevorderen bij problemen met de ademhalingswegen. In de kruidboeken van de 16e eeuw van Otto Brunfels, Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498-1556) en Leonhart Fuchs wordt beschreven hoe de harige plant met teer kan worden besmeerd en zodoende als fakkel kan worden gebruikt.[1]
De koningskaars is waardplant voor onder meer kuifvlinder, salielichtmot, bessenwants, toortsparelmoervlinder en zwartpootmot.
rozet in 1e jaar
Mediabestanden die bij dit onderwerp horen, zijn te vinden op de pagina Verbascum thapsus op Wikimedia Commons. De koningskaars (Verbascum thapsus) is een plant uit de helmkruidfamilie (Scrophulariaceae). De plant groeit in het duin- en krijtgebied en is daar vrij algemeen. In andere delen van Nederland is de soort zeldzaam.
Filtkongslys (Verbascum thapsus) er en toårig plante i kongslysslekta i brunrotfamilien (tidligere i den store maskeblomstfamilien) som vanligvis blir fra 30 cm til 150 cm høy.[1]
I løpet av det første året danner planta en stor bladrosett med inntil 40 cm lange blader. Bladene er lyst grønne eller mellomgrønne og dekka med den tette behåringa som har gitt arten dens navn. Det andre året blomstrer planta med normalt en eneste, kraftig og ugreina blomsterstengel. Ved bakken er bladene liggende eller svakt nedoverbøyde, mens de oppover stengelen blir stadig mer opprette. Bladene går helt opp til blomsterstanden, men her er de små og lite iøynefallende, og går i ett med de karakteristiske vingene langs blomsterstilken. Vingene på store individer kan være over 1 cm brede.
Blomstringen skjer fra juli til september. Blomstene sitter i en tett klase som er sammensatt av knipper på 2-5 kortstilka blomster.[2] Blomstene har en sterkt gul, samblada krone der kronflikene er skilt langt ned slik at det kan se ut som det er fem frie kronblader. Blomsterkrona er normalt 15-25 mm i diameter. Filtkongslys blomstrer ikke nedenfra og opp i blomsterstanden, slik som revebjelle og geitrams, men mer tilfeldig rundt omkring i blomsterstanden.
De fem pollenbærere har røde eller rødoransje pollenknapper. Pollenbærerne er av to typer: De tre øvre er rette og hvitehåra med nyreforma pollenknapper. De to nederste støvbærerne er lengre, bøyde, nærmest hårløse og har langstrakte pollenknapper. De to bøyde pollenbærerne kan være ca. 10 mm lange. Arr og griffel er grønt.
Filtkongslys vokser på lysåpne steder med noen grad av forstyrrelse, som berg, tørrbakker, veikanter og hogstflater.[3] I Norge er filtkongslys ganske vanlig på Østlandet og i fjord og dalstrøk nord til Snåsa med registrert høyderekord på 960 moh.[3]
Filtkongslys er en gammel klosterplante og ble mye dyrket som legeplante i middelalderen. Man kjenner til at den ble brukt ved klostre i Danmark på den tiden. Planten har vært brukt som middel mot sykdommer i luftveiene, mot skabb og forskjellige utslett. Blomsterstengelen ble dyppet i tjære og brukt som fakkel. Frøene er giftige og de bør ikke brukes.
Planten er veldig hardfør og dyrkes fortsatt idag som staselig prydplante i selskap med andre høyreiste to-åringer, som Revebjelle og Dagfiol. Filtkongslys formeres ved frø om høsten og den kan trives i de fleste jordtyper, men den vil helst ha sol. Det er ikke uvanlig å se filtkongslys innplantet i norske hager og hvis blomsten kuttes ned rett etter blomstring kan den bli flerårig.
Filtkongslys (Verbascum thapsus) er en toårig plante i kongslysslekta i brunrotfamilien (tidligere i den store maskeblomstfamilien) som vanligvis blir fra 30 cm til 150 cm høy.
A l'é na pianta bienal, con na gamba sola, auta da otanta cm a doi m. Le feuje a son motobin spësse e coatà da un vel ëd lan-a biancastra; a son motobin gròsse, con picol e, partend dal pé, a son arlong tuta la gamba. Le fior giaun ciair a son a spi, con sinch sépaj ch'a sosten-o sinch pétaj a forma 'd copa, sinch stam dont tre a son pi curt, bianch vlutà; a duro mach un di. Ij frut a son dle càpsule scure, con motobin dë smens velenose.
A-j piaso ij pòst pa coltivà, ij bòrd dle stra, ij teren suit e con pere, fin ai 1700 m. Peui a ven pi raira.
Da magg a stèmber.
A l'é 'dcò ciamà baston d'Aronne. Verbascum a ven da barbascum e a ìndica le feuje peilose.
Rosëtta
Portament
Spi 'd fior
A l'é na pianta bienal, con na gamba sola, auta da otanta cm a doi m. Le feuje a son motobin spësse e coatà da un vel ëd lan-a biancastra; a son motobin gròsse, con picol e, partend dal pé, a son arlong tuta la gamba. Le fior giaun ciair a son a spi, con sinch sépaj ch'a sosten-o sinch pétaj a forma 'd copa, sinch stam dont tre a son pi curt, bianch vlutà; a duro mach un di. Ij frut a son dle càpsule scure, con motobin dë smens velenose.
AmbientA-j piaso ij pòst pa coltivà, ij bòrd dle stra, ij teren suit e con pere, fin ai 1700 m. Peui a ven pi raira.
FioriduraDa magg a stèmber.
ParticolaritàA l'é 'dcò ciamà baston d'Aronne. Verbascum a ven da barbascum e a ìndica le feuje peilose.
Rosëtta
Portament
Spi 'd fior
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa (Verbascum thapsus L.) – gatunek rośliny zielnej należący do rodziny trędownikowatych. Występuje w Eurazji, poza tym jako zawleczony i inwazyjny na innych kontynentach. Wykorzystywany jest jako roślina lecznicza.
Zasięg naturalny obejmuje Europę, północną Afrykę i Azję, od Azorów i Wysp Kanaryjskich na zachodzie po Chiny na wschodzie, od Wysp Brytyjskich, Skandynawii i Syberii na północy, po Himalaje na południu[3][4][5]. W północnej Europie występuje na stanowiskach do wysokości 1850 m n.p.m.[6], w Chinach dziewanna ta notowana była na wysokościach sięgających 3200 m n.p.m.[4] Gatunek ten został zawleczony i jako chwast obecny jest na wielu obszarach o klimacie umiarkowanym, np. w Australii, Nowej Zelandii, Japonii, Ameryce Północnej, Chile, Argentynie, także w tropikalnej Azji oraz na Haiti, Hawajach i wyspie Reunion[5][7][8][9]. Do Stanów Zjednoczonych sprowadzony został na samym początku XVIII wieku jako roślina lecznicza oraz ze względu na właściwości trujące dla ryb. W 1818 roku gatunek ten był już tak rozpowszechniony, że Amos Eaton był przekonany, że jest to gatunek rodzimy[10][11]. Obecnie dziewanna drobnokwiatowa spotykana jest we wszystkich stanach[12]. W Polsce gatunek ekspansywny[13], częsty na niżu i w górach, aż po regiel dolny, rzadziej rośnie tylko na Mazowszu i Podlasiu[14].
Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa została naukowo opisana i nazwana po raz pierwszy zgodnie z zasadami nomenklatury botanicznej przez Karola Linneusza w 1753 roku w dziele Species Plantarum. Epitet oznaczający w nazwie gatunek (drugi człon nazwy naukowej), czyli słowo thapsus był używany (w formie θάψος "thapsos") przez starożytnych Greków (Teofrasta, Nikandera) w odniesieniu do rośliny o żółtych kwiatach lub barwiącej na żółto z okolic greckiej kolonii Tapsos w pobliżu współczesnych Syrakuz na Sycylii[24][25]. Nazwa ta bywa też wywodzona od starożytnego miasta fenickiego Tapsos w dzisiejszej Tunezji[26].
Nazwy ludowe: gorzykrot, knotnica, dziwizna, szabla, królewska świeca[27].
Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa zaliczana jest w obrębie rodzaju Verbascum do sekcji (sect.) Bothrosperma podsekcji (subsect.) Fasciculata[28]. O ile czas zakwitania i rozmiary rośliny zależne są od warunków środowiska, o tyle zmienność pozostałych cech ma podłoże genetyczne[21]. Rośliny rosnące w Europie wykazują znaczną zmienność fenotypową, co spowodowało powstanie wielu synonimów. Populacje zawleczone na inne kontynenty wykazują znacznie mniejszą zmienność[29].
Linneusz nie wskazał okazu typowego (holotypu) ponieważ nie ustalono w jego czasach takiej konieczności. Okaz taki, w takiej sytuacji nazywany lektotypem, został wybrany z zielnika Linneusza, gdzie był oznaczony numerem 242.1 (jedyny zresztą okaz tego gatunku w herbarium). Wcześniej Verbascum thapus wybrany został jako typowy dla rodzaju Verbascum[30]. Okaz typowy gatunku (lektotyp): (LINN-242.1). Określony przez L. H. Cramera, w publikacji Dassanayake & Fosberg, A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon 3: 389 (1981)[31].
Wyróżnia się trzy podgatunki:
U podgatunków (z wyjątkiem typowego) także niższe pręciki są owłosione (mają rozproszone, długie, proste i miękkie włoski)[33]. U podgatunku crassifolium, owłosienie jest mniej gęste i często nieobecne w ogóle na górnej stronie pylników, dolne liście są słabo zbiegające i mają wyraźne ogonki[32]. U podgatunku giganteum, włoski tworzą gęsty i biały kutner, a dolne liście są wyraźnie zbiegające. Subsp. crassifolium różni się od typu także lekko większymi kwiatami, które osiągają 15–30 mm średnicy (u typu 12–20 mm). Oba podgatunki były opisane jako nieuznawane obecnie taksony w randze gatunku. Inne podgatunki, które były opisywane – nie zyskały akceptacji taksonomów (np. subsp. martinezii (Valdés) A.Galán & J.A.V.Orellana (syn.: V. giganteum subsp. martinezii Valdés), subsp. litigiosum (syn.=V. litigiosum Samp.)[34] oraz subsp. langei).
Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa jest gatunkiem rodzicielskim dla kilku taksonów mieszańcowych (patrz tabela poniżej). Najbardziej rozpowszechnionym mieszańcem jest V. × semialbum Chaub. (× V. nigrum). Wszystkie podane niżej mieszańce występują w Eurazji. Trzy z nich (V. × kerneri, V. × pterocaulon, V. × thapsi) stwierdzone zostały także w Ameryce Północnej.
Nazwa mieszańca Drugi takson rodzicielski Uwagi V. × duernsteinense Teyber V. speciosum V. × godronii Boreau V. pulverulentum V. × kerneri Fritsch V. phlomoides V. × lemaitrei Boreau V. virgatum V. × pterocaulon Franch. V. blattaria V. × thapsi L. V. lychnitis syn. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch,Pojawia się w miejscach, gdzie gleba została odsłonięta lub przemieszczona i dlatego jest to częsty gatunek na nasypach, terenach ruderalnych, przydrożach. Występuje poza tym na suchych wzgórzach, na zrębach leśnych, skałach, najczęściej na podłożu piaszczystym, żwirowym i glebach wapiennych. Nie toleruje zacienienia. Nie lubi też konkurencji innych roślin – tempo wzrostu rozety liści w pierwszym roku jest 4–7 razy większe na zupełnie nagiej ziemi w porównaniu do miejsc z istniejącą pokrywą roślinną[16]. Zdolność występowania w rozmaitych warunkach siedliskowych wynika bardziej ze znacznej zmienności fenotypowej niż ze zdolności adaptacyjnej[35].
W fitosocjologii jest to gatunek wyróżniający dla ciepłolubnych zbiorowisk wysokich bylin odpornych na suszę z rzędu Onopordetalia acanthii[36].
Nasiona dziewanny są zbyt małe by mogły stanowić pożywienie dla ptaków. Zaobserwowano, że liśćmi żywią się gęsi hawajskie. Znacznie większe znaczenie dziewanny posiadają dla owadów. Pszczoły z rodziny miesierkowatych (Megachilidae), zwłaszcza gatunki z rodzaju Anthidium używają włosków dziewanny do budowy swoich gniazd[37]. Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa stanowi miejsce występowania, żerowania i rozmnażania dla owadów z 29 rodzin. Stwierdzono występowanie na niej m.in. wielu szkodników upraw (wciornastki, zmieniki Lygus z rodziny tasznikowatych, przędziorkowate). Rośliny dziewanny mogą stanowić miejsce zimowania tych szkodników[38]. Mogą być też rezerwuarem chorób wirusowych i grzybowych, takich jak: wirus mozaiki ogórka (CMV), mączniak (Erysiphum cichoraceum). Na dziewannie drobnokwiatowej występuje kilka gatunków owadów przywiązanych do roślin z rodzaju dziewanna, w tym wyłącznie do opisywanego gatunku. Należy tu m.in. wciornastek Haplothrips verbasci, Gymnaetron tetrum oraz ćma Cucullia verbasci z rodziny sówkowatych. Z bezkręgowców pożytecznych z dziewanną związane są m.in. drapieżne roztocze z rodzajów Galendromus, Typhlodromus i Amblyseius[38]. Liczne gatunki motyli w stadium larwalnym żerują na dziewannie, m.in. Papaipema nebris i Strymon melinus[39]. Dziewanna omijana jest na pastwiskach przez bydło domowe, ponieważ włoski, którymi jest pokryta, drażnią błony śluzowe[27]. Jej kwiaty są jednak chętnie odwiedzane przez pszczoły.
Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa uprawiana jest w celach leczniczych. W przeciwieństwie do pozostałych gatunków swego rodzaju, nie jest sadzona jako roślina ozdobna[47] (ze względu na mniej efektowne kwiaty).
Dziewanna drobnokwiatowa (Verbascum thapsus L.) – gatunek rośliny zielnej należący do rodziny trędownikowatych. Występuje w Eurazji, poza tym jako zawleczony i inwazyjny na innych kontynentach. Wykorzystywany jest jako roślina lecznicza.
Verbascum thapsus é uma espécie de verbasco (ou barbasco,[1] tipo, pavio ou vela-de-bruxa[2]) endémica da Europa, Norte de África e Ásia, e introduzida nas Américas e Oceania. Tem propriedades medicinais e tóxicas, sendo usada em alguns locais para matar os peixes dos rios.
É uma planta herbácea bienal, dicotiledónea, que alcança 2 m de altura, com caule ereto ramificado e lanoso. As folhas, de até 5 dm de comprimento, são ovais lanceoladas, alternadas, cobertas por penugem branca ou prateada, formando uma roseta basal no primeiro ano.[3][4] Durante o segundo ano cresce um único caule floral de 1 a 2 m de altura, que pode atingir 3,5 m[5] e que termina numa inflorescência, constituída por um racemo denso com numerosas flores de cor amarela clara.[6]
Na nomenclatura botânica, o verbascum thapsus foi descrito pela primeira vez por Carolus Linnaeus na sua obra Species Plantarum de 1753. O nome específico thapsus foi usado pela primeira vez por Teofrasto (por θάψος, "thapsos")[7] para uma erva não especificada da colónia da Grécia Antiga de Thapsos, Siracusa, Sicília,[7][8] embora seja frequentemente ligado à antica cidade tunisina de Tapso.[9] Dentro dos Verbascum, está classificada na secção Bothrosperma subseita Fasciculata.[10]
Na altura, nenhum espécime tipo foi especificado, tendo surgido apenas no século XIX. Quanto um lectótipo (tipo seleccionado entre material original) foi designado, foi relacionado com o espécime 242.1 do herbário de Lineu, o único espécime de V. thapsus no herbário. A espécie tinha sido previamente designada como espécie-tipo para o Verbascum.[11] As plantas europeias exibem considerável variação fenotípica,[12][13][14] As populações introduzidas na América têm muito menor variação.[15]
Há três subespécies:
Nestas duas últimas, o estames mais baixos são também pilosos[22] Na subsp. crassifolium, a pilosidade é menos densa e frequentemente ausente da parte superior das anteras, e as folhas mais baixas são raramente dobradas e têm pecíolos mais longos,[20] enquanto que na subsp. giganteum, a pilosidade é densa tomentosa e braca, e as folhas inferiores fortemente dobradas. A subsp. crassifolium difere ainda do tipo por ter flores um pouco maiores, até 15–30 mm de extensão, enquanto na espécie-tipo o diâmetro é de 12–20 mm.[20]
Ambas as subsp. giganteum e crassifolium foram originalmente descritas como espécies.[3] Outras subspécies descritas não foram aceites globalmente e incluema subsp. martinezii (Valdés) A.Galán e J.A.V.Orellana (=V. giganteum subsp. martinezii Valdés), subsp. litigiosum (=V. litigiosum Samp.)[23] e a subsp. langei. A planta é também cruzada em vários híbridos (ver tabela). Destes, o mais comum é o V. × semialbum Chaub. (× V. nigrum).[16] Todos ocorrem na Eurásia,[16] e três, V. × kerneri Fritsch, V. × pterocaulon Franch. e V. × thapsi L. (sin. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch), têm exemplares na América do Norte.[17][24]
É uma planta herbácea de forma quase arrosetada, com cerca de 30 a 250 cm de comprimento e é mais ou menos densamente acinzentada ou esbranquiçada-tomentosa. As suas folhas basilares são elípticas a obovado-oblonga, são obtusas, inteiras ou miudamente crenuladas. As folhas caulinares são distais decurrentes. A inflorescência é geralmente simples, com brácteas ovadas a lanceoladas e acuminadas.[1]
Os pedicelos encontram-se parcialmente adnados à ráquis da inflorescência. O cálice é constituído por lóbulos lanceolados. A corola é amarela e tem cinco estames, tendo os superiores filetes vilosos e os inferiores filetes nus a vilosos; as anteras são decurrentes e os pêlos dos filetes são de cor branca; o estigma é capitado. As flores são pentâmeras, quase sésseis e com pedúnculos muito pequenos (2 mm). Os cinco estames são de dois tipos: três superiores mais pequenos com filamentos cobertos de pelo amarelo ou esbranquiçado e anteras pequenas, enquanto os dois inferiores têm filamentos glabros e anteras maiores, todos eles fundidos nas pétalas. A sépala é tubular de cinco lóbulos e uma corola de cinco pétalas, a última das quais amarela clara e 2,5 cm mais estreita. Pode viver 2, 3 anos ou mais.[1]
Esta planta produz pequenas cápsulas ovoides ou elipsoides[1] (6 mm) que se partem em duas metades. Cada cápsula tem grande número de diminutas sementes de coloração castanha (menos de 1 mm).[25]
Cresce numa grande variedade de habitats, mas prefere solos bem iluminados, onde pode surgir pouco depois da receção da luz, a partir de sementes duradouras que persistem no banco de sementes do solo. É uma planta comum que se espalha de modo prolífico por sementes, mas raramente se torna agressivamente invasiva uma vez que a semente precisa de solo aberto para germinar. É um problema pouco relevante para as colheitas agrícolas em geral pois não é uma espécie competitiva, sendo intolerante à sombra de outras plantas e incapaz de sobreviver ao corte. Alberga muitos insetos, alguns dos quais podem ser prejudiciais para outras plantas. Embora os indivíduos sejam fáceis de remover à mão, as populações são difíceis de eliminar permanentemente.[26]
Esta espécie de verbasco coloniza solos arenosos e pálidos.[16] Isto deve-se em parte à sua intolerância à sombra e aos períodos muito longos durante os quais as sementes podem permancer inactivas antes da germinação. Não é uma erva daninha para a agricultura, embora a sua presença possa ser difícil de erradicar por completo, sendo problemática em zonas de sobrepastoreio.[27][28][29] A espécie está listada legalmente como prejudicial no Colorado, Estados Unidos (Classe C),[30] Havaí[31] e Victoria (Austrália).[32]
Preferindo os solos arenosos ou secos, pode no entanto dar-se bem numa variedade de habitats, incluindo prados, bermas, clareiras florestais e pastagens. Germina quase somente em solo nu, em temperaturas entre 10 °C e 40 °C.[28] Esta capacidade de crescer numa ampla variedade de habitats tem sido relacionada com uma forte variação do fenótipo mais do que capacidade de adaptação.[33] Embora possa germinar em escuridão total se as condições favoráveis forem reunidas (testes dão uma taxa de 35% de germinação em condições ideais), na natureza só o fará se as sementes estiverem expostas, ou muito próximas da superfície. Embora possa aparecer em áreas onde há alguma vegetação, o crescimento das rosetas em solo nu é quatro a sete vezes mais rápido.[28]
No extremo leste do seu habitat, na China, os estames não ultrapassam 1,5 m de altura.[34] Os altos estames terminam num denso espigão florido,[3] que pode ocupar até metade do comprimento do estame. Todas as partes da planta estão cobertas por with tricomas em forma de estrela.[34][35] A sua ploidia é 2n = 36.[16]
Nas plantas em flor as folhas estão dispostas alternadamente ao longo do estame. As folhas são grossas e com uma "dobra", com muita variação especialmente entre as folhas superiores e inferiores, com as formas a variar entre oblongas e oblanceoladas e até 50 cm de comprimento e 14 cm de largura.[36][27] Tornam-se menores à medida que se sobe o estame,[3][4] e menos dobradas na parte inferior do estame.[3] O estame florido é sólido e espesso com 2–2.5 cm de diâmetro, e ocasionalmente ramificado mesmo sob a inflorescência,[4] em especial se danificado.[28] Depois de florescer e libertar sementes o estame e frutos persistem no Inverno[37] depois de secarem em estruturas rígidas cobertas por cápsulas densas e ovoides. Os estames secos são mais frequentemente escuros e acastanhados, e é comum permanecerem até à Primavera seguinte ou mesmo até ao Verão. A planta produz uma raiz primária pouco funda.[27]
O verbascum thapsus tem uma ampla zona de origem, incluindo a Europa, norte de África e Ásia, indo dos Açores e Ilhas Canárias até ao oeste da China. Em latitude varia das Ilhas Britânicas, Escandinávia e Sibéria, até ao Himalaia.[34][38][39] No norte da Europa, cresce do nível do mar até aos 1850 m de altitude,[4] e na China no intervalo 1400–3200 m.[34]
Foi introduzida em todas as zonas de clima temperado, e a sua naturalização como erva daninha na Austrália, Nova Zelândia, Ásia tropical, Reunião, América do Norte, Havai, Chile, Hispaníola e Argentina.[39][40][41][42] Há também exemplares no Japão.[43]
Nos Estados Unidos foi cedo importada, no século XVIII e cultivada pelas suas propriedades medicinais e piscicidas.[2] Em 1818, estava a espalhar-se tanto que Amos Eaton pensou tratar-se de uma planta nativa.[27][44] Em 1839 era já relatada no Michigan e em 1876, na Califórnia.[27] É hoje comum em todos os estados dos EUA.[45] No Canadá, é mais comum no sul do Quebec, Ontário e Colúmbia Britânica, e nas Províncias Marítimas, com populações dispersas entre elas.[15][46]
As abelhas da família Megachilidae, em especial do género Anthidium, usam a penugem da planta para fazer os seus ninhos.[37] As sementes são geralmente muito pequenas para que as aves se alimentem delas,[37] embora tenha sido observado que a espécie Carduelis tristis as consuma.[47] Outras espécies de aves consomem as folhas (Ganso-do-havaí)[48] ou flores (Loxioides bailleui)[49] ou o V. thapsus, ou usam a planta como fonte para insectos (Picoides albolarvatus).[50]
O verbasco é bienal e necessita em geral de dormição invernal antes de florescer.[28] Esta vernalização é devida à degradação do amido da raiz activada pelas baixas temperaturas, que a aplicação de giberelina permite ultrapassar.[51] As sementes germinam na Primavera e Verão quando expostas à luz, e as que germinam no Outono produzem plantes que sobrevivem ao Inverno se forem suficientemente grandes, pois as com rosetas menores que 15 cm não o conseguem. Depois de florir a planta morre geralmente no fim do segundo ano[28] mas alguns espécimes, especialmente nas zonas mais a norte, requerem períodos mais longos e florescem no terceiro ano.
As sementes mantêm o poder germinativo durante décadas, de acordo com alguns estudos.[52] As sementes são o único método de reprodução desta planta.[53]
A autopolinização e a polinização cruzada das flores são ambas possíveis. Se no final do dia a flor aberta não tiver sido visitada por um polinizador, é autopolinizada.[54] Embora as flores do Verbascum thapsus sejam visitadas por uma grande variedade de insetos, só as abelhas são efetivamente polinizadores[55] Em estudos em estufa e no campo, descobriu-se que as flores autopolinizadas naturalmente têm menos sementes que as de polinização cruzada, apresentando o máximo de 75% de sementes, pelo que aparenta ser um método utilizado por pequenas populações sem capacidade de atrair os polinizadores.[56]
A altura da planta também afeta as visitas dos polinizadores e o método de polinização. Experiências na Geórgia e Carolina do Norte, nos Estados Unidos, mostraram que as plantas altas têm maior taxa de polinização cruzada, com as plantas de mais de 150 cm de altura a apresentar 21% mais deste método que as mais baixas[57] As flores no topo da inflorescência também receberam mais pólen que as flores mais baixas.[58]
O Verbascum thapsus produz abundante quantidade de sementes, e a ramificação e o facto de ser fasciada favorece essa grande produção. Num campo abandonado no Michigan, contou-se entre 0 e 749 sementes por cápsula e uma média de 208 sementes por cápsula, com totais médios por indivíduo de 175 000 sementes[6] Em campos abandonados entre 1 e 4 anos no sudoeste do Michigan verificaram-se 100 000 sementes por planta[59] e no Dakota do Norte, em condições "com diminuta competição" e amostradas quando a produção de sementes parecia estar no auge, contaram-se 223 200 sementes numa planta. As sementes não têm adaptações morfológicas para percorrer grandes distâncias, caindo maioritariamente perto da planta-mãe.[6] A distância superior a 11 m é possível, mas a mediana é 1 m.[6]
O armazenamento de sementes é persistente, e estas podem germinar após 100 anos ou mesmo mais de permanência no solo.[60]
Uma vez que não pode competir com outras plantas em locais onde estas já existem abundantemente, o verbasco deixou de ser uma espécie com interesse agrícola[15] exceto em áreas onde a vegetação é esparsa, como as áreas semidesérticas da parte oriental da Sierra Nevada, na Califórnia. Nestes contextos ecológicos, ultrapassa as ervas nativas; a sua tendência de surgir após os incêndios florestais causa perturbação na sucessão ecológica normal.[28][29] Embora não seja uma ameaça à agricultura, a sua presença pode ser difícil de erradicar por completo, e é especialmente problemático em locais sujeitos a sobrepastoreio.[27][28][61] A espécie está listada como erva daninha nos estados norte-americanos do Colorado (Classe C)[62] e Havai,[63] e no estado australiano de Victoria (é proibida localmente na região de West Gippsland e controlada em outras).[64]
É hospedeira de vários insetos, tanto prejudiciais como benéficos para a atividade agrícola.[65] É ainda potencial hóspede de vírus e fungos que danificam a produção de espécies hortícolas.[15][66] Um estudo mostrou que o V. thapsus acolhe insetos de 29 famílias diferentes, como a Frankliniella occidentalis, espécies de Lygus (Lygus lineolaris), e ácaros Tetranychidae. Tal torna a planta em habitat potencial de pestes durante a estação fria.[65]
Outros insetos são habitualmente encontrados em espécies de verbasco em geral ou no Verbascum thapsus em particular, como o Haplothrips verbasci,[65] Gymnaetron tetrum (cuja larva consome as sementes) e a lagarta-do-verbasco (Cucullia verbasci).[27] Insetos úteis também se encontram, como os dos géneros Galendromus, Typhlodromus, Amblyseius, Orius (Orius tristicolor)[65] e Campylomma (Campylomma verbasci).[67] A capacidade da planta em acolher espécies nocivas e benéficas e manter estáveis populações de insetos fá-la ser usada em controlo biológico de outras culturas. Exemplos são o Campylomma verbasci e o Dicyphus hesperus (Miridae), predador de mosca-branca.[68] Uma série de espécies de lepidópteros, incluindo Papaipema nebris e Strymon melinus, também usam o V. thapsus como hospedeiro.[69]
O controlo da planta, se desejado, é mais eficaz através de meios mecânicos, como o arranque manual e o corte com enxada, de preferência seguido pela sementeira de plantas endémicas. Os animais raramente a pastam, devido à sua penugem irritante, e os herbicidas líquidos necessitam de tensioativos para serem eficazes, pois a penugem do verbasco faz com que a água escorra pela planta, à semelhança do efeito de lótus. A queima é ineficaz, pois só cria novas áreas vazias para as plântulas do verbasco ocuparem.[27][28][61]O G. tetrum e o Cucullia verbasci têm normalmente pouco efeito nas populações de V. thapsus como um todo.[61] Foi proposto o uso de cabras e aves de capoeira no controlo do verbasco.[28] Herbicidas de contacto eficazes, quando usados com tensioativos, são o glifosato,[27][61] triclopyr[27] e sulfurometuron-methyl.[61] Herbicidas de solo, como o tebuthiuron, também têm bons resultados mas recriam solo nu e necessitam de repetidas aplicações para prevenção do recrescimento.[28]
O verbasco tem sido usado desde tempos antigos como remédio para doenças de pele, da garganta e respiratórias, como amigdalite, asma, bronquite, e outras,[2] e também diarreia e enxaquecas[70]sendo reconhecida a sua eficácia anti-viral no caso da Influenza.[71] Esta planta é muito usada para remédios herbais com propriedades de emoliência e adstringência. É usada para aliviar a tosse e problemas relacionados, mas também para aplicações tópicas contra uma variedade de doenças de pele.[2] Mais recentemente uma investigação fitoquímica sobre o Verbascum conduziu ao isolamento e identificação de um composto iridoide chamado verbathasin A e dez compostos conhecidos. Dois destes onze (luteolin e 3-O-fucopyranosylsaikogenin F) revelaram resultados promissores quanto à atividade antiproliferativa com efeitos na indução de apoptose de células cancerígenas A549 (cancro do pulmão).[72] Extreatos de Verbascum thapsus combinados com outras quatro plantas medicinais revelaram atividade antiviral no combate ao vírus da herpes.[73]
Há 2000 anos Dioscórides recomendou o seu uso contra doenças pulmonares,[74] sendo esse um dos seus principais usos ainda hoje. A decocção das folhas e o uso em tisanas faz-se para a expectoração, tosse seca, bronquite, garganta inflamada e hemorroidas. As folhas podem ser fumadas, uma tradição que os povos ameríndios adquiriram.[75][76] Estes usaram a planta introduzida na América para fazer xaropes contra a laringotraqueobronquite. A combinação de saponina expectorante e a mucilagem emoliente tornam a planta particularmente eficaz contra a tosse.[2][77]
Tal como muitas outras plantas medicinais (Plínio, o Velho descreve-a na sua Naturalis Historia), o verbasco ficou ligado à bruxaria[75] e a planta foi muito usada para alegadamente evitar maldições e espíritos malignos.[78][74][76]
Com efeito, o naturalista Arruda Furtado, chegou a relatar as crenças populares dos Açores, mais propriamente da ilha de São Miguel, que atribuiam à boliana a faculdade de conceder fortuna ao seu detentor, contanto que se plantasse junto do verbasco, do trovisco e da bela-luz.[79]
A planta também serve para fazer tinturas e tochas e diversos tipos de extrato herbal.[2] Pelo facto de as sementes conterem vários compostos químicos (como saponinas, rotenona, etc.) que causam problemas respiratórios aos peixes é usada como piscicida em pesca.[27][80]
A tintura obtida das flores é de cor amarela ou verde e pode ser usada como colorante capilar.[78][81] As folhas secas e a penugem da planta podem ser usadas no fabrico de pavios, ou colocadas debaixo das palmilhas dos sapatos como isolantes. Os caules secos podem ser mergulhados em sebo para fazer tochas.[78][76]
.jpg)
|acessodata= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Uso explícito de et al. (link) |deadurl= e |urlmorta= redundantes (ajuda) |acessodata= requer |url= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Usa parâmetro autores (link) |acessodata= requer |url= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Usa parâmetro autores (link) !CS1 manut: Uso explícito de et al. (link) |acessodata= requer |url= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Usa parâmetro autores (link) |acessodata= requer |url= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Usa parâmetro autores (link) Verbascum thapsus é uma espécie de verbasco (ou barbasco, tipo, pavio ou vela-de-bruxa) endémica da Europa, Norte de África e Ásia, e introduzida nas Américas e Oceania. Tem propriedades medicinais e tóxicas, sendo usada em alguns locais para matar os peixes dos rios.
É uma planta herbácea bienal, dicotiledónea, que alcança 2 m de altura, com caule ereto ramificado e lanoso. As folhas, de até 5 dm de comprimento, são ovais lanceoladas, alternadas, cobertas por penugem branca ou prateada, formando uma roseta basal no primeiro ano. Durante o segundo ano cresce um único caule floral de 1 a 2 m de altura, que pode atingir 3,5 m e que termina numa inflorescência, constituída por um racemo denso com numerosas flores de cor amarela clara.
Kungsljus (Verbascum thapsus) är en art i familjen flenörtsväxter som förekommer i stora delar av Eurasien. I Norden finns den ända upp till Norrbotten i Sverige, Trondheim i Norge och i sydligaste Finland. Arten växer på torra platser, till exempel steniga backar, grusbankar, berghällar och öppna gläntor i skogar.[1]
Kungsljus är en stor, tvåårig ört, som blir upp till 2 m hög, med rak, hård stjälk, som avslutas med en lång smal blomspira. Växten blommar andra året.[1] Hela örtståndet är täckt av ett ljust, grågult ludd som skyddar det mot uttorkning och skador från solstrålning. Detta ludd består av färglösa, mycket fina, men utspärrat greniga hår, varigenom växtens yta ser ut att vara överspunnen av en spindelvävslik beklädnad. Enstaka större grenhår, som kan ses med en vanlig lupp, höjer sig över det övriga luddet, och skyddar växten mot betning eftersom dessa ytterst fina men styva grenar skadar betesdjurens mun. Blomkronan är svagt olikbladig (zygomorf). I ståndarkransen är zygomorfismen tydligare. Kungsljusets blommor är protogyna, det vill säga pistillens märke är färdigt och moget innan ståndarknapparna öppnat sig. Blommorna är svagt välluktande.
Arten är mångformig och tre underarter kan urskiljas:
Under senare år har några andra underarter föreslagits, men deras status är osäker.
Kungsljus är Blekinges landskapsblomma.[2]
Namnet kungsljus lär komma av att man förr i tiden doppade vinterståndarna av kungsljus i tjära och använde det som en fackla[3]. Släktnamnet Verbascum förekommer som växtnamn redan hos Plinius men är av osäker härledning.
subsp. thapsus
subsp. giganteum (Willk.) Nyman
subsp. montanum (Schrad.) Bonnier & Layens
Kungljusets ludna blad har använts vid framställning av fnöske, även om det är tickor och framför allt fnösktickan som förknippas med fnösktillverkning.[6][1] Fnöske är ett läderaktigt, lättantändligt material som framför allt framställts från olika tickor, men även annat liknande material.[7] Fnösket har huvudsakligen haft tre användningsområden: eldslagning, sjukvård[8] och kläder,[9][7] men har främst förknippats med eldmakande.[10][11]
.JPG)
Wikimedia Commons har media som rör Kungsljus.
Kungsljus (Verbascum thapsus) är en art i familjen flenörtsväxter som förekommer i stora delar av Eurasien. I Norden finns den ända upp till Norrbotten i Sverige, Trondheim i Norge och i sydligaste Finland. Arten växer på torra platser, till exempel steniga backar, grusbankar, berghällar och öppna gläntor i skogar.
Kungsljus är en stor, tvåårig ört, som blir upp till 2 m hög, med rak, hård stjälk, som avslutas med en lång smal blomspira. Växten blommar andra året. Hela örtståndet är täckt av ett ljust, grågult ludd som skyddar det mot uttorkning och skador från solstrålning. Detta ludd består av färglösa, mycket fina, men utspärrat greniga hår, varigenom växtens yta ser ut att vara överspunnen av en spindelvävslik beklädnad. Enstaka större grenhår, som kan ses med en vanlig lupp, höjer sig över det övriga luddet, och skyddar växten mot betning eftersom dessa ytterst fina men styva grenar skadar betesdjurens mun. Blomkronan är svagt olikbladig (zygomorf). I ståndarkransen är zygomorfismen tydligare. Kungsljusets blommor är protogyna, det vill säga pistillens märke är färdigt och moget innan ståndarknapparna öppnat sig. Blommorna är svagt välluktande.
Verbascum thapsus là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Huyền sâm. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.[1] Đây là loài bản địa châu Âu, Bắc Phi và châu Á, và được du nhập vào châu Mỹ và Úc. Đây là một loài cây hai năm có lông có thể phát triển đến chiều cao 2 mét hoặc hơn. Hoa nhỏ màu vàng của tụ thành nhóm lại trên một thân cây cao lớn mọc lên từ một vòng lá lớn.
Verbascum thapsus là một loài thực vật có hoa trong họ Huyền sâm. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753. Đây là loài bản địa châu Âu, Bắc Phi và châu Á, và được du nhập vào châu Mỹ và Úc. Đây là một loài cây hai năm có lông có thể phát triển đến chiều cao 2 mét hoặc hơn. Hoa nhỏ màu vàng của tụ thành nhóm lại trên một thân cây cao lớn mọc lên từ một vòng lá lớn.
Verbascum thapsus L., 1753
Коровя́к обыкнове́нный, или Медве́жье у́хо (лат. Verbáscum thápsus) — двулетнее травянистое растение; вид рода Коровяк (Verbascum) семейства Норичниковые (Scrophulariaceae). Крупное растение высотой до 2 метров и более, покрытое войлочным опушением, с собранными в колосовидное соцветие желтыми цветами и плодом в виде коробочки. Коровяк обыкновенный распространен почти повсюду в мире. Природный ареал — Макаронезия, Евразия. Занесён и натурализовался в Австралии и Новой Зеландии, в Северной и Южной Америке.
Используется как декоративное и лекарственное растение.
Родовое название Verbascum происходит от лат. barba «борода», что связано с опушённостью растения. Видовой эпитет thapsus был впервые использован Теофрастом для неизвестной травы около греческого поселения Тапсос (Θάψος) возле Сиракуз.
Всё растение обильно покрыто неопадающим, пепельно-белым, реже светло-желтоватым, густым войлочным опушением и лишено железистых волосков. Стебли прямостоячие, облиственные. Листья продолговатые, цельнокрайние или городчатые; прикорневые листья черешчатые, длиной 15-30 см и шириной 5-10 см с черешками 3—6 см длиной, пластинка продолговатая, 15—30 см длиной, 5—10 см шириной, тупая или с коротким остриём на верхушке, городчатая или почти цельнокрайная. Стеблевые листья на более коротких черешках или сидячие, низбегающие, верхние листья сидячие, короткие, заострённые[2][3].
Соцветие в виде густой, верхушечной, колосовидной кисти, почти цилиндрической и не ветвящейся. Цветки собраны пучками в нижней части кисти, по 4—7 в пучке, в верхней части кисти по 1—4 цветка в пучке; сидячие, цветоножки короче чашечки, разделенной до основания на 5 линейных долей[3]. Цветки пентамерные: имеют 5 тычинок и пятилепестковый венчик ярко-желтого цвета, шириной 1,5-3 см. Тычинки делятся на два типа:три верхние — более короткие, чем нижние, покрыты беловатыми либо желтыми волосками; нижние две тычинки имеют голые нити и более крупные пыльники, чем верхние тычинки[4]. Также известна белоцветковая форма V. thapsus f. candicans[5]
Число хромосом 2n=32,34,36[4].
Коровяк обыкновенный — хороший пыльценос. Пыльцу с коровяка пчёлы собирают в большом количестве и иногда сплошь забивают ею соты[6]. В народной медицине отвар соцветий и листьев Коровяка давно и очень эффективно используется для лечения различных кишечных кровяных выделений таких, как геморрой. Кроме того, Коровяк весьма распространён и его поиски проблем не вызывают. Официальная фармакология давно признаёт этот эффект и успешно использует препараты полученные из этого растения. Кроме того, отвар Коровяка довольно приятен и не вызывает неприязнь как многие "горькие" лекарственные травы.
Южноафриканский род растений Арктотис также буквально переводится как «Медвежье ухо».
Коровя́к обыкнове́нный, или Медве́жье у́хо (лат. Verbáscum thápsus) — двулетнее травянистое растение; вид рода Коровяк (Verbascum) семейства Норичниковые (Scrophulariaceae). Крупное растение высотой до 2 метров и более, покрытое войлочным опушением, с собранными в колосовидное соцветие желтыми цветами и плодом в виде коробочки. Коровяк обыкновенный распространен почти повсюду в мире. Природный ареал — Макаронезия, Евразия. Занесён и натурализовался в Австралии и Новой Зеландии, в Северной и Южной Америке.
Используется как декоративное и лекарственное растение.
毛蕊花（学名：Verbascum thapsus），为玄参科毛蕊花属下的一个植物种。[1] 这种植物原生于非洲与亚洲北部,后期引进到了美洲和澳大利亚。
可作為緩瀉劑和止痛劑。且有助於睡眠。內服有助於去疣，消除充血的情況。有助於氣喘、支氣管炎、呼吸困難、耳朵痛、甘草熱。用於腎臟病的處方中可減輕發炎。
这是一篇與植物相關的小作品。你可以通过编辑或修订扩充其内容。 
ビロードモウズイカ（学名：Verbascum thapsus）はヨーロッパおよび北アフリカとアジアに原産するゴマノハグサ科モウズイカ属の植物である。アメリカとオーストラリア、日本にも帰化している。
ビロードモウズイカは、大きな葉のロゼットから伸長した長い花穂に黄色い小花を密集し、高さ2メートル以上にもなる毛深い二年生植物である。
この植物は、多様な環境で成長できるが、どちらかと言えば日当りのよい撹乱された土壌を好む。そのような場所では、大地が光を受ければすぐに、その場所の土壌シードバンクに存在していた寿命の長い種子から成長することができる。 ビロードモウズイカは、豊富に生産される種子によって広がる普通な雑草であるが、種子の発芽には開けた土地を必要とするため、攻撃的な外来種となることはほとんどない。 この植物は、非常に競合的な種というわけではなく、他の植物の陰に耐性がなく、耕起後に生き延びることもできないので、大部分の農作物に対しては大した害にならない。 ビロードモウズイカはまた、多種の昆虫に対する宿主でもあり、それらの昆虫のいくつかは他の植物の害虫となり得る。個々のビロードモウズイカを手で引き抜くことは簡単だが、個体群を恒久的に排除することは困難である。
ビロードモウズイカは伝統医療において収斂作用や皮膚湿潤作用（英語版）を持つ薬草として広範に利用される。とりわけ、咳や呼吸器の病気や症状に対して利用されるが、また肌の多様な疾患に対する外用薬としても利用される。また、染料や松明を作るためにも使われた。
ビロードモウズイカは、通常、二年生の双子葉植物であり、生活史における最初の年は葉のロゼットを生成する[1][2]。 葉は大きく、長さ50cmに達する。二年目の植物は通常、高さ1〜2m程度で分岐しない単独の花茎をつける。中国東部では1.5m程度になることが報告されている[3][4]。
この棒状の花茎の先端部は、花を密に付ける花穂になっている[1]。花穂は花茎の長さの半分を占めていることもある。この植物のすべての部分は星型の毛状突起で覆われている[3][5]。この毛は特に葉で密であり、葉に銀色の外見を与えている。この植物の染色体数は2n= 36である[6]。
開花中のビロードモウズイカでは、葉がこの花茎を旋回状に取り巻いている。葉は厚く、葉柄部は茎に沿って翼状に下に流れる(沿下する)。茎の上方と下方の葉の間には、長楕円形から倒披針型まで多様な形態がある。葉の長さは50cm、幅は14cmに達する[7][8]。茎が伸びるにつれて上方の葉ほど小型になり[1][2]、花茎への強い沿下も減少する[1] 。
花茎は単体で、太さ2-2.5 cm。時として(通常は末端が損傷した場合に[9][10])花序のちょうど下から分岐する[2]。 通常、茎と果実は、固く乾燥して濃い茶色に乾いた茎茎に卵型の乾いた莢膜が密につまった構造を保ちながら、開花および種子散布後までも、冬の間ずっと[11]、時には翌春まで、あるいは翌夏までさえそのままの姿で残っている。この植物の主根は浅い[8]。
花は、5浅裂した萼筒と5裂した花冠、および花弁に合着した5本の雄蘂を持つ合弁花であり、花弁は明るい黄色で直径1.5–3 cm。花は長さ2mm程度の非常に短い花柄を持ち、ほとんど無柄。5本の雄蘂には二つの型がある。上方3本の雄蘂はより短く、花糸は黄色または白っぽい毛に覆われ、より小さい葯を持つ。下方の二つの雄蘂は無毛の花糸とより大きい葯を持つ。[5] [note 1]
果実は、二つの裂片に裂開する約6mmの小さな楕円形のさく果であり、各室には多数の茶色い微小な(1mm以下の)[12] 縦筋のある種子を含んでいる。 白い花の変種(V. thapsus f. candicans)が発生することが知られている[13]。花は初夏から晩夏にかけて（北ヨーロッパであれば6月から最盛期の8月にかけて[2]）約3か月咲きつづける。花期の長さは花茎の長さに関連し、背の高い花茎は9月下旬から10月上旬まで咲きつづける[9]。 花は花穂の下から咲き始め、不規則に上の方に進行していく。各花は花茎を取り巻く数個の花だけが同時に、一日の一部だけ開花する[11]。
植物学の命名法に則って、ビロードモウズイカは、カール・フォン・リンネにより、1753年に刊行された彼の著書Species Plantarumに初めて命名・記載された。
この種小名"thapsus"は、テオプラストスにより、タプソス("θαψοζ"[14])として、初めて使われた。この名は（しばしば古代チュニジアの都市タプススと同一視されがちだが）、現在のシチリア島のシラクサ付近にあった古代ギリシア植民地タプソスの名前であり、テオプラテスは、この地方から産出する種不明な薬草に対して、この名を使っていた[14][15][16]。
もっと後の19世紀になって初めて発生した習慣である基準標本は、当時は規定されていなかった。選定基準標本（従来の標本の中から選ばれた基準標本）が指定されたときは、唯一のビロードモウズイカの標本として、リンネ植物標本集の標本242.1が割り当てられた [note 2]。 この種は最初からモウズイカ属の基準種に指定されていた。[18] ヨーロッパに分布するビロードモウズイカは表現型にかなりの多様性を呈し[9]、それゆえ何年にも渡ってこの植物に多くのシノニムが付けられることになった[17][19]。アメリカに導入された個体群の多様性は、それよりずっと少ない[9]。
モウズイカ属の分類学は、Arthur Huber-Morath の仕事を別として、1930年代におけるSvante Samuel Murbeckによる一連のモノグラフ[20][21][22] 以来、大きな改編はない。 Arthur Huber-Morath はイランからトルコにかけての植生におけるこの属をまとめる上で、多くの中間型を記載するために非公式の分類群を使った。しかし、Huber-Morathの分類群は分類学的なものではなかったので、Murbeckのモノグラフは一般的に利用できる最新のものである。なぜならば、現在のところ、分子や遺伝子のデータをこの属に対して幅広く適用すべく探索した研究がないためである。 Murbeckの分類において、ビロードモウズイカはクロモウズイカ(V. nigrum) , V. lychnitis、V. sinuatumなどの種と並んで、Bothrospermae節のFasciculata亜節（もしくは命名の選択に応じてモウズイカ節モウズイカ亜節）に配置されている。[23] [24]
通常は三種の亜種が認められる。
基準種以外のすべての亜種においては、短い雄蘂もまた毛深い[29]。 subsp. crassifoliumにおいては、毛の密度は低く、しばしば雄蘂の上方から無毛である。そして下方の葉はほとんど沿下せずより長い葉柄を持つ[28]。subsp. crassifoliumは、基準種よりわずかに大きい直径15mm-30mmの花を付ける点でも異なる。基準種の花は直径12-20mmである[28] 。 subsp. giganteumにおいては、毛は密生する白い綿毛であり、下方の葉は強く沿下する。 subsp. giganteum と subsp. crassifoliumの両亜種は、もともとは別の種と考えられてきた[1]。その形態的な多様性により、ビロードモウズイカは非常に多くの亜種が記載されてきた。 最近の改定では、著者はV. giganteumを残し、V. crassifoliumをシノニムとするようになっている[24]。
この植物もまた、いくつかの交雑種の原種になる。(表参照) これらのもっとも普通な種はV. × semialbum Chaub. (V. nigrumとの交雑種)である[6]。ユーラシアにおいてはすべてが分布しており[6]、V. × kerneri Fritsch, V. × pterocaulon Franch., V. × thapsi L. (シノニム:V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch), V. × humnickii Franchet,は北アメリカでも報告されている[25][26][30]
ビロードモウズイカは多彩な呼び名で知られている。ヨーロッパの参考文献では"Great mullein".[31] [32][33]、北アメリカでは"Common mullein"が使われる[34][35]。 一方、テキサス、コロラド、ニューメキシコ、アリゾナを含むアメリカ中西部において、モウズイカは普通"Cowboy Toilet Paper"(カウボーイのトイレットペーパー)と呼ばれる[36][37]。 19世紀には、この植物に対する英語の名称だけで40種以上もあり、その中にはいくつか風変わりなものも含まれていた。 例えば,"Hig candlewick", "Bullicks lungwort", "Adams-rod"(アダムの杖), "Hare's-beard"(ウサギの鬚)、"Ice-leaf"(氷の葉)、などである[38]。
この植物の毛深さに注目した方言は数限りなくある。例えば、"Woolly"(ウール風), "Velvet"(ベルベット)、"Blanket"(毛布)、などの接頭語と"Mullein"を組み合わせた名前[33][39]、あるいは、"Beggar's"(乞食の)、"Moses'"(モーゼの)、"Poor Man's"(貧者の)、"Our Lady's"(聖母マリアの)、"Old Man's"(老人の)、などの人物名称と"Blanket"(毛布)や"Feltwort"(フェルト)やその他のものの名称を組み合わせた名前[32][35][40] 等である。
この植物の大きさや形を元にした名前として、"Shepherd's Club(s) (or Staff)"(羊飼いの棍棒(または杖)), "Aaron's Rod"(アロンの杖)(これは、例えばセイタカアワダチソウのような、背の高い花穂に黄色い花を群がり付ける他の植物に対しても使われる) そして、他にも「何何の杖」は枚挙に暇がないくらい過剰にある[32][35][41]。 "Velvet"あるいは "Mullein Dock" も記録されている。ただし"dock"とは一般的に広い葉を持つ植物に対して用いられるイギリスの呼び方である[42]。
日本では「アイヌタバコ」「ニワタバコ」などの異名がある[43]。
ビロードモウズイカは、西はアゾレス諸島やカナリア諸島から東は中国西部まで、北はブリテン諸島、スカンジナビア、シベリアから南はヒマラヤまで、ヨーロッパ、北アフリカ、アジアを含む広範な自然分布域を持つ[3][44][45]。北ヨーロッパでは低地から標高1,850mまで[2] 、中国では1,400–3,200mまで分布する[3]。
それはまた、世界の温帯地域の隅々まで導入され、オーストラリア、ニュージーランド、熱帯アジア、レユニオン、北アメリカ、ハワイ、チリ、イスパニョーラ島、アルゼンチン[45][46][47][48]、日本[49] などに雑草として帰化した。
アメリカでは18世紀 [note 3] のごく初期に輸入され、薬用や毒流し漁のために栽培された。1818年には、アメリカの植物学者エイモス・イートン(Amos Eaton)がそれを自生種と考えていたほどアメリカ中に広がり始めていた [note 4][8]。 1839年にはすでにミシガンで、1876年にはカリフォルニアで記録されている[8]。現在ではすべての州で普通に見られる[50]。
カナダでは、沿海州だけでなく、南ケベック、オンタリオ、そして空白地帯を挟んでブリティッシュコロンビアで、もっとも普通である[9][51]。
日本においては、明治時代初期に観賞用として導入された[52]。現在では全国各地に溢出し、市街地から山間部の道端まで広く見られる[53]。日本におけるビロードモウズイカの分布域は30以上の都道府県に及び、日本において「成功した帰化植物」の一つと考えられる[54]。
ビロードモウズイカは裸地や荒地、一般には砂地や石灰質土壌の先駆植物としてもっとも頻繁に成育する[6] 。この植物は土手、草原、道路脇、伐採地、牧草地などを含む多様な環境で成育できるが、乾燥した砂礫土壌でもっともよく育つ。この広範な環境での成長能力は適応力の幅広さというよりむしろ、強力な表現型の多様性に関連している[55]。
ビロードモウズイカは二年草で、一般的には花を付ける前に冬の休眠を必要とする[10] 。この休眠は、低温により根におけるでんぷん質の分解が活性化されることにつながっている。そしてジベレリンの作用はこの必要性を回避する[56] 。 種子はほとんど裸地で、10℃から40℃の間でしか発芽しない[10] 。 もし適当な条件が満たされるならば、それらは真っ暗な中で発芽できる（試験では理想的な条件のもとで35%の発芽率が得られた）。野生状態においては、実際には光に晒されたとき、または土壌表面に非常に近いときのみ発芽する。この事実は、この植物の生息環境の好みを説明する。一方でビロードモウズイカはいくらかの植物がすでに棲息しているような場所でも成長できるが、裸地の方がロゼットの成長は4倍から7倍以上も早い。[10]
種子は春と夏に発芽する。秋に発芽した個体は、もし冬までに十分大きく成長すれば越冬するが、径15cmに満たないロゼットは冬に枯死する可能性が高い。通常は2年目の終わりに、開花した後に植物全体が枯死する[10]。しかし一部の個体、特に分布域北部のものは、より長い成育期間を必要とし、3年目に開花する。一方、よりよい成育条件の元では、一部の個体は最初の年に開花する[57]。三年生の個体は一年生や二年生のものより生産する種子が少ないことが見出されている。開花までの年数と植物の大きさは外部環境に関連しているが、他の大部分の性質は遺伝によると考えられる[58]。
花は一日花であり、夜明け前に開花し、午後にはしぼむ[9]。花は雌性先熟であり、多くの昆虫が訪花するものの、実際にはハナバチ類だけが有効なポリネーターである[9]。花はまた自花受精も可能であり、日中に昆虫による受粉がなされないと自花受粉する。 ビロードモウズイカの花は6月末から8月が最盛期であり、暖地では9月から10月にも及ぶ。[8][10][12]
訪花昆虫としては、コハナバチ科のハナバチ類やハナアブなどが含まれる[11]。雄蘂下方の毛は訪花昆虫の足掛かりを提供するためのものと考えられる[9]。
いくつかの研究によると、種子は10年以上、時として100年以上もの間、発芽能力を保ち続ける[59]。また、この植物は極端に大量の種子を生産する。各植物は数百もの果実をつけ、それぞれは700個以上の種子を含み[9]、総計では18万個[8][10] から24万個[12] に及ぶ。これらの事実により、ビロードモウズイカの種子は長期間に渡って土壌シードバンクとしてその土地に保存され、一見すると何もない裸地から[10]、あるいは以前の植物が死に絶えた山火事の後すみやかに、 突如として芽生えることができる[12]。その個体数パターンは、種子として長い間の休眠に支えられた短命な成体による構成の典型的なものである[9] 。 ビロードモウズイカはヒトの手助けなしに新しい土地に広がることはほとんどない。なぜならその種子はそれほど遠くまで散布されないためである。 種子散布のためには、花茎が風や動物の動きにより揺すられることが必要である。種子の75%は親植物の1m以内に散布され、93%は5m以内に落ちる[10]。
ハキリバチ科Anthidium属のハチは、(多種の毛深い植物の中で特に)この植物の毛を巣を作るために利用する[60]。 その種子はオウゴンヒワが利用する[61] ことは報告されているとはいえ、一般的に鳥にとっては小さすぎるため、餌として利用されない[11]。 他の鳥類では、葉を利用する（ハワイガン)[62]、花を利用する(キムネハワイマシコ)?(Loxioides bailleui) [63]、あるいは、昆虫を採餌する資源としてこの植物を利用するシロガシラキツツキ[64] などが報告されている。
栽培植物との競合はできないため、ビロードモウズイカはもはや深刻な農業雑草とは考えられておらず、耕作地からは簡単に駆除される[9]。
ただし、カリフォルニア におけるシエラネバダ山脈東部の半乾燥地帯のような、そもそも植物が希薄な場所においてはそうとも言えない。 そのような生態的条件のもとでは、ビロードモウズイカは在来種の植物を駆逐してしまう。それは、野火の後で発生する傾向があり、標準的な植生遷移も妨げる[12][10]。農業上の脅威ではないものの、ビロードモウズイカを完全に根絶することは非常に困難であり、過放牧の牧草地において特に問題になる[12][10][8]。
この植物はコロラド( Class C)[65]、ハワイ[66] 、オーストラリアのビクトリア州（西ギプスランド地域は禁止区域、その他いくつかにおいては抑制区域である)で、有害植物(en:noxious weed)としての指定を受けている。[67]
ビロードモウズイカは、有害な生物も益虫も両方含む多数の昆虫や病原菌の宿主であるにもかかわらず、それ自身は農業雑草とはならない[68]。それはまた、キュウリモザイクウイルス(Cucumber mosaic virus)、Erysiphum cichoraceum(ウリ科植物のうどん粉病)、ワタ根腐病の潜在的感染源でもある[9][69]。
ある研究では、ビロードモウズイカを宿主とする昆虫が29の異なる科から見付かった。その害虫の主なものはミカンキイロアザミウマ ( Frankliniella occidentalis )、Lygus lineolarisのようなLygus属のカメムシ、およびハダニ科に含まれる多数のハダニ類である。これらの存在により、ビロードモウズイカは越冬する有害生物の潜在的感染源となる[68]。
ビロードモウズイカで普通に見られる他の昆虫は、一般のモウズイカ属の植物を、あるいは特にビロードモウズイカを専門に摂食とする。それらは、Haplothrips verbasci（クダアザミウマ属)[68]、 Gymnaetron tetrum（ゾウムシ科) ( これらの幼虫は種子を食べる) 、および、Cucullia verbasci(ヤガ科) [8] などである。
有益な昆虫もまた、ビロードモウズイカに発生する。それらは、Galendromus、Typhlodromus、Amblyseiusなどの捕食性ダニ類、Orius tristicolor（サシガメ類)[68] 、Campylomma verbasci（カスミカメムシ科)などを含む[70]。
害虫も益虫も両方共宿主となるこの植物の能力は、コナジラミの捕食者であるCampylomma verbasciやDicyphus hesperus(カスミカメムシ科) のような、他の作物における生物学的コントロールに使われる昆虫の安定した個体群を維持するために潜在的に役立つ [71][72]。
害虫の鱗翅目のあるもの、 Papaipema nebris（ヤガ科) や、Strymon melinus(シジミチョウ科)などもまた、ビロードモウズイカを宿主とする。[73]
.jpg)
この植物の抑制は、適切な時期に手で引き抜いたり鍬で耕すような機械的な方法による管理が一番良い。できれば続けて在来種を播種することが好ましい。植物全体に生えている不愉快な毛のため、動物はほとんど食べない[12]。そして液体除草剤がこの植物に効果を与えるためには界面活性剤を必要とする。なぜならこの毛により水分はちょうどロータス効果のように植物から流れ落ちてしまうからである。焼却も効果がない。それは新たな発生をもたらす芽ばえのために新しい裸地を作り出すだけにすぎない。[12][10][8]
モウズイカ食専門のGymnaetron tetrum（ゾウムシ科)や、Cucullia verbasci（ヤガ科)も、通常はビロードモウズイカの全体的な個体数に対してわずかな影響力しか持たない[12]。 ヤギとニワトリもビロードモウズイカの抑制のために提案されたことがある[10]。グリホサート ,[12][8]トリクロピル[8] およびスルホメツロンメチル[12] などを含む接触型除草剤は（界面活性剤と共に使用すれば）効果的である。テブチウロンのような土壌型除草剤も効果的であるが、裸地を再生してしまうため、ビロードモウズイカの再成長を妨げるためには繰り返し使用する必要がある[10]。
ビロードモウズイカは古代から皮膚や喉や呼吸器の病気などの治療に使われてきた。それは、ある種の粘液、幾種類かのサポニン、クマリン、配糖体などを含むため、特に収斂作用や皮膚軟化剤として長らく医療的評価がある。ディオスコリデスは肺病に対して推奨している。それは現在、健康関連やハーブ関連の店で広範に入手できる。染料や松明などの医療以外の利用方法もある。
ディオスコリデスは2000年前に、呼吸器の病気に対してこの植物を初めて推奨した[74]。これは依然として、特に咳に対して、この植物の主な利用方の一つである。 葉を煎じた物やハーブティが、去痰、肺結核、乾咳、気管支炎、咽頭炎、痔などに用いられた[74]。
その葉は、肺病に対して喫煙医薬品として用いられ、その伝統はアメリカにおいて、アメリカ原住民の人々に素早く伝播した。[32][75] 彼らはこの土着でない植物をクループに対するシロップを作ることに使った。去痰剤としてのサポニンと皮膚柔軟剤としての粘液の組合せが、この植物を咳に対して特に効果的にする。飲用としての処方はすべて、不快な毛を除去するために、最終的に濾過しなければならない[56]。
また、ビロードモウズイカのエキスには、毛母細胞のもとになるCD34蛋白質を含む細胞を増やす効果があることが判明し[76]、育毛剤に応用されている[77]
この花から採れる精油は、ドイツで感冒、腹痛、耳痛、凍傷、湿疹、その他の外傷に用いられた[32]。ビロードモウズイカをベースとした多くの調合の局所適用は、いぼ[78]、せつ、癰（よう）、痔、しもやけ、などの治療に推奨された[32][75]。 現代の研究では、ビロードモウズイカは殺菌作用や抗腫瘍作用をもつグリチルリシン化合物を含んでいる。これらの化合物は花に集中している[79]。また、ビロードモウズイカの葉から抽出したエキスにはキサンチンオキシダーゼ活性阻害作用が見出されている[80]。
異なったエキスは細菌に対して多様なレベルの効果を持つ[56]。ドイツのコミッションE（英語版）では、気道炎に対してこの植物の医学的利用を認可している[81]。それはまた、アメリカ国民医薬品集（en:United States Pharmacopeia)、および英国国民医薬品集（British National Formulary）にも収録されている。[32]
ビロードモウズイカは古代から薬用として広く利用されているにもかかわらず、その成分は現代的な分析による精査が十分になされていない[82]。伝統医療としての使用においては、特に好ましくない副作用や過剰使用による問題は報告されておらず[83]、正しい利用法を守る限り、安全に利用できるとされる[82]。ただし、十分なデータがないため、12歳以下の小児に対しての使用は推奨されない[83]。
しかし、その含有量は未知であるものの、種子や葉には、劇物に指定されている物質ロテノン [note 5] が含まれていることが報告されている[84]。 また、イスラム文化圏の伝統医学であるユナニー医学においては、薬の悪影響も見られる、とされるレベルの寒性第4度に分類される[85] [note 6]。
古代の多くの薬草と同じように（大プリニウスは彼の著作、博物誌において考察している) [note 7] その関係性は一般にあいまいだが、ビロードモウズイカは魔術と結び付けられ[32]、また、悪霊や呪いを払うため広範に利用された[32][56][75][74]。
その種子はサポニン、配糖体、クマリン、ロテノンなどを含み、魚類に対して呼吸困難を引き起こすため、毒流し漁のための魚毒として広く利用されてきた[8][87]。
その花は緑や黄色に輝く染料を提供し、染髪に用いられてきた[32][84]。
乾燥した葉と毛は灯心の中に使われ、また断熱を助けるため靴の中に敷く。また、乾燥した茎は蝋や獣脂に浸して松明を作る[32][75]。
広範に棲息するゆえに、モウズイカ属の他の種と異なり、この植物はほとんど栽培されない。
ビロードモウズイカ（学名：Verbascum thapsus）はヨーロッパおよび北アフリカとアジアに原産するゴマノハグサ科モウズイカ属の植物である。アメリカとオーストラリア、日本にも帰化している。
ビロードモウズイカは、大きな葉のロゼットから伸長した長い花穂に黄色い小花を密集し、高さ2メートル以上にもなる毛深い二年生植物である。
この植物は、多様な環境で成長できるが、どちらかと言えば日当りのよい撹乱された土壌を好む。そのような場所では、大地が光を受ければすぐに、その場所の土壌シードバンクに存在していた寿命の長い種子から成長することができる。 ビロードモウズイカは、豊富に生産される種子によって広がる普通な雑草であるが、種子の発芽には開けた土地を必要とするため、攻撃的な外来種となることはほとんどない。 この植物は、非常に競合的な種というわけではなく、他の植物の陰に耐性がなく、耕起後に生き延びることもできないので、大部分の農作物に対しては大した害にならない。 ビロードモウズイカはまた、多種の昆虫に対する宿主でもあり、それらの昆虫のいくつかは他の植物の害虫となり得る。個々のビロードモウズイカを手で引き抜くことは簡単だが、個体群を恒久的に排除することは困難である。
ビロードモウズイカは伝統医療において収斂作用や皮膚湿潤作用（英語版）を持つ薬草として広範に利用される。とりわけ、咳や呼吸器の病気や症状に対して利用されるが、また肌の多様な疾患に対する外用薬としても利用される。また、染料や松明を作るためにも使われた。
