Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Salvadora persica Linn., commonly known as miswak (tooth brush), belongs to the family Salvadoracea. It is locally called as kharijal; BENG—Jhal; Mah—Khakhin Kickni, Miraj, Pelu, Pilva; GUJ—Kharijal, Piludi; TEL—Ghunia, Varagogu; TAM—Kalawa, kakkol, vivay; KAN—Goni-mara; and ORIYA—Kotungo, pilu.[1] It is widely distributed in the arid regions of India and often on saline soils. It is an upright evergreen small tree or shrub, seldom more than 1 ft in diameter reaching a maximum height of 3 m. The fresh leaves are eaten as salad and are used in traditional medicine for cough, asthma, scurvy, rheumatism, piles, and other diseases. The use of miswak is a pre-Islamic custom, which was adhered to by the ancient Arabs to get their teeth white and shiny.[2] The beneficial effects of miswak in respect of oral hygiene and dental health are partially due to its mechanical action and partially due to pharmacologic action. There is investigation of its different chemical constituents, which are responsible for these activities. Farooqi et al. isolated benzyl-isothiocyanate from Salvadora persica root, and they claimed to have found saponins along with tannins, silica, a small amount of resin, trimethylamine, and alkaloidal constituents. Ray et al. isolated β-sitosterol, m-anisic acid, and salvadourea. Lewis and Elvin-Lewis report a high content of minerals in the root, 27.06%[3–5] [Figure 1].

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Figure 1

Salvadora persica (chewing stick)

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Salvadora persica is a large, well-branched evergreen shrub or small tree having soft whitish yellow wood, bark is of old stems rugose, branches are numerous, drooping, glabrous, terete, finely striate, shining, and almost white. Leaves are somewhat fleshy, glaucous, 3.8–6.3 by 2–3.2 cm in size, elliptic lanceolate or ovate, obtuse, and often mucronate at the apex, the base is usually acute, less commonly rounded, main nerves are in 5–6 pairs, and the petioles 1.3–2.2 cm long and glabrous. The flowers are greenish yellow in color, in axillary and terminal compound lax panicles 5–12.5 cm long, numerous in the upper axils, pedicels 1.5–3 mm long, bracts beneath the pedicels, ovate and very caducous. Calyx is 1.25 mm long, glabrous, cleft half-way down, lobes rounded. Corolla is very thin, 3 mm long, deeply cleft, persistent, lobes are 2.5 mm long, oblong, obtuse, and much reflexed. Stamens are shorter than corolla, but exserted, owing to the corolla lobes being reflexed. Drupe is 3 mm in diameter, globose, smooth and becomes red when ripe. It is widely distributed in the drier parts of India, Baluchistan, and Ceylon and in the dry regions of West Asia and Egypt[6–8] [Figures ​[Figures22–4].

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Figure 2

Salvadora persica tree

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Figure 4

Salvadora persica leaves

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Figure 3

Salvadora persica fruits

TRADITIONAL USES

CHEMICAL PROFILE OF SALVADORA PERSICA

On phytochemical investigations, its stem yielded octacosanol, 1-triacantanol, β-sitosterol, and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside.[11] On thin layer chromatography examination, it was found to be a mixture of 2 compounds, which were separated by column chromatography. Compound A had a melting point (m.p.) -136-7ºC, m/z = 414 (mass) and molecular formula C₂₉H₅₀O (C = 83.75%, H = 12.25%). It gave positive Salkowski, Liebermann, Burchard reaction, Noller reaction, Brieskron, Tschagajew, and yellow color with tetranitro methane.[12–14] Peaks in the infrared spectrum at V_max ^KBr 3500, 1450, 1470, and 1145 cm⁻¹ showed its identity as compound β-sitosterol in white needle form [Figure 5]. Compound B was found to be the white crystalline compound, with the molecular formula C₃₅H₆₀O⁶, C = 72.9%, H = 14%, m.p. 265-68ºC m/z [α]_D ²⁹ -36.2 gave positive test for saponin and on hydrolysis yielded β-sitosterol and a sugar glucose thereby identified it as β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyransoside. Essential oil contained α- and β-thujones, camphor, cineole, β-cymene, limonene, β-myrcene, borneol, linalool, and bornyl acetate and nonvolatile fraction contained humulene, caryophyllene, β-santatol, and farnesol.[15]

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Figure 5

Structure of β-sitosterol

Benzylamide were also isolated. The isolated compounds were identified as butanediamide, N1, N4-bis(phenylmethyl)-2(S)-hydroxy-butanediamine (1), N-benzyl-benzamide (2), N-benzyl-2-phenylacetamide (3), and benzyl urea (4). Compound 3 revealed a significant inhibitory effect on human collagen–induced platelet aggregation, and a moderate antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli.[16]

Heavy metal contents are present in the leaf galls, which posses some growth promoting principles. Metal contents in the control as well as in the galls are prepared and presented in Table 1. The data show an enhanced content of Cu, Ni, Mn, V, Ti, and Mo in the galls when compared with the control. Metals are known to interact in biological systems and plant diseases are known to result from too much or too little of any one element or elements.[17,18]

Table 1

Heavy metal contents in the control and galls in PPM

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SEASONAL CHANGES IN PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

It is reported that there are seasonal changes in the protein and amino acid concentrations in Salvadora persica. To find out these changes, 12 samples of soil (0–15) and plant material collected every month from 3 saline habitats of Salvadora persica near Bhavnagar were used for analysis. The results collected are represented in Tables ​Tables22 and ​and33.[19–21]

Table 2

Seasonal changes in proteins, amino acids in salvadora persica

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Table 3

Seasonal variations of mineral ions (Meq g-¹ d.wt.) In Salvadora. persica

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PHARMACOLOGIC ACTIVITIES

THERPEUTIC APPLICATIONS

CONCLUSION

The knowledge of various medicinal plants being used is confined to mostly local healers, it is of utmost importance to record this knowledge for future generations, otherwise it will be lost forever with the death of local healers/ persons with knowledge about indigenous health care systems. The traditional values, faith, and indigenous knowledge related to indigenous health care systems of the present society are facing serious challenges due to migration of youths to cities and these urban migrants tend to determine their own cultural beliefs and practices. Thus, the recording of indigenous health care system becomes increasingly important for society.On the basis of a literature survey, it has been found that there are various traditional uses of miswak, which has to be scientifically proved [Table 4].

Table 4

Plant part and their reported uses

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Footnotes

REFERENCES