2.2. Data collection and analysis

Participatory approach involving survey through interview in the local language with barangay leaders and indigenous people, who are the original inhabitants of the area, was conducted in the 13 municipalities of Benguet province consisting of 140 barangays from June 2011 to July 2013, with a total of 176 key informants. The informants were chosen through cluster sampling (Reference: Kerry S, Bland J. Statistics notes: the intracluster correlation coefficient in cluster randomization. Br Med J 1998; 316: 1455-1460.). Selection was based on the informant's sound traditional knowledge of edible wild fruits. These key informants are most credible, informed, most experienced people on the edible wild fruits found in the area. Informants were between the ages of 25 and 77 with an average age of 47 years.

Structured survey was carried out to gather qualitative and quantitative data related to traditional plant use. Questionnaires were distributed to facilitate the individual and group interviews. Questions addressed to the informants about edible wild fruit consumption were mainly focused on the common local name, knowledge about the past and present ethno-botanical and medicinal uses and place of collection.

Voucher specimens were deposited at the Fr. Gerard Braeckman Museum of Natural History in Saint Louis University, Baguio City. Identification was carried out using keys, online plant databases, pictorial flora, plant dictionaries and taxonomic references[11]–[19]. Further, this study did not deal with the cataloguing of edible wild fruits in Mt. Pulag, Kabayan, Benguet since this research primarily focused on the edible wild fruits present in different barangays inhabited by the local people and their traditional uses. In addition, abiotic and agronomic factors such as light, soil type, amount of rainfall, soil pH and humidity, which could affect the geographical distribution of the fruits were not investigated and accounted for in the study.

2.3. Food use categories of wild edible fruits based on folk perceptions

Data were grouped into the following fruit use categories based on folk perceptions: food (snack/dessert/table food), forage (food for animals), offertory (food for offerings), processed/preserved (in the form of jams, jellies, candy, juice or wine), condiment/ingredient, medicinal, dye/ink and decoration (garnish/ornament food).

4.2. Ethnobotanical uses of edible wild fruits in Benguet

There are many uses of wild fruits ranging from food (snack/dessert/table food), forage (especially for birds, monkeys and wild animals like cloud rat), offertory, processed/preserved (as jam, jellies, candies, juice and wine), condiment or ingredient (for cooking), source of dye or ink, decoration (to garnish food) and as medicine to common ailments or health problems.

In terms of food, all the fruits are edible and may be eaten raw. Based on the index, G. binucao is widely eaten as snack/dessert or table food. This is due to the abundant distribution of this fruit in all the municipalities except in Buguias where the main fruits present are S. sparsifolia and V. myrtoides. This fruit is not present in Buguias because as per municipal record, the municipality has high elevation that ranges 1 200 to 2 819 m above sea level compared to other municipalities. G. binucao requires a well drained area at a low altitude[30]. Moreover, in a Visayan community in Palawan, G. binucao called as “kandis” is used for food consumption and for sale. It grows at the forest edge, and is relatively easy to harvest when fruits are available[31]. On the other hand, P. serratifolia, Saurauia sp. (soybo), Tetrastigma sp. (ngalatngat), S. pimpinellifolium, L. benguetensis, M. malabathricum, R. edulis, A. montanum and Ficus sp. (aplas) are not commonly eaten by the local people in Benguet due to their limited availability and distribution.

Results of the survey indicate that G. binucao fruits are eaten not only by humans but also by wild birds and given to animals as food, especially to grass eaters. Birds eat an extremely wide variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, seeds, grain and nectar. Different species of birds have different dietary needs. Some birds only eat seeds, and no vegetables or fruit. However, most domesticated birds eat a varied diet including fruits and vegetables[32]. Like birds, cloud rats found in Benguet are vegetarian, hence, they feed on fruits. There are two nocturnal and arboreal species found in the province. These are the Northern Luzon bushy tailed Crateromys schandebergi, commonly known as “bu-ut” or “buwet,” and the bigger, longer and rare slender-tailed Phloeomys pallidus or “yut-yut”[33].

In offerings during special occasions and rituals, edible wild fruits may be used. Results reveal that V. myrtoides is commonly used for offerings. Benguet people believe in the existence of unseen beings that emanate from the sky world and the underworld. That these unseen beings are called spirits thought to have power over man. With this belief, the people strive to win the favor of the spirits using prayers and material offerings in a ritual. Thanksgiving rituals consist of animals, food, rice wine, and other materials as gifts. Usually food comes in the form of crops and fruits. Moreover, traditional inhabitants have several rituals that they perform occasionally and when it becomes necessary. These rituals, feasts, caniaos or celebration are necessary because these are their folk medicines, and they perform these for their own social and economic uplift. One of the beliefs and practice in Benguet is planting fruit trees during the full moon to be productive. Also, crops planted after the ritual called “pakshel” shall be fruitful[34].

G. binucao is commonly used in making jams and wine while R. fraxinifolius is for jellies, candy and juice. These fruits are ideal to use in food processing and preservation. Other good potential candidates are S. sparsifolia for jam and wine; V. myrtoides for jelly; S. elegans and S. sparsifolia for candies; S. elegans and V. myrtoides for juice. There are many advantages of processing and preserving wild fruits. Usually, these activities can provide source of income to families, aid in malnutrition and serve as alternative sources of food during scarcity.

The wild fruits commonly processed in the country belong to the genus Rubus, Saurauia, Antidesma, Sarcandra, Garcinia and others[36]–[40]. Further, wild fruits were enumerated to be used in Poland for making juice, jam and wine. These fruits are Vaccinium myrtillus, Rubus idaeus, Fragaria vesca, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Rubus sp., Prunus spinosa among others. These fruits are stored for winter with added sugar[41].

G. binucao is the widely used condiment/ ingredient in cooking by the local people. This fruit is round and about 4 cm or more in diameter. The flesh turns yellowish when ripe. It is used as an alternative for tamarind and vinegar due to its sour taste. This fruit is commonly used in cooking paksiw[42]. In Visayas, it is a favorite condiment in local dishes[39]. On the other hand, Saurauia fruit is smooth, yellowish, subacid and juicy[19]. These attributes of the fruit makes it used in cooking purposes or as a condiment. Meanwhile, there are many recipes utilizing guavas. They are mixed in cakes, pies, pudding among others. When cooked its strong odor is removed. In South Africa, guavas are mixed with cornmeal and other ingredients to make breakfast food flakes[43].

V. myrtoides is dominantly used as a source of dye or ink in Benguet. Small fruits such as V. myrtoides, M. alba and R. fraxinifolius are rich sources of both anthocyanins and phenolic compounds[44]. Anthocyanins are colored substances commonly obtained from plants especially fruits[45]. When England lacked aniline dye during the First World War, blue-black berries were utilized as sources of pigments. As a result, a small number of berries were left for making jams[46].

S. elegans is the most commonly used fruit in decorating dishes. The fruits are small and fleshy berries with sweet juice inside. They are usually borne in clusters[19]. These characteristics make S. elegans as a fruit garnish which contributes to improving the appearance of food and enhance its taste.

The utilization of wild fruits to cure ailments and other health conditions are well supported by other literatures. For instance, the flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds in A. bunius extracts were reported to exhibit glucose lowering effect of on fasted, non-diabetic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats[47]. Vaccinium sp. (blueberries) exhibit a strong antioxidant activity and this is correlated with the total polyphenols and flavonoids in the fruits[48]. The use of S. sparsifolia, G. binucao, G. intermedia and M. pendula for flu may be due to their acidic pulp which contains vitamin C that boosts the immune system to avoid flu and cough. Thus, wild fruits are important sources of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and carbohydrates[4].

In Bangladesh, folk medicinal practitioners use fruits of Amomum aromaticum, belonging to the Zingiberaceae family, for the treatment of diarrhea or loose bowel movement[49]. Meanwhile, the carotenoids in Solanum betacea (tree tomato or tamarillo) have been discovered to be involved in the protective effects against degenerative diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disorders[50].

Investigations of other Rubus species, on the other hand, have shown possible application for a wide range of indications, including bacterial infections, anxiety, pain and inflammation[51]. All the aforementioned studies support the claims of the key informants regarding the medicinal properties of the fruit/s they use. However, additional and further studies must be carried out to validate the other claims.

The author is very grateful to Department of Science and Technology for the scholarship given and financial grant (D 2009-15-00464) which was used in this study; provincial governor Hon. Nestor B. Fongwan and mayors of the 13 municipalities in Benguet namely: Hon. Peter B. Alos (Atok), Hon. Marcelo B. Contada (Bakun), Hon. Mauricio T. Macay (Bokod), Hon. Melchor D. Diclas, MD (Buguias), Hon. Oscar M. Camantiles (Itogon), Hon. Faustino M. Aquisan (Kabayan), Hon. Atty. Roberto K. Canuto (Kapangan), Hon. Benito D. Siadto (Kibungan), Hon. Gregorio T. Abalos (La Trinidad), Hon. Atty. Materno R. Luspian (Mankayan), Hon. Arthur C. Baldo (Sablan), Hon. Florencio V. Bentrez (Tuba) and Hon. Atty. Ruben E. Paoad (Tublay) together with the captains, leaders, elders and indigenous peoples in the 140 barangays for their support, assistance and participation in the study especially in the data collection; dissertation panel members Dr. Gaudelia Reyes, Dr. Evelyn Oda, Dr. Paulina Bawingan, Dr. Lorenza Lirio and Dr. Araceli Ladilad for their constructive criticisms and suggestions; adviser/consultants Dr. Praxedes Rosuman, Dr. Merlin Franco, Dr. Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Dr. Ajesh Philip, Dr. Manuel Pardo de Santayana, Mr. Leon Tanguid (BSU GIS Laboratory) and Dr. Adeltrudes Caburian, for their advices and for sharing their publications as guides; Dr. Teodora Balangcod, Mr. Dany Tandang, Mr. Isaiah Bautista, Dr. Pieter Pelser, Dr. Julie Barcelona, Ms. Hadassah Chen, Dr. George Argent, Mr. Derek Cabactulan, Ms. Lillian Rodriguez and Ms. Marylou Andrada for their assistance in the identification and verification of plant specimens; Dr. Salvacion Beligan for doing the correspondence analysis of my data. VP Noel B. De Leon and SLU President Fr. Jess Hechanova for their approval and support; My parents, husband, brother, relatives and friends especially Bren Siadto for their unending help, support, prayers, encouragements and kind understanding.