SPEED BREEDING: AN APPROACH FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT
- Dr. Niharika Shukla
- S. Srividhya and P.Thilagam
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
06
LEAD POISONING IN ANIMALS
- Vemula sravathi, et al. 12
EUCALYPTUS ESSENTIAL OIL: AN ALTERNATIVE OF FUNGICIDES IN PLANT
DISEASE MANAGEMENT - Anil Kumar
- Dr. L. Nirmala
- M.Marimuthu et al.
17
ROLE OF POULTRY IN NATION BUILDING
- E.L. Aruneshwaran., et al.
-A.K. Rai et al.
21
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF TASAR FOOD PLANTS
- G. Swathiga and C.N. Hari Prasath 28
TERMITE AS A FEED TO COUNTRY CHICKEN – PRODUCTION AND
HARVESTING -Dr. S. Saravanan., et al.
-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari
33
\\
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF SUCKING PESTS AND RESISTANT CULTIVARS IN
BLACK GRAM- Dr. R. Kumar., et al. 38
EMPOWERING TRIBAL WOMEN FARMERS THROUGH INTEGRATED
FARMING SYSTEM- Dr. HL Kacha., et al. 43
LAND PREPARATION AND DIFFERENT METHODS OF SOWING: KHARIF
SEASON- Dr. Satyendra Thakur and Er. Rakesh Paliwal
- K. Nithya et al
53
APPLICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY IN DAIRY INDUSTRY
- Subhash Prasad
- M.Dharani et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
01
RICE LANDRACES FOR DIFFERENT SEASONS OF TAMIL NADU
- Krishnan, V., et al. 63
A REVIEW ON BY-PRODUCTS OF MULBERRY SPECIES
- Arasakumar, E., et al. 74
SIGNIFICANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE IN SHAPING INDIA'S
FUTURE FARMING - S.Abisha, et al.
- M.Marimuthu et al.
83
SUCCESS STORY ON PIGLETS PRODUCTION: A LUCRATIVE ENTERPRISE
- R.S. Telem., et al.
-A.K. Rai et al.
88
CROSSABILITY OBSTACLES IN DISTANT HYBRIDS
- Dr. A. Thanga Hemavathy., et al. 91
PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING: CONCEPT AND APPLICATIONS
-N. Premalatha., et al. 95
\\
ENHANCING FARMER’S INCOME THROUGH PAPAYA INTERCROP CULTIVATION
- Dr.Swati Saha
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLES IN INDIA: FUTURE DEMAND
& GROWING CONCERNS - Shiv Narayan Dhaker., et al.
100
ROBOTIC BEES AS POLLINATORS AND ROBOTIC BEE HIVE
- Poovizhiraja, B., et al.
INSECT PESTS OF CARROT AND BEETROOT
- P. Viswanadha Raghuteja et al
106
MODERN FARMING: HYDROPONICS TECHNOLOGY
- Harendra Kumar and Ankur Agarwal
- K. Nithya et al
- C. Yasminet al.
111
CO2 INFUENCE IN GREENHOUSE
- Arunkumar Elumalai., et al.
- M.Dharani et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
60
GOOGLE FORMS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF COLLECTING DATA DURING
PANDEMIC - Venu Prasad H D
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
120
IMPACT OF EPIGENETIC CHANGES ON PLANT RESPONSE TO DROUGHT
STRESS - S. Vennila., et al.
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
125
SOIL FERTILITY STATUS AT THE INDIAN AGRICULTURE COLLEGE,
RADHAPURAM - A Senthilkumar., et al.
- M.Marimuthu et al.
139
POST MONSOON CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS
- Pramod Kumar., et al.
-A.K. Rai et al.
143
A REVIEW OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES IN VEGETABLE SUPPLY CHAIN IN INDIA
- Bhautik Bagda., et al. 145
VETERINARIANS IN ONE HEALTH
- E.L. Aruneshwaran., et al.
-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari
152
\\
MANAGEMENT OF EARLY PLANTED CROP OF POTATOES
- BabitaChaudhary., et al. 164
SOIL PIPING AND ITS GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION
- Nithin S., et al.
INSECT PESTS OF CARROT AND BEETROOT
- P. Viswanadha Raghuteja et al
172
UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF HORTICULTURAL WASTE: INNOVATIVE
APPLICATIONS AND SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS- Dharmendra Kumar Gautam., et al.
- C. Yasminet al.
176
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF LEMON GRASS
- D. Sravanthi., et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
116
POTENTIAL NUTRITIVE BENEFITS AND BY-PRODUCTS OF TAMARIND
- K. Vignesh Manikumar., et al. 187
ECONOMICAL DRIP FERTIGATION LAYOUT
- A.Valliammai., et al. 191
ADVANCEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE THROUGH TARGETED GENOME EDITING
WITH CRISPR-CAS9 - Dr. Shrikant Yankanchi., et al. 194
KHEJRI: A SACRED TREE
- Anil Kumar 201
TYPE THREE SECRETION SYSTEM IN PLANT PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
- V.K Satya., et al. 208
KARRIKIN - A SMOKE HORMONE INDUCES REVEGETATION
- Vijay Prabha, V., et al. 214
\\
IMPACT OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SITE SPECIFIC NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT (SSNM) - Saniya Syed., et al. 217
MICRO-IRRIGATION: A PROMISING FUTURE FOR WATER MANAGEMENT
IN AGRICULTURE - Kalpana Yadav., et al. 223
EXPLORING THE RECENT MOLECULAR INNOVATIONS IN PLANT VIRAL DISEASE
DIAGNOSIS- Nivedha Muthusamy and Harish Sankarasubramanian
230
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE
- Yogita Sharma and Shubham Priyadarshi 180
MUGA SILKWORM (Antheraea assamensis Helfer) PRODUCTION AND
SUSTAINABILITY: IMPLICATIONS OF TEA GARDENING IN THE REGION
- I.Nath., et al.
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
244
COCONUT GRADING MACHINE
- A. Asha Monicka
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
253
ORGANIC MULCHING
- P Lakshmanakumar and V Vasudevan
-A.K. Rai et al.
260
MILLET BASED FOODS – NUTRITIVE RECOURSE FOR MALNUTRITION AND
ALTERNATE TO JUNK FOODS - Krishnakumar P., et al. 265
POST-HARVESTDISEASES OF MANGO AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
- R. L. Joshi., et al.
-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari
270
\\
HARVESTING A SUSTAINABLE TOMORROW: ECO-FRIENDLY MANAGEMENT
OF POST-HARVEST DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES - Sandhya G., et al. 277
SEWAGE AND ITS IMPACT ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
- Pinak.K.Bamaniya., et al.
-A.K. Rai et al.
237
WOMEN FARMER SUCCESS STORY ON BROADCASTING METHOD OF RICE
CULTIVATION - J.Vijay and N.Venkateshwarrao
- M.Marimuthu et al.
255
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE: A KEY TO SUSTAINABILITY
- Simranjeet Kaur., et al.
INSECT PESTS OF CARROT AND BEETROOT
- P. Viswanadha Raghuteja et al
284
SILKWORM REARING, MARKETING AND ITS CONSTRAINTS
- C. Sai Durga and Gudapati Ashoka Chakravarthy
- K. Nithya et al
290
POKKALI SOILS AND ITS UTILIZATION FOR AGRICULTURE
- Ramyalakshmi A
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
306
ELECTRONIC NOSE AND TONGUE FOR QUALITY EVALUATION OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES - Shubham Gangwar., et al.
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
313
MALNUTRITION IN INDIA: STATUS AND GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
- Dr. Sidramayya and Prakash Tamagond
-A.K. Rai et al.
328
BIOSTIMULANTS PRODUCTS (PANCHAKAVYA AND EGG AMINO ACID) ON
NUTRIENT ACQUISITION AND QUALITY OF GREENS - Dr.G.Sridevi 335
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MANILA TAMARIND
- Dr.M.Venkatraman
-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari
338
\\
AGROFORESTRY – TREES + FIELD CROPS – AN OUTLOOK
- K.Kalaichelvi and C.Harisudan 344
INDIA'S VIBRANT AND THRIVING SEED INDUSTRY: KEY FEATURES,
POSSIBILITIES, AND DIFFICULTIES - Dharmendra Yadav., et al.
-A.K. Rai et al.
297
WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH: A TREASURE TROVE OF FOOD
AND NUTRACEUTICALS - Kumari Shiwani., et al.
- M.Marimuthu et al.
317
CURRENT TRENDS ON NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
- Sowmiya . S, et al.
INSECT PESTS OF CARROT AND BEETROOT
- P. Viswanadha Raghuteja et al
348
GENE EDITING – PRECISE AND TARGETED CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE
- Dr.A.Thanga Hemavathy., et al.
- K. Nithya et al
360
PRECISE USE OF FERTILIZERS IN MUSTARD CULTIVATION
- M.L. Dotaniya., et al.
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.
364
NUTRACEUTICAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITY LEAF PRODUCTION IN MIRACLE
TREE - Dr. M. Manikandan., et al.
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
371
SMART BREEDING IN VEGETABLE CROPS: A REVIEW
- Sameena Lone and K. Hussain
-A.K. Rai et al.
387
BIO-STIMULANTS IN MINT
- Tharene R S 414
INSECT BIOLUMINESCENCE - THE MAGICAL SCIENCE OF LIVING LIGHTENING
- P. K. Thakar and P. S. Patel
-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari
418
\\
ORGANITATION OF MACHINE MILKING
-Deepak Kumar and Anita Kumari Meena 424
PALMYRA PALM (Borassus flabellifer)
- M. Packialakshmi and Rajput Nikhil Balu
- M.Marimuthu et al.
381
MANAGEMENT OF FODDER CRISIS DURING DRY SEASON
-E.L. Aadhie Shrie., et al.
INSECT PESTS OF CARROT AND BEETROOT
- P. Viswanadha Raghuteja et al
429
GIS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY: ITS CRUCIAL SIGNIFICANCE
- Ayisha Naziba T., et al.
- K. Nithya et al
436
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AgriGate Magazine
From the Desk of Editor-in-chief
August 2023| Vol. 03 | Issue No. 08
0202
AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine
www.agrigatemagazine.com Page 1
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Subhash Prasad
Assistant professor, Dairy Engineering Department, College of Dairy Science,
Kamdhenu University, Amreli
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Milk production, processing and marketing activities utilize a lot of thermal energy, which is
mostly derived from traditional energy sources, causing pollution and contributing to climate
change. Solar energy has a wide range of uses in dairy processing activities such as heating,
steam production, cooling, drying, pumping and cleaning. This study investigates current
research and demands to improve solar technologies so that they may be efficiently used for
diverse activities in the dairy sectors, in addition to varied applications.
Keywords: Thermal, solar heater, Parabolic trough collector, Pasteurization, Drying
Introduction
Milk is an essential drink for human nutrition and development. Heating milk effectively
eliminates microorganisms and dangerous pathogens. However, they used conventional energy
sources. The climate change issues and global temperature rise have led the government of India
set up ambitious targets for achieving net zero GHG-emission by 2070. The government and
other industries are looking for alternative energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass. Solar
thermal systems convert solar energy into heating, cooling or mechanical energy (Barba et al.,
2019). Using the solar energy to provide light, heat, hot water and electricity can be a costeffective method to save money. It is free in cost and has no negative impact on environment.
The quantity of solar energy that reaches Earth each day is enormous. In India, there is plenty of
sunshine foralmost 300-330 days in a year with an average intensity of5-7 KWh/m2
per day. This
much solar energy is sufficient to set up20 MW/km2
solar power plants. All of the energy
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APPLICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY IN DAIRY
INDUSTRY
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
contained in the Earth's reserves of coal, oil, and natural gas is equivalent to 20 days of sunshine
(Beath et al., 2022).
In all thermal systems, solar radiation is initially converted into heat on surfaces exposed
to it. Solar collectors are surfaces that capture sunlight and transform it into heat in solar systems
(Schoeneberger et al., 2020). The absorbed heat can be removed when a heat transfer fluid, such
as air or water, flows over the collector. It will then direct the heat to a certain location, which
may be a furnace, a cooling generator or a machine that converts the heat into mechanical
energy. The needed temperatures of the heat-carrying medium are determined by the solar
system's use. Domestic heating need a temperature of 60° C. The heat transformation in a
Rankine heat engine cycle requires a minimum temperature of 120° C (Powell et al., 2017).
Application in dairy industry
Use of solar energy for dairy farm
Skylights and other sun-lighting solutions can help dairy companies that use \"long day\"
illumination to enhance productivity.The solar heat used to warm home and dairy farm. \"Active\"
solar heating systems, used for heat boxes and blowers to heating of the air, can reduce fuel use.
\"Passive\" solar designs, in which the structure is constructed to automatically take advantage of
the sun, are frequently the most cost-effective technique. Solar heated water may be used to
clean dairy equipment as well as to warm and stimulate cow udders. Solar collectors can save
thousands of rupees each year for households and dairy farms to use in place of electric or gas
water heaters.
Milk pasteurization and sterilization operations
Solar energy used for milk processing activities such as pasteurization during off-peak
sun hours. Pasteurization is the fundamental processing procedure that milk goes through and it
may be done with solar energy and heat exchangers (Sain et al., 2019b).In a milk pasteurization
investigation, using of a glass window in a solar milk pasteurizer boosts heat uptake and give
effective results. Another study found that 10 litres of milk may be pasteurized using solar
radiation in less than one hour (Franco et al., 2008). Parabolic trough collector to pasteurize 150
l/day milk at 75°C while for cooling processes they recommended the use of flat platesolar
thermal collector to power adsorption chiller for producing 57kW/kg specific cooling power.
Another study found that solar energy, when combined with a parabolic dish concentrator used
to sterilization of milk. It was discovered that a solar parabolic concentrator with appropriately
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
built pressure vessels might be utilized for in-bottle milk sterilization, saving a significant
quantity of water. The texture and nutritional value of milk sterilized using solar radiation were
shown to be more likely and may be implemented on a farm level (Jaglan, 2018).
Preparation of other dairy products
Solar energy can be used to replace the conventional fuel used in the preparation of milk
products. In the dairy industry, the sun's thermal energy is sufficient for a variety of activities
such as cheese making, preheating of cheese milk, exterior cleaning, whey conditioning and
cleaning in place. Solar energy may be beneficial for milk products such as milk powder and
other dry products where the temperature requirement is up to 200°C if large-sized solar
concentrators are employed. At Mahan and Dairy in Latur, a solar based heating for pasteurizing
20,000 to 30,000 litres of milk per day using solar energy has been installed. The system
operates without firing the standard furnace oil boiler and saves 80 to 100 litres of furnace oil.
The technique has the potential to save 6-10% of India's oil imports (Kedare et al., 2012).
Cleaning and CIP operation in dairy industries
Solar energy also be used in boiling and distillation operations. Furthermore, solar energy
may be utilized to pre-heat water for cleaning in place (CIP) in a variety of industrial situations
(Jradi and Riffat, 2014).
Space cooling and refrigeration using solar energy:
To prevent pathogen and bacteria from growing, milk must be rapidly cooled to about 4°C. Cold
storages are used to keep milk chilled. Solar energy used for cooling applications such as space
cooling, water refrigeration and milk and milk products cooling. Various technologies, including
as absorption cooling cycles, adsorption cycles and combined solar mechanical compression
cycles have been developed. Solar cooling systems are effective, and their effectiveness is
determined by the PV devices. Thus, the total energy conversion capacity of the grid-driven
vapour compression system is calculated by multiplying the grid power plant's energy
conversion output by the coefficient of performance of the vapour compression system (Desai et
al., 2010).
Solar Drying
The primary goal of solar drying is to supply enough heat for drying while reducing the
water activity of the product. Low-temperature solar thermal energy is useful for preheating
operations and drying milk to generate milk powder. Typically, solar energy is utilized for air
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
preheating, which is subsequently delivered to the air heater. This not only boosts the air
temperature but also reduces the load on the air heater. As a result, it saves money and lowers air
pollution.
Space and Water Heating
Heating and chilling milk may consume up to 40% of the energy consumed on a dairy
farm. Solar water heating systems can provide all or part of these hot water needs.The steam
drum and evaporator as the common integration equipment for the indirect steam production in
solar thermal applications. A two-state water/steam mixture was used to circulate the water
through the external heat exchanger with the natural convection circulation system to convert the
water into steam.
Solar technology for pumping of milk fluids
Pumps of various varieties are used in the dairy industry to move fluid milk from one
processing unit to another. Solar thermal pumping systems have been employed in a variety of
applications as part of research all around the world. Additionally, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells
can power hot water pumps, chilled water pumps, milk pumps, and cleaning in place (CIP)
pumps. Typically, an array is linked to a DC or AC pump, and these pumps are used to pull
water for irrigation and drinking. The SPV array helps in the conversion of sunlight into
electricity and operating the motor and pump. Hence, it can help in pumping water during the
non-sunny time.
Lightning industry offices and premises
Solar energy is employed to illuminate the industrial premises. A solar lighting system
consisting of a 74 W PV module, a 12 V flooded lead-acid battery, and an 11 W CFL has been
constructed to work throughout the night. As the environment darkens, the CFL in the solar
lighting system (SLS) turns on, and it turns off during the morning hours.
Conclusion
Significant amounts of heat energy requirements in the dairy industries. About 60-70% of
the total energy requirements in dairy plants are thermal energy. The growing population and
limited conventional energy supplies need the transition to green energy resources. Solar energy
is the best option for India among many green energy alternatives since the country has an
abundance of solar energy that is pollution-free. Almost every processing operation in the dairy
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
production, processing and marketing sector, such as heating, cooling, transporting, lighting,
drying may benefit from the available sunshine.
References
Barba, F.J., Gavahian, M., Es, I., Zhu, Z., Chemat, F., Lorenzo, J.M., Khaneghah, A.M., 2019.
Solar radiation as a prospective energy source for green and economic processes in the
food industry: From waste biomass valorization to dehydration, cooking, and baking.
Journal of cleaner production 220, 1121−1130.
Beath, A., Meybodi, M.A., Drewer, G., 2022. Technoeconomic assessment of application of
particle-based concentrated solar thermal systems in Australian industry. Journal of
Renewable and Sustainable Energy 14(3), 033702.
Franco, J.; L. Saravia; V. Javi; R. Caso and C. Fernandez. 2008. Pasteurization of goat milk
using a low cost solar concentrator. Solar Energy, 82(11): 1088-1094.
Jaglan, N. 2018. Process technology optimization for heat treatment of milk using solar
concentrators, M. Tech thesis, Guru AngadDev Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University, Ludhiana, India.
Jradi, M. and S. Riffat. 2014. Medium temperature concentrators for solar thermal applications.
International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, 9: 214-224.
Kedare, S.B.; D. Ashok; A.D. Paranjape and R. Porwal. 2012. ARUN Solar concentrator for
industrial process heat applications.
Powell, K.M., Rashid, K., Ellingwood, K., Tuttle, J., Iverson, B.D., 2017. Hybrid concentrated
solar thermal power systems: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80,
215–237.
Sain, M.; A. Sharma; G. Talwar and N. Goel. 2019b. Thermic Fluid Based Solar Thermal Energy
Storage System for Milk Processing. International Journal of Current Microbiology and
Applied Science, 8(10): 1962-1973.
Schoeneberger, C.A., McMillan, C.A., Kurup, P., Akar, S., Margolis, R., Masanet, E., 2020.
Solar for industrial process heat: A review of technologies, analysis approaches, and
potential applications in the United States. Energy 206, 118083.
Desai, H. and A. Zala. 2010. An overview on present energy scenario and scope for energy
conservation in Dairy Industry. In National Seminar on Energy Management and Carbon
Trading in Dairy Industry, Pp. 1-7
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Dr. Niharika Shukla
Scientist (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Krishi Vigyan Kendra Jabalpur,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidhyalaya, Jabalpur M.P. 482004
*Corresponding Authors Email id: [email protected]
Abstract
Speed breeding technique is alleged as the future of plant breeding. This method manipulates the
photoperiodic conditions and temperature requirements of crops grown in controlled poly
houses. This method can accelerate crop breeding programmes and in use with other modern
technologies like genome editing and high throughput genotyping plat forms this technique can
serve to breed new varieties at a much faster scale. It refers to a rapid generation advancement
technology used for reducing the time of seed to seed cycle, thereby shortening the otherwise
traditionally long life cycle of a crop plant. With the use of this technology, up to 6 generations
per year for photo insensitive crops and 2-3 generations per year for other crops have been
obtained. This idea was originally conceptualized by NASA in order to grow food at a faster
pace in space. Whether speed breeding can be applied to a particular crop or not can be checked
by the help of Breeder‘s equation. The core recipe of speed breeding involves manipulation of
light, photoperiodic regime, temperature, and humidity. This method has many applications like
accelerated breeding, speeding up the process of genomic selection, boosting transgenic and
CRISPR pipelines, and to study physiological traits of importance in crop plants.
Keywords: Generation advancement, photoperiodic conditions, photo insensitive, speed
breeding
Introduction
Speed breeding is a smart and fast generation advancement technology which serves to
shorten the traditionally long breeding cycles, consequently accelerating the crop research
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SPEED BREEDING: AN APPROACH FOR CROP
IMPROVEMENT
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programmes and cultivar development. This unique method was originally conceptualized by US
NASA in the 1980s for growing crops in space at a much faster rate. In conventional plant
breeding, after making crosses between desired parents, selection and screening for the desired
traits along with generation advancement of the selected material is time consuming and thus 8-
10 years are required for development of new variety. This slow improvement rate is attributed
partly to the long generation times of crop plants. To increase productivity and stability of crops
to meet the changing climatic conditions, there is need to fast-track research and also increase the
rate of cultivar development. The time needed for generation of most crops poses a bottleneck in
research and breeding programs thereby creating the need for technologies which accelerate
plant development process and hence, generation turnover. This major problem can be
conveniently overcome by use of speed breeding which involves quickening the breeding cycle
from seed to seed by manipulating the photoperiodic conditions along with environmental
conditions like soil media composition, temperature, spacing in the glass houses, all done to
achieve rapid generation advancement. First wheat variety which was developed through speed
breeding was ‗DS Faraday‘ by Lee Hickey. It has high protein content, tolerant to pre harvest
sprouting and has milling quality. The speed breeding technique has mainly been used for
purpose of research, but is now being widely adopted by the industries as well. Speed breeding in
completely controlled and enclosed growth chambers can be used for accelerating plant studies
and development, and can also complement in studying mutants and transformation studies.
Breeder’s Equation
Whether speed breeding can be applied to a particular crop or not it can be decided by the
breeder‘s equation:
Rt =
Where, Rt is genetic gain over time
i is selection intensity
r is selection accuracy
σais genetic variance
y is years per cycle
The genetic gain over time increases with increase in selection intensity, selection accuracy and
genetic variance and with decrease in years per cycle. An increase in selection accuracy
increases phenotyping and reduces error.
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Recipe of Speed Breeding
The main ‗recipe‘ for setting up speed breeding conditions includes:
1. Light: the preferable light for use in speed breeding is one covering the Photosynthetic
ally Active Radiation (PAR) i.e. 400–700 nm with focus on red, far-red and blue range.
This spectrum can be achieved by using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), or a combination
of LEDs and halogen lamps. Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) of ~450–500
μmol/m2/s at plant canopy height is also recommended which can be adjusted atslightly
lower or higher levels according to need of crop.
2. Photoperiodic regime: A photoperiod of 22 hour light and 2 hour darkness in diurnal
cycle of 24 hours is ideal photoperiodic regime for speed breeding. Another alternative is
continuous light but slight period of darkness is known to improve the health of plant.
3. Temperature: Ideal temperature for each crop should be applied.During photoperiod
higher temperature should be maintained, while during dark period fall in temperature can
help with stress recovery. Temperature has a major impact on the rate of plant
development; therefore generation time can be accelerated by elevating temperature.
However in some cases higher temperature may induce stress like conditions and affect
performance of plant.
4. Humidity: Control over humidity even in controlled environment chambers is limited,
but 60–70% RH is ideal for crop growth, this level can be modified according to type of
crop. For crops more adapted to arid conditions, lower humidity level is recommended.
Procedure of Speed Breeding
A general procedure for low cost speed breeding in a homemade growth room design is as
follows:
1. As an alternative to normally used Conviron BDW chamber, a room having insulated
sandwich panelling fitted with seven LED light boxes (one light box per 0.65 m2
) and a
1.5 horsepower inverter split system domestic air conditioner can be used.
2. The light quantity of PAR at bench height should range from210–260 μmol/ m2
s
1& at 50
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cm above the pot from 340–590 μmol/ m2 s
1.The lights should be situated at a height of
140 cm above the bench. The room should be able to accommodate 90 pots of 20.3 cm.
3. Automatic watering can be achieved by using Irrigation Controller, having one solenoid
per room and one spike dripper per 20.3 cm pot.
4. The humidity conditions should be ambient.
5. The lighting should be enriched in the blue, red and far-red part of the spectrum. It should
be set to 12 hour photoperiod and 12 hour darkness for4 weeks and then slowly be
increased to 18 hour photoperiod and 6 hourdarkness.
6. An air-conditioner can be used for regulation of temperature and set at 21°C during the
photoperiod and 8°Cin darkness.
Speed breeding approach is ideally realized using Single Seed Descent method,
particularly for cereal crops. By increasing the sowing density in speed breeding, we can
achieve rapid cycling of many lines having healthy plants and viable seed.
The plants grown under speed breeding reached anthesis in approximately half time as
compared to those grown in same conditions under glasshouse conditions. The above
described procedure has been used for speed breeding of wheat, barley, oat and triticale.
Harvesting of Immature Spikes
Under normal conditions 15 days are required for the storage of grains after harvest to
decrease the moisture and attain natural ripening. This process is forgone in speed breeding
where the harvest of plants is done just two weeks after anthesis when the spikes/pods are
still green. They are then popped into hot air oven/dehydrator at 35°C for 3 days to fasten the
maturity process artificially. The performance of the seeds obtained by such artificialdrying is
same as those obtained by normal drying except for the decrease in weight of such grains
obtained by artificial drying. Such artificial drying accelerates the normal ripening process
and this serves to save precious time and obtain faster seed to seed cycle, the core of speed
breeding.
Applications of Speed Breeding
Applications of speed breeding are as follows:
1. Accelerating the crop improvement programmes by achieving upto 6 generations per year
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in photo insensitivecrops and 2-3 generations in case of photo sensitive crops.
2. Speeding up the process of genomic selection.
3. An ideal method for generating large breeding populations.
4. For boosting transgenic and CRISPR pipelines.
5. It can be extended to study physiological traits of importance in crop plants.
Limitations of Speed Breeding
Some major limitations of speed breeding are:
1. The early harvest of immature seeds before completing normal ripening process
interferes with the phenotyping of some seed traits.
2. There is no universal protocol of speed breeding because of diverse response of plant
species tophotoperiodic conditions.
3. Differential responses of various plant species when exposed to extended photoperiodic
conditions.
4. Initial investment of setup is high.
Conclusion
With the ever increasing population, by 2050 farmers will have to increase food
production by 60-80% to feed thepotential 9 billion people. Another main issue which arises
is that breeding programmes should be in tandem with the changing climatic conditions and
to achieve rapid results in both these respects, speed breeding is the way to go. Speed
breeding in combination with modern crop breeding technologies, including genome editing,
genomic selection and high throughput genotyping, can be a great asset in accelerating the
rate of crop development. Speed breeding can serve to enhance the plant growth by
accelerating research program in terms of reducing the breeding cycle of plant. In India,
particular success has been seen in case of wheat in speed breeding which can be extended to
other crop varieties, and similar facilities can be set up for the faster development.
References
Ghosh, S., Watson, A., Navarro, O E G., Gonzalez, R H R., Yanes, L., Suarez, M M.,
Simmonds, J., Wells, R., Rayner, T., Green, P., Hafeez, A., Hayta, S., Melton, R.E.,
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Steed, A., Sarkar, A., Carter, J., Perkins, L., Lord, J., Tester, M., Osbourn, A., Moscou,
M J., Nicholson, P., Harwood, W., Martin, C., Domoney, C., Uauy, C., Hazard, B.,
Wulff B B H., Hickey, L T. (2018). Speed breeding in growth chambers and
glasshouses for crop breeding and model plant research. Nature Protocols. 13:2944–
2963.
Hickey, L.T., German, S.E., Pereyra, S.A.,Diaz, J.E., Ziems, L.A., Fowler, R.A., Platz, G.J.,
Franckowiak, J.D., Dieters,
M.J. (2017). Speed breeding for multiple disease resistance in barley. Euphytica.213: 64.
Knott, D. and Kumar, J. (1975).Comparison of early generation yield testing and a single seed
descent procedure in wheat breeding.Crop Sciences. 15: 295–299.
Mobini, S. H. and Warkentin, T. D. (2016).A simple and efficient method of in vivo rapid
generation technology in pea (Pisum sativum L.).In Vitro Cellular & Developmental
Biology-Plant.52: 530–536.
Mobini, S. H., Lulsdorf, M., Warkentin, T. D. and Vandenberg, A. (2016). Low red: far-red
light ratio causes faster in vitro flowering in lentil. Canadian Journal of Plant Science.
96:908–918.
Pazos-Navarro, M., Castello, M., Bennett, R. G., Nichols, P. and Croser, J. (2017).In vitroassisted single-seed descent for breeding-cycle compression in subterranean clover
(Trifolium subterraneum L.).Crop & Pasture Science. 68: 958–966.
Sysoeva, M. I., Markovskaya, E. F. and Shibaeva, T. G. (2010). Plants under continuous light:
a review. Plant Stress, 4: 5–17.
Wanga, M. A., Shimelis, H., Mashilo, J., Laing, M.D. (2021). Opportunities and challenges of
speedbreeding: A review.Plant Breeding. 140 (2):185-194.
Watson, A., Ghosh, S., Williams, M J., Cuddy, W S., Simmonds, J., Rey, M.D.,
AsyrafMdHatta, M., Hinchliffe, A., Steed, A., Reynolds, D., Adamski, N M.,
Breakspear, A., Korolev, A., Rayner, T., Dixon, L E., Riaz, A., Martin, W., Ryan, M.,
Edwards, D., Batley, J., Raman, H., Carter, J., Rogers, C., Domoney, C., Moore, G.,
Harwood, W., Nicholson, P., Dieters, M J., DeLacy, I H., Zhou, J., Uauy, C., Boden, S
A., Park, R F., Wulff, B. B. H., Hickey, LT. (2018). Speed breeding is a powerful tool to
accelerate crop research and breeding. Nature Plants. 4: 23–29.
Went, F.(1953).The effect of temperature on plant growth.Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 4:
347–362.
Zheng, Z., Wang, H., Chen, G., Yan, G. and Liu, C.(2013). A procedure allowing up to eight
generations of wheat and nine generations of barley per annum. Euphytica. 191: 311–
316.
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Vemula sravathi*1
, Tangellapally Vagdevi2
, Koppu Vasavi3
, Poloju Deepa4
1, 2Department of Vetrinary Pathology,P.V. Narsimha Rao Telangana State Veterinary
University, Budwel, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana-500030
3,4Department of veterinary microbiology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
Bareilly-243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Lead poisoning is a hazardous and often overlooked issue that affects animals worldwide.
While the risks of lead exposure in humans have been widely recognized for decades, the
harmful consequences on animals remain a lesser-known concern. The purpose of this article is
to raise awareness of the potential hazards that lead poisoning poses to many animal species as
well as the underlying factors that contribute to this environmental concern.
Inorganic compounds: Lead acetate, Lead sulphide, Lead tetra oxide
Organic compounds: Tetraethyl lead & tetramethyl lead
Sources of Lead Poisoning in Animals
Lead can enter an animal's environment through various sources, including contaminated
soil, water, air, and human activities. Lead can be found in the environment due to lead-based
paints, batteries, industrial pollutants, lead ammunition, and discarded goods, which may expose
wildlife to it. Domestic animals and lead exposure: Dogs and cats, as well as other household
pets, are susceptible to lead poisoning. Animals that are naturally curious may unintentionally
consume lead from toys, old buildings, or carelessly stored goods. Effect on Wildlife: a. Birds:
Lead poisoning can affect birds, particularly scavengers like vultures and eagles. They might
consume lead fragments from carcasses that hunters who used lead bullets left behind. Serious
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LEAD POISONING IN ANIMALS
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health concerns, including as compromised immune systems, troubles with the reproductive
system, and altered nervous system function, can result from this exposure.
b. Aquatic Life: Fish and other aquatic creatures can acquire lead ions from contaminated water
sources. In aquatic ecosystems, lead poisoning can upset food chains and endanger species that
depend on these habitats for survival.
c. Predators: Carnivorous animals, such as wolves and big cats, are at risk of lead poisoning
when consuming prey animals that have ingested lead-contaminated materials. This may have
wide-ranging effects on entire ecosystems.
Toxic kinetics
Most common route of exposure is oral ingestion. The sink for lead is bone. Other two
protective mechanisms are the sequestration of lead in liver and kidney. Lead crosses the
placenta and can enter milk. Lead crosses blood brain barrier in young ones. Excretion is mostly
via the bile.
Toxic dynamics
Lead blocks entry of Ca2+ into nerve terminals thereby affecting generation of action
potential/signal transduction.
Lead inhibits biosynthesis of haeme by blocking δ-Aminolevulinic acid dehydratase
enzyme.
Lead interferes with thiol (-SH containing) enzyme.
Lead may replace zinc in some enzymes
Cerebral edema, neuronal damage centrally and demyelination peripherally.
These inhibitory interneurons of GABA are inhibited by lead at very high concentrations.
Inhibition of enzyme nucleotidase is responsible for basophilic stippling and enhanced fragility
of RBCs.
Oxidative Stress
Animals exposed to lead exposure experience oxidative stress, which disrupts the body's
equilibrium of antioxidants and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Overproduction of ROS may
damage cells, resulting in tissue damage, organ dysfunction, and inflammation.
Clinical signs
Young animals are more frequently affected by acute lead poisoning. The significant
clinical signs are linked with the GI and nervous systems Within 24-48 hours of
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exposure, clinical symptoms in cattle can include ataxia, blindness, salivation, spastic
twitching of the eyelids, jaw champing, bruxism, muscle tremors, and convulsions.
Subacute lead poisoning, usually seen in sheep or older cattle, is characterized by
anorexia, rumen stasis, colic, dullness, and transient constipation, which are frequently
followed by diarrhea, blindness, head pressing, bruxism, hyperesthesia, and
incoordination.
When cattle are exposed to chronic lead poisoning, a condition that has many
characteristics with acute or subacute lead poisoning may develop. Aspiration pneumonia
typically results from an impairment of the swallowing reflexes. Infertility may be
influenced by poor semen quality and embryotoxicity .
The most common signs in dogs are GI disorders, such as anorexia, colic, emesis, and
diarrhoea or constipation. Convulsions, ataxia, muscle spasms, opisthotonos, blindness,
hysterical barking, salivation, jaw champing, anxiety, and hysterical barking can all
occur. Some dogs may display CNS depression . Lead poisoning in horses typically
results in a chronic state marked by aspiration pneumonia, weight loss, depression,
weakness, colic, diarrhoea, and laryngeal or pharyngeal paralysis (roaring).
The most noticeable clinical manifestations in birds include anorexia, ataxia, loss of
condition, wing and leg weakness, and anaemia.
Anaemia and Blood Abnormalities:Lead affects the development and functioning of red
blood cells, which causes anaemia in animals. Reduced haemoglobin levels and changed
red blood cell morphology, such as basophilic stippling or irregular forms, may be
revealed during a pathological examination of blood samples.
Reproductive System Alterations:Lead toxicity can also impact the reproductive organs
of animals. Foetal resorption, retained foetuses, and placental anomalies may all be seen
in females.Males may experience testicular atrophy and decreased sperm production.
Pathological alterations in the bones, particularly in the long bones and epiphyses, are
brought on by lead poisoning. Animals exposed to lead may exhibit osteoporosis
symptoms, increased bone density, and lead lines, which are lines of lead deposition that
can be seen under a microscope.
Developmental effects: Lead toxicity has impacts on young animals that are particularly
vulnerable at critical developmental stages.
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Early life lead exposure can cause persistent cognitive deficits, neurodevelopmental
delays, and growth retardation.
Immunotoxicity:Increases IgE levels & inflammatory cytokines
Lesions
In the GI tract, there may be oil, paint or battery flakes. Gastroenteritis is brought on by
the caustic action of lead salts. The cerebral cortex is congested and oedematous, the
cortical gyri are flattened, in the nervous system. There have been reports of osteoporosis
in lambs. Abortion is a possibility in cases with placentitis and lead buildup in the foetus.
Oesophageal dilatation
Endothelial swelling, laminar cortical necrosis, and white matter edoema may all be
visible after histologic examination. Reduced haemoglobin levels and morphology
changes in red blood cells, such as basophilic stippling or asymmetrical forms
Hepatocytes and epithelial cells of the proximal renal tubules may exhibit
pathognomonic, intranuclear, acid fast inclusion bodies or intranuclear or cytoplasmic
inclusion bodies on H&E and orcein stained specimens.
Demyelination, and astrocyte proliferation in the gray matter of the cerebrum.
Diagnosis
• Tentative diagnosis based on neurologic and gastrointestinal manifestations
• Confirmed by whole-blood analysis antemortem or by analysis of liver and kidney tissues
postmortem
• Hematologic abnormalities, which may be indicative but not confirmatory of lead poisoning,
include anemia, anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, polychromasia, basophilic stippling,
metarubricytosis, and hypochromia. Delta-aminolevulinic acid levels in the blood or urine as
well as free erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels are sensitive markers of lead. Radiologic
examination may be useful to determine the extent of lead exposure.
Differential diagnosis
Lead poisoning may be confused with other diseases that cause nervous system or GI
abnormalities. In cattle, such diseases may include polioencephalomalacia, nervous coccidiosis,
tetanus, hypovitaminosis A, hypomagnesemictetany, nervous acetonemia, organochlorine
insecticide poisoning, arsenic or mercury poisoning, brain abscess or neoplasia, rabies,
listeriosis, and Haemophilus infections.
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• In dogs, rabies, distemper, and hepatitis may appear similar to lead poisoning
Treatment
• Chelation therapy for companion animals
• Treatment not recommended for food-producing animals
• calcium disodium edetate (Ca-EDTA) is administered IV or SC (110 mg/kg per day)
• Thiamine (2–4 mg/kg per day, SC)
• D-Penicillamine
Conclusion
Recognizing the pathological findings of lead poisoning in animals is vital for
understanding the extent of this environmental threat on wildlife. By identifying these telltale
signs during postmortem examinations, veterinarians, researchers, and conservationists can
diagnose lead toxicity accurately and take appropriate measures to mitigate its impact.
Furthermore, raising awareness about the pathological consequences of lead exposure in animals
can inspire collective efforts to minimize environmental contamination and safeguard the health
of wildlife.
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Anil Kumar
DES (Agroforestry), KrishiVigyan Kendra, Yamunanagar, Haryana
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
To combat plant diseases, synthetic fungicides are currently the main tool employed.
Alternative ways of management are, however, required due to the unfavorable public
impressions of the use of synthetic pesticides, fungal pathogen resistance to fungicides, and the
expensive expense of developing new compounds. Since plant-derived compounds have low
mammalian toxicity, minimal environmental impact, and high levels of public acceptance, their
potential as disease-controlling agents has been researched.
Eucalyptus is important tree that has number of benefits such as timber, wood pulp,
manufacture paper, rayon, plywood and other synthetic fibre, essential oil from its leaves, bark is
used for tanning. It has good calorific value (4880 kcal/kg). Eucalyptus is a rapid growing,
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EUCALYPTUS ESSENTIAL OIL: AN ALTERNATIVE OF
FUNGICIDES IN PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT
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medium- sized to tall tree attaining 20- 50m in height and up to 2m in diameter.Eucalyptus is
well known by its drought hardiness, even though annual rainfall of 800 mm is preferred. It
grows under a wide range of climatic or soil conditions from warm to hot, sub humid to humid
and from good to degraded soils. It is strongly coppicing tree possessing a wide range of soil and
climatic adaptability. Eucalyptus species is an important source for pulp, firewood, timber and
shelterbelt. One of the most characteristic morphological traits of Eucalyptus spp. is that its
leaves contain essential oil. There are numerous oil glands present on the leaves of eucalyptus.
Method of Extraction: There are many methods of Oil extraction that includes
Hydro-distillation
Steam distillation
Extraction using solvents
Supercritical fluid extraction
Microwave-assisted distillation
Ultrasound-assisted extraction
Generally, Leaves of Eucalyptus was collected and washed, then extracted for 4 h by distilled
water, using a Clevenger type apparatus. The effectiveness of the extraction process depends on
the quality and quantity (yield) of the essential oil.The extraction yields range from 0.06% to 7%,
and the chemical composition of the resulting EOs depends on the plant species and varieties.
Essential oil and its composition
EOs as products obtained from parts of plants through hydro-distillation, steam
distillation or dry distillation, as well as products obtained by a suitable mechanical process.
Some EOs play an important role in protecting plants against insect attack, fungi, bacteria and
viruses and can also be important as a deterrent to herbivorous feeding. Eucalyptus trees have
perennial leaves that are odorous because of the presence of EOs that are produced and stored in
secretory cells. These EOs are aromatic, spicy, and colorless or pale yellow, although there are
studies that have reported the color as being brownish or greenish. In terms of the chemical
composition of these EOs, they are complex mixtures of substances, generally containing 20 to
80 compounds, differing in their concentrations. Terpenes and terpenoids are the major
components found in EOs obtained from the leaves of Eucalyptus.EOs obtained from Eucalyptus
are usually rich in monoterpenes and in some cases sesquiterpenes. Many such EOs are used for
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pharmaceutical purposes and in perfumery. The eucalyptus EOs utilized as pharmaceuticals are
rich in 1,8-cineole, whereas those used in perfumery are rich in citronellal, citral and geranyl
acetate.
Antifungal Properties
Synthetic fungicides are typically employed to prevent the contamination of food
commodities from fungal deterioration as well as from mycotoxin contaminations. However, the
use of such substances is not free from side effects, as residual toxicity that contributes to the
development of fungal resistance. This is particularly true when the fungi are exposed to
fungicide sub-lethal concentrations. The use of EOs has been considered as an alternative to
overcome the reported problems associated with synthetic fungicides and protection of food
commodities. Many Plant diseases such as Root rot, damping off, wilt, vascular wilt etc. may be
controlled by the use of eucalyptus species. For the management of plant diseases, Essential oil
is applied as a seed treatment or seedling dip. Many leaves spot diseases, rusts and external seed
borne diseases as managed in very ecofriendly manner.
Table: List of Target pathogen that inhibited by the Eucalyptus essential oil
Eucalyptus spp. Target Species
E. camaldulensis Alternariaalternata, Aspergillusclavatus, Aspergillusniger,
Candida albicans, Chaetomiumglobosum
E. cinerea Candida albicans
E. citriodora Phytophthoracactorum, Pyriculariagrisea, Pythiumultimum,
Rhizoctoniasolani, Rhizopussolani
E. globulus Aspergillusflavus, Aspergillusniger, Aspergillusparasiticus,
Aspergillus spp., Candida albicans, Fusariumoxysporum
E. grandis Aspergillusclavatus, Aspergillusniger, Chaetomiumglobosum,
Cladosporiumcladosporioides
E. saligna Candida albicans
E. tereticornis Hansenula spp., Saccharomyces spp., Sporobolomyces,
Torulopsis candida
Conclusion
The essential oil from Eucalyptus leaves contained citronellal, isoeugenol and citronellol
as the primary constituents and secondary metabolites such as phenolic compound that is found
in essential oil with potent anti-microbial activities. To develop environment-friendly
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alternatives to synthetic fungicides for the control of fungal plant disease, use of essential oils
has been increased. Essential oils are used as a seed treatment alternative for enhance the plant
growth as well as inhibit the growth of fungi.Eucalyptus oil is also used as a common garden
spray. 20ml of canola oil and 1L of water should be combined with 5ml of eucalyptus oil. It
works wonders at keeping off earwigs, slugs, snails, and slaters, as well as white flies, mites, and
aphids.
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*E.L. Aruneshwaran1
, E.L. Aadhie Shrie2
, R Sreeranjani3
, S.Kandasamy3
, G.Sathriyan3
1
IV Professional Year, B.V.Sc. & A.H., 2
II Professional Year, B.V.Sc. & A.H.,
3
II Year, M.V.Sc.,
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal,
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Poultry farming is the natural practice of raising Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks and Geese. It
is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India. While the production of
agricultural crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum, that of eggs and broilers
has been rising at a rate of 8 to 10 percent per annum. In the last four decades there was a
tremendous transformation in India‘s poultry industry from mere backyard practice activity
into a major commercial activity. A steep increase in the consumption of poultry products in
India observed due to population growth, urbanization, increased awareness and rising incomes.
Even though poultry contributes to improved human nutrition and food security by being a
leading source of high-quality protein, poultry/chicken is of economic, social and cultural
significance in India.
STATUS OF POULTRY IN INDIA
Poultry industry in India was mostly a backyard venture up to 1956 and the first
organized effort was made during 2nd five-year plan. Later there was a tremendous growth in
Indian poultry industry with annual growth rate of about more than 10 %. Poultry sector
contributes around 0.8 % to the total GDP of country1and around 6 % to the total livestock share
of GDP.
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ROLE OF POULTRY IN NATION BUILDING
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The total poultry population in India is about 851.51 million where in the backyard
poultry population is about 317.07 million and commercial poultry population about 534.74
million. India is the third largest egg producer and fifth largest chicken meat producer in the
world with production estimates of 4.01 million tons of broiler meat and 122.1 billion numbers
of eggs. Development of high yielding layer (310-330 eggs) and broiler (2.4-2.6 kg at 6 weeks)
varieties together with standardized package of practices on nutrition, housing, management and
disease control and commercialisation have contributed to spectacular growth rates in egg (4 -
6% per annum) and broiler production (8-10% per annum) in India. Chicken dominates the
poultry production in India with nearly 95% of the total egg production and the rest is
contributed by ducks and others. The per capita availability of eggs and poultry meat has
significantly increased to 91 eggs and 3.1 kg per person per year respectively yet it is far below
the recommended level of consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per
annum by Indian Council Medical Research.
Poultry enterprise in India can distinctly be grouped into two categories i.e.,
a) Developmental poultry farming
It refers to village/unorganized poultry production because this enterprise operates in a
low scale, using less capital and traditional technology. The unit volume of production is low
due to the above constraints. However, the concept of developmental poultry is very relevant for
India´s rural areas to enhance cash earnings of rural poor population. Poultry farming was
included in various Central and State Government sponsored programs, such as Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP), Special Livestock Production Program. (SLPP), Tribal
Development Program (TDP), etc. to popularize poultry farming in rural areas.
b) Commercial poultry production
Commercial / industrial poultry (Layer and Broiler) production refer to large-scale
enterprises where the number of birds per unit is large enough to reap maximum advantages of
technological improvement. These enterprises present various economies of scale of operation
and, thus are able to absorb the fluctuations in demand and supply and in input cost. The growth
of this sector has remained highly significant over the years.
The value of output from the poultry sector is nearly Rs 330 billion per annum and there
are a total of 300,000 poultry farms in India. Over 90 per cent of the poultry production comes
from small poultry farmers, who are located in rural areas. India today exports poultry products
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worth more than 6000 crore rupees annually. Poultry sector gives employment to more than 20
million people either directly or indirectly across India. There are more than thousand small
poultry dressing plants and hatcheries across the country. In addition to these plants, there are
five modern integrated poultry processing plants producing dressed chicken, chicken cut parts
and other chicken products. These processing plants manufacture egg powder, frozen egg-yolk
and frozen meat for export.
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Kerala in South, Maharashtra in
the West, Haryana and Punjab in the North, West Bengal and Odisha in the East are key regions
of poultry production in India. Southern India accounts for majority of total poultry production
and consumption in the country. There is tremendous potential for poultry sector to grow in the
other regions of India too.
POULTRY IN NATION BUILDING
Poultry ensures food security and health
Poultry sector constitutes a significant contribution to human livelihood and food security
of poor household. Poultry Egg and Meat is the cheapest source of protein for the poor
household compared to most expensive protein sources like chevon and fish and these also help
to boost the immune system. Eggs are a source of high-quality protein for sick and malnourished
children under the age of five. Chicken is the most widely accepted meat in India, unlike beef
and pork it does not have any religious taboo. Egg a rich source of Vitamin A, Vitamin B12 and
Selenium which helps in repairing body tissues and keeps the immune system healthy. The
choline in eggs break the amino acid homocysteine thus prevents heart diseases. Folic acid
prevents congenital disabilities; thus, a healthy pregnancy is maintained. The lutein and
zeaxanthin prevent macular degeneration and promote good vision.
Poultry as Employment opportunity
Poultry farming has tremendous potential for expansion and employment generation in
India. Youth in general and educated unemployed youth in particular can take up this profession
easily as the inputs required for poultry farming is available locally in rural areas. The
commencement of commercial layer and broiler farming with integration creates good full time
employment opportunities among farmers. Poultry farming provides employment to those who
are engaged in the production of eggs and chicken meat, hatchery operators, feed dealers,
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building materials, egg cases and trucks, processors of egg and poultry products and all dealers
engaged in the marketing of eggs and poultry meat from the time they leave producers‘ premises
until they are in the hands of the consumers. Poultry farming can also be taken as a part-time
occupation especially by women, landless, small and marginal farmers.
Poultry as livelihood in Rural India
Poultry gives rapid returns on investment that is, production can be increased within a
short period of time. It is a continuous source of income; it is not seasonal and can produce
income for the entire year. Village poultry is the first step on the ladder for poor households to
climb out of poverty. It is also the only capital that households are left with them when
livelihoods are threatened by various natural calamities such as drought, unprecedented weather
conditions etc. Poultry droppings are the nitrogenous wastes considered as good fertilizers to
agricultural land. Farmers sell poultry to cover immediate but small expenses, thereby avoiding
the sale of larger animals such as goats and sheep. Village chicken keepers use chickens and its
by-products for home expenditure followed by home consumption. Layers and cocks are
exchanged for farm implements in remote areas where there is no circulation of currency.
Poultry’s contribution to Gender equality and women empowerment
Traditional and commercial poultry is nowadays more popular among rural women. They
can earn a handsome income for their daily household expenses within a short period of time by
selling birds and eggs. Poultry farming solve gender issues in employment since the poultry
operations can be handled with ease both by men and women. Thus, gender equality is achieved
through poultry farming. Moreover, women in the rural area are empowered by generating their
own income independently.
Poultry as Socio-cultural value: ritual, sacrifice and symbolism
Poultry are an integral part of spiritual and religious life of people. Chicken may be
associated with specific rituals and sacrifices or with religious or magical beliefs. Rural people
keep indigenous chickens solely for the purpose of using them for specific ritual functions, rather
than for consumption or sales. They believe sacrifice of a specific bird in order to cure a sick
person or to ―bless‖, or bring good luck. The indigenous breeds are considered to be the only
best choice of birds fit to use for ritual sacrifice and as a gift to an important visitor or a relative.
Chickens fulfil several households needs that are cultural, economic and/or social.
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Poultry’s contribution to economic growth
Integration, commercialization, technological developments like cold chain facilities,
imported poultry processing machineries had made increased production of poultry and its
products with long shelf life. Poultry has also helped in developing many ancillary industries
such as hatchery operation, poultry equipment and processing of poultry products. Value added
egg products, frozen egg powders and chilled, frozen, or further processed poultry meat products
are stored and sold across various regions of our country and also exported to various countries.
Egg is used for preparation of a variety of products such as medicines, paints, varnishes, soaps
and shampoos. India exports a variety of poultry products like eggs, hatching eggs, egg powder,
frozen egg yolk, frozen poultry and poultry meat to Europe, Japan, Maldives, Oman and other
countries. Broiler products dominate the international poultry trade. Poultry sector provides
employment either directly or indirectly for farmers at their village side. Backyard poultry make
an important contribution to mitigate poverty and should be considered as an strategy aimed at
improving rural livelihoods. Prices for chickens and eggs are becoming increasingly attractive to
both producers and traders. This situation creates good opportunity to generate cash from poultry
through domestic market.
FUTURE INDIA TO SUCCEED
The Government along with unorganised sectors boost poultry farming via
developmental schemes and training programs to develop Poultry Entrepreneurship
among small and medium scale entrepreneurs / Farmers Producers Organisations,
Women Self help Groups etc.
Processing, Grading and Packaging of Poultry egg and meat products would be
encouraged more. Block/ District level cold storage needs to be established and cold
chain needs to be developed.
Breeds and strains of poultry with value added novel designer egg and functional poultry
meat products with longer shelf-life must be developed.
Providing education, awareness, skill development and Marketing Intelligence
developmental programs about the profitable poultry farming and its uses.
Requirement of Poultry Stock is about nearly 460 lakh parent stock and 9 lakh Grand
Parent stocks, for which imports are needed to be facilitated.
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Formulate Package of Good Practices (GAPs/ GFPs/ GMPs) and Industry- Academia
partnership so as to enable transfer of technology at the grassroots level.
To improve exports, Joint efforts of Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA), Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and
Fisheries (DADF), International Egg Commission etc. as well as Inter-Country BuyerSeller Meets, International Exhibitions etc. must be encouraged.
To encourage the research and development to prevent the array of diseases
challenging the profit of the poultry industry.
To focus on the production of superior quality egg and meat free from any residues and
pathogens on par with the international standards and to be a part of the global market
demands to generate revenue by exports.
Conclusion
To meet out the rapidly growing demand for animal products, particularly poultry meat
and eggs results in a need for increased investment in poultry production. The distribution of the
poultry population in India suggests that it is more concentrated in some limited pockets
(Southern region 50%). Improved poultry breeds account for 59% of the total bird population,
contributing with about 89% of the total egg production in the country. In spite, that there was a
wide gap between the recommended and actual levels of consumption/availability of poultry
meat and eggs. Thus, there exists an ample scope for further development of poultry industry. In
order to build a strong nation with improved poultry enterprises, investment from private, public
and international sources becomes essential however needs to be guided by policies and
institutions that promote equitable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly long-term
outcomes.
“Egg, a wholesome food would build a Wholesome Nation”
References
Anand Laxmi N, et al. (2021). ―Backyard Poultry Production and its Importance‖. Acta
Scientific Veterinary Sciences 3.1: 23-28.
Assefa H (2019). ―The role of poultry for poor livelihoods in Ethiopia‖, International Journal of
Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry; 4(3): 01-04
Baba et al. (2019). Status of Indian Poultry Sector – A review, Indian Journal of Science 2019,
24(89), 7-16.
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Mack S et al. (March 2005). The contribution of poultry to rural development‖ World‘s Poultry
Science Journal, Vol. 61.
Manimekalai R (June 2010). “Poultry farming -Employment potential‖, Market Survey.
National Action Plan for Egg & Poultry-2022. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying &
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India In: For
Doubling Farmers‘ Income by 2022.
Sandeep Saran, P V K et al. (August 2005). ―Indian poultry industry: current scenario and
future prospects: a review‖ Iridiati Jourrial ofAnirnn1 Sciences 75 (8): 992-998.
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G. Swathiga* and C.N. Hari Prasath
Forest College and Research Institute, TNAU, Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Sericulture – or the production of silk – involves the rearing of silkworms to produce
cocoons, and then processing those cocoons to make yarn and fabric. Tasar is a variety of wild
silk (Vanya silk) produced by the tasar silkworm, Antheraea mylitta. This worm, unlike the
mulberry silk worm, is only partly domesticated. Tasar culture is practiced in the forest using
host plant in natural conditions. It does not require any investment on plantation of host plant,
rearing house and appliances etc. unlike mulberry sericulture.
Tribal communities living in remote forested areas are usually engaged in Tasar cocoon
production. Tasar culture not only checks the destruction of forest but also gives opportunity to
utilize the vast natural resources with minimum investment along with huge employment
generation for rural community. The activity is a source of supplementary income for the poor
families who are otherwise engaged in small and marginal farming or are migrating to other
places in search of livelihoods. Since cocoon production involves family labour, yields quick
returns and requires simple technologies, it is ideally suited for these families. The activity
requires very low initial investment, and the key requirements are labour which is readily
available, and flora which is plentiful in these fringe forest areas.
Beside these advantages the silk production potentials within the country and demand of
the product in foreign countries promoted commercial exploitation of tasar culture. The
production scenario of tasar raw silk during past two decades indicates a fluctuating trend.
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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF TASAR FOOD
PLANTS
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Further, looking into the decreasing trend in tasar raw silk production, the biodiversity and
conservation of tasar silkworm with their natural flora is important.
Tasar Host Plants
Species and Distribution
Tasar silkworm is polyphagous in nature, having primary and secondary food plant
based on preference. The tasar silkworm thrives well on three main food plants namely Asan
(Terminalia tomentosa), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) both belonging to family Combretaceae and
Sal (Shorea robusta) belonging to family Dipterocarpaceae. The other primary host plants
include a few species of lagerstroemia and Ziziphus mauritiana and Hardiwickia binata.
S.No Food Plants Distribution
1 Terminalia India, Nepal, Burma, Laos, Khmer, Srilanka, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Near Guinea, Australia and Africa
2 T. Tementosa North India up to Nepal and Central India
3 T. arjuna Central and eastern India
4 Shorea robustria Throughout the tropics and sub tropics
5 Lagerstroemia sp India, Srilanka, China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Australia
6 Hardwikia binata Tropics particularly Africa and Western peninsular India
7 Ziziphus amnuritiana India, Malaysia, China, Australia
The secondary host plants comprise of T. chebula, T. bellerica, T. catappa, T. paniculata,
Z. jujube, few ficus species.
In India tasar food plant grow luxuriantly at lower altitudes of up to 600m ASL and
extending mainly around ―Torrid, tropical zone or hot Zone‖ (Between 231/2 N and 231/2 S
latitudes and distributed up to 400 latitude on either direction. Tasar sericulture practiced in two
different climatic zones.
1) Tropical zone which has distinct belt of humid and dense forest spread in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, and parts of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
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2) Temperate Zone, which extends from Western Part of Jammu and Kashmir up to
Eastern Part of Manipur. A vast weather of tasar silkworm food plant is estimated about 11.16
Million ha. in Tropical and 1.26 million ha. in temperate zones. Presently only about 5% of the
tropical tasar host plant are being exploited for the production of tasar silk.
Out of total 38 million of total tribal population in India, about 26 million live in tropical
and 4.0 million in temperate zones having tasar host cultivated plants. In Maharashtra, tasar
sericulture is confined to only four districts of Vidarbha and about 2262 farmers families are
involved directly or indirectly in tasar silkworm rearing. Terminalia species has a wide
distribution throughout the country, more concentrated from to Central India covering Eastern
part.
Other primary food plants like Largerstroemia have a distribution from base of western
Himalaya to the South of Indo Gangetic plain and extending up to central India. Hardwickia
binata (Anjan) is more prevalent in western and peninsular India. Most of these host plants are
available in other tropical countries like Nepal, Burma, Srilanka, Malaysia, Australia, Africa,
Afghanistan and Vietnam etc.
Threat to Tasar Food Plants
The tasar food plants are generally affected by several pest parasites, predators and
diseases causing to loss of host plants to tasar silkworm. Several control measures though
indentified becomes impracticable due to its wild nature. Insects of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera,
Hemiptena, Thysanoptera and Isoptera are regular pests.
S.No Pests/Diseases Food plants
1 Stem borer
Acolasthes holocericea T.arjuna
Sphenoptera knonibierensis T.tomentosa
2 Gall Fly
Phylloplecta hirsute and Trioza flatcheri T. tomentosa
3 Termites
Microtermes, Odontotermes and Trinervitermes sp. All food plants
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4 Beetle (Defoliators)
Anomala sp All food plants
5 Steam Cancer T. tomentosa
6 Leaf curl T. arjuna
T. tomentosa
7 Root rot T. tomentosa
Need for conservation of Tasar Food plant biodiversity
Advancement in agriculture, industrialization and rapid urbanization causes depletion of
the forest coverage and erosion of biodiversity as a whole and tropical tasar in particular. Due to
deforestation and other anthropogenic activities, many of the genetic resources in India are under
the threat of survival and the natural populations of tasar silkworm are also not debarred. Since
the genetic resources are the wealth of the nation and also they harbour many genes and alleles
developed through natural adaptation over centuries, they must be conserved. The wild tasarbiodiversity of India is facing the unparallel threat of extinction from their natural habitat due to
environmental degradation and other related issues. The alarming decline in ecorace natural
multiplication is attributed due to the rampant collection, rapid deforestation, and fragmentation
of their natural habitats.
A few years ago nature growing tasar cocoons was contributing substantially to the
production of tasar silk which is declining at an alarming rate nowadays. There is every
possibility of losing all these precious diverse genetic materials unless they are not protected and
preserved. Therefore all these valuable genetic diversity of tasar entomo fauna needs serious
attention and systematic approach for conservationists respond to altered conditions by genetic
change and this heterogeneity or elasticity within insect species allows persistence to efficiently
face the environmental change.
Thus, exploration of host plant-tasar insect interactions is critical to attaining optimal
conservation wild silk insect, their sustainable utilization, and commercial exploitation. The
single-species conservation is argued to preserve many other species by default which is known
as umbrella effect and the conservation of wild silk entomo fauna indirectly conserves forest biodiversity. Since biodiversity conservation has drawn the attention of mankind for their survival,
it is imperative to conserve the seri-biodiversity in the country and particularly commercially
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exploited and threatened Tasar silkworm germplasm and its host plants. Therefore, there is a
need to initiate conservation awareness programmes for the local communities in the state by
introducing the concept of silkmoth farming. Promotion of such practice not only provides
substantial economic gain to tribal people but also helps to conserve forests and regional
biodiversity
Conclusion
Tasar silk sector eminently qualifies as one of the most appropriate agro-based cottage
industry for tribal development, environment protection, rejuvenation and as prominent poverty
eradicator measure. This sector not only important for generating rural employment but also
prevents rural migration. It is noteworthy that adopting the tasar culture by tribes conserves the
environment by non-cutting and felling of trees because tasar culture is now their way of life.
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Dr. S. Saravanan1
, Dr. V.B. Raghavendran2*
, Dr. V. Sankar3
, Dr. A. Elamurugan4
1Assistant Professor (V&AS), ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madurai, TNAU
2Assistant Professor (V&AS), ADACRI, Trichy, TNAU
3Assistant Professor, MSRS, Salem, TANUVAS
4Assistant Professor, VRC-VV, CAHS, Chennai, TANUVAS
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Termites are hazardous pests for household wood appliances. A remarkable sum of
money is spent for the control of termites and to protect them from harming furniture and
building structures, but the nutritive value of termites is of very limited knowledge and it has to
be exploited since it‘s a low cost and low labor to produce and to harvest them.
Termites are known only for their harmful effect; it will be amazing to know as a good
source of protein and energy for livestock especially in the poultry sector. To be specific, feeding
of termites to chicks has a more beneficial effect and few data suggest that the growth and feed
conversion improves for the chicks fed with termites compared to the control group.
Life cycle of termites
The life cycle of the termite begins with a mating flight, wherein swarming winged
reproductive males and females leave established colonies and procreate. After
fertilization, winged termites land and shed their wings, going on to form new colonies. These
insects then become the king or queen termites of their newly established colonies. The queen
and king termites are at the center of the termite life cycle and are responsible for reproduction.
After the fertilized queen lays her eggs, they hatch into pale white larvae. Over the course of
several molts, these larvae grow to assume a role in one of the three termite colony castes:
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PRODUCTION AND HARVESTING
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workers, soldiers, and reproductive termites, also known as alates.
The simplified model of a termite life cycle indicates the three castes, the reproductive,
the soldiers, and the workers. Due to the fact that termites are hemimetabolous insects, even the
nymphs take part in the social life and have their specific tasks to fulfill. The so far poorly
understood concept of caste determination does not seem to be definitive or too rigid. Once the
caste of an individual is determined, development into other castes is still possible. Soldiers, also
referred to as intercastes might turn into workers or even into reproductive if there is a shortage
of individuals of other castes. This process is controlled by pheromones. In the case of the queen,
there is a specific ‗queen‘ pheromone, preventing other individuals from turning into queens.
Only if the queen is removed or dies, does the lack of the specific pheromone promote the
development of a new queen.
Reproductives possess compound eyes and are more or less brown due to their
sclerotized cuticle. Developing reproductives have wing buds, wings or wing stumps.
Reproductives can be further divided into:
Alates, the young winged reproductives of both sexes. From time to time about 100 to
1000 alates leave the colony for a mating and colonising flight. After mating a pair settles down
at a suitable site like a rotting scar on a tree in order to establish a new colony.
De-alates, alates that cast their wings after the colonising flight and successively turn into
queens and kings. Initially only a few eggs are laid and brought up by a female de-alate. As the
number of individuals in the colony grows, the more workers are available to help the young
queen to care for the brood. After three to five years the number of individuals is already so
large, that the colony of a pest species can turn into the damaging stage.
Queen and king, which are the main reproductive individuals in a colony. Once there are
many workers to help the queen, her only job is to produce a tremendous number of offspring. A
large queen may lay more than 1000 eggs per day. The life span of a queen can be as much as 50
years. Termite eggs are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. However, they are laid in
sheltered locations such as wall interiors or underground nests and are rarely seen by humans.
Neotenics assist the queen in laying eggs, once her productivity decreases.
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When the queen has died or deteriorated, one of the neotenics takes her place. That is the
reason why the removal of a queen from her colony does not necessarily mean the end of the
colony
Workers are sterile, wingless and blind males and females. Their cuticle is unpigmented
and not hardened, therefore the animals are confined to a dark and moist environment. Workers
build the nest and galleries, they fetch food, care for the brood and feed reproductives and
soldiers. The worker‘s life span is one to two years.
Soldiers are, like workers sterile, wingless and blind males and females with an
unpigmented, unsclerotized cuticle. Soldiers defend their colony from intruders by the use of
powerful jaws and/or by ejecting a white sticky repellent from an opening on their head. Soldiers
can‘t feed themselves; they have to be fed by workers. Usually, the number of soldiers is much
smaller than the number of workers. Soldiers can be mandibulate or nasute, depending on the
species. Therefore, soldiers can be used for the identification of termite species. The lifespan of
the soldiers is one to two years.
While adult reproductive termites are not usually responsible for structural damage, it is
essential that the worker termites be exterminated to eliminate an entire infestation. Termites
follow the typical life cycle of insects that have a gradual life cycle: they begin as eggs, and then
enter nymphal to adult stages. In termite development, newly hatched termites are sometimes
referred to as ―larvae,‖ which is not to be confused with the larvae of complete metamorphosis
insects like flies.
Production of termites:
Termites can be easily grown in trapped and fed to the birds. The following things are
required as a termite trap.
1. A mud pot/flower pot
2. Old/wasted gunny bags torn into pieces
3. Dry cow dung
4. Degradable wood pieces, leaves, wood fibres etc.,
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Setting of trap:
The above said wastes are packed into the pot and enough water is poured to make it
damp. Excess watering is not a problem as we are keeping it upside down; enough moisture will
be retained by itself. After two to three days we can see the termites swarming inside the pot and
we can wait little more days or a week to have a considerable amount of termites. The termite
obtained is sufficient for 10-15 chicks or five adults.
Methodology:
Termites gut flora includes a group of fungus (trichoderma viridae) that secrete enzymes
(cellulose) which can degrade the cellulose and release free glucose, that may be available for the
insect. As termites are nocturnal, they search for damp, dark area to lay their nest. The moisture
in the gunny bag and decayed leaves readily attract them and as we set the trap in evening, we
can see considerable number of termites in morning. We can leave the trap for a week to get
considerable amount as from the life cycle it is known that the numbers are going to increase in
thousands.
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Harvesting
Harvesting of termites can be done preferably in the morning as termites avoid light
because of predators like birds, ants and others and sunlight make them dry and the dampness
will be lost in turn the comfort temperature. We can keep at least ten such traps in different
places so that we can ensure the daily supply of termites to the birds. One more interesting thing
is even the loss of the queen and other breeding termites, from the life cycle it is inferred that the
soldiers can become reproductive ones.
Nutritive value of termites:
Reports on proximate analysis of termites are limited, but as per rough estimations
termites have 36% of crude protein, 44% fat and calorific value of 560 k. calorie/100g on dry
matter basis. Apart from this the live termites have growth promoters, Probiotics and enzymes
that improve the digestion and absorption of nutrients and it is the major contributing factor for
the growth of chicks.
Added advantages
A considerable number of traps will attract the termites to the trap; hence we can prevent
the structures from its attack. Also, it avoids the use of hazardous chemical to control itself,
hence the environment.
Images are taken in ICAR – Krishi Vigyan Kendra – Thiruvarur, Tamilnadu.
Nutritive value mentioned data source from TANUVAS.
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Dr. R. Kumar1*, S. Benaseer2
, Dr. D. Jebapreetha3
and Dr. V. K. Paulpandi4
1Associate Professor, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics,
2Assistant Professor, Department of Seed Science & Technology,
3Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension,
4
Principal, Krishna College of Agriculture and Technology,
Srirengapuram, Usilampatti-625532, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Pulses are rich in proteins and it is second important constituent of Indian diet after
cereals (Justin et al., 2015). Black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) is a short duration crop
belonging to the family, Leguminaceae family and one of the most important pulse crop of India,
cultivated over an area of 4.53 million hectares and production of 2.08 million tones with a
productivity of 459 kg/ha. In Tamil Nadu, about 317.34 thousand tones of black gram were
produced from an area of 405.32 thousand hectares with a productivity of 783 kg/ha. In
Puhucherry, 290 tonnes of black gram produced from 470 hectares with an average productivity
of 612 kg/ha (INDIASTAT, 2019.
One of the major constraints for low yield of pulse crop is the extensivedamage caused by
insect pests. About 250 insects have been recorded feeding on pulse crops. Of these, about
one dozen insects including pod borers, stem borers, leaf miners, foliage caterpillars,
cutworms, jassids, aphids and whiteflies are most important. The minor insect pest of aphids
incident have been identified and causes considerable damages in black gram, the students
Project field at Krishna Agriculture College and Technology, Srirengapuram, Usilampatti
block.
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
Article ID: AG-VO3-I08-08
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF SUCKING PESTS AND
RESISTANT CULTIVARS IN BLACK GRAM
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
These pests appear in different stages of crop growth with various climatic conditions and cause
damages. The present investigation was carried out to know the population dynamics of
defoliations and sucking pests in two seasons on black gram and their relationship with Abiotic
factors.
Population dynamics of sucking pests on black gram during Kharif 2023.
Standard
Week
(SW)
Aphids
A.craccivo
ra/ 50
plants
Temp
(oC)
R. H
(%)
Rain Fall
(Min.)
Max. Mini. Max. Min Max.
38 0 30.11 25.11 76.50 48.77 0.00
39 0 30.14 25.14 89.15 52.51 0.00
40 0 31.32 24.82 78.43 59.79 2.54
41 22 30.86 25.54 79.34 59.79 7.11
42 96 30.38 25.51 80.31 59.12 4.54
43 151 30.36 25.21 72.28 60.22 0.00
44 200 35.04 26.11 74.38 43.11 0.00
45 325 34.68 24.29 89.16 47.17 12.86
46 244 33.75 23.68 82.00 69.18 1.06
47 155 29.50 24.25 86.18 55.12 6.31
48 89 28.58 22.50 76.36 58.81 1.89
List of Major pests in black gram
1. Bean aphid Aphis craccivora
2. Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera
3. Spotted pod borer: Maruca testulalis
4. Spiny pod bore: Etiella zinckenella
5. Blue butterfly: Lampides boeticus
6. Grass blue butterfly: Euchrysops cnejus
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
7. Bean Aphids: Aphis craccivora
8. Leaf hopper: Empoasca kerri
9. Pod bugs: Riptortus pedestris Riptourtus pedestris
10. Lab lab bug or Stink
bug: Coptosoma cribraria
Coptosoma cribraria
11. Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci Bemisia tabaci
12. Blister beetle Mylabris phalerata
13. Thrips Ayyaria chaetophora,
Caliothrips indicus,
Megalurothrips distalis
1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage symptoms
Both nymphs and adults cause the damage by sucking the plant sap. Infested
pods become deshaped, withered and malformed. Severe infestation may result in
complete drying of affected pods. They also act as vector of pea virus.
Aphids affected plant
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Management practices
1. Grow resistant cowpea cultivars like P 1473, P 1476, MS 9369, Bendel Lobia 1
2. Use entomopathogenic fungus Fusarium pallidoroseum or Beauveria bassiana
to cause epizootics in aphids in the cowpea field.
3. Spraying of infested crop with 500 methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate or
125 ml imidaclorpid in 500 L water per ha effectively control aphids. As the strong
point of this pest lies in its very quick multiplication, the insecticidal treatment has to
be repeated as soon as aphid population is found to have builtup again.
Black gram moderate resistant cultivars of sucking pests
Varieties-CO 4, ADT 2, ADT 3, ADT 4, ADT 5, TMV 1, T9, CO 5, ADT 3, VBN1, 2,3,
8, 10 & 11.
References
C. Gailce Leo Justin, P. Anandhi and D. Jawahar. (2015). Management of major insect
pests of black gram under dry land conditions. Journals of Entomology and Zology
Studies, 2015; 3 (1): 115-121
Strauss, S.Y., Agrawal, A.A. (1999). ―The ecology and evolution of plant tolerance to
herbivory‖. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14: 179-185.
General filed view
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Rahman MM 2000 oar.icrisat.org/3449/1/LegumesInBangladesh5-34.
Gurr GM, Wratten SD and Altieri MA (2004b) Ecological Engineering: a new direction
for pest management. AFBM Journal 1: 28-35.
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
*Dr. HL Kacha, Dr. R Radha Rani, Dr. GK Bhabhor and Shri ND Makwana
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Anand Agricultural University, Dahod, Gujarat-389160
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
A remarkable woman named Fulvantiben H. Mal born on
June 1st, 1970 in the tribal heartland of Dahod District in the
state of Gujarat, India, has emerged as a beacon of hope and
success. Fulvantiben belongs to the tribal community (Bhil) has
defied social and economic odds to become a successful farmer
and is an inspiration to countless others. Through her dedication,
hard work, and innovative approach, she has not only
transformed her own life but has also empowered tribal women
in her community.
Fulvantiben's journey began with humble beginnings. Growing up in a small village, she
witnessed firsthand struggles faced by tribal communities, particularly women, in accessing
resources and livelihood opportunities. Determined to break the cycle of poverty and contribute
to her family's well-being, she embarked on a mission to create a sustainable livelihood through
farming.
Brief details about resources
Undeterred by the challenges and lack of scientific agricultural information, Fulvantiben
embarked on a journey of self-learning and exploration. She attended several training programs
organized by KVK, AAU, Dahod, where she acquired valuable knowledge about integrated
farming techniques. With newfound enthusiasm, she set out to implement a diverse farming
model that combined crop cultivation, dairy farming, poultry rearing, and mushroom cultivation.
EMPOWERING TRIBAL WOMEN FARMERS THROUGH
INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
Article ID: AG-VO3-I08-09
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
She possesses around 2.6 hectare of land, out of which 2 ha has been taken on leased which falls
under irrigated land. The land is charmed with 5 bore wells and 2 wells. She prospered her farm
extensively in animal resources i.e., Poultry unit (2900 birds), Goatry unit (2 Bucks, 10 Does, 6
Kids) and Dairy unit (1 Gir, 1 Sahiwal, 1 Mehsani & 1 Surti). She also ownsan oil engine, an
electric chaff cutter and a flour mill.
Technology and innovation adopted
After coming in contact with KVK, AAU, Dahod she was inspired to earn more from
farming and turn it into a profitable business.She had attended various training programmes in
scientific farming of different crops, managements of livestock, and modified all components of
her farming system. Apart from adopting livestock based farming system she also improved her
farming in the field crops by introducing improved and high yielding varieties through scientific
cultivation of different crops viz. Hybrid Maize (GAWMH 2), Paddy (GAR 13), Soybean (NRC
37), Wheat (GW 451), Gram (GJG 3).Furthermore, enhancing her farming enterprise,
Fulvantiben ventured into dairy farming. She procured a few cows and established a small-scale
dairy unit. The cows not only provided milk for her family's consumption but also generated a
regular income through the sale of milk and dairy products. The organic waste from the dairy
unit was utilized as a nutrient-rich fertilizer for her crops, promoting sustainable and eco-friendly
farming practices.
Recognizing the potential of poultry farming, Fulvantiben expanded her operations by
raising chickens for meat and eggs. This diversification not only added another income stream
but also helped in pest control and fertilization of the farm. She adopted modern poultry
management techniques, ensuring the well-being and health of her flocks, and marketed the
poultry products in local markets, establishing a loyal customer base.
Inspired by her own successes, Fulvantiben delved into mushroom cultivation, a
relatively new and lucrative venture in the region. She constructed a dedicated mushroom shed
and began cultivating oyster mushrooms, which required minimal space and investment.
Through careful research and experimentation, she mastered the techniques of mushroom
cultivation, producing high-quality mushrooms that were in demand among local restaurants and
consumers. Her belief in the guidance from scientists of KVK and her enthusiasm and hard
work turned her farming business into a successful and profitable enterprise. Today she runs all
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these enterprises with proper modification and timely guidance leading her to earn much more
than expected. Now she is a role model for her fellow tribal farmers and farmers of other village
of the district thus paving way for other farmers to follow her footsteps and become as successful
as her.
Achievements/ Results
i. Field crops (per ha.)
Previously, she was growing local variety of traditional crops like maize, paddy and
wheat. After getting in touch with scientist of KVK Dahod she learnt and adopted scientific
cultivation practices, right from improved varieties, land preparation (harrowing, planking), seed
treatment, sowing method, weed control method, fertilizer application, irrigation management,
insect and pest control, harvesting method and storage method etc. She thereby receives better
productivity and net returns.Frontline demonstrations of soybean and gram crops which were
recently introduced in her area also elevated her profits in comparison to traditional one.
Economic of field crops
S.
N.
Season Crop Area
(ha)
Production
(kg)
Gross Income
(Rs.)
Net
Income
(Rs.)
Cost
(Rs.)
B:C
Ratio
1 Kharif Maize 0.6 810 12150 4650 7500 1.62
2 Kharif Paddy 1.4 3500 84000 45500 38500 2.18
3 Kharif Soybean 0.4 380 19000 12500 6500 2.92
4 Rabi Wheat 1.6 4400 88000 54000 34000 2.59
5 Rabi Gram 0.4 400 16000 10500 5500 2.91
6 Rabi Fodder 0.4 5500 11000 7875 3125 3.52
Total Income 135025 - -
She understood that scientific farming can provide greater benefits as a result of the intervention.
In order to move ahead, she leased an agricultural land, and as a result of increased productivity,
she is now earning a net income of Rs. 1.35 lakh per year.
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ii. Horticulture crops (per ha.):
Through training programmes and various extension activities, KrishiVigyan Kendra,
AAU, Dahod has been educating tribal farmers about organic vegetable cultivation in order to
address the problem of malnutrition. Further generating additional income through kitchen
gardening which ultimately improve the socio-economic standing of the Tribal Farmers. She
regularly obtained fresh, organic veggies for everyday use from a well-tended kitchen garden.
She used some of the vegetables for her family's diet and sold some to make some extra money.
Monthly she earns an average extra income of Rs. 1000- 1200/-. More than 50 farm women from
her village and nearby villages have visited her kitchen garden and prepared kitchen garden at
their home for family utilization.
iii. Enterprises
As far as livestock enterprises are concerned, previously, she only possessed the dairy animals.
But after motivation from KVK Scientists, she started her goatry and poultry units. Also, she
started preparing home-made concentrate mixture from her own farm produce by using the
domestic use flour mill. This homemade feed was fed along with purchased concentrate mixture
in a 50-50 ratio, thus reducing feed cost. Moreover, she purchased an electrically operated Chaff
cutter, for chaffing the dry and green fodder, thus reducing wastage and fodder cost.
a. Poultry
Particulars Kroiler RIR Kadaknath
Chicks (0 days old) rate (Rs.) 20.00 20.00 25.00
Total no. of birds reared in a year 1000 900 1000
Total Chick cost per year (Rs) 20000.00 18000.00 25000.00
Total feed cost (Rs) 105000.00 135000.00 225000.00
Miscellaneous recurring cost (electricity, bulbs,
brooding, medicines, supplements) (Rs)
5000.00 8000.00 10000.00
Total expenses (Rs) 130000.00 161000.00 260000.00
Total no. of birds sold in a year 900 810 880
Gross returns (Rs) 225000.00 291600.00 528000.00
Net profit in a year (Rs) 95000.00 130600.00 268000.00
B C Ratio 1.73 1.81 2.03
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b. Goatery
Particulars
At the beginning
of the year
Sold during the
year
At the end of the
year
No. of adult females 10 3 7
No. of adult males 2 2 0
No. of male kids in a year 5 3 2
No. of female kids in a year 5 2 3
Particulars Amount
Total number of adult animals 12
Total number of kids 10
Total cost of rearing adults in a year (Rs) 100440.00
Total cost of rearing kids in a year (Rs) 36000.00
Total expenses 136440.00
Income from sale of 2 (one year old) female kids (Rs) 36000.00
Income from sale of 3 (one year old) male kids (Rs) 63000.00
Income from sale of 3 adult females (Rs) 72000.00
Income from sale of 2 adult males (Rs) 56000.00
Gross income (Rs) 227000.00
Net income (Rs) 90560.00
B C Ratio 1.66
c. Dairy
Particulars Amount
Total number of adult animals 4
Total milk production in a year (litres) 5325.00
Income from sale of milk (Rs.) 186600.00
Total feed cost (Rs.) 126534.00
Miscellaneous cost (Rs.) 3000.00
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Total cost (Rs.) 129534.00
Net Profit (Rs.) 57066.00
B C Ratio 1.44
Contributing factor for success of the enterprise
All Scientists of KVK, AAU, Dahod enabled and motivated Mrs. Fulvantiben by
involving her in Front Line Demonstrations and On Farm trials of their respective disciplines, be
it Agricultural crops, Horticultural crops, Livestock and Poultry. Scientific knowledge related to
various agricultural aspects were imparted to her and updated from time to time by including her
in various training programmes and exposure visits.
Underlying message: Diversity is the key to success in agriculture. The agricultural income will
go up only if one looks at integration of the system and not from one crop alone.
Awards/ recognition received
She was awarded with ―Best Atma Farmers Award” and cash prize of Rs. 10,000/- for
the Year 2015-16. (Block level)
Felicitated as Guest of Honor on the occasion of Celebration of Sankalp Se Siddhi, New
India Manthan Programme. Sep 8th 2016 by Hon. MP, ShriJasvantsinhBhabhor. (Block
level)
Awarded with “Best Innovative Farmers of Gujarat” by Society of Extension
Education of Gujarat in the presence of all the Vice chancellor of SAUs, Gujarat during
National Seminar on 24 June 2022. (State level).
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Awarded with “Best Innovative Farmers of Gujarat” by Society of Extension Education of
Gujarat
―Best ATMA Farmers Award” and cash prize of Rs. 10,000/- for the Year 2015-16
Received Guest of Honor on the occasion of Celebration of Sankalp Se Siddhi, New India
Manthan Programme. Sep 8th 2016 by Hon. MP, Shri Jasvantbhai Bhabhor
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KVK Dahod has recognized her achievements at various platforms in the
district and presented her as a role model to other fellow farmers
Success story was presented in National
Seminar
Motivational lecture in Kisan Sibir
Lecture as a Progasive farmer at KVK Guiest in farmer Innovative meet
Lecture as a Progasive farmer at Village
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Animal Health Camp Field visit
Front line demonstration Group discussion
Training Goat competition
Exposure Visit
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Participation in different activities conduct by KrishiVigyan Kendra
Brooding unit Poultry Unit
Kadaknath poultry bird Dairy Unit
Goatery Unit Kitchen Garden
Other farmer adoted Poultry Farming
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*Dr. Satyendra Thakur and Er. Rakesh Paliwal
*Assistant Professor (Agricultural Engineering), Department of Engineering and Technology,
PSSCIVE (NCERT), Bhopal
Agricultural Engineer, Central Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute,
Tractor Nagar, Budni (M.P.)
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
To ensure that the field is ready for planting, it is crucial to prepare the land. A properly
constructed field keeps weeds under control, recycles plant nutrients, and offers a supple soil
mass for transplanting as well as an acceptable soil surface for direct seeding. A wide range of
services are included in land preparation, from zero-tillage or minimum tillage, which minimises
soil disturbance, to completely \"puddled\" soil, which destroys soil structure. It typically consists
1. Ploughing to \"till\" or dig-up, mix, and overturn the soil;
2. Distressing to break the soil clods into smaller mass and incorporate plant residue,
3. Levelling the surface.
When are Kharif crops grown?
Kharif or monsoon crops are those that
are sown during the southwest monsoon season.
These crops are planted at the start of the
monsoon season, in late May or early June, and
are harvested beginning in October after the
monsoon season. Among the important crops for
the Kharif season are rice, maize, and pulses like
urad, moong dal, and millets.
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
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LAND PREPARATION AND DIFFERENT METHODS OF
SOWING: KHARIF SEASON
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Methods for sowing various Kharif crops By sowing, a predetermined number of seeds
are placed in the soil in the best possible location for germination and growth. Planting is the act
of putting plant propagules—such as seeds, seedlings, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes, clones, etc.—
into the ground so they can develop into crop plants.
The term \"Land preparation\" refers to crops that are sown during the southwest monsoon
season. Sowing techniques for the Kharif season vary depending on the type of crop and local
customs. However, the following are some general recommendations for sowing techniques and
land preparation for the Kharif season:
Land Preparation: The following are methods for land preparationA. Clear the field: Remove any existing crop residues, weeds, and debris from the field.
B. Ploughing:
Perform primary ploughing to loosen the soil and break up any compacted layers. It helps
in preparing a favourable seedbed by improving soil aeration, water infiltration, and root
penetration. Ploughing is usually performed
after the previous crop has been harvested or
during the fallow period before the Kharif
season begins. The timing may vary
depending on the specific crop and local
practices. It can be done using various
implements such as mouldboard plows, disc
ploughs, or chisel ploughs. The choice of plough depends on factors like soil type, field size,
and available machinery. The first ploughing, also known as primary ploughing or deep
ploughing, is typically done to break up the soil and turn over the top layer. It helps in burying
crop residues, weeds, and organic matter, which will eventually decompose and enrich the soil.
The ploughing depth depends on factors such as soil type, crop requirements, and prevailing
weather conditions. Generally, ploughing is done to a depth of 15-25 centimeters (6-10 inches).
However, the depth may be adjusted based on soil conditions and the crop's rooting depth.
While ploughing, it is important to avoid excessive soil disturbance, especially in areas prone to
erosion. Care should be taken to prevent topsoil loss, as it is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
Additionally, ploughing should be carried out when the soil moisture is suitable, avoiding
overly wet or dry conditions.
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C. Secondary tillage: After primary ploughing, secondary tillage operations like harrowing,
discing, or cultivating are carried out. These operations further break down soil clumps,
level the field, and prepare a finer seedbed. They also help in incorporating any organic
amendments or fertilizers into the soil. The depth and frequency of secondary tillage
operations depend on factors such as soil conditions, crop requirements, and the level of
refinement achieved during
primary tillage. The aim is to
create a well-prepared seedbed
while minimizing soil disturbance
and erosion risks. The depth of
secondary tillage is generally shallower than primary ploughing. Just like primary tillage,
conservation considerations are important in secondary tillage operations. Conservation
agriculture practices like minimum tillage or no-till can be adopted to reduce soil
disturbance and preserve soil health. These practices help maintain soil structure, retain
moisture, and reduce erosion risks. Secondary tillage operations are typically performed
after primary ploughing and before sowing or transplanting. The timing may vary based
on crop requirements, weather conditions, and local practices. It is important to ensure
that the soil is at an appropriate moisture level for effective secondary tillage.
D. Soil testing and amendments: Conduct a soil test to determine nutrient deficiencies.
Based on the results, add appropriate organic or inorganic amendments like compost,
manure, or fertilizers to improve soil fertility. Soil testing helps assess the nutrient status,
pH level, organic matter content, and other properties of the soil. It provides valuable
information about the soil's fertility and
nutrient deficiencies or imbalances.
Collect soil samples from different parts of
the field using a soil auger or spade. Take
samples at a depth of 15-30 centimeters
(6-12 inches) for most crops. Ensure that
samples are representative of the entire field by collecting multiple sub-samples and
mixing them thoroughly. Send the soil samples to a reputable soil testing laboratory. The
laboratory will conduct various tests to determine nutrient levels, pH, and other relevant
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parameters. The test results will help in formulating appropriate soil amendment
recommendations. Organic amendments, such as compost, well-rotted manure, or green
manure crops, can be added to improve soil fertility and organic matter content. These
amendments enhance nutrient availability, soil structure, water-holding capacity, and
microbial activity in the soil. Inorganic amendments like fertilizers can be used to
supplement specific nutrient deficiencies identified through soil testing. Fertilizers are
available in various formulations containing nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
and other essential nutrients. Apply them at recommended rates based on the soil test
recommendations and the crop's nutrient requirements.
E. Land levelling: If necessary, level the field to ensure uniform water distribution during
irrigation or rainfall.Here are some key pointsa) Purpose: Land levelling involves shaping the field to achieve a uniform slope and
eliminate any high or low spots. The primary goal is to ensure even water
distribution during irrigation or rainfall, minimize waterlogging or runoff issues,
and facilitate efficient crop establishment and growth.
b) Timing: Land levelling is typically done after primary and secondary tillage
operations and before sowing or transplanting. It should be completed well in
advance of the planting season to allow sufficient time for soil settling and
adjustments.
c) Topographic Survey: Conduct a topographic survey of the field to identify high
and low areas accurately. This can be done using surveying equipment, GPS
technology, or other modern mapping
techniques. The survey will provide a detailed
elevation map of the field, indicating areas that
need levelling.
d) Levelling Methods: Various methods can be
employed for land levelling, depending on the field size, topography, soil type,
and available equipment. Some common methods include:
i. Cut and Fill: This method involves cutting soil from high spots and filling in low spots to
achieve a uniform slope. Excavators, bulldozers, or land levellers can be
used for this purpose.
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ii. Land Grading: Land grading uses heavy
machinery like graders or scrapers to
redistribute soil across the field. It helps smooth
out the surface, remove excess soil from high
areas, and fill in low areas.
iii. Laser Levelling: Laser-guided equipment is used in
laser levelling. A laser transmitter emits a level beam,
and the equipment's receiver adjusts the blade height
automatically, ensuring a consistent grade across the
field.
Methods of Sowing: The following are methods for sowingA. Direct Seeding: Some crops, like rice and maize, are
commonly sown directly into the field. In this method,
seeds are sown directly into the prepared soil at the desired
spacing using seed drills or planters. Ensure adequate seedto-soil contact for better germination.
B. Transplanting: This method is commonly used for crops like paddy (rice), where the
seeds are first germinated in a nursery and
then transplanted to the main field.
Seedlings are uprooted carefully and
transplanted into puddled or well-irrigated
fields at appropriate spacing.
C. Broadcasting: Broadcasting is used for crops like millets,
sorghum, and some legumes. Seeds are uniformly
scattered over the prepared field by hand or using
mechanical broadcasters. Post-sowing, light tillage
operations are carried out to cover the seeds with soil.
D. Dibbling: Dibbling is suitable for crops like groundnut
and pulses. Small holes or pits are made in the soil, and
one or a few seeds are placed in each hole before
covering them with soil.
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E. Seed Drilling: This method involves using seed drills or planters that precisely place
seeds at a uniform depth and spacing. It is commonly used for crops like wheat, maize,
and soybean.
F. Transplanted Seedlings: Certain crops, such as vegetables, may require raising
seedlings in nurseries and then transplanting them
into the main field once they have developed a
strong root system.
For successful land preparation and sowing during the Kharif season, keep in mind to adhere to
local agricultural practises, adapt to the unique crop requirements, and take local climatic
conditions into account. Additionally, it is advisable to seek advice from knowledgeable farmers
or regional agricultural extension services.
Importance for other farmers
Fulvantiben's integrated farming model not only brought financial stability to her
household but also served as a catalyst for change in her own community. Recognizing the
transformative potential of her approach, she organized training sessions and workshops for
other tribal women in the area, sharing her knowledge and empowering them to start their own
integrated farming ventures.
Her efforts bore fruit as several tribal women, inspired by Fulvantiben's success, followed
in her footsteps and embarked on their own journeys of integrated farming. This collective
empowerment led to a significant improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the tribal
communities in Dahod District, creating a ripple effect of positive change.
Fulvantiben H. Mal's remarkable journey from a humble tribal woman to a successful
farmer and community leader is a testament to the transformative power of perseverance,
innovation, and knowledge-sharing. Through her integrated farming practices, she has not only
achieved economic prosperity but has also uplifted the lives of countless tribal women, offering
them a pathway to self-sufficiency and empowerment. Fulvantiben's success story stands as a
shining example of how determined individuals can bring about positive change and transform
their communities for the better.
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Her efforts in collaboration with KVK have resulted in
Employment generation among rural youth (8 nos.) through Poultry farming
Empowerment of farm women (27 nos.) through backyard poultry farming and goat
rearing
Health and nutritional security of farmer's family (55 no.) through kitchen gardening
Another poultry entrepreneur (1 no.) in the village Bhaman, involved in intensive
poultry production
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Arunkumar Elumalai1
, Jayaganesh arjunan2
, Sandeep Gunalan3
1,2UG Scholar, APHC, Kalavai, India , 3Assitant Professor, APHC, Kalavai, India
*Corresponding Authors Email id: [email protected]
Introduction
Carbon dioxide is an essential element for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process
that takes place in the plants by which it prepares its food by using CO2, water and sunlight.
The concentration of carbon dioxide present in the atmospheric air is about 400 ppm (parts per
million).Ideal CO2 concentration for crop growth inside greenhouse is 1000-1500 ppm and for
seedling raising 800-1000 ppm is required. Inside the greenhouse the carbon dioxide plays a
major role in plants growth. Because the limited availability of CO2 inside greenhouse causes
poor crop performance and yield.
Co2 enrichment in greenhouse
CO2 enrichment is a process of artificial supplementation of carbondioxide inside the
polyhouse. CO2 enrichment techniques includes ventilation, combustion of fossil fuels, compost
fermentationand supply of liquid CO2. By CO2 supplementation the photosynthetic efficiency
of the plants willincrease upto 30 %. The CO2 level in the greenhouse drops when all plants use
CO2 for photosynthesis especially during winter where ventilation is poor to keep the
greenhouse warm sothe CO2 enrichment is essential for greenhouse.
Effect of co2 enrichment in greenhouse plants
Stomatal regulation to stress
Increased photosynthesis and carbon assimilation.
Good temperature adaptability, efficient water utilization, strong salt tolerance.
Sugar content is increased & nutrient content in crop was altered
It increases resistivity against pathogens.
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Article ID: AG-VO3-I08-11
CO2 INFUENCE IN GREENHOUSE
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Efficient water utilization
Nutrient acquisition is improved.
Methods of CO2 enrichment
Atmospheric ventilation
Ventilation is done in greenhouse for air exchange and temperature controls with fans
fitted in roofand side walls. By ventilation the concentration of CO2 cannot be controlled and
high level of CO2 concentration inside greenhouse cannot be obtained. It is the mostly followed
and cheap method of CO2 enrichment. During winter to maintain heat inside greenhouse,
ventilation is not practiced. So, during winter artificial supplementation of CO2 is required to
keep the CO2 concentration inside greenhouse at ambient level for crop growth.
Compressed CO2 tanks
The CO2 in compressed tank is in liquid form which is used directly for enrichment of
CO2 in polyhouse. Like irrigation, CO2 supplement also requires proper pipe work for even
distribution of CO2 inside greenhouse. The PVC (poly vinyl chloride) pipes with holes are
installed across greenhouse which is connected to CO2 tank. The compressed CO2 tanks are
installed inside greenhouse with on/off valve, pressure regulator, flow meter, CO2 sensors and
timer. This methodtakes additional space inside greenhouse for installing CO2 tanks and pipe
work for distribution and also quite expensive for installation.
Burning of carbonaceous fuel
The combustion of carbonaceous fuels such as natural gas, propane, charcoal and biomass
releasesCO2 which is uses for greenhouse. By burning carbonaceous fuels CO2 and heat is
generated. TheCO2 generated are collected in storage tank and supplied during day time when
CO2 requirement is more. The heat generated during burning fossil fuel are stored in the form of
hot water and usedduring night time for heating the greenhouse. The combustion of fossil fuels
along with CO2 releases harmful gases such as carbon mono oxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O)
and Sulphur dioxide (S02) which are harmful for plant growth. So, before releasing the gas it
must be purified and used.
Compost fermentation
The decomposition of organic matter by the microorganism releases CO2 which is used
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for supplying greenhouse. The organic waste is taken in plastic tanks and the fermentation is
boostedby adding sugar and yeast. The main drawback of this system is emittance of foul smell
and the rate of release of CO2 is not stable. The foul smell can be prevented by using CO2
boost bucket and smart CO2 bag. The final decomposed material is used as manure to the field.
Use of dry ice
Dry ice is a solid CO2 which is produced by keeping CO2 in low temperature (-109o
F).
By keepingsliced pieces of dry ice, sublimation happens and the concentration of CO2 increases
inside greenhouse. Using dry ice has some cooling effect in greenhouse. So, it could be used
during summer to keep the temperature down. Dry ice is cheap but storage in normal condition is
critical. CO2 sensors are installed to monitor the level of CO2 inside greenhouse. When the
CO2 concentration reaches at 2000ppm (parts per million) it becomes toxic to plants. Ideal CO2
concentration for crop growth inside greenhouse is 1000-1500 ppm and for seedling raising
800- 1000 ppm is required.
Conclusion
When we use a cost-effective technology of CO2 enrichment then our yield got
increased manifold. Along with CO2 supplementation the relative humidity, air temperature,
root zone oxygen, nutrient and water are managed in a substantial way for efficient crop growth
References
Roger, H., 2016. Carbon Dioxide Enrichment Methods Retrieved on Sep 10, 2016 from:
https://www.hydrofarm.com/resources/articles/co2_enrichment.php
Wang A, Lv J, Wang J and Shi K (2022) CO2 enrichment in greenhouse production: Towards a
sustainable approach. Front. Plant Sci. 13:1029901. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1029901
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2022.1029901/full
Blom, T.J., W.A. Straver, F.J. Ingratta, S. Khosla and W. Brown., 2002. Carbon Dioxide in
Greenhouses. Retrieved on Sep 08, 2016
fromhttp://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/products/environment.html
Megha Poudel, Bruce Dunn, 2017. Greenhouse Carbon Dioxide Supplementation. Retrieved
on march 2017 from
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/greenhouse-carbon-dioxide-supplementation.html
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*1Krishnan, V., 1R. Dhinesh, 2A. Anuratha, 1M. Tamilzharasi, 1T. Ananthan,
1D. Umamaheswari and 1A. Premkumar
1
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal 609603,
U. T. of Puducherry.
2 Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Keezhvelur,
Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu 611104
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Tamil Nadu, a state in southern India, boasts a rich agricultural heritage with a diverse
range of rice varieties that have been cultivated for generations. Among these traditional rice
cultivars are the landraces specifically adapted to the different seasons prevalent in the region.
Landraces are locally adapted varieties that have developed unique characteristics over time
through natural selection and farmer-led breeding practices. The cultivation of rice landraces
tailored to specific seasons in Tamil Nadu not only ensures food security but also preserves the
cultural and genetic diversity of the region. By cultivating and conserving these traditional
varieties, farmers not only maintain their cultural identity but also ensure the availability of
diverse genetic resources. The unique traits exhibited by seasonal rice landraces offer resilience
to climate variability, pests, and diseases. These landraces have the potential to contribute to
sustainable agriculture by reducing dependency on external inputs and promoting agroecological practices. Moreover, their nutritional qualities and distinct flavours contribute to the
culinary traditions and gastronomic heritage of Tamil Nadu (Sivakumar et al., 2021).
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
Article ID: AG-VO3-I08-12
RICE LANDRACES FOR DIFFERENT SEASONS OF
TAMIL NADU
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Tailored for Varied Seasonal and Maturation Periods
As we strive to address global health challenges and promote well-being, recognizing the
nutraceutical value of rice landraces becomes increasingly crucial. Incorporating these varieties
into our diets offers an opportunity to embrace traditional knowledge, support local food
systems, and reap the nutritional benefits they provide. In this article, we explore the significance
of rice landraces for different seasons in Tamil Nadu and their contributions to sustainable
agriculture and cultural heritage preservation security (Panda et al., 2013, Balasubramaniam et
al., 2019 and Krishnan et al., 2022).
I. EXTRA EARLY RICE LANDRACES (90-100 days)
1. ARUPATHAM KURUVAI
Suitable for transplanting during Kuruvai
and Navarai seasons. The grains are short
and bold. Due to the presence of high
Iron and fibre content, it will cure
anaemia and constipation. This rice
strengthen our nerves and given to neuro
patients.
2. VARAPPU KUDANCHAN Suitable for transplanting during Kuruvai
and Navarai seasons. The root of this
landrace grows deep and even penetrates
the bund in search of water. Preferred for
making Idli and Dosa. The grains are
bold. Having a high level of Iron and
recommended for anaemic patients. It has
high fibre content and it is used to
prevent constipation. This rice also
strengthen our nerves and given for
nervous disorders.
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II. EARLY RICE LANDRACES (100-120 days)
1. KULLA KAR Suitable for Kar and Thaladi seasons
under transplanting and wet sowing
conditions. Can tolerate drought as well as
flooded conditions. It can grow in saltaffected soils. It is moderately resistant to
pests and diseases. Suitable for Idli and
Dhosa. The grains are medium bold light
brown in colour. It is given as a nutritive
food for breastfeeding women. Cleanses
body fluid. Helpful for controlling blood
pressure, diabetes and constipation.
2. GANDASALI Suitable for transplanting during Samba
and Navarai seasons. It is having high
tillering ability and resistant to pests and
diseases. It is having good cooking
quality. The grains are very fine, medium
slender and white in clour. This rice will
maintain hormonal balance and helps to
reduce the toxic substances in the blood
and maintains the functioning of
endocrine glands. This is mostly given for
thyroid problems.
3. ARUPATHAM SAMBA
Suitable for transplanting during Kuruvai
and Navarai seasons. The grains are white
with red spots and bold in size, suitable
for idli making and for festive snacks.
Due to the presence of high Iron and fibre
content, it is given for anaemic and
constipation conditions. This is
recommended for neuro patients also.
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III. MEDIUM DURATION RICE LANDRACES (130-140 days)
1. KAR ARISI Suitable for transplanting during Kar
season. Not affected even in submerged
condition. The plant will flower,
fertilise and grains will mature even in
submerged condition and get ready for
harvest. Grains will not germinate in
submerged conditions. The grains are
dark brown and bold. It will strengthen
our muscles and can cure Paralysis. This
rice act as medicine for curing skin
diseases.
4. KUDAVAZHAI
Suitable for transplanting during Samba
season. We can grow this landrace in
command areas in all three rice growing
seasons. Can tolerate saline water also.
Suitable for Idli and Dosa making. The
grains are medium bold and reddish black
in colour. Will give remedies for high
Blood Pressure, Diabetes, Constipation,
Stomach ulcer and Indigestion problems.
5. VELLAI CHITHIRAIKAR
Suitable for transplanting during the
Navarai season. This variety can grow
well even in Sandy clay loam soil. The
grains are white medium slender, suitable
for meals and for festive occasions. It rich
in minerals and vitamins. It is liked by
people of all ages for its taste and health
benefits.
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2. KARUNG KURUVAI Suitable for Kuruvai and Navarai
Seasons We can prepare Idli, Dosa and
other regular food items. Suitable for
ice-briyani. It is resistant to major pests
and diseases. The grains are dark brown
and medium bold. This rice is given as
special food to Pregnant ladies for
developing healthy foetus and for
normal delivery. Diabetic patients can
have this rice as it releases sugar slowly.
Siddha doctors are recommending this
landrace for curing Elephantiasis.
3. SALEM SANNA Suitable for transplanted condition
during Samba season. It gives higher
yields in fertile soil. This rice is
specially used for making popped rice.
The grains are short slender and white in
colour. Having high fibre content and is
recommended for diabetic patients. It
contains high levels of Magnesium,
Calcium and Iron.
4. MYSORE MALLI Suitable for transplanted condition
during Navarai season. It is tolerant to
major pests and diseases. The grains are
medium slender and yellowish white in
colour. The cooked rice is pure white in
colour. Rice is easily digestible and
recommended for juveniles. The starch
derived after cooking will improve our
immunity power.
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5. KATTUYANAM Suitable for direct sown as well as
transplanted conditions during Samba
season. It can grow up to 7 feet tall and
it can hide even an Elephant. Because
of its height, it got the name
Kattuyanam. Grow well in lowland
areas. The grains are dark red and
medium bold. It is suitable for Icebriyani (fermented rice) and rich in
antioxidants can prevent diabetes and
cancer.
IV. LONG DURATION RICE LANDRACES (140-150 days)
1. KAIVARA SAMBA Suitable for all seasons. Grow well in
drought as well as in water-logged
conditions. The grains are medium bold
and brown in colour. We can make food
items like Pori, Idli, Dosa and
Idiyappam. Having resistance against
major pests and diseases. The grains are
short and bold. Having essential
minerals like Calcium, Magnesium,
Zinc, Potassium and Iron in appropriate
proportions. This rice contain folic acid,
which is highly essential for embryo
development. The antioxidant content is
more and can cure neuro related
problems.
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2. SIVAPPU KAVUNI Suitable for direct sowing in semi-dry
conditions and also for transplanting
during the Samba season. The grains are
medium bold and red in colour. It can
grow well in waterlogged conditions and
in alkaline soils. It is suitable for Idly,
Dosa, Aval, Puttu and other popular
food items. The grains are medium bold.
It is considered a Royal food because of
its special qualities like high mineral
content (K, Mg, and Zn) and medicinal
properties.
3. KARUPPU KAVUNI Suitable for transplanting during Samba
season. It can grow well in alkaline as
well as water stagnated conditions. We
can prepare Idly, Dosa and sweet food
items. The grains are dark brown or
black in colour and medium bold. It is
considered a Royal food because of its
special qualities like high mineral
content (K, Mg, and Zn) and medicinal
properties. Considered medicinal rice as
it cures cancer.
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4. CHINNAR Suitable for transplanted rice and semidry direct sown conditions during samba
season. It performs well under irrigated
condition. It is moderately tolerant to
pests and diseases. The grains are white
and medium slender and suitable for
Idli, dosa, meals and snacks. This is rich
in iron, zinc, potassium and calcium.
This rice cleanses the body, blood and
intestine. It cures joint pains.
5. VAADAN SAMBA Suitable for direct sown and transplanted
conditions of Samba season. It is
tolerant to major pest and diseases. The
grains are dull white in colour and
medium slender. It is suitable for
making Pongal and snack items. This
rice is recommended for infants for its
ease of digestion. The rice gruel of this
variety can cure Jaundice and dysentry.
V. EXTRA LONG DURATION RICE LANDRACES (150-180 days)
1. GARUDAN SAMBA Suitable for both direct sown as well as
transplanted conditions during Samba
season. It is aving good cooking quality
and suitable for preparation of Idly,
Dosa, Idiyappam and other breakfast
recipes. The grains are white and
medium slender. It will give strength to
our body, have high Iron content and
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will cure anaemia and urinary infections.
2. MAPPILAI SAMBA Suitable for direct sown condition in
semi-dry areas. It requires only limited
attention and resistant to major pests and
diseases. The grains are light brown
medium bold. This rice is specifically
recommended for newly married
Bridegrooms to strengthen their muscles
and improve their vitality. It improves
digestion and cures mouth and stomach
ulcers. Diabetic patients can also have
this rice.
3. POONKAR Suitable for direct sown as well as
transplanted conditions for all seasons. It
is a climate resilient landrace that can
withstand extremes of climate changes
and it is highly drought tolerant. The
grains are light red and medium bold. It
is rich in Iron and antioxidants and
recommended for pregnant women and
breastfeeding mothers.
4. THANGA SAMBA Suitable for transplanting during Samba
and late samba season. This rice is suited
for Pulav making. The grains are white
and long slender. This rice is
recommended as a cure for skin diseases
and to improve our immunity. The name
Thanga Samba is due to its property of
making the skin glow if this rice is taken
regularly.
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5. VELLAI MILAGU SAMBA Suitable for the Samba season and
requires very less water. Preferred for
Idli and Pongal making. The grains are
greyish white and round bold. This
landrace will induce appetite and cure
headaches. It will also improve digestion
and helps in excretion of toxic
substances from our body.
Recommended for body builders and
Wrestlers.
VI. VERY EXTRA LONG DURATION (> 200 days)
1. SIVAPPU KAAR
It is a whole-grain rice variety with a
reddish-brown colour, medium slender
and have a slightly nutty taste. It is
grown in the mountainous regions of
Tamil Nadu and neighbouring states. It
is grown at nearly 9,000 feet above sea
level and irrigated with mineral-rich
waters.
OTTADAIYAN This rice is also grown in hills of Tamil
Nadu. They are tall and sturdy, allowing
them to withstand heavy rainfall and
waterlogging during the monsoon
season. The grains are brown in colour,
medium bold, aromatic and have a
distinct flavour, making them popular
for culinary purposes.
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Conclusion
Rice landraces tailored to the different seasons of Tamil Nadu play a significant role in
ensuring food security, promoting sustainable agriculture and preserving the region's cultural and
genetic diversity. These locally adapted varieties have withstood the test of time, exhibiting
resilience to varying climatic conditions and providing staple food for generations. As we strive
for a more sustainable and resilient agricultural system, recognizing and supporting the
cultivation of seasonal rice landraces is essential for preserving biodiversity, cultural heritage
and ensuring a sustainable food production in Tamil Nadu. Rice landraces are not only a source
of sustenance but also a treasure trove of nutraceutical compounds, essential nutrients, and
cultural heritage. By celebrating and preserving these diverse rice varieties, we can unlock their
potential in promoting health, fostering sustainable agriculture, and maintaining our connection
to the rich tapestry of our culinary traditions. Embracing rice landraces is not only a step towards
nourishing ourselves but also towards honoring and preserving the invaluable legacy of our
agricultural heritage.
References
Balasubramanian, A.V., Vijayalakshmi, K., Parimala, K., Subhashini Sridhar, Subramanian, K.
and Manikandan, R. (2019). Traditional rice varieties of Tamil Nadu: A source book,
The Centre for Indian Knowledge System (CKIS).
Krishnan, V., Anuratha, A., Thamzharasi, M. and Anandhan, T. (2022). Special attributes of
Land races, Pachai Bhoomi, ISBN 978-81-955977-5-8.
Panda, D. and Sarkar, R. K. (2013) Characterization of Leaf Gas Exchange and Anti-oxidant
Defense of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Cultivars Differing in Submergence Tolerance Owing
to Complete Submergence and Consequent Re-aeration. Agricultural Research 2:301–
308.
Sivakumar, P., Chitra M., Gatta, V.V., Harshavardini K., Karunakaran, V. and Velayutham, A.
(2021). Exploration of traditional rice (Oryza sativa L.) land races: Scope for the future
sustainable food production. The Pharma Innovation Journal 10: 1039-1043.
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Arasakumar, E., Vasanth, V., Nilav Ranjan Bora and Gajjala Nitish
Department of Sericulture, Forest College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Mettupalayam – 641 301.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Mulberry (Morus spp.) of Moraceae family is regarded as a unique plant on this earth due to its
broader geological distribution across the continents; ability to be cultivated in different forms;
multiple uses of leaf foliage and its positive impact in environmental safety approaches such as
ecorestoration of degraded lands, bioremediation of polluted sites, conservation of water,
prevention of soil erosion and improvement of air quality by carbon sequestering. Mulberry is
also used as a medicinal plant in improving and enhancing the life of human beings by utilizing
the biologically active pharmacokinetic compounds found in leaf, stem and root parts. Further
industrial exploitation of mulberry through preparation of various products in pharmaceutical,
food, cosmetic and health care industries has gained the attention of industrialists. As mulberry is
being exploited by sericulture, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food and beverage industries along
with its utilization in environmental safety approach; it is appropriate to call it as a most suitable
plant for sustainable development. Through this review paper, all the important characteristics of
mulberry were put together for considering it as an ideal plant in providing sustainable future.
Key words: Mulberry leaves, mulberry fruits, mulberry root, by-products.
Introduction
Natural products have always been a rich source of biologically active compounds [1–3].
These substances present in fruits and vegetables have received increasing attention because of
their antioxidant properties and potential strategy in reducing the risk of certain types of diseases
such as metabolic syndrome [1,4,5]. About 50% of the drugs approved are natural products [5].
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A REVIEW ON BY-PRODUCTS OF MULBERRY
SPECIES
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About 80% of the populations living in many countries rely on the phytomedicines and the plantderived drug market is estimated to reach approximately $35 billion in 2020 [5,6]. Mulberry
(Morus alba L.) belongs to the Morus genus of the Moraceae family [7]. Mulberry is also known
as Ramulus Mori or Sangzhi [8]. To date, this genus has 24 species and 100 varieties that have
been known [7]. Mulberry is a species native to China and has been widely cultivated in many
regions including Asia, Africa, America, Europe and India [9]. China has planted mulberry for
more than 5000 years and mulberry is a traditional Chinese edible fruit that can be eaten fresh
[10]. According to Antioxidants 2018, 7, 69; doi:10.3390/antiox7050069
www.mdpi.com/journal/antioxidantsAntioxidants 2018, 7, 69 2 of 13 traditional Chinese
Medicine, mulberry fruits are used to improve eyesight and protect against liver damage [11].
They are grown to feed silkworms [12,13].
The season of fresh mulberry fruit in China is usually less than 1 month. Mulberry fruits
are difficult to preserve because they have high water content (i.e., ~80%) [11]. Mulberry has
been used in traditional Oriental medicine to treat diabetes and premature white hair [14].
Mulberry fruits are appetising and low in calories [15]. Mulberry fruits have a sour taste with a
pH < 3.5, providing a more concentrated flavour for fruit production and fresh-eating [16].
Mulberry fruits possess several potential pharmacological properties including anti-cholesterol,
anti-diabetic, antioxidative and anti-obesity effects [8,17–19]. These pharmacological properties
are due to the presence of polyphenol compounds including anthocyanins, however, different
colours of mulberry fruits even from the same species may have different amounts of
anthocyanins [20]. Cyanidin-3-rutinoside and cyanidin-3-glucoside are the major anthocyanins
isolated from mulberry fruits [21,22]. Although different mulberry varieties with the same
genotype are likely to have differences in nutritional values and pharmacological properties [23],
the aim of this work was to review some potential roles of mulberry fruits (Morus alba L.) and
their bioactive compounds in health. Also, some of the potential mechanisms of their actions will
be discussed briefly. We hope that this work would provide a valuable reference resource for
future studies in this area.
Mulberry leaves
Mulberry (Morus spp.) leaves have long been the traditional feed for the silkworm
(Bombyx mori). There is evidence that sericulture started about 5000 years ago and hence the
domestication of mulberry. One of these is having food and beverages made of herbs, and it has
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been scientifically proved that their equal or better than those made chemically, but have no side
effects on health. Mulberry leaves are used for the preparation of decoction known as mulberry
tea. Mulberry tea is a very common drink because of its anti-diabetic and cholesterol reducing
properties. A decoction of leaves is also used as gargle in infection of throat. Mulberry leaves
used fresh or dried, causes dropping of the blood sugar level and reduction of arterial pressure.
The leaves are diaphoretic and emollient. Mulberry crop could be well utilized for the
preparation of mulberry tea. The corporate sectors manufacturing the commercial tea may find
the possibilities of manufacturing and marketing mulberry tea which may add a new
dimension to sericulture industry.
Mulberry leaves as a source of juice
Mulberry leaves are used to obtain diverse food products (sweet products, bread,
refreshment juices, and natural additives). Leaf juice keeps skin smooth, healthy and prevent
throat infections, irritations and inflammations. The leaf juice of Morus species has refrigerant
and laxative properties. It is also used as febrifuge in diarrhoea, cold, endemic, malaria and
amoebiasis.
Mulberry leaves as a source of forage for live stock
Mulberry has the potential to play a valuable role in world agriculture. It is an extremely
versatile plant that can fulfill a number of roles in smallholder agricultural production. Its value
is multifaceted and the potential for increasing and diversifying its use is enormous. Even though
there have not been conducted any systematic researches on the use of mulberry leaves for the
domestic animals feeding. There are many countries where mulberry is utilized traditionally as a
feed in mixed forage diets for ruminants, such as in certain areas of India, China, Afghanistan,
Bulgaria, Georgia, Azerbaijan etc. In Italy there have been several studies on the use of mulberry
for dairy cows and other domestic animals and in France a research project was undertaken to
introduce mulberry in livestock production. However, it was only in the 1980s that surprising
that a plant that has been improved for leaf quality and yield to feed the silkworm, which has
high nutritional feed requirements, has received such limited attention from livestock
producers, technicians and researchers. Mulberry has been shown to have a considerable
potential for feeding goats, both from the biological and economic points of view, since it is
well accepted by these animals. The leaf of M. alba contains 22-23% protein and yield leaf
human nutrition.
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Mulberry leaves are relished by sheep and goats and have a high nutritive value with a
protein content of about 20 percent of DM. Observed that dairy heifers had higher
voluntary intake, and thus higher potential of milk production, when consuming mulberry
fodder rather than the cassava tree (Manihot glaziovii) and Leucaena (Leucaena diversifolia).
Mulberry leaves could be considered as an appropriate supplement for sheep fed by a basal diet
of ammoniated straw, replacing partially or totally the oilseed meals, which could be used in
monogastric diets.However, there is little information on this subject. The effect of
supplementing mulberry leaves ad libitum to concentrate diets of Angora rabbits on wool
production has been studied. The results indicated that mulberry leaves could be advantageously
incorporated in the diets of Angora rabbits for wool production. Mulberry leaves can also be
used in poultry rations. Incorporation of shade-dried mulberry leaves in layers‟ mash to the extent of 6
percent showed an increase in egg production with desirable yolk color without any adverse
effect on body weight and egg quality. Mulberry leaves, owing to their high carotene content,
can form a valuable source of vitamin A for the health of poultry birds and increased egg
production.
Mulberry leaves as a source of medicine
Mulberry leaf contains 13.53% of protein, 3.53% of fat and 13.73% of fibre content.
They also contain flavones protein concentration (5-6 g/100g fresh). The protein has future
supplementary protein food sources for glycosides, astragalin, isoquercitrin, quercetin 3-o (6‟- oacetyl)-beta-D-glycoside. The health giving properties of mulberry leaf are recognized for its
diuretic, blood sugar and blood pressure reducing effects. New pharmacological benefits of
mulberry leaf against serious like Alzheimer‘s disease, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia are
reported. Mulberry leaf has sweet, bitter and cold properties. In Chinese traditional medicine its
function is to clear lung heat (which is manifested as red, painful and watery eyes). It is also
used to stop bleeding especially in patients who are vomiting blood. In addition, in vitro studies
have shown that decoctions from fresh mulberry leaf can inhibit the progress of several
bacteria including Streptococcus aureus and Hemolytic streptococcus. Further, studies have
reported that mulberry leaf extracts can also play a role in the management and treatment of
diabetes.
Mulberry leaves could be used for production of tea and included in some
medicines as well. Recent research has shown improvements in elephantiasis (enlargement and
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thickening of tissues) when treated with leaf extract injections and in tetanus (an acute infectious
disease characterized by tonic spasm of voluntary muscles especially of the jaw and caused by
the specific toxin of a bacterium (Clostridium tetani) which is usually introduced through a
wound following oral doses of the sap mixed with sugar. The leaves are antibacterial, astringent,
diaphoretic (increase perspiration), hypoglycaemic (abnormal decrease of sugar in the blood),
odontalgic (relating to or marked by toothache) and ophthalmic (related or situated near the eye).
They are taken internally in the treatment of colds, influenza, eye infections and nose bleeds.
The 1-butanol extract of mulberry leaves inhibits the oxidative modification of low density
lipoprotein and prevent against atherosclerosis. The active biomolecules which play vital role in
oxidative modification is Isoquercitrin. Another two new Diels Alder adduct were isolated form
callus tissues of leaves of M. alba named as Mulberrofuran T and Kwanon E. The leaves of
Morus bombycis also contain N-methyl- 1 – deoxynojinimycin which is used against diabetes
mellitus. This compound also inhibits the infectivity of human immune deficiency virus. Leaf
decoction of Morus australis is given as a gargle to soothe inflamed vocal cords. Evidence
suggests that amyloidal beta-peptide (1-42) plays an important role in the etiology Alzheimer‟s
disease, forming plaques and fibrils disturbing the neuron network in the brain. The result suggests that mulberry
leaf extract provides viable treatment against Alzheimer‟s disease through inhibition of amyloidal beta- peptide
(1-42) fibril formation and attenuation of neurotoxicity induced by amyloidal beta- peptide.
Mulberry Fruits
Mulberry is grown worldwide. Its leaves are used to feed the silkworms which in turn
produce silk fiber. Besides using the leaves, mulberry bears sweet fruit. The full-bodied flavor of
this fruit is a good balance of sweetness and tastiness with nutrient elements of vital importance
for human metabolism. If these fruits are industrially exploited for various commercially
valuable products, mulberry can become an important crop throughout the world. Mulberry
can be used for making jam, jelly, pulp, fruit drink, fruit sauce, cake, fruit tea, fruit
powder, fruit wine, food colorant, diabetes control agent and as ruminant livestock feed. It
can also be used in the pharmaceutical industry. It opens a new vista for industrial exploitation
of mulberry fruits worldwide. Such a use of the mulberry has been overlooked for the sake of
using only mulberry leaf for the sericulture industry.
Mulberry Roots
The Morus species is known especially for the utilization of leaves in sericulture
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whereas different parts of plant can be a source for obtaining some of the active pharmacological
products. In conformity with plant parts, the chemical composition of vegetal material is
different. Mulberry root bark is used in traditional medicine, especially in Asian regions.
Modern medicine has confirmed the therapeutic potential of the products obtained from Morus
sp. root bark, products which have a specific pharmaceutical activity of some fractions obtained
from mulberry root bark containing components soluble in water and alcohol. The studies from
the last years present the identification and isolation from Morus sp. root bark of many
chemical compounds of different classes with pharmaceutical activity, which can be used in
therapeutics.
Mulberry Twigs Branches and Wood Stem
A lot of mulberry branches are left after silkworm rearing. This can be composted
successfully, independently or together with other remnants from silkworm rearing and can be
used as good organic fertilizer. One of main sources of non-commercial fuel for sericulture
farmers are dry mulberry branches after silkworm rearing and mulberry tree wood. In India
near 64% of generated energy is used for family purposes and part of noncommercial fuel is
covered by mulberry branches. Mulberry twig branches and wood stem are used in cosmetics–
for hair lotions; moisture products for skin, paper industry, wood processing – for furniture, as
fuel, in the food industry – for natural coloring, alcohol ennobling and in the textile industry–for
making the so called ―artificial cotton‖. Because tyrosinase catalyzes melanin synthesis, tyrosinase inhibitors
are important in cosmetic skin-whitening. Oxidative stress contributes to skin aging and can
adversely affect skin health, which means antioxidants active in skin cells may support skin
health. The thick stem of mulberry can be used as materials for the preparation of pens and can
be used as medium grade fuel wood in rural areas. Thin and soft twigs can be used to prepare
baskets; dried twigs along with dried leaves are used in compost. The milky juice exuded by the
mulberry is effective against the action of certain bacteria and yeast. Mulberry has the fibre
in the part of bark, the farmers often used instead of rope. The stem bark is used for paper
pulp especially in China and Europe, The bark is digested with 14% caustic soda and 5%
bleaching powder gives a product pulp obtained as white and soft fibre suitable for use in textile
industry.
Mulberry in Phyto Remediation
The development of moriculture as an ecological landscape technology shall be an
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important approach for the sericulture re-launch. There have been put the beginning of using the
mulberry for phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted soils. It was detected that regardless
the high contents of lead the cocoon shells and silk were negligible. Therefore, it is concluded
that the mulberry silkworm producing system could be used as a biological method of cleaning
and utilization of heavy metal polluted soils. There were made researches regarding mulberry
plants utilization for phytoregenerable activity (environment decontamination, polluted with
traffic Pb), phytopharmaceutical (therapeutic products obtained from mulberry roots, fruits and
leaves), agro alimentary production (semi-finished sugar product from mulberry fruit and proteic
concentrate out of mulberry leaves). Lately, it was evaluated that the economic potential of
Morus plants as regenerable energy source, for an intensive cultivation system.
Biogas production
Studies had been conducted on the characterization of mulberry leaves for biogas
and comparison of these values with other tree. Degradation of biogas was studied by the
in vitro gas production technique showed that the potential biogas production in young
leaves was 60.6 ml/200 mg while the rate of degradation was 0.0703.The corresponding
values for the mature leaves were 35.4 ml and 0.0624 respectively, indicating the fall in
fermentability with maturity. The potential gas production for the young leaves was highest
among the forages studied and the rate of biogas production lower compared with only Moringa
oleifera, suggesting high nutritive value of the young leaves. The fermentability of the mature
leaves was also high and comparable with Leucaena leaves. The high rate of biogas production
for mulberry indicates high intake potential of this forage.
Conclusion
From hundreds of years, mulberry plant was mainly recognised across the world as a
food plant for silkworms (Bombyx mori.L). But as discussed above, this plant is now considered
as a multipurpose plant by utilizing in environmental safety approach, promotion of human
health and in promoting animal husbandry through quality milk production and enhanced meat
production. As mulberry has huge role in environmental cleanup through bioremediation of
polluted sites (land, air and water) and carbon sequestration; this plant species should be
recommended by the respective authorities for plantation drive across the cities/urban areas (as it
can be cultivated across the globe) along the road sides and in social forestry for increasing the
green cover and reduction of pollution. At present, ecological safety and sustainable
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development has become one of the important components of world‘s safety and hence mulberry
plants should be potentially exploited to address the ecological issues. Similarly, more emphasis
should be given by the researchers and industrialists to exploit the mulberry at large scale for the
health benefits of humans, economic generation and for environmental protection. By
considering all the facts of mulberry i.e. role in sericulture industry, role in health promotion of
humans, role in soil conservation, role in ecorestoration of degraded lands, role in bioremediation
of polluted sites, role in carbon sequestration, role in animal husbandry, role in nanoparticle
synthesis, role in industrial utilization and economic empowerment of people; it can be
considered as a most suitable and beneficial plant for sustainable future.
References
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Ana, L.Z., Tatianne, Ana, D.M., Anderson, P.D., Larissa, C., Edesio, A.B., Dilamara, L.S.,
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8. Andallu, B., Varadacharyulu, N., 2002. Control of hyperglycemia and retardation of
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Biol. 40, 791–795.
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9. Andallu, B., Suryakantham, V., Lakshmi, B., Reddy, G.K., 2001. Effect of mulberry
(Morus indica L.) therapy on plasma and erythrocyte membrane lipids in patients with type
2 diabetes. Clin. Chim. Acta 314, 47–53.
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streptozotocin-diabetes: amelioration by Morus indica L. cv Suguna leaves. Int. J. Diabetes
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effect of quercetin in primary neurons against A?(1–42): relevance to Alzheimer‘s disease.
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*
1
S.Abisha, 1V VAkash Kumar and 2Dr.P.Anbarasan
*1B.Sc.(Hons)Agriculture 3rd Year, School of Agricultural Innovations and Advanced Learning
(VAIAL), Vellore Institute of Technology - Vellore, Tamil Nadu
2Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Agricultural Extension and Economics, School of
Agricultural Innovations and Advanced Learning (VAIAL), Vellore Institute of Technology –
Vellore, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Agriculture and horticulture are essential components of our global food system, providing
sustenance for billions of people and contributing to economic development. However, the
challenges posed by climate change, resource constraints, and increasing food demand have
necessitated the adoption of innovative practices and technologies in both sectors. This
comprehensive article delves into the world of agriculture and horticulture, exploring their
importance, historical significance, current challenges, and cutting-edge advancements. By
embracing sustainable practices and leveraging technology, we can ensure a resilient and
thriving food production system for future generations.
Introduction
Agriculture and horticulture are foundational pillars of human civilization, driving the
sustenance and economic prosperity of societies for thousands of years. They have evolved
significantly over time, adapting to various environmental and societal changes. However, the
modern era presents new challenges, such as climate change, population growth, and the
depletion of natural resources, which necessitate innovative solutions to ensure the sustainability
of our food production systems. In this article, we delve into the realm of agriculture and
horticulture, discussing their historical significance, contemporary challenges, and the promising
innovations that can pave the way for a food-secure future.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE
IN SHAPING INDIA'S FUTURE FARMING
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1. Historical Perspective:
Early Agricultural Practices: Explore the origins of agriculture and horticulture, from the
domestication of plants to early cultivation techniques used by ancient civilizations such as
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley.
Agricultural Revolution: Examine the significant shift from hunter-gatherer societies to settled
agricultural communities during the Neolithic revolution, and the advancements that led to the
development of agriculture as we know it today.
The Green Revolution: Dive into the mid-20th-century agricultural transformation, driven by
technological innovations such as high-yielding crop varieties, synthetic fertilizers, and
pesticides, and its impact on global food production.
Modern Horticulture: Trace the emergence of horticulture as a specialized field within
agriculture, encompassing practices such as fruit and vegetable cultivation, ornamental
horticulture, and landscape design.
2. Importance of Agriculture and Horticulture
Global Food Security: Highlight the critical role of agriculture and horticulture in meeting the
nutritional needs of a growing global population, and the challenges faced in providing adequate
and nutritious food for all.
Economic Impact: Analyze the economic contributions of agriculture and horticulture to
national and global economies, including their role in employment generation and income
generation for rural communities.
Social and Cultural Significance: Explore the social and cultural dimensions of agriculture and
horticulture, examining their influence on traditions, festivals, and practices in various societies
around the world.
3. Current Challenges:
Climate Change: Detail the effects of climate change on agriculture and horticulture, including
altered precipitation patterns, rising temperatures, and the increased frequency of extreme
weather events, and discuss strategies to mitigate and adapt to these challenges.
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Resource Constraints: Examine the strain on natural resources such as water, land, and soil,
and the importance of sustainable resource management practices to ensure long-term
productivity.
Biodiversity Loss: Discuss the impact of monoculture and industrial agriculture on biodiversity
loss and the potential consequences for food security and ecosystem health.
Food Waste: Analyze the scale of food waste across the agricultural and horticultural supply
chains and propose strategies to reduce waste and improve food distribution systems.
4. Sustainable Agriculture and Horticulture
Organic Farming: Explore the principles of organic farming, including the avoidance of
synthetic inputs and the promotion of biodiversity, and discuss its benefits for soil health and
environmental conservation.
Precision Agriculture: Detail the use of technology, such as GPS, sensors, and data analytics, to
optimize resource use, improve crop management, and increase overall efficiency in agricultural
practices.
Permaculture: Describe the permaculture design principles that emphasize the integration of
natural systems to create sustainable, self-sufficient, and regenerative agricultural landscapes.
Agroforestry: Examine the benefits of integrating trees with agricultural and horticultural crops
to promote biodiversity, soil fertility, and climate resilience.
5. Technological Advancements
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: Explore the use of genetic engineering to enhance
crop traits, improve disease and pest resistance, and address specific agricultural challenges,
while considering the ethical and environmental implications.
Drones and Robotics: Detail the applications of drones and robots in agriculture and
horticulture, including crop monitoring, planting, harvesting, and the potential for reducing labor
and resource costs.
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Internet of Things (IoT): Discuss how IoT technologies can facilitate data collection, real-time
monitoring, and decision-making in precision agriculture, leading to more efficient resource
utilization and improved yields.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Analyze the potential of AI in agriculture, from predictive analytics
for crop management to autonomous farming machinery and its role in optimizing the entire
agricultural value chain.
6. Horticulture Innovations
Hydroponics and Aeroponics: Describe the soilless cultivation methods of hydroponics and
aeroponics, their advantages in resource efficiency, and their potential to revolutionize urban
agriculture.
Vertical Farming: Discuss the concept of vertical farming, its potential for maximizing land use
in urban areas, and its role in ensuring a consistent supply of fresh produce throughout the year.
Greenhouse Technologies: Explore the various types of greenhouses, their benefits in creating
controlled environments for crop growth, and their impact on extending growing seasons and
protecting plants from adverse weather conditions.
Biotechnology in Horticulture: Examine the applications of biotechnology in horticulture,
including tissue culture, genetic modification of ornamental plants, and the development of
disease-resistant fruit and vegetable varieties.
7. The Role of Government and Policy
Agricultural Subsidies: Analyze the impact of government subsidies on agriculture and
horticulture, including their influence on farming practices, environmental sustainability, and
food accessibility.
Research and Development: Discuss the importance of government-funded research initiatives
and collaborations with private sectors to drive innovation and address key challenges in
agriculture and horticulture.
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International Cooperation: Explore the need for global cooperation and partnerships to address
common agricultural and horticultural challenges, such as climate change, food security, and
sustainable resource management.
8. Future Prospects
Climate-Resilient Crops: Discuss ongoing efforts to develop crop varieties that can withstand
climate change-induced stresses, such as drought, heat, and pests, to ensure food security in the
face of a changing climate.
Urban Agriculture: Examine the potential of urban agriculture in addressing food security,
reducing food miles, and enhancing the resilience of urban communities against supply chain
disruptions.
Circular Economy: Discuss the concept of a circular economy in agriculture and horticulture,
which aims to minimize waste, maximize resource efficiency, and create closed-loop systems for
sustainable food production.
Artificial Intelligence Advancements: Explore the potential future applications of AI in
agriculture and horticulture, including machine learning-driven pest management, crop disease
detection, and yield prediction.
Conclusion
As we move forward into an uncertain future, the significance of agriculture and
horticulture in securing our food supply cannot be overstated. By embracing sustainable
practices and leveraging cutting-edge technologies, we can overcome the challenges that lie
ahead and create a thriving and resilient food production system. Governments, businesses,
researchers, and individuals must work in tandem to advance agriculture and horticulture,
safeguarding food security and sustainability for generations to come. Only through collective
efforts can we ensure a bountiful and food-secure world.
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R.S. Telem*1
, N. Muhindro Singh2
, N. Jyotsna 3
, Deepak Kumar4
, Y. Kennedy5
and Romila
Akoijam6
1,2,3,4&5Krishi Vigyan Kendra- Senapati, Manipur
4
ICAR RC NEH Region Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal, Manipur
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Pig farming is one of the major activities to the tribal people of Manipur, India. Most of
the people of the North Eastern Region of India are non-vegetarian and among them an
appreciable amount of people eat pork. Admist the several livestock species, piggery is most
potential source of meat production and more efficient feed converters after the broiler. Besides
providing meat, it is also a source of bristles and manure. Pig farming will furnish employment
opportunities to seasonally employed rural farmers and additional income to improve their
livelihood. Pigs contribute about 1.7% of the total livestock population of the country. NE
Region alone addressed for 38.42% of the total pig population of India. Assam own highest 1.63
million (15.89%) of the total population of India (10.29 millions). There is an growing demand
for animal protein in the NE Region. The meat providing animals like sheep, goat and chicken
only cannot attain the requirement of animal protein. Thus there is an enormous demand for pork
in this region. On account of some biological advantages like prolificacy, speedy growth, short
generation interval, dressing percentage etc. the pig plays a pivotal role for escalating meat
production in this region. Black coloured pigs like Hampshire, Large black and crosses are more
popular among the farmers in Assam. Pig husbandry can become a means of sustenance among
the farmers having little landholding with low per capita income.
Albert Loshuo, age 33 years, of Kathiko Karong village, Senapati district, Manipur, says,
―Piglets production is a lucrative enterprise‖. He, along with 5 youths of the village, started pig
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SUCCESS STORY ON PIGLETS PRODUCTION: A
LUCRATIVE ENTERPRISE
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breeding unit in the year 2016 as beneficiaries of ICAR sponsored project (ARYA) implemented
by KVK-Senapati, Manipur.
Institutional Involvement
All the required supports in term of skill training, entrepreneurship training, inputs, pig
sty etc. were provided as per project action plan. The 6 youths started their entrepreneurial
journey with 11 nos. of pigs (bred Hampshire) about 8 months old (gilt=10 nos., boar =1 nos.)
possessing all the attributes for breeding purpose procured from registered farm.
Fig.1: Pig Breeding Unit at Kathikho Karong Village, Senapati District, Manipur
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Table 1: Impact analysis
Sl.
No.
Impact factor Before start of
ARYA
After adoption of
ARYA (2022)
1 Name of Enterprise Pig production Pig breeding
2 Size of enterprise (Nos of bags/bee
hives/fingerlings/area/ etc)
5 pigs 33 pigs
3 Individual/group Individual Group
4 Yield 320 kgs 132 piglets/ year
5 Cost of production/unit 0.60 Laks 2.50 Laks
6 Gross income 0.80 Laks 9.90 Laks
7 Net income 0.20 Laks 7.40 Laks
8 Marketing Middleman Local market
9 Nos of functional unit as started NA 1
10 Nos of functional unit as present NA 1
Impact
In the 1st farrowing of the enterprise, the gilts gave birth to 70 nos. of piglet in total,
about an average of 7 nos. of piglets/gilt after 5 months and 6 youths could earned a gross
income of Rs. 2.925 Laks from the sale of piglets. Later, the youths got financial support from
NABARD Senapati, Manipur, and expanded the enterprise area. Now, the youths could realize a
gross income of Rs. 9.90 lacs from the sale of 165 piglets of 5 month‘s old weaned piglets at the
rate of Rs. 6000/piglet. Now, the unit has becomes an established pig breeding unit in the district
and neighbouring districts.
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Dr. A. Thanga Hemavathy1
, Dr.R.Vinoth2
and S.Monika3
1Associate Professor (PBG), ADAC&RI, TNAU, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
2
Teaching Assistant (PBG), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
3
Ph.D Scholar, DBT JRF, Dept. of GPB, ADAC&RI, TNAU, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Crossability barriers stop fertilized ovules from developing into viable seeds or the fusion
of male and female gametes coming from individuals of different species or genera. The
obstacles also restrict the efficient use of hybrids for gene introgression. The barriers to
crossability can be divided into two main categories.
1. Pre fertilization barriers
2. Post fertilization barriers
1.Pre fertilization barriers
The successful completion of a string of related activities after pollination leads to
fertilization. Pre-fertilization barriers stop post-pollination processes at one or more levels, then
preventing fertilization. Pollen germination or pollen tube entry into the stigma is stopped by pre
fertilization barriers on the stigma surface. This is one of the common barriers, especially in
species that are not closely related. Pollination with other species is curtailed by their natural
habitat (geographic isolation), flower structure (such as shape or colour), flowering season, or
pollen mediator that are associated in pre-zygotic barriers. Inhibition of pollen tube germination
or growth is known as inter-specific incompatibility.
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CROSSABILITY OBSTACLES IN DISTANT HYBRIDS
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In Redgram Atylosia (Cajanus), Dunbaria and Rhynchosia species, which are regarded
as the pigeonpea's wild relatives and show close relationships with Cajanus cajan. Despite the
ease with which many Cajanus species can be crossed with C. cajan, it had proven very
challenging to produce interspecific hybrids due to pre- and post-fertilization barriers that
impede the relationship between the wild species and the commercial cultivars.
In cotton, the pollen tube behaviour of four different wild species in the Gossypium
hirsutum pistils. In crosses involving Gossypium davidsonii and Gossypium thurberi, pollen
germination was significantly inhibited while it was normal in crosses involving Gossypium
triphyllum and Gossypium armourianum. However in normal cross, pollen tubes reached the
ovules and fertilization is completed at eight hours after pollination (HAP). Despite the fact that,
all four of the crosses involved in delay of pollen tube growth, successful fertilization is only
seen in the crosses involving G. triphyllum and G. armourianum because the pollen reached the
ovary at 24 HAP. Pollen tubes failed to reach the ovary even at 24 HAP in crosses with G.
davidsonii and G. thurberi, indicating the presence of severe stylar and ovarian incompatibility.
Pollen-pistil incompatibility, by which the germination of pollen grains and the growth of
pollen tubes of one species are inhibited in the pistils of another, is a very frequent pre zygotic
reproductive barrier reported in many interspecific crosses. Proteins are necessary for
pollen germination, pollen tube growth, and the release of substances involved in compatibility
reactions from the pollen wall during pollination. A similar system may be in responsible for the
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decreased germination in crosses using G. davidsonii and G. thurberi as pollen parents. Such
self-recognition systems operate in a number of incompatible reactions in plant hybridizations.
2. Post fertilization barriers
When pollen from different species pollinates the stigma of the pistils, inter-specific
incompatibility plays a role in the post-zygotic barriers. Even if pollen germination and
fertilization were successful, post-zygotic barriers such as embryo abortion or abnormal
endosperm growth (over- and under-proliferation of endosperm) that disrupt normal seed
development may be observed . Endosperm abnormality is thought to be the cause of abortion of
the embryo. The direction of hybridization, ploidy levels of the parental species and crossspecies combination all affect endosperm abnormality.
Even after hybrid seed formation, there are still obstacles to reproduction. Hybrid
necrosis, a condition where inter-specific hybrids occasionally exhibit developmental
imperfections in comparison to their parental lines (or hybrid weakness). Additionally, the postzygotic barrier known as cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), which is caused by interactions
between nuclear genes or between the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome derived
from the mother, continues to exist. However, male sterility can occasionally be advantageous
for breeding and CMS is successfully used to collect the seeds of the F1 hybrid . By using a
genetic approach, several genes related to CMS or hybrid sterility in rice had been identified .
A successful backcross was carried out using C. platycarpus as a female parent and C.
cajan as a male parent, while the reciprocal cross failed to produce any offspring. Additionally,
the existence of post-zygotic barriers in C. platycarpus hybridization, such as embryo abortion
within 6 days after pollination.
Techniques to overcome the pre-fertilization barrier(s)
In order to introduce new genetic variation into cultivated species, interspecific and
intergeneric crosses were made. In many crops, methods had been developed for creating interspecific hybrids. Inter-specific incompatibility as a pre zygotic barrier can be overcome in a
number of ways. Brassicaceae and Solanaceae species had used the bud-pollination method,
which involves in pollinating buds of stigmas two to three days before anthesis, because it had
been hypothesized that these barriers are weaker at this early stage of floral development In
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Liliaceae, pollinating the cut section of a stigma or style (cut-style pollination method) had been
used to overcome inter-specific incompatibility at the stigma or style .In Liliaceae family, prezygotic barriers were successfully broken down by heat treatment of pistils or pollen.
References
Varshney, RK, W Chen, Y Li, AK Bharti, RK Saxena, JA Schlueter, MT Donoghue, S Azam, G
Fan, and AM Whaley. 2012. \"Draft genome sequence of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), an
orphan legume crop of resource-poor farmers.\" Nature biotechnology 30 (1):83.
Sujana, G, H Sharma, and DM Rao. 2008. \"Antixenosis and antibiosis components of resistance
to pod borer Helicoverpa armigera in wild relatives of pigeonpea.\" International Journal
of Tropical Insect Science 28 (4):191-200.
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N. Premalatha*, D. Kavithamani, M. Umadevi, K.R.V. Sathya Sheela
A. Thanga Hemavathy and S.Kavitha
Dept. of Cotton, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu -641 003, India
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Participatory plant breeding is a breeding progrmamme in collaboration with breeders,
farmers, consumers, industry etc. Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is the process by which the
producers and other stakeholders are actively involved in a plant-breeding programme, with
opportunities to make decisions throughout. The Working Group on Participatory Plant Breeding
(PPBwg) was established in 1996 under the framework of the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Research in PPB can promote informed
participation and trust in research among consumers and producers, and in recent years, PPB has
had a significant impact on food production by quickly and cost-effectively producing improved
crop varieties. Participatory plant breeding methodologies are well in the scientific literature and
they vary greatly depending on the projects resources and objectives. Participatory plant
breeding is sometimes presented as a continuous process in which farmers can participate at
different stages of varietal development such as setting breeding goals, making initial crosses,
selecting among diverse progeny, evaluating experimental varieties and disseminating seeds.
Participatory crop improvement is a set of strategies in which farmers and scientists
collaborate on plant breeding with the primary goal of effectively meeting the needs of farmers
(Ceccarelli et al., 2009). Participatory variety selection is a broad term that refers to approaches
in plant breeding that engage scientists, breeders, farmers and other stakeholders whereas
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PARTICIPATORY PLANT BREEDING: CONCEPT AND
APPLICATIONS
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participatory plant breeding is a method of plant genetic development that brings together a
variety of stakeholders such as researchers, farmers, facilitators and others (Ashby, 2009).
Participatory varietal selection was proposed as a method for identifying acceptable novel
varieties and eliminating the constraints that force famers to grow landraces or obsolete cultivars.
Farmers‗participation improved variety selection in their own production situations guarantees
that improved varieties are accepted and eventually adopted (Temesgen, 2022).
The main features of participatory plant breeding are as follows,
PPB involves breeders, farmers, consumers and processors in the development of new
crop plants.
Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) is also called as Collaborative Plant breeding (CPB),
Farmer Participatory Breeding (FPB) and Participatory Crop Improvement (PCI).
The participatory crop improvement is subdivided into two areas, viz., Participatory
Varietal Selection (PVS) and PPB. The PVS refers to selection within stable
(homozygous) lines or populations involving farmers. The PPB deals exclusively with
segregating material.
In PPB, the testing of advanced generation breeding material is carried out at both
research station and farmers fields.
Types of Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB)
The participatory plant breeding is of two types viz.,
(i) Formal led PPB : The breeding programmes initiated by research stations and later joined
by farmers refer to formal led PPB. Researchers or specifically breeders run such
programmes and invite farmer participation in formal research.
(ii) Farmer led PPB: When the breeding is initiated by famers and scientists have to support
them in selection and seed maintenance, it is called farmer led PPB. In this, farmers
decide their breeding objectives in consultation with researchers. The entire
expenditure of conducting experiments is born by the farmers. The famers led PPB
has the objective to provide varieties or populations suitable for specific local
environment.
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Objectives of Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB)
The objectives or goals of PPB are decided jointly by researchers and farmers. The major goals
of PPB are
Enhancing biodiversity and germpalsm conservation
Increasing production and profitability through development and enhanced adoption of
improved varieties.
Providing benefits to a specific type of user or addressing the needs of a broad range of
users.
Building farmers skills to enhance farmer selection and seed production efforts.
Participatory Plant Breeding programme should be implemented under following situations
Areas that are not dedicated to large scale crop production such as tribal areas and remote
areas where traditional breeding schemes are not in operation.
Marginal crop production areas, where environments are highly variable so that selection
based on G x E interaction is not the best selection strategy.
Areas where agriculture is risk prone, complex and require low input. For such situation
heterogeneous breeding populations have to be developed.
Areas where crop end uses are diverse and /or locally unique
Areas, where important major crops exist but are not the focus of formal plant breeding
efforts.
Role of farmers in Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB)
Farmers play very important role in PPB. They play key role in management, input and
information supply and skill building. These are briefly discussed below;
1. Management role: Farmers provide technical and social leadership in PPB. Farmers help
in deciding what type of varieties are to be developed to suit specific environment and
farmers need. Farmers help in selection of representative sites for testing of breeding
materials on farmers fields. Farmers also provide information about varietal preferences,
desirable traits and plant types required for cultivation in participation.
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2. Input supply role: In PPB, farmers play important role in making arrangement of
various inputs for conducting plant breeding trials at heir filed. They help in providing
following inputs.
Farmers provide representative sites (land) for testing of breeding material.
They help in arranging labour required for land preparation, sowing, intercultural
operations and harvesting of experimental material.
Farmers help in providing fertilizers, manures and insecticides at the village level.
They provide land races for use in further breeding work.
They provide their input during selection process.
3. Skill building role: Farmers also play key role in skill building. The breeders provide
training to a group of farmers in the adopted village. Then farmers give this training to
other farmers in the same village or adjacent villages and thus help in shill building.
Advantages of Participatory plant breeding
PPB is most appropriate for developing cultivars for low input and high stress conditions.
PPB permits incorporation of farmers input at all the stages of plant breeding.
Farmers are able to decide which varieties better suit their needs and conditions.
PPB gears up the speed of developing new varieties for the farmers.
It leads to rapid adoption of the new varieties by the farmers. In PPB the new varieties are
first adopted by the farmers and then released. In traditional breeding, first the variety is
released and then adopted by the farmers.
The seed of new varieties is multiplied in sufficient quantity before release so that the
seed can be made available to the farmers.
Varieties developed by PPB have greater biodiversity that can provide protection from
biotic and abiotic stresses.
In PPB, varieties are released only after monitoring their acceptance by farmers through
an initial adaptation. The seed of these trusted varieties is then multiplied.
PPB is useful in increasing knowledge and skills of farmer. As a result farmers can
participate more actively in such programmes.
Impacts of PPB:
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Higher adoption rate of PPB products such as new cultivars, agronomic and crop
protection practices.
Improved cultivar acceptable by farmers for higher stressed marginal areas.
In most remote areas of developing countries where soil is degraded and drought
is a major production problem, new varities developed and immediate adoption of
the new technologies and yield increase is achieved.
Significant changes in cultivar release procedure and seed multiplication system.
In PPB, time for testing to release of cultivar is shorter than conventional
breeding.
Participatory breeding, combined with decentralized selection, has at least two
advantages. It allows the individual farmers to (i) meet their needs for a diversified
portfolio of varieties in order to manage risk, and (2) satisfy different end uses. Also, it
allows a diverse set of farmers to meet individual needs which are themselves diverse
because of differences in wealth and agronomic conditions on their farms.
References
Ashby JA. 2009. The impact of participatory plan breeding. The breeding and farmer
participation, 649-671.
Ceccarelli S. Guimaraes EP, Weltzien E. 2009. Plant breeding and farmer participation. Food
and Agriculture organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Temesgen Begna. 2022. Importance of participatory variety selection and participatory plant
breeding in variety development and adoption. Review. Adv. Crop Sci. Tech, Vol 10 (2).
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Dr. Swati Saha
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Pune
Survey No. 125A, Baner Phata, ITI Road, Aundh, Pune-411067
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Papaya is one of the crops that can be grown to increase farmer‘s income. The inclusion of
vegetable, flower crops as an intercrop is well fitted in papaya orchard. Initial period in papaya
cultivation can be used for growing other crops as an intercrop as farmers get regular source of
income by harvesting the produce from time to time instead of waiting for the produce for a long
period as in the case of single crop.
Keywords: Papaya, intercrop, vegetables, farmer‘s income
Introduction
Horticultural crops have the inherent advantage of providing higher productivity per unit
area of land under different agro-climatic situations as compared to other crops, resulting higher
income and employment generation scopes in rural areas. The approach adopted for doubling
farmers‘ income focused on raising productivity, diversification into high-value agriculture,
reduction in cost of cultivation and providing avenues for diversification of farm employment
into non-farm high-income generating activities. Doubling farmer‘s income can be through the
following sources
1. Increase in productivity of crops
2. Increase in production of livestock
3. Improvement in efficiency of input use(cost saving)
4. Increase in crop intensity
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ENHANCING FARMER’S INCOME THROUGH PAPAYA
INTERCROP CULTIVATION
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5. Diversification towards high value crop
6. Improved price realization by farmers
7. Shift of cultivators to nonfarm jobs.
Why Intercropping is required?
When two or more crops are growing together, each should have adequate space to maximize
cooperation and reduce competition between them. This is accomplished by the following factors
namely: spatial arrangement, plant density, maturity dates of the crops grown, plant architecture.
Intercropping was originally practiced as an insurance against crop failure due to erratic changes
in the climatic conditions. But at present the objective of intercropping is higher productivity per
unit area in addition to stability in production. In this system resources are used efficiently and
productivity is increased.
The objectives of intercropping system are:
1. Insurance against crop failure under aberrant weather conditions or pest epidemics.
2. Increase in total productivity per unit land area.
3. Judicious utilization of resources such as land, labour and inputs.
Papaya is one of the cite-worthy fruit crops of the tropical region with major commercial
importance owing to its rich nutritive and medicinal value. Fruit is rich in vitamin A, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and helps to boost digestion. ‗Pepin‘, a sticky substance obtained from
unripe papaya fruit is used as an ingredient in the production of various medicines. The unripe
fruit is also used for preparing tutti-frutti which is a colorful confectionery used in various
bakery products and as toppings in desserts. Now day‘s papaya leaves are most popularly used
these days to increase the blood platelets recently against the ‗dengue‘ disease.
Intercropping in papaya orchards is beneficial but it should be limited to the early
vegetative and late fruiting phases of papaya when the Leaf Area Index (LAI) of papaya is low.
At the pre-bearing stages, when papaya plants are still young, it is profitable to grow short
duration intercrops such as onion, French bean and cowpea in summer and cauliflower, cabbage,
radish and peas in winter to add the income of the growers. Some farmers prefer to grow greenmanure crops in papaya orchard to keep the soil free from weeds and to improve the soil fertility.
The economic advantages of having inter-crops planted in papaya orchards were an additional
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yield income/unit area than sole cropping, acts as an insurance against failure of crops in
abnormal year, maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of soil
as well as reduction in soil runoff and controls weeds. The inclusion of vegetable inter-crops in
papaya orchard can be justified by the need for farmers to obtain an early yielding crop for both
the nutritive and economic reasons before the longer yielding papaya fruit crop comes into
bearing.
Climate and Soil
Being a tropical plant, low temperature and frost limit its cultivation in higher altitudes.
Excessively cold nights cause the fruits to mature slowly and to be of poor quality in winter
season. Optimum temperature range between 25-35˚C. High humidity and low temperature
affects the sweetness of the fruits. A warm and dry climate is needed during ripening season. It
cannot withstand strong winds being a tender and shallow-rooted plant.
It grows in all types of soils, except sandy, sticky or heavy clay soils. Roots are very sensitive to
water logging/standing water. During high rainfall, diseases like foot-root and root-rot occur,
which may cause the plantation to be wiped out in a short time. Hence a slightly sloppy land is
preferred to a perfectly leveled one. Hilly soil of this region is best suited, being well drained in
organic matter.
Nursery
Papaya is invariably propagated by seed. Nursery sowing should be done 2 to 2½ months
prior to the scheduled date of transplanting in the field. It is better to sow the seeds in perforated
polythene bags, 22 cm x 15 cm, and 150 gauge thick. In case of heavy and medium soils, bags
should be filled with a 1:1:1 mixture of FYM soil and sand. A potting mixture of one part soil
and one part FYM is ideal for north eastern region, having a porous soil. Treat the seeds with
Captan @ 2 g/kg of seeds. Dibble four seeds in polythene bags in depth not exceeding one cm.
Keep the polythene bags in partial shade. Watering can is done with the help of rose can. Light
watering, with a watering can, should be done every evening except on rainy days. The seeds
germinate within 2 to 3 weeks. About 250-300 g of seeds is enough to raise a sufficient number
of seedlings for planting an area of one hectare. Top dressing of seedlings in bags containing
urea or ammonium sulphate should be avoided, as this encourages damping off disease and
development of tall and lanky seedlings which are less suitable for transplantation. The main
objective of rearing the seedlings in a nursery is to obtain healthy (15 to 20 cm tall at
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transplanting stage) and stocky seedlings with a large number of fibrous roots and leaves. This is
best achieved by using good quality farm manure for making potting mixture. Seedlings will be
ready in about 60 days.
Fig.1. Papaya intercropping with different crops
Papaya Intercropped with Banana Papaya Intercropped with Chilli
Field view of Papaya intercropped with Marigold
Transplanting
Pits 50 cm in size are dug at a spacing of 2 to 2.5 metres during the first part of May. The
pits are exposed to sun for a fortnight and filled with top soil along with 20-25 kg of farm yard
manure, 1 to 1.5 kg wood ash and 1 kg bone meal in the form of mounds. In absence of rainfall,
water is added to the pots to settle down the mixture properly. Before transplantation, pits re
drenched with eldrin to avoid termite attack. When the seedlings are 15 to 20 cm tall, the bag is
cut open with a razor blade and the seedlings are transplanted in the pits in the evening. Usually
three seedlings are transplanted about 15 cm apart in each pit. Watering is essential after
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transplantation for a quick recovery from the transplanting shock. For western part of India,
period for transplanting nursery raised papaya plants into the field should be chosen such that
aphid vector population remains low during the growth stage. This helps to avoid losses due to
virus infection. Generally, transplanting in the month of February instead of June to October
helps to minimize the attack of aphids on the plants.
Short duration crops can be intercropped just after the transplanting of papaya seedlings
and few days of establishment. A trial was conducted at our station in this respect. Generally
forty to forty five days old papaya seedlings were transplanted in the field. As the seedlings are
established and two to three new leaves has emerged, seeds of leafy vegetables like methi, palak,
dhania etc or even cucurbits like pumpkin, bottle gourd, cucumber, snake gourd, squash etc or
flowers like marigold or annual chrysanthemum can be sown parallel to the papaya plants.
Cucurbits seeds are directly sown nearby to the pits while flowers like marigold were
transplanted to the pits. Line sowing was done in case of leafy vegetables in between two papaya
rows. Leafy vegetables are harvested after one to one and half months while cucurbits and flower
crops can be harvested after four to five months after sowing or transplanting.
Manuring and Interculture Operation
A five month period from transplanting to first flowering is important for nutrition of
papaya plants. The stem girth attained by a plant just before flowering decides the vigour and
productivity of a plant. If the plant remains weak during this period owing to insufficient
nutrition, production during the rest of its life is adversely affected. Therefore, fertilizers should
be applied at frequent intervals and at proper rates for building a stout and vigorous plant before
flowering, and to maintain its subsequent growth and productivity. At the time of fertilization, a
sufficient amount of moisture is essential in the soil. The fertilizers should be well mixed in
irrigation rings or basins by light digging or hoeing. Application of fertilizers should be stopped
6 months before harvesting the crop.
The papaya plant grows very quickly and comes to fruit in a year‘s time, so intercrops
can usually be taken to double the farmers income. Since it takes almost one year to harvesting,
the initial period can be utilized in growing other crops as intercrop. This will help the farmers
as a regular source of income by harvesting them time to time rather than waiting for a long
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period in case of a single crop. Only removal of weeds as well as shallow hoeing is required
whenever desired. Also as soon as the presence of male flower is detected, most of them should
be removed.
Fruit thinning is preferably done at regular fortnightly intervals to avoid overcrowding.
Due to adverse climatic conditions, flowers or fruits sometimes start dropping from the plant.
Fruits take about four to five months to reach full maturity. Fruits which ripen on the trees are of
the best quality and are suitable for table purpose as well as for local market. But for distant
markets, they are harvested when they are firm, and only the apical end has started turning
yellow. Over-ripening of fruits on trees should be avoided as it may otherwise be easily damaged
by birds. Yield per tree in a commercial plantation varies from 30 to 50 fruits per tree with an
average weight varying from 20 to 35kg per tree in this region.
Conclusion
This crop is ought to be popularized amongst Indian farmers as a nutrition-rich source for
poor; and moreover, the PRSV tolerant PS lines, are advocated as vegetable also. At the same
time incorporation of coriander, methi, drumstick etc. as a mixed cropping in the papaya field
which has given additional benefit to the income. Farmers have been benefitted by this
technology as one gets continuous source of income. He does not have to wait for a long papaya
harvest. Increase in yield or productivity of crops and other enterprises is the single most
important factor that can increase income. Since the area cannot expand much, either through
increase in net sown area or through increase in cropping intensity, enhancing the productivity is
the only route available to enhance production. Intercropping should be promoted for advancing
food, nutrition and environmental security to provide sustainability in farming and as an
adaptation strategy to changing climatic conditions. For farmers who have limited sources,
income and stability yield of agricultural systems is very important. When several crops can be
grown together, fail to produce a product, could be compensated by other crop, and thereby
reduces the risk. Risk of agronomy failure in inter cropping systems is lower than pure cropping
systems.
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Poovizhiraja, B1
., Ambiga J2
, Divya C3
, Malathi J4
, Poonguzhali S5
and Prasanthi
Mekala6
1Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Entomology, ACAR, Athimugam,
Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu
2-6 B.Sc., (Hons.) Agriculture, ACAR, Athimugam, Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Pollination is a method where pollen grains are picked from an anther, the male part of a
flower and transferred to the flower's female part, called the stigma. All plants having flowers
entirely rely on pollination methods for reproduction. There are two types of pollination – Self
Pollination and Cross-Pollination. The most important thing that bees do is pollinate. Pollination
is needed for plants to reproduce, and so many plants depend on bees or other insects as
pollinators. When a bee collects nectar and pollen from the flower of a plant, some pollen from
the stamens-the male reproductive organ of the flower-sticks to the hairs of her body. When she
visits the next flower, some of this pollen is rubbed off onto the stigma or tip of the pistil-the
flower's female reproductive organ. When this happens, fertilization is possible, and fruitcarrying seeds can develop.
Bees as pollinators
Pollination by insects is called entomophily. Honey bee pollination can enhance fruit set
(10-25%) and yield (18-100%) depending on the cultivar. Honey bees extend their proboscis into
the deep region –the source of nectar, and bees were observed pollen on their hind legs the
source of pollen. Honey bee pollination can enhance fruit set (10-25%) and fruit yield (18-100%)
depending upon the cultivar (Moeller et al. and Neupane). There are 20,000 species of wild bees
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ROBOTIC BEES AS POLLINATORS AND ROBOTIC
BEE HIVE
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in the world that contribute to pollination. 30-80% of plants are pollinated by one or more
species of stingless bees in their biomes (Kerr et al., 2001).
Difficulties
Honey bee colonies are healthier and stronger with access to pollen from diverse sources
of flowering Plants; however, floral diversity in landscapes has been reduced by intensive
agriculture. Changes in climatic patterns may also affect the seasonal availability of flowering
plants, so bees require artificial sources. Bee poisoning mainly occurs when pesticides are
applied to crops during bloom. It may also be caused by the drift of toxic chemicals bees
contacting residues of Pesticides on plants for pollen and nectar and also bees drinking.
Population decreases due to the natural enemies attack.
Robotic Bees
Robot bees, or mechanical bees, are machines designed to do the work of actual bees, like
pollinating plants and monitoring the health of bee hives. They are used to increase productivity
in the agriculture industry, particularly as the global bee population grows more fragile.
Construction
RoboBees are artificial systems that could perform myriad roles in agriculture or disaster
relief. A RoboBee measure about half the size of a paper clip weighs less than one-tenth of a
gram and flies using ―artificial muscles‖ compromised of materials that contract when a voltage
is applied. Additional modifications allow some models of RoboBee to transition from
swimming underwater to flying, as well as ―perch‖ on surfaces using static electricity.
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The masterminding of the RoboBee was motivated by the Idea of developing autonomous microaerial vehicles capable of self-contained, self-directed flight and of achieving coordinated
behaviour in large groups. The RoboBee development is broadly divided into three main
components: the Body, Brain, and Colony. Body development consists of constructing robotic
insects able to fly on their own with the help of a close and seamlessly integrated power source;
brain development is concerned with ―smart‖ sensors and control electronics that mimic the eyes
and antennae of a bee and can sense and respond dynamically to the environment; the Colony‘s
focus is about coordinating the behaviour of many independent robots so they act as an effective
unit.
Safer to use in Greenhouse
Robot bees have the potential to act as quasi-wild pollinators in greenhouses without
requiring that the whole greenhouse be opened up to the actual wild. That is important because
greenhouses are becoming an increasingly popular alternative to outdoor farms. These are
closely monitored environments, so there is no need for pesticides.
―The problem with these closed systems is that, quite often, they do not have wild pollinators
coming in from the environment. Because if you open it up to the environment, pests will get in,
this is an issue for food quality.
Advantages of Robotic Bees
Pest and disease detection
Suck and storages places
Power to light and fly
To increase the pollination rate
Production of the unique flavor of honey with artificial intelligence
Resistant to natural enemies and pesticidal attacks
Disadvantages of Robotic Bees
Potential damage to the environment
It could be a new ‗invasive species.‘
Lack of the ‗Flexibility and sophistication‘ of real bees
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Robotic bee hive
This robotic beehive wants to save the bees. Every year, around 35% of all bee colonies
on the planet collapse, according to Bee wise CEO Saar Safra. This phenomenon is called colony
collapse disorder, which occurs when worker bees abandon the colony and queen. Seventy-five
per cent of all fruits, vegetables, seeds and nuts we consume rely on pollination from bees.
Bee Home automatically prevents swarming and harvests honey using artificial
intelligence. It is solar-powered and can autonomously care for the hives of bees. The home
keeps pests away, automatically harvests honey attends to the
bees' health and can even prevent swarming. This is a process in
which a single colony splits into two or more distinct colonies.
Bee Home can hold up to 24 beehives and contains a robotic
system that serves bees' needs. Bees can leave from either side
of the box while the robotic system sits in the centre. Bee
Home automatically prevents swarming and harvests honey
using artificial intelligence. It is solar powered and can
autonomously care for hives of bees. The home keeps pests
away, automatically harvests honey, attends to the bees‘ health
and can even prevent swarming. This is a process in which a single colony splits into two or
more distinct colonies. Bee Home can hold up to 24 beehives and contains a robotic system that
tends to the needs of bees. Bees can leave from either side of the box, while the robotic system
sits in the centre.
The robot monitors and identifies the bees‘ needs in real-time using artificial intelligence
and computer vision. ―For example, if it is November and there is no foliage, there are no
flowers. There is no source of nectar and pollen for the bees, and the robot will take some food
from within the device‘s containers and feed the bees.‖ Beyond providing food and water for the
bees, Bee Home can deter pests.
Results and discussion
These advances in artificial intelligence are helping to pollinate plants which increase the yield
compared with insects and human workers. More suitable for intensive farming methods. Bee
Homes seamlessly detect fatal threats to a honeybee colony, including pesticides and the
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presence of pests, and immediately defend against them. Its automatic robotic system responds to
threats in real-time and requires almost no human intervention.
References
https://builtin.com/robotics/robot-bee
https://wyss.harvard.edu/technology/robobees-autonomous-flying-microrobots/
https://www.therobotreport.com/editor-picks-top-robotics-from-world-ag-expo/
https://www.beewise.ag/
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Harendra Kumar* and Ankur Agarwal
Defence Institute of Bioenergy Research (DIDBR), Goraparao, Haldwani, Nainital -263139
Uttarakhand, India
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Presently hydroponics is an emerging technology which is principally based on the
application of inputs in ―Right time, right manner, right quantity‖. Which play an important role
in precision farming? Hydroponics not only offers safe food but also ensures vertical utilization
of space with higher water use efficiency, nutrients availability, cropping intensity by using
vertical space, protection from soil borne diseases, Early yield and higher productivity with
better quality. With increasing the urbanization, greenhouse effect, global warming and
decreasing per capita land availability, unpredictable weather condition, increasing of carbon
foot print and the tendency of people towards organic food these challenges bring out us towards
the hydroponics cultivation. the aim of this study was grown multiple vegetable crops under
indoor farming by using hydroponics technology.
Key words: Modern Faming, Hydroponics, NFT, Indoor faming, vegetables
Introduction
Hydroponics is a method of growing the crops without soil with the help of nutrient
solution. With increasing scarcity of water availability, increased levels of residual toxicity in
conventionally farming and rapid growth rate of Urban population have attracted the global
attention towards the use of intensive cropping systems and paved the way for new technologies
such as soilless culture and hydroponics. The advantages of hydroponic is that it requires small
space with provision to vertical space utilization, higher nutrients use efficiency. Hydroponics
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MODERN FARMING: HYDROPONICS TECHNOLOGY
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techniques also facilitate roof farming and indoor farming. Hydroponics system also play an
important role towards the precision farming by supporting the principle of ―right time, right
input, right quantity and right location‖. Hydroponics technology not only offers vertical
utilization but also maintains quality and increases productivity. Total Horticulture production in
2020-21 is estimated to a record 334.60 MT, which is an increase of about 14.13 MT (4.4%)
over that achieved in 2019-20 . Tomato universally treated as ―Protective food is being
extensively grown as annual plant all over the world. It is a very good source of income to small
and marginal farmers and contributions to the nutrition of the consumers. Tomato is a rich
source of minerals, vitamins. The total sugar content is 2.5 % in ripe fruits and amount of
ascorbic acid varies from 16-65 mg/100g of fruit weight. Tomato is the rich source of
antioxidant compounds such as phenolic, Vit .C, tannin compounds and beneficial for protecting
from cardiovascular diseases. One popular culinary herb is sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). In
Hindi it is known as Babaui Tulsi. Among various Ocimum species, O. basilicum is
commercially and extensively cultivated for essential oil production. Its oil is employed for
flavouring of food stuffs, confectionery, condiments, perfumery industry. Pepper Mint (Mentha
piperita) is the aromatic, herbaceous plant used for menthol extraction it belongs to the family
lamiaceae. Oregano is most important herb which have many health benefits due to antiinflammatory, antioxidant as well as antimicrobial properties.
Advantages of hydroponics: hydroponics cultivation technology having the following advantages
as compared to conventionally farming:
1. More production with better quality can achieve under hydroponics culture due to more
utilization of vertical space.
2. Hydroponics cultivation also considering under organic farming due to zero use of
insecticide, pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
3. More water saving takes place under hydroponic culture as compared to conventional
farming. in conventionally farming more wastage of water takes place due to sprinkler
/overhead, irrigation and higher loss of water due to evapotranspiration.
4. Hydroponics/ soilless cultivation can be easily practices as kitchen gardening, roof
farming and indoor cultivation.
5. Hydroponics technology also suitable at boarder area which can play a vital role for
Defence purpose.
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6. Multiple vegetable can be grown under singe unit.
7. Hydroponics cultivation is low constable due to more interculture operation required
under conventionally farming such as; weeding, hoeing, and the cost of fertilizers
broadcasting, irrigation time is also affectable under conventionally farming.
Materials and methods:
The experiment was conducted during, Sep.2021 to Jan.2022 at DIBER, DRDO, Haldwani,
Nainital (Uttarakhand). During the study period, the maximum and minimum temperature of the
field and low-cost shade net recorded was 28-34°C and 16 -18 °C, respectively. Crops i.e., palak,
basil, oregano, tomato were chosen for the experiment. Nursery of crops were grown in the
potrays during the month of Sep.2021 and 30 days old seedlings were transplanted under tray
system (NFT) hydroponic. NFT system used for growing the crop by using hydroponic unit
(Pindfresh) which made from PVC pipe which can accommodate 54plants/unit, was installed
under protected structure. (Fig.1). small grow LED light also installed under the unit which was
switch on during night time for 3 hrs. Nutrient solution supplied to grow the plants through
irrigation pump. pH ranged from 6 to 7.0 during the experiment and Electrical conductivity (EC)
1800±100ppm. Electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of nutrient solution were checked by using
hand held pH and EC Meter (MCP and HANNA, respectively. The hydroponics solution consists
all essential (Macro and micro) nutrients.
Fig: 1. multiple crops under indoor hydroponics
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Fig: 2. Performance of Sweet basil and mint crop under hydroponics
Elements in nutrient solution used for growing crops was nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium (60 ppm), Sulphur these macro nutrients were supplied in prescribe quantity
in major concentration by making a stock solution. Whereas the micro nutrients Fe, zinc (3
ppm), manganese (3 ppm), copper (less than 1 ppm), boron (4 ppm), molybdenum (less than 1
ppm), sodium (less than 1 ppm) was used in different concentration.
Result: The result positively affected on morphological and yield attributes under indoor
hydroponics cultivation. The result (Table .1) revealed that plant growth was superior under
hydroponics due to well availability of nutrients.
Table: 1. Performance of growth, yield of multiple crops under hydroponics
Parameter
length of
leaves(cm)
Width
of
leaves
(cm)
No of
leaves/plant
Root
length
(cm)
Fresh wt. of
leaves/plant
(g)
Wt. of
roots/plant
Yield
(kg/m)
Palak 44.173 8.153 16.45 16.053 41.2
17
9.463 5.55
Mint
8.68 1.653 32.38 38.033 43.9
13
24.61
3
4.937
Oregano 3.187 1.4 41.48
3
29.76 25.6 10.94
7
1.633
Basil 2.7 2.223 16.83
7
21.823 20.5
63
8.143 1.453
C.D. 2.487 1.771 N/A 5.133 5.46 4.711 1.692
SE(m) 0.705 0.502 7.567 1.455 1.54
8
1.335 0.48
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The result exhibited higher growth of plant; width of leaves found under palak crop. Whereas the
higher number of leaves found under oregano crop. The higher root length, fresh weight of
leaves / plant found under mint crop as compared to other crops. On the other hand, the higher
yield found under palak crop.
Conclusion
Our study is concluding that multiple vegetable can be grown together under single
nutrient solution which can be helpful for the people which are interested in indoor farming.
Keeping in the view above study this may be beneficial for the people which facing the scarcity
of water availability and land shortage problem.
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*Smt.D. Sravanthi, Dr.K. Naganjali, Dr. M.M. Kadasiddappa, Dr. R. Shivakumar,
Dr.K. Gopalakrishna Murthy and Dr. Syed Ahmed Hussain
Agricultural College, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Aswaraopet, Bhadradri - Kothagudem District, Telangana
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Lemongrass is one of most important aromatic grass which can become a crop of future
India based on experience among many aromatic crop. Reason for same is its application for
derivatives like Vitamins which require basic molecule like Citral' which is major component of
this oil.
Three types of lemon grasses viz. East Indian lemongrass (C. flexuosus), West Indian
lemon grass (C. citrates), and Jammu lemongrass (C. pendulus) are in cultivation in our country
as the important sources of citrates.C. flexuosus grown commercially in Kerala and nearby
adjacent state, its oil is popularly known as \"Cochin oil\" as it is shipped mainly through Cochin
port. India is annually producing nearly 1000 MT per year while the world demand is much
more. Annually, we are exporting lemon grass oil in a tube of about rupees 5 crores. Our country
is facing a critical competition from Gautemala in the International market.
Uses of Lemon Grass:
(1) The chief constituent of the oil is the citral. It is the starting material for the preparation of
important ionone viz. A - Ionone, used in flavors, cosmetics and perfume and P - Ionone- used in
the manufacture of synthetic vitamin A.
(2) Oil has bactericidal, insect repellent and medicinal uses.
(3) The spent grass is a source of good cattle feed and can be converted into good silage.
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CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF LEMON GRASS
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(4) Spent grasses are also useful for the manufacture of card boards and papers or as fuel.
(5) The Lemon grass is a good cleanser that helps to detoxify the liver, pancreas, kidney, bladder
and the digestive tract. It cuts down uric acid, cholesterol, excess fats and other toxins in the
body while stimulating digestion, blood circulation, and lactation.
(6) It alleviates indigestion and gastroenteritis and also helps improve the skin by reducing acne
and pimples and acts as a muscle and tissue toner. It can reduce blood pressure.
(7) The leaves and base of this tender perennial are used as a food flavoring, particularly in fish
and poultry dishes, and its essential oils are used medicinally. Its distinctive flavor balances hot
chillies and contributes to the elaborate, multi layered flavors of many dishes in South East Asian
cuisine.
(8) As the long, thin, grey-green leaves are tough and fibrous, the outside leaves and the tips are
usually chopped very finely or discarded from the dish before it is served for its taste.
Present status:
World requirement = 500 Mt/y (for F& F, Aroma therapy industry only not taking requirement
for derivatives based on Citral as same comes from Synth.).
Present production = 300 Mt/y. India production = 200 Mt/y
Climate Requirement:
Lemongrass require tropical climate with lot of sun shine and humidity. Rainfall of 80
cms/year is enough but can be cultivated successfully in low rainfall area. Excess rainfall helps
producing more biomass and oil and was main reason for cultivation with high in coastal area
like Kerala. Area with excess rain fall allows many cuttings of Lemongrass resulting in very high
production of oil per acre. In Kerala places with 900-1200 mt. height with slops have very little
soil with high fertility but same enabled enough production of lemongrass. Same act as binder
for remaining soil avoiding soil erosion which is common on Indian west coast mountain area. It
can be grown on soil with high salt and pH which enables cultivation of same in almost entire
India. During cold its growth is limited. Acidity and alkalinity of soil has very little impact on
Lemongrass. Stem in plant stores sodium and same is reason for it's resistance to sodicity.
Improved varieties:
Krishna, Kavery, Pragati, Praman, Chirharit, Nima, GRL-1, CKP-25, OD-19 are most
common varieties cultivated in India based on their performance in different regions. Krishna is
most popular throughout India and was developed at Bangalore CIMAP Centre. Reason is high
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yield of biomass (25-28 Mt/ha.) with high oil yield (230-250 kg./ha.) due to high percentage of
oil in biomass. CKP-25 is another successful variety which gives good result even in less rainfall
area. Same was developed by RRL, Jammu.
Each variety has it's own advantage for same reason is popular among particular region
like Chirharit is very popular in Tarai region of Uttarakhand as same remains green throughout
year producing high quantity of biomass although % of oil recovery is less due to cold climate in
such region. It is very sturdy. Nima variety is known for its unique citrus clean odor as same
contains less grassy component like Methyl heptenone. Also this variety can be grown in west
land containing very high salt.
Nursery:
The soil should be well pulverized for forming the seed bed and it should be a raised bed
one. Leaf mould and farm yard manure are also added to the soil while forming the bed. 15-20
kg of seed is required for raising seedlings for one hectare. Seeds are sown in lines drawn at 10
cm interval on the beds and covered with cut grass materials when the seedlings are about 2
months old or, about 12 to 15 cm high, they are ready for transplanting.
Field Preparations:
The land is cleared of the underground vegetation and pits of 5 cm cube are made at a
spacing of 15 x 19 cm. Splits from old can also be used for propagations.
Manures and Fertilizers:
The Aromatic Plants Research Station, Odakkali (Kerala) recommended 100 application
kg of N/ha under North East conditions, application of 60 kg N, 50 kg P and 35 kg K is
recommended per hectare.
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Irrigation and Area of Plantation:
Irrigation with sprinkler is found to give good result in less rain area like Chhattisgarh.
However on west coast much better herbage is seen with less irrigation due to high rain fall and
humidity. Nice growths are seen in field near river side where flood water enters some time
during monsoon. In place like Uttaranchal in Tarai area due to high water level resulting in more
cutting /year and high oil yield with average > 150 kgs/year.
Intercrop cultivation:
Short duration crops like Basil or Chamomile or pulses can be grown along with
Lemongrass. This will minimize weed and growth during winter for Lemongrass is less but crop
like Chamomile will be more making ideal combination. For utilization of natural resources like
humidity, nutrition, sunshine various such intercropping can be tried. In agro forestry Eucalyptus
and poplar can be intercropped with lemongrass and such combinations are found most
profitable.
Harvesting of Lemon Grass:
Lemon grass comes to harvest at 90 days after planting and subsequently it is harvested at
50-55 days interval. The grass is cut 10 cm above the ground level and 5-6 cuttings can be taken
in a year subject to the climatic conditions. Depending upon the soil and climatic conditions, the
crop can be retained in like field for 5 to 6 years, On an average 25 kg of oil can be obtained
from first year per hectare plantation and about 80 to 100 kg of oil per year from 2nd to 6th year
if well maintained.
In North India, Jammu lemon grass (C. pendulus) is cultivated under irrigated condition
as a source of citral. The cultural practices are almost similar to East Indian lemon grass. It is
propagated exclusively by slips which are planted on flat beds. A spacing of 50 x 50 cm is
adopted. A dose of 260 N, 80 kg P205and 120 kg K20 per hectare is recommended in 3-4 split
doses. The crop responds to irrigation especially during hot summer months.
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Venu Prasad H D
Scientist-B, Training and Outreach Research Group, Centre for Water Resources
Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala.
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
The emergence of Covid-19 creates much chaos among the general public. In these situations, it
is quite difficult to conduct social science studies, as social science research depends mainly on
collecting primary data. Collecting primary data during the pandemic is exceedingly difficult as
the virus is highly contagious and individuals fear communicating face-to-face with outsiders.
During this scenario, conducting research studies in social science needs new tools to collect
primary data remotely without face-to-face contact, such as online surveys viz., Google Forms.
This paper focuses on the precautions one should consider while formulating and designing the
Google Forms survey.
Keywords: Google forms, primary data, social scientists, pandemic, data collection.
Introduction
The emergence of the new pandemic in terms of Covid-19 creates panic and anxiety
among the public worldwide. A person is terrified to meet other individuals face to face because
of the highly contagious nature of SARS Cov-2, the virus responsible for Covid-19.
Communication between individuals and maintaining relationships is challenging in situations
like this. Thanks to advancements in technology like mobile phones, the internet, etc.,
individuals can maintain communication. Talking about communication, Social Science as a
discipline uses communication as a tool to collect data to know about the Societal and individual
views towards various aspects/events of day-to-day activities. The emergence of Covid-19 not
only impacts the economy but also creates a challenge for researchers, especially for Social
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GOOGLE FORMS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF COLLECTING
DATA DURING PANDEMIC
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Scientists, as they depend mainly on primary data for their research. For a Social Scientist,
collecting data at the individual level is very difficult in situations like this, where people are
afraid to meet each other because of the pandemic nature of the virus, the collection of primary
data is even more difficult.
Then, how a Social Scientist will collect data, which is very important for any research.
Though collecting primary data is mainly through face-to-face contact, there are other modes of
collecting data like a telephonic interview, writing letters, etc.. However, these are old, and
getting a response will take a lot of time. In a pandemic situation, even if you send a letter or
make a phone conversation, you may get low feedback. In these situations, gathering data is
challenging for the Scientist because he/she cannot go to an individual and talk to the respondent
face to face, as people will not freely allow and respond to an outsider in a pandemic crisis.
Nevertheless, Scientist wants to know how the individual‘s knowledge, attitude, behaviour, etc.
to the pandemic or anything related to the coping mechanism of the individuals or the lockdown
effect on the public, etc. through data collection. Primary data collection from the Covid-19
patients or those who are in quarantine is very helpful in designing relevant measures by the
Government. As data collection has been arduous in pandemic situations, Scientists/Research
scholars must choose alternative data gathering methods, or else stop the collection of data,
which will automatically stop the research and halt the work until the pandemic is over.
Thanks to the advancement in Information and Communication Technology, innovations
come across in different platforms like Google, where ‗Google Forms‘ emerge as the prominent
choice for Scientists to collect data during pandemic situations. Google Forms is the savior for
many Social Scientists as it helps in easily formulating questionnaires and sending them within a
fraction of seconds, either through email or WhatsApp numbers.
Advantages of Google Forms
The main advantage of ‗Google Forms‘ is that anyone can create and administer the
questionnaire with minimum time investment without any prior knowledge of ‗Google Forms‘
(Gehringer, 2010). ‗Google Forms‘ offers a wide variety of features in designing questions
ranging from a simple text to use of images or videos. Even it provides a variety of ways to
formulate questions using paragraphs, starting with short answers to multiple choices.
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An effort has made to show a pictorial way of using ‗Google Forms‘ for the general
audience in these papers (Mondal et al., 2019) (Raju & Harinarayana, 2016) and the advantages
and disadvantages of Google forms has been described on this website (DataScope, 2018). It has
already used by a few of the researchers in different fields like medicine (Graham & Borgen,
2018), (Gehringer, 2010) among school students to evaluate the courses (Gehringer, 2010),
perception of the students (Chaiyo & Nokham, 2017), to know about the gender-based
performance (Kim & Park, 2012), etc.
These studies indicate that there is no restriction in using ‗Google Forms‘, whether it is
medicine or social science. This quality of dynamic usage that too free of cost will eventually
attract a large part of the population. In India, most of the Webinars conducted by different
institutes use it as a registration form and feedback form.
Importance of Google forms
The importance of using Google forms has grown considerably after the emergence of
the pandemic, as many of them in India are using it to collect the data. But what precautions one
needs to take while designing the ‘Google Forms‘ is very important as one is dealing with an
unknown set of audiences. As most surveys are voluntary, the way the questions framed helps
attract most individuals. Frame the questions briefly, clearly, and to the point and avoid
ambiguous phrases or words, so that the respondents will understand and provide the correct
answer. If possible, add attractive images as questions, so that the survey reaches more
respondents. Limit the number of questions to a few as the respondent may not have much time
to complete your questionnaire. Remember that the right way to respond is more important than
the length of the poll. One can make a lengthy questionnaire and get a weak response, even if
you get a response, the answers may not be that valid at the end. If you need to keep the
questions more, then frame the most important ones at the beginning of the survey, and in the
end, you can keep the general questions like the individual's socio-economic background. It is
mainly because a person shows more interest in answering at first rather than at the end of the
survey.
It is always better to give the options to choose, instead of asking them to write the
answers to the question, so that it is easier for the respondent to respond with little effort and
with less time and one can finish the survey quickly. It is better to give some questions to write,
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so that statistical tools can be applied otherwise it is very difficult. If one wishes to get more
responses, then prefer not to collect the email ids of the respondents. However, there is an
opposing corner to it, as one cannot ensure the answers received were from the same person who
answered it. Also, there is a chance of receiving duplicate responses sometimes. Of course, you
can delete the duplicate answers before analyzing the data in Excel. One of the advantages of
using ‗Google Forms‘ is that the data is readily and easily available in Excel format so that the
data tabulation time can be saved and the data analysis will be much easier.
Questions can be framed in languages other than English and use the respondent‘s local
dialect to frame the survey. The main drawback of Google forms is that an uneducated person
should not be allowed to undertake the quiz, as he cannot read. Therefore, to conduct the Google
Forms survey, the respondent should have a minimum level of education on reading and
understanding. Even in cases where the general public is well educated, only a few will answer
these kinds of questionnaires. In this case, there is a need to awaken the general public about the
importance of Social Science surveys, so that most of them will respond positively to the studies
of this nature.
Conclusion
An overall note, Google developed an extremely useful tool in the form of ‗Google
Forms‘ to help many Scientists/Research scholars in situations like the present pandemic to
collect the data remotely with less time and less effort at no cost. This pandemic seems to have
been with us for quite some time, until then Google Forms plays a prominent role in gathering
data and helping many Social Scientists across the World to continue their research studies.
References
Chaiyo, Y., & Nokham, R. (2017). The effect of Kahoot, Quizizz and Google Forms on the
student‘s perception in the classrooms response system. 2nd Joint International
Conference on Digital Arts, Media, and Technology 2017: Digital Economy for
Sustainable Growth, ICDAMT 2017. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDAMT.2017.7904957
DataScope. (2018). Advantages and Disadvantages of Google Form. Data Scope Website.
Gehringer, E. (2010). Daily course evaluation with Google forms. ASEE Annual Conference and
Exposition, Conference Proceedings.
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Graham, M. J., & Borgen, J. (2018). Google Forms. In Google Tools Meets Middle School.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506360188.n7
Kim, D. ―DK,‖ & Park, C. (2012). Gender differences in the effectiveness of Google Forms in
class. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies.
Mondal, H., Mondal, S., Ghosal, T., & Mondal, S. (2019). Using Google Forms for Medical
Survey: A Technical Note. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Physiology, 5(4), 216–218. https://doi.org/10.5530/ijcep.2018.5.4.26
Raju, N. V., & Harinarayana, N. S. (2016). Online survey tools: A case study of Google Forms
Online. National Conference on \"Scientific, Computational & Information Research
Trends in Engineering, GSSS-IETW, Mysore.
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*S. Vennila, S. LubnaArshiya and R. Elangaimannan
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University.
Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu,India.
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Stress is defined as ‗environmental condition results in a functional alteration. In case of
plants, it is the environmental factors which is below or beyond the optimum point to impaired
plant growth and development. Stresses can be biotic and abiotic in nature, biotic stresses include
the interaction of plants with insect pests and pathogens or microorganisms while abiotic stresses
including drought, chilling, salinity, heat, high light, oxidative stress, heavy metal toxicity,
radiations, and UV light. The impact of each biotic and abiotic depends upon the quality,
intensity, duration, and the way of their application on the plants. In agricultural crops, it is
simply not a matter of survival of plants but also impacts economic output in terms of yield and
quality. The ability of crops to withstand a particular stress is directly related to its survival and
productivity. Abiotic stresses are the primary cause of crop loss worldwide and a rough estimate
suggest that 70% of yield reduction is a direct result of abiotic stresses. Drought is a
meteorological term and is commonly defined as a period without significant rainfall that limits
plant productivity. In broad terms, drought is the retarded availability of water, reduction in soil
water content or higher water need in quantity. Drought stress result in to many interactive
modification in plants which includes
Changes in level of gene expression (up, down or co-expression) of the responsible genes
which having the role in the life sustenance of plants.
Alteration in protein production and degradation which results either in to damaging of
plants or act as countering mechanism to protect plant from drought stress.
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IMPACT OF EPIGENETIC CHANGES ON PLANT
RESPONSE TO DROUGHT STRESS
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Varied metabolic pool to channelize the production of new biochemically related metabolites
which may confer drought stress tolerance
PRESENT STATUS OF DROUGHT STRESS AND PLANTS INTERACTION
Approximately 16% of India‘s geographical area, mostly arid, semi- arid, and sub
humid is drought prone. Out of total 140 million hectares of cultivated area, about 68%
vulnerable to drought. Since 2001, India faced three major droughts in the year 2002, 2004, and
2009, which severely affects the various sectors and overall economic development of the
country. Hampered caused due to drought stress result into decrease in crop production which
facilitates enormous economic disruption, therefore the demand of development of drought
tolerance crop is increasing. Plant facing drought makes themselves resistant to water deficit
through different strategies i.e. escape, avoidance, or tolerance.
DROUGHT ESCAPE
Term drought escape is used when plant completes successful reproduction before a
severe drought stress is generated, by shortening life cycles with high rates of growth and gas
exchange using maximum available resources.
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DROUGHT AVOIDANCE
Plant performs drought avoidance by minimizing water loss through closing stomata,
reducing light absorbance, and reducing canopy leaf area and peaked water absorption
(increasing root distribution, reallocation of nutrients allocated in older leaves, enhanced
photosynthesis).
DROUGHT TOLERANCE
Drought tolerance is the outcome of coordination of physiological and biochemical
alteration at the cellular and molecular levels. These alterations may involve osmotic adjustment
and more rigid cell walls. Drought stress affects photosynthetic and defence machinery of plants
and triggers many reactions such as photosynthesis, respiration, translocation, iron uptake,
carbohydrates, nutrient metabolism and growth promoters which ultimately results into retard
plant growth.
The reaction as well as potential abide drought environment depends on the species and
genotype, duration and level of water loss, age and stage of development, organ, cell type and the
type of sub- cellular compartment. The response to adapt against drought stress can be
categorized in to the following categories
Osmotic homeostasis or osmotic adjustment
Stress damage control and repair or detoxification
Growth control
Therefore, drought tolerance is a complex trait which includes interaction of
Morphological (earliness, reduced leaf area, leaf rolling, wax content, efficient rooting
system, stability in yield, and reduced tillering)
Physiological (reduced transpiration, high water-use efficiency, stomatal closure and
osmotic adjustment)
Biochemical (accumulation of proline, polyamine, trehalose, increased nitrate reductase
activity and increased storage of carbohydrates.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT STRESS ON MORPHOLOGICAL TRAITS
PHENOLOGICAL CHANGES:
It has been well known that drought stress is a critical limiting factor for plant growth
and establishment which affects plant elongation and expansion growth due to the low
turgor pressure.
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Osmotic pressure maintains the cell turgor and assists plant to survive even under
severe drought.
Drought stress generally reduced the leaf growth in number of plant species like
populous, soyabean and many other species.
Influence of root system under drought showed significant relation with above ground
dry mass.
A profuse root structure can give the advantage to maintain accelerated plant
expansion through the early crop growth phase and take out water from thin soil layers
that is otherwise basically loosed by evaporation.
An enhancement in root to shoot proportion under drought environment was
associated to ABA contents of root and shoots.
In general, shallow -rooted crops species are less drought tolerant than deep –rooted
species.
Under water stress some plant maintains short suberized roots, even after top soil
becomes dry, which protects plant even under drought by retaining water loss from
plant roots
The impacts of drought stress in the root zone on the shoot can be influenced by
interaction between the chemical signals.
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It is the relations of phenology with the pattern of water use which makes crop to
adapt against drought stress.
To minimize the water use under drought stress plants limit shoot growth by fewer
tillers.
Generally, varieties of short duration perform better under the stress conditions
compared to long duration varieties, varied root system of these genotypes are the
region.
It is the plant size and stomatal conductance which reduce to protect plant against
stress, may be major factor for reduced conductivity.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO DROUGHT STRESS
Number of physiological parameters responsible for sustained growth of plants
under environment stresses can be identified and their roles towards drought stress tolerance
were also confirmed by researchers. They are;
Stomatal conductance
When the plants are exposed to water deficit under field condition the first response of
the plant is the stomatal closure to prevent the loss of water through transpiration.
In response to water deficit drought sensitive and drought tolerance plant exhibit
differential stomatal movements.
Over 95% water loss occurs from plants by evaporation (transpiration) through the
stomatal pores.
Though the stomatal closure due to drought stress is a restraint for photosynthesis it is
considered as an effective mechanism for preventing water loss.
RELATIVE WATER CONTENT
Water is an essential factor for plant, which required at all the stages of plant growth and
development.
Relative water content measures the maximum amount of water tissue can hold.
Relative water content negatively affected by stresses especially by drought stress is
considered as better indicator of water status as compared to water potential achieved by
plant under drought stress mitigation.
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ELECTROLYTE LEAKAGE
Electrolyte leakage measured as an indicator of drought stress response in plant cell. The
electrolyte leakage induced due to drought stress is often accompanied by enhancement of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) which often act as factor of programmed death cell (PCD).
The alteration in electrolyte leakage starts almost after the application of a stress
factor and last for minutes to several hours
Maintenance of integrity and stability could be quantified by measuring relative
conductivity of the leaked ions in water.
Electrolyte leakage has been recommended as a valuable parameter for identification
of drought stress tolerant cultivars in several crop species.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Drought has an adverse effect on the photosynthetic apparatus, membrane, and
enzyme.
Drought induced alteration in organelle movement moreover affects photosynthesis
to a large extent
Drought stress induced hormonal level was reported in plants, which results into
declination of the concentration of many key enzymes of photosynthesis
TRANSPIRATION
Decrease in transpiration and respective increase in foliage temperature also closure
of stomata are consequence of drought stress.
Stomata regulated decrease in transpiration a general response of plant against
drought stress which also supports to increase plant water use efficiency.
The decline in cumulative transpiration under drought condition is linearly related to
a reduction of dry matter production.
Different crop shows varied leaf expansion and transpiration responses to reduced
level of available soil water.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC EFFICIENCY (Fv/Fm) AND CHLOROPHYLL
CONCENTRATION INDEX (CCI).
Photosynthetic activity in tissue inhibited under drought stress due to imbalance
generated between light capturing and its utilization.
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Some reports suggested that in Calluna Fv/Fm was not altered by drought stress, but
in case of Deschampsia 1.5% so far significant decline was noted across the season.
Now a day Fv/Fm is being used as a rapid and non -destructive tool for drought stress
screening of plants under field condition which provides rapid indication of change
in current plant productivity in response to water change
It is easy to discriminate the genotypes either drought tolerant or susceptible based
on chlorophyll fluorescence measurements.
BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSE TO DROUGHT STRESS
Plant can respond to drought stress by changing the biochemical profile of their
tissues. Many biochemical parameters are described below.
PROLINE
Proline strongly associated with plant drought stress, in which free proline can be
notably enhanced in crop and other plant.
Without disrupting cellular structure proline can accumulate to high concentration in
plant cells as an osmo protectant.
Induced expression of drought stress tolerance genes involved in proline biosynthesis
were reported in transgenic plants.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H202)
Drought stress response towards the production of H2O2 which differ by genotype to
genotype, duration water –deficit and age of plants also played important role.
Dual role performed by H2O2 in plants as at low concentration it acts as a signaling
molecule while at high concentration it leads to program cell death.
H2O2also played as key regulator of physiological processes like senescence,
photorespiration and photosynthesis, stomatal movement, cell cycle, growth and
development.
Mechanism by which H2O2 helps to sustain the soyabean plant under water –deficit
was reported.
REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is one of the earliest biochemical
responses of eukaryotic cells to biotic and abiotic stresses. The production of ROS in plants
known as an oxidative burst, is an early event of plant defense response to water stress and act as
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a secondary massager to trigger subsequent defense reaction in plant. ROS which includes
oxygen ions, free radicals, and peroxides form as a natural byproduct of the normal metabolism
of oxygen and have important role in cell signaling. However, during environmental stress
especially drought, ROS level increase dramatically resulting in oxidative damage to proteins,
DNA, and lipids.
Drought induces oxidative stress in plants by generation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS). The ROS such as O2−, H2O2 and •OH radicals, can directly attack membrane lipids and
increase lipid peroxidation. Drought-induced overproduction of ROS increases the content of
malondialdehyde (MDA). The content of MDA has been considered an indicator of oxidative
damage. MDA is considered as a suitable marker for membrane lipid peroxidation. A decrease in
membrane stability reflects the extent of lipid peroxidation caused by ROS. Furthermore, lipid
peroxidation is an indicator of the prevalence of free radical reaction in tissues. Moreover,
oxygen uptake loading on the tissues as both processes generate reactive oxygen species,
particularly H2O2 that produced at very high rates by the glycollate oxidase reaction in the
peroxisomes in photorespiration. The increments of the MDA and H2O2 concentrations in the
water-stressed cuttings were 88.9 and 99.7% in P. cathayana, respectively, whereas they were
only 44 and 63.6% in P. kangdingensis. In pea (Pisum sativum) plants, levels of lipid
peroxidation in leaves increased two to four-fold with an increase in drought stress, and this was
highly correlated with protein peroxidation.
ANTIOXIDANT ENZYME
There is a defensive system in plants, plants have an internal protective enzyme-catalyzed
clean up system, which is fine and elaborate enough to avoid injuries of active oxygen, thus
guaranteeing normal cellular function. The balance between ROS production and activities of
antioxidative enzyme determines whether oxidative signaling and/or damage will occur. To
minimize the affections of oxidative stress, plants have evolved a complex enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant system, such as low-molecular mass antioxidants (glutathione, ascorbate,
carotenoids) and ROS scavenging enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD),
catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX).
Non-enzymatic antioxidants cooperate to maintain the integrity of the photosynthetic
membranes under oxidative stress. The enzymatic components may directly scavenge ROS or
may act by producing a non-enzymatic antioxidant. Efficient destruction of O2− and H2O2 in
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plant cells requires the concerted action of antioxidants. O2− can be dismutated into H2O2 by
SOD in the chloroplast, mitochondrion, cytoplasm, and peroxisome. POD plays a key role in
scavenging H2O2 which was produces through dismutation of O2¯ catalyzed by SOD. CAT is a
main enzyme to eliminate H2O2 in the mitochondrion and microbody and thus help in
ameliorating the detrimental effects of oxidative stress. It is found in peroxisomes, but
considered indispensable for decomposing H2O2 during stress. Maintaining a higher level of
antioxidative enzyme activities may contribute to drought induction by increasing the capacity
against oxidative damage. The capability of antioxidant enzymes to scavenge ROS and reduce
the damaging effects may correlate with the drought resistance of plants.
LIPID PEROXIDATION:
Most damaging biochemical process occurs under stress condition is lipid peroxidation in
every living organism.
MDA is the product formed during liquid peroxidation
In both cellular and organelle membranes when ROS level crossed above
threshold limit, lipid peroxidation occurs, which not only impacts on cellular
functioning, also stimulate the oxidative stress through generation of lipids –
derived radicals.
Wheat plant under drought stress in field condition and reported that the
weakening of membrane integrity and oxidative damage to lipids were severe in
drought sensitive varieties compared to drought tolerant.
Increased accumulation of MDA has been correlated with decline in RWC and
photosynthetic pigment content when plant exposed to prolonged drought.
EPIGENETIC CHANGES
Epigenetic regulation refers to inconstant or heritable nucleosome architecture
changes without altering the DNA sequence but modulates gene expression
through histone modifications and DNA methylation.
Epigenetic changes in chromatin structure are highly dynamic and frequent during
developmental processes and exposure of environmental stresses.
Histone modifications involve: acetylation/deacetylation,
methylation/demethylation, phosphorylation, and ubiquitination of histone
proteins. Histone proteins are not only modified chemically, but also exchange of
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their variants with different physio-chemical properties or release of their subunits
from the octamer core imparts in the regulation of gene expression.
These modifications enhance the accessibility of DNA and expedite recruitment
of DNA binding proteins involved in: replication, transcription, or repair. DNA
methylation is another epigenetic hallmark of the eukaryotic genome in which a
methyl group (-CH3) added at the 50 position of cytosine nitrogenous base
resulting in 5- methylcytosine (5-mC).
In plants, methylation can occur in all cytosine sequence contexts, including CG,
CHG, and CHH, where H denotes A, T, or C. CG and CHG methylations are
commonly known as symmetrical and CHH methylation as asymmetrical. RNAmediated nucleic acid methylation is also prevalent in plants.
Cytosine methylation appears to regulate gene expression by influencing nucleic
acid interaction with both chromatin proteins and transcription factors. Normally,
DNA methylation patterns are stable and specific to cell types, persists throughout
the lifetime and are heritable. Acetylation and deacetylation are other types of
major mechanisms of epigenetic regulation.
DYNAMICS OF EPIGENETIC REGULATION DURING DROUGHT STRESS
HISTONE VARIANTS
Each histone protein in plants contains some structural and functional variants with
slight differences in protein sequence and affinity to DNA or chromatin-binding
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proteins. Exchange of core histone proteins with their variants amends chromatin
compaction and the binding properties of regulatory protein complexes.
Integration of conventional histone subunits is coupled with DNA replication,
whereas non-allelic variant proteins can be deposited in a replication-independent
manner at any stage of the cell cycle.
Fifteen histone H3 (six for H3.1, eight for H3.3 and single for centromeric H3
variants) and 13 histone H2a-encoding genes (translated into H2a, H2aw, H2ax, and
H2az variants) have been identified in Arabidopsis plant.
Peptides of H3.1 and H3.3 in Arabidopsis vary by only four amino acids; however,
they regulate transcription differently. While H3.3 is associated with the activation of
gene expression and swift nucleosome turnover, H3.1 preferentially occurs in
transcriptionally silenced genomic regions. Similarly, H2az has been shown to
correlate with gene activation, while H2az promotes chromatin condensation
resulting in gene silencing.
Abiotic-stress dependent modulation of histone variants is reflected by the plant‘s
response to downstream transcriptional alterations. Distribution of H2az within the
nucleosome (transcription start site or within gene body) may have a different effect
on gene expression at constrained environmental conditions.
Loss of H2az occupancy from the gene body in response to drought stress results in
increased transcription activity in Arabidopsis.
Presence of H2az is essential at þ1 nucleosome for maintaining the activity of some
drought-responsive genes. H2az containing nucleosomes are found to wrap DNA
more tightly than canonical H2A residues.
During ambient temperature, gene expression is coordinated by higher levels of H2az
in nucleosomes, while the occurrence of H2az decreases with a rise in temperature.
Thus, it can be concluded that the H2az status mediates thermos-sensory response in
plants. In Arabidopsis, the linker histone H1 is present in three variants: H1.1 and
H1.2 isoforms preferentially exist at a heterochromatic region while occupancy of
the H1.3 variant is mostly perceived on transcriptionally active regions
Linker histone variant H1.3 is ABA-responsive and drought inducible and essential
for stomatal activity under both normal and combined deficiency of light and water.
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The h1.3 mutants exhibit reduced stomatal density, low CO2 assimilation rate and
altered expression of genes responsible for guard cell development.
Under favorable conditions, H1.1 and H1.2 variants maintain DNA activity replaced
by H1.3 during abiotic stress. CHH methylation is also likely to be associated with
the function and abundance of H1.3 variants in response to the combined effects of
low light and drought stress.
DYNAMICS OF HISTONE ACETYLATION IN RESPONSE TO DROUGHT
Histone acetylation status is correlated with the activation or inactivation of droughtresponsive genes in plants.
Trimethylation on upstream of H3K4 and acetylation of H3K9 and on genic regions
of H3K23 and H3K27 are responsible for the induction of drought-related genes
(RD20, RD29A, and AtGOLS2) expression in Arabidopsis.
Post-drought recovery period attributed by rapid deacetylation at H3K9 sites
facilitates removal of RNA polymerase II from the promoter regions of these genes.
Drought-induced expression of four HATs in rice, OsHAC703 OsHAF701, and
OsHAM701 is coupled with increased acetylation on: H3K9, H3K18, H3K27, and
H4K5. Enriched H4 acetylation in the gene body activates Jasmonic acid (JA)
signaling pathway in plants responding to drought stress.
HDACs also play an important role in the regulation of abiotic stress in plants.
HDAC HDA9 acts as a negative regulator of the acetic acid-JA pathway to provide
drought tolerance in plants.
hda9 mutants are characterized by hyperacetylation and upregulation of many
drought-related genes.
In Populus trichocarpa, AREB1-ADA2b-GCN5 ternary protein complex-mediated
histone acetylation at H3K9 enhances the transcription of PtrNAC genes
(PtrNAC006, PtrNAC007, and PtrNAC120), thus providing drought tolerance.
Drought induces lysine‘s hyperacetylation at H3K9 and H4K5 together with reduced
H3K9me2 throughout the genome in maize leaves, leading to reverse condensation of
chromatin organization.
Regulators of histone acetylation dynamics are being targeted to generate abiotic
stress tolerant plants.
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Overexpression of BdHD1 HDAC in Brachypodium distachyon resulted in
hypersensitivity to ABA and improved tolerance to drought stress, whereas
downregulation of BdHD1 through RNA-interference (RNAi) caused impaired
drought tolerance ability.
The BdHD1 overexpression leads to reduced H3K9ac at the genome level that affects
expression of several genes. Therefore, genetic engineering of key HAT or HDACs
has huge potential to create environmental stress tolerant crop plants.
DYNAMICS OF HISTONE METHYLATION IN RESPONSE TO DROUGHT
Genome-wide histone mono-, di- or trimethylation patterns in response to drought
which revealed that most of these epigenetic marks have prevailed on genic regions;
approximately 90% of annotated genes of Arabidopsis which bear H3K4 methylation
marks.
similar study in rice, revealed that 4837 genes were differentially H3K4me3-
modified in drought stress, and the methylation status only affects the expression of a
small subset of drought-responsive genes.
Trithorax-like factor ATX1 induces the expression of an ABA biosynthetic enzyme
encoding the gene, 9-cisepoxy carotenoid dioxygenase 3 (NCED3) and various
components of ABA-dependent and an independent singling pathway through
trimethylation at H3K4 histone marks during dehydration stress. Histone H3K4,
methyltransferases SDG25 and ATX1 are not only required to stress responsive gene
expression, but also for maintenance of gene expression during the recovery period.
A recent study suggests that a low level of H3K27me3 within the genic locus of
drought-responsive transcription factors contributes to stress-tolerance in
Arabidopsis. Enhanced tolerance to drought is not only being achieved by resetting
the expression of some stress-related transcription factor-, signaling component-, and
effector genes but also the transcriptional modulation of specialized non-protein
regulatory RNAs.
Currently, only marginal knowledge about NTAs in plants are available but it has
been hypothesized that they are largely more sensitive to environmental stimuli than
normal genes in plants
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.
DNA METHYLATION
Abiotic stress, including heat and drought, can induce hypo- or hyper-methylation of
DNA at: coding, promoter, or transposon regions.
Drought stress is also reported to promote DNA methylation in plants. Water-deficit
conditions in rice are endorsed by declined cytosine methylation in drought-tolerant
genotypes, IR 20 and CO43, whereas hypermethylation has been observed in the drought
susceptible genotypes of rice, PMK 3, and Paiyur.
Differences in methylation status are reflected in differential expression of droughtresponsive genes in tolerant and susceptible accessions.
Drought adaptive transgenerational plasticity in offspring mediated by the inherited
DNA methylation status in Polygonum persicaria.
These stress memories allow an offspring to respond more swiftly and vigorously to a
recurring drought or any other abiotic stress.
Construction of an epigenotype map is considered as the first step towards epigenetic
quantitative trait loci (epi QTL) identification, in genetically closed relative species.
CONCLUSION
Under ongoing climate scenario, with escalating emission of greenhouse gases, increase
in severity and frequency of drought has been predicted to further increase in future. Some plants
escape drought by reducing growth accompanied by a yield penalty. Combined knowledge of
traditional breeding along with marker assisted selection makes it easier and more efficient to
induce drought tolerance crops plants to enhance and sustain productivity in drought prone
environment.
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A Senthilkumar*, Geethu Jacob and J. Vinoth Raj
Assistant Professor (SS&AC), Department of Soils Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
The Indian Agriculture College, Radhapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: senthilhorts052&gmail.com
Introduction
The soil is the most important constituent to the fulfillment of all the basic needs of
human beings. Soil is an important component of our farming. An eminent position in the global
cultivation of rice, jawar, pulses, sugarcane, vegetables, etc. is occupied by The Indian
Agriculture College and reason physical, and chemical condition of whatever land is
indispensable for the proper implementation of the other management practices. Thus the
physicochemical study of the territory is very significant because both physical and chemical
properties bear upon the soil productivity. This, physico-chemical study of soil is based on
various parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, texture, moisture, temperature, soil organic
matter, available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. This knowledge will help the UG students
who are interested to work in the agricultural field at The Indian Agriculture College,
Radhapuram, Tirunelveli-dist, Tamil Nadu, India.
Physico-Chemical Properties in Soil Quality
pH
The most significant property of soil is its pH level, Its effects on all other parameters of
soil. Therefore, pH is considered while analyzing any kind of soil. If the pH is less than 6 then it
is said to be acidic soil, if the pH range from 6-8.5 it is normal soil and greater than 8.5 then it is
said to be alkaline soil.
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SOIL FERTILITY STATUS AT THE INDIAN
AGRICULTURE COLLEGE, RADHAPURAM
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Texture
Soil texture is a qualitative classification tool used in both the field and laboratory to
determine the classes for agricultural soils based on their physical texture. The soil in different
regions shows different textures, the texture of the soil mostly depends upon the size of particles.
Soil texture shows its effect on aeration and root penetration. It also affects the nutritional status
of the soil. Soil texture can be expressed significantly by its electrical conductivity.
Moisture
Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as
soil called soil moisture, Moisture is one of the most important properties of soil. Absorption of
the nutrient by soil largely depends on the moisture content of the soil moisture of soil also
shows its effect on the texture of the soil.
Soil temperature
Soil temperature depends on the ratio of the energy absorbed to that lost. Soil has a
temperature range between -20 to 60 °C. The temperature of the soil is the most important
property because it shows its effect on the chemical, physical and biological processes related to
the growth of plants. Soil temperature changes with season, time of day and local conditions of
climate.
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is also a very important property of the soil, it is used to check the
quality of the soil. It is a measure of ions present in solution [1]. The electrical conductivity of a
soil solution increases with the increased concentration of ions. Electrical conductivity is a very
quick, simple and inexpensive method to check the health of soils. It is a measure of ions present
in solution. The electrical conductivity of a soil solution increases with the increased
concentration of ions.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil and is a bottleneck
in plant growth [2]. About 80% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas diffuses into
water where it can be ―fixed‖ (converted) by blue-green algae to ammonia for algal use. Nitrogen
can also enter lakes and streams as inorganic nitrogen and ammonia. Because nitrogen can enter
aquatic systems in many forms, there is an abundant supply of available nitrogen in these
systems.
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Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the most important element present in every living cell [1]. It is one of the
most important micronutrients essential for plant growth. Phosphorus most often limits nutrients
that remain present in plant nuclei and act as energy storage.
Potassium
Potassium plays an important role in different physiological processes of plants, it is one
of the important elements for the development of the plant [3]. It is involved in many plant
metabolism reactions, ranging from lignin and cellulose used for the formation of cellular
structural components, for regulation of photosynthesis and production of plant sugars that are
used for various plant metabolic needs.
Soil organic matter
It is also a valuable property of soil. If the soil is poor in organic matter, then it enhances
the process of soil erosion [1]. If the soil organic matter is present in the soil, then this soil is
useful for agricultural practices. Organic matter may be added to the soil in the form of animal
manure, compost, etc. The presence of a higher content of organic matter in the soil can be
another possible reason for the lowering of the pH. Soil organic matter content has decreased
from surface to subsoil due to leveling.
Conclusion
Maintenance or enhancement of soil quality is a more important criterion for the analysis
and sustainability of soil ecosystems [4]. Nevertheless, the undertaking of establishing a specific
criterion for land quality is challenging because functions and subsequent values provided by soil
ecosystems are variable and rely on the interplay of soil physical, chemical, and biological
properties and cognitive operations, which often differ significantly across spatial and temporal
scales. The selection of a standard set of specific soil properties as indicators of soil quality can
be complex and may vary among soil systems. Most of the parameters are quite higher or lower
than acceptable limits. Therefore, it is very important to put a total ban on human activities,
which are responsible for soil quality deterioration.
References
1. Ku Smita Tale, Dr Sangita Ingole. (2020) A Review on Role of Physico-Chemical Properties
in Soil Quality, Chem Sci Rev Lett. 4(13):57-66.
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2. Kiran G. Chaudhari, (2021). Studies of the physicochemical parameters of soil samples
Advances in Applied Science Research, 4(6):246-248.
3. Solanki HA, Chavda NH. (2022). Physicochemical analysis with reference to seasonal
changes in soils of Victoria park reserve forest, Bhavnagar (Gujarat). Life Sciences Leaflets,
8:62-68.
4. SH Schoenholtz. (2020). A review of chemical and physical properties as indicators of forest
soil quality: challenges and opportunities, Forest Ecology and Management, 138:335-356.
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Pramod Kumar1
, Pankaj Kumar Choudhary1*, Anandita Srivastava1
and Govind Kumar
Choudhary2
1Department of Veterinary Physiology, 2 Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Bihar
Veterinary College, Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna-800014 (Bihar)
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
The livestock sector employs nearly 8 % of the total Indian workforce. India is in terms
of total livestock population, total milk production; total bovine, and total buffalo population are
at the top position. So, the importance of livestock in our day-to-day life cannot be neglected as a
major source of animal protein in the form of milk and meat which is essential to make our
population healthy and be sound of mind to contribute to the development of the country. Postmonsoon care and management of farm animals is crucial to ensure their health and well-being
after the rainy season. Here are some important aspects to consider:
Shelter and Housing
Inspect animal shelters and repair any damages caused by the monsoon, ensuring they are
sturdy and provide adequate protection from rain and wind. Improve drainage systems to prevent
waterlogging in animal housing areas. Provide clean and dry bedding to keep animals
comfortable and prevent health issues like respiratory infections.
Health and Hygiene:
Schedule a visit from a veterinarian to conduct a thorough health check-up and address
any health concerns. Implement a vaccination and deworming program recommended by the
veterinarian to prevent common diseases. Maintain cleanliness by regularly cleaning and
disinfecting animal housing, feeding areas, and water troughs.
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POST MONSOON CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM
ANIMALS
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Monitor animals for signs of illnesses such as coughing, diarrhea, or loss of appetite, and take
appropriate action promptly.
Nutrition and Feeding
Assess the quality of pasture and forage after the monsoon and supplement with
additional feed if necessary. Provide a balanced diet that meets the specific nutritional
requirements of each animal species and age group. Ensure access to clean and fresh water at all
times, regularly cleaning and refilling water containers.
Parasite Control
Implement a comprehensive parasite control program to combat internal and external
parasites such as worms, ticks, and flies. Follow appropriate deworming protocols recommended
by your veterinarian. Use fly repellents or traps to minimize the risk of fly-borne diseases and
discomfort.
Exercise and Movement
Allow animals to roam and graze in dry and safe areas to help them regain strength and
maintain overall fitness. Provide sufficient space for exercise and movement to prevent stiffness
and promote healthy growth.
Safety Measures:
Check fences, gates, and enclosures for damages caused by heavy rains and repair them
as needed to prevent escapes or injuries. Secure hazardous materials or equipment to prevent
accidental ingestion or injuries.
Monitoring and Observation
Regularly observe animals for any signs of distress, injury, or abnormal behavior.
Keep an eye out for standing water or stagnant areas that could become breeding grounds for
mosquitoes or other disease vectors.Remember, specific care and management practices may
vary depending on the type of farm animal you have. It is always advisable to consult with a
veterinarian or agricultural expert for tailored advice based on your specific circumstances and
the needs of your animals.
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Bhautik Bagda1
, Twinkle Ram2
, Rachana K. Bansal3* and A. S. Shaikh4
3 & 4 Assistant Professor,Department of Agril. Economics, BACA, AAU, Anand, Gujarat
1 & 2 MSc Scholar, Department of Agril. Economics, BACA, AAU, Anand, Gujarat
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper reviews several studies conducted in different regions of India to assess the postharvest losses in the vegetable supply chain. Agriculture plays a vital role in the livelihoods of
the majority of the Indian population, and vegetables constitute a significant component of
agricultural activities. Despite the increasing demand for vegetables at the macro level, the
production and marketing of these perishable crops face considerable uncertainties. The
reviewed studies focus on the losses occurring at different stages, including farm level,
wholesale level, and retail level. Tomato consistently emerges as one of the vegetables with the
highest losses. The primary reasons behind the losses include inappropriate harvesting
techniques, inadequate post-harvest handling, and insufficient storage and transportation
facilities. The findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions and sustainable post-harvest
practices to minimize losses, enhance food security, and improve the livelihoods of farmers and
other stakeholders involved in the vegetable supply chain in India.
Key Words: Demand, harvesting, losses, storage, sustainable
Introduction
The majority of the people in India makes out their existence directly or indirectly from
farm related economic activities because agriculture is an integral part of everyday life in Indian
sub-continent, not only for it employs about 70 per cent of workforce of the country, but also for
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A REVIEW OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES IN VEGETABLE
SUPPLY CHAIN IN INDIA
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it provides food to the population, raw materials for the industries, wood for fuel and shelter,
herbs for medicines, and above all means of sustenance and livelihoods (Bairwa et al., 2014).
The booming vegetable sector in India can be well recognized in terms of an increasing
population which in turn magnify the domestic demand, their increasing export potential; the
need for providing large employment opportunities in rural area and vegetables being relatively
more remunerative crops. Although at the macro level the demand shows a steady rise, at grass
root the production and marketing of vegetables face tremendous uncertainties on several counts.
The production of most of the vegetables is seasonal and highly localized in favour of agroclimatic conditions in the country. The extremely perishable nature of vegetables results in an
inability on the part of the producer to manage supply in the assembling markets (Sharma, 2020).
Vegetables are the most perishable agricultural produces. One-third of food produced for
human consumption is lost or wasted globally. Food is wasted throughout the supply chain, from
initial agricultural production down to final household consumption. Food losses occur naturally
by the microbial attack, enzymatic action and chemical degradation. A major portion is wasted
due to quality standards, i.e. rejecting food items not perfect in shape or appearance. We have a
limited resources and preventing food loss should be our utmost priority. Therefore this study
reviews the post harvest losses in vegetables at various stages by the involvement of various
intermediaries across India.
Review of Literature
Table 1: Total post-harvest losses in major vegetables during marketing
Sr. No. Vegetables Losses at different level (%)
Grower Wholesaler Retail Total Losses
1. Tomato 18.77 1.54 9.83 30.14
2. Potato 4.48 2.35 3.52 10.35
3. Onion 17.69 1.02 10.88 29.59
4. Cabbage 7.03 0.09 20.45 27.57
5. Cauliflower 11.80 2.05 2.96 16.81
6. Chilly 13.42 0.03 10.35 23.80
7. Brinjal 11.69 0.80 8.16 20.65
8. Okra 13.63 1.03 15.44 30.10
9. Pumpkin 5.41 0.06 7.24 12.71
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In their study, Kumar et al. (2018) assessed post-harvest losses in major vegetables
across Uttar Pradesh. Tomato experienced the highest losses at 30.14%, while potato had the
lowest at 10.35%. Okra ranked second with 30.10% losses, followed by onion (29.59%),
cabbage (27.57%), brinjal (20.65%), cauliflower (16.81%), pumpkin (12.71%), and potato
(10.35%). Upon further examination at different marketing levels - grower, wholesaler, and
retailer - maximum losses were observed at the grower level for all vegetables except pumpkin.
The authors attributed these losses to insufficient knowledge of maturity indices during
harvesting. Conversely, losses were minimal at the wholesaler level, as they avoided taking
ownership of green vegetables and conducted transactions from early morning until around 11
am daily.
Fig. 1: Post-harvest losses of cucumber from harvesting to different levels of marketing
In their assessment of post-harvest losses of cucumber in Bangladesh, Jahan et al. (2020)
reported that approximately 19.99% of the produced cucumber failed to reach consumers due to
losses. The highest percentage of loss occurred at the wholesalers' stage (7%), where the produce
is obtained from the 'Bepari', who in turn purchase fresh produce from growers and sell it to
wholesalers in city markets. The extended transit time results in water loss and shrinkage of
cucumber fruits. Improper storage facilities at both the 'Bepari' and wholesalers' level, as well as
faulty transport, likely contribute to the higher losses at the wholesalers' level. The study further
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revealed that the majority of losses were at the wholesaler's level (7%), followed by the 'Bepari'
level (4.75%), grower's level (4.2%), and retailer's level (4.04%).
Table 2:Post-harvest losses of tomatoes at market level
Sr. No. Stage Losses (in kg/q) Percentage
1. Losses at Wholesale level
a) Loading-unloading 1.71 15.39
b) Sorting & grading 0.44 3.97
c) Packaging 0.71 6.40
d) Storage 1.39 12.54
e) Transportation 2.88 26.01
Sub total 7.13 64.31
2. Losses at Retail level
a) Loading-unloading 0.72 6.49
b) Transportation 1.02 9.18
c) Sorting & grading 0.47 4.19
d) Selling 1.75 15.83
Sub total 3.96 35.69
Total 11.09 100.00
In their study on post-harvest losses of tomatoes at the market level in Bilaspur district,
Chattisgarh, Raghuvanshi et al. (2019) found the total loss to be 11.09 kg per quintal (q).
Notably, the losses were higher at the wholesale level (7.13 kg/q) compared to the retail level
(3.96 kg/q). Among different marketing activities at the wholesale level, transportation
contributed to the highest losses (2.88 kg/q), followed by loading-unloading (1.71 kg/q), storage
(1.39 kg/q), packaging (0.71 kg/q), and sorting-grading (0.44 kg/q). At the retail level, the
maximum losses were observed at the selling stage (3.96 kg/q), followed by transportation (1.02
kg/q), loading-unloading (0.72 kg/q), and sorting-grading (0.47 kg/q). These findings highlight
the critical points in the tomato supply chain where losses occur, providing valuable insights for
potential interventions to reduce post-harvest losses.
In his assessment of post-harvest losses of vegetables in Tapi district, Gujarat, Sharma
(2020) found that tomato experienced the highest losses at 28.72%, followed by brinjal
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(19.71%), okra (16.38%), cowpea (12.94%), guar (12.36%), chilly (9.83%), sponge gourd
(6.90%), and cauliflower (5.18%). The study revealed that the maximum post-harvest loss in
tomatoes occurred at the grower level, accounting for 14.91% of its total loss. This high loss rate
at the grower level was attributed to inappropriate post-harvest techniques, including improper
grading, packaging, lack of storage, and inadequate transportation facilities. One of the
significant factors contributing to these losses was harvesting vegetables at improper maturity,
leading to inconsistent ripening and reduced overall quality. These findings highlight the
importance of implementing effective post-harvest practices to minimize losses and improve the
overall quality and market value of vegetables in the region.
Table 3: Total post-harvest losses of vegetables
Sr. No. Vegetables Losses (%)
Grower Wholesaler Retail Total Loss
1. Okra 8.50 2.45 5.43 16.38
2. Brinjal 11.20 1.41 7.10 19.71
3. Guar 5.72 1.53 5.11 12.36
4. Cowpea 7.10 0.34 5.50 12.94
5. Tomato 14.91 2.24 11.57 28.72
6. Chilly 6.48 0.93 2.42 9.83
7. Cauliflower 3.10 0.60 1.48 5.18
8. Sponge gourd 2.39 0.55 3.96 6.90
Table 4: Total estimated post-harvest losses in tomato and brinjal
Sr.
No.
Particulars Post-harvest losses in
tomato (in kg/q)
Post-harvest losses in
brinjal (in kg/q)
1. At farm level
a) Harvesting 2.18 2.05
b) Grading & sorting 7.84 6.32
c) Handling and transportation 3.43 1.79
d) Marketing - 2.04
Total (kg) 13.45 12.21
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2. At wholesale level
a) Handling and transportation 6.53 3.83
Total (kg) 6.53 3.83
3. At retail level
a) Grading 5.25 2.78
b) Marketing 3.28 4.45
Total (kg) 8.53 7.23
In their study on post-harvest losses in tomato and brinjal in Rangareddy district,
Telangana, Krishna et al. (2022) examined three stages: farm level, wholesale level, and retail
level. The results indicated that the maximum losses occurred at the farm level, followed by the
retail level and wholesale level. Specifically, at the farm level, tomato experienced higher losses
(13.45 kg/q) compared to brinjal (12.21 kg/q). The primary reason attributed to the highest losses
of both tomato and brinjal at the farm level was grading and sorting practices. At the retail level,
grading was identified as the major contributing factor to losses, while at the wholesale level,
handling and transportation were responsible for the significant losses. These findings
underscore the importance of implementing effective post-harvest practices, especially at the
farm level, to minimize losses and improve the overall efficiency of the tomato and brinjal
supply chain in the region.
Conclusion
The reviewed studies on post-harvest losses of various vegetables in different regions
shed light on the critical stages where losses occur and the factors contributing to them. The
findings highlight the significance of proper post-harvest techniques and efficient handling
practices at different levels of the supply chain. Grading and sorting emerged as common
challenges leading to losses, particularly at the farm level, while inadequate storage and
transportation facilities also played a significant role in certain cases. Tomato consistently stood
out as one of the vegetables with the highest post-harvest losses, emphasizing the need for
targeted interventions to address these issues. The inappropriate harvesting of vegetables at
improper maturity levels was identified as a significant factor contributing to inconsistent
ripening and low-quality produce. Wholesalers and retailers appeared to face relatively lower
losses compared to growers, indicating that the supply chain can benefit from better coordination
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and communication between stakeholders. Improving storage facilities, grading practices, and
transportation methods can substantially reduce losses and enhance the overall quality and
marketability of the vegetables.
The studies collectively underline the importance of adopting sustainable post-harvest
practices and raising awareness among growers and other stakeholders about proper handling
techniques. Implementing these measures can lead to significant reductions in post-harvest
losses, contribute to food security, and improve the livelihoods of farmers and other actors in the
vegetable supply chain. Policymakers and industry stakeholders can use these insights to develop
targeted strategies and interventions to address post-harvest losses effectively and promote a
more sustainable and efficient vegetable production and marketing system.
References
Bairwa, S. L., Lakra, K., Kumar, P., & Kushwaha, S. (2014). Sustainable agriculture and rural
livelihood security in India. J. of Science, 4(10), 625-631.
Jahan, S. E., Hassan, M. K., Roy, S., Ahmed, Q. M., Hasan, G. N., Muna, A. Y., & Islam, M. M.
(2020). Survey to collect information on pre- and post-harvest handling status and assess
post-harvest losses of cucumber. International J. of Business Mgt. and Social Res., 8(1),
443-458.
Krishna, M. B. A., Charyulu, D. K., Suhasini, K., & Chary, D. S. (2022). Assessment of postharvest losses of major vegetables in Rangareddy district of Telangana. Indian J. of
Environ. and Climate Change, 12(11), 1610-1619.
Kumar, V., Saroj, P., & Kispotta, W. (2018). An economic analysis of post-harvest losses in
marketing of major vegetables in Kaushambi district of Uttar Pradesh. Advances in Life
Sci., 5(20), 2278-3849.
Raghuvanshi, A., Gauraha, K. A. & Chandrakar, R. M. (2019). Post harvest losses in tomato and
determinants of post harvest losses at farm level in Chhattisgarh. International J. of
Agric. Science & Research, 9(6), 127-132.
Sharma, G. (2020). An investigation on post-harvest losses in marketing of vegetables in
Gujarat. Indian J. of Econ. and Dev., 16(1), 142-146.
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E.L. Aruneshwaran1*
, S.Vigneshwara1
, E.L. Aadhie shrie2
, B.Bhuvana1
and R.Manjuriya1
*1
Final Year B.V.Sc & A.H. , 2
Second Year B.V.Sc & A.H
Veterinary College and Research Institute, Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
One health is an approach of combining human, animal and environmental components to
address global health challenges and maintain ecological sustainability. Zoonoses are diseases
that are naturally transmitted between animals and humans. Zoonoses have affected human
health throughout times and, wildlife and domestic animals have always played a role for
transmission of disease which is a public health treat worldwide. Veterinarians have major role
in enhancing public health, by recognising and responding to zoonotic disease transmission,
maintaining food and water quality and promoting wildlife and ecosystem health. So, success in
preventing and controlling of major public health issues depend on the capability to mobilize
resources in different sectors and on coordination and intersectoral approaches, especially,
between national veterinary and public health services.
Keywords: Veterinarian, zoonoses, one health, ecology and animal welfare.
Introduction
Veterinarian, a person dedicated for the benefit of society, conservation of animal
resources, relieve the suffering of animals and promote animal wellbeing. Calvin Schwabe,
Veterinary epidemiologist coined the term “One Medicine”.
One Medicine or One Health (OH) is a collaborative, multisectoral, coordinated, and
transdisciplinary approach – working at the local, regional, national, and global levels – with the
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VETERINARIANS IN ONE HEALTH
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goal of achieving optimal health outcomes by recognizing the interconnection between people,
animals, plants, and their shared environment. It involves the communication and coordination of
activities among the professionals in human health (doctors, nurses, public health practitioners,
epidemiologists), animal health (veterinarians, paraprofessionals, agricultural workers)
, environment (ecologists, wildlife experts), Policy makers and Pet owners.
With increasing population, industrialization, and geopolitical problems, the damage to
biodiversity, ecosystems, climate changes are accelerating, which led the emergence of various
one health issues namely,
Antibiotic-resistant germs
Vector-borne diseases
Food Safety and Food Security damage
Human-animal bond
Contamination of water
Veterinarians in Human Health
1. Reduce global hunger
Animal products (Milk, Meat, Egg) are the only source of most nutritious food for
the population in malnutrition. By improving livestock and cropping pattern, farmers
household income, and livelihoods will be increases. Hence Veterinarians must immunize
livestock and introduce new, more productive breeds, that will thrive under the harsh Climatic
conditions in order to reduce global hunger.
2. Control Zoonoses
When zoonotic diseases strike any given geographical location, veterinary
professionals are the first source of informed opinion on veterinary issues for
governments, the media, the public where the Veterinarians collaborate with human
medical counterparts on zoonotic diseases, and advise local health boards and
commissions. Veterinarians are involved in public health activities like routine health
examinations, maintaining immunization regimens, implementing parasite control
programs, advising on the risks of animal contact for immune compromised
individuals, thereby controlling the spread of zoonoses. Communities are best served
when veterinarians approach public health issues with a ―herd health‖ perspective.
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Early response to Zoonotic animal diseases would prevent epidemic events spread and is
of tremendous benefit for generations to come.
3. Monitor food quality and food safety
Veterinarians are key component for supporting sustainable production of food
from animal origins and to the success of farm operations (Processed, frozen,
packaged, and branded meat, milk, ice cream). Veterinarian‘s responsibility in
conducting ante- and post-mortem inspections and making food safety interventions like
detection of adulterations in milk and meat ensures a safe and wholesome food supply to
consumers. Also, veterinarians make sure that healthy animals are exported, imported,
and distributed, thus preventing the risk of introducing detrimental, high-impact diseases
(like Avian influenza) into distant regions or neighbouring countries.
4. Biomedical Research
Veterinarians are involved in managing and maintaining laboratory animal
colonies for research and diagnostic efforts. Veterinarians are involved in development
of novel drugs, vaccines and biologics with an aim of protecting animal and human
health. Camille Guerin, a veterinarian who, together with Albert Calmette developed
the first Vaccine for immunization against tuberculosis in humans. Veterinarians are
also involved in establishing a causal link between human and animal disease relies on
such research efforts, often through some combination of molecular studies,
mathematical theory, and experimental epidemiology, using either field or laboratory
research. For example, there are major research efforts aimed toward the identification
of virulence factors for E coli O157:H7 and the reasons for their differential
expressions in people and cattle
5. Disease surveillance
Disasters do not usually cause new diseases but can lead to increased transmission
and outbreaks. During disasters, Veterinarians visit to disaster affected areas to make
active surveillance about any disease occurrence in livestock and aquatic animals and
thereby it‘s importance in human health. Veterinarians are also involved in Collection of
samples, testing and confirmation of samples and taking necessary steps for preventing
spread of infection. They compile epidemiological and statistical information collected
before, during and after disaster and to take preventive actions to monitor.
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6. Biosecurity
The veterinarian is a sentinel for the early detection of, and early response to,
accidental or deliberate introduction of exotic diseases. The primary Biosecurity measure
involved in preventing the entry of diseases into a locality is Quarantining of newly
entering animals and birds. Prevalence of specific infectious agents of concern should be
determined and Isolation of those diseased or suspected animals in that area is an
important biosecurity measure in control of spreading diseases. Sanitation literally
means measures necessary for improving and protecting health and well-being of the
people via maintain clean farm environment (like foot bath, fumigation of eggs) and
proper disposal of animal wastes. Thus, the veterinarian is, in fact, a key line of defence
that society counts on against agro-terrorism and bioterrorism.
7. Human animal bond maintaining companion health
Pet owners are emotionally attached to their animals and they also considered pets
as members of their household; thus, people are requesting advanced veterinary services
to safeguard their pet health and also Pet care givers are focusing more on Veterinarians
who focus more on animal welfare and working cooperatively with local humane
societies. Veterinarians are helpful in facilitating the use of guide and service dogs for
people with disabilities, and promoting the benefits of the human-animal bond for the
disabled and elderly, as well as war veterans and others suffering from post-traumatic
stress disorder.
Veterinarians in Domestic Animal Health
Veterinarian has the following responsibilities.
a. Conducting post-mortem examination of the vetro-legal cases.
b. Investigations of common offences against animals.
c. Investigations in case of malicious and accidental poisoning.
d. Investigations in case of frauds in the sale of livestock and livestock products.
e. Issuing health certificates.
f. To get the real culprits punished and help in providing justice and fair treatment to
man and animal and also to save innocent people/persons from the false
accusations of crime.
g. To prevent cruelty to animals.
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h. To protect the interests of society at large and prevent the unethical practices in
relation to animals in the society.
1. Promote animal welfare
Animal welfare is the well-being of animals. An animal is in a good state of
welfare it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour,
and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear and distress. Good
animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter,
management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing. Veterinarians
educate their clients with every herd health, sick animal or wellness visit. Veterinarians
routinely discuss proper on-farm management practices to maximize health and mitigate
distress and disease. The importance of discussing pain control and preventive health
measures with farmers as well as companion animal clients is becoming more evident.
Veterinarians make themselves available to cooperate with all interested parties (e.g.,
legislators, livestock and food industries, animal welfare organization, consumer
organization. etc.) to improve the welfare and well-being of animals. There are numerous
animal welfare programs, projects, initiatives on different national and international
levels involving government and private sector to improve and promote the welfare and
the protection of animals in different fields
2. Drafting animal welfare legislations and participating in programs and projects
Veterinarians play a major role in development and implementation of animal
welfare voluntary and regulatory acts (Formulation of national livestock policies),
legislations and assurance programs. Veterinarians assure that the Animal Welfare Acts
and programs are useful and truly serve societal need as well as the needs of the animals.
3. Increase domestic animal production for food
4. The demand for foods of animal origin seems likely to increase, the efficiency of
food production, the resilience of the food chain, and the role of the veterinary
profession appear increasingly important. Healthy and productive livestock produce a
wide variety of food products for direct and indirect human consumption and processing.
These products include blood, eggs, meat and meat products, milk and dairy products,
viscera as well as rendering by-products such as brains, ears, feet, skin, testicles, tongues,
and udders. Bones, horns, and leathers are other by-products that feed into value-adding
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systems for commercial purposes. The food and income from healthy animals empower
farmers of all scales to embrace the advantages, education, openings, opportunities,
leverages, and strengths they need to produce more food and income to feed an everincreasing world population. Also, animal food products from healthy and productive
livestock improve farmers‘ access to both domestic and international markets.
Veterinarians are involved in discovery of improved technology which will
increase the profit of farmers. Veterinarians are involved in formulating improved feed
rations and also in creating genetically superior breeds to increase food production. An
active animal welfare division that works on welfare standards for transport and slaughter
of animal. The work done by these veterinarians not only sets the standards for a safe and
stable food supply but ensures that producers, shippers and slaughter workers maximize
the welfare of the animals in their care.
5. Prevent disease outbreaks
a. Vaccination: In disease outbreak conditions animals become more susceptible to
diseases due to stress. So Veterinarian actively involved in vaccinating animals to
prevent diseases.
b. Deworming: To check the parasitic infestation regular deworming is done.
c. Disinfection of animal sheds by insecticidal spray: disinfection of animal sheds to
be done with the compounds like lime powder, alum, formalin, sodium
bicarbonate, Bleaching powder, Copper sulphate, phenol gases like HCN,
formaldehyde etc. For control of ticks, flies, mosquitoes, lice etc. various
insecticides like methrin, melathion, aldrin, etc. may be used.
6. Capacity Building for Disaster Management
Veterinarians are a part of State Departments for each specific activity during
disasters. Training animal owners, conducting Animal Health awareness for animal
owners, social workers, volunteers; Development of training modules for rescue of
animals in collaboration with NDMA NIDM and NDRF. Establishing emergency
communication channels during disaster. Mitigation of risk of disaster on livestock and
fodder.
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7. Increase and support animal products exports
Livestock industry is highly developed, very competitive, and heavily exportoriented. Integrated livestock companies, involving feed production, contracting out -
growers, processing and marketing are common in the poultry and pig sectors. Largescale dairy processing industries and milk producers‘ cooperatives are also a common
feature. All these enterprises have a specific interest in increasing the animal productivity
and provide veterinary services, drugs, vaccines and extension advice to out- growers or
to cooperative members, accounting for its cost under the products‘ (inputs and output)
supply/procurement contractual arrangements.
Thus, Veterinarians are helpful in for those companies to increase animal products
production and exports by creating awareness to farmers regarding measures to stimulate
the privatization process (soft loans, training programmes, contracting out of services
formerly carried out by public veterinarians) and incentives to leave the government
services (early retirement schemes, pension plans, severance payments) have generally
not been put in place.
8. Disease surveillance, diagnosis and control
Active surveillance is important in the investigation of the potential pathogens
of animals and the potentials of possible emergence in humans. This type of control
would allow the acquisition of rich databases that would support specific and effective
measures to control zoonotic epidemics. High-risk behaviours could also be identified,
and health education activities could be initiated to change habits that contribute to and
hinder the adaptation and dissemination of the pathogens. Veterinarians are especially
important in wildlife surveillance, which becomes a fundamental parameter in the
control of emerging zoonoses because ecological changes, molecular variations of
infectious agents, and wild animal-man interactions represent the main factors for the
emergence of new pathogens. Therefore, the collaboration between veterinary
communities linked to the monitoring of wildlife and human medical communities is
crucial in the development of preventive strategies. Veterinary epidemiology allows
alignment with disease forecasting and modeling studies through the application of
georeferencing software that associates environmental variables, such as temperature,
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humidity, soil type, vector density, pathogen, host, exposure, and transit of animals and
people. The convergence of factors that include the availability of these geocoded
multi-temporal data and multi-professional collaborations worldwide would allow for
the production of a sophisticated Geographic Information System under a holistic
perspective for the development of research related to the control of zoonosis.
9. Provide clinical and population health expertise for all animals
Veterinarians are sufficiently influential and act as the society animal welfare
main source to give science-based expertise and educate the wide public on basic animal
husbandry. There is an increased interest and concern from the wide public on how
animals are used and treated. Peoples those live in the city have no understand of basic
animal husbandry and their pet or companion animal husbandry and health management.
Veterinarians educate pet owners about the risks of acquiring infectious diseases. They
also reduce transmission risks by vaccinating pets and by reducing pets‘ burden of
parasites that may infest the animals‘ owners.
10. Combating antimicrobial resistance
Many antimicrobials are used for the treatment of specific diseases and for disease
prevention. Veterinarians are actively involved in discussions about limiting the use of
antimicrobials in animal populations to ensure that models of animal husbandry can be
adapted to guarantee good animal welfare. As a profession we must also be confident that
appropriate medications are available with veterinary oversight to allow adequate
treatment of our patients. By the way veterinarians are highly helpful in preventing
antimicrobial resistance in humans too by limiting the use of anti-microbials in animals.
Veterinarians in Ecological Health
1. Protect biodiversity
Veterinarians should promote captive breeding and research on the \"forgotten\"
and ―ignored‖ species of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds. The
Convention on Biological Diversity protect the key drivers of extinction. Zoos and
aquariums are the places where the threatened and endangered species are protected.
Because zoological collections have the responsibility of maintaining populations of
highly endangered species, prioritising research into areas of population sustainability,
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educational initiatives and human behaviour change, can help inform the overall
conservation plan for species at the brink of extinction.
2. Management of wildlife resources
Veterinarian should get information about specific wild animal species in the area
should be gathered by interaction with personnel of different cadre in forest department.
Additionally, the wild animal species which is focused in that area should be known, e.g.,
Tiger is the much-focused wild animal in tiger reserve area.
Vegetation
The major vegetation that serves as specific feed resources to the available
herbivores should be identified and a review should be conducted periodically. The feed
preferences should be noticed for specific wild animal species and also the seasonal
availability of that feed in that area.
Water resources
Veterinarian should also know about the water needs of the concerned wild
animal species and the problems in availability of water in deranged monsoon periods or
summer seasons to undertake the crisis management measures during water scarcity
periods. Highly contaminated water bodies should be identified.
Information on domestic animals in surrounding areas
The Veterinarian should know about the census figures and the dominant
ruminants of that area and in the fringe, villages surrounding the protected wild life
regions.
3. Control movement of exotic services species and diseases
All animal diseases have the potential to adversely affect human populations by
reducing the quantity and quality of food, other livestock products (hides, skins, fibers)
and animal power (traction, transport) that can be obtained from a given quantity of
resources and by reducing people's assets. In order to protect Transboundary Animal
Diseases (TADs) Veterinarians in concern of government are involved in Quarantine of
animals, Examination of animals for infectious diseases, Creating protocols and
legislations for entry of animals into the nation.
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A monitoring system based on appropriate indicators is also needed to measure
progress, and a review of the appropriate indicators would be timely. For example, the
focus for preventive vaccination invariably is on numbers of animals vaccinated
(coverage) rather than whether the animals vaccinated are in key endemic areas or
during the appropriate season.
4. Disease surveillance and prevention in wild animal populations
Random assessment of health in selected wild animals‘ species shall be carried
out whenever opportunities arises or when it demands in a periodical way. During
transportation or shifting from one region to another health assessment measures should
be undertaken. Whenever any lesion is fond sincere efforts should be undertaken to send
samples in nearby institutions. He should prepare the list of diseases that can occur in
focused wild animal and should be kept ready for a review. An enquiry on specific
outbreak of any disease in livestock of nearby villages shall be made. He should observe
on morbidity and mortality on specific species. Proper sampling and getting the
confirmatory reports are the prime responsibilities of veterinarian and once the disease
found out the precautionary measures shall be undertaken.
5. Conservation of natural resources, conservative medicine
Wildlife veterinarians play a vital role in conserving natural resources via in-situ
and ex-situ conservation, apart from saving number of species and understanding the
consequences of animal diseases to human communities, they also encompass to
protection of functional and integrated ecosystem, applying their skills and scientific
knowledge on emerging field of conservation Medicine Modern Zoos and aquariums
have a responsibility towards the animals under their protecting their whole life stages.
6. Climate change adaptation
Climate change will impact veterinary medicine by amplifying existing health
problems, altering global food production and consumption patterns and creating
unanticipated threats (epidemics, fire, drought, species migration). For amplified threats
of climate change adaptation Veterinarians are essentially a matter of ensuring accessible
animal health services that can be deployed and/or enhanced in response to locally
changing epidemiological situations. Addressing unanticipated threats Addressing
unanticipated threats veterinary medicine‘s partnerships and perspectives to find ways to
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build resilience in animal populations and food systems and to consider cumulative
effects when trying to mitigate impacts.
A stronger veterinary voice and greater ownership of animal health activities
influenced by climate change and to which veterinarians can contribute (e.g.,
strengthening health systems, adaptation to changing disease epidemiology and food
production systems, protection of biodiversity and wildlife, addressing the needs of
vulnerable groups). Veterinarians are involved in investigating Global warming and
communicating the implications of climate change for animal health affecting
conservation, sustainable food production systems, food security, public health and
community resilience.
Conclusion
By One Health approach Veterinarians can:
Prevent outbreaks of zoonotic disease in animals and people.
Improve food safety and security.
Reduce antibiotic-resistant infections and improve human and animal health.
Protect global health security.
Acknowledgement
All the listed authors are thankful to their representative university and institute for
providing the related support to compile this work
References
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BabitaChaudhary1
*, SatishKumar Luthra1
, VijaiKishor Gupta1
and Dalamu2
1
Principal Scientist, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Regional Station,Modipuram,
Meerut, UP, 250110
2
Senior Scientist, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Regional Station, Kufri, Shimla, HP
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Potato (Solanumtuberosum) is the third most important food crop in the world after rice
and wheat in terms of human consumption. More than a billion people worldwide eat potato, and
global total crop production exceeds 376 million metric tons.Potatoes play the most important
role in freeing the growing population of the world from malnutrition and hunger. Potato is an
informal food and provides a low-cost source of energy to the human diet. Potatoes are a rich
source of starch, carbohydrates, proteins, mineral salts, fiber, vitamin C, vitamin B1, antioxidants
and minerals. Potatoes have become an integral part of our diet and besides many food items are
prepared from potatoes such as potato chips, papad, badi, potato porridge,potato flour and potato
semolina etc.
Early crop of potatoes
Potato prefers cool climate for optimum
tuber yield. In India, about 90% potatoes are
produced in northern plains during short winter
days. High temperature during crop growth restricts
adoption in early planting conditions of northwestern plains and west-central plains and main
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MANAGEMENT OF EARLY PLANTED CROP OF
POTATOES
Potato crop
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planting condition in peninsular India. The early planted crop is vulnerable to attack of sucking
pests like leafhopper (AmrascabiguttulaIshida) and mite (PolyphagotorsonemuslatusBanks)
resulting in significant yield reduction. Therefore, to introduce potato cultivation in nontraditional areas/seasons, with relatively higher temperature during crop growth period, potato
varieties has been identified by CPRI. To expand the potato cultivation in non-traditionalwarmer
areas, the variety should germinate, grow and tuberize well under high temperature and have
tolerance to mite and hopper.The early planted crop of potato offers to make the potato as
sandwich crop of 60-70 days crop duration and farmers gets remunerative prizes by selling fresh
table potatoes in the market. For successful cultivation of early crop of potatoes following points
should be considered.
Selection of varieties and importance of early potato crop
Selection of improved varieties is very important for good cultivation of potato. The loss
caused due to error in this cannot be compensated by giving fertilizer or by any other means.
How much seed of potato to be sown at what distance, it all depends on the type, size and soil
fertility. Early maturing varieties are ready in a short time (60-70 days) but their yield is not
much high. Potato is cultivated in the plains from October to March. There is some decrease in
productivity due to high temperature during the early cropping period of potato, but due to the
demand of new potatoes in the month of November, farmers can get good price in the market for
the crop grown in 60-70 days.
Potato Varieties
KufriChandramukhi:
This variety was developed in the year 1968 by cross breeding of hybrid 4485 seedling
and KufriKuber. This variety is suitable for the plains and plateau areas of North India (Haryana,
Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh). This variety has medium sized spreading, open, vigorous and dense
canopy, which mature in 70-80 days. Its slightly flattened, white colored tubers, oval with fleet
eyes look quite attractive and flesh is white.This variety is not resistant to major diseases. It is
suitable for making potato flakes, potato flour, French fries and dried potato products. Its average
yield is 200-250 quintals/ha.
KufriLauvkar:
This is early heat resistant variety. This variety has been prepared from the variant of the
varieties Edina and Sarkov. It was released in the year 1972 for the plateau areas of Karnataka,
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Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Plants of this variety are tall, straight, medium strong and
dense, which mature in 75-80 days. Its tubers are white, round, eyes are flat and eyebrows appear
to be protruding, flesh is white. When grown in medium plains, the variety is suitable for making
flakes, potato flour, chips and dry product. The variety is susceptible to major potato diseases.
This variety is capable of giving yield of 200-250 quintals/ha.
KufriAshoka:
This variety was developed in the year 1996 by crossbreeding of EM/C-1120 and
AllerfruhesteGelbeand. This variety is suitable for the plains areas of North India. This variety
has medium sized spreading, open, vigorous and dense plants, which mature in just 70-90 days.
Its white colored tubers, ovoid with medium deep eyes, flesh white.This variety is not resistant to
major diseases. Its average yield is 200- 250quintals/ha.
KufriBahar:
It is released in 1980. The parentages of this variety areKufri Red and Gineke. It is the
widely grown variety of North Indian plains (Uttar Pradesh) and matures in 70 to 80 days. This
variety has the ability to form early tubers and the production is about 200-250 quintals/ha.
Tubers of this species are white, oval-rounded, eyes fleet and flash is white. It is immune to wart
disease.
KufriPukhraj:
This potato variety was developed by crossbreeding Craig Defience and JEX/B-687 and
was released in the year 1998 for plains and plateau region of North India (Punjab, Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh). This variety matures in 70-90 days. Its plants are tall, sloping, medium stout and
dense and have white flowers. Its tubers are light yellow, oval, eyes are medium, flat and the
flesh is yellow. When exposed to sunlight, the color of its tubers becomes light purple. This
potato variety is resistant to early blight and moderate or mild resistant to late blight. The
average yield per hectare of this variety is 200-250 quintals/ha.
Kufri Surya:
This heat tolerant variety is released in the year 2006. Kufri Surya has been prepared for
early crop. The Parentage of this variety areKufriLauvkar and LT-1. This variety can give
production up to 200 quintals/ha in a period of 70-80 days. Its tubers are light yellow, oblong, the
eyes are superficial and the flesh is light yellow in colour. It is immune to wart disease and
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resistant to insects, leaf hoppers and mites in early crop. This variety can be grown as an early
crop in the north Indian plains at high temperature.
KufriKhyati:
The variety KufriKhyati is released in the year 2008. Parentages of this variety are
MS/82-638 and KufriPukhraj. This variety becomes ready in about 70-80 days. The process of
potato formation starts early in this variety and the production is about 250-300 quintals/ha. Its
tubers are white-cream, oval, the eyes fleet, and the flesh is creamy. It can be grown in the
Northern Indian Plains region. This variety is moderately resistant to late blight.
Kufri Lima:
A heat resistant varietyKufri Lima has been developed for early crop in the year 2020. It
is a cross breeding by CIP391 180.6 x CIP392820.1. This variety can give production up to
about 250-300 quintals/ha in a period of 90-100 days. Its tubers are white, cream, oval, the eyes
are superficial and the flesh is white yellow. It is resistant to insects, leaf hoppers and mites in
early crop. This species can be grown as an early crop in the plains at high temperature and as a
main crop in the plateau regions of India.
Heat tolerant potato varieties: Kufri Surya (A), Kufri Lima (B) ,KufriKiran (C) and KufriBhaskar (D)
Kufri Surya KufriLima
KufriKiran KufriBhaskar
A B
C D
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KufriKiran:
This is heat tolerant variety. This variety is recommended for release in the year 2021.
The parentage of this variety is CP2372 (LT-9) x CP1748. It is released for Indian plains and for
the west Godawari districts. It is resistant to insects, leaf hoppers and mites in early crop.
KufriKiran matures in 70-90 days and produced yield of 250-300 q/ha. The tubers of this variety
are ovoid, skin white-cream, eyes shallow, eyebrows normal, flesh cream, texture mealy.
KufriBhaskar:
KufriBhaskar (HT/11-3) is a new early-medium to medium (85-90 days) maturing heat
tolerant variety. KufriBhaskar has tubers with white cream skin, cream pulp, oval and shallow
eyes. The average production of HT/11-3 (34 t/ha) was at 75-day crop period. The storage
capacity of this genotype was found to be very good in ambient conditions. HT/11-3 also has
very good taste, aroma, mealy texture and no tuber cracking. It possesses 19% tuber dry matter
and has tolerance to mite and hopper burn. It is recommended for potato production as the early
crop in northern plains of India and as main crop in central and plateau regions.
Climate
Potatoes can be cultivated in a wide variety of climates. It can be cultivated from sea
level to an altitude of 9,000 feet, but suitable climate is necessary for advanced cultivation.
Potatoes require a cool climate for proper growth. Temperature is of great importance in potato
cultivation. 25 to 30 degree centigrade day temperature is considered suitable for vegetative
growth of potato and 15-20 degree centigrade night temperature for the growth of potato
tubers.Less rainfall is suitable for potato cultivation; its yield is not good even in areas with high
rainfall. But areas with irrigation facilities are more suitable. In India, it is cultivated in the
summer in the mountains and in the autumn in the plains.
Soil and land selection
Having a fertile soil following the climate is of utmost importance for the successful
cultivation of potatoes. The suitability of soil for potato is measured by the properties of potato,
its early maturity, edible properties and shelf life etc. The pH of the soil should be up to 6.0 -7.5.
For this, the soil should be fertile, medium sized particles, friable and deep, which is not too
alkaline, it is best. The best sandy loam soil for potatoes is light loamy soil with abundance of
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organic matter suitable for potato cultivation.The soil should not be too moist. Soil with good
drainage, level and fertile is considered best for potato cultivation.
Field preparation
Proper preparation of the field is essential for potato cultivation. Generally, the field
requires deep ploughing 3-4 times, due to which the soil becomes friable. The field is prepared
for sowing after levelling the field by putting a patta in the field. The deeper, looser and friable
the soils the more suitable that soil will be for a good potato crop.
The preparation of the field is of special importance because the soil composition, moisture,
temperature, air circulation and the absorption of food elements by the potato plants mainly
depend on the soil holding. These factors affect the size, quality and yield of potatoes. Potato
crop should not be taken continuously from the same field. Proper crop rotation should be
adopted. Fertilizers should be allowed to enter the field before final harvesting. At the time of
sowing, the sufficient moisture is available in the field.
Seed potatoes and planting time and method
Seed potatoes should be of high quality and high productivity. Seed potato weight of 40-
50 grams is considered best for sowing. About 30-40 quintals of seed/hectare is required for
sowing potato. Mid-September to first week of October is suitable for sowing early potato crop.
Seed sized potato tubers are sown on ridges. For planting potatoes, row to row distance is 60 cm
and seed to seed distance is 20 cm and tubers should be sown at a depth of 3-4 inches.
Fertilizers and Irrigation
For good growth of plants, compost manure should be used at the rate of 25-30 tonnes
per hectare. Chemical fertilizers should be applied at the rate of 180 kg nitrogen, 80 kg
phosphorus and 100 kg potash per hectare. Half of the nitrogen, full dose of phosphorus and
potash should be applied at the time of sowing and the remaining quantity of nitrogen should be
applied at the time of earthing up. For early potato crop 4-5 irrigations are required. Light
irrigation is necessary within 2-3 days of after sowing. Water should be given up to 2/3 of ridge.
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Weed control
For weed control in potatoes, a solution of pendimethylene (33 ml per 10 l of water) or
matribuzin (7 g per 10 l of water) as pre-emergence should be sprayed. After 20-25 days of
sowing, weeding and hoeing should be done in the field with the help of hooves and hoes.
Insect diseases and prevention
The early crop of potato is prone to many diseases and pests listed belowLeafhopper:
Due to sucking of juice by leafhopper, the leaves start turning upwards from the edges
and the shape of the leaf becomes like a cup, it is known as hopper burn. To prevent this, 3 ml of
imidaclopridin 10 liters of water should be sprayed in potato crop.
Mites:
This insect thrives more due to lack of irrigation and due to being very small; it is not
visible with the eyes. The leaves of infected plants become greener in color and when the leaf is
turned upsidedown, a glimpse of copper color is visible.For this wettable sulphur 70 WP @
30g/10 liters of water or spiromesifen 240 SC (@ 4ml/10 liters of water) at 30-35 days after
planting should be applied.
White fly:
It is a very small yellowish fly that sucks the sap from the leaves with wings covered with
white scales. It is mainly found on the lower surface of the leaves. It causes a viral disease called
apical leaf curl in potatoes. For its prevention, sprouted tubers should be immersed for 10
minutes in solution of imidacloprid 70 WS (5 grams in 10 liters of water). Sprayingthe crop with
5 grams of thiomethaxam 25 WG in 10 liters of water reduces the incidence of white fly.
Late blight:
This is a terrible disease caused by fungus in potatoes. The outbreak of this disease
occurs on all parts of the potato leaf, stem and tubers. As soon as the weather is cloudy and the
temperature is between 10-20 degree centigrade and the relative humidity is 80 percent, then the
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chances of this disease increase. So stop irrigation immediately. If necessary, apply very light
irrigation and before the symptoms appear, 0.20% solution of mancozeb should be sprayed at an
interval of 8-10 days to prevent the disease.
Harvesting and Marketing
Generally harvesting should be done after
10-15 days after cutting of haulms but in early
crop potatoes are harvested as per the demand of
market and harvested tubers should immediately
be disposed to market without skin setting.
Therefore, under these conditions planting can
be done at two to three dates. In early planted
crop major objective of the farmer to fetch
higher price of their produce and also use same
land for late Rabi crop. Harvesting of new
potatoes coincides with the festive season in the month of November and December which helps
farmer to get premium price in short duration.
Produce of early crop of potato
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1Nithin S, 2Amrutha K K* and 3Dr. Anusree T
1Research scholar, Department of soil science and Agricultural chemistry
College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara,Thrissur, Kerala
*2Research scholar, Department of soil science and Agricultural chemistry
College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara,Thrissur, Kerala
3Research Associate, AICRP on MSPE, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
The soil piping (Fig.1) also known as tunnel erosion is the subsurface erosion of soil by
percolating waters to produce pipe-like conduits below ground especially in non-lithified earth
materials. It is the formation of subsurface tunnels due to subsurface soil erosion. Piping is an
insidious and enigmatic process involving the hydraulic removal of subsurface soil causing the
formation of an underground passage. During rain percolating waters carries finer silt and clay
particles and forms passage ways.
Figure 1. Soil piping effects
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SOIL PIPING AND ITS GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION
Land subsidence Tunnel formation Outlet of a pipe
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The resulting pipes are commonly a few millimetres to a few centimetres in size, but can grow to
a meter or more in diameter. They may lie very close to the ground surface or extend several
meters below the ground. Once initiated they become cumulative with time, the conduits expand
due to subsurface erosion leading to roof collapse and subsidence features on surface. The piping
process involves a relatively weak, incoherent layer that becomes saturated and conducts water
to some free face which transects this layer. The free face could be the wall or head of a gully,
the head cut of a landslide, or a manmade excavation. Even though the pipe may be small when
it first develops, it forms a conduit more permeable than the surrounding material.
As a result, the pipe will draw the subsurface flow from the weak, incoherent layer.
The more flow that it carries the faster it will grow by enlarging its diameter and by head ward
sapping. As the increased flow rates through the pipes further corrodes this conduit, the walls
and roof may collapse. This produces a line of sinks, which then act as tunnel to convey surface
runoff in to the developing pipes. The downstream portions of the pipe will be completely
collapsed leaving an open gully. The general similarity of this process to karst formation
(involving mainly solution) has led to pseudokarst being used for landforms that originate by
piping.
Global distribution
Piping is far more widespread than has often been assumed, forming in virtually all
climates, in organic and mineral soils, on undisturbed and agricultural land and in certain
unconsolidated sediments and bedrock.
Climatic regions
Figure 2. The global distribution of published reports of piping
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Soil pipes have been reported in a wide range of environments on every continent
except Antarctica, from the tropical rain forest to periglacial regions with permafrost.
Piping appears to be of greatest geomorphological and hydrological significance in three
environments: in organic soils on humid uplands, in badland areas in arid and semiarid
environments, and in degraded semiarid rangelands. Piping in Histosols and Gleysols
seems to require a humid temperate climate. Around 60 per cent of the studied sites with
piping occurred in humid regions (Fig. 2). On the other hand, dispersive-type pipes occur
in a Mediterranean or semiarid context. In a wetter climate, sodium is lost so rapidly from
the materials by leaching that the dispersive role on the clay complex does not persist.
Also, in humid climates, the organic matter remains a structuring agent within the topsoil.
In drier climates, clay is frequently the only structuring agent, so its dispersion has a
dramatic impact (Faulkner, 2006). Both a reasonable water supply and some desiccation
effects are needed, which gives peaks in the in the occurrence of piping in the semiarid and
temperate marine environments (Bryan and Jones, 1997).
Soil piping in Kerala
During the last decade many piping incidences
were reported by the Revenue department from
different places in Kerala (Fig. 3). In the
beginning it was believed that this process is
also due to landslides. In 2005, National Centre
for Earth Science and Studies (NCESS) has
investigated land- subsidence in the Chattivayal
locality of Thirumeni village, Kannur, Kerala. It
was found out to be due to soil piping process.
This was the first major incidence reported by
NCESS on soil piping. At that time, it was
thought that it may be an isolated incidence.
Figure 3. Areas affected by soil piping in
Kerala
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But subsequently such incidences were reported from many places in Kannur, Kozhikode and
Idukki. After investigating the incidences reported from places like Chattivayal (Taliparamba
taluk, Kannur district), Palakkayam (Mannarkkad taluk, Palakkad district), Pasukkadavu
(Vadakara taluk, Kozhikode district), Padinjareathara and Kunnamangalam Vayal (Vythiri
taluk, Wayanad district), Venniyani mala (Todupuzha taluk, Idukki district) Perngasseri,
Tattekkani and Karuppilangad (Thodupuzha Taluk, Idukki district) Udayagiri (Udumanchola
taluk, Idukki) it was confirmed this process needs detailed studies. The recurrence of the
phenomenon of soil piping during every monsoon in Thirumeni and Pulingom villages of
Cherupuzha the matter was brought to the notice of the State Disaster Management
Authority. Realizing the gravity of situation National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) based on a proposal submitted by NCESS through State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA) sanctioned funds for this study. Subsurface soil erosion due to piping
often results in land degradation. The cavities and pipes developed below the ground grow
with respect to time and affect large extents of land in the form of subsidence, thereby
making it not suitable for cultivation and related activities. In short erosion due to piping in
an area is like cancer affecting the human body. If unattended, it will spread and destroy vast
amounts of valuable land in the State.
Conclusion
Soil piping is an overlooked hazard. The impact and damages caused by soil piping are
dangerous. So it should be examined thoroughly to avoid the destruction caused by these natural
calamities.
References
Faulkner, H., 2006. Piping hazard on collapsible and dispersive soils in Europe. In: Boardman,
J., Poesen, J. (Eds.), Soil Erosion in Europe. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester. 537–
562 pp.
Bryan, R. B. and Jones, J. A. A. 1997. The significant of soil piping processes: inventory and
prospect. Geomorphology. 245: 209-218.
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Dharmendra Kumar Gautam1
*, Om Prakash1
, Balaji Vikram2
, Vikash Kumar1
,
Sidharth Kumar1
and Rohit Kumar2
1Department of Fruit Sciences, 2Department of Post-Harvest Technology
College of Horticulture, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology,
Banda, U.P.-210001
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Horticulture, the cultivation of plants for ornamental purposes or food production, plays
an important role in our lives. However, it also generates a considerable amount of waste which
if not managed properly can have harmful effects on the environment. Proper mitigation of
environmental pollution can be ensured by increasing recycling and developing various disposal
methods. Various sources of industrial and horticultural wastes are gaining importance for their
valuable compositions.
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UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL OF HORTICULTURAL WASTE:
INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS AND SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS
Processing
industry
Waste
Washing Water
Pomace after
juice extraction
Discarded fruits after sorting
Peels, Core, seeds
etc.
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Recycling can develop new opportunities with commercial benefits. Today industrial
waste is used to manufacture biofuels, enzymes, vitamins, antioxidants and various important
chemicals. Creating wealth from waste may be the modern idea of waste disposal. Thereby
promoting sustainability and reducing its negative impact on the potential for resource recovery
and environmental protection, and the management of these wastes can be monitored through
regular monitoring by the government, such as waste disposal, as well as linking its economic
benefits to environmental and industrial concerns. Therefore, there is a great need to find
alternatives that have positive values for food waste. The options with positive value are
reducing waste generation, developing value added products. Most of the fruit and vegetable
wastes are a rich source of important components like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals,
fibers etc. The kernel of the mango seed is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins and minerals;
Oranges, watermelon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and minerals. Apricot seeds are a rich
source of oil (45%) and protein.
Types of waste processing
Food processing industries in India generate a large amount of solid waste. In addition,
the food industry also generates wastewater, which is many times more than solid waste. Various
types of micro-organisms are associated with solid wastes of food industries resulting in
production of metabolic end products and thus causing chemical and biological environmental
pollution. Following are the types of waste generated from fruit and vegetable processing
industries
Commodity Percent waste (weight basis) Nature of waste
Apple 20-30 Pomace
Apricot 25-Aug Stones
Banana - Peel
Bean, green 20-May Strings, stem
Beet 4-Jul Peel
Cabbage 25-May Outer leaves
Carrot 18-52 Peel, top portion, pomace
Grape fruit /citrus 55-60 Peel, rag and seed
Grapes - Stem, skin and seeds
Guava - Peel and core and seeds
Lime 60 Peels, seeds, rag and pulp
Mango 40-60 Peel (12-15), pulp (5-10), stones (15-20)
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Orange 50 Peel, rag and seed
Peach 4-Nov Stones
Pear Feb-46 Peel, pomace
Peas Jun-79 Shell
Pineapple 30-60 Peel, core and coarse solids
Potatoes 15-Oct Peel, starch, fibre.
Sweet potato 15 Peel
Tomato 20-30 Skin, core and seeds
Composting and soil amendment
Composting horticultural waste is an effective method of waste management. Leaves,
branches, and plant trimmings can be composted to create nutrient-rich soil amendments. By
returning organic matter back to the soil, we can enhance its fertility, improve water retention,
and promote healthy plant growth. Compost can be used in gardens, farms, or landscaping
projects, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and closing the loop in the horticultural cycle.
Biomass Energy Production
Horticultural waste, such as pruned branches and stems, can serve as a valuable source of
biomass for energy generation. Through processes like anaerobic digestion or biomass
gasification, organic matter can be converted into biogas or biofuels. These renewable energy
sources can be utilized for heating, electricity generation, or even as a substitute for traditional
fossil fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting a sustainable energy landscape.
Mulching and Weed Control
Another beneficial application of horticultural waste is mulching. By spreading shredded
leaves, grass clippings, or bark chips around plants, we can conserve soil moisture, suppress
weed growth, and regulate soil temperature. Mulch acts as a natural protective layer, reducing
water evaporation and minimizing the need for chemical herbicides. This approach not only
enhances plant health but also reduces maintenance efforts and promotes sustainable gardening
practices.
Art and Crafts
The diverse textures, colors and shapes of horticultural waste make it an excellent
medium for artistic expression. Gardening waste such as dried flowers, seed pods and twigs can
inspire artistic creativity. Craft lovers can reuse these materials to make wreaths, floral
arrangements, and decorative items. By converting waste into beautiful artworks, we not only
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reduce the environmental impact. Engaging in such creative endeavors not only reduces wastage
but also increases appreciation towards the beauty of nature.
Animal Bedding and Natural Habitat Creation
Certain types of horticultural waste, like straw, wood chips, or grass clippings, can be
repurposed as animal bedding. Livestock farmers and equestrian facilities can utilize these
materials to provide comfortable resting areas for animals while also reducing the use of nonrenewable resources. Additionally, horticultural waste can be used to create natural habitats, such
as brush piles, which support biodiversity by providing shelter for wildlife and beneficial insects.
Conclusion
Horticultural waste presents both environmental challenges and untapped opportunities.
Minimizing waste maximizes environmental sustainability. However, people are not so aware
about the impact of horticulture waste. Therefore, along with effective implementation of waste
disposal, proper awareness is the biggest need of the day. Yet by adopting innovative solutions
such as composting, biomass energy generation, mulching, arts and crafts, animal bedding and
natural habitat creation, we can unlock the potential of horticulture waste and turn it into
valuable resources. Apart from this, the growth of waste disposal industries also gives a new
dimension to sustainable waste management. It can be said that waste management provides
green ecology, which can provide industrial prosperity as well as environmental sustainability.
Let us promote sustainable practices in horticulture, ensure that waste is minimized, and
maximize the benefits of this vibrant industry in an eco-friendly way.
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Yogita Sharma1 and Shubham Priyadarshi2*
1
Ph. D. Scholar, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour
2 M. Sc. Scholar, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
India‘s economy is based on agriculture, which faces challenging obstacles from sowing to
harvest. Therefore, agriculture needs to be modernised in order to meet these issues. Artificial
Intelligence (AI) has the potential to bring about a technological revolution and a boom in
agriculture, helping to feed the world‘s growing population. Direct implementation of AI or
machine intelligence in the agriculture could mark a change in how farming is currently carried
out. The AI can assist farmers in increasing production capacity while lowering production costs
and labour-intensive tasks. Predictive analytics, markets, agricultural monitoring, weather
forecasting, and supply chain efficiency benefit by AI-driven technologies are gaining popularity
across the globe. AI is shifting the manner of food production where the emissions of agricultural
sector have dropped by 20 per cent. Although AI offers tremendous potential in agriculture
applications, there is still a lack of understanding of advanced high-tech machine learning
solutions in farms all over the world. Agricultural AI could help change the way farming is done
in India with its suggestions on optimal practices.
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, resource utilisation, crop productivity
Introduction
In the present day, human labour is being empowered by artificial intelligence. AI
technology is being used in several agricultural areas to boost productivity and efficiency. Direct
use of artificial intelligence (AI) or machine intelligence in the agricultural industry might
transform the way farming is now done. Digital technologies are being looked at as the gameVolume: 03 Issue No: 08
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE
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changer in being able to handle concerns like food waste, resource scarcity and climate change,
which pose acute imperatives for food security (De Clarcq, 2019). Technologies like AI will
enable farmers to accomplish more with less by improving the quality of crops. A desirable
change in the way agricultural research and development are now done will also arise from the
deployment of AI throughout all application areas of agriculture. AI is changing how food is
produced, which has resulted in a 20% decrease in agriculture sector emissions (Saxena, 2020).
AI is a field of computer science that develop systems that can learn or be taught to make
judgments and predictions within specific contexts (Smith and Neupane, 2018). Numerous
intelligent behaviours, like process optimization and predictive modelling, pattern recognition,
natural language processing and machine translation may be carried out by AI applications. AI
applications are being implemented across several facets of agriculture, from gene sequencing in
seed production to Internet of Things (IoT) networks of implements and sensors that create data
and image recognition systems that test and grade crops and commodities. Other industry
predictions have shown that AI technology may be utilised to address significant difficulties in
the industry, including as market fluctuations, sub-optimal pesticide use, irregular irrigation and
deteriorating soil health (Rao and Ghosh, 2018).
In broad terms, there are three types of AI in agriculture (Senaar, 2019):
1. Agricultural robotics
It involves the development of intelligent and autonomous systems (self-reliant robots)
which can perform tasks and functions on farms, like sowing, irrigating, harvesting. Example -
‗see and spray‘ herbicide robots by Blue River‘s.
2. Crop and soil monitoring
It involves capturing and processing of data through drones, GPS chips, sensors etc., to
monitor crop and soil health using computer vision and deep learning techniques. Example –
Plantix application that can assess soil health through image recognition.
3. Predictive analytics
It involves creating predictive models and digital intelligence around a host of agroparameters, such as inputs, market prices and linkages, and can also forecast different
environmental impacts on crop yield for instance weather changes. Example - aWhere, an
analytics company that provide intelligence on soil, weather, crop health etc. by using satellite
data.
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AI in Indian Agriculture
Some of today's most difficult challenges can be resolved by AI. Robots using AI in
agriculture can advise farmers on matters such as soil quality, the optimum time to plant seeds,
the best place to apply herbicide. The creation and application of remote sensing technologies to
identify and control plants, weeds, pests and diseases are made possible by advancements in
computer vision, AI and machine learning (Agrawal and Agrawal, 2021). AI solutions can help
farmers improve quality and assure market access along with the reduction in wastage. Some of
the areas of applications of AI in Indian agriculture are:
1. Crop health monitoring
It is feasible to monitor crops holistically and offer extra insights to farmers for their
farms as and when necessary using remote sensing data, high resolution weather data, AI
technologies and AI platforms assuring greater revenue and providing stability for the
agricultural community.
2. Sowing application for farmers
Microsoft India and ICRISAT have created a sowing application for farmers that
includes a customised village guidance dashboard for Andhra Pradesh. Depending on weather
conditions, soil and other indicators, the sowing app advise farmers on the best time to sow
crops. The sowing app was created to offer strong cloud-based predictive analytics to equip
farmers with essential knowledge and insights to help decrease crop failure and boost yield,
which will ultimately lead to a reduction in stress and a higher income.
3. Soil health monitoring
Image recognition and deep learning models have facilitated distributed soil health
monitoring without the requisite of laboratory testing infrastructure. Farmers can take the
quickest action possible to restore the health of the soil with the aid of AI solutions that are
integrated with data signals from remote satellites and local image capture in the farm.
4. Agricultural robotics and drones
Due to labour constraints and the growing need to feed the world's population, agriculture
robotics (also known as Agribot) is increasingly becoming more popular. Agribots automates
farmer‘s tasks thus, increasing production efficiency and reducing dependency on human labour.
Drones have multi-spectral and photographic sensors that can track plant development, assess
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crop stress and forecast production. The more advanced drones can carry and deliver payloads
like herbicide, fertilizer and water.
5. Robot drone tractor
Robot will determine the optimum locations for planting, the ideal time for harvesting
and the best route for crisscrossing the farmland. These robots are intended to decrease the use of
herbicides, fertilizers, water and insecticides.
6. Supply chain efficiencies
Farmers would be able to comprehend market demand of their produce and also
consumer‘s preferences and seasonality using AI. AI-powered supply chains can increase their
profitability by lowering the costs associated with managing dispersed logistics and a large
number of middlemen. Small farmers will also be able to organize their route to market more
effectively and gain profit from this smart routing. Without the intervention of intermediaries,
they would be able to deliver their perishable items to market more quickly thus, reducing
wastage and losses.
7. MoU with Microsoft by Government of Karnataka
Microsoft Corporation India Private Limited and the government of Karnataka sign an
agreement. The partnership aims to provide AI-based solutions to smallholder farmers that will
help them to increase their revenue using machine learning, cloud-based technologies and
advanced analytics. Microsoft is attempting to employ digital tools to develop a multivariate
agricultural commodity price forecasting model taking into account the parameters such as
sowing area, production time, weather datasets etc.
AI Start-ups in Agriculture
In order to simplify agriculture based on data inputs, efforts are being made globally to
automate agricultural operations and use of AI. As a result of this, numerous start-up businesses
have been established. Some of these stat-ups includes:
1. Prospera
This startup has created a cloud-based system that gathers all data accessible to farmers,
including sensors for the soil and water, aerial photos, etc. To ascertain the relationship between
the different data labels and their predictions, the input from these sensors are utilised. It then
establishes a connection with a field device that analyses the data and recommends the desired
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outcomes. Prospera works with a range of sensors and technologies like computer vision and can
be utilised both in greenhouses and in the field.
2. Blue River Technology
Blue River Technology integrates artificial intelligence, robotics and computer vision to
minimize costs and reduce the pesticides amount. Each plant is defined independently by the
computer vision, machine learning decides how each plant's features should be studied. This
allows the robot to manage the agricultural equipment with intelligence and to perform the
appropriate actions.
3. Formbot
Using precision farming methods for home farmers, Farmbot has elevated precision research by
reaching out to the community. Through the use of robots working with open source software, it
enables farmers to carry out a variety of tasks from seed planting to weed detection, soil testing
to plant watering.
4. Harvest CROO Robotics
It is a robotic harvesting system for strawberry that uses AI and machine vision to detect
and identify ripe berries for picking. The severe labour scarcity that strawberry farmers
experience raises crop expenses and increases the possibility of under-harvesting. The
employment of additional artificial intelligence and the development of automated harvesting
techniques will decrease the need for manual labour on the part of manufacturers, lower the cost
of harvesting and boost overall competitiveness.
5. Jivabhumi
Jivabhumi is an agricultural technology platform that links farmers with institutional and
consumers. It is an advance food aggregation system that combines innovation, agricultural
products and e-marketplace services. Jivabhumi collaborates with farmers and farmers'
organisations, gathers agricultural products and uses a block chain-enabled platform called
Foodprint to make them traceable.
6. Gobasco
It is an AI-based platform that provides agricultural businesses with solutions for
production prediction and procurement optimization. The goal is to employ AI and big data to
improve the Indian Agri-supply chain. This strategy gives farmers and agricultural SMEs a
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network and platform with access to a data-rich technology to increase their profits and open up
new prospects.
Advantage of implementing AI in Agriculture
Application of AI in agriculture helps the farmers in understanding the data insights such
as precipitation, temperature, wind speed and sun radiation. Some of the benefits of AI include:
It offers more effective ways to grow, harvest and sell necessary crops.
Implementation of AI places an emphasis on identifying defective crops and enhancing
the potential for healthy crop production.
AI has strengthened agro-based businesses to operate more effectively.
Machine learning and artificial intelligence are being employed in applications like
automatic machine modifications for weather forecasting and disease or pest detection.
Artificial intelligence (AI) solutions have the potential to address issues that farmers face,
such as climate variability, infestation of pests and weeds that reduces yields.
Challenges in Adoption of AI
Despite the enormous promise of AI in agriculture, there are still many farms without
access to high-tech machine learning techniques. Instead of field solutions, AI is employed in
agricultural products like seeds, fertilizers and insecticides. A lot of data is needed for AI
systems to train their algorithms and produce precise predictions. For huge agricultural regions,
it is challenging to find temporal data, although collection of spatial data is easy. A robust
machine learning model requires time for development since data infrastructure needs maturity.
This is one of the many reasons why agriculture is still at an extremely initial stage when it
comes in controlling farmers‘ decision making and making independent judgments and estimates
to deal with the circumstances. Applications need to be resilient in order to investigate a wide
variety of AI in agricultural applications. They should be able to adapt to changes in the
environment, support real-time decision-making and use the proper platform to access pertinent
data. For technology to be accessible even at the farm level, solutions must be more costeffective.
CONCLUSION
Artificial intelligence can be acceptable and effective in the agriculture industry as it
maximises resource utilisation and efficiency. It largely resolves the issue of resource scarcity
and labour shortage. AI will challenge and support farmers in making the best decisions. It is
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obvious that AI advances will be the key to improving crop science advancements and
developing solutions for efficient resource optimisation. This is especially true for countries in
the global South where agriculture is still the major economic activity. In agriculture, artificial
intelligence is assisting farmers in increasing their productivity and minimising adverse
environmental effects. AI has the potential to bring about a technological revolution and an
agricultural boom to feed the global expanding population. The agriculture sector has firmly and
publicly embraced AI in its work to change the overall result. Therefore, it can be said that
artificial intelligence is a developing new technology that will benefit Indian agriculture.
Agricultural AI could help change the face of farming in India with its recommendations on
optimal practices.
References
Agrawal, N., & Agrawal, H. (2021). Artificial Intelligence–Intelligent Inputs Revolutionising
Agriculture.http://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/56056/1/SR%2058%282%29%
2036-37.pdf
De Clercq, M., Vats, A., & Biel, A. (2018). Agriculture 4.0: The future of farming
technology. Proceedings of the world government summit, Dubai, UAE, 11-13.
Rao, A. S., & Ghosh, S. (2018). Artificial intelligence in India–hype or reality. Impact of
Artificial Intelligence across industries and user groups. PWC, 31. PwC. 2018.
Saxena, A., Suna, T., & Saha, D. (2020). Application of Artificial Intelligence in Indian
Agriculture. In Souvenir: 19 national convention–artificial intelligence in agriculture:
Indian perspective. RCA Alumni Association, Udaipur. xvi.
Sennaar, K. (2019). AI in agriculture–present applications and impact. Available at
https://emerj.com/ai-sector-overviews/ai-agriculture-present-applications-impact/
Smith, M., & Neupane, S. (2018). Artificial intelligence and human development: toward a
research agenda.
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1K. Vignesh Manikumar, 2 M. Jayanthi * and 3V. Vijay Prabha
1
Final Year B.Sc. (Hons) Horticulture Student
2&3 Assistant Professor, Kalasalingam School of Agriculture and Horticulture, Srivilliputtur –
626126, Virudhunagar, TN, India.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is an economically important tree, found in many
countries in Asia, Africa and South America. The tree can grow to a maximum height of 25 m
and a crown diameter of 12 m. It is ideal for drier-arid regions, especially in areas prone to
prolonged drought. Tamarind can tolerate five-six months of drought conditions; hence tamarind
crop can grow in any type of climate. Tamarind is a tree that is easy to cultivate and requires
minimum care. It is generally free of serious pests and diseases, and has a life span of 80-200
years and can yield 150-500 kg of pods per healthy tree/year at 20 years of age. During each
season, the tree bears curved fruit pods in abundance covering all over its branches. Each pod has
hard outer shell encasing deep brown soft pulp enveloping around two-ten hard dark-brown
seeds. Its pulp and seeds held together by extensive fiber network. India is the world‘s largest
producer of tamarind and it is estimated that 3,00,000 tonnes are produced annually. The tree
mostly grows wild, although it is cultivated to a limited extent. It is particularly abundant in
Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and west
Bengal. India is also an exporter of tamarind, mainly to Europe and Arab countries and lately to
the United States where over 10,000 tonnes are exported annually.
Health Benefits of Tamarind
A good source of antioxidants, especially vitamin C, flavonoids, carotenes, vitamin B
complex and improving and strengthening the immune system.
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POTENTIAL NUTRITIVE BENEFITS AND BY-PRODUCTS
OF TAMARIND
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The tamarind pulp in an excellent source of potassium which is used for controlling the
heart rate and blood pressure.
Nutrition Content of Tamarind
S.No. Nutrition Content Value Per 100g
1 Protein (g) 3.10
2 Fat (g) 0.1
3 Fibre (g) 5.6
4 Carbohydrates (g) 67.4
5 Calcium (mg) 35-170
6 Phosphorus (mg) 54-110
7 Iron (mg) 1.3-10.9
8 Tartaric Acid (mg) 8-23.8
9 Ascorbic Acid (mg) 0.7-3.0
Tamarind is also enriched with carotene and aids in lowering bad cholesterol levels.
Tamarind juice acts as a tonic, carminative, antiseptic, cleaning agent and febrifuge and
regulating the malfunctioning of intestines and other organs of digestion.
The juice extract of tamarind is used for treating bronchitis and sore throats.
Tamarind juice, when taken in the heated form, is an effective cure for conjunctivitis.
Diluting tamarind juice with lemon, milk, honey and dates serves as a digestive aid and
as an effective cure for biliousness and bile conditions.
A mild decoction of the pulp, when given to children, helps in eliminating worms and
other intestinal parasites.
Tamarind has been associated with treating many diseases.
Tamarind By-Products
1. Tamarind pod shell
As fuel - Tamarind fruit contains 30% shell by weight; a healthy tree can yield 45-150 kg
of shell. Tamarind shell can be used as biomass material for manufacturing of Briquettes.
Tamarind shell contains calorific value is 16.3 MJ/kg with 99% combustion efficiency.
As absorbent - Dyes like methylene blue and amaranth are used extensively in industries
like textile, paper and leather. The disposal of their wastes into the environment can be
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extremely undesirable. Tamarind pod shells is an effective absorbent for the removal of
methylene blue and amaranth dyes from aqueous solutions.Tamarind pod shell can be
used as an alternative low cost absorbent for removal of Ni (II) & Cr (VI) ions in
remediation of waste water.
2. Tamarind Fruit and Pulp
Candies - Tamarind pulp is used to make candies, lollipops, jellies of sweet and sour
taste. Tamarind pulp bars are made andmixed with dried or dehydrated fruits like banana,
mango, breadfruit, jackfruit etc.
Puree - It is made after removing seeds and fibrous material using little amount of
sterilized water with little heating.This paste is used for making tamarind rice, sambar
with pulses and other vegetables.
Sauce and Jams - Tamarind sauce is used to spice the snacks like chips, and an
important ingredient of barbecue sauce.or samosa (India). Sweet tamarind pulp is used to
make jams.
Pulp powder - Tamarind puree is dehydrated and dried to get fine powder for use as
chief acidulent of many foodproducts. It is the richest natural resource of tartaric acid of
8-18 per cent, starch, minerals like calcium and potassium.
Pickle - Matured ripe fruit without shells and seed are used for making pickle by mixing
with spices and salt. Thispickle is good for one year without loss in quality and taste.
Chutney -This is eaten with rice or any rice product (idli, dosa etc.) in India. Green
mature or immature fruits areused for making chutney in general to restore its values of
nutrition and provide antioxidants to human‘s internal system.
3. Tamarind Seed
Tamarind seed powder - Processed tamarind can be grounded to make powder, in
market tamarind powder is available as Tamarind seed Kernel Powder (TKP). The
tamarind seed comprises mainly gum which possesses viscous characteristics and being
capable of forming gel, thus it can also be applied to use as a rheology modifier in food
products. In addition, it can be used as an adhesive in paper industry. The tamarind seed
powder is also used in vegetable and food processing industries to a great extent.
Tamarind xyloglucan, commonly known as ―tamarind gum‖ is used for thickening,
stabilizing and gelling in food. Tamarind gum is prepared by soaking of processed
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tamarind seed powder in water. By simply boiling the tamarind seed in water, the watersoluble dye could be isolated and later used to dye the cotton and silk fabrics.
Tamarind seed oil - Tamarind seed contains 7%-9% oil, color is in golden yellow. The
amber oil extracted from tamarind seeds is also used as an illuminant and varnishing
agent.
Conclusion
This article serves to expand the nutritional compostion and health benefits oftamarind.
In spite of wide range of domestic as well as industrial use, tamarind tree remains an unimproved
wild tree and under exploited to meet growing commercial demand. Research activities need to
enhance for processing of tamarind seeds. Some more research works can be carried out for
effective utilization of tamarind by-products. In many cases tamarind pulp is used for domestic
and industrial use, it needs to be explored in different options to utilize seed, shell, testa in a
better and effective way.
References
Divakara, B. N. (2008). Variation and character association for various pod traits in Tamarindus
indica L. Indian Forester,134 (5), 687.
Ahalya, N., M. N. Chandraprabha, R. D. Kanamandi and T. V. Ramachandra. 2012. Adsorption
of methylene blue and amaranth on to tamarind pod shells. Journal of Biochemical
Technology, 3(5): 189-192.
El-Siddig, K. 2006. Fruits for the future 1 revised edition Tamarind Tamarindus indica L.
Southampton, pp.188.
Manjula, B., Aruna, R., Prasanna, N. S., & Ramana, C. (2017). Studies on physical and biochemical analysis of value-added products developed from tamarind pulp. International
Journal of Processing and Post-Harvest Technology, 8(2), 99-103.
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*A. Valliammai, M. Nagarajan, M. Manikandan and E. Sujitha
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, AEC&RI,
TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Drip fertigation technology are gaining momentum due to water scarcity, easy
adaptability, less labour requirement and increased yields in many crops. But the lay-out of the
drip system (lateral spacing, dripper spacing, dripper discharge, arrangement of drippers) are
different for different crops. So the farmers are facing much problems and they have to invest
more for changing the lay out for every other crops. Hence economical drip fertigation lay out
suitable for a cropping system will be of much useful to the farmers to go in for a cropping
system without change in the drip fertigation layout system. Single economical drip irrigation lay
out suitable for many annual commercial crops will be of useful to the farmers to go in for any
commercial crops without change in the drip layout system.
Description of Technology:
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ECONOMICAL DRIP FERTIGATION LAYOUT
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Drip irrigation layout of 1.50 m lateral spacing with 4 lph drippers at 60 cm spacing
along the lateral is most suitable for sugarcane, banana, turmeric, tapioca, tomato and other
annual crops without altering the layout for several years.
Particulars
Maize Groundnut Tomato
Drip
fertigation
Convention
al
Drip
fertigation
Convention
al
Drip
fertigation
Convention
al
Plant spacing
20/50 x 30
cm
(3 rows per
lateral)
60 x 25 cm
20/20 x 10
cm
(6 rows per
lateral)
30 x 10 cm
90/60 x 60
cm
60 x 60 cm
Yield of crops (t
ha-1
)
6.70 4.75 2.15 1.72 46.50 31.50
Water use (mm) 425 550 360 500 205 300
Water Use
Efficiency
(kg ha mm-1
)
15.76 8.64 5.97 3.44 226.83 105.00
Maize Groundnut Tomato
Benefits
Drip fertigation layout can be continuously used for adopting a cropping system without
changing the layout system for years together
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Besides these crops, major crops of western zone like turmeric, sugarcane, banana, tapioca and
vegetables can also be accommodated adopted in the layout system
The life of the system is also more since it is laid permanently without dismantling
Water saving of 23-32% can be achieved
Yield increase from 18 to 30 per cent can be achieved by adopting
Remarks
Since this system is found to be very much suitable for a cropping system over a period of time
without disturbing the drip system layout, it is gaining momentum in the western zone of Tamil
Nadu.
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Shrikant Yankanchi1
, Vipin Kumar Pandey2
, Taruna Borule3
1 Maize Genetics Unit, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, PUSA New Delhi
2 Department of GPB, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur Chhattisgarh
3 Department of PMBB, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur Chhattisgarh
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas9 system has emerged as a groundbreaking genome editing tool, catalyzing a
profound transformation within the realm of agriculture. Its application in targeted genome
editing has opened up exciting possibilities for precise modifications to plant DNA,
revolutionizing the development of climate resilient crops. Essential genome modifications have
been done in globally important staple food crops like rice, wheat, maize, soybean, groundnut,
chickpea and many more for the improvement of traits like insect resistance, abiotic stress
tolerance, yield and nutritional qualities. By bolstering natural defenses against pests and
diseases, these genetically engineered crops exhibit heightened resilience, reducing the
dependency on chemical pesticides. The adoption of CRISPR-Cas9 technology fosters
sustainable farming practices, paving the way for a more resilient and environmentally friendly
agricultural landscape.
Key Words: CRISPR-Cas9, TALENs, ZFNs, sgRNA
Introduction
The global population is expected to reach 10 billion by 2050, surpassing the current
population of 8 billion. This increase in population will put a strain on food security, as we will
need to produce more food to feed everyone. Along with other modern plant breeding
technologies genome editing can play a significant role in bolstering global food security and
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ADVANCEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE THROUGH
TARGETED GENOME EDITING WITH CRISPR-CAS9
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ensuring a sustainable food supply for the growing population with careful deployment and
scientifically informed regulations. Advances in genetic engineering have led to significant
improvements in the food and agriculture industry. Powerful techniques such as RNA
interference, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and zinc-finger nucleases
(ZFNs), which have an ability to modify plants genomic DNA and/or alter gene expressions have
been widely used in various crop experiments for improving traits of agronomic and economic
important. However, in the last few years, the discovery of the CRISPR-Cas9 system has
revolutionized genome editing and has attracted attention as a powerful tool for several
significant applications.
Genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9
Genome editing is a type of genetic engineering that allows scientists to make precise changes to
DNA in living cells. This can be done by inserting, removing, or modifying DNA at a specific
location. Genome editing has the potential to be used to treat diseases, improve crops, and create
new organisms with desired traits.
Figure 1: comparison of genome editing tools with CRISPR-Cas9
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Hence, genome editing tools have been gaining lot of importance in the different sectors of the
scientific world. Since the past several decades genome editing tools have been introduced and
deployed in many plants studies to modify their genomes for the improvement traits of interest.
ZFNs, TALENs, Meganucleases and CRISPR-Cas9 are some of the genome editing tools
extensively used in genomic experiments. CRISPR-Cas9 is the most popular genome editing tool
which is relatively simple and efficient as compared to other tools that can be used to make
precise changes to DNA. A comparison has made between CRISPR-Cas9 and other genome
editing tools in Figure 1.
CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats, is a unique and short system of repeated DNA sequences found in the genomes of
prokaryotes. CRISPR along with its associated protein, Cas9, constitutes a remarkable natural
defense system that allows prokaryotes to defend themselves against viruses and bacteriophages.
Initially CRISPR was discovered in 1987 by Ishino and his colleagues, however its ability to
modify any desired DNA by providing specific template was revealed in 2012 by Emmanuelle
Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for which they were awarded the Nobel prize in 2020. After
2012 CRISPR–Cas system of genome editing has been extensively acknowledged for its
adaptability and ease of operation and researchers understood that it could have beneficial use in
humans, plants, and other microbes. Basically, the CRISPR–Cas9 system uses a single guide
RNA (sgRNA) to recognize and cut a specific target DNA sequence. The sgRNA binds to the
target DNA sequence by base-pairing, which allows Cas9 to recognize the target sequence and
cut it. This creates double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in the DNA, which can then be repaired by
the cell's own repair mechanisms. These repair mechanisms can lead to the introduction of
mutations at or near the DSBs sites.
Applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 System in crop plants
One of the primary applications is targeted genome editing, enabling precise
modifications in the plant's DNA. This technology allows researchers to enhance desirable traits
in crops, such as increased yield, improved nutritional content, and enhanced resistance to pests,
diseases, and environmental stressors (Figure 2). Additionally, the CRISPR/Cas9 system
facilitates the development of disease-resistant crops, reducing the need for chemical pesticides
and promoting sustainable farming practices.
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In rice, OsSWEET13, OSEFR922, Os09g29100 and EPSPS, OsSAPK2 C287BEL, OsSAPK2,
ALS set of genes were targeted for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance genotypes. In maize,
GASR7 and GW2 genes were modified for the enhancement of grain yield. The International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is the leading organization
involved in development of gene-edited chickpeas for increased yield and enhanced seed and
nutritional qualities. Many genetically engineered lines of chickpeas have been successfully
developed and reported in many studies. Drought tolerant plants were developed by knockouts of
4-coumarate ligase (4CL) and Reveille 7 (RVE7) genes. In another study transgenic lines were
developed expressing AtBAG4 and TlBAG and OsNAS2 and CaNAS2 genes conferring stress
tolerance and iron biofortification. In groundnuts CRISPR/Cas9 technology used to create
mutations in ahFAD2 genes for high oleic acid content. One of the main objectives of peanut
breeding is to increase the amount of oleic acid in the seeds since it has benefits for both
consumers and the industry, in terms of anti-oxidation and a long shelf life. Similarly, in fruits
and vegetables like cucumber and watermelon WIP1 gene was targeted for flower development
and HEC2, NS and COMT1 genes were targeted for fruits and fruit qualities. Furthermore,
CRISPR-cas9 can also be used to introduce beneficial gene variants from wild relatives into
domesticated crops, broadening their genetic diversity and adaptability to changing climates.
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Some of the recent major advances of CRISPR/Cas9 mediated genome editing have been listed
in Table 1.
Table 1: Recent advances of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing in some economically important
crops
Crop Target Gene Target Traits
Rice
GW2, GW5, TGW6 Grain enhancement
BADH2 Enhanced aroma
Hd2, Hd4, and Hd5 Early maturity
OsSWEET13, OSEFR922, Os09g29100 Biotic stress tolerance
EPSPS, OsSAPK2 C287BEL, OsSAPK2 Abiotic stress tolerance
OsNRAMP5, SBEIIb, SBEI Nutritional Quality
improvement
Wheat
MLO, TaEDR1 Biotic stress tolerance
TaDREB2, TaERF3 Abiotic stress tolerance
GASR7, GW2 Yield Enhancement
TaSBEIIa, a-gliadin, Quality improvement
Maize
ZmGB1, ZmVLHP-01, ZmGB1,
ZmTPP4, ZmCEP1, ZmPT7, ZmCST1
Yield Enhancement
ZmWAXY1, ZmSH2 Quality improvement
ZmARGOS8, ZmSRL5, ZmHKT1 Abiotic stress tolerance
ZmLOX3, ZmCOIa Biotic stress tolerance
ZmMs45, ZmMs8, ZmMs26, Male Sterility
Chickpea
4CL, REV7 Abiotic stress tolerance
Cry1Aabc Biotic stress tolerance
OsNAS2 and CaNAS2 Quality improvement
Groundnut ahFAD28, ahFAD2B Quality improvement
Soybean
DD20, DD43 Herbicide Resistance
Glyma14g0480, GmFEI2, GmSHR, GmIPK1,
Glyma03g36470,
Hairy roots
GmFAD2–1 A, GmFAD2–1B Quality improvement
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GmPDS11
GmF3H1, GmF3H2 Resistance to biotic stress
Cucumber
WIP1 Flower development
SPT, ALC Flower and fruit development
HEC2, NS Fruit development
Watermelon
WIP1 Flower development
PDS Albino phenotype
COMT1 Fruit quality, abiotic stress
tolerance
Conclusions
Genome editing is a rapidly evolving field, and new technologies are being developed all
the time. CRISPR-Cas9 is the most popular genome editing tool which is relatively simple and
efficient system and can be used to make precise changes to DNA. With its ease of use and costeffectiveness, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has the potential to revolutionize crop breeding and
contribute significantly to global food security and sustainable agriculture in the face of
mounting challenges posed by population growth and climate change. In conclusion, CRISPRcas9 and other genome editing technologies have the potential to revolutionize the way we treat
diseases, manage insect and pests, overcome abiotic stresses, develop new crops, and improve
our understanding of biology.
References
Asmamaw, M., & Zawdie, B. (2021). Mechanism and applications of CRISPR/Cas-9-mediated
genome editing. Biologics: Targets and Therapy, 353-361.
Badhan, S., Ball, A. S., & Mantri, N. (2021). First report of CRISPR/Cas9 mediated DNA-free
editing of 4CL and RVE7 genes in chickpea protoplasts. International Journal of
Molecular Sciences, 22(1), 396.
Das, S. K., Shethi, K. J., Hoque, M. I., & Sarker, R. H. (2019). Agrobacterium-mediated genetic
transformation of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) with chitinase gene followed by in vitro
flower and pod formation. Plant Tissue Culture and Biotechnology, 29(1), 99-109.
Eş, I., Gavahian, M., Marti-Quijal, F. J., Lorenzo, J. M., Khaneghah, A. M., Tsatsanis, C., &
Barba, F. J. (2019). The application of the CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing machinery in
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food and agricultural science: Current status, future perspectives, and associated
challenges. Biotechnology advances, 37(3), 410-421.
Jiang, Y., Sun, K., & An, X. (2022). CRISPR/Cas system: applications and prospects for maize
improvement. ACS Agricultural Science & Technology, 2(2), 174-183.
Li, J., Li, Y., & Ma, L. (2021). Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9 and applications for wheat
functional genomics and breeding. Abiotech, 1-11.
Yuan, M., Zhu, J., Gong, L., He, L., Lee, C., Han, S., ... & He, G. (2019). Mutagenesis of FAD2
genes in peanut with CRISPR/Cas9 based gene editing. BMC biotechnology, 19(1), 1-7.
Zaidi, S. S. E. A., Vanderschuren, H., Qaim, M., Mahfouz, M. M., Kohli, A., Mansoor, S., &
Tester, M. (2019). New plant breeding technologies for food security. Science,
363(6434), 1390-1391.
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Dr. Anil Kumar*
DES (Agroforestry), Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Damla, Yamunanagar
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
India is a land of diverse flora and fauna, where trees hold immense cultural, ecological,
and economic importance. Among the many trees that grace the Indian landscape, the Khejri
(Prosopis cineraria) stands out for its unique qualities and deep-rooted significance. This
deciduous tree, native to the arid regions of India, has been revered for centuries and continues to
play a vital role in the country's ecological balance and sustainable development. The tree is frost
and drought resistant and tolerates extreme temperature ranging from 40–45 0C in summer to less
than 10 0C in winter. It is capable of growing in areas of rainfall ranging from 100–600 mm. The
tree can withstand the hottest winds, the driest season and stay alive where other plants cannot
survive. It can be safely said that khejri is a tree of the desert.
The tree grows on a variety of soil but prefers alluvial, consisting of various mixtures of
sand and clay. It can tolerate moderate salinity of soil but dries up in very high salinity. It also
acts as an effective soil binder and is a great stabilising agent in sandy soils. Khejri is known by
many local names in zonal districts of Rajasthan, popularly it is called khejri or khejra. It is also
called jant or janti in areas like Alwar, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Churu, Jaipur, Bharatpur, Karoli,
Dholpur, Samal village in Udaipur, and Banswara and Dungarpur districts of Rajasthan. Each
part of the tree, from root to pod, finds some use or another. The extent of its importance is
highlighted in its recognition as the ‗state tree‘ of Rajasthan. Since all parts of khejri are useful it
is called the ‗kalpavriksha of the desert‘. It is also known as the ‗king of the desert‘ and the
‗wonder tree‘. It is a symbol of socio-economic development in the area. It is a socially preferred
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KHEJRI: A SACRED TREE
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tree species and is regarded as the lifeline of desert dwellers. Owing to its multiple uses and
services rendered, khejri has been the most common agroforestry species for centuries. The
unripe pods are green, and locally known as ‗sangria‘ or ‗sangar‘. The dried green beans of the
khejri are stored and used for cooking round the year. It is one of the ingredients of the famous
panchkuta, a local dish cooked with five vegetables. The dried mature pods, locally called ‗khokha‘, have a sweetish pulp and are also edible and much liked by local children. They are used as
fodder for livestock. Even the bark having an astringent bitter taste was reportedly eaten during
severe famines of 1899 and 1939. The gum of the tree obtained during May and June is nutritive
and good to taste.
The Role of Khejri in Human and Environmental Mitigation
Ecological Significance:
Soil Conservation:
Khejri plays a vital role in preventing desertification and conserving the fragile soil of the
Thar Desert. Its extensive root system helps bind the soil, reducing erosion caused by wind and
water. As a result, the tree helps maintain the integrity of the desert ecosystem, preserving the
delicate balance of sand dunes and preventing land degradation.
Wildlife Habitat:
Khejri serves as a valuable habitat for various desert-dwelling wildlife species. The dense
canopy provides shelter and nesting sites for birds, while the tree's pods serve as a source of food
for several desert animals, including antelope, gazelles, and camels. The presence of TharShobha
contributes to the overall biodiversity of the Thar Desert.
Fuelwood and Timber
The dense wood of Khejri is highly valued for fuelwood, providing a sustainable source
of energy for cooking and heating in rural households. Additionally, the timber derived from
Khejri is used for construction, furniture making, and various local crafts, contributing to rural
economies.
Fodder for Livestock
Khejri leaves and pods serve as a nutritious fodder source during times of fodder scarcity.
Livestock, particularly camels, goats, and sheep, heavily depend on Khejri foliage for sustenance
in arid areas.
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2. Environmental Mitigation and Conservation:
Khejri offers numerous environmental benefits, contributing to ecological balance and mitigating
environmental challenges:
Carbon Sequestration: Khejri has the ability to sequester carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change. Its extensive root system
aids in soil carbon storage, enhancing soil fertility and productivity.
Soil Conservation: Khejri's deep-rooted system prevents soil erosion and helps stabilize
the desert ecosystem. It aids in maintaining the structure and integrity of the soil, thereby
reducing land degradation and desertification.
Nitrogen Fixation: Khejri, through its symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, has the unique ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be
utilized by other plants. This process improves soil fertility and supports the growth of
other vegetation in arid areas.
The Bishnoi community in Rajasthan, known for their deep reverence for nature, has played a
crucial role in the conservation of Khejri trees. They have a longstanding tradition of protecting
these trees and have even sacrificed their lives to prevent their destruction.
Varieties of khejri in india: Exploring the Varieties of Khejri Trees in India
1. Prosopis cineraria var. cineraria: This is the most common variety of Khejri found in
India. It has a moderate-sized, spreading crown with branches that extend horizontally.
The bark is rough and greyish-brown, providing protection against extreme temperatures.
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The leaves are compound and double-pinnate, composed of numerous small leaflets. It
exhibits excellent drought tolerance and is known for its nitrogen-fixing abilities.
2. Prosopis cineraria var. rajasthanica: This variety is native to the arid regions of
Rajasthan, particularly the Thar Desert. It has a distinctive morphology, with a tall,
straight trunk and a broad crown that provides ample shade. The leaves are smaller in size
compared to other varieties, and the tree exhibits exceptional adaptability to arid
conditions. Prosopis cineraria var. rajasthanica plays a crucial role in preventing
desertification and supporting local biodiversity.
3. Prosopis cineraria var. microphylla: This variety is found in the arid regions of Gujarat
and parts of Maharashtra. It is characterized by smaller-sized leaves and a more compact
growth habit. Prosopis cineraria var. microphylla is known for its ability to withstand
high salinity levels in the soil, making it suitable for coastal regions with saline
conditions. It plays a crucial role in stabilizing coastal ecosystems and providing
protection against coastal erosion.
4. Prosopis cineraria var. albida: This variety is found in parts of South India, particularly
in the arid regions of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It is characterized by a smaller
stature and a more bushy appearance compared to other varieties. Prosopis cineraria var.
albida is highly valued for its nitrogen-fixing abilities, contributing to soil fertility and
supporting agricultural practices in these regions.
Characteristics of TharShobha:
1. Drought Tolerance: TharShobha show cases exceptional resilience to prolonged
droughts, which are a common occurrence in the Thar Desert. It possesses deep-rooted
systems that allow it to access water from deeper layers of the soil, ensuring its survival
during prolonged dry spells.
2. Leaf Morphology: TharShobha exhibits distinct leaf morphology compared to other
Khejri varieties. Its leaves are smaller in size and have a unique shape, resembling
elongated and feathery structures. These modified leaves help reduce water loss through
transpiration, enabling the tree to conserve moisture in the arid environment.
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3. Canopy Structure: The canopy of TharShobha is denser and more compact compared to
other Khejri varieties. This unique structure provides increased shade and helps protect
the tree from excessive heat and intense sunlight, a crucial adaptation for survival in the
scorching desert.
Propagation
Khejri mainly propagates through seed germination. Regeneration through seeds is
confined to moist climate; in places that are dry, the tree regenerates itself using root suckers,
which are also produced on removal of the main trunk. The trees can also be successfully raised
by sowing, in conjunction with field crops in irrigated lands. The root system of khejri is long
and well-developed and penetrates deeper and deeper for subsoil water. Growth above the
ground is slow. Very deep roots help in securing firm footing and in obtaining moisture from
deep soil layers.
Diseases of khejri and their management
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) is a hardy tree species native to arid and semi-arid regions of
India. While it exhibits natural resilience to various environmental stressors, it can be susceptible
to certain diseases that can impact its health and productivity. Effective disease management
strategies are crucial for preserving the health and vitality of Khejri populations.
1. Gummosis (Bacterial Infection): Gummosis is a bacterial infection caused by
Xanthomonasalbilineans. It is characterized by the formation of gummy exudates on the
branches and trunk of Khejri trees. Gummosis can weaken the affected tree, leading to
reduced growth and productivity.
Management:
Pruning: Infected branches and trunks should be pruned and removed to prevent the
spread of the bacteria.
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Sanitation: Proper sanitation practices, such as removing and disposing of infected plant
material, can help reduce the disease's prevalence.
Chemical Control: In severe cases, copper-based bactericides may be applied to affected
trees following appropriate guidelines.
2. Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Wilt disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum affects
the vascular system of Khejri trees, leading to wilting, yellowing of leaves, and eventually
tree death. It primarily spreads through contaminated soil or infected plant material.
Management:
Soil Sterilization: Soil sterilization techniques, such as solarization or fumigation, can
help reduce the pathogen load in the soil and limit disease transmission.
Crop Rotation: Practicing crop rotation with non-host plants can help break the disease
cycle.
Resistant Varieties: Selecting and promoting disease-resistant Khejri varieties can be an
effective long-term strategy for disease management.
3. Leaf Spot (Alternaria spp. and Cercospora spp.):
Leaf spot diseases caused by Alternaria and Cercospora fungi can lead to the development of
circular or irregular lesions on Khejri leaves. Severe infections can cause premature leaf
drop, defoliation, and reduced photosynthetic capacity.
Management:
•Pruning: Infected branches and trunks should be pruned and removed to prevent the spread of
the bacteria.
•Sanitation: Proper sanitation practices, such as removing and disposing of infected plant
material, can help reduce the disease's prevalence.
Insect pests of khejri:
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) can face insect pest infestations that can impact its growth and
productivity.
1. Stem Borer (Adetomyrrhynchus sp.):
Stem borers are the larvae of certain beetles that tunnel into the stems of Khejri trees, causing
damage to the vascular tissues. Infestation by stem borers can lead to wilting, dieback, and even
tree mortality.
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Management:
Cultural Practices: Regular pruning and removal of infested branches can help control the
spread of stem borers.
Biological Control: The use of natural enemies such as parasitic wasps or predators that
prey on stem borers can be effective in managing their populations.
2. Pod Borer (Marucavitrata): Pod borers are the larvae of moths that infest the pods of Khejri
trees, leading to damage and reduced pod quality. Infested pods often show signs of tunneling
and frass (excrement) inside.
Management:
Cultural Practices: Regular inspection and removal of infested pods can help reduce pod
borer populations.
Biological Control: Encouraging natural predators and parasitoids that attack pod borers
can provide effective control.
Chemical Control: In severe cases, insecticides approved for use on Khejri may be used
following recommended application rates and timing.
3. Leafhoppers (Empoasca spp.): Leafhoppers are sap-feeding insects that can cause yellowing
and curling of Khejri leaves. Heavy infestations can lead to reduced photosynthetic activity
and stunted growth.
Management:
Cultural Practices: Regular monitoring and early detection of leafhopper populations can
help prevent outbreaks.
Biological Control: Beneficial insects, such as ladybugs and predatory wasps, can
naturally control leafhopper populations.
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*V.K Satya1
, S.Malathi2 and M. Deivamani3
1 Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), Agriculture Engineering College & Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Kumulur
2Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), Information and Training Centre, TNAU, Chennai
3Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, TNAU, Dharmapuri
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Secretion is the process of elaborating, releasing, and oozing chemicals, or a secreted
chemical substance from a cell or gland. Secretion in bacterial species means the transport or
translocation of effector molecules for example proteins, enzymes or toxins. Secretion is a very
important mechanism in bacterial functioning and operation in their natural surrounding
environment for adaptation and survival.
Secretion via the Sec pathway generally requires the presence of an N-terminal signal
peptide on the secreted protein. Gram negative bacteria have two membranes, thus making
secretion topologically more complex. There are at least six specialized secretion systems in
bacteria.
System Characters Example
Type I It transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins
of various sizes (20- 900 kDa) & also involved in export of
non-proteinaceous substrates like cyclic β-glucans and
polysaccharides. Inportant for pathogenesis. No classical
signal peptides.
Protease secretion
in Erwinia
chrysanthemi
Type II Sec-dependent pathway moves the proteins across the inner Pectinase and
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TYPE THREE SECRETION SYSTEM IN PLANT
PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
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membrane, and further proteins, including a pilus, are
involved in movement across the outer membrane. Signal
peptides required.
cellulase secretion
in Erwinia
Type III Contact-mediated protein secretion directly from the
bacterial cytoplasm. Numerous proteins involved including a
pilus.
Hrp and Avr
proteins in many
bacteria.
Type IV Sec-dependent pathway, in which signal peptide recognised
by Sec is required for movement across inner membrane and
a complex including a pilus is required for Sec-independent
secretion of DNA-protein across outer membrane.
Transfer of T-DNA
from A.tumefaciens
Type V It involves use of the Sec system for crossing the inner
membrane. Proteins which use this pathway have the
capability to form a beta-barrel with their C-terminus which
inserts into the outer membrane..
-
Type VI It involves in pathogenesis and participating in stress
sensing. Composed of several components, and two proteins,
Hcp and VgrG which lack N-terminal signal sequences and
therefore presumably do not enter the Sec pathway.
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
Type III secretion system (T3SS or TTSS)
The term Type III secretion system was coined in 1993 by Salmond and Reeves. Type
three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or
T3SS) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria. In pathogenic bacteria,
the needle-like structure is used as a sensory probe to detect the presence of eukaryotic
organisms and secrete proteins that help the bacteria infect them. The proteins are secreted
directly from the bacterial cell into \"the host\" cell. Eg. Pseudomonas, Erwinia, Ralstonia,
Rhizobium and Xanthomonas (Staskawicz et al. 2001).
The T3SS is composed of approximately 30 different proteins, making it one of the most
complex secretion systems. Technically speaking, type III secretion is used both for secreting
infection-related proteins and flagellar components. However, the term \"type III secretion\" is
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used mainly in relation to the infection apparatus. The bacterial flagellum shares a common
ancestor with the type III secretion system. T3SSs are essential for the pathogenicity of many
pathogenic bacteria. Defects in the T3SS may render a bacterium non-pathogenic.
Structure
The feature of T3SS is the needle or the T3SS apparatus (T3SA); also called
injectisome. Bacterial proteins that need to be secreted pass from the bacterial cytoplasm
through the needle directly into the host cytoplasm. Three membranes separate the two
cytoplasms: the double membrane (inner and outer membranes) of the Gram-negative bacterium
and the eukaryotic membrane. A single bacterium can have several hundred needle complexes
spread across its membrane. The needle complex starts at the cytoplasm of the bacterium, crosses
the two membranes and protrudes from the cell. The part anchored in the membrane is the base
of the T3SS. The extracellular part is the needle. A so-called inner rod connects the needle to
the base. More specifically, the base of the needle complex is structurally very similar to the
flagellar base.
The base is composed of several circular rings and is the first structure that is built in a
new needle complex. Once the base is completed, it serves as a secretion machine for the outer
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proteins (the needle). Once the whole complex is completed the system switches to secreting
proteins that are intended to be delivered into host cells. The needle subunit is one of the smallest
T3SS proteins, measuring at around 9 kDa. 100−150 subunits comprise each needle.
Induction of secretion
Contact of the needle with a host cell triggers the T3SS to start secreting. The bacteria
sense various signal such as temperature, pH, osmolarity and oxygen levels, and use them to
\"decide\" whether to activate their T3SS. Some of the chaperones that bind T3SS effectors also
act as transcription factors. When the bacterium does not secrete, its effector proteins are bound
to chaperones and float in the cytoplasm.
T3SS-mediated Infection
T3SS effectors enter the needle complex at the base and make their way inside the needle
towards the host cell. Some effectors, collectively named translocators, are secreted first and
produce a pore or a channel (a translocon) in the host cell membrane, through which other
effectors may enter.
A signal transduction pathway for host contact-dependent activation of TTSS gene expression in
Ralstonia solanacearum. The plant cell contact signal is sensed by the PrhA–PrhR–PrhI three-
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component signal transduction system, which results in expression of the cytoplasmic regulator
PrhJ. Based on studies of other analogous systems, PrhA, PrhR, and PrhI likely interact directly
to transduce the external signal. PrhJ activates the expression of HrpG, which then activates the
hrpB regulatory gene. HrpB activates all other TTSS transcriptional units. Other environmental
signals (e.g., metabolite signals; not shown) also influence this pathway (e.g., at HrpG and HrpB
steps) (Sheng Yang et al. 2004).
The T3SS proteins can be grouped into three categories; they are structural proteins, effector
proteins and chaperones.
Functions of TTSS
Virulence factor
Optimize the host cell environment for bacterial growth
Type III effectors interfere with particular defense responses
Defense function Organism Type III effector
Suppress papilla formation P. syringae AvrPto1,AvrE1,HopM1,AvrRpm1,AvrRpt2
Induce JA-responsive genes P. syringae AvrB1,AvrRpt2,HopA1,HopD1,HopK1,Ho
pX1,HopAO1
Alter ethylene responses P. syringae AvrPto1,HopAB2
Suppress cell death induced
by specific disease R gene
P. syringae AvrRpm,AvrRpt2,HopAB2,AvrB2,HopF2
Suppress cell death induced
in response to HopPsyA
P. syringae HopE1,HopF2,HopG1,HopX1,HopAB2,Ho
pAM1
Suppress cell death in
nonhost plant
P. syringae HopN1,HopAB2,HopAO1
Suppress Flg22-dependent
NHO1 induction
P. syringae AvrPto1,HopC1,HopF2,HopS1,HopT1-
1,HopT1-2,HopAA1-1,HopAF1,HopAI-1
Block cell wall–mediated defense responses
Manipulate plant hormone signalling to alter host defense responses
Some type III effectors can interfere with programmed cell death induced by activation of
disease resistance proteins
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Some can interfere with nonhost disease resistance
Type III Effectors target host proteins and modify their normal cellular function
Conclusion
Type III effector proteins are essential for the successful life histories of many gram
negative bacteria. Diverse plant disease resistance mechanisms can be blocked by type III
effector proteins, but they can also trigger the plant immune system.
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*Vijay Prabha, V1
. , M. Jayanthi2
and I.J. Isaac Prem Kumar3
1Assistant Professor (Plant Physiology), Department of Agriculture, Kalasalingam School of
Agriculture and Horticulture, KARE, Krishnankoil - 626 126, Tamil Nadu.
2Assistant Professor (Agrl. Extension), Department of Agriculture, Kalasalingam School of
Agriculture and Horticulture, KARE, Krishnankoil - 626 126 Tamil Nadu.
3Assistant Professor, JCT College of Engineering and Technology, Pichanur -641105, TN
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Early stages of a plant's life cycle, such as seed germination and seedling establishment, are
crucial. Numerous internal elements, including phytohormones and outside stimuli like light,
precisely control these stages. As a group of compact molecules, Karrikins, a group of chemicals
released by wildfires, are important for a number of biological processes, such as the breaking of
dormancy in seeds, the control of germination, and seedling establishment. According to recent
study, karrikins imitate an endogenous substance that plays a part in seed germination and the
early stages of plant development. Karrikins exhibit striking similarities of he endogenous
substance called strigolactones in terms of both chemical composition and signaling
mechanisms.
Keywords: Karrikins, strigolactones, wild fire, germination
Introduction
Agriculture faces new obstacles, where, forest and grassland fires are becoming more and
more common as a result of climate change every day. In forest ecosystem, fire has been
considered as a vital component and crucial in influencing the survival of flora and fauna.
Individual members of a species may get flourished or damaged from a fire, but the impact of a
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KARRIKIN - A SMOKE HORMONE INDUCES
REVEGETATION
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single fire is not as substantial for the ecology as a shift in the fire regime. The blaze during
forest fire has reduced the wide tracts of forests into char, which was found recently in
Mayilaadum Paarai in the Perumalmalai Forest area and Machur forest area of Tamil Nadu and
Adimali region in Idukki. In such areas, vegetation recovery after forest fire determines the
ecosystem resilience or the ability to come back to normal vegetation. It is general that
ecosystems which are subjected to frequent forest fires are more resilient. The new environment
produced by fire often determines successional trajectories. The scientist community has
identified that revegetation of forests or grasslands after fire is facilitated by a group of
butenolide compounds strayed from smoke and the group was named a ―Karrikins‖ (Stevens et
al., 2007). It is the primary germination-promoting substance in smoke is known as KARs, and
all phylogenetic groups of plants, including mosses, liverworts, and green algae, have KAR
receptors.
Production and availability of Karrikins
Karrikins could be produced by burning a variety of plant products, including sugar,
cellulose filter paper, and even straw. The pyran ring of karrikins, which is thought to have been
obtained directly from pyranose sugars in plant material, is explained by the fact that they are
produced from polysaccharides and sugars. Even by heating plant material at 180 °C for 30
minutes, seed-germination activity can be produced. The exact chemical reaction is unknown,
although it necessitates oxygen. So heating and roasting specific plant foods at home is likely
how karrikins are made. Cigarette smoke encourages seed germination, most likely because it
contains karrikins. Ongoing investigation has revealed that karrikins are unstable at extremely
high temperatures. As a result, it is believed that they are formed in the less intense phases of
wildfires, vaporise, and accumulate in the smoke and condensation, where they get linked to soil
particles in the same manner that cooled smoke can be deposited onto seeds to encourage
germination. By using a process called steam distillation, karrikins can be \"carried\" in smoke,
however they rarely travel great distances in smoke and usually stay close to the fire's source
(Nelson et al., 2012).
In a burned-out landscape, it may be assumed that seeds falling from new plants would
quickly come into contact with karrikins and begin to germinate. Only a few species experience
this; for the majority of species, the after-ripening process—during which seeds are buried in soil
for a year or more—is required before they may respond to karrikin—occurs. Additionally, there
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is proof that some seeds may require a number of wetting and drying cycles in the soil before
they become responsive, making them dependent on an upcoming fire for germination (Flematti
et al., 2011).
The karrikin reaction is ubiquitous and may have developed independently in various
groups, as evidenced by the fact that seeds from numerous families of flowering plants and
conifers representing numerous plant life types (trees, shrubs, herbs, and annuals) will respond to
karrikins. Both areas that are prone to fire and areas that are not prone to fire contain plants with
smoke-responsive seed. The majority of plants are dicotyledonous, although many grasses also
react to smoke. Surprisingly, numerous weedy species, especially agricultural weeds, respond as
well, in addition to fire-followers. In some situations, karrikins will even improve the
germination of seeds of horticultural plants like lettuce and tomatoes. This suggests that although
plants have a basic capacity for responding to karrikins, fire-followers have honed this capacity
to their benefit in post-fire environments (Flematti et al., 2004; Casal, 2012).
Potential benefits of Karrikins
The potential use of chemically synthesised karrikins to treat soil in order to promote
widespread and vigorous germination of the local weed soil seed bank, often known as \"suicidal
germination,\" has attracted a lot of attention. This could be used to encourage the germination of
latent weed seeds in farmer's fields so that the weeds can be eradicated, or to restore degraded
land.
References
Stevens JC, Merritt DJ, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW. 2007. Seed germination of
agricultural weeds is promoted by the butenolide 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one
under laboratory and field conditions. Plant Soil. 298:113–24 .
Nelson DC, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW, Smith SM. 2012. Regulation of seed
germination and seedling growth by chemical signals from burning vegetation. Annu Rev
Plant Biol. 63:107–30.
Flematti GR, Merritt DJ, Piggott MJ, Trengove RD, Smith SM, Dixon KW. 2011. Burning
vegetation produces cyanohydrins that liberate cyanide and promote seed germination.
Nat Commun. 2:360.
Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW, Trengove RD. 2004. A compound from smoke that
promotes seed germination. Science. 305:977.
Casal, J. J. 2012. Shade avoidance. Arabidopsis Book 10:e0157. doi: 10.1199/tab.
0157.
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Saniya Syed1
, *Pradeep Kumar2
, Harpal Singh2
and Mousmi Syed
2
1Banda University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda (Utter Pradesh)
2Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (Utter Pradesh)
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) approach, a relatively new approach to
nutrient recommendations, is primarily based on the intrinsic nutrient availability from soil and
nutrient requirements of the crop to achieve target yields. In a 2014 study of 13 sites in Southeast
Asia, SSNM increased rice yields by 13% over three years, although yields decreased slightly in
the first year (Pasuquin et al., 2014).A study of 179 rice farms in 6 Asian countries found that
SSNM increased yield by 7% and total profit by 12% (Dobermann et al., 2002).In a recent study
of several sites in wheat systems in South Asia, SSNM increased wheat yields by 18- 27%,
compared to standard tillage (Jat and Satyanarayana 2013).On average, 107 field studies in
Chinese rice fields found 5% higher grain yields under SSNM than under farm practice,
attributed to reduced insect and disease damage. SSNM approach, relatively new approach of
nutrient recommendations, is mainly supply from the soil and nutrient demand of the crop for
achieving target yield.
Introduction
The relatively approach of nutrient recommendation is mainly based on the indigenous
nutrient supply from the soil and nutrient demand of the crop for achieving target yield. The
SSNM recommendations can be made on the basis of vegetation survey or soil cum vegetation
survey alone. The SSNM eliminates fertilizer waste by preventing excessive fertilizer application
and avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require fertilizer input. The siteVolume: 03 Issue No: 08
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IMPACT OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SITE
SPECIFIC NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (SSNM)
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specific nutrient management approach initially developed in the 1990s for generating fieldspecific fertilizer recommendations for rice in Asia, has also been introduced to rice, maize and
cassava cropping systems in SSA. A completely new approach to recommending nutritional
intelligence is mainly based on the intrinsic nutrients available from the soil and the nutrients
required by the crop to achieve the target yield. In general, SSNM maintains or increases
yields.Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is a low-tech, plant-needs-based technique for
efficiently supplying N, P and K.
It allows farmers to dynamically adjust fertilizer use to bridge the gap between highyielding crops' nutrient needs and nutrient supply from natural indigenous sources like soil,
manures, crop wastes and irrigation water etc. The purpose of the SSNM technique is to apply
nutrients at the right rates and at the right times in order to increase yields and crop nutrient
efficiency. It does not have a defined goal of reducing or increasing fertilizer use. Nutrient
Expert software to provide fertilizer recommendations to farmers in the absence of soil testing. It
is a computerized decision supporting tool that facilitates farmers in recommending fertilizers
using the principle of 4Rs of nutrient stewardship and site specific nutrient management into a
fertilizer recommendation. It is considered that the nutrient status of the crop is the best indicator
of soil nutrient supplies as well as nutrient demand of the crop. Witt and Doberman (2002)
proposed five key steps for developing field-specific fertilizer NPK recommendation for rice,
through the basic principles remain the same for other crops as well.
Selection of the yield goal A yield goal exceeding 70-80% of the variety specific potential yield
has to be chosen.
Assessment of crop nutrient requirement The nutrient uptake requirement of a crop depends
both on yield goal and Ymax. In SSNM, nutrient requirements are estimated with the help of
quantitative evaluation of fertility of tropical soils models.
Dynamic Adjustment of N rates Whereas fertilizers phosphorous and potassium, as computed
above, are applied basally at the time of sowing/planting, the N rates and application schedules
can be further adjusted as per the crop demand using chlorophyll meter (popularly known as
SPAD) or leaf colour clart (LCC). For efficient and effective SSNM, use of soil and plant
nutrient status sensing devices, remote sensing, GIS decision support systems, simulation models
and machines for variable application of nutrient play an important role. They provides a locally
adapted nutrient best management practice tailored to the field and season specific needs for a
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crop, increase in yield, high efficiency of fertilizer use, improve profitability, improve
marketable crop quality, optimal use of existing indigenous nutrient sources such as crop
residues. In SSNM, nutrient requirements are estimated with the help of quantitative evaluation
of fertility of tropical soils (QUEFTS) model, Nutrient requirements for a particular yield goal of
a crop variety may be smaller in a high yielding season than in low yielding one.
Soil-Cum-Plant Analysis Based SSNM
In this case soil nutrient content and plant nutrient requirement for high target yield (not
less than 80%), and NE of the applied nutrients are considered for designing crop management
systems to achieve maximum economic yield of crops variety. Total nutrient requirements for
target yields and RE are calculated with the help of data available for similar cropping areas. It is
then suggested to use the crop rate a particular field so as to meet the nutrient requirement of the
crops without depleting the available soil. These soil-test crop response-based recommendations
are currently working to reach desired yields in many field crops .Thus; recent studies on
intensive cropping system have shown that fertilizer recommendations in the above form offer
higher economic returns as compared to conventional soil-prescribed NPK fertilizer systems of
the testing facilities.
Decision Support Systems
Nutrient expert (NE) is an easy-to- use interactive and computer-based decision support
tool that can rapidly provide nutrient recommendation for an individual farmer‖ field based on
available soil test data or in the absence of NE is an nutritional decision support software that
uses SSNM principles and enables farm advisors to develop customized feed recommendations
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for a specific field or growing area NE allows users to obtain required information from their
own experience , farmers‘ knowledge
Nutrient Expert (NE) is an easy-to-use, interactive, and computer-based decision support
tool that can rapidly provide nutrient recommendations for an individual farmer‘s field based on
available soil test data or in the absence of. NE is a nutritional decision support software that
uses SSNM principles and enables farm advisors to develop customized feed recommendations
for a specific field or growing area.NE allows users to obtain required information from their
own experience, farmers‘ knowledge of the local region and farming practices.NE can use
experimental data but can also estimate the required SSNM parameters with existing site
information. The algorithm for calculating Fertilizers requirement in NE is determined by set of
on-farm trial data using SSNM guidelines. Parameters required in SSNM are usually measured in
nutrient omission trials conducted on farmers‘ fields, which require at least one cropping season.
In NE, parameters can be estimated using proxy information, which enables field advisors to
develop fertilizer guidelines for an area without data from field trials.
Decision rules to estimate site-specific nutrient management parameters
NEestimatestheattainableyieldandyieldresponsetofertilizerfromsiteinformation
usingdecisionrulesdevelopedfromon-farmtrials.
Specifically, NE uses characteristics of the growing environment—water
availability (irrigated, fully rainfed and rainfed with supplemental irrigation) and
any occurrence of flooding or drought; soil fertility indicators—soil texture, soil
color and organic matter content, soil test for PorK (if available), historical use of
organic materials (if any) and problem soils (if any); crop sequence in farmer‘
scrapping pattern; crop residue management and fertilizer inputs for the previous
crop; and farmers‘ current yields.
Data for specific crops and specific geographic regions are required in
developing the decision rules for NE.
The data sets must represent diverse conditions in the growing environment
characterized by variations in the amount and distribution of rainfall, crop cultivars
and growth durations, soil sand cropping systems.
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Soil nutrient supply potential and its spatial variability, productivity potential
and targets for crops and cropping systems, estimation of nutrient requirements, and
fertilizer use efficiency besides assessment of resource quality and socio-economic
background of the farmers are essential for developing site specific IPNS. The soil,
crop, nutrient and resource related parameters that are essential for suggesting and
practicing site specific IPNS include:
Soil testing- nutrient supply potential.
Efficiency of nutrient sources fertilizer organic nutrient source like
FYM, green manures.
Compost, bio fertilizer, organic industrial wastes and soil
amendments.
Selection of suitable crops and cropping systems involving N fixing
crops and their management.
Correction of soil and nutrient related problems.
Current Versions of Nutrient Expert
NE has been developed for specific crops and geographic regions. Nutrient
Expert for Hybrid Maize (NEHM) for favorable tropical environments (e.g.,
South-East Asia) was developed in late 2009 and underwent field evaluation
in Indonesia and the Philippines.
Using NEHM as a model, the NE concept has been adapted to other crops and
geographic regions or countries. In 2011, beta versions of NE for maize were
developed for South Asia, China, Kenya and Zimbabwe.
Nutrient Expert has versions for both PCs and Android devices (e.g., tablet, Smartphone). NE
considers the most essential aspects that influence nutrient management recommendations and
employs a methodical approach to data collection, which is critical for creating a locationspecific recommendation. Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) is the process of applying
nutrients to the soil through time and space in order to fit the needs of crops through four key
principles known as ―4 R‖. The four key principles or 4R's are Right product, Right rate, Right
time and Right place.
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Conclusion
Nutrient Expert is proving to be an ideal method for creating fertilizer recommendations
and determine if an adequate nutrient supply exists to permit healthy crop growth. Most Indian
farmers, on the other hand, are oblivious to how to manage nutrients in their nutrient-dense
cereal systems. NE regularly outperformed the other options in a variety of settings (farmers'
field practice or state recommendations). Nutrient Expert has several advantages that have
proven it to be a good decision support tool, including:• It is cost-effective for precision nutrient
management, produces less pollution, and has a good impact on plants and soil. • It is simple to
use and does not require any labor or technical skills. • Using site-specific strategies to optimize
nutrient management would increase yield, nutrient usage efficiency, and cereal production
profitability. Inputs, fertilization processes, environmental circumstances, yield responses to N,
P, and K fertilizers, soil fertility metrics, past crop history, and the usage of organic inputs,
among other factors, should all be well-understood by the farmer.
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Kalpana Yadav* Indu Arora and Pooja Pahal
Department of Vegetable Science,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Water, often referred to as the \"Elixir of life,\" is an invaluable natural resource. Even
though about 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered with water, its availability for human
use is remarkably limited. Factors such as population growth, industrialization, and uneven
distribution of rainfall have contributed to the scarcity of water for agricultural purposes.
Simultaneously, the emergence of globalization, liberalization, and privatization in agriculture,
especially in horticulture, has underscored the need to adopt modern cultivation practices to
achieve higher production levels. In this regard, the utilization of advanced technologies,
specifically drip irrigation, becomes crucial for maximizing crop yields while ensuring optimal
quality and minimizing the incidence of diseases.
What is Drip Irrigation?
Drip irrigation or micro irrigation is a technique that involves delivering the necessary amount of
water directly to the root zone of plants through a network of pipes and emitters, operating at low
pressure (Yang et al., 2023)..
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MICRO-IRRIGATION: A PROMISING FUTURE FOR
WATER MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
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Unlike sprinkler irrigation, which is more suitable for crops planted closer together, drip
irrigation is particularly well-suited for wider or closely spaced crops
Advantages of Drip Irrigation
1. Drip irrigation can lead to significant water savings, typically ranging from 30-60%
compared to traditional irrigation methods.
2. The water saved through drip irrigation can be utilized to irrigate a larger area,
approximately 2-3 times more, maximizing the efficiency of water usage.
3. By implementing drip irrigation, there can be a reduction in electricity and labour
requirements for cultural operations, resulting in cost savings.
4. Drip irrigation enables the application of the required amount of water uniformly to
plants, minimizing water wastage and saving time.
5. Drip irrigation allows for the application of fertilizers directly through the system,
leading to efficient nutrient utilization and reducing fertilizer waste.
6. The precise application of water through drip irrigation helps in controlling weed growth
and reducing soil erosion.
7. Drip irrigation systems are suitable for undulated and sloped terrains, making irrigation
possible in challenging topographical conditions.
8. The efficient water and nutrient delivery of drip irrigation can contribute to higher yields
of superior quality produce, enhancing overall crop productivity.
Components of Drip System
Drip irrigation comprises of three essential components:
Water source and pump: The water source for drip irrigation can vary, including open wells,
bore wells, streams, or canals/tanks. The installation of a pump should be based on factors such
as water availability, irrigation requirements, and the area to be irrigated.
Filtration unit: This component consists of filters, pressure valves, and a venturi or fertilizer
tank. It is crucial to filter the water from the source to remove impurities before it enters the
irrigation system. There are different types of filters available, including sand filters, screen
filters, disc filters, and hydro cyclones. The choice of filter depends on the specific water source
and the level of impurities present.
Distribution network: The distribution network involves the mainline pipe, sub-main laterals,
control valves, and drippers/microtubes. The diameter and size of the pipes in the network
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depend on the design and the number of drippers or microtubes required for the crop's irrigation
needs. The network is responsible for carrying the water from the source to the plants in a
controlled and efficient manner.
Design of Drip System
Technical expertise is crucial for the design and implementation of drip irrigation systems, as it
involves the precise flow of water at specified pressures to cater to the specific needs of the
plants. Before initiating the design process, it is essential to gather the following information:
Water source and availability: Determine the source of water for irrigation and assess the
quantity of water that is accessible for use.
Crop selection, spacing, and area: Identify the crops that will be irrigated using drip irrigation,
consider their spacing requirements, and determine the total area to be covered by the system.
Land topography and terrain: Evaluate the shape and terrain of the land where the drip
irrigation system will be installed, as it can impact the layout and design of the system.
Climate and soil conditions: Consider the local climate conditions, including temperature,
rainfall patterns, and evaporation rates, as well as the quality of the soil in terms of its texture,
drainage, and nutrient content.
When designing the system, several factors need to be considered, such as the water
discharge capacity of the pump, ensuring uniform water distribution, and dividing the land into
sub-blocks if water availability is limited.
Material Quality in Drip System
Ensuring the quality of drip irrigation systems is crucial since many components are installed
above the soil and are exposed to natural elements and UV degradation. Therefore, it is essential
to utilize high-quality materials that meet the necessary standards. Look for components that
carry the ISI or BIS Mark, indicating compliance with established quality benchmarks. Each
component of the drip system should bear the designated number associated with these marks to
ensure reliability and performance.
Installation Guidelines
1. Prior to installation, ensure water availability and determine the crop's water requirement
to ensure proper irrigation planning.
2. Test water compatibility with drip irrigation, considering pH, salinity, and chemical
composition.
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3. Select a suitable water pump matching required yield and pressure for the drip system.
4. Generally, drip irrigation systems require a pressure of 1.5-2 kg/m2
, while micro
sprinklers, misters, and foggers may require a pressure of 3.0-5.0 kg/m2
.
5. Choose appropriate filters based on the water source. For bore well water with fewer
physical impurities, screen filters are sufficient, but for open well and stream water, sand
filters or hydro cyclones may be required in addition to screen filters.
6. Lay out the main and sub-line pipes in a telescopic model, gradually decreasing the pipe
diameter to maintain consistent pressure throughout the system while reducing costs.
7. Ensure that the main and sub-line pipes are laid at a depth of 45 cm to prevent damage
from tools and implements during cultural operations.
8. Select lateral pipes of 12 mm or 16 mm size based on the water availability and spacing
of the crop. Wider spacing crops generally require 12 mm laterals, while closely spaced
crops may need 16 mm laterals.
9. Consider the water pressure when determining the discharge capacity of the lateral pipes.
Typically, a 12 mm lateral carries 250-300 ml of water per hour, while a 16 mm lateral
carries 450-500 ml.
10. Laterals should be placed perpendicular to the main line to maintain consistent water
pressure.
11. Determine the number of drippers/micro tubes and their discharge capacity based on the
crop and soil characteristics. Generally, four drippers are used for widely spaced crops,
two for medium spaced crops, and drippers are placed at 30-45 cm intervals on laterals
for closely spaced crops such as vegetables and flowers.
12. All main and sub-main pipes should be raised 1.5 feet above the ground level at the end
and fitted with an end cap to ensure the removal of physical impurities when opened.
13. Install pressure air release valves on the main pipe line to release vacuum and prevent
soil particles from entering drippers/micro tubes.
14. Run the system for half an hour after installation to flush out impurities and check for
leaks.
15. Avoid using sharp-edged materials when filling trenches to prevent damage to pipes.
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Drip Maintenance
Regular maintenance of a drip irrigation system is crucial to ensure its proper functioning
at the required pressure over an extended period. Even a well-designed system with high-quality
materials will not have a long lifespan without adequate and timely maintenance.
Maintenance of the drip system involves the following key practices:
Inspect the system: Regularly examine the entire system, including pipes, emitters, filters, and
valves, for any signs of damage, leaks, or clogging. Identify and address any issues promptly.
Clean filters: Clean the filters at regular intervals to remove sediment, debris, and other particles
that may clog the system. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for proper cleaning techniques.
Check emitters: Inspect the emitters to ensure they are delivering water uniformly. Clean or
replace any clogged or malfunctioning emitters to maintain consistent water distribution.
Monitor pressure: Regularly monitor the pressure in the system to ensure it is within the
recommended range. Adjust the pressure regulator as needed to maintain optimal performance.
Clear vegetation: Remove any vegetation or weeds that may obstruct the flow of water or
damage the system. Keep the area around the drip lines clean and free from obstructions.
Check for leaks: Look for any leaks in the pipes, fittings, or connections. Repair or replace any
damaged components to prevent water wastage and maintain system efficiency.
Flush the system: Periodically flush the system to remove accumulated sediments, salts, or
chemical deposits that may affect the performance of the system. Flushing also helps maintain
the cleanliness of the emitters.
Winterize the system: If you live in an area with freezing temperatures, take appropriate
measures to protect the system during the winter months. Drain the water from the pipes and
emitters to prevent damage from freezing.
Problems in Drip System and Their Management
1. The blockage/clogging of filters, lateral pipes, and drippers/micro tubes that hinder the
smooth flow and even discharge of water.
2. Uneven distribution of water throughout the system.
3. Leakage occurs at various points within the irrigation system.
4. Installation of substandard or low-quality materials that can lead to system malfunctions.
5. Potential damage caused by animals, rodents, and other external factors.
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Among these challenges, blockage/clogging is the most common and recurring issue, caused
by water impurities like soil, sand, chemicals, and biological matter. Address this by using
appropriate filters and treating water with suitable substances like acids or chlorine.
Management of Uneven Distribution of Water
The uneven distribution of water in a drip irrigation system can be attributed to several
factors, including fluctuations in pump pressure, a decrease in water level (in the case of bore
wells), and insufficient water supply from streams or open wells. To ensure optimal
performance, a minimum pressure of 1.5-2.0 kg/m
2 is required for drip systems, while micro
sprinklers typically require 3.0-5.0 kg/cm2
. It is important to note that the accumulation of
impurities in filters can also lead to a drop in irrigation pressure. Therefore, regular maintenance
and cleaning of filters are necessary to uphold the desired pressure levels and ensure efficient
operation of the system.
Water Leakage in Drip Network
Regularly inspecting drip joints and immediately correcting any leaks is vital. Washers
should be used at joints and end caps on sub-lines and laterals to prevent leaks. Lateral pipes
should be avoided from bending and twisting, and joints or connectors should be added at cut
places to address lateral leakage. Low-quality components without ISI marks or made from
recycled plastics should be avoided as they result in shorter lifespans and inefficiency. Instead,
opt for ISI-marked materials from reputable companies. Animals like cows, rats, squirrels,
rodents, crabs, and dogs can damage the system, so required preventive measures should be
taken immediately. Regular field cleaning, weed removal, and placing bowls or coconut shells
under drippers for rodents to drink water can help prevent damage. Proper design, installation,
and high-quality components are key to long-lasting and efficient drip system operation.
Drip Irrigation as Part of Plasticulture System
Drip irrigation is essential in plasticulture, where plastic materials like mulch films, row
covers, and tunnels are used in agriculture. It delivers water directly to plant roots through plastic
drip lines, resulting in precise water application and reduced evaporation and runoff. This
efficient method conserves water compared to traditional irrigation. Drip irrigation in
plasticulture also aids in weed control by directing water only where needed, reducing water
availability to weeds and minimizing nutrient competition between crops and weeds (Kumar and
Kumar, 2020). The overall benefits include optimized water usage, improved crop quality,
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enhanced weed management, and an ideal growing environment. This sustainable approach
maximizes productivity while conserving valuable resources.
Summary
Drip irrigation is an innovative and efficient water-saving method in agriculture. With
increasing water scarcity and the need for higher productivity, adopting technologies like drip
irrigation becomes crucial. This technique delivers water precisely to plant roots, resulting in
significant water savings and improved efficiency. When integrated into plasticulture, it offers
additional benefits like enhanced water conservation, better weed control, and optimal plant
growth conditions. Drip irrigation is a sustainable and indispensable tool in modern agriculture to
address water scarcity and promote agricultural sustainability while maximizing crop yields.
References
Yang, P., Wu, L., Cheng, M., Fan, J., Li, S., Wang, H. and Qian, L. (2023). Review on Drip
Irrigation: Impact on Crop Yield, Quality, and Water Productivity in China. Water, 15(9):
1733. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15091733.
Kumar, R. and Kumar, M. (2020). Effect of drip irrigated mulch on soil properties and water use
efficiency-A review. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 19(3): 300-309.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/2455-7145.2020.00039.9.
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*Nivedha Muthusamy and Harish Sankarasubramanian
Department of Plant Pathology,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Plant viral diseases pose a significant threat to global food security and agricultural
productivity. Rapid and accurate detection of viruses in crop plants is essential for effective
disease management. Recent molecular innovations have significantly advanced plant viral
disease diagnosis, enabling more efficient and accessible detection methods. Next-Generation
Sequencing (NGS) offers the identification of known and novel viruses. CRISPR-based
diagnostics achieves a highly specific and sensitive viral detection. Nanopore sequencing enables
real-time identification of plant viruses and Digital PCR (dPCR) allows absolute quantification
of viral nucleic acids without the need for a standard curve. Microarrays offer high-throughput
screening and the discovery of new viruses. Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal
Amplification (RT-LAMP) and Lateral Flow Devices (LFDs) provide a rapid, specific technique
and cost-effective on-site testing for viral infections. These recent advancements in molecular
diagnostics hold great promise for enhancing disease surveillance, facilitating early detection,
and improving crop protection strategies in agriculture.
Key words: Plant viruses diagnosis, NGS, CRISPR-CAS, RT-LAMP, LFDs
Introduction
The rapid and accurate detection of viruses in crop plants is of supreme importance for
ensuring successful crop production. Viral infections can lead to substantial losses in crop yield
and quality, resulting in significant negative economic impacts. All types of crops, whether
grown for food, ornamental, or fuel purposes, are susceptible to virus infections, making it a
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EXPLORING THE RECENT MOLECULAR INNOVATIONS
IN PLANT VIRAL DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
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widespread concern in agriculture. Identifying viral infections solely based on typical symptoms,
such as yellowing, mosaic patterns, and stunted growth, can be unreliable, as these symptoms
can be masked by other factors or may arise from a combination of different viruses acting
together. Moreover, with the rise in international seed and plant trading and intensified
agricultural practices, there is an increased risk of new and emerging viruses establishing
themselves in crops.
To address these challenges, effective plant viral diagnosis plays a pivotal role in
safeguarding global food security. Current diagnostic methods, like polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), require sophisticated equipment,
infrastructure, and skilled technical staff, which may limit their accessibility for on-site and rapid
detection. The need for accessible and reliable diagnostic tools becomes increasingly crucial for
efficient disease management and crop protection in the face of evolving viral threats.
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS):
Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) has emerged as a key focus in the field of plant
virology, offering significant advancements in the simultaneous detection of multiple viruses
through multiplexed methods. While molecular techniques like reverse transcriptase-polymerase
chain reaction (RT-PCR) have improved the speed and accuracy of viral disease diagnosis by
targeting specific known viruses, they are limited in their ability to detect unknown or novel
viruses. NGS enables a comprehensive and unbiased analysis of the entire viral population
present in a sample, making it a powerful tool for identifying both known and previously
unknown viral pathogens. By sequencing and analyzing the genetic material present in a sample,
NGS can provide a wealth of information about the diversity and composition of viral
communities, paving the way for better disease diagnostics, surveillance, and management in
crops (Jones et al.,2017). This technology not only accelerates the detection process but also has
the potential to revolutionize plant virology by unlocking new insights into viral evolution,
emergence, and interactions with host plants and the environment.
CRISPR-Based Diagnostics
CRISPR-Cas systems were initially identified as natural defense mechanisms in bacteria
and archaea, providing protection against invasive genetic material. However, their versatile
applications have extended beyond their role in genome editing and gene regulation in
eukaryotic organisms. In the realm of plant virology, CRISPR-Cas systems have emerged as
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promising tools for detecting viral infections. Within the CRISPR loci, there are short repeated
sequences interspersed with unique spacer sequences, often acquired from plasmids and viruses.
These spacers serve as a memory of past viral encounters and act as guides for CRISPRassociated (Cas) endonucleases to specifically recognize and cleave viral DNA or RNA
sequences.
Recent advancements have demonstrated the successful use of CRISPR-Cas systems,
specifically the RNA-guided nuclease Cas12a, for detecting RNA viruses and viroids in plants.
Cas12a has the ability to target single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules in trans, making it a
powerful tool for detecting viral RNA. Researchers have combined this approach with other
techniques like reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) and
reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to achieve efficient and accurate
detection of plant viruses (Sharma et al.,2021). The exquisite sequence specificity of CRISPRCas systems allows precise targeting of specific viral sequences, ensuring highly accurate and
reliable detection without affecting the plant's own genetic material. Additionally, the nonspecific collateral cleavage activity of CRISPR-Cas systems further enhances the sensitivity of
viral detection assays. As CRISPR technology continues to advance, its application in detecting
plant viruses holds great potential for improving disease diagnostics and surveillance in
agriculture. The rapid and accurate detection capabilities of CRISPR-Cas systems can play a
crucial role in early virus identification, enabling timely and targeted management strategies to
curb the spread of viral infections and minimize crop losses, ultimately contributing to the health
and productivity of cultivated plants.
Nanopore Sequencing
Nanopore sequencing is a groundbreaking technology that allows field scientists to
instantly identify and manage plant diseases on-site, revolutionizing agriculture's frontline
defense. Unlike traditional sequencing methods, nanopore sequencing identifies nucleotides
based on electrical signals, enabling highly sensitive detection of single-stranded DNA or RNA
molecules. The technology can generate long read lengths by analyzing the entire DNA or RNA
fragment, directly correlating read length with fragment length. Real-time nanopore sequencing
shows great promise in plant virus detection, as early identification allows growers to take quick
and effective measures (Sun et al.,2022). Nanopore sequencers can detect various viral nucleic
acids, including genomic DNA or RNA, transcripts, and replicative intermediates. To detect
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DNA viruses in plants, several library preparation strategies have been established. For RNA
viruses, RNA is either directly sequenced or converted into cDNA before detection. Nanopore
sequencing has successfully identified multiple virus infections in yams, begomovirus in cowpea
plants, and various viruses in symptomatic plant tissues. This technology offers a rapid and
accurate approach for diagnosing plant diseases and can significantly enhance agricultural
disease management strategies.
Digital PCR (dPCR)
Digital PCR (dPCR) is a precise technique used to quantify target nucleic acid sequences
in a sample without the need for a standard curve, unlike traditional quantitative PCR (qPCR)
methods. The sample is divided into many individual reactions, each containing a few target
molecules or none at all. This partitioning is achieved using droplets (droplet digital PCR or
ddPCR) or microfluidic chips (chip-based dPCR). In ddPCR, the sample is divided into
thousands of droplets, with each droplet acting as a separate PCR reaction. The target sequences
are amplified independently within each droplet, leading to positive or negative partitions based
on their presence or absence. The number of positive and negative partitions is then counted,
allowing for absolute quantification using Poisson statistics. Chip-based dPCR works similarly
but uses individual reaction chambers on a microfluidic chip instead of droplets (Kim et
al.,2022).
The key advantages of dPCR include absolute quantification without a standard curve
and increased sensitivity, especially for low-concentration target sequences. dPCR has wide
applications in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and agriculture. As the
technology advances, dPCR is expected to find even more uses in various fields.
Microarrays
Microarrays are powerful tools used for detecting and identifying plant viruses. They
consist of thousands to millions of unique DNA or RNA probes representing specific viral
sequences, which are immobilized on a solid surface. When a sample containing viral nucleic
acids is applied to the microarray, complementary hybridization occurs between the viral
sequences and the corresponding probes (Bhat et al.,2020).
Microarrays allow for high-throughput screening, enabling the simultaneous detection of
multiple viruses in a single experiment. They provide a rapid and sensitive method for virus
detection without the need for amplification steps, reducing the risk of cross-contamination.
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Microarrays can also be used to discover new or unknown viruses, expanding our knowledge of
plant virology. However, microarrays require prior knowledge of target viruses for specific probe
design, limiting their ability to detect unknown viruses without customization. Next-generation
sequencing is likely to complement or replace microarrays in the future, offering a more
comprehensive and unbiased view of the entire viral population in a sample. Overall,
microarrays are valuable tools for plant virus detection and have been widely used in virology
research and diagnostics.
RT-LAMP
Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) is a
powerful and rapid nucleic acid amplification technique used for the detection of plant viruses. It
is a variant of the traditional Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) method, which
does not require a thermal cycling step. RT-LAMP is particularly well-suited for field
applications as it operates at a constant temperature, typically between 60 to 65 degrees Celsius.
This isothermal amplification allows for rapid and straightforward detection of viral nucleic
acids without the need for complex and expensive thermal cyclers. RT-LAMP assay relies on a
set of four to six primers that specifically recognize multiple regions of the target viral RNA or
DNA. These primers initiate the LAMP reaction, leading to the amplification of the viral genetic
material in a highly specific and sensitive manner (Kokane et al.,2021). One of the main
advantages of RT-LAMP is its high sensitivity and specificity, enabling the detection of low
concentrations of viral nucleic acids. RT-LAMP has been successfully applied for the detection
of various plant viruses, including major pathogens affecting crops such as Potato virus Y,
Tomato spotted wilt virus, and Citrus tristeza virus, among others. Its speed, accuracy, and ease
of use make it a valuable tool for rapid on-site detection and monitoring of viral infections in
plants, contributing to effective disease management and crop protection strategies
Lateral Flow Devices (LFDs)
Lateral Flow Devices (LFDs) are simple and rapid diagnostic tools used for the detection
of plant viruses. Also known as lateral flow immunoassays or lateral flow tests, LFDs utilize
specific antibodies or antigens that can recognize viral proteins or nucleic acids. The test is
performed on a small strip containing several capture lines, each coated with a specific antibody
or antigen capable of binding to the target viral component. In the detection process, a sample
suspected of containing the virus is applied to the LFD, and it migrates along the strip via
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capillary action. If the target viral component is present in the sample, it will bind to the
corresponding capture line, resulting in a visible signal, often in the form of a coloured line. The
presence of the colored line indicates a positive result for the virus (Safenkova et al.,2019).
LFDs offer several advantages for the detection of plant viruses. They are user-friendly,
requiring minimal equipment and technical expertise, which makes them suitable for on-site and
point-of-care testing. With rapid results typically obtained within minutes, LFDs facilitate quick
decision-making in disease management and quarantine measures. Moreover, their costeffectiveness makes LFDs accessible to a wide range of users, including small-scale farmers and
field researchers. Additionally, LFDs play a crucial role in early detection and surveillance of
plant viruses, contributing to preventing disease outbreaks and minimizing crop losses (Lee et
al.,2021).
However, it is important to consider that LFDs may have limitations in terms of
sensitivity and specificity compared to more sophisticated laboratory-based techniques like PCR
or sequencing methods. As a result, LFDs are often utilized as a first-line screening tool, and
positive results may require further confirmation through other molecular diagnostic methods.
Nevertheless, LFDs remain a valuable and practical tool for rapid and on-site detection of plant
viruses, offering a convenient option for screening and surveillance in agricultural settings. Their
implementation contributes significantly to timely disease management and crop protection.
Conclusion
Recent molecular innovations in plant viral disease diagnosis, such as NGS, CRISPRbased diagnostics, Nanopore sequencing, dPCR, Microarrays, and RT-LAMP, have
revolutionized virus detection in cultivated plants. These advancements have improved accuracy,
sensitivity, and accessibility for viral detection. NGS allows unbiased identification of known
and novel viruses, while CRISPR-based diagnostics offer highly specific and sensitive detection.
Nanopore sequencing provides real-time on-site disease management, and dPCR enables
absolute quantification of viral nucleic acids. Microarrays aid in high-throughput screening and
new virus discovery, while RT-LAMP offers rapid and specific detection. Embracing these
cutting-edge technologies can enhance disease surveillance, enable early detection, and
implement effective crop protection strategies. Ultimately, these innovations play a crucial role
in ensuring global food security and sustaining agriculture in the face of evolving viral threats.
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Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful for the support given by Professor and Head, Department of
Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore and DST-SERB No: CRG/2020/004589 for providing
financial facilities.
References
Jones, S., Baizan-Edge, A., MacFarlane, S., & Torrance, L. (2017). Viral diagnostics in plants
using next generation sequencing: computational analysis in practice. Front. in Plant Sci,
8, 1770.
Sharma, S. K., Gupta, O. P., Pathaw, N., Sharma, D., Maibam, A., Sharma, P., & Bhattacharjee,
B. (2021). CRISPR-Cas-led revolution in diagnosis and management of emerging plant
viruses: new avenues toward food and nutritional security. Front. in Nutrition, 8, 751512.
Sun, K., Liu, Y., Zhou, X., Yin, C., Zhang, P., Yang, Q., ... & Yu, X. (2022). Nanopore
sequencing technology and its application in plant virus diagnostics. Front. in Microbiol.,
13, 939666.
Kim, S. W., Lee, H. J., Cho, K. H., & Jeong, R. D. (2022). Detection and Quantification of
Apple Stem Grooving Virus in Micropropagated Apple Plantlets Using ReverseTranscription Droplet Digital PCR. The Plant Pathology Journal, 38(4), 417.
Bhat, A. I., Rao, G. P., Bhat, A. I., & Rao, G. P. (2020). DNA Microarray for detection of plant
viruses.
Kokane, A. D., Kokane, S. B., Warghane, A. J., Gubyad, M. G., Sharma, A. K., Reddy, M. K., &
Ghosh, D. K. (2021). A rapid and sensitive reverse transcription–loop-mediated
isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for the detection of Indian Citrus Ringspot
Virus. Plant dis., 105(05), 1346-1355.
Safenkova, I. V., Panferov, V. G., Panferova, N. A., Varitsev, Y. A., Zherdev, A. V., &
Dzantiev, B. B. (2019). Alarm lateral flow immunoassay for detection of the total
infection caused by the five viruses. Talanta, 195, 739-744.
Lee, H. J., Cho, I. S., Ju, H. J., & Jeong, R. D. (2021). Rapid and visual detection of tomato
spotted wilt virus using recombinase polymerase amplification combined with lateral
flow strips. Molecular and cellular probes, 57, 101727.
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Pinak.K.Bamaniya1
*, Gowhar Iqbal2
, Ishita.J.Bambhaniya1
1College of Fisheries Science, Kamdhenu University, Veraval (Gujarat)
2
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Panch Marg, Yari Road, Mumbai-400061
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Freshwater ecosystems encompass lakes, rivers, streams, and underground reservoirs, vital in
sustaining human health and existence by supplying essential drinking water and protein
resources. The rapid growth of the global human population has led to a significant increase in
wastewater and sewage sludge volumes generated after treatment. Excessive nutrients in the
water stimulate the rapid growth of algae and other aquatic plants. As water quality deteriorates,
it becomes less suitable for supporting various marine species and can lead to habitat
degradation. Proper enforcement ensures that industries, municipalities, and individuals comply
with sewage management guidelines.
Keywords: Sewage, Aquatic Ecosystems, Eutrophication, Conservative measures
Introduction
Sewage, or domestic/municipal wastewater, is a type of wastewater that is produced by a
community of people. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical
and toxic constituents, and bacteriological status. Due to their proximity to human settlements
and their use as waste disposal sites, these freshwater systems are particularly vulnerable to
sewage contamination. This issue becomes even more critical in countries experiencing rapid
population growth, leading to increased pressure on these ecosystems. India serves as an
example, where the human population has grown by one billion in the past 60 years, resulting in
a significant rise in severely polluted rivers. In just five years, from 2009 to 2014, the number of
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SEWAGE AND ITS IMPACT ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
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polluted rivers in the country more than doubled, escalating from 121 to 275 (Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB), 2015). A primary contributor to this heightened pollution is the
discharge of untreated sewage from rapidly expanding urban areas (CPCB, 2015). Developed
nations also face threats to their waterways from sewage pollution.
Status of Sewage generation
Since 1971, India's urban population has tripled, leading to a significant increase in
sewage generation at a rapid pace. However, the development of sewage treatment facilities has
yet to keep up with this growth and urban expansion. The sewage generation rose from 7,067
million litres per day (MLD) in 1978-79 to 62,000 MLD in 2014-15. In contrast, the treatment
capacity increased from 2,758 MLD to 23,277 MLD during the same period. This disparity
indicates a substantial gap between sewage generation and the ability to treat it. (Central
Pollution Control Board., 2016).
Figure 1. Adverse effects of sewage on aquatic ecosystem and conservative measure
The rapid growth of the global human population has led to a significant increase in
wastewater and sewage sludge volumes generated after treatment (Duan et al., 2011). In 2010,
the world's population was approximately 6.96 billion; by 2020, it had risen to about 7.79 billion.
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As of November 2022, the population reached 8 billion. According to the Population Division of
the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations, the number of people will
continue increasing in the coming years, significantly impacting waste and sewage sludge
production. According to the World Population Prospects (2022), the global population is
expected to grow to 8.5 billion by 2030 and 9.7 billion by 2050. This ongoing population growth
will further escalate the challenges in effectively managing and treating wastewater and sewage
sludge.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SEWAGE ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Pollution
Sewage discharge introduces various pollutants into the aquatic ecosystem, including
chemicals, heavy metals, and pathogens. These pollutants can disrupt the ecosystem‘s natural
balance and harm marine organisms. For example, industrial sewage containing heavy metals
may be released into a river, contaminating fish and other organisms in the food chain.
Eutrophication
When sewage contains high levels of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, it can
cause eutrophication. Excessive nutrients in the water stimulate the rapid growth of algae and
other aquatic plants. As these organisms die and decompose, they deplete oxygen levels in the
water, leading to negative impacts on fish and other marine species. For instance, agricultural
runoff containing fertilizers can contribute to eutrophication in lakes, resulting in fish kills due to
oxygen depletion [Yakamercan et al., 2021].
Bacterial contamination
Sewage often contains harmful bacteria and pathogens that can pose serious health risks
to both aquatic organisms and humans. For instance, untreated wastewater discharged into
coastal waters can lead to bacterial contamination, making the water unsafe for swimming or
other recreational activities [Mohanty et al., 2020].
Oxygen depletion
The decomposition of organic matter in sewage consumes dissolved oxygen in the water.
High levels of organic waste from sewage can deplete oxygen concentrations in the water,
leading to hypoxia or anoxia. This can suffocate fish and other aquatic organisms that rely on
oxygen for survival.
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Nutrient enrichment
Sewage contains a1 significant amount of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus,
which can enrich the water. While nutrients are essential for aquatic life, excessive nutrient
enrichment can lead to an imbalance in the ecosystem. An example is the discharge of treated
sewage effluent into rivers, which can increase nutrient levels and promote excessive algal
growth.
Algal blooms
Algal blooms are rapid and excessive algae growths in water bodies due to high nutrient
levels, often caused by sewage discharge. These blooms can have harmful effects on the
ecosystem. As the algae die and decompose, they consume oxygen, leading to oxygen depletion
and negatively impacting fish and other aquatic life. Additionally, some algal species can
produce toxins harmful to marine organisms and may even affect humans by consuming
contaminated fish or water [Yubo et al., 1920].
Water quality decline
Introducing sewage into an aquatic ecosystem can lead to an overall decline in water
quality. This decline can be seen through increased turbidity, reduced transparency, and altered
chemical properties. As water quality deteriorates, it becomes less suitable for supporting various
aquatic species and can lead to habitat degradation [Eleftheriou et al., 1982].
Fish kills
Sewage pollution can cause fish kills, where many fish die off due to the negative
impacts of pollutants. For example, an untreated sewage spill in a river can lead to a sudden
influx of organic matter and pathogens, resulting in a significant fish kill due to oxygen depletion
and bacterial contamination [Whigham et al., 1980].
Habitat degradation
Sewage pollution can harm the physical habitat of aquatic ecosystems. Excessive algal
growth and sedimentation can smother aquatic plants and benthic organisms, disrupting the
natural balance and function of the ecosystem. For instance, a sewage leak near a coral reef can
lead to nutrient enrichment and coral bleaching, damaging the entire reef ecosystem.
Bioaccumulation
Toxic substances present in sewage can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms
through a process called bioaccumulation. As larger ones consume smaller organisms, the
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concentration of these toxins can increase significantly at each trophic level. This can ultimately
lead to high levels of contaminants in apex predators, posing a risk to their health and potentially
affecting other animals, including humans, higher up in the food chain. For example, heavy
metals from sewage can bioaccumulate in fish, making them unsafe for human consumption
[Deb et al., 1997]
Conservative Measures
Conservative measures for mitigating the adverse effects of sewage on aquatic
ecosystems involve implementing preventive strategies and sustainable practices to reduce or
eliminate sewage pollution. Here are some conservative estimates:
Sewage Treatment
Investing in advanced sewage treatment plants is crucial to remove pollutants and
pathogens from wastewater before it is discharged into aquatic systems. Proper treatment can
significantly reduce the levels of nutrients, organic matter, and harmful substances, thereby
minimising the impact on water quality and aquatic life.
Infrastructure Maintenance
Regular maintenance and upgrades of sewage systems are essential to prevent leaks,
overflows, and other malfunctions that could lead to untreated sewage entering water bodies.
Implementing a proper inspection and maintenance schedule can help avoid potential
environmental disasters.
Enhanced Monitoring
Establishing a comprehensive monitoring program to track water quality in rivers, lakes,
and coastal areas is essential. Real-time monitoring can help identify sewage pollution incidents
promptly, allowing for rapid response and containment measures.
Public Awareness and Education
Educating the public about the importance of proper waste disposal and the impacts of
sewage pollution on aquatic ecosystems can promote responsible behaviour. Encouraging
individuals and businesses to adopt sustainable practices can reduce the amount of sewage and
pollutants entering water bodies.
Green Infrastructure
Implementing green infrastructure solutions can help manage stormwater runoff and
reduce the volume of untreated sewage entering water bodies during heavy rainfall events.
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Green roofs, rain gardens, and permeable pavements are green infrastructure techniques.
Source Control
It is critical to implement source control measures to prevent the release of harmful
substances at their point of origin. This may involve enforcing regulations on industries to
manage their wastewater properly and encouraging the use of environmentally friendly products.
Wetland Restoration
Wetlands act as natural filters and buffers, helping to remove pollutants and excess
nutrients from water before it enters aquatic ecosystems. Restoring and preserving wetlands can
help mitigate the negative impacts of sewage pollution.
Government Regulations and Enforcement
Enacting and enforcing strict environmental regulations related to sewage discharge is
essential for maintaining water quality. Proper enforcement ensures that industries,
municipalities, and individuals comply with sewage management guidelines.
Sustainable Urban Planning
Implementing sustainable urban planning practices can reduce sewage generation by
promoting water conservation, efficient land use, and green infrastructure integration.
Conclusion
In conclusion, to mitigate the adverse effects of sewage on aquatic ecosystems,
implementing measures such as proper sewage treatment, infrastructure maintenance, enhanced
monitoring, public awareness, green infrastructure, and sustainable practices are essential. Strict
regulations, wetland restoration, and international cooperation are crucial for preserving water
quality and protecting aquatic life. Educating the public about the importance of proper waste
disposal and the impacts of sewage pollution on marine ecosystems can promote responsible
behaviour. These efforts will contribute to cleaner and healthier water bodies, benefiting the
environment and human well-being.
References
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). (2016). Annual Report 2015-2016. Retrieved from
https://cpcb.nic.in/openpdffile.php?id=UmVwb3J0RmlsZXMvMTIyOF8xNjE1MTk2Mz
IyX21lZGlhcGhvdG85NTY0LnBkZg==
Central Pollution Control Board, 2015. The river stretches for the restoration of water quality.
Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change. (Series: MINARS/37 /2014-15).
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Available at:http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/RESTORATION-OFPOLLUTED-RIVER-STRETCHES.pdf. (Accessed 9 June 2020).
Deb, S. C., and S. C. Santra. \"Bioaccumulation of metals in fishes: an in vivo experimental study
of a sewage-fed ecosystem.\" Environmentalist 17 (1997): 27-32.
Duan, N., Dong, B., Wu, B., & Dai, X. (2012). High-solid anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge
under mesophilic conditions: a feasibility study. Bioresource Technology, 104, 150-156.
Eleftheriou, A., et al. \"Underwater experiments on the effects of sewage sludge on a marine
ecosystem.\" Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 16 (1982): 465-473.
Mohanty, Biswajit, and S. Swain Hauzoukim. \"A Review on Fish Processing Wastes Generation
in India and Its Further Utilization Prospects into Different Value Added
Compounds.\" Indian Journal of Natural Sciences (2020): 24177-24182.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Afairs, Population Division (2022) World
Population Prospects 2022: summary of results. UN DESA/POP/2022/TR/NO. 3, United
Nations, New York
Whigham, Dennis F., Robert L. Simpson, and Kwak Lee. \"The effect of sewage effluent on the
structure and function of a freshwater tidal marsh ecosystem.\" (1980).
Yakamercan, Elif, and Ahmet Aygün. \"Ecological risk assessment of domestic sewage sludge: A
case study.\" Sigma Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences 39.4 (2021): 422-433.
Yubo, Cui, et al. \"Plant growth for sewage sludge ecological stabilization.\" Journal of Residuals
Science & Technology 9.1 (2012): 47-53.
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I. Nath1
, P.L.Dutta2
, P.R.Narzary3
*
Department of Sericulture, Forest College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Mettupalayam, 641 301
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Antheraea assamensis Helfer, the Muga silkworm, is a specie found only in North-Eastern India
and is renowned for its lustrous golden yellow silk. Since the beginning of time, numerous ethnic
and tribal groups have produced muga silk. Antheraea assamensis Helfer, a multivoltine species
of semi-domesticated muga silkworm, is raised commercially in the spring (Jethua) and autumn
(Kotia) seasons. The muga silkworm is a monorace with little genetic diversity among
populations; it is entirely raised outdoors and is susceptible to a wide range of diseases, pests,
and predators. Unpredictable weather patterns, natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and natural
enemies have all had a significant impact on the production of muga silk. The excessive use of
pesticides in surrounding tea gardens contributes to air pollution, which is one of the major
issues affecting the rearing of muga silkworms. The sustenance and preservation of muga culture
are seriously threatened by the area's rapid growth of tea estates. Tea gardens need large amounts
of land, which results in widespread deforestation and habitat fragmentation for muga species.
Additionally, because muga silkworms are extremely sensitive to environmental changes, the use
of agrochemicals and pesticides in tea gardens may be harmful to the creatures.
Introduction:
India holds the unique distinction of being the only nation in the world to manufacture
Mulberry, Eri, Muga, and Tasar silks (Tikader et al., 2013). All four types of silk viz; the muga
silkworm (Antheraea assamensis), eri silkworm (Philosamia ricini), mulberry silkworm
(Bombyx mori), and oak tasar silkworm (Antheraea proylei) are produced in Assam (Elumalai et
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MUGA SILKWORM (Antheraea assamensis Helfer)
PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY: IMPLICATIONS
OF TEA GARDENING IN THE REGION
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al., 2021). Eri is a creamy white silk, whereas muga has a golden yellow tint. Both of these silks
have reflected the cultural and aesthetic tradition of the Assamese people (Sharma and Dutta,
2018).
Muga silk is well-known as the world's Golden Silk or Queen of Silk (Gogoi et al.,
2017). It is only found in Assam and other North-eastern states, and it has received the
Geographical Indication tag in 2006 (Pangging et al., 2023). The name 'muga' is derived from
the Assamese language and refers to a deep amber colour that represents the colour of the
silkworm cocoon (Kalita, 2022). The silkworm feeds on Som (Persea bombycina Kost.) and
Soalu (Litsea monopetala Juss.), which grow up to 1,500 feet above mean sea level and are
found in Northeast India (Das, 2021). The muga growing pocket in Assam is concentrated in the
districts of Sivasagar, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Jorhat, Golaghat, Darrang, Sonitpur, Lakhimpur,
Dhemaji, Goalpara, and Kamrup (Deka, 2009).
Other than agriculture, muga rearing and silk weaving are key activities in most
Brahmaputra Valley households (particularly in rural regions) (Mahan, 2012). Women have an
important role in the weaving and raising of silk, which gives them with financial independence
(Goswami et al., 2019). Muga silk not only helps to improve livelihoods, but it is also deeply
established in Assamese culture and history (Paul, and Jena 2017). Assamese households have
traditionally used muga to make the mekhela-sadar, the traditional Assamese women's costume
worn at Bihu festival (Chakravarty, 2021). Many Assamese communities also eat muga
silkworm as part of their diet (Mishra et al., 2003).
Silkworms were first domesticated in China thousands of years ago (Xiang et al., 2018).
It has evolved into its own business over thousands of years of practise. Silk items and the silk
raising practise most likely made their way into India through the marriage union of a Chinese
princess and an Indian prince (Mishra, 2020).Sericulture was also intensively practised in the
current district of Kamrup in Assam, as documented in ancient Indian scriptures such as the
Arthashastra and Harshacharit (Medhi, 2017). Sericulture most likely introduced to India from
China circa 140 BC, mostly into the valleys of the Brahmaputra and Ganges (Deka, 2009). It is,
however, difficult to pinpoint exactly when muga sericulture began in Assam.There are reports
of muga sericulture in Periplus documents from around the first century BC, as well as later ones
by Ptolemy and Pliny. Muga sericulture received royal support from different reigning dynasties,
including the Kirats (AD 100-250), the Koches, the Kacharis, and, subsequently, the Ahom
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rulers (AD 1228-1750). Around AD 300-450, Chand Saudagar, an Eastern Indian river and sea
merchant, pioneered the commercialization of the muga thread from the eastern provinces of
India. Muga was also exchanged with China by Tibetan merchants from Lhasa. In 1703 AD, the
English launched trading with Europe on muga through a trade deed signed with King Gaurinath
Singha. During this time period, the muga cloth was in high demand in international markets due
to its uniqueness (Deka, 2009).
The Muga silk worm is multivoltine, with four moults and five instar stages.Typically, 4-
5 crops are grown per year. Muga silkworm, like other Lepidopterans, is a holometabolous insect
that goes through a complete metamorphosis from egg (Koni) to adult (Chakari) via two
intermediate phases of larva (Polu) and pupa (Leta) (Buhroo et al., 2021). The full life cycle lasts
around 50 days in the summer and 120 days in the winter.Unlike many other silkworms, muga
silkworms are reared outdoors. The sustainability of silkworms is heavily dependent on climatic
conditions, which necessitate a certain ideal temperature of 25°C to 27°C and humidity of 75-
85%. The ideal temperature and humidity for raising muga silkworms are 21-31°C and 65-95%
(Tikader et al.,2013).
One of the key challenges influencing the muga silk business is the gap in seed cocoon
production, as seed crops always fall either in the hot and humid summer or in the extreme cold
and foggy winter, making these crops unreliable (Kumari and Kachhwaha, 2020). Changes in
environmental parameters such as relative humidity and temperature affect practically all aspects
of silkworm development and survival (Rahmathulla, 2012). Muga silkworms are semidomesticated and reared outdoors; they may be unable to adjust to the new changing
environment and thus the differences in seasonal conditions have a significant impact on the
growth and development of muga silkworms (Saikia et al., 2016). Seed harvests are being
destroyed due to unforeseen weather circumstances and other biotic causes (Das, 2015).
In the last few decades, despite all efforts and resource use, crops have consistently failed
or produced low yields due to atmospheric pollution, global warming-related temperature and
relative humidity variability, unusual rainfall patterns, droughts, and floods. In addition to the
unusual rise in temperature, other factors cited for the significant loss of muga silkworms
included air pollution brought on by the widespread use of pesticides in nearby tea
gardens.Though tea manufacturing is an important element of Assam's economy, with Assam tea
being recognised globally for its powerful flavour and quality (Sharma, 2006), the growing
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global demand for tea has resulted in the rapid spread of tea gardens throughout the region,
frequently at the expense of natural forests and sites historically used for Muga culture
(Handique, 2014). These monoculture plantings upset the ecological equilibrium, threatening the
existence of the Muga silkworm (Gahukar, 2016).
The growth of tea gardens has had a number of direct and indirect effects on Muga culture:
1. Habitat Loss:
The Muga silkworm thrives in the unique conditions offered by Som and Soalu plants.
The conversion of traditional Muga rearing places into tea gardens undermines the natural
habitats of these silkworms, risking their existence (Akhtar, 2022).
2. Pesticide Exposure:
The widespread use of pesticides in tea gardens frequently results in chemical runoff into
neighbouring areas, impacting non-target flora and fauna, including plants on which Muga
silkworms feed (Bora et al., 2012).
Table 1. Data on larval mortality in different locations of the districts due to application of
pesticides on tea garden
Sl. No. District Mortality of worms (%) Mortality of worms (%)
Treated Control
2
nd day 4
th day 6
th day 2
nd day 4
th day 6
th
day
1 Jorhat 12 16 62 3 9 35
2 Sivasagar 19 24 67 5 11 40
3 Golaghat 10 21 75 3 8 41
4 Dibrugarh 22 32 79 10 16 45
5 Lakhimpur 10 19 42 2 11 33
6 Dhemaji 8 17 40 5 11 30
7 Tinsukia 18 37 76 6 13 33
S. Ed.(±) 1.59 4.63 11.33 1.12 1.61 9.67
CD0.05 3.55 10.32 25.27 2.50 3.49 21.56
(NS)
Source: Neog et al., 2021
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Insecticides that are commonly used include Mitigate, Celeron, Profex, Rocket, Deltamethrin,
Thiomethoxam, Propagite, Fenpyroxymet, Quinalphos, Phosalone, Ennova, Acetamiprid, Atom,
Omite, Instant, Profex super, and Profenofos. The impact of pesticides on farmers' fields
producing muga silkworms near tea gardens have been reported to extend up to 700 metres
(Neog et al., 2021).
3. Climate Change:
Due to deforestation and biodiversity loss, tea plantations may contribute to local climate
change. These changes may have an impact on the life cycle and survival of Muga silkworms
(Devi et al., 2021).
4. Socio-economic Impact:
The transition from Muga culture to tea plantation work may have an impact on the
region's socioeconomic fabric (Chakravarty, 2021). Traditional Muga silk production knowledge
may be lost, threatening the very existence of this distinct cultural practise (Akhtar, 2019).
Fig.1: Death of muga worms due to application of insecticides in nearby tea garden
5. Disease outbreak:
Muga silkworms have been negatively impacted by a number of bacterial and fungal
infections brought on by the building of tea and rubber plantations close to the rearing fields as
well as by the heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers (Kashyap, 2020). The large-scale muga
culture in Upper Assam has been destroyed because of the use of pesticides in nearby tea estates
(Neog et al., 2021).
6. Switching of occupation:
The ground used to raise muga silkworms has been encroached upon by several tea
estates and rubber plantation activities throughout the years (Yadav and Yadav, 2023). Due to
the loss of their livelihood, a small number of rearers have also willingly donated land to these
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plantations and switched to working as tea labourers (Saikia, 2022). The weaving communities
in various regions of Assam have also been influenced by these changes in land and labour
patterns (Tula and Goswami, 2023).
Conclusion
Although the economic benefit of tea plantations on regions like Assam is significant, it's
critical to recognise and counter any dangers to Muga culture. Striking a balance between
economic growth and cultural preservation is essential. Organic farming, the preservation of
natural habitats, and the employment of environmentally friendly tea-making techniques can all
help to preserve the Muga culture. Campaigns to increase consumer awareness of Muga silk's
worth and cultural significance can also help to increase demand, ensuring the survival of this
age-old practise.
Tea estates and Muga culture coexisting is not only possible but crucial for the region's
cultural, economic, and environmental well-being. The struggle to balance progress with the
preservation of distinctive and priceless indigenous practises and natural systems is shown by
this fragile balance.
References
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Perspectives. Contemporary Social Sciences, 85.
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Das, K. B., Pro-Vice-Chancellor, I. G. N. O. U., Sorsa, K., Lähteenmäki-Uutela, A., Jayashree,
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Goswami, K., Hazarika, B., & Handique, K. (2019). Socio-cultural motivation in women‘s
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Handique, R. (2014). Colonialism and Changing Landscapes: Making and Unmaking of
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Medhi, S. (2017). Traditional Handloom Culture Products and Practices a Socio Cultural Study
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Management Research, 5(3), 46-62.
Rahmathulla, V. K. (2012). Management of climatic factors for successful silkworm (Bombyx
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Journal of Research in Management, 12(1), 34.
Saikia, M., Ghosh, K., & Peigler, R. S. (2016). Factors affecting on quality muga silkworm
(Antheraea assamensis Helfer) seed crop production: A review. Journal of Entomology
and Zoology Studies, 4(6), 806-810.
Saikia, M., Ghosh, K., & Peigler, R. S. (2016). Factors affecting on quality muga silkworm
(Antheraea assamensis Helfer) seed crop production: A review. Journal of Entomology
and Zoology Studies, 4(6), 806-810.
Sharma, J. (2006). British science, Chinese skill and Assam tea: Making empire's garden. The
Indian Economic & Social History Review, 43(4), 429-455.
Sharma, R., & Dutta, K. (2018). Implementation and redesign of traditional ornamental motifs of
assam on eri silk and develop modest fashion wearables.
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Tikader, A., Vijayan, K. and Saratchandra, B. ―Muga Silkworm Antheraea assamensis
(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) – an overview of distribution, biology and
breeding.‖ European Journal of Entomology, 110 (2013): 293-300.
Tula, M., & Goswami, U. (2023). Making it work: women, land and labour in West Karbi
Anglong, Assam. Asian Ethnicity, 24(2), 278-300.
Xiang, H., Liu, X., Li, M., Zhu, Y. N., Wang, L., Cui, Y., ... & Zhan, S. (2018). The evolutionary
road from wild moth to domestic silkworm. Nature ecology & evolution, 2(8), 1268-
1279.
Yadav, K., & Yadav, A. V. (2023). Creating economic incentives for agroforestry in
Assam. Forest Policy and Economics, 149, 102928.
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A. ASHA MONICKA*
*Division of Agricultural Engineering, School of Agricultural Sciences, Karunya Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
A coconut is one of the important horticultural crop and the most valuable gift to
mankind. According to coconut development board, India has earned around Rs. 7234 lakh in the
year 2013-14 from the export of fresh coconuts.It gains its importance as it provides food, oil,
beverage, medicine and raw material for the variety of industrial productions. It is also meant for
food security for large number of population especially in India more than 10 million people
depend on the coconut for their livelihood and the major contribution is from the small and
marginal farmers.
There are many intermediaries between the producers and the consumers in the marketing
of coconut, as a result farmers benefit less while consumers pay more. Moreover farmers sell
their produce without grading. According to the observations, proper grading facilities are
lacking, which required for the effective marketing of coconut. This is mainly due to the nonavailability of machineries required for grading the coconuts. Therefore, present research
concerns the development of dehusked coconut grading machine for coconut growers and
entrepreneurs.
Thesize grader was characterized by a tapered belt conveyor and sizing board with
openings of increasing aperture arranged along the periphery of the belt conveyor (Fig
1).Dehusked coconuts were fed onto the tapered belt conveyor where the gravitational force
moves the fruit towards the periphery until it comes in contact with sizing board.
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COCONUT GRADING MACHINE
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Fig 1: Size grader
Due to the tangential force, the fruit reels along the sizing board, where they sized and allowed to
drop through aperture according to their dimensions. The size grader was tested for its overall
performance, by operating at five different velocity of 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.9 and 2.1 m/s, three
different inclination angle of 10, 15 and 20 degree for both semi and fully husked coconuts.
Performance tests indicated that the velocity and inclination angle of the belt significantly
affected the contamination ratio, grading efficiency and throughput capacity at 5% significant
level. The most efficient configuration for fully husked coconut and semi husked was a velocity
of 1.3 m/s with the inclination angle of 15o
and velocity of 1.5 m/s with the inclination angle of
15o
respectively.
The developed coconut graders are found to be reliable and will be much useful in
grading the coconut. The usage of such coconut grader increases mainly the revenue of farmers.
Cost analysis of graders shows that the machine is affordable to the farmers. Therefore, the
developed graders will be an important asset in the life of farmers in future and it will enlighten
the future of large population of coconut growing farmers.
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*1
J.Vijay and 2N.Venkateshwarrao
1
Scientist (Agronomy) ,2
Senior Scientist & Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jammikunta
Karimnagar, Telangana
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
In Karimnagar district most of the farmers are practicing conventional method of rice
cultivation i.e. transplanted rice under tanks and canals as source of irrigation. Rapid withdrawal
of labour from the agriculture sector, diversion of land for other agricultural and non agricultural
purposes, increased competition of water and labour have contributed to the current situation and
may worsen in the future. Therefore, the sustainability of rice eco-system and the ability to
increase production in pace with increasing population growth with reduced water and labour use
are the major concerns.
Problem identified
Smt. Rupireddy Lakshmi studied upto 5th Class only and dropped her education due to
family reasons and entered into agricultural activities along with her father. After Some years she
married Mr.RupireddyThirupathireddy, whos is also a farmer of having 11 acres agriculture land.
While doing Paddycultivation they use to spent more money on labour wages, fertilizers
& Chemicals. Due to this, they were unable to save money interms of income, leads to economic
problems in the family, effected their children‘s education and other family expenditure also.
Rationale
To address this gap, Rupireddy Laxmi practiced Broadcasting method of rice cultivation
to reduce the transplanting woes of the farmer.
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WOMEN FARMER SUCCESS STORY ON BROADCASTING METHOD OF
RICE CULTIVATION
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Year of Initiation - In the Year 2014-15Smt.Rupireddy Lakshmi (Age: 40years) w/o
Thirupathireddy have started paddy cultivation through broadcasting method (Direct Seeded
Paddy) in their 11 acres (4.4 ha) land.
Interventions - In normal condition farmers are used to spray chemicals through hand pump in
agricultural lands. But, here smtR.Lakshmi has adopted a new method that is Spraying
Chemicals with power sprayer (Hoose Pipe) and due to this she reduced labour cost and saved
time.
Innovation – In general most of the farmers use the nursery method for paddy cultivation. But
here smt.R.Lakshmi adopted & implemented broadcasting method in her field (i.e. soaking of
paddy seed for 24 hrs in water & soaked paddy grains were broadcasted in her puddled field.
Due to this she is able to save the time and labour when compared with nursery method.
Farm activities by Smt R. Laxmi in her paddy field
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Source of Inspiration – Due to the unavailability of labour and high cost of cultivation, they
were unable to cultivate paddy. During the situation Smt.R.Lakshmi approached Krishi Vigyan
Kendra (KVK), Jammikunta Scientists &Dept.of Agriculture persons for alternate low cost
technologies and finally adopted this Broadcasted method of rice cultivation.
Utility:
The total cost of cultivation is Rs 22,750 per acre under normal method of rice
transplantation against Rs 18,950 per acre with the practice of Broadcasting method of rice
cultivation. Benefit cost ratio under broadcasting method and under normal practice was 1:2.76
and 1:2.19. In comparison to the existing method, this technique saves labour and time to a great
extent. The percentage of adaptability of the technique is 25-30%.
Outcome:
Department of Agriculture is disseminating the practice of direct seeding method,
conducted more visits to her field by other farmers, media (Print&electronic) and nearly 250-300
farmers were inspired and adopted this method of cultivation in their agriculture lands.
Impact:
With this practice, it avoids repeated puddling operations leads to prevention of soil
degradation, saves water by 30-35%, reduced cost of cultivation by 3800/- per acre in
comparisonto the existing method and also saves labour and time to a great extent.
SmtRupireddy Laxmi received several recognitions which include
She received appreciation certificate from Northern Telangana Zone (NTZ), during
rythusadassu programme (2018-19) conducted at RARS Jagitial under PJTSAU.
During Mahila Kisan Diwas Programme (2018-19) received best woman farmer certificate
from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jammikunta, Karimnagar district.
The Hindu Daily News Paper (14.01.2019) has given an article on
Smt.R.Lakshmi‘sSucessful journey on Broadcasted method of rice cultivation.
Received Jagjivan Ram Abhinav Kisan Puraskar/ Jagjivan Ram Innovative Farmer Award2019 from ICAR, New Delhi.
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Participated in Farmer Science Congress (107th ISC) held on 6th January 2020 at UAS,
Bengaluru and received Best women farmer Appreciation certificate from
Dr.Y.G.Shadakshari, Director of Research, UAS.
Present position
Now, Smt. R.Lakshmi got 8years experience in this direct seeding of paddy technology&
she is able to cultivate the 11 acres agriculture land with her husband support without engaging a
single labour. During this journey she learnt Tractor Driving for farming activities and
Falicitated by PJTSAU,VC
at Rythusadassu, Jagtial
Women farmer with her
husband in their paddy field
Best woman farmer award on the
occassion of PJTSAU foundation day
by State Agril.minister Sri
S.Niranjanreddygaru
Best women farmer Appreciation
certificate on the occassion of 107th ISC
(FSC) from Dr.G.Shadakshari Director
of Research, UAS, Bengaluru
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economically also she strengthened byreducing labour cost, gaining more bags of rice when
compared with traditional method.
Data on Parameters
Sl. No. Name of the parameter Normal Rice
Transplantation
Broadcasting
method
1 Seed Rate (Kg/ac) 20-25 Kg/ac 10 -15 Kg/ac
2 Seed Cost (Rs/Ac) 900/- 400/-
3 Land preparation cost (Rs/ac) 6000/- 6000/-
4 Transplanting cost (Rs/ac) 5500/- 1000/-
5 Herbicide cost(Rs/ac) 450/- 1650/-
6 Manual weeding (Rs/ac) 1800/- 1800/-
7 Fertilizer cost(Rs/ac) 2100/- 2100/-
8 Pesticide Cost(Rs/ac) 1800/- 1800/-
9 Labour cost for fertilizer&
pesticide application(Rs/ac) 1000/- 1000/-
10 Cost of Harvesting(Rs/ac) 2200/- 2200/-
11 Cost of Transport & others 1000/- 1000/-
12 Duration of the crop 130 Days 120 Days
13 Cost of Cultivation 22,750/- 18,950/-
14 Yield (Qt/ac) 24.50 25.65
15 Market Rate (Rs/qt) 2040/- 2040/-
16 Gross Income (Rs) 49,980/- 52,326/-
17 Net Income (Rs) 27,230/- 33,376/-
18 C:B Ratio 1:2.19 1:2.76
After her successful journey, KVK Scientists and Agriculture University Scientists
conducted a field day along with department officials and other farmers in the village.And all
extension officials given a positive appreciation to Smt.R.Lakshmi on her successful farming and
motivated other farmers during the field day by explaining this technology and her success .
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*P Lakshmanakumar1
and V Vasudevan2
1Associate Professor (Agronomy), Adhiyamaan College of Agriculture and Research,
Athimugam, Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu – 635 105
2Associate Professor (Horticulture), Adhiyamaan College of Agriculture and Research,
Athimugam, Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu – 635 105
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Organic mulches are those natural origin materials which can decompose naturally, like
agricultural wastes which are used as mulch, such as bark chips, grass clippings, wheat or paddy
straw, plant leaves, compost, rice hulls, and sawdust, etc. It decays over time and it increase the
water holding capacity of soil.
Types of Mulching
Straw Mulching
Straw mulch is a by-product of grain plants; rye, barley, oats, rice, and wheat. Threshing
removes the grain and chaff, and stalks are baled and sold as mulch, animal bedding, and for
other purposes. Straw mulching farming is currently an effective dry farming technique for
improving arid soil environments.
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ORGANIC MULCHING
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Straw mulching technology can increase the infiltration capacity of soil water and improve crop
yield and water use efficiency. In this study, the aim is to improve the soil water holding
capacity, and comprehensive water use efficiency of crops in dry farmland
Composting Mulching
Compost is made up of discarded yard and kitchen waste, in other words, rotten trash.
Instead of having to buy bags of wood chips, you can pour shovelfuls of mulch around your
plants for free. Using compost as garden mulch gives all the benefits of regular, non-organic
mulches and adds the bonus of nutrients being constantly leached into the soil below. As the rain
runs through the compost, micro amounts of nitrogen and carbon are washed downward,
constantly improving the soil Like most mulch, a thick layer is better than a thinner one to help
shade out sunlight from emerging weeds. Add a 2 to 4 inch (5-10 cm.) layer of compost over the
soil around all your perennials, extending the layer outward about 12 inches (31 cm.) from the
plants. This layer will slowly work its way into the soil during the growing season,so add
additional layers of compost every month or so during the summer and fall.
Leaf Mulching
Leaf mulch – or leaf mould as you will also hear it called – is a mulch you can start
creating in fall and into winter for use the following spring and summer. It is simply made with
fallen leaves left to decompose separately to the rest of your compost.
Leaf mulch is a layer of shredded leaves that is applied to the surface of the soil. Truth be told,
mulch can be any almost any material. Simply spread around and over plants to insulate and
enrich your garden‘s soil. They‘re another conventional method of maintaining soil moisture,
and the coverage they provide can suppress weeds
Benefits
During the winter, leaf mulch has several benefits for the garden. Not only does it create
a great weed barrier preventing weeds and other grasses from growing, but it also acts as
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insulation for plants, animals and insects. Leaf mulch also helps safeguard earthworms, which
are extremely helpful in aerating your soil from being eaten by birds. Like leaf mould, mulch
will also help to preserve your garden‘s soil from erosion and reduces water lost through
evaporation.
Wood Mulching
Wood chips often decay very quickly, so you‘ll need to mulch the area often. They also
don‘t look as good since their size and shape can be very haphazard, plus they may even
introduce pests depending on the branches used. You never know what you‘re getting with wood
chips
Bark Mulching
Bark mulch also allows water to flow into the ground more easily, making it a great
option for water-loving plants and flood-prone areas. Plus, once it decays, bark adds back a lot of
nutrition to the soil. It also should be safe for most plants
If you‘re mulching your yard largely for aesthetic purposes, you should consider utilizing
bark. It is one of the most attractive mulches around due to the naturalness of the colour. This
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sort of mulch is extremely easy to do on your own and often very inexpensive, and you can find
bark mulch in most areas
Pine Mulching
Pine needles are also extremely fragrant, which allows them to add a nice scent to your
yard. However, many animals do not like the smell of pine needles and so they can be used to
keep some animals away from your flowerbeds.
Pine needles are often a unique option for those looking for something a bit more eyecatching. Using pine needles for mulching purposes is not very common, so it will set you apart
from your neighbours. Plus, they are often very inexpensive and easy to work with.
Pebble Mulching
Pebble mulching is the practice of covering landscape beds with weed barrier fabric and
then spreading a few inches of pebbles or decorative stone.
.
Stone mulch has been widely used in commercial landscapes for many years, simply
because, at least in the beginning, it discourages weeds.
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Wood mulches need to be renewed every year, but stone mulches can last five years or
more before they need to be refreshed.
Whether used under stone mulch or wood mulch, weed barrier fabrics are an installation shortcut
when making new beds. They allow landscapers to plant almost anywhere without doing
anything to kill existing weeds or weed seeds. Fabrics block sunlight while allowing water to
soak in, making it difficult for weeds to get a toehold. New weeds must grow in the mulch above
the fabric, and since stone mulch contains no nourishment, weeds have a difficult time growing
Conclusion
Organic mulches are used to keep weeds from growing in your garden or landscape. They
also help retain moisture in the soil and keep the soil temperature even, which helps plants grow
better. The mulch also prevents soil erosion during heavy rains and minimizes evaporation
during dry periods of the year.
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Krishnakumar P* Arulmari R, Sudagar I.P, Arokiamary S, Rajkumar P
Dept. of Processing and Food Engineering, AEC&RI, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, TamilNadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Nutrition directly affects essential aspects of human development including physical and
cognitive growth and susceptibility to disease. Malnutrition, encompassing both undernourishment and over-nourishment, has profound impacts for the individual and society at large.
The main emphasis in respect of prevention of malnutrition is to have adequate intake of
nutrients by consumption of nutri-rich foods. The most widely accepted nutri-rich food for
addressing the problem of nutrition is millets. Thus, millets, which are much superior in terms of
nutrient contents, once included in daily diet could contribute significantly to an increased intake
of micronutrients. The existing scenario demands a ready to eat (RTE) nutrient rich food,
alternative to junk food to recourse malnutrition. The development of nutrient rich millet based
RTE snack foods along with some protein rich ingredient can serve as an alternate to calorie rich
junk food and can help to increase use of millets which, in turn, may help ameliorating the
micronutrient deficiencies and protein energy malnutrition (PEM).
Introduction
Childhood malnutrition is a major obstacle in nation building. In fact, more than half
(54%) of all deaths before age five years in India are related to malnutrition. Also, because of its
extensive prevalence in India, mild to moderate malnutrition contributes to more deaths (43%)
than severe malnutrition (11%), (Anonymous, 2016). Malnutrition, encompassing both undernourishment and over-nourishment, has profound impacts for the individual and society at large
(Nichols, 2017). The main emphasis in respect of prevention of malnutrition is to have adequate
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MILLET BASED FOODS – NUTRITIVE RECOURSE FOR
MALNUTRITION AND ALTERNATE TO JUNK FOODS
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intake of nutrients by consumption of nutri-rich foods. Of late, the importance of millets has
been recognized and lot of efforts has been made to increase their production and enhance
consumer acceptability. The National Food Security Act, 2013 also has provision for inclusion of
millets under the public distribution system (PDS) - largest food distribution system of its kind in
the world (Orsat et al., 2013). With the prevailing precarious weather vagaries and potential
threats of climate change, millets cultivation may increase in future as millets grow under dry
conditions, can cope with relatively poor soils and require a few external inputs. The changing
food habits, rising per capita disposable income of consumers, increasing number of working
couples, busy life style has increased the demand for ready to eat (RTE) foods as it saves time
and offers a wholesome range of taste options. The increased health consciousness of people
especially in urban areas has increased the demand for alternate RTE snack foods rich in some
specific functional elements like antioxidants and Omega-3 fatty acids. When food contributes
more calories than nutrients the problem of empty calories versus nutrition becomes matter of
concern. There is a need to offer alternatives that do not compromise on taste but are high on
nutrition.
Nutritional properties of millets
Millets share a set of characteristics which made them unique amongst cereals. Millets
are nutritionally superior to the widely promoted rice and wheat in terms of proteins, minerals
and vitamins (Table 1)
Table 1 Nutrient compositions of cereals and millets (per 100 g of edible portion at 12 % wb)
Food grains Protein (g) Fat (g) Ash (g) Crude fibre (g) Carbohydrate (g) Energy (kcal) Ca (mg) Fe (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg)
Rice (brown) 7.9 2.7 1.3 1.0 76.0 362 33 1.8 0.41 0.04 4.3
Wheat 11.6 2.0 1.6 2.0 71.0 348 30 3.5 0.41 0.10 5.1
Maize 9.2 4.6 1.2 2.8 73.0 358 26 2.7 0.38 0.20 3.6
Sorghum 10.4 3.1 1.6 2.0 70.7 329 25 5.4 0.38 0.15 4.3
Pearl millet 11.8 4.8 2.2 2.3 67.0 363 42 11.0 0.38 0.21 2.8
Foxtail millet 11.2 4.0 3.3 6.7 63.2 351 31 2.8 0.59 0.11 3.2
Common millet 12.5 3.5 3.1 5.2 63.8 364 8 2.9 0.41 0.28 4.5
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Kodo millet 9.8 3.6 3.3 5.2 66.6 353 35 1.7 0.15 0.09 2.0
Little millet 9.7 5.2 5.4 7.6 60.9 329 17 9.3 0.30 0.09 3.2
Barnyard millet 11.0 3.9 4.5 13.6 55.0 300 22 18.6 0.33 0.10 4.2
Finger millet 7.7 1.5 2.6 3.6 72.6 336 350 3.9 0.42 0.19 1.1
Source: Millet Network of India, http://www.milletindia.org
Thus, millets, which are much superior in terms of nutrient contents, once included in
daily diet could contribute significantly to an increased intake of micronutrients (Swaminaidu et
al., 2015). Therefore, there is an urgent need for making millet consumption as a way to address
nutritional issues. A recent survey found 79% of respondents willing to include millets into their
food basket (Anonyms, 2012).
Utilization of minor millets in India
A detailed classification of traditional foods from sorghum and millets has been
developed. They can be classified broadly into breads, porridges, steamed products, boiled
products, beverages and snack foods. Millet grains, maize or sorghum can replace rice or wheat
semolina in idli and dosa formulations. About 20 per cent of the wheat flour in bread making can
be replaced by sorghum, millet, or maize flour. Popped or flaked millet grains have been used for
the development of different types of weaning foods and supplementary foods for feeding school
and pre-school children. The millet is supplemented with pulses to increase protein quality.
Varieties suitable for popping have been identified in sorghum and finger millet
Table 2 Forms of utilization of minor millets in India
Millet/
Products
Nature of Products Millet/ Products Nature of Products
Foxtail millet Barnyard millet
Annam Rice-like Idli Steam cooked
Ariselu Deep fried Dosa Crisp- oil and hot plate
Sangati Stiff porridge Murukku Deep fried
Roti Unleavened bread Idiappam Extruded dough by
steam cooked
Kodo millet Pakoda Deep fried
Annam Rice-like Rotti Unleavened bread
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Common millet Puttu Steam cooked
Annam Rice-like Vadai Deep fried
Muruku Deep fried Uppma Cooked
Karappoosa Deep fried Kesari Cooked
Ariselu Deep fried Adhirasam Deep fried
Finger millet Chapathi Oil on the dosa plate
Sangati Stiff porridge Khakra Toast the khakra on a
preheated pan
Roti Unleavened bread Kheer Cooked
Ambali Thin porridge Kesari Cooked
Millet based Ready to Eat Snacks Food
RTE section of food includes wide range of processed foods such as biscuits, crisps,
breads, pies, sandwiches and rolls. One of the most important sectors of the RTE product market
is the cereal RTE segment. Convenience, value, attractive appearance and texture, wide range of
availability in terms of flavor and taste, easy access made ready-to-eat extruded snack food
increasing popularity. Indian consumers are increasingly inclined towards these RTE extruded
cereal based snack foods. The market size of ready-to-eat snacks and namkeens in India is
estimated at more than Rs.50,000 crore; having grown at a compounded annual growth rate
(CAGR) of around 13% since 1998 till 2014 and expected to grow at a CAGR of 22% during
2014-2019. Most of developed RTE snack foods are cereal based and high in calories, thus
making the population unhealthy and prone to cardiovascular diseases. Millets share a set of
characteristics which make them unique amongst cereals. Millets are nutritionally superior to the
widely promoted rice and wheat in terms of proteins, minerals and vitamins and thus can serve as
a nutritionally important ingredient for RTE snack foods.
Conclusions
The existing scenario of nutritional deficiency on one hand and obesity due to junk food
consumption on other hand has created a vacuum for development of a ready to eat (RTE)
nutrient rich food, alternative to junk food to recourse malnutrition. Millets with protein and
functional rich ingredients offers a great opportunity to develop RTE snacks food with greater
consumer‘s acceptability.
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References
Anonymous. (2012). Supporting Millets in India Policy Review and Suggestions for Action.
Revalorising Small Millets in Rainfed Regions of South Asia (RESMISA). Dhan
foundation.
Anonymous. (2016): http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/indian-pharma-togrow-at-25-cagr-india-ratings-11405070148745_1.html
Nichols, C. (2017). Millets, milk and maggi: Contested processes of the nutrition transition in
rural India. Agriculture and Human Values, 1-15.
Orsat, V., Yenagi, N., King, O., and Kumar, R. (2013). Enhancing food security of rural families
through production, processing, and value addition of regional staple food grains in India:
Joint technical final report (October 2010-March 2013).
Swaminaidu, N., Ghosh, S., Mallikarjuna and K. Millets (2015). The miracle grains.
International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 6(4): 440 - 446
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R. L. Joshi1
*, D. H. Tandel1
and Sandhya G.1
Department of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture,
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Mango (Mangiferaindica L.) is a commercially significant fruit crop grown in tropical
and subtropical regions worldwide. Its wide consumption is attributed to its delicious flavor,
pleasant aroma and rich nutritionalcontent, including essential nutrients and phytochemicals like
vitamin C, vitamin E, β-carotene, lutein, quercetin, mangiferin, omega-3 and omega-6
polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, the shelf life of mangoes is limited due to factors such as
high respiration rate, ethylene production and rapid ripening, which, when combined with pest
and diseases, result in postharvest losses and a decline in market value. Additionally, consumers
may reject fresh mangoes if they show signs of mechanical damage from harvesting or field
handling or any diseases.
Mango fruit is classified as a climacteric fruit, meaning that it enters the 'climacteric
phase' after harvest, during which it continues to ripen. During ripening period, there is increase
in respiration rate and ethylene production, which plays a crucial role in the ripening process.The
biochemical changes during ripening include the biosynthesis of pigments such as carotenoids
and anthocyanins, leading to changes in the fruit colour. Additionally, various metabolic
activities occur, resulting in modifications of carbohydrates, organic acids, lipids, phenolics, and
volatile compounds. These changes contribute to the development of the characteristic flavor,
aroma, and taste associated with ripe mangoes.Also modifications in structural polysaccharides
responsible for the softening of the fruit's texture, making it more palatable and enjoyable for
consumption.
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POST-HARVESTDISEASES OF MANGO AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT
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In the mango supply chain, the loss of fruit quality can be influenced by various factors.
Improper harvesting at the wrong maturity stage, inadequate field handling practices, and the use
of unsuitable transportation methods can all contribute to a decline in fruit quality. Mechanical
damage incurred during harvesting or handling in the field, along with issues like bruising, sap
burn, rapid ripening, spongy tissue, lenticel discoloration, decay, and damage from diseases and
pests, are among the main reasons for quality degradation.
To maintain the quality and shelf life of mangoes throughout the supply chain, proper
postharvest handling, storage, and transportation practices are essential. Minimizing mechanical
damage, avoiding temperature extremes, and implementing good agricultural and handling
practices can significantly reduce the occurrence of quality-related issues, ensuring that
consumers receive mangoes of optimal quality and taste.
Management and Preventive Measures
A careful management and preventive measures are needed to ensure the successful
export and consumption of high-quality mangoes given the disease's detrimental impact on
mango quality and shelf life. These measures should focus on reducing losses at various stages,
from harvesting till storage. By implementing effective postharvest management practices, such
as controlled atmosphere storage, temperature and humidity control and careful handling during
transportation and distribution, we can minimize nutrient loss and ensure the delivery of highquality, ripe mangoes to consumers. Proper postharvest technology can significantly contribute
to prolonging the shelf life of mangoes, reducing waste and enhancing the overall profitability of
the mango industry.
Postharvest diseases
Postharvest diseases pose a serious threat to the quality of fruits, which can lead to
significant economic losses.It is reported that total losses of fresh mango are 25-40 per cent in
India and microbial decay accounts for 17.00 – 26.90 per cent of the total post-harvest losses in
Asian countries.The fruits sometimes become unsuitable for the market, making them impossible
to sell. Even if the fruits are not completely damaged, they may develop blemishes that do not
meet the cosmetic standards set for high-quality fruits in major import markets. This difference
in appearance often results in the rejection of the affected fruits, making the financial impact
worse for growers and exporters. Therefore, it is important to address postharvest diseases to
ensure the successful export and sale of fruits in international markets(Cappelliniet al. 1998).
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Mango is affected by a number of diseases at all the stages of its development right from
plant in the nursery to the fruit in storage or transit. In the post-harvest condition, it is prone to
many fungal diseases like anthracnose, rhizopus rot, stem end rot, penicillum rot, black mould
rot, mucor rot, phyllosticta rot, pestalotiopsis rot, macrophoma rot and powdery mildew, leading
to heavy loss in yield.
Among all the diseases, anthracnose is one of the important post harvest diseases which
manifests as circular to oval-shaped brown to black spots on the surface of the fruit, and their
borders are not clearly defined. It is quite common to find lesions larger than 2 cm in size. These
lesions can merge, forming larger affected areas on the fruit, which often follow a tear-stain
pattern, starting from the base and extending toward the top of the fruit. The lesions typically
remain confined to the fruit peel, but in severe cases, the fungus can penetrate the fruit pulp.As
the disease progresses, the fungus develops specialized structures called acervuli, which are
responsible for producing abundant orange to salmon pink masses of conidia (spores). These
conidia appear prominently on the lesions, contributing to the further spread of the disease and
causing the characteristic appearance associated with anthracnose-infected fruits (Arauz, 2000).
Globally, the use of fungicides is met with resistance due to the serious health hazards
associated with their residual effects on the environment. As a result, there is a growing public
demand for eco-friendly and safer alternatives to reduce postharvest decay of harvested
commodities. An alternative approach to prevent infection caused by post-harvest diseases is the
utilization of extracts or leaf layering of different botanicals. These natural extracts have shown
promise in mitigating post-harvest diseases and can offer a safer and environmentally friendly
solution. Emphasizing alternative strategies has become increasingly important, including the
development of resistant plant varieties, the use of plant-derived and natural products, as well as
bio-control methods.By adopting these diverse and ecologically responsible approaches, we can
effectively manage post-harvest diseases, ensuring healthier crops, reduced environmental
impact and enhanced agricultural sustainability.
Essential oils
Essential oils offer a major advantage in their bioactivity in vapor phase, acting as
fumigants to protect stored produce. These oils have been found to be effective against numerous
phytopathogens and offer protection against postharvest diseases. The quality of mango fruits
can be enhanced by applying safer substances such as plant extracts, including botanicals.
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Botanicals, like Neem, eucalyptus, garlic,gingerand rubber bushat concentrations of 5%, 7%, and
8%, have been utilized in spray applications to control postharvest diseases in mangoes.
Similarly, essential oils, such as basil oil, orange oil, lemon oil and mustard oil at
concentrations of 150 ppm (μg/mL), have been utilized to reduce postharvest losses in
mangoes.Thymol-based essential oils have demonstrated strong antifungal activity against C.
gloeosporioides.
Additionally, individual mango fruits are coated with coconut oil, mustard oil, desi
ghee(clarified butter), and natural wax to protect them from various postharvest pathogens. The
oils are applied to the fruit surface using a cotton swab. After coating, the fruits are air-dried and
stored at room temperature in perforated brown bags for 7 days. These eco-friendly and natural
methods offer promising alternatives to chemical treatments for safeguarding the quality of
mango fruits and reducing postharvest losses.Trichodermaviride, an antagonist isolated from the
surface of mango fruits, has been employed to control anthracnose during storage (Jennyet al.
2019).
Heat treatments for mangoes
Over the past decade, heat treatments have gained popularity in the fruit industry as a
method to control post-harvest diseases and insect pests in many countries, mainly due to their
fungicidal and insecticidal effects. The impact on fruit quality depends on various factors,
including the treatment temperature, duration, type of fruit, cultivar, size or weight, and maturity
stage.There are three commonly used heat treatments for mangoes: (i) Vapour heat-treatment
(VHT), (ii) Forced hot air-treatment (FHAT) and (iii) Hot water-treatment (HWT) (Anwar and
Malik, 2007). Among these, hot water treatment has shown to be profitable for the mango fruit
industry, resulting in reduced fruit damage and higher market value. This technique is
particularly beneficial for small and medium-scale farmers and pack houses due to its ease of
adoption and environmentally friendly nature.
Heat treatment can influence various aspects of fruit quality, including ripening, ethylene
synthesis, respiration rate, softening due to mesocarp cell breakdown and cell-wall metabolism,
external skin damage, pigment metabolism, volatile production and carbohydrate metabolism. It
also increases β-galactosidase activity and disease development. Heat treatment has
demonstrated positive impacts on fruit quality, including the suppression of chilling injury, insect
and disease control, and delay of the ripening process. The recommended temperature for heat
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treatment ranges from 43 to 46 °C for 65 to 90 minutes, depending on the fruit's size and
cultivar.
Natural products
Natural products have proven to be effective in delaying the ripening process, preserving
fruit quality, reducing biochemical changes, and preventing postharvest diseases in fruits. Edible
coatings have become a popular choice for extending the storage shelf life of mango fruits in
both developed and developing countries. The application of edible coatings offers an
environment-friendly postharvest treatment that helps prolong shelf life, minimize water loss,
delay ripening, and maintain sensory attributes of the fruits. Moreover, it enhances the soluble
solid content, titratable acidity, and ascorbic acid content, while inhibiting the growth of
microorganisms.Edible coatings have the ability to form a transparent film on the fruit surface,
creating a barrier for water and gas exchange (O2 and CO2), which modifies the internal
atmosphere of the fruit.
Types of coatings
Several types of coatings, including carnauba wax, shellac, zein, cellulose derivatives,
chitosan and its derivatives, as well as composite mixtures containing sucrose esters of fatty
acids and a sodium salt of carboxymethylcellulose, have been tested to extend the storage life of
mango fruits. Chitosan coatings have demonstrated successful results in prolonging the shelf life
of mangoes and increasing their total carotenoid and vitamin C content.Overall, edible coatings
show great promise in extending the shelf life of mango fruits while preserving their nutritional
and sensory attributes improving the overall sustainability of the fruit industry.
Oxalic acid's use in food preservation has attracted a lot of interest from scientists and the
food processing sector.Oxalic acid is not only used as an anti-browning agent but also serves as a
natural antioxidant when applied as a pre-storage treatment for fruits, including mangoes. For
instance, dipping mangoes in a 5mM solution of oxalic acid for 10 minutes in combination with
controlled storage conditions, such as 6% CO2 + 2% O2, at 14±10C, has been shown to prolong
the shelf life and reduce the incidence of fruit decay. This is attributed to oxalic acid ability to
decrease ethylene production, effectively delaying the ripening process.Oxalic acid treatment is
particularly beneficial for delaying the ripening process in mangoes and decreasing the
occurrence of decay during storage. This treatment could be considered as a safer alternative to
reduce the incidence of anthracnose, a common postharvest disease affecting mangoes.By
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utilizing oxalic acid as a pre-storage treatment for mangoes, it is possible to extend their shelf
life, maintain fruit quality, and reduce the need for more aggressive chemical treatments. The use
of oxalic acid in food preservation offers a promising and environmentally friendly approach to
ensuring the freshness and quality of fruits, including mangoes, while minimizing the risk of
decay and postharvest losses.
Application of Bavistin (1000 ppm) and Tilt (1000 ppm) provided the best inhibition of
mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides.Management of anthracnose relies mostly on the
application of copper-based pre-harvest sprays and post-harvest hot water dips including
fungicides. Application of hot benomyl immediately after irradiation effectively controls
anthracnose (C. gloeosporioides) of mango for short-term storage (15 days at 20°C). Moreover,
application of hot benomyl dip for 5 min at 52 ºC within 24 h after harvest is used to prevent
post-harvest diseases of mango.
Conclusion
Postharvest losses of mango fruits due to their perishable nature and lack of postharvest
handling technologies pose a major challenge to researchers, exporters and farmers to ensure
consumers receive the best quality fruit. Therefore, implementation of proper production
practices, harvesting, postharvest handling, storage and transportation allow horticultural
industries to meet the global demands of local and export of fresh produce to extend the shelf life
without compromising nutritional value, quality and consumer acceptability. Postharvest
handling of fruit, which includes hot water treatment, low storage temperatures and optimum CA
storage, have shown great potential to extend the storage life of mango.
Mango post-harvest diseases are a frequent issue that can result in potential financial
losses every year.To mitigate the incidence of these diseases, synthetic fungicides are commonly
used. However, the use of these chemicals poses adverse effects on both human health and the
environment. Therefore, adopting an integrated management approach for post-harvest diseases
of mango is crucial. By implementing integrated management practices and taking preventive
measures during fruit development and post-harvest stages, it is possible to effectively manage
post-harvest diseases of mango without heavy reliance on synthetic fungicides. These practices
may include treatments like hot water with waxing, the application of bio-agents, the use of
botanicals, and essential mineral and oxalic acid treatments. These approachespromotes
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sustainable and environmentally friendly mango production while reducing economic losses due
to post-harvest diseases.
References
Arauz, L. F. (2000). Mango anthracnose: Economic impact and current options for integrated
management. Plant Disease., 84(6): 600-611.
Cappellini, R. A., Ceponis, M. J. and Lightner, G. W. (1988). Disorders in avocado, mango, and
pineapple shipments to the New York market. Plant Dis. 72:270-273.
Jenny, F., Sultana, N., Islam, M., Khandaker, M. M. andBhuiyan, M. A. B. (2019). A review on
anthracnose of mango caused by Colletotrichumgloeosporioides. Bangladesh J. Plant
Phytopathological, 35(1), 65-74.
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Sandhya G*, D. H. Tandel and R. L. Joshi
Department of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture,
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Post harvest diseases in fruits and vegetables caused by several fungi and bacteria during
storage and transportation. These pathogens cause the infection either at pre -harvest stage in
field or at post-harvest stage during storage and transportation. (Singh and Sharma, 2018).
During storage, fruits that are rich in moisture and nutrients are an ideal substrate for microorganism development (Mari et al., (2007).
The economic losses due to the fungal diseases in the post-harvest chain are variable and
they ranged from 30%–50% depending on the practices of agriculture and location (Ruffo
Roberto et al., (2019). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
reported that 33% of the food delivered worldwide for human consumption is lost after harvest
(Gastavsson et al., 2011).
While estimating postharvest disease losses, it is very important to consider reductions in
fruit quantity and quality, as some diseases may not affect the marketability of produce but
reduce product value. Apart from direct economic losses, diseased produce leads to potential
health risk. A number of fungal genera such as Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria are known
to produce mycotoxins under some conditions. the greatest risk of mycotoxin contamination
occurs when diseased produce is used in the production of animal feed or processed food.
(Coates and Johnson, 1997).
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HARVESTING A SUSTAINABLE TOMORROW: ECOFRIENDLY MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST
DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
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Since the 1960s, modern storage technologies and the fungicides have extended the shelflife of fresh fruits by reducing postharvest losses. However, during the past 20 years, the use of
fungicides in postharvest treatments has been reduced considerably. The main reasons behind is
concern about the environment and public health, and also consumer demand for fungicide-free
products. The recent efforts are made to find the alternative approaches for controlling
postharvest diseases that works well with the concept of sustainable agriculture has greatly
increased.
Factors influencing the losses due to postharvest disease is as follows
Commodity type
Disease control treatments used
Produce maturity and ripening stage
Post harvest hygiene.
Susceptibility of cultivar to postharvest disease
Produce handling methods
The postharvest environment (relative humidity, temperature, atmosphere composition,
etc.). (Coates and Johnson, 1997)
Causes of postharvest disease
Many of the fungi which cause postharvest disease belong to the phylum Ascomycota. In
case of Ascomycota, the fungal asexual stage (the anamorph) is usually found more frequently in
postharvest diseases than that of the sexual stage (the teleomorph). Important genera of
anamorphic postharvest fungi are Penicillium, Aspergilus, Dothiorella, Fusarium, Lasiodiplodia,
Alternaria, Geotrichum, Botrytis, Colletotrichum and Phomopsis. Some of these fungi also form
ascomycete sexual stages. In the phylum Oomycota, the genera Pythium and Phytophthora are
important postharvest pathogens, causing a number of diseases such as brown rot in citrus
(Phytophthora citrophthora and P. parasitica) and cottony leak of cucurbits (Pythium spp.). In
the phylum Zygornycota, Rhizopus and Mucor are important genera of postharvest pathogens.
(Coates and Johnson, 1997).
Drawbacks of Synthetic Fungicides
At present, post-harvest diseases of fruit and vegetables are controlled by the application of
chemical fungicides, such as imazalil, thiabendazole, pyrimethanil, and fludioxonil either
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during pre harvest or post harvest stage, (Stammler et al., 2008, Romanazzi et al., 2014,
Palou, 2018).
The broad pre- and post-harvest use of chemical fungicides has caused development of
resistance against fungicides resulting in a breakdown of efficacy of fungicide (SánchezTorres and Tuset, 2011)
Furthermore, utilization of chemical fungicides worried the consumers, since their active
ingredients residues may be related to health problems and environmental pollution
(Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al., 2016)
Alternative approaches to control post harvest diseases
In the past 20 years, numerous researches have carried out to know the impact of nonchemical application includes, Physical treatments, Botanicals, Carbonic acid salts and
Nanotechnology.
1. Physical treatments
The use of heat, ionising irradiation, ultraviolet radiation and CO2 to control postharvest
diseases have acquired increasing interest in recent years. Physical treatments can have a two
effects: disinfection of fruit skin and induction of resistance against further infections (Wilson et
al., 1994). Heat treatments by hot dry air, vapour heat, hot water (HW) dips and very short water
rinse have been used to control numerous postharvest pathogens. In 1953, Akamine and Arisumi
recommended a hot-water treatment at temperature ranged from 44 to 490C for Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides Penz., for 20 minutes.
2. Botanicals
Usage of natural products (particularly of plant origin), which are specific in their action
and non toxic, is gaining considerable attention. Higher plants contain a wide array of secondary
substances viz., phenols, saponins, flavonoids, essential oils, alkaloids, quinones, tannins and
sterols. Such plant substances are exploited for their different biological properties.
Why interest in botanicals?
Sustainable solutions in agriculture
Environmentally safe and biodegradable.
Less chance for development of resistance.
Bio-degradable easily
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Integrated Diseases Management(IDM)
Plant Extracts:
Plant extracts of many higher plants, exhibit antifungal, antibacterial and insecticidal
properties and have biodegradability, low toxicity, specificity, and minimum residual toxicity in
nature. Different Plant Extracts can be used are Neem (Azadirachta indica, A. Juss), Eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus globulus, Labill.), Turmeric (Curcuma Longa, Linn.), Garlic (Allium sativum,
Linn.), Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, Linn.), Ginger (Zingiber officinale, Rosc). These plant
extracts can be applied through spraying, dipping and fumigation. leaf extracts of Ocimum
gratissimum and Syzygium aromatium used against Aspergillus spp. Root extracts of Vinca rosea
found effective against Botryodiplodia (Seethapathy et al.,2016).
Essential Oils:
Essential oils are made up of many different volatile compounds and possess
antimicrobial and antifungal properties. The potential essential oils used widely against post
harvest pathogens. Different essential oils such as Garlic oil, Eucalyptus oil, Lemon grass oil,
Nettle oil, Thyme oil and Tea tree oil. Garlic oil used against Rhizoctonia carotae and
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Peppermint, sweet basil oil used against Rhizopus stolonifer and
Monilinia fructicola (Mishra et al., 1989).
3. Carbonic acid salts
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, baking soda) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, soda ash)
are common food additives allowed with no restrictions for many applications by European and
North American regulations (Lindsay, 1985)( Multon, 1988). United States Food and Drug
Administration classified Sodium bicarbonate as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) and
also United States Environmental Protection Agency proposed exemption from residue
tolerances on all agricultural commodities. United States Department of Agriculture proposed
both sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate as approved ingredients on products labeled
―organic. The antimicrobial activity of these compounds has been described in vitro on leaves
and fruit (Ziv and Zitter, 1992). Both salts can be useful tools to manage postharvest
deterioration because they are readily available, inexpensive and can be used with a minimal risk
of injury to the fruit. Recent efforts shows that sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate, used
properly, approach the effectiveness of common synthetic fungicides used to control P. digitatum
on oranges (Smilanick et al., 1997).
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4. Nanotechnology
A new approach, with its exceptional properties make them a practical choice for
sustainable crop production in general and post-harvest diseases of fruit and vegetable at the
scientific level and industry stage in particular. More information on nanomaterials categories,
synthesis, characterization, properties and applications have described in (Khan et al., 2017).
Nanotechnology is used to produce nanomaterials for use as antifungal agents in fruits and
vegetables. Several nanomaterials have proven potential in management of post-harvest stage
and have been developed to control diseases in mango, grapes, banana, apple, citrus, peach, and
nectarine. Some metal nanomaterials such as MgO and ZnO composites (52–219 nm) were
tested against C. gloeosporioides, the causal agent of anthracnose on papaya and avocado
tropical fruits. (De la Rosa-García et al., 2018). The application of nanotechnology is also helpful
for developing new packaging film inventions, enhancing packaging aesthetics, mitigating the
effects of gases and dangerous rays, and assisting with the labelling of fresh goods using multiple
chips (nanobiosensors).
Conclusion
Post harvest diseases in fruits and vegetables are brought on by a wide array of bacterial
and fungal infections. Many pre and post harvest factors directly and indirectly influence the
development of postharvest disease. Post-harvest diseases of agricultural produce can be reduced
by many simple post-harvest procedures that may be used, such as choosing the right time to
harvest the agricultural produce, cleaning and disinfecting, classifying, packaging, pre-cooling
the produce and choosing the right mode of transportation. However, these practices are not
always efficient at maintaining fruit quality after harvest. Traditional method of using chemical
fungicides has detrimental impacts on the environment and public health. Over the past few
decades, numerous studies have been conducted on fungicide alternatives to manage postharvest
decay. Physical therapies, botanicals, carbonic acid salts, and nanotechnology are some of the
alternative ways that were addressed above. These methods have numerous advantages over
traditional ones, including reduced ecosystem toxicity, safety for non-targeted organisms,
consumer acceptance, and biodegradability. The information collected indicate some substantial
progress in reducing pesticide use, but there are still some important issues to be taken into
account. It is unrealistic to assume that the above methods have the same fungicidal effectiveness
as pesticides. Hence for the creation of a more precise and successful procedures of post harvest
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disease management, a greater understanding of biochemistry, physiology, molecular biology
and pathology is required.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my major advisor Dr. D. H. Tandel, Associate professor for all the
support and also I thank my parents for the encouragement and support.
References
Akamine, E.K. and T. Arisumi. 1953. Control of postharvest storage decay of fruits of papaya
(Carica papaya L.) with special reference to the effect of hot water. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 61:270-274.
Coates, L. and Johnson, G. (1997). Postharvest diseases of fruit and vegetables. Plant pathogens
and plant diseases, 533-548.
Fallik, E.( 2004). Prestorage hot water treatments (immersion, rinsing and brushing). Postharvest
Biology and Technology 32:125–134.
Lindsay, R. C. (1985). Food additives. Chapter 10 in: Food Chemistry. O. R. Fennema, ed.
Marcel Decker, Inc., New York
Mari, M.; Neri, F. and Bertolini, P. (2007). Novel approaches to prevent and control postharvest
diseases of fruits. Stewart Postharvest Review, 3(6), 1-7.
Mishra, A. K.; Dwivedi, S. K. and Kishore, N. (1989). Antifungal activity of some essential oils.
National Academy Science Letters, 12: 335-336.
Multon, J. L. (1988). Aditivos y Auxiliares de Fabricación en las Industrias Agroalimentarias.
Editorial Acribia, Zaragoza, Spain.
Palou, L. (2018). Post-harvest treatments with GRAS salts to control fresh fruit
decay. Horticulturae , 4, 46.
Romanazzi, G. and Feliziani, E. (2014). Botrytis cinerea (Gray Mold). In Post-Harvest Decay;
Academic Press: New York, NY, USA. pp. 131–146.
Sánchez-Torres, P. and Tuset, J. J. (2011). Molecular insights into fungicide resistance in
sensitive and resistant Penicillium digitatum strains infecting citrus. Post-Harvest Biol.
Technol. 59, 159–165.
Seethapathy, P.; Jayaraman, R.; Palani, N. and Kuppusami, P. (2016). Botanicals in eco-friendly
post harvest disease management. Innovative Farming, 1(3), 67-71.
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Singh, D. and Sharma, R. R. (2018). Postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables and their
management. In Postharvest disinfection of fruits and vegetables (pp. 1-52). Academic
Press.
Smilanick, J. L.; Mackey, B. E.; Reese, R.; Usall, J. and Margosan, D. A.(1997). Influence of
concentration of soda ash, temperature, and immersion period on the control of
postharvest green mold of oranges. Plant Dis. 81:379-382.
Stammler, G.; Brix, H.D.; Nave, B.; Gold, R. and Schoefl, U. (2007). Studies on the biological
performance of boscalid and its mode of action. In Proceedings of the Modern Fungicides
and Antifungal Compounds V, Friedrichroda, Germany, 6–10.
Wilson, C. L.; El Ghaouth, A.; Chalutz, E.; Droby, S.; Stevens, C.; Lu, J. Y.; Khan, V. and Aral,
J. (1994) Potential of induced resistance to control postharvest diseases of fruits and
vegetables. Plant Disease. 78:837–844.
Ziv, O. and Zitter, T. A. (1992). Effects of bicarbonate and film-forming polymers on cucurbit
foliar diseases. Plant Dis. 76:513-517.
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Simranjeet Kaur*, Yashi Singh, R. K. Pal
Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141004, Punjab
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Demand of food is increasing with growing global population and changing diets. It is
supposed that to feed a population of approximately 9 billion people, world will have to produce
70% more food by 2050. Production of this much food will definitely pose negative impacts on
environment that will be worsened by climate change. Agriculture gives it major contribution to
climate change, accounting between 19-29 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions. This
makes it an important area for action in fight against climate change.
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture
Owing to Natural disasters, economic losses are increasing worldwide, and the agriculture
sector is also susceptible to their impacts. These disasters can be devastating for farmers,
who may lose their crops, livestock, and other assets. This can have serios economic
consequences, both the individual farmers and for wider agricultural sector.
Changing climate has a significant effect on crop yields in India, with countrywide
declines of up to 9 % predicted between 2010 and 2039. This decline is expected to
worsen over time. It is estimated that rice yield declines by up to 35%, wheat up to 20%,
sorghum up to 50%, maize up to 60% depending on the location and future climate
scenarios.
Indian Scenario
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the climatic factors like, temperature, rainfall,
humidity etc. As the temperature is increasing day by day, the pattern of rainfall and
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CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE: A KEY TO
SUSTAINABILITY
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other meteorological parameters are also getting disturbed, due to which it is causing
significant impact on crop yields in India, and threaten food security in the country.
As per the recent studies, the change in climate is likely to decrease the productivity of
crops between 10% and 40% by 2100. This much decline could have some serious
economic consequences for farmers and for the wider economy, and could also have
significant impacts on food security in India.
What is Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)?
CSA is an approach that aims to tackle the issues of producing food even under changing
climatic conditions, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and also to promote sustainable and
resilient agricultural practices that helps the farmers to adapt to the climate change.
Need of Climate Smart Agriculture
CSA can help to overcome the effects of climate change on crops, which can tackle the
issue of food insecurity and ultimately brings economic stability even in changing
climate.
This approach can also help to promote sustainable and resilient agricultural practices
that can help to reduce the negative effects on environment and conserve natural
resources.
By investing in climate-smart agriculture, we can help to improve the productivity and
profitability of farming operations, which can help to support rural livelihoods and
promote economic growth in agricultural communities.
It also aims to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), CSA is a method that
encourages to transform agri-food systems towards environmentally friendly and resilient
farming practices.
Objectives of Climate Smart Agriculture
Basically, there are three objectives of CSA and these are mentioned below:
1. To increase productivity of crops by developing climate resilient varieties which will
benefit farmers to increase their income too.
2. To conserve natural resources and reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from
agriculture.
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3. To make the farmers and other stakeholders to adapt to the changing climate and also to
promote new technologies.
To achieve these objectives, CSA employs a range of practices and technologies that are tailored
to the specific needs and conditions of different regions and farming system. Here are some
examples of practices and technologies that fall under the umbrella of Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA):
1. Conservation Agriculture: Conservation Agriculture basically have three principles:
minimum disturbance to soil, retention of organic matter and crop diversification that will
help to conserve precious natural resources like water and soil.
2. Agroforestry: It refers to growing of agricultural crops along with trees and shrubs that
aims to improve soil heath, increase biodiversity, increase agricultural productivity and
provide additional income to farmers
3. Improved Irrigation Systems: Application of irrigation water at right time, in right
amount and at right stage is necessary in order to improve the overall productivity of
crops and reduce the excess water usage and to maximize water use efficiency. Various
techniques like drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can come under the resource
conservation technologies.
4. Drought-Resistant Crop Varieties: This involves the development and use of crop
varieties that are adapted to drought-prone environments and can withstand periods of
water stress.
5. Integrated Pest Management: This involves the use of a range of techniques to manage
pests and diseases in a way that minimizes the use of pesticides and promotes ecological
balance.
6. Sustainable Livestock Management: This involves practices such as rotational grazing,
improved feed management, and the use of manure as fertilizer to reduce the
environmental impact of livestock production.
7. Renewable Energy: This involves the use of technologies such as wind and solar power
to produce energy for agricultural operations and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
8. Climate Information Services: This involves the accurate and timely transfer of weather
and climatic information to farmers so that it can help them with making correct
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decisions about sowing, watering, application of chemicals, harvesting and other
practices.
Key Government Initiatives on CSA
1. National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)
ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) has launched this program in 2011. The
program aims to develop and promote new technologies, practices and systems that enhances the
productivity of crops. The NICRA program focuses on several key areas, including:
To develop new those varieties that can withstand adverse climatic conditions like, floods,
droughts and heatwaves.
Recommend agronomic practices in field based on climatic information which can also
help to conserve natural resources and increase the productivity.
2. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
Indian Government launched this programme in 2010. NMSA aims to promote
sustainable agriculture practices that enhance productivity, conserve natural resources, and build
resilience to climate change. This project focus on Soil health management, water use efficiency,
Crop diversification, Livestock development, Agroforestry and Sustainable land use.
3. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)
This fund is created by the Government of India in 2015 and is managed by NABARD
(National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development). The NAFCC basically aims to provides
financial aid to develop practices that promote sustainable agriculture, develop climate-resilient
varieties and transfer climatic information to give early warnings for adaptation plans.
4. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMSKY)
This scheme is launched by the Govt. of India in 2015 that provides end-to-end solutions
for water supply to agricultural land. The scheme aims to ensure that every farm gets adequate
water supply for irrigation purposes. The PMSKY comprises of several components, including
the development of water sources, the distribution of water through piped networks, the
promotion of micro-irrigation systems, and the development of water storage structures. The
scheme also aims to reduce the excessive wastage of water and provide efficient water
management techniques in agriculture and improve the overall productivity crops by enhancing
water use efficiency.
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5. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
This is a crop insurance scheme commenced by Indian Government in the year 2016.
This aims to provide financial assistance to farmers in case of crop failure or damage caused by
pests, disease or any other extreme weather event. In this way, it helps to reduce economic
burden on farmers and ensure their income security. The PMFBY is a voluntary scheme that
covers almost all grain crops, pulses, oilseeds and fruit crops. The premium rates under the
scheme are very low, also subsidies are provided to farmers by the govt. so that farmers can
adopt new techniques or practices at affordable rates. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare implemented this scheme in collaboration with insurance companies and state
governments.
6. Soil Health Card Scheme (SHCS)
SHCS is launched in 2015 by the government of India which aims to provide information
regarding the fertility status of soil and give recommendations about the appropriate dose of
fertilizers and other inputs needed by soil to improve soil health and crop productivity. Under the
scheme, soil samples are collected from farmers' fields and analysed for various parameters such
as pH, organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium then soil health card is prepared on
the basis of analysis. Farmers follow this soil health card for supplying nutrients to the soil and it
is a best agriculture practice that enhance the soil health and rise the productivity of crops.
7. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
Government of India has initiated PKVY in 2015 to reduce the dependency on chemical
fertilizers and enhance organic farming practices. Under this scheme, farmers are provided with
financial and technical support for setting up biofertilizer production units, vermicomposting
units and other organic farming-related activities. The trainings are provided to farmers to make
them aware about chemical-free farming practices and motivate them to form groups and adopt
the environment friendly measures in the fields.
8. National Livestock Mission (NLM)
NLM is a government initiative launched in 2014 to promote livestock development and
improve the livelihoods of livestock farmers. The mission aims to enhance livestock
productivity, improve the quality of livestock products, and increase the income of livestock
farmers. The NLM covers all livestock species, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, and
poultry. The mission provides financial assistance and technical support to farmers for various
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activities such as breed improvement, livestock health and disease control, fodder development,
and skill development. The NLM is implemented in collaboration with state governments,
livestock development boards, other stakeholders and Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare.
Fig 2: Conceptual Framework of Climate Smart Agriculture
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326847389_Assessment_of_ClimateSmart_Agriculture_CSA_Options_in_Nepal
Conclusion
It is concluded that climate smart agriculture is a critical approach that brings better
practices and policies to enhance the ability of crops to survive under climate change conditions.
By promoting CSA practices, we can improve agricultural productivity, increase food security,
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the implementation of CSA practices requires
the involvement of various stakeholders, and we must work together to ensure the widespread
adoption of these practices. With the right policies, incentives, and support, we can build a more
sustainable and resilient agricultural system that benefits farmers, communities, and the
environment.
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*1C. Sai Durga and 2Gudapati Ashoka Chakravarthy
1
PG Research Scholar, Agronomy Department, Faculty of Agriculture
Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu.
2Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, School of Agricultural Sciences,
Malla Reddy University ,Hyderabad.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Silk is the most luxurious fabric worn. Commercial silk is obtained by cultivating
different species of silkworms. India is the second largest producer of silkworm, first being
China. There are 4 types of silk present in the market namely: Mulberry (popular and
domesticated), Muga (exclusive to India), Eri (semi-domesticated) and Tassar (wild type). India
is the only country that produces all 4 types of silkworm. Among all, B. mori is the most popular
and commonly reared. Nearly 80% of the silk produced in India comes from B. mori. Muga type
of silkworm is endemic to India, found only in Brahmaputra valley especially in Assam. It is also
called Assam silk.
The process of commercially rearing of silkworm is called sericulture. Silk is usually
obtained from cocoons of insects. The eggs of silkworm are directly bought from stores or from
government agencies and reared in the silkworm houses until they form cocoons. The silk is spun
out of matured cocoons. The silk is then extracted from the 7 to 10 days aged cocoons by boiling
them in water. They are then processed and sent for weaving.
Silkworms are fed with leaves as their feed for their survival. Based on the type of tree leaves
they feed upon, the silkworms are categorised into above mentioned types. The silkworm that
feeds on mulberry leaves is B. mori. Hence it is obtained the name, Mulberry silkworm. The
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SILKWORM REARING, MARKETING AND ITS
CONSTRAINTS
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trees which are fed to the worm are also simultaneously grown along with silkworm rearing. The
process of growing mulberry plants is called as Moriculture. The leaves are harvested during the
feeding time. Based on the age of the worms the leaves are either chopped into small pieces and
fed or given as it is. The younger aged worm demand fresh and finely chopped leaves for its
convenience to consume, whereas the older worms are fed with old or young leaves without the
need of chopping.
The silkworm, infact any endopterygotes have 4 stages in their life cycle, namely: egg,
larva, pupa and adult. The commercially exploited stage of silkworm is the pupal stage or the
cocoon stage where the silk is spun out of it. The first three stages ae reared and the matured
cocoon stage is used for extracting silk.
Procedure for rearing of silkworm:
The first and foremost step in rearing silkworm is preparation of rearing room. The
preparation, maintenance and facilities provided in the room decides the survival rate of the
silkworm. The requirements of the room are:
Before the rearing process starts, the room where rearing is performed is fumigated to provide
sterile conditions for the worms and to prevent any kind of disease causing situations. Farmers
purchase silkworm eggs either from government or authentic bodies and incubate them at
temperature of 24 to 26oC to provide congenial conditions for it to hatch (warmer weather
hastens the hatching process).
After incubation the eggs, they turn bluish to black colour which indicates that the eggs
are ready to hatch. After hatching the larvae look like black coloured and ant sized. The larval
stages can be divided into 5 stages or instars based on the care required in rearing. The larve
hatched from the eggs are called as 1st instar larva. The first three stages of rearing is called as
chawki rearing while the last two are called as late age rearing.
Chawki rearing or young age rearing
Rearing of first three stages of larva is called Chawki rearing. During this stage of rearing
the larva required utmost care and monitoring as they are very sensitive at this stage.
There are 2 types of young age rearing namely:
1. Paraffin rearing: Paraffin sheets are placed below and on top of the trays and stacked
one over the other. The paraffin sheets are removed 30 minutes before prior to
feeding.
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2. Box method: The silkworms placed in a box containing lid and piled over one and
other. The most commonly used method of rearing is box rearing.
The newly formed larvae are then separated from the egg shells by gently transferring
them into the rearing tray using birds feather. This is when the finely chopped young and tender
mulberry leaves are added to the tray to feed the insects. Young stages of larva require chopped
mulberry leaves while the older stages can be fed with large leaves or sometimes even the shoot
or branches. (As discussed earlier, the mulberry trees are also parallelly planted nearby the
rearing room to continuously provide the feed to the larvae). Since they feed, they excrete too.
The bed becomes dirty with its excreta and makes it unhygienic for survival of the silkworm.
Hence it must be cleaned at regular intervals. Bed cleaning is done once in first instar prior to
moult, twice in second instar, first on resumption of feed and second prior to 2nd moulting and
thrice in 3rd instar during, 1st on resumption of fresh feed, 2nd during the middle and the 3rd
during prior to 3rd moult. The meshes are place on the present bed containing larva and fresh feed
is spread on top of the nylon and the silkworms slowly crawl upon the nest for its feed and
transferred into the new rearing bed. This is done to ensure the beds are kept hygenic and free
from moisture which causes diseases.
The size of the bed should also be increased according to the stage of growth. The
increase in bed size ensures that the increase in size of the silkworm does not create
inconvenience to them and provide free movement and avoids piling up of moisture causing
diseases. The size of bed should be increased after larvae enters new phase i.e, 3 times in young
age rearing.
Late age rearing:
Rearing of 4th and 5th instar larvae is called late age rearing. Late age rearing is more or
less similar to young age rearing, but differs in the quantity of feed required and frequency of the
operations performed being increased.
There are usually 3 types of rearing methods namely:
1. Shelf rearing: Rearing on trays stacked one upon the other.
2. Floor rearing: The fixed 3 tier arrangement is seen and then silkworms placed on them
3. Soot rearing: Silkworms are directly reared on the branches of the tree itself
The larvae now start feeding enormously and gains immense amount of weight. The
amount of leaf feed required by 4th and 5th instar larvae are 80 to 450kgs respectively. And the
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weight gained is also 10 times of the first instar larvae. The leaves are now fed directly in big
size without chopping, as the larvae have become big enough to consume the entire leaf. In 5th
instar either the whole branch or the plucked leaves are fed directly to avoid the labour costs.
The beds size is also increased as per the requirement. The activity of bed cleaning is
now done everyday in order to prevent infestation of pests or diseases and keep the bed clean and
neat. The process is same as chawki rearing where the nylon net is placed and mulberry leaves
placed on top of it making the worms to crawl up leaving the excreta in the tray behind. In
addition, the trays are suggested to be sprinkled with lime powder to absorb any extra moisture
present. This is the stage where the larvae start turning into the cocoons or pupal stage. The
larvae start secreting silk around itself by moving its head back and forth. Immediately after
observing the signs of transformation the matured larvae are shifted from tray to a special
material called Chandrika to provide even more better place for forming silk around itself.
After complete transformation of larvae into cocoon, they left there for some days to mature and
wait for the silk to form completely. They are then shifted to processing or silk extracting
machines, where they are placed in hot boiling water and the silk threads are extracted.
Marketing of silk:
India‘s silk and silk products are highly demanded throughout the world. The country
exports to more than 30 countries in the world. Some of the top importers are USA, UAE, China,
UK, Australia, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Malaysia, Nepal, Japan, Belgium, Canada, South
Africa, and Singapore.
India exports raw silk, natural silk yarn, fabrics & made-ups, readymade garments, silk
waste and handloom products of silk. During 2021-22, the country‘s silk and silk products
exports were valued at US$ 248.56 million. This is an increase of 25.3% over the previous year.
This growth was achieved despite of Covid pandemic induced challenges and global supply
chain disruptions. During April 2022-February 2023, the exports of silk and silk products stood
at US$ 211.3 million. Product wise split for the exports for 2021-22 is as follows - natural silk
yarn exports was Rs. 52.62 crore (US$ 6.6 million) (up 79.2% YoY), silk fabrics and made ups
exports was Rs. 837.41 crore (US$ 105.7 million) (up 14.8% YoY), readymade garments exports
were Rs. 671.13 crore (US$ 84.7 million) (up 49.3% YoY), silk carpet exports were Rs. 79.125
crore (US$ 10 million) (down 26.4% YoY), and silk waste was Rs. 208.67 crore (US$ 26.3
million) (up 38.5% YoY).
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USA is the top importer of silk products from India with a share of 24.3% as of 2021-22. UAE
was the second largest importer of Indian silk after USA, with a share of 22.6%. These countries
are followed by China, Australia, and UK which have 9.1%, 5%, and 4.7% of the total exports
share, respectively.
Silk carpets constituted the majority of share in the exports to USA, with 40% of all the
silk products. This was followed by readymade garments which constituted 33% of the total.
Natural silk yarn, fabrics, and made ups were 27% of the total share exported to USA. Natural
silk yarn, fabrics, and made ups comprised the majority of the products exported to UAE with a
share of 55%% in the total exported products. Silk carpets constituted 25.8% and silk readymade
garments constituted 19.2% of the total exported products to UAE. Silk waste was the major
product exported to China with a share of 92.1% of the total exported products.
Common problems faced by Indian silk in marketing are:
Competition from synthetic fabrics: silk synthetic fabrics such as polyester and nylon
offer cheaper alternatives to Silk they can mimic the look and feel of silk while being
more affordable this poses a challenge for silk marketers to differentiate their products
and convince consumers of the unique qualities of silk.
Changing fashion trends: fashion trends and consumer preferences can evolve rapidly
impacting the demand for silk. If silk falls out of favour or is perceived as outdated it can
affect the marketing efforts marketers need to adapt to changing fashion trends and find
innovative ways to a position silk as desirable and fashionable fact fabric.
Price fluctuation: The uncertainity in prices of silk keeps the farmers in doubt whether
they can earn profits out of rearing inspite of production costs already being high.
Absence of proper market: Absence of commodity specific market like any other
products likely produces gap between manufacturers willing to sell the produce and
retailers interested to by the produce.
Lack of transport facilities: Lack of proper transport facilities for the silk to transport
from part of the place to another without causing any damage is certainily a troublesome
problem.
Absence of storage facilities: Just like any other produce in agriculture silk also needs a
scientific structure for its storage for longer period. The absence of such structures
specific for silk storage lead to damage of silk stored for longer periods.
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Poor information on market trend: The lack of available information in the market about
the recent trends poses losses to the silk rearers.
Problems faced in silkworm rearing
Non availability of eggs: Lack of proper knowledge of the farmers or the reares regarding
the procurement of healthy and disease free silkworm eggs is the first and foremeost
constraint in silkworm rearing.
Lack of finance: Due to the high production costs required in rearing of silkworm even
the farmers interested will step back due to lack of finance available.
High cost of production and low productivity: The high initial costs required to set up the
infrastructure and maintainance always scares the farmer to take any step further in
opting for silkworm rearing.
Lack of technology penetration: The lack of innovations and modern technology to ease
the complicated process of rearing and its lack of transfer from lab to land is also an
important constraint.
Prevalent rural nature of the industry: The confinement of this industry to rural areas and
lack of its penetration of technology due to its backwardness also effects rearing.
Skill gaps among farmers: The lack of required skills with farmers for modern day
problems is a concerning reason. Improvement of skills required for rearing of silkworms
can reduce the losses due to various reasons and simultaneously increase the produce.
Infestation of pests and diseases: The infestation of deadly pests and diseases like uzi fly
insect and pebrine disease would leads to deduction of silkworm productivity to a drastic
level or sometimes even causes death of silkworm leading to losses.
References
Tikader, A., Vijayan, K., & Saratchandra, B. (2013). Muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis
(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)-an overview of distribution, biology and breeding. European
Journal of Entomology, 110(2).
Geetha, G. S., & Indira, R. (2011). Silkworm rearing by rural women in Karnataka: A path to
empowerment. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 18(1), 89-102.
Gani, M. U. D. A. S. I. R., Chouhan, S., Babulal-Gupta, R. K., Khan, G. U. L. A. B., Kumar, N.
B., Pawan, S., & Ghosh, M. K. (2017). Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmBPV):
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Its impact on silkworm rearing and management strategies. Journal of Biological
Control, 31(4), 189-193.
Afroz, S., Manjunatha, G. R., Biswas, T. D., & Pandit, D. (2018). Skill gap analysis in silkworm
rearing among farmers and extension workers in Eastern India. Indian Journal of
Extension Education, 54(3), 85-90.
Khan, M. M. (2014). Effects of Temperature and RH% on Commercial Characters of Silkworm
(bomby xmori. l) cocoons in Anantapuramu district of AP, India. Research Journal of
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences.
Bhattacharyya, P., Jha, S., Mandal, P., & Ghosh, A. (2016). Artificial diet based silkworm
rearing system: A review. Int. J. Pure App. Biosci, 4(6), 114-122.
Gahukar, R. T. (2014). Impact of major biotic factors on tropical silkworm rearing in India and
monitoring of unfavourable elements: a review. Sericologia, 54, 150-170.
Tayal, M. K., & Chauhan, T. P. S. (2017). Silkworm diseases and pests. Industrial entomology,
265-289.
Swathiga, G., Umapathy, G., Parthiban, K. T., & Angappan, K. (2019). Growth response of
different eco races of ERI silkworm reared on various castor genotypes. Journal of
Entomology and Zoology Studies, 7(3), 1406-1410.
Kumaresan, P., & Devi, R. G. G. (2009). Factors discriminating the adoption of separate
silkworm rearing houses in South India. Indian Journal of Sericulture, 48(1), 49-55.
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*Dharmendra Yadav1
, Swati1
, Harshita Singh2
and Digvijay Singh3
1
ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal-132001, India
2
Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences, Prayagraj-21007,
Uttar Pradesh, India
3Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University Pusa Samastipur-848125, Bihar, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Seed sector in India is the backbone of agriculture that plays a significant role in farm
productivity. In ancient times, Rig-Veda speaks about the necessity for a good, enduring seed to
ensure the success of human race. \"Subeejam Sukshetre Jayate Sampadyate,\" which means \"A
good seed in a good field will win and prosper\" in reference to Manusmriti. In the ancient time,
India has one of the oldest seed industries in the world. India is a significant player in the world
seed market. India's seed business is distinguished by a sizable number of farmers and seed
firms, a vast range of seed types, and substantial government engagement. The government and
private sectors make up the two main divisions of the Indian seed business. The Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which is in-charge of the study, creation, and manufacturing of
premium seeds, dominates the public sector. Many small and medium-sized businesses in the
private sector create, produce, and market hybrid and open-pollinated cultivars. These businesses
are engaged in a wide range of seed variety research, development, production, marketing, and
distribution activities. India has a sizable population of farmers who produce seeds and who are
grouped into cooperatives to pool resources and knowledge.
The government is also extensively involved in supporting the seed business through
regulations, subsidies, and policy initiatives. The seed sector in India has a plethora of potential.
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INDIA'S VIBRANT AND THRIVING SEED INDUSTRY: KEY
FEATURES, POSSIBILITIES, AND DIFFICULTIES
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Businesses have the chance to create new types, sell their goods to other nations, and develop
new variations. The option to choose from a large variety of seed kinds gives farmers the chance
to diversify their crops and boost output. Additionally, the existence of farmer cooperatives
makes it simple for farmers to pool resources and Knowles to get high-quality seeds.
There are many opportunities, but the Indian seed sector also faces significant challenges.
As a result of the industry's lack of regulation, issues like adulterated seeds and the spread of
pests and illnesses may arise. Additionally, it is challenging for many seed businesses to compete
with bigger ones because of their tiny size. Finally, it may be challenging to coordinate efforts
and obtain resources due to the high number of seed firms and farmers. In India, the seed
industry is a vital component of the agricultural industry and of the nation's economy as a whole.
It is in charge of growing the nation's forage crops, oilseeds, and food grains. The industry is
crucial for boosting farmer incomes, increasing agricultural production, and providing quality
seeds to farmers.
Seed production system in India
The public sector dominates seed production in India. Laws and programmes have been
implemented by the Indian government to promote the availability and production of highquality seeds. These include the Seeds Act of 1966, National Seed Policy (NSP) of 1989 and
Seeds Price Control Order (SPCO). NSP's main objectives are to reward private seed producers,
promote the use of high-yielding varieties, and encourage the use of certified seed. In India, seed
production, marketing, and sales are governed by the Seeds Act and SPCO. The seed production
system includes active participation from the business sector. Private seed production businesses
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create and provide farmers with high-quality seed. Indian Seed Association (ISA) and Indian
Seed Federation (ISF), among other seed groups, are home to many of these businesses. These
organizations work together with the government to ensure that farmers have access to highyielding varieties while also promoting the production and sale of high-quality seed. Universities
and research organizations also boost India's seed production system. Research organizations
like the (ICAR) Indian Council of Agricultural Research.Universities also contribute to the
system of seed production by educating and teaching farmers on the newest seed kinds and
technology. India's system for producing seeds is a complicated web of both public and
commercial enterprises. This method makes sure that farmers have access to high-quality seed,
enabling them to generate large harvest. The collaboration of the government, academic
institutions, and private firms is essential for the effective and profitable functioning of India's
seed production system.
Crop wise distribution of Certified/Quality Seeds in cereals (Wheat, paddy and Maize)
(Lakh Quintals)
Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2021
Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of major crops in India
The Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of a crop is the ratio of the amount of seed used to
produce a crop in one year to amount of seed used previous year. The ability of a crop to
generate enough seeds to replant in the same piece of land. The following season is a key
indicator of how successfully seeds are produced. The SRRs of India's major crops vary greatly,
with some having greater rates than others. In India, rice is the most important crop and has the
greatest SRR (98%). This is due to the fact that rice is a flexible food that can be easily kept and
used all year long. Other important food crops in India, including wheat, maize, and pulses, also
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have SRRs of greater than 90%. This is because these crops frequently require more frequent
seed replacement and have lower long-term storage tolerance.
Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of Cereal Crops
Source: Seed Division, DA&FW, GoI
Rapeseed and groundnut (oilseed crop) have a lower SRR, at around 70%. This is
because the SRR is lower for these crops since timely and enough rainfall is more important for
successful seed production. Not to mention that cash crops like cotton and sugarcane have far
lower SRRs, at around 40%.
Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of Oil Seeds Crops
Source: Seed Division, DA&FW, GoI
This is due to the fact that these crops require more intensive management and inputs,
such as fertilizers, insecticides, and irrigation, in order to be adequately grown and harvested.
The SRR of India's major crops varies greatly overall, with some having higher rates than others.
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This illustrates the fact that while certain crops may be stored and used over a number of
seasons, others require more inputs and management to be effectively grown. Farmers must be
aware of the SRR of the crops they are growing in order to adopt the most effective and costeffective seed production method.
Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of Pulse Crops
Source: Seed Division, DA&FW, GoI
Varietal protection in India
A legal mechanism known as \"varietal protection\" protects special plant kinds against
copying or imitation. The Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers' Right Act, which was passed
in India in 2001, outlines the protection of plant varieties and farmers' rights, and the creation of
new plant varieties. The Act's goal is to make sure that farmers, who conserve, utilize, trade, and
sell farm-saved seed of a variety that is protected and acknowledged for their contributions to
plant breeding and agricultural advancement. The Act also establishes a framework for granting
Plant Variety Protection (PVP) to novel plant varieties created using contemporary
biotechnological technology or conventional methods. An application must be submitted to the
Registrar of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights, who will review it to see if the variety is
distinctive, uniform, and stable before awarding PVP.
Seed certification system in India
Seed certification is the quality control system operated under independent agency i.e. state
certification agency, which monitors and inspect from field selection to bagging and tagging of
seed lots. Following steps are followed to produce certified seed;
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Application
The approved seed certification body must receive an application from the seed producer
together with the required money in order to certify seeds. The cost is for a single variety for one
season in the designated region for one seed plot, often up to 10 hectares. Additionally, the
source seed's official tag has to be supplied (For example, a breeder seed tag for
the production of foundation seeds and a foundation seed tag for the production of certified
seeds).
Field Inspection
The relevant certification agency conducts field inspections on all fields for which
applications are submitted. The objective of the field inspection is to verify that proper care is
taken to check the factors that may affect genetic purity and physical health of seeds during
multiplication. The number of field inspections varies depending on the crop and the certification
programme. Field inspections are often conducted at least twice throughout the pre-flowering,
blooming, pre-harvest, and harvest periods. The existence of off kinds, other crops, weed
contaminations, and unhealthy plants are evaluated during field inspections, and seed farmers are
instructed to perform the appropriate remedial actions, if necessary.
Seed sampling, testing and tagging
The purpose of sampling is to draw a representative sample from a seed lot (of 10 t or
more) of a size suitable for conducting quality testing, in which the probability of a constituent
being present is same as its proportion present in the seed lot. Seed sample thus drawn by the
authorized persons is sealed, labeled and submitted to the certification agency, and tested for
quality parameters in an official seed testing laboratory. Pure seed, germination, weed seeds,
other crop seeds, and damaged seeds are the only seed requirements that must be met by seed
lots in order to receive a seed certification tag.
Table 1: Specific seed standards for paddy under the IMSCS, 2013
Component Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0 % 98.0 %
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0 % 2.0 %
Husk less seed (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seeds (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
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ODVs (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
Total weed seeds (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
*Objectionable weed seeds (maximum) 2/kg 5/kg
Seeds infected by paddy bunt
(maximum)
0.10% (by
number)
0.50% (by
number)
Germination (minimum) 80.0 % 80.0 %
Moisture (maximum) 13.0% 13.0%
For vapour proof containers
(maximum)
8.0 % 8.0%
*Objectionable weed shall be: Wild rice (Oryza sativa L. var. fatua Prain)
Seed marketing
One of the most important aspects of seed technology is seed marketing, which meets the
farmer's requirement for a steady supply of many enhanced seed kinds of verified quality at a fair
price. The scale and scope of the seed industry determine everything. It is thought to comprise
every stage of seed production, processing, storage, quality assurance, and marketing. The goal
of seed marketing should be to meet farmer demand for a consistent supply of several improved
seed varieties with high standard of quality and affordable prices.
Challenges
• Low availability of quality seed: Even though India has many seed businesses, finding highquality seed remains difficult. Many of the available seed kinds are of poor quality and cannot be
used for commercial farming.
• High cost of seed production: Due to the high cost of inputs like fertilizers, water, and labour,
manufacturing seeds are expensive.
• Lack of access to technology: Many Indian seed businesses do not have access to cuttingedge technology, which is necessary for generating high-quality seed.
• Limited research and development: The creation of new and improved varieties is
constrained by the lack of research and development in India's seed industry.
• Poor access to finance: It is challenging for small seed businesses to invest in seed
manufacturing and research since they frequently have limited access to financial resources.
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Opportunities
• Increased demand for quality seed: There is a rising need for high-quality seed as the
population and food demand rise, which presents a growth and expansion potential for seed
businesses.
• Growing demand for organic seed: Growing consumer demand for organic seed presents a
chance for seed producers to manufacture organic seed and take advantage of expanding market.
• Increased use of technology: The growing use of technology in the seed industry gives seed
businesses the chance to raise the caliber of their seed and create new types.
• Expansion into new markets: Although domestic markets dominate the seed industry in
India, there is potential for export growth and new market penetration for seed businesses.
• Increased access to finance: There are several government programs and initiatives that give
small seed enterprises access to financing, giving them the chance to engage in seed production
and research.
Overall, India's seed industry is a significant portion of the country's agricultural industry and has
a tonne of room to expand and improve. The sector may be enhanced and grown further with the
correct investments and policies.
Conclusion
The growing and dynamic seed sector in India displays a number of important traits,
opportunities, and challenges. With a rich genetic legacy and a diversified agro-climatic setting,
India's seed industry is essential for the country's food security and agricultural growth. This
sector has grown significantly, propelled by creative research, cutting-edge technology, and
favorable legislation. It provides an extensive selection of high-quality seeds, including both
conventional and genetically modified types that are designed to meet various farmer demands.
However, issues including restricted loan availability, shoddy infrastructure, and complicated
regulatory frameworks continue to exist. Despite these obstacles, India's seed sector has
enormous potential to promote sustainable agricultural development, improve rural livelihoods,
and guarantee the nation's food security.
References
Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2021. Published by Government of India Ministry of
Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
Directorate of Economics & Statistics.
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https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/seeds-industry.
Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards. Published by The Central Seed Certification
Board Department of Agriculture & Co-operation Ministry of Agriculture Government
of India New Delhi 2013.
Seed Division, Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
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Ramyalakshmi A*
II year M.Sc. (Ag.) Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry ,Department of Soils & Environment
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Authors Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
The problematic soils have been increasing day to day all over the world. The occurrence
of problematic soils is due to the climate change, change in pH and uncultivation of land. As per
ICAR the coverage of problematic soils was 220 lakh hectare in 2005 which were later increased
to 243 lakh hectare in 2010. As such 4 lakh hectare of problematic soils were increasing
annually. The problematic soils can be classified based on the physical and chemical
characteristics. On physical characteristics basis, it comprises slowly permeable soil, highly
permeable soil, soil surface crusting, sub soil hard pan and fluffy paddy soils. On other hand,
based on chemical characteristics the most commonly occurring soils are saline soil, sodic soil,
saline sodic soil, degraded alkali soil, acid soil, acid sulphate soil. Here comes, the Pokkali soil
which is also a type of problematic soil.
The term pokkaliwas named after the cultivation of rice variety pokkali. Pokkali soils are
developed from mixed marine and riverine alluvium. The Pokkali soils are acid saline soils,
where both acidic and saline condition will occur. At first, the acidic conditions will prevail due
to rainfall of southwest monsoon. By the ingression of sea water (tidal action) the soluble salts
like chlorides and sulphates of Na, Mg & Ca will accumulate that causes saline nature. These
coastal wetlands in many parts of India have been used for sequential paddy-fish cultivation
under different forms of institutional structures. In West Bengal, this agriculture-fisheries
integration is known as bheries, in Karnataka it is called gajani, in Goa and Maharashtra it is
called khazaan and in Kerala it‘s pokkali.
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POKKALI SOILS AND ITS UTILIZATION FOR
AGRICULTURE
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Distribution
Pokkali soils has its origin in Kerala state. Pokkali soils comes under the agro-ecological
unit- Pokkali lands. The Pokkali land lie in 33 Panchayats, two municipalities and one city
corporation area in Alappuzha, Ernakulam(Edappally, Palluruthy, Paravoor, Vypin) and
Thrissurdistricts of Kerala. Original area under Pokkali was estimated to be 25,000 ha. But now
Pokkali cultivation is carried out only in 8500 ha of this 5500 ha is under regular Pokkali
cultivation and the remaining area is cultivated only when the climatic conditions are favorable.
Majority of the remaining Pokkali land has been converted to garden lands for coconut
cultivation and other purposes, vast areas are left fallow or used for prawn farming alone.
Majority of soils are lie between Vembanad lake and Arabian Sea.They are situated between a
latitude of 9 o
45\" N and 10o
15\" N and a longitude of 76o
10\" E and 76o
20\" E.
Physical Characteristics
Pokkali lands comprise of low-lying marshes near streams, rivers and other water
bodies.The prevailing climate is tropical humid monsoon. The mean annual temperature - 27.6
°C. Then annual rainfall can be 3,049 mm. Soils are deep to very deep in depth. The colour of
the soil is dark grey to bluish black. It has clay texture and massive structure. The soil is hard and
it creates deep fissures when dry and sticky when wet.
Chemical Characteristics
The soil is highly fertile with respect to the organic carbon content of soil. Sea and
backwater tides make these soils saline. The soluble salts comprise mainly of chlorides and
sulphates of Na, Mg and Ca.The nutrients like nitrogen, potassium, Sulphur, copper and zinc will
be higher.Surface soils of Pokkali lands are richer in potassium.The soil is highly acidic, the pH
being 3.0 – 4.5. In dry conditions white incrustations of aluminium hydroxide also developed on
soil surfaces.
The electrical conductivity of soils during the high saline phase (Nov– May) varies from 12 –
24 dS / m. During low saline phase (June – Oct) water becomes almost fresh, salt content
reduces to traces and electrical conductivity ranges from 4 – 6 dS / m.Total sodium content
ranges from 0.49 to 2.8 per cent. The soil is deficient or low in phosphorous, magnesium and
boron.
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Utilization of Pokkali Soil For Agriculture
Due to the distinct nature of soil (acid saline) salt tolerant varieties of paddy crop is
cultivated followed by prawn filtration.In Central Kerala, it is known as pokkali farming. In
North Kerala, known as kaipad farming.
Rice cultivation - May/June to September/October(low saline).
The traditional prawn cultivation - December/January(high saline).
Pokkali cultivation is one of the major natural organic farming of rice prevalent in
Kerala. Neither chemical fertilizers nor plant protection chemicals are applied to the crop. The
following things makes the Pokkali fields nutrient rich,
• TheDaily tidal inflow and outflow of backwaters
• The luxuriant growth of micro flora and fauna
• The natural deposit of decomposed floating aquatic weed mass
• The huge left over biomass of rice plant after harvest.
• Fishes cultured in Pokkali field act as biocontrol agents for weeds and
pests
It is estimated that the traditional paddy farming yields a profit of only 25,000/- per ha.
whereas paddy and prawn together (as in Pokkali) yield a profit of INR 50,000- per ha. This
could be augmented to 1.3 Lakhs per ha in the newly introduced Paddy-shrimp-cage culture
integrated system introduced by Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI).
Paddy Farming
Pokkali rice cultivation has been evolved through ages by the farmers of the area for the
maximum utilization of available resources without affecting the eco-system.The traditional salt
tolerant varieties of paddy are Pokkali, Choottupokkali, Cheruviruppu, Kuruka, Anakodan,
Eravapandy, Bali, Orkayama, Orpandi. All these varieties are tall (>180 cm). Pokkali land races
are world famous for their salinity tolerance gene SalTol QTL and are in wide use in the
International Rice Improvement Programmes for salinity tolerance. They are also tolerant to soil
acidity and submergence.
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Improved varieties are developed by the Rice Research Station, Vyttila (VTL-1 to VTL8). The Pokkali varieties are very rich in antioxidants like oryzanol, tocopherol and
tocotrienol. The Pokkali rice is rich in amylase content and so it is good for diabetic patients.
The pokkali rice has got GI in the year 2007 and the GI number is 81. Recently Indian Postal
Stamp was released for the Pokkali Rice.
Preparation of Paddy Seeds
A unique method is adopted for sprouting the seeds.
The seeds are tightly packed in baskets made of plaited coconut leaves the inside
of which are lined by banana or teak leaves.
These baskets are then immersed in fresh water ponds for 12 – 15 days.
After which they are taken out and stored in shade. During this time the seeds
sprout and remain dormant for more than 30 days in that condition.
When the soil and weather conditions become favorable for sowing, the baskets
containing the seeds are re soaked for 3 to 6 hours before sowing.
The mounds in the field are then raked and levelled, the sprouted seeds are sown
on the top of mounds which act as nursery in-situ.
Operations While Paddy Farming
Established seedlings on mounts Spreading operation in progress
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Prawn Farming
After harvest of rice the fish or prawn capture, provides a substantial subsidiary income
to the farmer.Prawn filtration is resorted in areas where tidal amplitude is high.As part of the
preparation, bunds are strengthened and sluices installed for the exchange of tidal water.
In order to facilitate free exchange of water, channels are provided along the periphery
and centre of the paddy field.Once the preliminary preparation is over, the field is ready for
trapping and holding of the shrimp/fish seed. The water is allowed to enter the fields during high
tide with great force which carry sizable quantity of shrimp/fish seed. As the force of the
incoming tide water decrease, the sluice is closed with shutter plank.A hurricane lantern is hung
at the sluice mouth to attract the prawn larvae.
During low tide water is let out through a bamboo screen, which prevents escape of fish
and prawn already entered into the field and brings down the water level, so that water can again
be taken in during high tide. Once the level of water inside the field has reached a minimum, the
sluice is closed with shutter. During the next high tide water is allowed to get in again and the
process is repeated for 2-3 months.
The actual fishing operation starts by the middle of January coinciding with the lunar phase. The
prawn filtration net is also unique to the Pokkali farming methods. It is conical in shape having a
total length of 4-5 feet with a trap system in the middle and a valve at the code end for easy
collection of the catch. Luring in of prawns continues simultaneously along with fishing till the
end of March, when the fields are finally drained for paddy cultivation.
MANAGEMENT OF POKKALI SOILS
The reclamation method of Pokkali soils is unique in several aspects.
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• The high mobility of the water-soluble salts is made use of in the reclamation of these
saline soils.
• Good quality irrigation water and rainwater is used from leaching.
• Pokkali fields are drained and when the soil becomes dry, are heaped up to form mounds
of about 1 m base and half a meter height.
• For preparation of mounds and ridges special types of Pokkali spades are used, which
ensures that during preparation of mounds or ridges, only surface soil will be disturbed.
• Deep soil, if disturbed will add to salinity problem in the soil, by bringing more salts
from deep layers to soil surface.
• With the onset of monsoon, the salt is washed off from the soil and water with the
dissolved salt is drained off from the field and thus the salinity levels are brought to the
below critical level for rice growth.
Conclusion
Pokkali soil is not a completely problematic soil, if it is managed correctly the soil is
highly beneficial one. As integrated cultivation of both paddy and prawn farming is done, the
Pokkali soil provides economic profit to the farmers. But if the soil is left barren it gets
degraded by the intrusion of the sea water. So the soil should be utilized for effectively for
the survival of the soil.
References
Anju Sajan and A.K. Sreelatha(2021) ―Characterization of different land uses in Pokkali
Ecosystem‖, Global Symposium on Salt affected soils
Ashamol Antony et al.,(2014) ―Effect of Rotational Pokkali cultivation and Shrimp farming on
the Soil Characteristics of two different Pokkali field at Chellanam and Kadamakudi,
Kochi, Kerala, INDIA‖, International Research Journal of Environment Sciences Vol.
3(9), 61-64
A.S. Vidyaet al., (2004) “Weed Spectrum of Pokkali Lands: The Salt Marsh Rice Ecosystem of
Kerala”, Indian Journal Weed Sci. 36 (l & 2): 157-159
Beena S. George, T.K. Ashique and Binitha, N.K. 2017. ―Assessment of Microbial Properties of
Pokkali Soil in Kerala, India‖, Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 6(12): 1964-1967.
AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine
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G.R. Santhiet al., (2017). ―Assessment of Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil Samples in
Kaipad Tracts of Kannur District, India‖, Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 6(11): 1464-
1475.
Neha Unni and A.K. Sreelatha(2021) ―Soil quality assessment of Pokkali lands (AEU 5) in the
post (2018) flood scenario of Kerala‖, Journal of Tropical Agriculture 59 (1): 107-112
RoshiniVijayan, (2016)―Pokkali Rice Cultivation in Kerala‖ Agriculture Update, Volume 11
Issue 3 Pp:329-333.
https://sites.cdit.org/wto/index.php/pokkali-rice
http://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Kerala.pdf
https://india.mongabay.com/2022/10/commentary-pokkali-a-gi-tagged-rice-variety-could-be-onthe-verge-of-extinction/
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Shubham Gangwar1*, Balaji Vikram2
, Amit Kumar Singh3
, Sarvesh Kumar Singh4
1Research Scholar, Department of Post Harvest Technology, Banda University of Agriculture
and Technology, Banda- 210001
2Assistant Professor, Department of Post Harvest Technology, Banda University of Agriculture
and Technology, Banda- 210001
3Assistant Professor, Department of Post Harvest Technology, Banda University of Agriculture
and Technology, Banda- 210001
4M.Sc. (Horti), Post Harvest Technology, College of Horticulture, Banda University of
Agriculture and Technology, Banda- 21001
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
In today's fast-paced world, the demand for high-quality and safe food products has never
been greater. Fruits and vegetables, being integral parts of a balanced and healthy diet, are
subject to rigorous quality evaluation and assessment to meet consumers' expectations.
Traditionally, sensory evaluation by trained human panels has been the gold standard for
assessing the quality of agricultural produce. However, this process can be time-consuming,
subjective, and impractical for large-scale operations. Enter the revolutionary technology of
electronic nose and tongue, designed to mimic and surpass human olfactory and gustatory
senses. These advanced sensor systems have emerged as powerful tools in the field of agriculture
and food processing, offering rapid, accurate, and non-destructive methods for evaluating the
quality and freshness of fruits and vegetables.
The electronic nose, inspired by the human sense of smell, can detect and identify a wide
range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by fruits and vegetables. These VOCs are
responsible for the characteristic aromas associated with freshness, ripeness, and spoilage. By
harnessing arrays of chemical sensors, the electronic nose generates distinctive \"smellprints\" for
different produce varieties, enabling rapid quality assessment. Similarly, the electronic tongue,
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ELECTRONIC NOSE AND TONGUE FOR QUALITY
EVALUATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
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inspired by the human sense of taste, is equipped with an array of sensors that identify tasterelated compounds in fruits and vegetables. It can discern flavors such as sweetness, acidity,
bitterness, and umami, providing valuable data for optimizing processed food and beverage
recipes. The advent of electronic nose and tongue has revolutionized the agricultural industry's
quality evaluation practices, empowering farmers, food processors, and retailers with powerful
tools to ensure superior produce reaches the market. This article explores the concept,
applications, and advantages of electronic nose and tongue in fruits and vegetables, shedding
light on the transformative impact they have had on the food supply chain.
In the subsequent sections, we will delve into the specific applications of these
technologies, including quality assessment, sorting and grading, shelf-life prediction, taste
evaluation, and detecting adulteration. Additionally, we will explore the advantages they offer
over traditional methods, such as speed, accuracy, non-destructive testing, and costeffectiveness. As we embrace a future of innovation and technology-driven advancements, the
integration of electronic nose and tongue in agriculture and food processing promises to optimize
the quality, safety, and sustainability of the global food supply. With ongoing research and
development, these remarkable sensor systems hold the potential to reshape how we perceive,
evaluate, and enjoy the bountiful offerings of nature's harvest
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Understanding the Electronic Nose
The electronic nose, also known as an e-nose or artificial olfactory system, mimics the
human sense of smell by detecting and identifying different volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
VOCs are chemical compounds that give off characteristic odors, and their presence can be
indicative of the quality and freshness of fruits and vegetables. The e-nose consists of an array of
chemical sensors, often based on metal oxide, conducting polymers, or quartz crystal
microbalance technology. Each sensor responds to specific VOCs, and the combined response of
the array generates a unique \"smellprint\" or pattern for different samples.
Applications of Electronic Nose in Fruits and Vegetables
Quality Assessment: One of the primary applications of electronic noses in the
agricultural industry is the evaluation of fruit and vegetable quality. By analyzing the volatile
compounds emitted by the produce, the e-nose can detect ripeness, freshness, and even the
presence of undesirable compounds like spoilage or decay. Sorting and Grading: Electronic
noses are also used in automated sorting and grading systems. By distinguishing between good,
substandard, and spoiled fruits or vegetables, the e-nose can optimize the sorting process,
reducing wastage and enhancing efficiency. Shelf-life Prediction: Determining the shelf life of
perishable produce is crucial for supply chain management. E-noses help in predicting shelf life
by monitoring changes in VOC patterns over time, allowing better inventory management and
minimizing losses due to spoilage.
The Concept of Electronic Tongue
While the electronic nose focuses on mimicking the human sense of smell, the electronic tongue
replicates the sense of taste. It utilizes an array of chemical sensors, such as ion-selective
electrodes or optical sensors, to identify different taste-related compounds in fruits and
vegetables.
Applications of Electronic Tongue in Fruits and Vegetables
a) Taste Assessment: The electronic tongue can evaluate the taste profile of fruits
and vegetables, including sweetness, acidity, bitterness, and umami. This data is valuable for
ensuring consistent flavor in processed foods and beverages.
b) Detecting Adulteration: Adulteration in agricultural produce is a significant
concern. The electronic tongue can help identify adulterants and contaminants, ensuring the
integrity and safety of the food supply chain.
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c) Sensory Optimization: Food companies can use the electronic tongue to optimize
their products' taste and flavor by conducting rapid taste tests and receiving real-time
feedback on recipe adjustments.
Advantages of Electronic Nose and Tongue
a) Speed and Accuracy: Electronic noses and tongues provide rapid results and offer
high levels of accuracy in detecting quality parameters, surpassing traditional human sensory
evaluation, which can be subjective and time-consuming.
b) Non-destructive Testing: These tools require minimal sample preparation and can
analyze fruits and vegetables without damaging them, allowing for further testing or
consumption after evaluation.
c) Cost-effectiveness: Despite their sophisticated technology, electronic noses and
tongues can be more cost-effective in the long run due to reduced labor costs and improved
efficiency in quality assessment processes.
Conclusion
The use of electronic nose and tongue in the agriculture and food industry has opened up
new avenues for quality evaluation, bringing benefits such as enhanced efficiency, reduced
wastage, and improved consumer safety. By providing rapid and accurate results, these cuttingedge technologies are revolutionizing the way we assess the quality of fruits and vegetables,
ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and efficient food supply chain. As research and
development in sensor technology continue to progress, we can expect even more advanced
applications of electronic nose and tongue in the years to come.
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Kumari Shiwani*1, Rajeev Kumar1
, Reena Kumari1
1Dr YS Parmar, UHF, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Thunag, Mandi,
H.P, India 175048
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Inhabitants of the hilly regions largely depend on wild plants for food supplements.
Edible parts of various wild plants like flowers, fruits, seeds, stem and bark have been used
traditionally to prepare a range of food products. These plants have a significant role in giving
nourishment and are rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals and fibre.
Processing of wild produce can help to meet the increasing energy and nutrients demand of the
population along with income generation. Phytochemicals of these plants possess medicinal
properties and are used traditionally to cure many diseases like cough, cold, congestion, fever,
toothache, arthritis, jaundice, nephritis, regulation of blood pressure and diabetes. The utilization
of wild produce in the commercial food preparations can enhance functional properties of food
and can pave way for the development of nutraceuticals.
Keywords: Wild edible, fruits, vegetable, trees, Himachal Pradesh
Introduction
Wild plants are an integral part of the diet of humans since most primitive civilizations.
Wild edibles consumption is part of the food habits of many people and intimately connected to
virtually all aspects of their spiritual life, sociocultural and health (Singh et al. 2006). Our
ancestors selected some wild species over others for their unique attributes and chose the ones
which fit into their needs in daily life like food, fuel, fodder, medicine, agricultural tools,
furniture and house building. These wild plants have proven their ability as supplementary food
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WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH: A
TREASURE TROVE OF FOOD AND NUTRACEUTICALS
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during scarcity periods and cure against minor ailments in the times of human history. The
Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) covers approximately 4,19,873 km2 area (Rodger and Panwar,
1988) and cover 10 states namely, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and hill regions of two
states viz. Assam and West Bengal of Indian Republic. Due to diverse habitats and large
altitudinal range, it supports unique and socioeconomically important floristic diversity. As per
the reports of Hasan et al., (2009) this has been identified as one of the mega biodiversity
hotspots and supports 18,440 species of plants (Singh and Hajra, 1996) of which 25.3% are
endemic to the Himalaya, 675 wild edibles (Samant and Dhar, 1997), 279 fodder species
(Samant et al., 1998), 155 sacred plants (Samant and Pant, 2003)
Himachal Pradesh in India is blessed with diverse topography with latitude ranging from
30o 22‘ 40\" N to 33o 12‘ 40\" N and longitude from 75o 45‘ 55\" E to 79o 04‘ 20\" E. The sea
level height ranging from 350 meters to 6975 meters give it vivid climatic conditions. All these
factors make this state a home of 675 species of wild food plants (Kala, 2007; Reddy et al.,
2007). Hill folks depend on forest harvest to meet their food and medicinal needs and almost all
parts viz. leaves, buds, bark, flowers and roots are used for these purposes. Medicinal properties
of wild produce are attributed to their phytochemicals like tannins, saponins, flavonoids,
terpenes, alkaloids and sterols (Ozen et al., 2017). Their curative properties make them strong
contestant as protective foods (Sathyavathi and Janardhanan, 2014). The documentation of edible
wild plants, parts fit for consumption, their composition and mode of usage can help researchers
to better understand the potential of wild produce in designing functional foods and
nutraceuticals. In addition to this, it adds more options to the fresh produce market and can help
to meet the prevailing challenge of production to achieve 160 million tons of vegetables for
recommended requirement by 2020 (Kar and Borthakur, 2008). Various important edible plants/
trees and their edible parts has been discussed in table 1.
Leaves
Plants like Juniperus indica Bertol., Moringa oleifera Lam., Rumex hastatus D. Don,
Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. Ex Wedd. are edible. Juniperus indica Bertol. (Bhitaru) mainly
grows in range of 3300 to 4000 meters amsl and is found mainly in Lahaul and Spiti, Kullu,
Kinnaur and Shimla. Dried leaves are used for dhoop (incense) preparation and an extract of
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fresh leaves are used in the fermentation of ingredients for the wine known locally as balma
(Makhuri et al., 2000). Pods of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Drumstick tree) leaves are garnished
with mustard seeds, ground to paste, cooked like beans and are consumed with rice (Pandey et
al., 2011). Rumex hastatus D. Don (Almora) is mainly distributed in the range 635 to 1646
meters amsl. The tree is found in Chamba, Kullu, Hamirpur, Lahual and Spiti.
Table 1: Various wild edible plants found in Himachal Pradesh, their distribution, food applications and
medicinal uses.
Name Flowerin
gtime
Fruiting
time
Distribution Foodapplications Medicinal uses References
Acacia catechu
(Khair)
JuneOctober
JuneAugust
Mandi,
Hamirpur
Kangra,
Solan,
Sirmaur, Una,
Chamba,
Shimla and
Bilaspur
Bark mixed with
milk is taken to cure
cold and
cough.Heartwood
is boiled with other
ingredients to
prepare the
decoction.It is
taken as tea by the
pregnant ladies to
keep warm body.
Wood extract called
catechu is used in
medicine for sore
throat and diarrhea.
Concentrated
aqueous extract
known as khayer
gum used as
Ayurvedic medicine.
Katha after drying is
applied on lemon
slice and taken
regularly with empty
stomach to cure piles.
Singh and
Lal(2006)
Aesculus indica
(Khanor)
AprilMay
SeptemberOctober
Mandi,
Shimla,
Dharamp
ur,
Kasauli,
Dharamsa
la
Fruits are edible.
Flour is mixed with
wheat flour to make
chapattis and
halwa
Treat
ment
of
skin
disea
ses
Rheu
matis
Relief of headache.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Allium
stracheyi
Baker (Jimbu)
JulyAugust
SeptemberNovember
Kullu,
Lahaul and
spiti, Mandi,
Shimla,
Bilaspur,
Sirmaur,
Kangra
Ground into
powder with the
root ofSaussurea
costus and fried
with ghee As a
condiment in the
pulses and
vegetable known
locally as faran.
Used to cure stomach
ache
Ethanolic extract of
the plant used for the
treatment of
inflammation and the
associated pain.
Maikhuri et al.
(2000)
Amaranthus
cuadatus L.
(Champayang,
Damkhon)
Septembe
rDecembe
r
SeptemberDecember
Shimla,
Kullu,
Kinnaur
Tender leaves are
eaten raw or
cookedas spinach.
Fluid extract of the
plant is used as an
astringent internally
in the treatment of
ulcerated mouth and
throat. Juice of the
roots is used to
relieve headaches.
Singh et al.
(2014)
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Betula utilis
D. Don.
(Bhojpatra)
May-July SeptemberOctober
Chamba,
Kullu
Dried resin
extracted from the
bole is ground into
powder and used
as an important
constituent of the
traditional namkeen
tea.
Part of the bark is
applied to cuts,
wounds and burns.
Water boiled with
bark is taken in cases
of jaundice and used
as drops to relieve
earache Namkeen tea
used to cure colds
andcoughs.
Maikhuri et al.
(2000)
Capsella
bursapastoris
Medic.
(Chibotey)
August November Kinnaur,
Kullu,
Chamba
Tender leaves are
cooked as
vegetable.
Tea or tincture for
the treatment of
disorder of the skin,
locomotor system,
cardiovascular system
and gynecologic
problems.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Carum carvi
L.(Kala jeera)
JulySeptembe
r
OctoberNovembe
r
Lahaul,
Mandi,
Shimla,
Bilaspur,
Sirmaur,
Kangra
Spice and
condiment
Herbal tea prepared
from the seeds is
used as remedy for
digestive disorders,
heartburn, and loss of
appetite and to dispel
worms.
Maikhuri et al.
(2000)
Corylus
jacquemontii
AprilMay
September Shimla Nuts are edible Enhance memory and
used as brain tonic.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Dipsacus
inermis Wall
(Wapal hath)
JulySeptembe
r
JulySeptember
Kinnaur,
Solan,
Chamba,
Lahaul
Tender leaves are
cooked as
vegetables
Powder of whole plant
is used in sore throat.
Root paste is used for
treatment of
leucoderma, fractured
bones and muscles.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Elaegnus
umbellata
Thunb
(Ghaiyin)
AprilMay
June-July Kullu Fruits are edible Seeds are used in the
treatment of coughs.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Eremurus
himalaicus
Baker (Chem,
Macho, Pret,
Yamkand)
June-July – Kullu,
Shimla,
Sirmaur,
Kinnaur
Tender leaves are
cooked as
vegetables
Young shoots are
cooked and used as
digestive. Powdered
roots and boiled leaves
are used by tribals to
cure fever, dysentery
and diabetes
Singh et al.
(2014)
Fagopyrum
esculentum
(Fafra, Ogla,
Buckwheat)
JulySeptembe
r
AugustOctober
Kinnaur,
Solan,
Palampur,
Shimla
Tender leaves are
cooked as
vegetablesSeed are
ground to flour
Flour of the seeds is
used for making
local dishes called
‗Hodh‘, ‗Dhoo‘ or
‗Bro‘ and
‗RangKhobra‘.
Taken as tea for a wide
range of circulatory
problems
Relief form pain.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Negi and
Subramani
(2015)
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Ficus palmata
fross (Feru)
MarchApril
June–
October
Kangra,
Kullu,
Shimla,
Mandi
Cooked fruit used
as vegetable Leaves
of ficus used to
make Kangshu (a
local dish)
Treatment of
constipation, diseases
of lungs and bladder.
Sap is used in the
treatment of warts.
Latex used to cure
toothache and moles
Chauhan et al.
( 2016)
Hippophae
Salicifolia D.
Don
(Chhuchha,
Seabuckthorn)
AprilMay
JuneSeptember
Lahaul,
Kinnaur,
Kullu
Fruits are eaten
fresh
Treatment of cardiac
disorders Applied to
the sin to heal burns.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Juniperus
indica Bertol.
(Bhitaru)
JanuaryFebruary
SeptemberOctober
Lahaul and
spiti, Kullu,
Kinnaur,
Shimla
Fresh leaves are
used in the
fermentation of
ingredients for the
wine known locally
as balma.
Leaves of Juniper are
used to increase
appetite.
Cure stomachache,
killing microorganisms
of stomach, controlling
dysentery, piles,
bronchitis etc.
Fruit is used for curing
Asthma, old bronchitis,
lever and bone marrow
related diseases.
Makhuri et al.
(2000)
Lathyrus
sativus Linn.
(Jhala)
June-July AugustSeptember
Kangra,
Kinnaur
Tender leaves are
used for making
vegetable and
immature seeds are
eaten by children.
The oil from the seeds
is a powerful cathartic
and is used locally in
homeopathic medicine.
Singh et al.,
2014
Moringa
oleifera Lam.
(Drumstick tree)
MarchMay
April-June Solan
(Darlaghat),
Una Hamirpur
Fruits and leaves
are used as
vegetable.Pods
garnished with
mustard seeds
paste are cooked
like beans and
consumed with rice.
Stem and the root for
the treatment of ear
infection.
Pandey et al.
(2011)
Morus alba
L. (Toot)
MarchApril
AprilAugust
Solan,
Kangra,
Chamba,
Bilaspur
Ripe fruits are edibleFruits are used to treat
prematurely grey hair,
―tonify‖ the
blood,treat
constipation and
diabetes. The bark is
used to treat cough,
wheezing, edema and
to promote urination.
It is also used to treat
fever, headache, red
dry and sore eyes.
Upadhyay
(2013)
Nasturtium
officinale R. Br.
MayOctober
JulyOctober
Lahaul and
SpitiKangra,
Kinnaur
Fresh leaves are
cut, washed and
friedin oil to
prepare vegetables.
The leaves are
antiscorbutic,
stimulant and
stomachic.
Treatment of
Singh et al.
(2014)
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Tuberculosis.
Freshly pressed juice
has been used
internallyand
externally in the
treatment of chest and
kidney complaints,
inflammations of the
skin etc.
Prunus
armeniaca L.
(Chulti shadi)
MarchApril
JuneAugust
Kullu, Manali Fresh fruit used for
making chutney
Ripe fruits are
edible or
fermented to make
local wine.
Dried fruits are
used for making
local beverages
called ‗Chul Rak’
or ‗Chul Phasur’
and local dishes ‗
ChulPhanting’.
Fruits are excellent for
anaemia due to its high
content of iron.Good
remedyfor
constipation.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Negi and
Subramani
(2015)
Prunus mira
koehne (Behmi)
MarchApril
June-July Shimla,
Sirmaur
Fruits and oil are
edible.
Fruits have been
applied to treat
irregular menstruation
and fractures because
of their potential to
remove blood stasis
and enhance blood
circulation.
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
Phytolacca
acinosa Roxb
(Jorbo, Jorga,
Jorba)
JulyAugust
DecemberApril
Chamba,
Lahaul and
spiti, Mandi,
Kullu,
Kinnaur
Tender leaves are
cooked as
vegetable.
Root is used
internally in the
treatment of urinary
disorders, nephritis
and abdominal
distension.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Rumex
hastatus
D. Don
(Almora)
MarchNovembe
r
MarchNovember
Chamba,
Kullu Lahual
and Spiti,
Hamirpur
Raw leaves are
eaten raw like salad
ormade into
Chutney and
pickles
Roots regulate blood
pressure.
Used against microbial
skin diseases, bilious
complaints and
jaundice.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Rumex
nepalensis
AprilAugust
AugustOctober
Mandi, Kullu Tender leaves are
made into vegetable
A paste of the root is
applied to swollen
gumsJuice of the
leaves is applied
externally to relieve
headache.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Salanum
nigrum
L.(Dhakh)
Throughout year
Throughout year
Palampur,
Kangra
Fruits are edible Gum used in the
treatment of
bronchitis,
inflammation, heavy
female discharge and
woundsLeaf juice
Chauhan et al.
(2016)
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cures
worms,treatment of
gout
Sonchus
oleraceus Linn.
(Puyanu)
May-JuneAugustOctober
Kangra,
Kullu,
Chamba,
Kinnaur
Mandi,
Sirmaur
Cooked fresh as
vegetables and
also sun- dried for
future
Consumption
Juice of plant used
for cleaning and
healing ulcers. The
latex in the sap is
used in the treatment
of warts.
The leaves are
applied as a poultice
to inflammatory
swelling.
Maikhuri et
al.
(2000)
Taxus
wallichiana
Zucc. (Thuna)
MarchMay
SeptemberOctober
Kullu,
Kinnaur
Lahual and
spiti, Shimla
Fruits are edible,
Bark and needles
are used for making
tea.
Tea used for cough
and congestion.
Chauhan et al.
( 2016)
Taxus baccata
L. subsp.
wallichiana
(Thuner)
AugustOctober
AugustOctober
Lahual and
Spiti, Mandi,
Shimla,
Bilaspur,
Solan,
Sirmaur,
Chamba
The bark of the tree
is used in the
preparation of
namkeen (salty) tea.
Treat eye diseases,
Keeps body warm
during winter.
Maikhuri et
al.
(2000)
Urtica
hyperborea
Jacquem. Ex
Wedd. (Chogya,
Zacchout)
MayAugust
— Kinnaur,
Kullu,
Mandi,
Manali,
Kangra
Cooked as
vegetable, young
shoots used to
prepare soups.
Fresh leaves are
cooked and eaten for
fever, cough and cold.
Singh et al.
(2014)
Zanthoxylum
armatum DC
(Timar)
MarchApril
JuneOctober
Manali,
Kangra,
Kullu
Seeds are ground
into a powder and
used as a
condiment.
Fruit is used to
make chutney (like
a sauce), which is
known as dunkcha.
The tree used to get
relief from toothache.
In Ayurveda, it is
used for skin diseases,
loss of smell,
heaviness and pain in
head and arthritis.
Chauhan et
al., (2016);
Kala
et al. (2005)
Leaves are sour in taste and are eaten raw as salad or made into Chutney (Singh et al.,
2014). Urtica hyperborea Jacquem. Ex Wedd. (Chogya, Zacchout) found in Mandi, Kinnaur,
Manali, Kangra and Kullu. For cooking, leaves are boiled in water and then salt and chili powder
are added. Young shoots are also used to prepare soups (Singh et al., 2014). Rumex nepalensis
Sprengel (Jangali palak, Shamo) is an herb native to Mandi and Kullu. Tender leaves are boiled,
water decanted and are cooked as sabji (cooked vegetable). However, mature leaves are
considered toxic because due to the high levels of oxalic acid (Singh et al., 2014). Kangshu is a
local dish prepared from leaves of Ficus palmate along with bamboo shoots. Leaves of other
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plants like Capsella bursapastoris Medic. (Chibotey), Eremurus himalaicus Baker (Chem,
Macho, Pret, Yamkan), Fagopyrum esculentum (Fafra, Ogla, Buckwheat), Lathyrus sativus Linn
(Jhala), Nasturtium officinale R. B (Balkhu, Bolgu) are cooked as vegetables.
Seeds
Seeds of Aesculus indica, Carum carvi L., Lathyrus sativus Linn., Zanthoxylum armatum
DC are edible. Aesculus indica (Khanor) is found in Mandi, Shimla, Dharampur, Kasauli and
Dharamsala regions of state. It is distributed up to about 3000 meters amsl. Seeds are bitter in
taste and hence need debittering before consumption. To remove bitterness, seeds are separated
from the fruits and crushed to get smaller pieces in order to remove bitterness. Crushed seeds are
kept in a big bamboo basket, and then placed under running water. These seeds are stirred daily
to enhance the cleaning process and to prevent spoilage of seeds. After washing, seeds are dried
and beaten into flour, called Tattawakher (Rajasekaran and Joginder, 2009). The flour is mixed
with wheat flour to make chapattis and is also used to make halwa (porridge). Carum carvi L.
(Kalla jeera) is found at the altitude of 2740 to 3660 meters amsl and found in Lahaul, Mandi,
Shimla, Bilaspur, Sirmaur and Kangra. Paste of seeds of kala jeera and sindhi salt is used to cure
stomach pain. Seed is also used as a spice and condiment (Maikhuri et al., 2000).
Fruits
Plants like Prunus armeniaca L., Elaegnus umbellate (Thunb), Morus alba L., Salanum
nigrum L., Fragaria indica Andr., Malus baccata (L) Borkh, Juglens regial, Hippophae
Salcifolia D. Don, Berberis lyceum Royle, Moringa oleifera Lam. are edible. Prunus armeniaca
L. (Chulti shadi) is mainly distributed in upper hills i.e. 3000 meters amsl and found in Kullu and
Manali. The fruits are covered with short hairs and have a color ranging from yellow to red; red
colour is on the side most exposed to the sun. The fruits range in taste from sweet to tart and is
consumed either fresh, or in the form of chutney. A local wine is also prepared by the
fermentation of ripe fruits. Elaegnus umbellate (Ghaiyin) is distributed at height of 1300 to 1800
meters amsl and found majorly in Kullu. The fruits are small in size and can be enjoyed only on
full ripeness as raw fruits are astringent. Ripe fruits can be processed into jam or dehydrated to
dried fruits (Chauhan et al., 2016).
Solanum nigrum L. (Dhakh) is a wild plant found in the Palampur region of Kangra
district. It is distributed from temperate to tropical region up to 3500 meters amsl. Young
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immature fruits are dull green in colour and changes to black colour on maturity. Unripe fruits
contain a toxic substance salanine and hence should only be consumed when fully ripe (Chauhan
et al., 2016). Fragaria indica Andr. (Strawberries) is located at 1000 meters amsl (Payadas and
Kaska, 1990). It‘s fruits are bright red in colour and are known as wild strawberries. The fruit
contains very low amount of sugar and is usually bland in taste, however, taste ranges from
sweet to tart.
Berberis lycium Royle (Karmashal) grows in dry hot places in the western Himalayas at
an altitude of 900 to 2700 meters amsl and found in Chamba, Hamirpur and Kangra. Its fruits are
called berries and ripe berries are consumed fresh or used for the preparation of juice. Juice
prepared from berries is slightly acid in flavor and has higher acceptability (Gupta et al., 2015).
Moringa oleifera Lam. (Drumstick tree) found in Bilaspur, Una, Hamirpur. It grows best at an
altitude of 600 meters amsl but can be found up to 1000 meters in Himalayas. Unripe fruits are
white in color and changes to brown after reaching maturity. They are delicious, and can be eaten
raw. The seeds separated from fruits can be used as salad or cooked as vegetable (Pandey et al.,
2011). Fruits of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. are used to make chutney known as dunkcha (Kala
et al., 2005).
Bark
Acacia catechu (Khair) is a tree distributed at the altitude of 1300 m above the sea level
and found in Mandi, Hamirpur, Kangra, Solan, Sirmaur, Una, Chamba, Shimla and Bilaspur. To
cure cold and cough, bark mixed with milk is taken. Katha after drying is applied on lemon slice
and taken regularly with empty stomach to cure piles. The heartwood is boiled with other
ingredients to prepare the decoction which can be taken as tea by women to keep body warm
(Singh and Lal, 2006).
References
Chauhan, P. P., A. Nigam and V. K. Santvan (2016). Ethnobotanical study of wild fruits in
Pabbar Valley, District Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. J. Medic. Plants Stud., 4(2):216-
220.
Gupta, M., A. Singh and H. C. Joshi (2015). Berberis lycium multipotential medicinal
application: An overview. Int. J. Chem. Stud., 3(4):10-13.
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Hasan, S.Z., Misra, V., Singh, S., Arora, G., Sharma, S., Sharma, S., 2009.Current status of
herbal drugs and their future perspectives. In Biol Forum Int J Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 12-17.
Kala, C. P. (2007). Prioritization of cultivated and wild edible bylocal people in the Uttaranchal
Hills of Indian Himalaya.Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 6(1):239-244.
Kar, A. and S. K. Borthakur (2008). Wild vegetable of Karbi- Angling district, Assam, Nat.
Prod.Rad., 7(5): 448-460.
Kishore, D. K. and S. K. Sharma (2006). Temperate Horticulture: Current Scenario. Error!
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Maikhuri, R. K., S. Nautiyal, K. S. Rao and R. L. Semwal (2000). Indigenous knowledge of
medicinal plants and edibles among three tribal subcommunities of the Central
Himalayas, India. Ind. Knowl. Develop. Monitor, 8(2): 7- 13.
Muehlbauer, F. J. and A. Tullu (1997). Lathyrus sativus L. Cent. Crop plants prod.
Negi, P. S. and S. P. Subramani (2015). Wild edible plant genetic resources for sustainable food
security and livelihood of Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Int. J. Conserv.
Sci., 6(4): 657-658.
Ozen, T., S. Yenigun, M. Altun and I. Demirtas (2017). Phytochemical constituents, ChEs
and urease Inhibition, antiproliferative and antioxidant properties of Elaeagnus
umbellata Thunb. Comb. Chem. High Throughput Screen,20(6):559 - 578.
Pandey, A., K. Pradheep, R. Gupta, E. R. Nayar and D. C. Bhandari (2011). ‗Drumstick
tree‘(Moringa oleifera Lam.): a multipurpose potential species in India. Genet.
Resour. Crop Evol., 58(3) : 453-460.
Paydas, S. and N. Kaska (1990). Differences in fruit bud formation on strawberries grown
at sea level and high altitude. Small Fruits, XXIII IHC, 345 : 81-92.
Rajasekaran, A. and S. Joginder (2009). Ethnobotany of Indian horse chestnut (Aesculus
indica) in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 8(2):285-286.
Reddy, K. N., C. Pattanaik, C. S. Reddy and V. S. Raju (2007).Traditional knowledge on wild
food plants in Andhra Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl., 6(1):223-229.
Rodgers, W.A., Panwar, H.S., 1988. Planning a wildlife protected area network in India.
Samant S.S., 1998. Diversity, distribution and conservation of fodder resource of west
Himalaya, India.In Misri, B. (ed.) Proceedings of the Third Temperate Pasture and
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Fodder Network (TAPAFON), Pokhra, Nepal, 9-13 March, 1998, sponsored by F.A.O.
Rome.1998, pp109- 128.
Samant S.S., Pant P., 2003. Diversity, distribution pattern and traditional Knowledge of sacred
plants of Indian Himalayan Region.Indian J. For. 26(3), pp. 201-213.
Samant, S. S. and U. Dhar (1997). Diversity, endemism andeconomic potential of wild edible
plants ofIndian Himalaya.Int. J. Sust. Dev. World, 4(3) : 179-191.
Samant, S. S., U. Dhar and L. M. S. Palni (1998). Medicinal Plants of Indian Himalaya.
Gyanodaya Prakashan.
Sathyavathi, R. and K. Janardhanan (2014). Wild edible fruits used by Badagas of Nilgiri
District, Western Ghats, Tamilnadu, India. J. Med. Plants Res., 8(2) : 128-132.
Singh D.K., Hajara, P.K., 1996. Changing perspectives of biodiversity status in the Himalaya.
British Council Division, New Delhi, pp.23-38.
Singh, J., A. Rajasekaran, A. K. Negi and N. A. Pala (2014). Wildvegetable plants used by tribal
people of Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Int. J. Usuf. Mngt., 15(2):47-56.
Singh, K. N. and B. Lal (2006). Notes on traditional uses of khair (Acacia catechu Willd.)
by inhabitants of shivalikrange in Western Himalaya. Ethnobot. Leaflets, 1 : 12.
Upadhyay, D. (2013). Ethno-botanical Important Plants in the parts of Shivalik Hills of
Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh. Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ., 3(6):50.
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*Dr. Sidramayya1
and Prakash Tamagond 2
1Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agril. Extension, SOAS, Malla Reddy University, Hyderabad
2 District Project Co-ordinator, Dept. of Agriculture, Vijayapur
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Malnutrition in India accounts for 68% of total under-five deaths and 17% of the total
disability- adjusted life years. India is home to about 30% of the world‘s stunted children and
nearly 50 per cent of severely wasted children under the age of five. Besides, India is home to
nearly half of the world‘s ―wasted or acute malnourished‖ (low weight for height ratio) children
in the world. India ranked 94 among 107 nations in the Global Hunger Index 2022 and is in the
‗serious‘ hunger category with experts blaming poor implementation processes, lack of effective
monitoring, siloed approach in tackling malnutrition and poor performance by large states behind
the low ranking.
Performance on the Indicators:
Undernourishment: 14% of India‘s population is undernourished (2017-19). It was 16.3%
during 2022.
Child Wasting: 19.3% (2022), it was 15.1% in 2010-14.
Child Stunting: 35.5%, it has improved significantly, from 54% in 2000 to less than 40%
now.
Child Mortality: 3.3%, it was 5.2% in 2012.
An average girl child aged less than 5 years is healthier than her male peers. However,
over a period of time they grow into undernourished women in India.
A quarter of women of reproductive age in India are undernourished, with a body mass
index (BMI) of less than 18.5 kg/m (Source: NFHS 4 2015-16).
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MALNUTRITION IN INDIA: STATUS AND GOVERNMENT
INITIATIVES
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Status of global hunger index score of India in 2022
Sl. No. Country Rank
Global Hunger
Index Score
**GHI Score
1 China 1-17* <5 Low
2 Sri Lanka 64 13.6 Moderate
3 Myanmar 71 15.6 Moderate
4 Nepal 81 19.1 Moderate
5 Bangladesh 84 19.6 Moderate
6 Pakistan 99 26.1 Serious
7 India 107 29.1 Serious
8 Afghanistan 109 29.9 Serious
* 17 countries have scores of less than 5 & are collectively ranked 1-17
**Global hunger index score is computed using four indicators namely, undernourishment, child
wasting, child stunting and child mortality.
Malnutrition and anaemia are common among Indian adults.
Both malnutrition and anaemia have increased among women since 1998-99.
33% of married women and 28% of men are too thin, according to the body mass index
(BMI), an indicator derived from height and weight measurements.
Underweight is most common among the poor, the rural population, adults who have no
education and scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
2% of women and 24.3% of men suffer from anaemia, and have lower than normal levels
of blood haemoglobin.
Anaemia has increased in ever-married women from 1998-99. Among pregnant women,
anaemia has increased from 50% to almost 58%.
Statewise Malnutrition data
Stunting
Meghalaya has the highest number of stunted children (46.5%), followed by Bihar
(42.9%). Assam, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh have stunted children higher than the national average of 35.5%. Puducherry and Sikkim
have the lowest percentage of stunted children.
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Wasted Children
Maharashtra has highest (25.6%) per cent of wasted children followed by Gujarat
(25.1%). Assam, Bihar, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Karnataka and West Bengal have a higher
percentage of wasted children (weight for height) than the national average of 19.3%.
Underweight
Bihar has the highest (41%) per cent of underweight children followed by Gujarat
(39.7%) and Jharkhand (39.4%).Assam, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh have a higher percentage of underweight children than the
national average of 32.1%.
Below normal BMI
The NFHS-5 data shows that Jharkhand has the highest percentage of women, between 15
and 49 years, who have a below-normal Body Mass Index (BMI). More than 26% Jharkhand
women have below-normal BMI, the national average being 18.5%.
Body Mass Index is a value derived from mass and height of a person, and an indicator of
under-nutrition.
Undernourished: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha also
have high percentages of undernourished women.
Multi-dimensional determinants in children in India
Mother’s health: Scientists say the initial 1,000 days of an individual‘s lifespan, from the day of
conception till he or she turns two, is crucial for physical and cognitive development. But more
than half the women of childbearing age are anaemic and 33 per cent are undernourished,
according to NFHS 2006. A malnourished mother is more likely to give birth to malnourished
children.
Large families: Rapid succession of pregnancies adversely affects the nutritional status of the
mother. In large families per capita availability of food is also less.
Social inequality: For example, girl children are more likely to be malnourished than boys, and
low-caste children than upper-caste children.
Inequitable distribution of food: In most of the poor households, women and preschool
children especially girls receive less food than the economically active male members.
Sanitation: Most children in rural areas and urban slums still lack sanitation.
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This makes them vulnerable to the kinds of chronic intestinal diseases that prevent bodies from
making good use of nutrients in food, and they become malnourished.
Lack of sanitation, poor quality housing and clean drinking water are the reasons high
levels of malnutrition persists in India despite improvement in food availability.
Lack of diversified food: With the increase in diversity in food intake malnutrition
(stunted/underweight) status declines. Only 12% of children are likely to be stunted and
underweight in areas where diversity in food intake is high, while around 50% children are
stunted if they consume less than three food items.
Lack of food security: The dismal health of Indian women and children is primarily due to lack
of food security. Nearly one-third of adults in the country have a body mass index (BMI) below
normal just because they do not have enough food to eat.
Failure of government approaches: India already has two robust national programmes
addressing malnutrition the Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS) and the National
Health Mission but these do not yet reach enough people. The delivery system is also inadequate
and plagued by inefficiency and corruption. Some analysts estimate that 40 per cent of the
subsidized food never reaches the intended recipients
Disease spread: Most child deaths in India occur from treatable diseases like pneumonia,
diarrhoea, malaria and complications at birth. The child may eventually die of a disease, but that
disease becomes lethal because the child is malnourished and unable to put up resistance to it.
Poverty: Because of low purchasing power, the poor cannot afford to buy the desired amount
and desired quality of food for the family. This starts a vicious cycle of poverty, undernutrition,
diminished work capacity, low earning and poverty
Lack of nutrition: Significant cause of malnutrition is also the deliberate failure of
malnourished people to choose nutritious food.
Feeding habits: Lack of awareness of nutritional qualities of food, irrational beliefs about food,
inappropriate child rearing and feeding habits all lead to undernutrition in the family.
An international study found that the poor in developing countries had enough money to
increase their food spending by as much as 30 per cent but that this money was spent on alcohol,
tobacco and festivals instead.
Infections: Infections like malaria and measles or recurrent attacks of diarrhoea may precipitate
acute malnutrition and aggravate the existing nutritional deficit.
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Government initiatives to tackle malnutrition:
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (2017): Rupees 6,000 is transferred directly to
the bank accounts of pregnant women for availing better facilities for their delivery to
compensate for wage loss and is eligible for the first child of the family. Implementation of
the scheme is closely monitored by the central and state governments through the Pradhan
Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana-Common Application Software (PMMVY-CAS).
POSHAN Abhiyaan (2017): This programme is implemented by The Ministry of Women
and Child Development (MWCD) with the aims to reduce stunting, under-nutrition, anaemia
and low birth weight babies through synergy and convergence among different programmes,
better monitoring and improved community mobilization.
National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, aims to ensure food and nutrition security for
the most vulnerable through its associated schemes and programmes, making access to food
a legal right.
Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (2010): It is a Conditional Maternity Benefit
scheme implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development as the centrally
sponsored scheme.It was launched for pregnant and lactating women to improve their health
and nutrition status to better-enable the environment by providing cash incentives to
pregnant and nursing mothers.
National Food Security Mission (2007-08): Launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers‘ Welfare as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. It was based on the recommendations
of the agriculture sub-committee of the National Development Council (NDC). It focuses on
the sustainable increase in the production of targeted crops through area expansion and
productivity enhancement.
Mid-day Meal (MDM) scheme (1995): Aims to improve nutritional levels among school
children which also has a direct and positive impact on enrolment, retention and attendance
in schools. It covers all school students studying in Classes 1-8 of government schools,
government-aided schools, special training centres, including madrasas supported under
Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Integrated Child Development Services (1975): The programme is implemented by
Ministry of Women and Child Development with its network of 1.4 million Anganwadi
Centres, reaching almost 100 million beneficiaries who include pregnant and lactating
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mothers and children up to 6 years. It represents one of the world‘s largest and unique
programmes for early childhood care and development.
Public Distribution System (PDS) that reaches over 800 million people under the National
Food Security Act.
National Nutrition Mission (NNM): The Ministry of Women and Child Development is
the nodal ministry for implementation. It is the government‘s flagship programme to
improve nutritional outcomes for children, pregnant women and lactating mothers. The aim
of this programme is to reduce stunting and wasting by 2 percent per year (total 6 per cent
until 2022) among children and anaemia by 3 percent per year (total 9 per cent until 2022)
among children, adolescent girls and pregnant women and lactating mothers.
National Nutrition Strategy: Additionally, NITI Aayog has worked on a National Nutrition
Strategy (NNS), isolated the 100 most backward districts for stunting and prioritised those
for interventions.This strategy aims to reduce all forms of malnutrition by 2030, with a focus
on the most vulnerable and critical age groups. The strategy also aims to assist in achieving
the targets identified as part of the Sustainable Development Goals related to nutrition and
health.
IYCF (Infant and Young child feeding), Food and Nutrition, Immunization, Institutional
Delivery, WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene), De-worming, ORS-Zinc, Food
Fortification, Dietary Diversification, Adolescent Nutrition, Maternal Health and Nutrition,
ECCE (Early Childhood care and Education), Convergence, ICT-RTM (Information and
Communication. Technology enabled Real Time Monitoring), Capacity Building.
Addressing Malnutrition: Measures needed
According to National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-4 conducted in 2015-16, 21 per cent
of children in India under-5 suffered from Moderate Acute Malnourishment (MAM) and 7.5 per
cent suffered from Severe Acute Malnourishment (SAM).
Reduce the burgeoning burden of acute malnutrition and ensure early identification and
treatment of SAM children to stop them from further slipping into the vicious cycle of
malnutrition.
The second step is, treatment of SAM children without any complications at community
level through Village Child Development Centre (VCDC) by using different centrally and
locally produced therapeutic food.
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Enrol such children in Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres.
These energy-dense formulations are often at the core of nourishing the children since they
are fortified with critical macro- and micro-nutrients. It ensures that the target population
gains weight within a short span of six to eight weeks.
Follow up of such children is needed to prevent relapse of malnutrition and ensure adequate
food supply to the target population.
ASHA workers must be given adequate remuneration to be able to carry out this
responsibility with more rigour.
Nutrition is not a peripheral concern rather a central to our existence; a pro-equity agenda
that mainstreams nutrition into food systems and health systems, supported by strong financing
and accountability is the greatest need. Only five years are left to meet the 2025 global nutrition
targets, while the time is running out, the focus should be on an action that provides the
maximum impact.
Conclusion:
Despite the decrease, India has one of the highest burdens of malnutrition in the world.
The Supplementary Nutrition Programme under Anganwadi Services and POSHAN Abhiyaan
have been converged to form the ‗Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0, which seeks to
address the challenges of malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant women and
lactating mothers. Its implementation should be expedited.
References
World Bank. World bank report on malnutrition in India. Washington, DC: The World Bank;
2009.
International Food Policy Research Institute. Global nutrition 2016: from promise to impact:
ending malnutrition by 2030. Washington, DC: IFPRI; 2016.
NITI Aayog. Nourishing India: national nutrition strategy. New Delhi: Government of India;
2016.
https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1907187#:~:text=As%20per%20the%20
Global%20Hunger,child%20mortality%20rate%20is%203.3%25.
https://www.nextias.com/current-affairs/28-07-2022/malnutrition-in-india
https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html
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Dr.G.Sridevi
Assistant Professor (SS & AC), Agricultural College & Research Institute (AC & RI),
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Heavy use of chemicals in agriculture has weakened the ecological base in addition to
degradation of soil water resources andquality of food. At this juncture , a keen awareness has
sprung has the adoption of organic farming as a remedy to cure the ills of modern chemical
agriculture. With increased awareness on organic farming among the farming community, they
are using many organic formulation in crop production for increasing the yield. Organic manures
play a key role in sustaining crop growth and productivity Use of foliar formulations is gaining
importance in crop production owing to its quick response in plant growth. Foliar feeding has
proved to be the fastest way of curing nutrient deficiencies and boosting plant performances at
specific physiological stages.
Traditional organic formulation may contain numerous plant growth promoting bacteria
which may enhance plant growth by nitrogen fixation growth hormone production and control
phytopathogens. Panchakavya is a term used in Ayurveda fermented product made from five
ingredients obtained from cow, such as milk, curd, urine, dung and clarified butter. Role of foliar
applied panchakavya in production of many plantation crops has been well documented in India.
Panchakavya is a popular foliar nutrition prepared by organic growers of Tamil Nadu as an
indigenous material and used rightly for agricultural and horticultural crops.
Egg amino acid is a fermented product made from the ingredients obtained from egg,
lemon and jaggery. Egg lime mix with Panchakavya sprayed over the plants produced larger
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BIOSTIMULANTS PRODUCTS (PANCHAKAVYA AND EGG
AMINO ACID) ON NUTRIENT ACQUISITION AND
QUALITY OF GREENS
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leaves and developed dense canopy , stem produced lateral shoots. Rooting was profuse and
dense helped in better intake of nutrients and water.
Preparation of Panchakavya
Mix the cow dung - 7kg and cow ghee - 1kg thoroughly both in morning and evening
hours and keep it for 3 days. After 3 days mix cow urine and keep it for 15 days with regular
mixing both in morning and evening hours. After 15 days mix the cow milk -3litres , cow curd -
2 lit.
Prepartation of egg amino acid
20 number of ripened lemon was squeezed and the juice was taken in plastic container,
then 10 number of eggs kept inside the lemon juice till the eggs were soaked completely and kept
for 10 days. After 10 days, eggs were smashed well and 250gm jaggery was added and kept for
10days. The content was filtered after 10 days and liquid portion was collected and stored in
separate plastic bottle for foliar spray.
Foliar Spray
For spray treatment, respective percentage of panchakavya and egg amino acid solution
was made. After dilution these solutions has to be filtered before using it to spraying. These
solutions are sprayed at weekly interval upto 30 DAS.
Egg aminoacid Panchagavya
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Nutrient Composition of Biostimulant Products
Egg aminoacid contain 1.2 percent total nitrogen, 0.4 % total phosphorus and 0.6 %
total potassium and in panchagava , total nitrogen content is 0.7 %, total phosphorus content is
0.2 % and total potassium content is 0.5 %.
Yield
Foliar application of egg amino acid could maximize uptake and minimize runoff or
leaching, providing just enough nitrogen to the plant for the production of chlorophyll to maintain
plant health Pagar et al., (2016). Foliar Application of egg aminoacid and panchagavya improves
the green yield of palak and amaranthus . The highest palak yield (18.1 t ha-1 and 9.3 t ha-1
) was
recorded in foliar application of egg aminoacid and panchagavya spray . Jayasree and George
(2006) reported that egg lime mix with panchagavya treated plants showed an increase in fruit
weight (34.2 g fruit-1
) than the control (22.0 g fruit-1
) in tomato.
Conclusion
Bio stimulant products attempted as foliar spray significantly improved the yield of greens
Results proved that egg amino acids (EAA) as promising organic spray for enhanced Palak and
amaranthus growth and yield. Use of organic sprays EAA and Panchakavya could be used as a
valuable organic liquid fertilizer for better yield and sustaining the soil health.
References
Jayassree P, George A. Do biodynamic practices influence on yield, quality and economics of
cultivation of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). J Tropical Agric., 2006; 44(1-2):68-70
Pagar, R. D., Patel, M. M and Munde, S. D. 2016. Influenced of panchagavya on growth and yield
of wheat. Agriculture for Sustainable Development. 3(1):57- 59
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Dr.M.Venkatraman*
Assistant Professor (Horticulture), School of Agricultural Sciences,
Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan University, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
It originated from Mexico, then went to America, Central Asia and then to India.
Although, these trees have been seen all along the highways in India, no one knew about its
culinary use. It resembles tamarind and is widely called as Manila Tamarind. It is an acrid
eatable organic fruit for the most part utilize for cooking, contains high wholesome esteem and
various medical advantages for body. Besides being a viable normal cure, it is more moderate
contrasted with high cost medicines in clinics and restorative centers. The bark and pulp of
Manila Tamarind is used as a traditional remedy against gum ailments, toothache, and
hemorrhage. Bark extract is also used against dysentery, diarrhea, and constipation. An extract of
leaves is used for gall bladder ailments and to prevent miscarriage. Seeds when grounds are used
to cleanse ulcers. Numerous studies have been performed on anti-oxidant, anti- inflammatory,
anti- diabetic, anti- cancer properties of Manila tamarind. It provides relief from pain, eczema,
fever, cold, sore throat, pigmentation, acne and pimples.
Chemical constituents
Tannin, 25.36%; fixed oil, 18.22%, olein.
A glycoside quercitin has been isolated.
Seeds have been reported to contain steroids, saponins, lipids, phospholipids, glycosides,
glycolipids and polysaccharides.
Bark yields 37% tannins of the catechol type.
Leaves yield quercitin, kaempferol, dulcitol and afezilin.
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MEDICINAL PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS
OF MANILA TAMARIND
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Fatty acid analysis of seed extract yielded 9 saturated and 17 unsaturated fatty acids
Total protein content was highest in the seeds (50.3-67.1%), followed by stems, roots, leaves,
flowers and fruits.
Ethanolic extract of fruits yielded ten compounds viz. (1) 2, 5, 6-trimethyl 1, 3-oxathiane,
(2) trans-3-methyl-2-N- propylthiophane, (3) 2-furan carboxaldehyde-5- (hydroxymethyl),
(4) D-pinitol, (5) heptacosanoic acid, (6) hexadecanoic acid, (7) tetracosanol, (8) 22-
tricosenoicacid, (9) methyl-2-hydroxy icosanoate and (10) stigmasterol.
Evaluation of seed protein flour showed a protein content of 39.22%, calcium 48 mg, and
phosphorus 542 mg/100
g. Major amino acids were glutamic acid, arginine, aspartic acid, lysine, valine, threonine and
leucine. Ratio of essential to nonessential amino acid was 0.61. Total polyphenol content was
294 mg/100g.
Nutritional Value of ManilaTamarind
Energy 78 kcal
Water 77.8%
Protein 3%
Fat 4%
Carbohydrate 18.2%
Fiber 1.2%
Ash 6%
Calcium (1.3% RDI) 13 mg
Phosphorous (4.2% RDI) 42mg
Iron (2.7% RDI) 5mg
Sodium 19mg
Potassium (6.3% RDI) 222mg
Vitamin A 15mg
Thiamin/B1 (16.6% RDI) 24mg
Riboflavin/B2 (5.8% RDI) 10mg
Niacin/B6 (3% RDI) 60mg
Vitamin C (221% RDI) 133mg
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GC-MS study of leaves yielded bioactive constituents: phytol, anthracene, 9(3butenyl),
diisooctyl phthalate, 13- docosenamide, 3,6,9-triethyl3,6,9trimethyl formic acid,
cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl, l (+) ascorbic acid 2,6dihexadecanoate.
Medicinal uses
Anti-Inflammatory / Antibacterial: Study of the fresh flowers of Pithecellobiumdulce
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yielded a glycoside quercitin. The activity of the flavonol glycoside confirmed its antiinflammatory andantibacterialproperties.
Antioxidant: Study of the aqueous extract of Pithecellobiumdulce leaves revealed
phenolics including flavonoids and showed potent free radical scavenging activity.
Anti-inflammatory:Anti-inflammatory triterpenesaponins of Pithecellobiumdulce: A new
bisdesmodictriterpenoidsaponin, dulcin, was isolated from the seeds of PD.
Anti-tuberculosis / Antimicrobial: Hexane, chloroformand alcoholic leaf extracts were
studied for activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains. The alcoholic extract
showed good inhibitory activity andantimicrobial activity against secondary pathogens
Anti-Diabetic: Study of ethanolic and aqueous leaf extract of P dulce in STZ-induced
diabetic model in rats showed significant activity, aqueous more than the alcoholic extract,
comparable to glibenclamide.
Anti-Ulcer: Study of the hydroalcoholic extract of PD was found to possess good
antioxidant activity and suggests possible antiulcer activity with its free-radical
scavenging and inhibition of H, K-ATPase activities comparable to omeprazole.
Phytochemical screening yielded flavonoids - quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, naringin,
daidzein.
Hepatoprotective: Study of an aqueous extract of P. dulce in a murine model showed
hepatoprotection against CCl4-induced oxidative impairments probably through its
antioxidative property. Results were supported by histological findings.
CNS Depressant: Study evaluating the locomotor activity of aqueous and alcoholic
extracts of PD in albino mice showed significant CNS depression, the alcoholic extract
exhibiting greater effect when compared to chlorpromazine. The activity was attributed to
an increase in the concentration of GABA in the brain.
Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory: Study of methanol extract showed significant antiinflammatory and analgesic effects comparable to standard drugs.
Antioxidant / Antibacterial: Study of fruit peel for antioxidant and antibacterial potential
revealedsignificant activity in the ethyl acetate, methanolic, and aqueous extracts.
Antioxidant: Study evaluated aqueous and methanol extracts of seeds for antioxidant
potential. Resultsshowed good dose-dependent free radical scavenging activity in all the
models. The activity was attributed to high phenolic contents.
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Hypolipidemic: Study evaluated the anti-hyperlipidemic activity of an aqueous extract of
leaves against triton induced hyperlipidemia in rats. Results showed lipid effects with a
decrease in total serum cholesterol, LDL, and an increase in serum HDL cholesterol level.
Adulticidal: Study evaluated the adulticidal activity of various solvent leaf and seed
extracts against Culexquinquefasciatus. Results showed the crude extract of P. dulce has
excellent potential for controlling filiariasis vector mosquito Cxquinquefasciatus.
Antimicrobial: Study evaluated the antimicrobial activity of leaf of P. dulce against 20
pathogenic microorganisms. Results showed extracts possess bioactive compounds with
significant antimicrobial activities.
α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase : Study evaluated bark and leaves of P. dulce for aamylase and a-glucosidase inhibition in vitro. a-amylase and a-gluscosidase inhibitors
from food-grade plant sources offer an alternative approach for the treatment of postprandial hyperglycemia by decrease glucose release from starch and delaying
carbohydrate absorption. Results confirmed a-glucosidase and a-amylase inhibitory
activity of a methanol and ethanol extract.
Health benefits
Works as Antiseptic
Lightens Skin
Prevents Hair Loss
Treats Oily Scalp
Aids Weight Loss
Good for Pregnant Women
Treat Bilious Disorders
Treats Fever
Cures Malaria
Treats Jaundice
Regulates Blood Circulation
Controls Blood Sugar Levels
BoostsImmune System
Relieves Inflammation
Cures Mouth Ulcers
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Prevents Cancer
Eliminates pigmentation
Cures Acne and Pimples
Removes Dark Spot
Natural Skin Moisturizer
Used to treat Venereal diseases(sexually TransmittedInfection)
Leaves - Remedy for indigestion
Bark - curative for bowel movement/constipation
Manila tamarind is also prescribed for diabetics
High in diet C which contributes to the anti-oxidantproperty
Manila tamarind contains
Vitamin E - this contributes to aging.
Vitamin B1 -this helps to nourish the nerves and thebrain.
Vitamin B2 - this contributes to the skin, nails and hairhealth.
Vitamin B3 (niacin) - which contributes to decreaselevels of cholesterol.
Calcium- this helps to give a boost to bones and enamel.
Phosphorus - this contributes to the expansion andrestoration of body.
Iron -this contributes to the prevention of fatigue of thebody.
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*1K.Kalaichelvi and 2C.Harisudan
1Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Sugarcane Research Station, Cuddalore – 607 001
2Associate Professor (Agronomy), Regional Research Station, Viridhachalam – 606 001
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
The taungya system, a method of establishing forest species in temporary combination
with field crops, was attempted in the Indian subcontinent soon after its first introduction by
Brandis in Burma in 1856. However, regular taungya cultivation was not taken up until 1911
when it was used for raising plantations of Shorea robusta and Tectona grandis in 1912. Later, it
became a standard practice for regenerating and/or establishing forest plantations in a number of
places. The system, which is initiated and executed by the Forest Department, allows the
cultivators to raise agricultural crops in the reserve forest area allocated for new plantations.
Input and care given to the agricultural crops in the interspaces improve the growth of the
associated trees. The major forest species raised in taungya cultivation are Shorea robusta and
Tectona grandis. A number of other fast-growing tree species were also taken up under this
system in order to exploit the advantages of the soil enriching benefits associated with the
growing of agricultural crops in the inter-row spaces. The intercrops varied according to the
agro-ecological situation. Some of the main crops are rice, millet, maize, gram, mustard,
sugarcane, cassava, cotton and potatoes. The system is practised in India and Sri Lanka. Studies
to evaluate changes in fertility of forest soil after the harvest of inter-cultivated crops have
registered a definite increase in organic carbon, phosphorus and potassium (FAO, 1981). In
poplar plantations, the yield of interplanted rice, make and wheat was 4,000, 3,000 and 3,000 kg
per hectare, respectively. The height of Dalbergia sissoo in combination with peanuts increased
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AGROFORESTRY – TREES + FIELD CROPS – AN
OUTLOOK
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up to 23 percent compared to control plots in the initial stages (58.8 cm against 47 cm).
Intercropping of turmeric (Curcuma longa) in the established plantation of Tectona grandis,
Shorea robusta and other common forest species resulted in encouraging responses. A yield of
1,200 kg per hectare of turmeric was obtained when the plantations were two years old. With
increasing age of plantations, however, the yield of turmeric decreased.
Under the taungya system as followed in Sri Lanka, the emphasis is on reafforestation of
land that is abandoned by non-resident cultivators within a period of three years. The main tree
species planted are Tectona grandis and Eucalyptus camaldulensis and intercropping of a variety
of agricultural crops is done. Prominent among such intercrops are rice, maize, plantain, chilli
and mustard. The area under this system in Sri Lanka is decreasing drastically due to the lack of
farmers interested in the practice. The high labour requirement is also a major deterrent.
Silvipastoral systems
The systems have a strong pastoral bias, permitting the combination of animal husbandry
with agriculture since free grazing of cattle is rarely allowed. The systems are agrisilvicultural
rather than silvopastoral. Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Acacia cupressiformis, Pongamia
pinnata, and Gliricidia sepium are some of the tree species which are present in farmlands for
meeting fodder requirements. The partial shade cast by the trees reduces insolation and soil
temperature which is beneficial to the associated field crops. It is a common sight in certain parts
of Uttar Pradesh, India to see individual fields surrounded by very closely planted rows of
Dalbergia sissoo and Syzygium cuminii which are normally raised on high bunds along the
boundaries. Similarly Azadirachta indica, Melia azadirachta, and Albizia lebbek have been
traditionally planted on the field borders in the semi-arid areas. Under dryland cropping systems,
deficiency of soil moisture is the greatest limitation for crop production. Normally, these tree
combinations are selected in such a way that the different species do not extract much moisture
from the same soil layer.
Silvipastoral system
Dalbergia sisoo (9.5mx9.5m) 64.0 timber per hectare per year
+ Chrysopogan fulvus (grass) 5.5t grass/ha/year
Acacia catecheu(4.5mx4.5m) 71.3t timber per ha per year
+ Eulaliopis sinata (grass) 5.3t
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Field boundaries
Trees can be planted along field boundaries and irrigation channels and also within the
fields. The preferred tree species are Eucalyptus tereticornis, Poplus spp. and Dalbergia sissoo
which cast only light shade. Eucalyptus grows fast to produce a straight cylindrical bole which is
in much demand as round and sawn timber and as pulpwood. Lops and tops are used as fuel.
Dalbergia sisoo provides high-quality furniture wood, fuel and fodder.
Poplar cultivation is presently spread over 0.312 million ha, 99% of which is grown
in agroforestry by over 0.3 million small growers, 60% being inside fields and 40% on field
boundaries. Twenty to thirty million poplar saplings are planted annually by around 60000 small
growers. Each year, poplar produces 8 million tone fresh timber, 1.8 million tones pulpwood, 3
million tone firewood, and generate over 100 million person days employment largely in rural
areas where job opportunities are very less.
For example, poplar and eucalyptus based agroforestry model in Haryana provides
millions of employment and has emerged as largest market for wood industry. Apart from
Haryana, this market attracts wood from Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh. For the year 2003, they recorded average daily arrival of wood 1000 loads (96 %
trolleys, 3.5 % trucks and 0.5 % carts) containing 75,00 tonnes of wood with a value of Rs 12.5
million. They recorded 796 agroforestry based units at Yamunanagar, engaging 4,075 persons
per day. In addition, 671 industries subsidiary to agroforestry are providing employment to 6068
persons per day. It is estimated that around 2000 persons are daily engaged in felling of trees in
command area of Yamunanagar market. Overall, it was estimated that wood based industries of
Yamunanagar generate about 35 million man days work yielding Rs 3,000 million every year.
Teak based agroforetsry
Teak is one of best tree grown for timber. It is more suitable for alley, bund and boundary
or channel side plantation. Teak based agri-silvi-horti-pastoral models have developed by
Agricultural Research Station, Dharwad involving arable crops (Sorghum, groundnut, chilli and
ragi) silvicultural crop (teak), horticultural crop (papaya) and pastoral crops (subabul and grass).
At end of 22-years agroforestry model, integration of teak and papaya with agricultural crops
resulted in highest net returns (Rs.12,316ha-1
yr-1
) followed by field crop+ teak+ papaya+ grass
(Rs.10,977 ha-1
yr
-1
) and field crops+teak+papaya+subabul (Rs.9,328 ha-1
yr
-1
) as compared to
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field crop (Rs.3,546 ha-1
yr-1
).This technology is demonstrated in the farmers‘ field under
Technology Extension Project on Agroforestry – II.
Eucalyptus based agroforestry
In India it is second most widely planted species after teak. Except the north eastern
states, it has been planted on a large scale in the country. Eucalyptus based agroforestry
technology is very much popular. Farmers can expect on an average net returns upto ` 3,00,000/
hectare at 4 years rotation from irrigated clonal eucalyptus plantations assuming yield of 150
tones and current farm gate price of ` 2000/ per ton for eucalyptus logs. Leaucana leucocephala
is cropped with pigeonpea, sorghum and blackgram
Prosopis cineraria have a very deep taproot system and hence it does not generally
compete for moisture with the associated crops. The tree is ready for lopping during the eighth
year of its life in the 350-400 mm rainfall zone. The anticipated annual yields of fuelwood, dry
leaves and pods from a mature khejri tree in the 350-500 mm rainfall zone are 40-70 kg, 20-30
kg and 5 kg per tree, respectively. Singh and Lai (1969) reported an increase in soil silt and clay
content to 120 cm under Prosopis cineraria while in the open field it was only down to 90 cm.
Soil-moisture studies conducted under different desertic tree species (Aggarwal et al, 1976;
Gupta and Saxena, 1978) have demonstrated higher moisture content under khejri trees than in
open fields. The improved physical soil conditions, coupled with higher availability of nutrients
under the khejri canopy, explain the better growth of the crops associated with it.
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*Sowmiya . S, P. Dhamodharan and N. Arivukkumar
Department of Agronomy, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Nutrient management is one of the most important need for sustainable agriculture. Due
to imbalance use of chemical fertilizers, it resulted in deterioration in soil health, environmental
pollution, deficiency of micro nutrients and destruction of growth of micro-organisms. As the
fertilizer consumption is increasing day by day it resulted in nutrient mining, deficiency of
secondary and micro-nutrient, low nutrient use efficiency, decline in soil organic carbon etc. To
maintain and enhance the availability of fertilizers the 4R strategies right source, right time, right
place and right rate must be applied. Current trends in nutrient management for sustainable
agriculture are balance fertilizer application to crops, real time nutrient management, fertigation,
integrated plant nutrient management, site specific nutrient management and soil test crop
response are the major trends. Some important instruments like LCC (Leaf color chart), Spad
meter, chlorophyll meter, nutrient expert, nutrient manager, GIS and GPS based fertility maps
are used.
Fertilizer use scenario
Fertilizer accounts for 50% increase in the country‘s food grain production. Fertilizer
consumption in India increased by about 13 times during 1970 to 2020 (FAI, 2020). India is the
second largest consumer, third largest producer and the largest importer of fertilizers in the
world. Approximately 45 million tonns of nutrients NPK will be required to produce 300 mt of
food grains to feed 1.4 billion people by 2025.
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CURRENT TRENDS ON NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
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Nutrient Management issues with respect to Indian Agriculture
Nutrient mining
The continuous mining of nutrients from soils coupled with inadequate and imbalanced
fertilizer use has resulted in emergence of multinutrient deficiencies. The deficiencies of at least
six nutrients (N, P, K, S, Zn and B) are quite widespread in Indian soils.The problem of
secondary and micronutrients is more acute under high productive and intensively cultivated
areas.
Increasing secondary and micro nutrient deficiencies
Out of secondary nutrients, sulphur deficiency constitute 46% in Indian soils. The percent
increase in yield with application of sulphur varies from 14.36-55.35% in cereals, 19.85-67.65%
in pulses and 27.78-60.24% in oilseed crops.
Current Trends in Nutrient Management
1. Balanced fertilizer application to crops
2. Real time nutrient management by leaf colour chart
3. Fertigation
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4. IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient Management System)
5. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM)
6. Soil Test Crop Response (STCR)
1. Balanced fertilizer application to crops
To maintain and enhance the availability of fertilizers the 4R strategies must be applied.
o right source
o right time
o right place and
o right rate
Customized fertilizers (area and crop specific)
Customized fertilizer is defined as multi nutrients carriers designed to contain macro and
/ micro nutrients forms both from inorganic and/or organic sources, manufactured through a
systematic process of granulation, satisfying the crop nutritional needs specific to its site, soil
and stage, validated by a scientific crop model capability developed by an accredited fertilizer
manufacturing/marketing company. The main aim of customized fertilizers is to promote sitespecific nutrient in order to achieve the maximum fertilizer use efficiency of applied nutrient in a
cost effective manner. It is a key component of SSNM and precision agriculture which promote
maximum fertilizer use efficiency of applied nutrient in a cost effective manner. It is a soil cropclimate based fertilizer take care of all the nutrients and supply these nutrient in a right
proportion. It increases crop yield and quality and economic returns. Improves soil health as it is
site and crop specific fertilizers.
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Slow release fertilizers
These fertilizers are labour and time saving because fertilizers need to be applied only
once. Increased nutrient recovery resulting in a higher return on investment for applying
fertilizers. Improve yield and reduced negative environmental impact.
example Sulphur coated urea, Urea super granule.
Controlled release of fertilizers (crop and climate specific)
Controlled release of fertilizers use sophisticated polymer coating technologies to
carefully manipulate nutrient release characteristics to meet the specific nutrient uptake needs of
specific crop and the particular climatic conditions.
Fertilisers with nitrification and urease inhibitors
Nitrification inhibitors are compounds that delay bacterial oxidation of the ammonium
ion and nitrite by depressing over a certain period of time the activities of Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter bacteria in the soil. These bacteria are used to control leaching, denitrification and to
increase the efficiency of nitrogen applied fertilizer. ex. neem coated urea.
Urease inhibitor prevent the transformation of amide-N in urea to ammonium hydroxide
and ammonium over a certain period of time. They slow down the rate at which urea hydrolyzes
in soil thus avoid volatilization losses of ammonia to the air.
Fortified fertilizer
All products covered in subsidy scheme are eligible to be fortified/coated up to 20 per
cent of their production. Eleven zinc and boron based fortified fertilizers have been included in
FCO 1985.
Examples Boronated SSP, Zincated urea, NPK Complex fortified with boron (10:26:26:0.3 and
12:32:16:0.3), DAP fortified with boron (18:46:0:0.3), NPK Complex fortified with zinc
(10:26:26:0.5 and 12:32:16:0.5), DAP fortified with zinc (18:46:0:0.5), Nitrophosphate with
potash fortified boron (15:15:15:0.2).
100% water soluble complex fertilizers
At present 16 grades of 100% water soluble fertilizers have been notified in the FCO
(1985) and are completely soluble in water as the name denoted. These fertilizers are applied by
drip irrigation or foliar application. About 80,000 tonnes of such fertilizers are used in the
country.
Example are Urea phosphate (17:44:0) and Potassium nitrate (13:0:45).
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Name
N – P2O5 – K2O
content
Solubility
(g/l) at 20 C
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
Urea
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Potassium chloride
Potassium nitrate
Potassium sulphate
Monopotassium phosphate
Phosphoric acid
34-0-0
21-0-0
46-0-0
12-61-0
18-46-0
0-0-60
13-0-44
0-0-50
0-52-34
0-52-0
1830
760
1100
282
575
347
316
110
230
457
Nano fertilizers (Nano urea)
Nano-fertilizers (NFs) significantly improve soil quality and plant growth performance
and enhance crop production with quality fruits/grains.
The management of macro-micronutrients is a big task globally, as it relies predominantly on
synthetic chemical fertilizers which may not be environmentally friendly for human beings and
may be expensive for farmers. NFs may enhance nutrient uptake and plant production by
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regulating the availability of fertilizers in the rhizosphere; extend stress resistance by improving
nutritional capacity; and increase plant defense mechanisms
EM
EM or Effective Microorganisms is a consortium culture of different effective microbes
commonly occurring in nature. Most important among them are: N2-fixers, P-solubilizers,
photosynthetic microorganisms, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, plant growth promoting
Rhizobacteria and various fungi and Actinomycetes. In this consortium, each microorganism has
its own beneficial role in nutrient cycling, plant protection and soil health and fertility
enrichment.
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PROM
Phosphate rich organic manure is produced by co-composting high-grade (32% P2O5 +/-
2%) rock phosphate in very fine size (say 80% finer than 54 microns) with Organic manure. The
finer the rock phosphate, the better is the agronomic efficiency of Phosphate rich organic
manure.
2. Real time nutrient management by leaf colour chart
• The LCC is an innovative cost effective tool for real time or need-based N
management in rice, wheat and maize.
• LCC is a visual and subjective indicator of plant nitrogen deficiency and is an
inexpensive, easy to use and alternative to chlorophyll meter /SPAD meter. It
measures leaf color intensity that is related to leaf N status.
• LCC is an ideal tool to optimize N use at high yield levels, irrespective of the source
of N applied.
• Now, it is manufactured with 4 colors called Four Panel & 6 colors called Six Panel
LCC.
• Moreover, LCC is provided with water-proof laminated sticker in the required
regional language.
Procedure to take reading by LCC
Take reading in the morning (8-10 a.m) or in the afternoon (2-4 p.m) preferably by the
same person from randomly selected fully expanded new leaves. Under the shade, measure the
color of each leaf by holding the LCC and placing the middle part of the leaf on the top of the
color stripe for comparison. If the color of the leaf falls between the two shades, then take mean
of the two values. Take reading at an interval of 7-10 days. Generally critical value for semi
dwarf high yielding varieties is 4.0. If the average value fall below 4.0, top dress N fertilizer (20-
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30 kg/ha) to correct N deficiency. LCC is also suitable for maize and wheat providing farmers
with a good diagnostic tool for detecting N deficiency. The LCC is relevant to be use for
Sugarcane, Potato, Cotton, Cassava, etc. are under Research and Development in order to
maximize the yield of these crops.
Fertigation
• Fertigation is a method of fertilizer application in which fertilizer is incorporated
within the irrigation water by the drip system.
• Improve fertilizer and water use efficiency, reduce weed growth.
• Improve quality and quantity of crop yield.
Specially water soluble fertilizer for fertigation
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Name N % P2O5 % K2O %
Polyfeed 19 19 19
Polyfeed 20 20 20
Polyfeed 11 42 11
Polyfeed 16 8 24
Polyfeed 19 19 19
Polyfeed 15 15 30
MAP 12 61 0
Multi-K 13 0 46
MKP 0 52 34
SOP 0 0 50
Advantages
• Uniform application of fertilizer nutrient
• nutrient placement in the root zone will improve availability of plant nutrient and
there uptake
• Ensures a balance and frequent nutrient supply at all stages of crop growth
• it is quick and convenient method which saves cost, time, labor, equipment and
energy, save fertilizers and
• Improve FUE by about 30 to 40 % and increase crop yield up to 25%.
3. IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient Management System)
Integrated Plant Nutrient Management refers to the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant
nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization
of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an
integrated manner.
Objectives of IPNS
• To reduce the use of inorganic fertilizers
• To restore organic matter in soil
• To enhance nutrient use efficiency
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• To maintain soil health
Components:
Soil Source:
• Mobilizing unavailable nutrients and to use appropriate crop varieties, cultural practices
and cropping system.
Mineral Fertilizer:
• Super granules, coated urea, direct use of locally available rock PO4 in acid soils, Single
Super Phosphate (SSP), MOP and micronutrient fertilizers.
Organic Sources:
• By products of farming and allied industries. FYM, droppings, crop waste, residues,
sewage, sludge, industrial waste, EM and PROM.
Biological Sources:
• Microbial inoculants substitute 15 - 40 Kg N/ha
Advantages
• Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients
• Synchronizes the nutrient demand of the crop with nutrient supply from native and
applied sources.
• Provides balanced nutrition to crops and minimizes the antagonistic effects resulting from
hidden deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.
• Improves and sustains the physical, chemical and biological functioning of soil.
• Minimizes the deterioration of soil, water and ecosystem by promoting carbon
sequestration, reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface water bodies and to
atmosphere
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4. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM)
Tools of Site Specific Nutrient Management are
a. Nutrient Expert
b. Nutrient Manager
c. GIS and GPS based fertility maps
Nutrient Expert
Developed for Wheat, Hybrid Maize and Rice. Nutrient Expert® Decision Support
System software provides the opportunity to integrate the 4R principles into a fertilizer
recommendation. Nutrient Expert® is a computer-based decision support tool for crop advisers.
This has proven particularly successful where soil testing infrastructure is weak, expensive or not
timely for multiple cropping systems. It develop an optimal planting density for a location. It
evaluate current nutrient management practices and help to determine a meaningful yield goal
based on attainable yield. It help us to estimate fertilizer NPK rates required for the selected
yield goal. It translate fertilizer NPK rates into fertilizer sources. It compare the expected or
actual benefit of current and improved practices
Nutrient Manager
An easy-to-use, interactive computer-based decision tool developed by International Rice
Research Institute. This decision tool consists of 10-15 multiple choice questions that can easily
be answered within 15 minutes by an extension worker or farmer. IRRI developed a computerbased version of Nutrient Manager for Rice in Philippines, which can be accessed by extension
workers and farmers through either the internet or a mobile phone.
GIS and GPS based fertility maps
These map help to locate the fertility level of soils from a wide distance. It also help in
site specific nutrient management, planting etc
5. Soil Test Crop Response (STCR)
• STCR approach is aiming at obtaining a basis for precise quantitative adjustment of
fertilizer doses under varying soil test values and response for targeted levels of crop
production.
• Soil test crop response (STCR) study based on soil test based fertilizer
recommendation should be carried out to develop quantitative basis for calculating
the profit maximizing dose of fertilizers based on soil test for any crop.
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• Targeted yield concept is an approach comes under STCR.
Conclusion
NM is a critically important concept in the evaluation of crop production systems. It can
be greatly impacted by fertilizer management as well as by soil- and plant-water management.
The objective of nutrient management is to increase the overall performance of cropping systems
by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses
from the field.
References
FAI (2020) Fertiliser Statistics. The Fertilizer Association of India (FAI), New Delhi.
Megha Dubey, K.K.Agrawal and Suchi Gangwar.2014. Emerging trends of nutrient management
for sustainable agriculture in India - component and tools. JNKVV Res J 48(1): 14-21.
S.P. Singh, Chanchala Rani Patel and K.K. Paikra.2020. Integrated Nutrient Management: An
Effective Approach for Sustainable Agriculture in Chhattisgarh: A Review.
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci 9(5): 1652-1662.
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*Dr.A.Thanga Hemavathy1
, Dr.R.Vinoth2
, Dr.S.Kavitha3
and N.Premalatha4
1Associate Professor (PBG), ADAC&RI, TNAU, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
2
Teaching Assistant (PBG), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
3Associate Professor (SST), Dept. of SST, TNAU, Coimbatore
4Associate Professor (PBG), TNAU, Coimbatore
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Gene editing (also called genome editing) is a group of technologies used to make precise
and targeted changes in an organism‘s Deoxy-Ribonucleic Acid (DNA). Gene editing is done
using site directed nucleaes (SDNs) such as Zinc-Finger nucleases, TALENs, CRISPR/Cas9 and
advancements such as base editing, prime editing etc. The plants modified using gene editing
techniques are referred to as gene edited plants. Gene editing is built on scientific advances and a
better understanding of natural processes. It has been possible due to advances in knowledge of
plant breeders or scientists about function and sequences of genes and available tools to add,
remove, or change a particular location of a gene or several genes. This is similar to editing in a
book with the tools available to identify the exact page, the exact paragraph and even the exact
word to be changed. Just like editing a book, where you need to be able to read the book in order
to edit, genome editing requires precise knowledge of the plant genome and the DNA sequence
of the gene you wish to edit.
Gene editing uses site directed nucleases (SDNs) to make changes that may either be a
small deletion, a substitution or the addition of a number of nucleotides. Such targeted edits
result in a new and desired characteristics.
Gene editing applications are divided into three techniques: SDN-1, SDN-2, and SDN-3:
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GENE EDITING – PRECISE AND TARGETED CHANGES IN
AGRICULTURE
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SDN-1: Produces a double-stranded break in the genome of a plant without the addition of
foreign DNA. The spontaneous repaid of this break can lead to a modification or deletion,
causing gene silencing, gene knock-out or a change in the activity of a gene. The mutations
produced in this way are of the same type that occur naturally or as a result of chemically or
radiation induced mutations.
SDN-2: Produces a double-stranded break, and while the break is repaired by the cell, a small
nucleotide template that is complementary to the target region is supplied, which is used by the
cell to repair the break. The template contains one or several small sequence changes in the
genomic code, that are copied into the plant‘s genetic material resulting in a modification of the
target gene.
SDN-3: Also induces a double-stranded break in the DNA, but is accompanied by a template
containing a gene or other sequence of genetic material. The cell‘s natural repair process then
utilizes this template to repair the break; resulting in the introduction of the genetic material.
SDN-1 and SDN-2 plants do not contain inserted foreign DNA, while SDN-3 plants may contain
foreign DNA.
Plants developed using traditional plant breeding techniques and gene edited plants, both
aim to incorporate desirable characteristics for crop improvement. The plants altered for
particular changes by the two techniques may be similar to each other, but the process of
development is different particularly in terms of precision and time to achieve final outcome.
Traditional breeding process uses cross breeding or mutagenesis triggered by chemicals or
irradiation that results in random transfer of several genes with not enough clarity on number and
location of theses in the genome. Process of selection takes years and multiple generations to
achieve desired outcome. Gene editing uses genetic and molecular knowledge to introduce
precise and targeted changes and the time taken to achieve the same outcome is typically shorter.
For example, it may take 10-12 years in conventional breeding to achieve a desired result in a
plant while gene editing takes 2-3 years to achieve the same result. Agriculture faces a variety of
challenges from drought, floods, heat, diseases and pests. At the same time, demand for
nutritious food is increasing and consumer preferences are changing. Gene edited plants have the
potential to make a positive impact in agriculture by incorporating wide range of traits for higher
crop yields, lower use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, better crop resilience to climate
stress, reduced postharvest losses, and more nutritious foods.
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The first gene edited plant to be commercialized was a soybean variety followed by high GABA
tomato.
High oleic soybean
As two genes involved in fatty acids synthesis have been turned off, resulting soybean
have three times the fry-life and a longer shelf-life compared to the current soybean oil being
sold in the market.
High GABA tomato
High GABA tomato contains around five to six times the normal level of a type of amino
acid called gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA. This was achieved by clipping out one of the
tomato‘s genes that inhibits the synthesis of GABA. It is expected to help in lowering blood
pressure.
Some other products that are approved for use include varieties of mushroom, canola, rice etc.
Non-browning mushroom
White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) has been modified with small deletions in a
specific polyphenol oxidase gene with no foreign DNA integration into the mushroom genome.
The anti-browning trait reduces the formation of brown pigment (melanin), improving the
appearance and shelf life of mushroom, and facilitating automated mechanical harvesting.
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High oil containing canola
Canola with increased oil content in seeds has been developed by activating a negative
regulator of the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), the key enzyme for producing fatty
acids for oil biosynthesis. Reducing activity of the regulator protein has resulted in significantly
increased oil content in seeds.
Bacterial blight resistant rice
Gene edited rice has been developed by disrupting the function of promoters for sugar
transport genes critical for plants susceptibility to infection by Xanthomonas sp. resulting in
resistance to bacterial blight.
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M.L. Dotaniya1*, C.K. Dotaniya2
, H.M. Meena3
, M.D. Meena1
, R.K. Doutaniya4, Kuldeep
Kumar5
, M.K. Meena1
1
ICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Bharatpur- 321 303, India
2Dept. of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, SKRAU, Bikaner-334 006, India
3
ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute Jodhpur- 342003, India
4Dept. of Agronomy, SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner-303 328, India
5
ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, RS, Kota-324002, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Growing Indian population needs 333 million tonne of food grain by 2050 to feed hungry
stomach. Natural resources crop producing potential also shrinking and fertilizer use efficiency
declining indicated a big challenge for researcher and policy makers in agriculture. Fertilizers are
substances containing essential nutrients, primarily nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium
(K) along with secondary and micronutrients, which are applied to the soil to supplement the
natural nutrient levels and promote plant growth. Farmers are rationally use the fertilizer
application in mustard cultivation without reducing the environmental health. Soil test based
recommendation of fertilizers in mustard cultivation is advocating by different agricultural
agencies. The use of appropriate fertilizers ensures optimal crop growth, yield, and quality
parameters of mustard crop in India.
Keywords: Essential plant nutrients, Chemical fertilizers, Mustard crop, Soil health
Introduction
In terms of food requirement, India's population is expected to continue growing, and by
2050, it is projected to be 1.66 billion need 333 million tonne food grain to feed hungry stomach.
To meet the food requirements of the future population, India will need to focus on sustainable
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PRECISE USE OF FERTILIZERS IN MUSTARD
CULTIVATION
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agricultural practices, technological advancements in farming, improved irrigation methods, and
better distribution and storage of food to feed hungry mouth. Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed
the essential criteria of plant nutrients. Based on the three criteria plant nutrients categorized in to
seventeen i) macro nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur); ii)
micronutrients (zinc, copper, manganese, iron, boron, molybdenum, chloride). Each of these
essential plant nutrients has specific functions within the plant, and a deficiency or excess of any
of these nutrients can lead to various physiological disorders and negatively impact plant growth
and productivity. Maintaining a balanced supply of all essential nutrients is crucial for healthy
and sustainable crop production. Soil testing and proper nutrient management practices help
ensure that plants receive the required nutrients in the right amounts.
Rapeseed-mustard (Brassica spp.) is an essential oilseed crop widely grown for its edible
oil and high-quality protein meal. It recommended nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur are
80, 40, 40, 40 kg/ha; whereas, zinc and boron are applying in particular fields. The yield of
rapeseed-mustard depends on various factors, including the judicious use of fertilizers, quality
seed, management practices, climatic factors, insect-pest incidence etc. Precise fertilizer
management is crucial to maximize crop yield, ensure economic benefits, and minimize
environmental impacts.
Fertilizers used in Rapeseed-mustard cultivation
In India, rapeseed-mustard cultivation commonly relies on the application of various
fertilizers to meet the crop's nutrient requirements. The most common fertilizers used in
rapeseed-mustard cultivation are classified into macro and micronutrient fertilizers.
(A) Macronutrient fertilizers: These plant nutrients are require higher amount to plants.
Farmers are applying major part of these nutrients during the mustard cultivation. These are
listed in below:
Urea: Urea is a widely used nitrogen fertilizer in rapeseed-mustard cultivation. It
contains 46 % N. It provides essential nitrogen to promote vegetative growth and
enhance crop productivity.
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP): DAP is a popular phosphorus fertilizer used to supply
both nitrogen and phosphorus to the crop. It contains 18% N, 46% P2O5. It aids in root
development, flowering, and seed formation.
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Muriate of Potash (MOP): MOP is a common source of potassium, which is vital for
overall plant health, water regulation, and improved resistance to various stresses. It
contains 60% K2O.
Single Super Phosphate (SSP): SSP is another phosphorus fertilizer that provides a
slow-release source of phosphorus, supporting early root development and crop
establishment. It contains 16% P2O5.
Ammonium Phosphate Sulphate: This fertilizer supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sulfur, all of which are crucial for the growth and development of rapeseed-mustard. It
contains 20% N, 20% P2O5 and 13% S.
Ammonium Nitrate: Ammonium nitrate is a nitrogen-based fertilizer that quickly
releases nitrogen for immediate plant uptake. It contains 34.5% N.
(B) Micronutrient Fertilizers: In some cases, specific micronutrient fertilizers containing
essential elements like zinc, boron, and manganese may be applied to address specific nutrient
deficiencies in the soil.
Borax: Farmers are commonly use borax (sodium tetraborate) or boric acid, which can be
applied to the soil or foliar sprayed onto the plant leaves. Borax contains 11 percent
boron. It is always recommended to conduct soil tests to determine boron levels before
applying any boron-containing fertilizers to ensure proper and balanced nutrient
management for optimal plant growth.
Zinc sulphate: it is a source of Zn for plants. Zinc sulfate is a water-soluble zinc fertilizer
that can be applied to the soil. It is commonly used in agricultural settings and can also
be used as a foliar spray.
Zinc-containing compound fertilizers: Some compound fertilizers contain zinc as one of
the essential nutrients. These fertilizers provide a combination of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and zinc in a single application.
Mechanism of plant nutrients in soil
Different fertilizers are applying for enhancing the mustard crop yield. The mechanism of
fertilizers in the soil involves a complex interplay of chemical and biological processes that
enhance plant growth and productivity (Fig. 1). Understanding the mechanism of fertilizers in
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the soil is crucial for sustainable agriculture, as it helps strike a balance between providing
essential nutrients for crop growth and minimizing environmental pollution. Here's how the
mechanism of fertilizers works in the soil:
Nutrient Dissolution: When fertilizer is applied to the soil, it dissolves and dissociates
into its ionic form (ions) due to moisture present in the soil. For example, ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3) dissociates into ammonium (NH4
+
) and nitrate (NO3
-
) ions.
Ion Exchange: Soil particles, such as clay and organic matter, possess a negative charge
and act as cation exchange sites. Nutrient ions in the soil solution are attracted to these
charged sites and are temporarily held there, preventing them from being leached away
with water.
Nutrient Uptake: Plant roots take up nutrients in their ionic form from the soil solution
through a process called root uptake. Nutrient uptake is driven by the concentration
gradient of nutrients between the soil solution and the plant root cells.
Biological Processes: Soil is teeming with microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, which
play a crucial role in nutrient cycling. For example, some bacteria can convert
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonium (NH4
+
) through a process called nitrogen
fixation. Other microorganisms help convert organic matter into mineral forms of
nutrients, making them available for plant uptake.
Nutrient Availability: The availability of nutrients to plants depends on factors such as
soil pH, temperature, moisture, and microbial activity. Some nutrients may become less
available or even get locked up in the soil under certain conditions, leading to nutrient
deficiencies in plants.
Leaching and Runoff: Excessive application of fertilizers or heavy rainfall can cause the
leaching of nutrients below the root zone, making them unavailable for plants.
Moreover, runoff from agricultural fields can carry excess nutrients, leading to water
pollution in nearby water bodies.
Fertilizer Types: Different fertilizers release nutrients at varying rates. For example,
some fertilizers release nutrients quickly (e.g., urea), while others have slow-release
formulations that provide nutrients over an extended period.
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Sustainable Practices: To optimize fertilizer use and reduce environmental impacts,
sustainable practices like precision agriculture, soil testing, and proper nutrient management
should be adopted. This ensures that plants receive adequate nutrients while minimizing
nutrient losses to the environment.
Fig. 1 Mechanism of fertilizer in soil-plant.
Nutrient management strategies in Rapeseed-Mustard
Rapeseed-mustard has specific nutrient requirements at different growth stages to achieve
optimal growth and yield. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the primary
essential nutrients needed in larger quantities, while secondary and micronutrients are also vital
for healthy crop development.
Soil Testing and Nutrient Management: Soil testing plays a pivotal role in determining the
nutrient status of the soil and formulating a customized nutrient management plan. By
analyzing soil samples, farmers can identify the existing nutrient deficiencies and excesses,
enabling them to make informed decisions on fertilizer application rates.
Balanced Fertilizer Application: A balanced approach to fertilizer application is crucial to
avoid nutrient imbalances and ensure efficient nutrient uptake. The 4R Nutrient Stewardship
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concept (Right Source, Right Rate, Right Time, Right Place) should guide farmers to apply
fertilizers at the right time and in the right amounts to meet the crop's requirements.
Split Application of Fertilizers: Rapeseed-mustard benefits from split application of
fertilizers, which involves dividing the total fertilizer dose into multiple applications during
the crop's growth stages. This approach ensures a steady and continuous supply of nutrients,
reducing nutrient losses and enhancing nutrient use efficiency.
Use of Organic Amendments: Integrating organic amendments, such as farmyard manure
(FYM) and compost, can improve soil structure, increase nutrient availability, and enhance
overall soil health. Organic matter enhances water retention capacity and aids in nutrient
release over an extended period, reducing the need for excessive chemical fertilizers.
Foliar Nutrition: Foliar application of essential nutrients, particularly during critical growth
stages, can supplement the soil-applied fertilizers and help address any deficiencies
promptly. Foliar nutrition improves nutrient absorption, especially during adverse soil
conditions or nutrient uptake limitations.
Importance of Microbial Activity: Promoting beneficial microbial activity in the soil
through organic practices and biofertilizer application can enhance nutrient availability and
nutrient cycling. Mycorrhizal fungi, for example, can help improve nutrient uptake,
particularly phosphorus, in rapeseed-mustard crops.
Precision Farming Techniques: Adopting precision farming techniques, such as variable
rate application based on remote sensing or sensor-based technology, allows farmers to tailor
fertilizer application according to the crop's specific needs, leading to more efficient use of
fertilizers.
Alongside chemical fertilizers, organic amendments like crop residue, farmyard manure
(FYM), vermi-compost, biochar and compost are often incorporated to improve soil structure,
increase organic matter content, and enhance nutrient availability. Farmers typically adopt a
balanced nutrient management approach by integrating a combination of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium fertilizers, along with organic amendments, to meet the specific nutrient
requirements of rapeseed-mustard crops.
Conclusion
The precise use of fertilizers in rapeseed-mustard cultivation is vital for sustainable agriculture
and ensuring a profitable crop. By implementing soil testing, balanced fertilizer application,
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organic amendments, and foliar nutrition, farmers can optimize nutrient use efficiency and
minimize environmental impacts. Integrating these practices with precision farming techniques
and promoting beneficial microbial activity will contribute to achieving higher yields, economic
benefits, and long-term soil health in rapeseed-mustard cultivation.
References
Bharti V.S., Dotaniya M.L., Shukla S.P., Yadav V.K. 2017. Managing soil fertility through
microbes: prospects, challenges and future strategies. In: Agro-Environmental
Sustainability (Singh J.S., Seneviratne G.). Springer, pp 81-111. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-
49724-2_5
Dotaniya M.L., Meena V.D. 2013. Rhizosphere effect on nutrient availability in soil and its
uptake by plants -a review. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India Sec. B: Biol. Sci. 85(1):1–12
DOI 10.1007/s40011-013-0297-0
Lakaria B.L., Dotaniya M.L., Meena B.P., Wanjari R.H., Biswas A.K. 2019. Soil health:
concept, components, management and opportunities. In: Choudhary A.K., Dhar S.,
Dass A. (Eds.), Advances in compost production technology. IARI, New Delhi, pp 95-
103.
Meena V.S., Meena M.K., Dotaniya M.L., Meena M.D., Jat R.S., Choudhary R.L., Singh H. ,
Rai P.K. 2021. Improvement in growth and yield of Indian mustard by using micro and
secondary nutrients fortified FYM in calcareous soil. J. Oilseed Brassica 12 (1): 38-43.
Rattan R.K., Goswami N.N. 2002. Essential nutrients and their uptake by plants. In: Sekhon
G.S., Chhonkar P.K., Das D.K., Goswami N.N., Narayanasamy G., Poonia S.R., Rattan
R.K., Sehgal J. (eds.), Fundamentals of Soil Science. Indian Society of Soil Science, New
Delhi, pp. 309-332.
Uchida R. 2000. Essential Nutrients for Plant Growth: Nutrient Functions and Deficiency
Symptoms.College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii
at Manoa. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/ oc/freepubs/ pdf/pnm3.pdf assessed on 22 July,
2023.
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*Dr. M. Manikandan, Dr. A. Shanthi, Miss. J. Keerthana and Dr. V. Kanthaswamy
Department of Horticulture
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal – 03
(A Government of Puducherry Institution affiliated to Pondicherry University)
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is an important vegetable crop, best known of the 13 species
of the genus Moringa belonging to the family Moringacea and apparently, native to western and
sub-Himalayan tracts of India. It is commonly known as ―drumstick tree‖ or ―horseradish tree‖.
It is also referred as Murungai Maram and the fruit is called Murungai-Kaai in Tamil Nadu and
in Malayalam, it is known as Muringa, and the fruit is called Muringakaya or Muringakka‖
It is one of the most nutrient-rich crop providing a rich and rare combination of nutrients,
amino acids, antioxidants, anti-aging and anti-inflammatory properties etc. It is sometimes called
the \"Mother's Best Friend\" and \"Miracle Tree\" or the \"tree of life\" since it contains essential
phytochemicals in the tree. Since the 1970s, significant nutritional research has been conducted
and in 1998, the World Health Organization has promoted moringa as an alternative to imported
food supplies to treat malnutrition .
Especially it‘s leaves contain proteins in a high concentration, all essential amino acids,
nutrients like calcium, iron, potassium and copper, vitamin A, E and group B, and also
antioxidants and polyphenols. The properties of moringa leaf are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
prevention of diabetes or antitumor and anticancer properties. The amount and number of
essential nutrients and phytochemical constituents may vary depending on the plant tissue and
age and especially on the climatic and edaphological conditions.
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NUTRACEUTICAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITY LEAF
PRODUCTION IN MIRACLE TREE
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Apart from India, it is cultivated in Africa, Sri Lanka, Mexico, Malaysia and Phillipines.
The cultivation of moringa in India is mainly in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Moringa, an indigenous plant, is now valued for production
for leaf alone because of its nutraceutical trait by adopting Here high density planting system. In
HDP crop yields are lower for single plant, although total production of the system will be
significantly higher. The effect of planting density and harvest interval on the nutritional quality
of moringa leaves did not influence crude protein (%), Ca, Mg, K, P, and Zn content.
It is considered as world‘s wonder crop. The leaves of Moringa oleifera are rich in
flavonoids, carotenoids and ascorbic acid.
Health Benefits of Moringa
Moringa is popularly known for its medicinal properties and used to cure more than 300
diseases which has been practised by the Indians and the Africans. The leaf extract possess
various pharmacological compounds such as tannins, sterols, terpenoids, flavonoids, saponins,
anthraquinones, alkaloids and reducing sugar which are present along with anti-cancerous agents
like glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, glycoside compounds and glycerol-1-9-octadecanoate.
These phytochemicals present in the leaf contribute to the following medicinal properties.
Hepatoprotective activity
The leaf extract of Moringa oleifera possess hepatoprotective effect, the ability to protect
the liver against the damages induced by antitubercular drugs such as isoniazid (INH), rifampicin
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(RMP) etc. When supplemented, the leaf extract showed potential hepatoprotective effect which
can be observed by the levels of glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (aspartate aminotransferase),
glutamic pyruvic transaminase (alanine aminotransferase), alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin in
the serum; lipids, and lipid per oxidation levels in liver.
Cardiovascular Activity
The leaf extract has the role in protecting against cardio vascular diseases. The active
components isolated from the leaves Niaziminin A and B and thiocarbamates showed
hypotensive activity. Research have also shown that it poses hypocholesterolemic effect.
Antidiabetic Activity
It is effective against diabetic disorders. Moringa extract significantly reduced the
glucose levels, HbA1c and glycogen level revealing that the aqueous extract possesses potent
antihyperglycemic and Antihyperlipedemic effect in both Insulin resistant and Insulin deficient
diabetic wistar rats
Diuretic & Antiurolithiatic Activity
The leaf extract possess both diuretic and antiurolithiatic activity also that reduces the
elevated urinary oxalate, showing a regulatory action on endogenous oxalate synthesis. The leaf
extract also significantly reduced the elevated serum levels of urea nitrogen, creatinine and uric
acid.
CNS Activity
Moringa leaf extract restores the monoamine levels of brain regions to near control
levels. The leaf extract contains flavonoids which can easily cross the blood brain barrier and
exert various effect on CNS viz memory, cognition and neurodegeneration. Triterpinoid
saponins, flavonoids have an agonistic action on GABAA receptor complex and hence may act
like benzodiazepine like molecules. Thus these compounds attribute for the CNS depressant and
muscle relaxant activity of Moringa leaf extract.
Analgesic, Antipyretic and wound healing activity:
The leaf extract of moringa possess analgesic property which is the ability of relieving
pain, antipyretic which alleviates fever and also possess wound healing activity by showing the
significant increase in wound closure rate, skin breaking strength, granuloma breaking strength,
hydroxyproline content, granuloma dry weight and decrease in scar area.
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Anti cancer activity
One of the most important property that makes moringa leaf extract important is the
potential of anti cancer activity. The possible mechanism underlying this effect is due to the
presence of the thiocarbamates, isothyocyano group which is the one responsible for the anti
tumour activity.
Antioxidant Activity
Moringa contains valuable antioxidant isolates, making it a good antioxidant due to the
presence of kaempferol, quercetin which prevents the oxidation of the free radicals from the cell
damage.
Anti Microbial Activity
It is a good anti microbial agent inhibiting the growth of pathogens viz., Mycobacterium
phlei, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Anti inflammatory activity
It possess anti inflammatory activity which may be due to the inhibition of the enzyme
cyclooxygenase and by subsequent inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis.
Field Preparation
The developed agronomic package of practice to grow and harvest moringa leaves
naturally and organically with Farm Health Standards includes Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP), Good Handling Practices (GHP).
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These high yields were obtained through sub soiling to a depth of 60 cm using a rotavator
to encourage drainage and good root development. The field is ploughed with sufficient
fertilizer (cow dung is preferred). Raised bed cultivation is prepared
Seed Rate and Spacing for HDP
The limb cutting for planting one hactare of moringa plant was between 6.6 lakh to 1.25
lakh . Regarding seeds which requires 2.5 kg per ha. Plant density plays a vital role in
determining the yield per unit area. The high density mono cropping of moringa gives the highest
leaf yield and returns per unit area. Different spacing and their plant population followed for
HDP in moringa are as follows 10 x 15cm (6.66 lakh plants/ha), 15 x 15cm (4.44 lakh plants/ha),
20 x 10cm (5 lakh plants/ha), 20 x 20cm (2.5 lakh plants/ha), 40 x 20cm (1.25lakh plants/ha).
Ideal cultivars suitable for high density and ultra high density planting in moringa for
intense leaf production are
PKM1 PKM2 ODC
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Among them high yield, First harvest of leaves was commenced at 60 days after sowing;
subsequent leaf harvest was done at 45 days interval. Among them the high yield parametes like
Plant height, Number of Branches, Number of Leaflets, Fresh leaf yield per plot, Dry plant yield
per plot will be maximum in the sapcing of 40x20cm.
PKM 1 Annual Moringa
Highly suitable variety for High Density Planting and Ultra High Density Planting for
leaf purpose. It allows nearly 24 to 26 harvest in a year for quality leaf production purpose with
an interval of 15 days. In case of moringa pod purpose, it comes to flowering within 5-6 months
of sowing and comes to harvest in 7-8 months. The peak harvest is during March-August. The
plants grow to a height of 4-6 m in a year and produce 6-12 primary branches. The pinnate
leaves are about 40 cm long with small leaflets which are dark green on the upper side and pale
green on the lower side. The leaves can be used as a nutritive green. Ratoon crops can be
maintained for 3-4 years. After every year the trees have to be cut back to 1 m from ground level.
This variety can be grown as inter crop in coconut orchards during the early period.
PKM 2 Annual Moringa
High yielding moringa type as pod yield and leaf yield. The tree comes to bearing six
months after planting and is suitable for growing in different cropping systems. The pods are 126
cm long, with a girth of 8.3 cm and individual fruit weight of 280 g with 70% flesh. The pods are
less seeded and delicious. Ratoon crop can also be taken up for three years. It is suitable for
growing in Tamil Nadu and is adapted to most soil types varying from sandy loam to clay loam
with good drainage
Manures and Fertilizers
Moringa trees will generally grow well without adding very much fertilizer. Manure or
compost can be mixed with the soil in order to increase the leaf production. Dumping 10t of
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poultry manure increase yield in the 1
st 2 months and drastically reduces yield in third month. So,
repeated application of poultry manure is necessary. Generally the recommended dosage of
N:P:K was 120:100:100 kg/ha,(75 g N/tree from a complete inorganic fertilizer along with
micronutrients can increase moringa leaf production by two fold).The super high intensive
Moringa farm is a technology for leaf production that Moringa India. Many best technologies are
developed for harvesting moringa leaves in order to guide towards the right balance of cost,
yield, and labor and finally cost per metric ton. The nutritional status of moringa leaf cannot be
affected by planting density and harvesting interval. The crude protein %, Ca, Mg, P, Fe and Zn
content will remain unchanged, even when narrow spacing is followed along with frequent
harvesting.
IRRIGATION
Irrigate newly transplanted trees immediately after transplanting to promote early root
development. In dry and arid climates, irrigate regularly for the first two months.
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Once established, moringa rarely need watering. The well-rooted tree tolerates drought and needs
irrigation only when persistent wilting is evident. Adequate irrigation leads to root rot and
yellowing of leaves. Hence drip irrigation can be installed.
Pruning
As the plant is cultivated for leaf purpose the emerging flower buds have to be pruned by
clipping the inflorescence. The flowering and pod development should not be allowed. For the
purpose of excessive vegetative shoot pollarding can be practiced. Pruning laterals that grew
following pollarding to 10 cm encouraged the release of more lateral buds per node on fewer
nodes.
Harvesting and Yield
The first harvesting of green leaves is progressed when plants reach a height of 50 cm or
more (every 35 to 40 days), cut at a distance of 20 to 30 cm above the ground. Harvesting young
shoot tips will gives raise to side branches where cuts along the main branches are made. Allow
plants to develop new shoots and branches before subsequent harvests. Although losses of
seedlings may 25 per cent in the first year, the vigorous regrowth of the remaining seedlings will
produce 5-6 new shoots after each cutting. Up to nine harvests can be obtained annually. An
yield of 15 to 20 tonnes per hectare of leaf yield was obtained in sandy and well-drained soil.
Value Addition in Moringa
Moringa leaf powder
The leaves after harvest should be stripped off the stems, washed and dried in shade
(sunlight can destroy vitamin A). The dried leaves are made into fine powder which can be
stored in a air-tight containers. Vitamin are tention is enhanced if the leaves are blanched before
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drying. As a nutritional additive, 2 or 3 spoonful of the powder can be added to soups or sauces.
Moringa leaf powder can be stored for up to 6 months when protected from light and humidity.
Moringa juice
Fresh leaves are crushed and pounded in a mortar with a small amount of water. For
larger production, hammer mill is used to pound young moringa shoots (not more than 40 days
old) together with little water (about one liter per 10 kg fresh material).Then it is filtered and
diluted with water and sugar is added for taste. Alternatively, spoonful of more moringa leaf
powder can be added to a litre of water. Then it is stirred together, strained and sugar is added.
Juice or juice concentrate is stored in a refrigerator.
Moringa leaf sauce
Two cups of fresh leaves are steamed for a few minutes in one cup of water. Chopped
onions, salt, butter and any other seasonings are according to taste.
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Conclusion and future thrusts:
Moringa possess many valuable medicinal properties due to the presence of the
phytochemicals compounds that can be used for nutraceutical formulations. The research on the
nutritional and medicinal benefits of Moringa oleifera is yet to gain importance in our country. It
is essential that the nutrients of this wonder tree are exploited for a variety of purposes as it is
known to possess vitamins, minerals and also anti-diabetic and anti-cancer properties. Further
research needs to be conducted in order to identify novel therapeutic compounds against cancer
and diabetes. The tree, a native to India, can become a great source of income for the nation if
this potential for highly nutritional food is exploited by the industries and researchers by
undertaking further research to corroborate earlier studies.
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1M. Packialakshmi* and 2Rajput Nikhil Balu
1Assistant Professor (Forestry), Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi- 642 103
2 Research scholar, Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam 642 301
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Borassus flabellifer commonly known as Palmyra palm got its name from Greek roots
namely 'Borassus' and 'flabellifer' which mean fruit with a leather covering and fan-bearer.
Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent are believed to be the origins of Borassus flabellifer.
It is also regarded as nature's eternal gift because it can thrive in dry and semi-dry environments
and can resist any unfavourable environmental circumstances. In India, this plant is known by
numerous unusual names, including Neera or padhaneer in Tamil, Tal- Talgachh, and Tarkajhar
in Hindi and Bengali. It is referred to as Lulu or Tadi in Telugu. In Malayalam, it is also known
as Karimpana'. It is also known as Tala palm, Toddy palm, Fan palm, and Brab tree in English.
In Malayalam, it is also known as \"Karimpana.\" The terms \"fan palm,\" \"brab tree,\" \"toddy
palm,\" and \"tala palm\" are also used in English. It is a perennial plant that can grow to a height
of 30 metres, has a lifespan of up to 100 years, and begins to bear fruit after 15 years in areas
with abundant water sources and after 25 years in arid locations (Veilmuthu, 2020). Despite this,
Palmyra trees are being cut down at a level that is unprecedented. The Palmyra trees in these
land parcels are also sacrificed when they are swapped for rich farmland or sand dunes by land
sharks and real estate agents. The tragic cutting down of Palmyra trees for brick kiln fuel is
something we are currently witnessing. We need to focus on one of nature's gifts to us, the palm
tree, as we struggle with global warming and the depletion of groundwater resources.
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PALMYRA PALM (Borassus flabellifer)
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Origin and geographic scope
A 100-year-old multipurpose tree with favorable ecological and socioeconomic effects is
the Palmyra palm. Typically, palm trees thrive in tropical and subtropical climates, which can be
found up to 45° on either side of the equator. This belt spans three continents and 13 African, 10
Asian, and 5 South American nations. It is widely cultivated throughout Asia, particularly in
South and Southeast Asia, India, Java, Indonesia, Laos, China, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines.
Despite its wide spread, there are no trustworthy current statistics on its area and production from
many of these nations. Aman et al. (2018) report that there are 10 million palm trees on 25000
ha of land in Sri Lanka, 2.5 million on 25000 ha of land in central Burma, and 1.8 million in
central Cambodia. Indonesia has 0.5 million toddy palm trees on 15000 hectares of land. The
Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer Lin) is a traditional source of both culinary and non-edible
goods in India. There are 8.59 crore palmyra trees in India, of which 5.19 crore are in Tamil
Nadu, according to a census that was conducted in that country. Palm trees grow on nonagricultural grounds, along the sides of streams, rivers, and canals, as well as on sandy,
undulating terrain that is typically unsuitable for farming. Due to its widespread dispersion
throughout the state and its support to rural living, palmyra was recognised and commemorated
in 1978 as Tamil Nadu's state tree. It may flourish in a variety of challenging agroclimatic
conditions. It has a maximum lifespan of 100 years and a growth potential of 30 metres
(Mariselvam et al., 2021).
Fig 1. Distribution of Borassus sp. in the world
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According to Jana & Jana (2017), the distribution of Borassus flabellifer extends from India to
South-East Asia to New Guinea, with concentrations in Burma (Myanmar), India, and
Cambodia. Its dispersion most likely followed ancient Indian trade lines. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, palmyra palms adorn the
barren landscape. Tamil Nadu is home to half of India's 102 million palm trees (Aman et al.,
2018).
Area under Palmyra palm in Tamil Nadu
Smallholders are the principal producers of palmyra palm, which is mostly farmed for
sustenance. Production overage could be sold on regional markets. More than half of Tamil
Nadu's 51.9 million palm trees are located in the southern districts of Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli,
Virudhunagar, and Ramnad, with Ramnad alone accounting for a significant 10 million palms.
The palms offer the impoverished in rural areas an opportunity to increase work opportunities as
well as a source of income (Aman et al., 2018; Suju and Subu et al., 2020).
Cultivation of palmyra:
Varieties: SVPR-1 :
Soil: It is best to use loamy, deep sandy, and dry soils. It's also ideal to remain in dry locations
with little rain.
Propagation: Germination of 63.25 % are achieved six weeks after sowing.
Seed sowing: A high yielder of fruits and nuts, a dwarf, an early and consistent bearer, and free
of pests and diseases are all desirable traits for seed nuts. In the stylar region, choose yellow
tinch and full fruit brunches. For three weeks, seeds are stored in the shade. Seeds that are
shrivelled, weightless, or bored are rejected. To grow seedlings, seeds can be sown directly in the
ground or in nurseries. In trenches (20 cm3
) that are half filled with a sand and soil mixture and
spaced 10 metres apart, 3 to 4 complete fruits are planted for direct planting. Dried leaves cover
the pit. The season of rain is a good time to start sowing. Germination takes place within 3
weeks.
Nursery transplanting: Seeds can be planted in a nursery bed made of bricks that is 2 m wide
and 60 cm high, or in a mound made by retaining sand to make a bed that is 1 m wide and 60 cm
high. In a 10 cm square, seeds are sowed, then covered in sand. A seedling that is around a year
old is removed from the nursery and placed in polythene bags. Transplant on the main field after
rooted.
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Spacing: 3m x 3m (1110 palms/ha).
Manuring: Sheep penning to the palms is a common practise among farmers. Before planting,
apply 10 kg FYM per pit. The dosage can be raised every two years until it reaches 60 kg
FYM/tree/year.
After cultivation: include basin rectification, inter-plowing, and gap filling within the first few
years. Containerized seedlings can be used for gap filling. Before it rains, the basin must be
rectified; this promotes the collection and storage of rainwater (Jana et al., 2017).
Pruning: 30% of the leaves will be removed at a 10% rate in stages.
Intercropping: Cowpea, moringa, green gram, Bengal gram, ber, amla, pomegranate, west
Indian cherry and guava can be intercropped.
Growth and yield: Palmyra is a slow-growing plant. In approximately five months, the first
frond appears. Only in the second year may the first fan-shaped tree leaves appear. It begins to
flower (13–15 years later) when it reaches a height of 12–18 m for the production of padaneer
(sweet sap). For a period of four months, from February to May, an average of 100-200 litres are
produced. Individual palms vary greatly in padaneer and fruit yield, according to Jana et al.
(2017).
Traditional uses of palmyra palm
Palmyra is a versatile tree with numerous economic uses that is commonly grown in
Tamil Nadu. According to Jana and Jana (2017), it is referred to as a \"Karpaha veruksha\" in
Tamil culture. The tree was planted by one of our ancestors close to a river, a canal, or some
farmland; it serves as a windbreak and raises the level of the ground water. Over 801 uses of this
tree have been explored by Palmyra and ancient India. This tree, according to Mahatma Gandhi,
is the cure for poverty. Both food and non-edible uses are possible for palmyra products. The
stem, leaves, and inflorescence of trees can all be utilised to produce various commercial
products. Stem/trunk – It is planted in India to act as a windbreak on the plains. The thick,
robust, and durable black lumber from palm trees is highly prized for building, particularly for
outdoor structures like fences and boats. Dried, pierced trunk used to construct boats. Dried and
holed trunk used to make boats that can transport at least 3 people when fishing. According to
Sangarlingam et al. (1999), its leaves can be used to make mats, baskets, fans, hats, umbrellas,
and writing materials. The construction of 80–90% of rural homes uses these leaves. It provides
good fertiliser. Hindu culture contains a large number of traditional texts that were written on
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palm leaves. Products made from fibre are commercially useful. It is made from the leaf blade
and the petiole. Ropes made of strong, long fibres are used in the construction of homes and
watercraft. This type of fibre, which is a major export from several regions of India, is utilised as
a raw material for the manufacture of brushes. The juice is regarded as the main provider of the
main source of income among its various components. Neera is the name for the sap that is
extracted from the palmyra palm's inflorescence. It is a good source of vitamins, minerals, and
calcium (Veilmuthu, 2020).
Construction Boat making Traditional Irrigation
Thatching Umbrella Fencing
Conclusion
As long as palm-based work is done, a palm tree has one life. If work on the palmyra is
scheduled to cease, the palm tree's condition will be in danger. Therefore, it is important to
safeguard both the palmyra and the rural areas' Palmyra business. In contrast to other trees, the
palm tree's entire body serves mankind. All of the plant's components—leaves, fruits, stem,
petiole, and inflorescence—have uses. In the palm tree, nothing is wasted. Therefore, it was
known as the \"Karpaga Virutcham\" by our ancestors. The palm tree has historical economic,
religious, medical, and environmental significance in Tamil Nadu. However, the globalisation
phenomenon poses a serious threat to Palmyra and its business today. The economic, medical,
environmental, and religious relevance of palm trees has since diminished. For Tamilnadu and
the Tamil community alone, this is a big loss. However, because people in Tamil Nadu were
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unaware of the value of palm trees, they were quickly cut down. Since the government of Tamil
Nadu was aware of the palm tree's historical significance in Tamil society, it designated it as the
state tree in 1978. However, the Tamil Nadu government is currently likewise shown no interest
in enhancing the palmyra palm and its sector.In this stage, we looked at the palm tree as a tree
with religious significance, cultural significance, and environmental significance in order to
promote or revive its historic significance for the improvement of Tamil society.
References
Veilmuthu (2020). P. Palmyra – nature‘s perennial gift in the face of climate crisis.
Aman, A., Sengupta, S., Prasad, M., Sinha, S., & Kumari, S. (2018). Evaluation of the fruit
characteristics of some accession of palmyrah palm grown in Bhagalpur district of
Bihar. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(3), 459-461.
Mariselvam, R., Ignacimuthu, S., Ranjitsingh, A. J. A., & Mosae, S. P. (2021). An insight into
leaf secretions of Asian palmyra palm: A wound healing material from nature. Materials
Today: Proceedings, 47, 733-738.
Jana, H., & Jana, S. (2017). Palmyra palm: Importance in Indian agriculture. Rashtriya Krishi
(English), 12(2), 35-40.
Siju, S., & Sabu, K. K. (2020). Genetic resources of Asian palmyrah palm (Borassus flabellifer
L.): a comprehensive review on diversity, characterization and utilization. Plant Genetic
Resources, 1-9.
Sankaralingam, A., Hemalatha, G., & Ali, A. M. (1999). A treatise on palmyrah. All India Coordianated Research Project, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University & Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research.
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*
Sameena Lone and K. Hussain
Division of Vegetable Science, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar, Srinagar- 190 025, J & K (India)
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Although the Green Revolution of the 1960s tripled the world‘s food supply, food distribution
remains uneven and the problem of chronic under-nutrition for millions of people in the world
persists. In the face of predicted increases in the world population to around 10 billion by 2050
and the challenges faced by agriculture as a result of climate change, providing adequate food
and fiber for humanity is a pressing issue requiring urgent attention. And all this leads to hunger,
Malnutrition, poverty and Farmer Suicides. Then, how could agriculture keep pace and remain
productive without further degradation of the soil or damage to the environment? Could
biotechnology be a key of solving world hunger irrespective of the challenges of climate change
and immense population growth? The use of in vitro plant breeding techniques based on in vitro
plant tissue culture, mutagenesis and molecular breeding has made possible the development of
biotechnological tools for addressing the critical problems of crop improvement for sustainable
agriculture. Also, in vitro tissue culture-based tools have also allowed a deeper understanding of
the physiology and biochemistry in plants cultured under adverse environmental conditions.
Keywords: Green revolution, population, climate change, agriculture, in vitro breeding.
Introduction
Although the Green Revolution of the 1960s tripled the world‘s food supply, food
distribution remains uneven and the problem of chronic under-nutrition for millions of people in
the world persists. In the face of predicted increases in the world population to around 10 billion
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
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SMART BREEDING IN VEGETABLE CROPS: A REVIEW
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by 2050 and the challenges faced by agriculture as a result of climate change, providing adequate
food and fiber for humanity is a pressing issue requiring urgent attention. Abiotic stress factors
like heat, chilling, freezing, drought, salinity, etc, are the main limitation to plant growth and
yield in agriculture. Among them, drought stress caused by water deficit, is probably the most
impacting adverse condition and the most widely encountered by plants, not only in crop fields
but also in wild environments. According to published statistics, the percentage of droughtaffected land area in India is 42% due to which 500 million people were severely affected.
Another major environmental factor that limits crop productivity, mainly in arid and semi-arid
regions is high salinity. Approximately 19.5% of the irrigated soils in the world have elevated
concentrations of salts either in the soil or in the irrigation water, damaging both the economy
and the environment. The deleterious effects of salinity on plant growth are associated with low
osmotic potential of soil solution (water stress), nutritional imbalance, specific ion effect (salt
stress), or a combination of these factors. And all this leads to hunger, Malnutrition, poverty and
Farmer Suicides.
The conventional breeding programs are being used to integrate genes of interest from
inter-crossing genera and species into the crops to induce stress tolerance. However, in many
cases, these conventional breeding methods have failed to provide desirable results. On the other
hand, it is often difficult to analyze the response of plants to different abiotic stresses in the field
or in greenhouse conditions, due to complex and variable nature of these stresses. Then, how
could agriculture keep pace and remain productive without further degradation of the soil or
damage to the environment? Could biotechnology be a key of solving world hunger irrespective
of the challenges of climate change and immense population growth?
The use of in vitro plant breeding techniques based on in vitro plant tissue culture,
mutagenesis and molecular breeding has made possible the development of biotechnological
tools for addressing the critical problems of crop improvement for sustainable agriculture. For
example, production of purelines or inbreds involves six to seven generations of selfing.
Production of haploids through distant crosses or anther/pollen culture, followed by chromosome
doubling, reduces this time to two generations. This represents a saving of 4-6 years. In contrast,
conventional methods cannot achieve transfer of a useful bacterial gene, say, cry gene from
Bacillus thuringiensis, into a plant. But this can be achieved through a combination of tissue
culture and genetic engineering; the bacterial gene is transferred into plant cells followed by
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regeneration of whole plants containing and expressing this gene (transgenic plants). Also, in
vitro tissue culture-based tools have also allowed a deeper understanding of the physiology and
biochemistry in plants cultured under adverse environmental conditions.
DEFINITION OF IN VITRO BREEDING
It refers to the breeding of plants in an artificial or controlled environment, where all the
environmental factors viz, temperature, humidity, etc, are under manual control.
METHODS OF IN VITRO BREEDING
1.Plant Tissue Culture
Plant tissue culture can be defined as a technique of in vitro cultivation of plant cells and
organs, which divide and regenerate into callus or particular plant organs. The technique relies
on;
(i) the totipotency - the inherent capacity of the individual cells of an organism to develop into
a complete organism.
(ii) the explants - which is a small tissue excised from any part of the plant,
(iii) the aseptic environment - to avoid contamination from microorganisms and,
(iv) the nutrient media - that strongly govern the growth and morphogenesis of plant tissues.
History of plant tissue culture
The in vitro techniques were developed initially to demonstrate the totipotency of plant cells
predicted by Haberlandt in 1902. Efforts to demonstrate totipotency led to the development of
techniques for cultivation of plant cells under defined conditions i.e., tissue culture. This was
made possible by brilliant contributions from R.J. Gautheret in France and P.R. White in U.S.A.
during the third and the fourth decades of 20th century.
Most of the modern tissue culture media have been derived from the work of Skoog and coworkers during 1950s and 1960s.
The first embryo culture was done by Hanning in 1904 who cultured mature embryos of some
crucifers.
Haploid plants from pollen grains were first produced by Maheshwari and Guha in 1964 by
culturing anthers of Datura.
Plant protoplasts are naked cells from which cell wall has been removed. In 1960, Cocking
produced large quantities of protoplasts by using cell wall degrading enzymes. The techniques of
protoplast production have now been considerably refined, and whole plants regenerate readily
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from protoplasts. Protoplasts of different plant species have been fused to obtain somatic hybrid
plants.
Techniques of Plant Tissue Culture
The tissue culture technique aims primarily to achieve the following two objectives:
1. to keep the plant cells and Organs free from microbes, which can be managed by using modem
equipment‘s and careful handling during various operations, and
2. to ensure the desired development in the cells and organs by providing suitable nutrient media
and other environmental conditions. It relies mainly on the manipulation of culture medium,
especially growth regulators, and, to a lesser extent, other factors, including environmental
conditions.
1. Explant
The plant tissue or organ excised and used for in vitro culture is known as explant. Virtually, any
plan part may be used as an explant, the choice depending mainly on the objective of the culture
and the regeneration potential of different organs of a plant species.
2. Surface Sterilization
The explants must be surface sterilized to eliminate bacterial and fungal spores present on their
surface. This is commonly achieved by treating them with 1-2 % solution of sodium or calcium
hypochlorite or with 0.1% solution of mercuric chloride. The explant is then rinsed several times
with sterilized distilled water to remove the disinfectant.
3. Sterilization
Plant tissue culture media are very rich, and they readily support microorganism growth. Growth
of a microorganism in a culture tube of plant cells/tissues/organs is called contamination.
Contamination must be avoided otherwise the cultures will be overrun by the contaminants.
Therefore, microbes present in culture media, culture vessels, instruments, etc. are inactivated by
a suitable treatment; this is called sterilization. Sterilization technique depends mainly on the
material to be sterilized.
a) Flame sterilization: Instruments like forceps, scalpels, needles, etc. are dipped in 95%
alcohol and flamed just before use. Care should be taken to cool them before use.
b) Dry heat: Mouths of test tubes, culture flasks, etc. are ordinarily heated on a burner or spirit
lamp.
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c) Ethanol (70%): Laminar air flow cabinet bench surface, outer surface of culture vessels,
hands of the worker, etc. are wiped with 70% ethanol and the alcohol is allowed to evaporate.
d) Autoclaving: Culture media, empty culture vessels, etc. are autoclaved at 121°C and 15 p.s.i.
(pounds per square inch) for, usually, 15 20 minutes. The effectiveness of sterilization depends
mainly on the temperature and time.
e) Air filters: The air blowing through laminar hoods is sterilized by HEPA (high efficiency
particulate air) filters.
f)Filter Sterilization: Thermolabile constituents like ABA, GA3, enzymes, etc. are filtered
through membrane filters of 0.45 µm pore size. The filter assembly itself must be sterilized,
usually by autoclaving, before use.
4. Nutrient Medium
The medium used for culture of plant cells and organs is known as nutrient medium, culture
medium or, simply, medium. The medium contains inorganic salts to provide the 12 elements,
excluding C, H, and O, necessary for plant growth; these elements are N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg (the
six macronutrients), Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, and Mo (the six micronutrients).
In addition, certain vitamins, a carbon source (generally sucrose) and, where needed, growth
regulators like auxins and/or cytokinins are also provided. 2,4-D (0.5-2.0 mg l-1
) is the most
commonly used auxin; NAA and IAA are also used. Similarly, kinetin and benzyl aminopurine
(BA) are the most commonly used cytokinins; some other cytokinins like zeatin, etc. are
occasionally used.
Sometimes, complex organic supplements like coconut water, casein hydrolysate and yeast
extract are also used. The pH of medium is generally adjusted to about 5.5 using 1N KOH or
HCL as per need. The compositions of commonly used tissue culture media is given in Table
1.0.
The medium may be solidified by using agar (6g/L) or it may be used as liquid. The medium is
distributed into appropriate culture vessels, e.g., test tubes, culture flasks, petriplates, etc.,
autoclaved at 15 p.s.i. for 15-20 min to free it from microbes, allowed to cool, and stored for 2-3
days before use to be sure of proper sterilization.
Sterilized explants are then placed on to/into the nutrient medium; this operation is done under
aseptic conditions. When liquid medium is used, the culture flasks have to be constantly agitated
or shaken on a gyratory shaker (at about 100-200 rpm) to facilitate aeration. The cells on an agar
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medium develop into an unorganised mass known as callus; consequently, they are called callus
cultures. In the liquid medium, on the other hand, a suspension of free cells and small cell masses
is obtained, and such cultures are known as suspension culture.
Table 1.0: Composition of Macronutrients in Different Tissue Culture Media.
Macronutrients
(mgl1-
)
MS G5 W LM VW KM M NN
Ca3(PO4)2 200.0
NH4NO3 1650.0 400.0 720.0
KNO3 1900.0 2500.0 80.0 525.0 180.0 180.0 950.0
CaCl2.2H2O 440.0 150.0 96.0 166.0
MgSO4.7H2O 370.0 250.0 720.0 370.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 185.0
KH2PO4 170.0 170.0 250.0 150.0 150.0 68.0
(NH4)2SO4 134.0 500.0 100.0 100.0
NaH2PO4.H2O 150.0 16.5
CaNO3.4H2O 300.0 556.0 200.0 200.0
Na2SO4 200.0
KCl 65.0
K2SO4 990.0
Ca3(PO4)2 200.0
[MS = Murashige and Skoog Medium, G5 = Gamborg B5 Medium, W = White‘s Medium, LM=
Linsmaier and Skoog Medium, VW = Vacin and Went Medium, KM = Kao and Michayluck
Medium, M= Medium 199 and, NN = Nitsch and Nitsch Medium]
Razdan et al., 2019
5. Environmental Conditions
Plant tissue cultures are maintained under a controlled environment, particularly in terms of
temperature and light. The temperature may vary from 18-25°C depending upon species and the
purpose of culture. Light is not essential for cell and tissue cultures, but it is often beneficial for
plantlet regeneration and for embryo and meristem cultures. The culture room or the incubator
should be kept as clean as possible to minimise contamination.
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6. Sub-culturing
After a period of time, it becomes necessary to transfer organs and tissues to fresh media.
This is particularly true for tissue and cell cultures, where a portion of tissue is used to inoculate
new culture tubes or flasks; this is known as subculturing. In general, callus cultures are subcultured every 4-6 weeks, while suspension cultures need to be sub-cultured every 3-14 days.
7. Plantlet regeneration and transfer to soil
The application of plant tissue culture technology to crop improvement depends on
regeneration of complete plantlets and their successful transfer to soil. Production of various
organs, e.g., root, shoot, etc., in cultured tissues is known as organ regeneration or
organogenesis. It is possible to regenerate complete plantlets from tissue cultures of a large
number of species, including potato, pea, soybean, chickpea, alfalfa, etc. Regeneration capacity
appears to be genetically controlled, and it may be possible to improve it by a suitable breeding
programme. For example, in alfalfa (M. sativa), two cycles of recurrent selection improved the
regeneration capacity from 12 to 67 %. In many cases, transfer of whole plants from test tubes to
soil is relatively easy. The plants may be pre-treated prior to their transfer to soil with different
media designed to make them hardy or even with some microbes (mainly bacteria).
In a simple laboratory procedure, plants may be transferred into small pots and covered
with a suitable material/vessel, e.g., inverted beakers to prevent excess transpiration. After 3-4
days, the covers are removed for increasing periods of time till they are finally removed, but the
pots are still kept in diffuse light for the next 5-10 days. Hardening on a large scale is done in
mist chambers: the plantlets are initially kept in low intensity diffuse light and high (~95%)
relative humidity for few days. The light intensity is then gradually increased, while humidity is
gradually decreased over a period of time. The plants may then be transferred into a greenhouse,
and after about 1-2 weeks they may be planted in soil and kept in sunlight. Seedling survival may
vary from 50 to 100%, depending mainly on plant species.
Classification of Tissue Culture Techniques
The tissue culture techniques are grouped into the following four categories on the basis of plant
part used as explant and the type of development in vitro:
1.Seed Culture: Growing seed aseptically in vitro on artificial media is called seed culture. It
increases efficiency of germination of seeds that are difficult to germinate and helps in
production of clean seedlings for explants or meristem culture.
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E.g., Orchids, Tomato, Chilli, Capsicum, etc.
2.Apical meristem culture: Growing meristematic tissue aseptically in vitro on artificial media
is called meristem culture.
E.g., Chilli, Capsicum, Tomato, Brinjal, Potato, etc.
Applications of Meristem Culture
1. Micropropagation i.e., production of a large number of vegetative progeny (initially, of very
small size) through tissue culture
2. Recovery of Virus-Free Stocks
3. Germplasm Exchange as seedlings in test tubes obtained from apical meristems are
extremely useful in germplasm exchange since they are usually free from pathogens and insects,
and are easier to handle.
4. Germplasm Conservation in clonal crops, particularly in the case of root and tuber crops,
which lose their viability rapidly and their cold storage requires large space, and is expensive.
Freeze preservation of meristems and cells in liquid nitrogen at -196°C enables long term
preservation of their germplasms.
3.Axillary bud culture: In this method, a shoot tip along with axillary bud is isolated. The
cultures are carried out with high cytokinin concentration. As a result of this, apical dominance
stops and axillary buds develop.
E.g., Potato, Tomato, Chilli, Capsicum, etc.
4.Callus culture: Callus means an unorganized proliferative mass of cells produced from
isolated plant cells, tissues or organs when grown aseptically on artificial nutrient medium in
glass vials under controlled experimental conditions. It is called tissue as the cells may be
differentiated. Growing callus tissue aseptically in vitro on artificial media is called callus
culture.
E.g. Potato, Tomato, Chilli, Capsicum, Brinjal, etc.
5. Cell culture: Growing single cells obtained from plant organs and from cultured tissues,
aseptically in vitro on artificial media is called cell culture.
E.g., Capsicum frutescens (Capsaicin-Pungency), Saffron (crocin&picrocrocin-medicinal
importance), Dioscorea spp. (Diosgenin), Vanilla spp. (vanillin- flavouring chemical), 3-NButyl-pthalide in Celery (Effective against hypertension), etc.
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6. Suspension culture: It is a type of culture in which single cells or small aggregates of
cells multiply while suspended in agitated liquid medium. It is also referred to as cell suspension
culture.
7. Embryo culture: Growing embryo aseptically in vitro on artificial media is called
embryo culture. It helps in overcoming seed dormancy and self-sterility of seeds.
E.g., Green gram, Black gram, French bean, Soybean, Tomato, Brinjal, Potato, Turnip, etc.
Applications of Embryo Culture
1. Recovery of Distant Hybrids
2. Recovery of Haploid Plants from Interspecific Crosses
3. Shortening the Breeding Cycle
5. Overcoming Dormancy
Table 2.0: Resistant Traits transferred to hybrid species through embryo rescue technique.
Crossing species Resistance trait (s)
Lycopersiconesculentum x L. peruvianum Virus, fungi & nematodes
Solanum melongena x S. khasianum Brinjal shoot and fruit borer
Solanum tuberosum x S. tuberosum Potato leaf roll virus
Brassica napus x Raphanobrassica Shattering resistance
Brassica oleracea x B. napus Triazine resistance
B. napus x Brassica oleracea Cabbage aphid
(Chawla et al., 2019)
8.Protoplast culture: Protoplasts are naked plant cells without the cell wall, but they possess
plasma membrane and all other cellular components. They represent the functional plant cells but
for the lack of the barrier, cell wall. The isolation and culturing of protoplasts aseptically in vitro
in artificial media is called protoplast culture.
9.Organ culture: Growing any plant organ such as shoot (shoot tip culture), root (root tip
culture), leaf (leaf culture), and flower (anther /ovary culture). Aseptically in vitro on artificial
media is called organ culture.
10. Anther culture
Anther culture is the aseptic excision and culturing of developing anthers from unopened flower
buds in a nutrient medium, where pollen grains are induced to produce callus or embryoids and
finally to haploid plantlets.The process by which haploid plant develops from male gametophyte
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is called androgenesis.It has been observed that uninucleate microspores midway between the
tetrad release and the first pollen mitosis are the most responsive.
Applications
1. Simple, quick and efficient technique of haploid production.
2. Reduction of time in developing variety of cross-pollinated crop.
3. Fixation of heterosis through dihaploid production.
4. Induction of genetic variability.
11. Somatic hybridization
It is also known as Parasexual Hybridization as procedure eliminates gametes in hybridization
procedure. It is also referred as Protoplast Fusion, as it involves fusion of protoplast of 2 species.
It is a technique in which the protoplast belonging to different species, genera or families are
fused together to form hybrid product (Heterokaryon) under in vitro conditions. Protoplasts are
naked plant cells i.e., without cell wall.They are produced by subjecting the plasmolysed cells to
the treatment of mixture of enzymes (cellulose & pectinases). Culture medium of protoplasts is
similar to plant tissue culture but devoid of ammonium and increased concentration of calcium.
Methods of Protoplast fusion:
A. Polyethylene Glycol Method:
Suspend the protoplasts in 1ml solution of Polyethylene Glycol.
Shake the culture tubes for 5 seconds and left undisturbed for 10 – 15 minutes.
Wash the protoplast material several times to remove Polyethylene Glycol and thenresuspend
it in culture medium.
B. Treatment with sodium nitrate:
Suspend the isolated protoplasts in 10% Sucrose solution.
Incubate the solution containing protoplasts in a water bath at 350C for 5 min.
Centrifuge the sample at 200xg for 5 minutes.
Decant the supernatant and transfer the protoplast pellet to a water bath at 300C for 30 min.
Decant the aggregating mixture and replace it with the culture medium containing 0.1%
NaNO3.
Left the protoplasts undisturbed for sometime and wash twice with culture medium and plate.
C. Electrofusion:
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In this technique, protoplasts are placed in a small culture cell containing electrodes and an
extremely short wave electric shock is applied, which induces the fusion of protoplasts.
Applications:
1.To produce novel interspecific and inter-generic crosses between plants that are difficult or
impossible to hybridize conventionally.
2.To produce fertile diploids and polyploids from the protoplasts of sexually sterile plants.
3.In vitro fusion of protoplast opens a way of developing unique hybrid plants by overcoming the
barriers of sexual incompatibility.
4.To produce transgenic plants through genetic transformation of protoplasts.
12. Cybrids
These are the genotypes having nucleus from one of the parents but the cytoplasms of both the
parents. This process of protoplast fusion which results in the development of cybrids is known
as Cybridization. This type of hybridization is obtained by inactivating the nucleus of one of the
protoplasts. The inactivation is achieved by either the application or treatment with Iodoacetate.
Herbicide resistance and CMS have been transferred by this method in Tobacco and Tomato.
Table 3.0: Genetic traits transferred via Somatic Hybridization.
CROP CROSSING SPECIES TRAITS
Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum x L. peruvianum TMV, Spotted wilt virus
& Cold tolerance
Solanum lycopersicoides x L. esculentum CMS (Cybrids)
Brinjal Solanum melongena x S. sysimbrifolium Nematode resistance
Potato Solanum tuberosum x S. chacoense Late blight & Potato
virus X
S. circalifolium x Solanum tuberosum Frost resistance
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata x B. oleracea Cold tolerance
Watermelon Citullus lanatus x Cucumis melo Club rot resistance
Radish Raphanus sativus x Brassica napus Club rot resistance
Carrot Hordeum vulgare x Daucus carota Frost & salt tolerance
(Razdan et al., 2019)
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2.Mutation Breeding
For any genetic improvement programme, presence of genetic variation is pre-requisite and
mutation is the ultimate source of this heritable variation. Mutation technique that holds promise
of generating a much wider desirable variability than classical breeding has been refined. Out of
2275 mutant varieties worldwide in all crops, as many as 66 mutants are in vegetables. In terms
of percentage, China, India, USSR, The Netherlands, The United States of America and Japan
account for 26.8. 11.5,9.3, 7.8,5.7 and 5.3%, respectively of mutagen varieties in all crops. Such
varieties are 3% in case of vegetables. After mutation treatment by a mutagen to a specific plant,
DNA alterations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, or transposition of larger DNA
fragments, or simple basic pair changes) occur and lead to the DNA sequence change. Hence,
new characteristics of that plant are established. In fact, induced mutations supply us with many
new plant lines, which may be used as primary materials for crop breeding. Hence, mutation
breeding seems to be an effective and ultimate option to improve vegetable crops in the shortest
possible time. A large number of new promising varieties in different crops, including
vegetables, have successfully been developed worldwide using various mutagens (Chopra,
2005).
Mutation
The term mutation was given by Hugo de Vries in 1901. It is defined as a sudden permanent
change or variation in some inheritable characteristics in a living organism or the mechanism
upon which natural selection acts, providing the advantageous new traits that survive and
multiply in offspring or disadvantageous traits that die out with weaker organisms.
Characteristics of Mutation
Mutations may be caused by natural events within the environment by the action or inaction of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair enzymes and by human production of chemicals or highenergy radiation (mutagens).
Most of the mutations are neutral and have no effect or they are deleterious and cause harm,
but occasionally, a mutation can improve an organism's chance of surviving and of passing the
beneficial change to its descendants.
Mutations occur randomly, i.e., mutation rates vary from organism to organism, from gene to
gene, from time to time and from place to place.
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These are the necessary raw material of evolution. They can have a significant effect not only
on the individual but also on the evolution of species.
These are recurrent in nature, i.e., occurrence of a mutation repeatedly.
Problems Associated with Mutation Breeding
→ Mutants possibly can carry undesirable traits along with desired ones.
→ A mutant cassava cv. Tek Bankye was released by the Ghanaians with the use of gamma
rays as mutagen (Anonymous, 2000). This cultivar has an excellent cooking quality and good
pundability. It also has very high dry matter content of about 40%, and thus, very popular among
cassava growers. However, it is susceptible to African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV).
→ It requires screening large M1 and M2 population for the best-desired mutants. Although
induced mutations increase the mutation rate but the frequency of desired mutants is very low
(approximately 0.1%).
→ As most of the mutations are recessive, it becomes difficult in polyploid crops and almost
impossible in clonal crops to detect the mutation. At present, there are about 20 improved
varieties of Curcuma longa in India and only one in Curcuma amada. Only few of them are
evolved through mutation breeding and others by clonal selection (Sasikumar, 2005).
→ Mutations often produce pleiotropic effects.
Future Perspectives
The rapid advances in molecular biology and DNA technologies have provided never before
dreamt of possibilities for increasing both the efficiency and efficacy of mutation techniques in
crop breeding and research.
New molecular approaches have greatly simplified forward genetic approach with
conventionally derived mutants.
Saturated molecular maps are now being constructed in most crop plants. Using such maps, the
mutant locus can be delimited using molecular markers, and then, desired gene can be cloned
through positional cloning or chromosome walking (Brown et al., 2003).
For the traits, the controlling gene(s) of which is/are already known, the high throughput
selection of mutations has become possible at DNA level, e.g., using the TILLING (Targeting
Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes) technique (Henikoff et al., 2004), particularly when
simplified methods are applicable, i.e., detection of SNPs on agarose gels (Raghavan et al.,
2007).
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The mutated genes obtained through mutation breeding also act as valuable material to plant
molecular biologists for the analysis of fine structure and organization of genetic material in crop
species. They will play a critical role in understanding of functional genomics, isolating and
incorporating genes responsible for plant productivity and resistance to biotic and abiotic
stresses, and in this way, they will significantly influence crop production, especially in
developing countries (Shu and Lagoda, 2007).
3.Molecular Breeding
Over the last few decades, molecular breeding is supplementing plant breeder's efforts for
accelerated genetic enhancement bringing about a revolution in this area. This approach demands
efficient procedures for the routine introduction of foreign DNA into plant genomes and utilizing
them for the production of novel types of vegetables.
The plant species, varieties and clones are identified or selected by their physical features since
olden times. However, these traits, would change with respect to environmental and climatic
conditions. The biochemical parameters like enzymes, proteins, alkaloids, etc. are also likely to
change due to the stages of development of plant tissue. Successful selection strategies are
dependent on the breeder‘s ability to distinguish genetic effects from environmental effects on a
visible or measurable trait. Therefore, the scientists resorted to use ‗genetic marker’, i.e., any
stable and inheritable variation that can be measured or detected by a suitable method and can be
used subsequently to detect the presence of a specific genotype or phenotype which otherwise is
very difficult to detect. Presently, the breeders and scientists all over the world are pursuing
mostly DNA or molecular markers.
DNA MARKERS
DNA marker is defined as a piece of DNA molecule, which is associated with a certain
trait of an organism, and its pattern of inheritance can be followed generation after generation, or
Molecular markers are tags that can be used to identify specific genes and locate them in relation
to other genes. These tags can also be used to identify a corresponding gene in a distant plant
species or even in animal or microbial species. These markers may differ in a variety of ways,
such as their technical requirements, e.g., whether they can be automated or require use of
radioactivity, the amount of time, money and labour needed, the number of genetic markers that
can be detected throughout the genome and the amount of genetic variation found at each marker
in a given population.
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These markers should not be considered as normal genes since they usually do not have any
biological effect but are identifiable DNA sequences found at specific locations of the genome.
They rely on a DNA assay allowing the presence or absence of neighbouring stretches of the
genome to be inferred, in contrast to morphological markers, based on visible traits, and
biochemical markers, based on proteins or other chemicals produced by genes.
These markers may be short, such as single base pair change (single nucleotide polymorphism)
or long segments, such as DNA fragment generated by a restriction digest. The vegetable
breeders and seed companies desire to utilize some of the important markers for the
improvement of vegetables so that they may be successful in incorporating the desirable traits in
a shortest period.
Properties Desirable for ldeal DNA Markers
1.Highly polymorphic nature.
2.Codominant inheritance (detection of homozygous and heterozygous states).
3.Frequent occurrence in genome.
4.Selective neutral behaviour (the DNA sequences of any organism are neutral to environmental
conditions or management practices).
5.Easy access (availability).
6.Easy and fast assay.
7.High reproducibility.
8.Easy exchange of data between laboratories.
It is extremely difficult to find a molecular marker, which would meet all the above criteria.
Depending on the type of study to be undertaken, a marker system, which would fulfil at least a
few of the above characteristics, can be identified.
Principle
The DNA marker technology is based on the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique
developed by Mullis in 1983 (Mullis et al.,1986). Polymerase Chain Reaction is a rapid and
simple technique of producing relatively large numbers of DNA copies from minute quantities of
source DNA material. It is an artificial way of doing DNA replication. Instead of replicating the
entire DNA present, only a small, specific (targeted) segment is replicated but this small segment
is replicated many times.
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Applications
Molecular markers can be used for:
Characterization of germplasm
Varietal identification and clonal fidelity
Assessment of genetic diversity
Validation and genetic relationship in evolutionary studies
Marker assisted selection
Centre of origin
Core groups/germplasm evaluation
Parental analysis
Sex identification
Markers may be found linked to gene of interest like resistance to insect-pests and diseases, male
sterility, root growth and drought tolerance, herbicide tolerance, cold, or salt tolerance, etc.
Types of DNA Markers
Various types of molecular marker utilized to evaluate DNA polymorphism are generally
classified as hybridization-based markers and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based markers.
In the former, DNA profiles are visualized by hybridizing the restriction enzyme-digested DNA,
to a labelled probe, which is a DNA fragment of known origin or sequence. PCR-based markers
involve in vitro amplification of particular DNA sequences or with the help of specifically or
arbitrarily chosen oligonucleotide sequences (primers)and a thermostable DNA polymerase
enzyme. The amplified fragments are separated electrophoretically and banding patterns are
detected by different methods such as staining and autoradiography. Basically, different types of
DNA markers can be:
PCR based such as RAPD-PCR, PCR-RFLP, AFLP, SSR or STR, SSCP and SNP.
Hybridization based: RFLP and DFP
Single locus/multi-locus
Dominant/codominant
Defined/anonymous
Class I, II, associated with genes of known function/anonymous genomic segments.
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The information provided by the markers for the breeders will vary, depending on the type of
marker system used. Each one has its advantages and disadvantages, and in the future, other
systems are also likely to be developed.
Molecular Marker Breeding
Plant improvement has always relied upon creating, evaluating and selecting the right
combination of alleles. The potential benefits of using markers linked to genes of interest in
breeding programmes, thus, moving from phenotype based towards genotype-based selection
have been obvious for many decades. With the advent of DNA-based genetic markers in the late
1970s, the situation changed and researchers could, for the first time, begin to identify large
numbers of markers dispersed throughout the genetic material of any species of interest and use
the markers to detect associations with traits of interest thus, allowing MAS finally to become a
reality. This led to a completely new field of academic research, including the milestone paper
by Paterson et al., (1988). This showed that with the availability of large numbers of genetic
markers for their species of interest(tomato), the effects and location of marker-linked genes
having an impact on a number of quantitative traits (fruit traits in their case) could be estimated
using an approach that could be applied to dissect the genetic make-up of any physiological,
morphological and behavioural trait in plants.
Most of the traits considered in plant genetic improvement programmes are quantitative, i.e.,
they are controlled by many genes. Each underlying gene has small and cumulative effect. Many
genes together with environmental factors produce a phenotype. In classical genetic
improvement programmes, selection is carried out based on observable phenotypes of the
candidates for selection and/or their relatives but without knowing which genes are actually
being selected.
4.Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to
alter the genetic makeup of an organism. A plant in which a gene has been transferred through
genetic engineering is called a transgenic plant, and the gene so transferred is called transgene.
The general approach for genetic engineering in plants may be outlined as follows:
(i) Introduction of the gene of interest into the cells of concerned plant species,
(ii) Integration of this gene into the nuclear/organellar genome of the plant cells,
(iii) Expression of the transferred gene in the new genetic background,
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(iv) Regeneration of whole plants from the genetically modified cells, and finally
(v) Transmission of the transferred gene to the sexual progeny of these plants.
It may be kept in mind that any gene that is to be transferred into a plant has to be first obtained
in multiple copies ordinarily by gene cloning it in E. coli and then inserting them into a suitable
vector.
A vector is a DNA molecule that is capable of independent replication when introduced into a
suitable organism. The DNA inserts may be produced in different ways, but usually restriction
enzymes are employed for their generation. Restriction enzymes cut a DNA molecule within or
immediately outside certain specific sites (recognition sites) that have specific base sequences.
The cut ends produced by most of these enzymes have a stretch of single-stranded region, which
is extremely useful in joining together different segments.
The recombinant DNA molecules (is obtained by joining together (by DNA ligase) two
of more DNA segments of interest) are produced in vitro and first introduced in, ordinarily, E.
coli for their propagation and identification of the DNA insert or gene of interest. The gene of
interest is then introduced into the appropriate organism. Introduction of DNA into a cell is
called transformation, and the organism used for transformation is termed as host. The
introduced DNA molecules may remain independent of or may integrate into the chromosomes
of the host cell. The objective of transformation may be to produce multiple copies of the
recombinant DNA (DNA cloning) or large quantities of a protein encoded by it. The entire
process is known as recombinant DNA technology, genetic engineering or gene (DNA)
cloning.
Steps Involved in Gene Cloning
The various steps involved in gene cloning may be summarised as follows:
1.Production of DNA Fragments
It is the basic requirement for gene cloning, and can be achieved in one of the following several
ways.
(1) cDNA (complementary DNA) copy of messenger RNA (mRNA) may be produced with the
help of reverse transcriptase. The cDNA may be cloned in E. coli to create a cDNA library.
(2) The base sequence of the concerned gene can be deduced from the amino acid sequence of
the protein or the base sequence of the mRNA produced by it. A DNA molecule having this base
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Sequence can be chemically synthesized by fully automated machines, called oligonucleotide
synthesizers or gene machines, can be used for this purpose.
(3) The desired DNA segment may be isolated from the genomic library of the concerned
organism. A genomic library of an organism is a collection of plasmid Clones, or phage lysates
containing recombinant DNA molecules so that the sum total of such DNA molecules in the
collection (ideally) represents the entire genome of the organism in question. The DNA
fragments cloned to create genomic libraries are usually produced by digestion of genomic DNA
with a restriction enzyme.
2.Insertion of the Gene/DNA Segment in a Vector
This step allows identification of the desired DNA fragment and production of sufficient number
of its copies needed for analyses and, ultimately, gene transfer. The gene or DNA segment to be
cloned is inserted into a suitable vector. A vector is a DNA molecule capable of independent
replication in a suitable host, and is used to enable propagation and/or expression of the DNA
Segment to be cloned. The choice of vector depends mainly on the host organism and the length
of DNA insert to be cloned. The chosen vector is cut open with a suitable restriction enzyme, the
desired DNA fragment is inserted into the vector and the cut ends are sealed by a DNA ligase. It
is desirable to use the same restriction enzymes to isolate the DNA segment as well as to cut
open the vector; Many vectors are available to serve various needs, e.g., plasmids, viruses,
cosmids and artificial chromosomes. Almost all the vectors in common use have been created by
combining desirable segments from two or more naturally occuring vectors in order to make
them more suitable to the needs of gene cloning. Plasmids are generally suitable for cloning of
relatively smaller DNA Segments, (5-10 kb), viruses, e.g., λ vectors, can handle up to 25 kb
segments, while cosmids can be used to Clone 40-48 kb sequences: much larger segments can be
cloned in artificial chromosomes.
3.Introduction of the Recombinant DNA into a Suitable Host
The introduction of recombinant DNA into a host is called transformation. It may be achieved by
direct uptake of the plasmids by bacterial cells (promoted by Ca2+ or PEG, polyethylene glycol).
Alternatively, the recombinant DNA may be packaged into empty heads of λ phage and then E.
coli cells may be infected with them.
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4.Selection of Transformed Host Cells
When a gene is to be introduced into a plant cell, it is integrated into a suitable vector like
Ti vector, and then transferred into the cell. Identification/selection of the transformed plant cells
is the critical step in genetic engineering. Generally, a gene, called reporter gene, is combined
with the gene being transferred with a view to facilitate the selection of transformed cells.
Reporter genes produce phenotypes/gene products that permit either easy recognition or
selection of the transformed cells.
5.Expression of the Transferred Genes
A special class of vectors, called expression vectors, has to be constructed to permit
expression of the cloned gene in the host cells. Such vectors must have suitable regulatory
sequences, such as promoters, operators and ribosome binding sites, in addition to some other
important properties. Genes are normally transferred into plants for expressing them to generate
a valuable protein or desirable phenotype. Therefore, they are always combined with the
appropriate sequences required for gene expression, i.e., placed in expression cassettes.
6.Safety in Recombinant DNA Research
Elaborate safety protocols have been developed for recombinant DNA research; these
include both physical and biological containment. Physical containment includes the use of
sterile techniques, containment hoods, specially designed laboratories, etc. to prevent the
recombinant DNA from escaping into the ecosystem. Biological containment, on the other hand,
involves the use of such vectors that are especially constructed to lack mobilization, etc., and
such host strains that are weaker than the normal host strain present in the nature.
Experience has made it clear that bacteria and viruses carrying foreign DNA inserts are weaker
that their normal wild types. Therefore, they are unlikely to outcompete the nonrecombinant
types even if they escaped into the ecosystem. As a result, the guidelines regulating recombinant
DNA research have been gradually relaxed over the years, at least for some types of gene
cloning experiments.
Methods of Gene Transfer
The gene to be transferred may be introduced into plant cells through one of the following
methods:
a) Use of Ti or Ri plasmid of Agrobacterium species as vectors,
b) By employing Caulimovirus or Gemini Virus vectors,
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c) Direct DNA uptake by cells,
d) Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced DNA uptake,
e) Electroporation,
f) Microinjection,
g) Particle gun,
h) Calcium phosphate precipitation and
i) Liposome-mediated DNA transfer.
Of these, Ti vectors have been the most successful, followed by particle gun and electroporation.
Table 4.0: Transgenic Varieties of Some Vegetable Crops.
S. No. Crop Transgenic
variety
Gene Transferred Features Developed
By
1. Tomato 579HO ySAMdc from a
yeast
Tomatoes with
300% more
Lycopene.
Increases total
polyamines &
shelf life
-
Flavr Savr antisense RNA of
PG gene
95% reduction in
PG enzyme.
Increases shelf
life
Calgene, Inc.
(US) in 1994
Aromatic
Tomatoes
Geraniol synthase
(GES) from
Ocimum basilicum
Tomatoes smell
like a Rose,
geranium and
lemon grass
converts
lycopene to
aroma molecules
such as geraniol,
citral, citronellol,
linalool, etc.,
Scientists in
Israel and at
Rutgers and
the
University of
Michigan
Endless
summer
High shelf life DNA Plant
Technology
2. Potato ADP Glucose Pyro
Phosphorylase Gene
from E. coli
High sugar and
starch content.
Suitable for chips
making.
Monsanto,
USA
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Antisense technology - gene silencing polygalacturonase silencing of polygalacturonase gene
expression (attacks the cell walls of mature fruit & softens the skin of the fruits by degrading the
cell wall pectin) and thereby stops the softening of cell wall &prevents bruising.
Applications of Genetic Engineering
1.Insect Resistance
A gene (cry) from a soil bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) codes for a protein (delta endotoxin),
called crystal protein, that is produced during sporulation. The crystal proteins (cry proteins) are
toxic to most lepidopteran, many coleopterans and several dipteran insects.
So far, 6 main groups (divided into 18 groups; recently classified into 22 main groups) of Crystal
(Cry) proteins are known: each type of Cry protein is toxic to a specific range of target insects.
The Cry proteins are cleaved at specific sites by the proteolytic enzymes present in the midgut of
the target insects. This releases the toxin fragment, which binds to specific receptors present in
the membranes of epithelial cells of the insect midgut. This creates pores in the cell membranes
leading to the bursting of epithelial cells. The affected (Helicoverpa larva) larvae become
sluggish, stop feeding and ultimately die. Cry proteins are active against larvae of their target
insect species. The cryIA gene has been successfully transferred into tobacco, tomato, potato,
cotton, etc.
Table 6.0: Transgenic Varieties of Some Vegetable Crops Resistant to Various Insects.
2.Resistance to Viruses
One of the successful approaches for transgenic virus resistance is transfer of the coat
protein gene of a virus into the genome of its host, where it is constitutively expressed.
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Constitutive gene expression means expression in every tissue at all the times. The presence of
viral coat protein in the plant cells somehow confers cross protection onto them.
E.g., transfer of genes encoding antibodies against viruses (success achieved in potato), antisense
RNA approach, ribozyme-mediated protection, etc. But so far, coat protein gene is the only
strategy to enjoy commercial success.
Table 7.0: Transgenic Varieties of Some Vegetable Crops Resistant to Various Viruses.
3.Herbicide Resistance
In order to minimise environmental pollution, increasing emphasis is being placed on the
development of safer and readily biodegradable pesticides, including herbicides. Table 8.0:
Transgenic Varieties of Some Vegetable Crops Resistant to Various Herbicides.
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Glyphosate is a biodegradable herbicide, but it is non-selective; most other such herbicides also
are non-selective. This has necessitated the development of herbicide resistant varieties of the
concerned crops through either mutant selection, or gene transfer.
4.Production of Novel Biochemicals
Many valuable biochemicals are obtained from microbes. Biomass production by plants
is much easier and cheaper than that by microbes. Therefore, if genes encoding the valuable
proteins/enzymes necessary for synthesis of the biochemicals are transferred and expressed in
plants, the concerned biochemicals would be produced in the plants. For example, the gene
encoding the antithrombin protein hirudin has been transferred in B. napus, and it accumulates in
seeds. In Europe, hirudin is being commercially produced from transgenic B. napus. Some other
biochemicals are also being produced in transgenic crops.
5.Edible Vaccines
Transgenic fruits/vegetables, which produce and contain an orally active antigen from a
pathogen, and which, when consumed, lead to immunization against the concerned pathogen, are
called edible vaccines. Development of such vaccines is in fairly advanced stages. Edible
vaccines are much cheaper and easier to produce and more convenient to administer than are
conventional methods. In addition, they do not require cold storage, which is a must for latter.
Conclusion
In vitro breeding is an important tool for crop improvement. The use of in vitro plant
breeding techniques based on in vitro plant tissue culture, mutagenesis and molecular breeding
has made possible the development of biotechnological tools for addressing the critical problems
of crop improvement for sustainable agriculture. Also, in vitro tissue culture-based tools have
also allowed a deeper understanding of the physiology and biochemistry in plants cultured under
adverse environmental conditions. As research continues with these in vitro techniques, new and
valuable uses will be developed to assist the biotechnological breeding of plants.
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Williams, E. 1980. Hybrids between Trifolium ambiguum and T. hybridum obtained with the aid
of embryo culture. N.Z. J. Bot. 18:215–220.
Williams, E. and G. De Lautour. 1980. The use of embryo culture with transplanted nurse
endosperm for the production of interspecific hybrids in pasture legumes. Bot. Gaz.
141:252–257.
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Williams, E.G., I.M. Verry, and W.M. Williams. 1982. Use of embryo culture in interspecific
hybridization, p. 119–128. In: I.K. Vasil, W.R. Scowcroft, and K.J. Frey (eds.). Plant
improvement and somatic cell genetics. Academic, New York.
Yeung, E.C., T.A. Thorpe, and C.J. Jensen. 1981. In vitro fertilization and embryo culture, p.
253–271. In: T.A. Thorpe (ed.). Plant tissue culture: Methods and applications in
agriculture. Academic, New York.
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Tharene R S*
M.Sc (Hort.) Fruit Science, College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellayani,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695522
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Mint species like Mentha arvensis are primarily grown in India. Asia and Europe each
have native mint plants. The scientific name for this herb is \"Mentha.\" Mint leaves have been
used for their numerous health advantages for a very long time. It is regarded as one of the oldest
and most widely utilised herbs in use today. There are many different types of mint, and each
one has a unique flavour and perfume. Peppermint is one of its popular forms. In numerous types
of meals and beverages, it serves as a natural seasoning and flavouring agent. The leaves can be
used to flavour food or to create essential oils.
Biostimulants
A biostimulant is any drug or mixture of natural substances or microorganisms that
enhances crop condition without creating negative side effects. Bio-stimulants include enzymes,
proteins, amino acids, micronutrients, and other substances. Natural stimulants, such as phenols,
salicylic acid, humic and fulvic acids, or protein hydrolases, are frequently referred to as biostimulants. Organisms such as fungi and bacteria that affect the species composition of
organisms found in soil or plants are an important class of plant bio-stimulants. Their presence
may hasten the rate of deterioration or limit the number of fungal and bacterial groups. Biostimulants are compounds that, when given in low amounts to seed, crop, or soil, can control and
enhance the physiological processes of the crop. Biostimulants affect plant physiology in several
ways, boosting crop growth, yields, quality, nutrient uptake, tolerance to abiotic stresses, and
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harvest shelf life. Biostimulants can be used as a fertiliser additive to help with nutrient uptake,
plant development, and tolerance to abiotic stress. Popular fungi used as biostimulants are
Glomus intraradices, Trichoderma reesei , Trichoderma atroviride , and Heteroconium
chaetospira. Useful bacteria include Arthrobacter spp., Acinetobacter spp., Bacillus spp.,
Pseudomonas spp., Enterobacter spp., Ochrobactrum spp., and Rhodococcus spp. Biostimulants
can be applied to the soil as soil preparations (powders, granules, or solutions) or as liquid foliar
spray products. Biostimulants including humic chemicals and nitrogen compounds are frequently
applied directly to the soil, whereas foliar sprays of various plant and seaweed extracts are
utilised. Biostimulants should be applied in the morning when the stomata are open and the
absorption rate is highest. Biostimulants are also directly sprayed to harvested fruits.
In addition to water, biostimulants can be added to irrigation systems and absorbed by
plants. The outcomes demonstrate that foliar application of the biostimulant was more successful
than soil application. The amount of macro and micronutrients increased after a biostimulant
made from sewage sludge was applied. Biostimulants can also be employed as seaweed meal or
biomass, however this approach has certain drawbacks. Due to transportation issues, biomass
and meal may be employed in locations close to the site of seaweed acquisition. Long before
planting, biomass or meal is added straight to the soil to supplement it with nutrients. To blend
biomass or meal with the topsoil, agrotechnical techniques like ploughing are used.
Biostimulants are chemicals that may improve crop productivity by lowering abiotic stresses and
repairing damage caused by unfavourable environmental conditions.
Biostimulants and it’s role in agricultural or horticultural crops
Biostimulants Role in crops
Seaweed extracts Improve the mineral content of plant
tissues
Humic acid and Plant Growth promoting
Rhizobacteria
Enhance the root foraging capacity and
improve the nutrient use efficiency
Glycine betaine and Protein hydrolysate Crop tolerance to abiotic stress can be
improved
According to numerous research, the use of biostimulants improves crop productivity and
reduces the negative consequences of climate change. In the case of abiotic stresses, the efficacy
of biostimulants is dependent on when they are applied (before, during, or after the stressful
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event). Furthermore, the appropriate dose is a vital consideration, because differing
concentrations may have a favourable or negative impact on crop growth. Although the majority
of plant biostimulants are delivered to the rhizosphere to promote nutrient uptake, many of these
also have protective benefits against environmental stress, including exposure to suboptimal
growth temperatures, soil salinization, and water deficiency.
Source of Biostimulants:
Source of Biostimulant Example Main activity
Hydrolysis Product Alfalfa hay, pulses, and
leftover fruits or vegetables
are examples of enzymatic
waste. Chemical waste
examples include feathers,
bone meal, casein, collagen
from skins, and leftover fish or
animal tissue.
Increased yield, higher levels
of macro- and micronutrients
and leaf nitrate and
phosphorus, an increase in the
amount of protein in cereal
grains, Biological and abiotic
stress protection, improved
soil fertility as a result of the
growth of soil microorganisms
Anaerobic Digestion Product Plant, animal and lignin
biomass.
Increase the availability of
nutrients via activating the
auxin-like action.
Bio preparations of Marine
Algae
Ascophyllum nodosum,
Sargassum wightii,
Ecklonia maxima,
Enteromorpha intestinalis,
Gelidium pectinutum
Potential for antioxidants and
capacity to capture free
radicals a chelating effect.
Increased resilience of plants
to bacterial and fungal
diseases. The extension of
fruit's usable shelf life.
Increase plant thermal
resistance. Protection
from drought stress.
Groups of benevolent fungi Rhizophagus intraradices,
Rhymbocarpus aggregatus,
Glomus viscosum, Glomus
etunicatum, Glomus
claroideum, Trichoderma sp.,
Heteroconium chaetospira
Increase in plant growth and
yield when grown alone or in
collaboration with bacteria,
such as Azotobacter spp.
Protection of plants from
oxidative stress.
Effect of bio-stimulants in mint
The highest amount of leaves dry weight and shoot dry weight obtained by the
application of 400 mg/L CH + 400 mg/L CA. The maximum increase in yield of shoots dry
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weight happened by application of 200 mg/l CH + 400 mg/l CA in field. The treatments of 400
mg/l CH + 400 mg/l CA and 200 mg/l CH + 400 mg/l HA + 400 mg/l CA had the highest
essential oil concentration. The treatment of 200 mg/l CH + 800 mg/l HA + 400 mg/l CA
showed the maximum menthol concentration. Menthone and pulegon concentrations were
highest in the 400 mg/l CH + 800 mg/l HA + 400 mg/l CA treatment. The highest concentration
of α -terpinene was found in a treatment of 400 mg/l CH + 800 mg/l HA + 400 mg/l CA,
whereas the highest concentration of menthafuran was achieved in foliar application of 400 mg/l
CH + 400 mg/l HA + 400 mg/l CA. The highest levels of menthyl acetate were present in the
plants treated with 800 mg/l HA (Pourhadi et al., 2017)
Note: CH: chitosan [Poly-(D)glucosamine], Poly[(1,4)-N-acetyl-D-glucose-2-amine)]; HA:
humic acid [(C8H13NO5)n , C187H186O89N9S1]; CA: citric acid (C6H8O7)
The physiological and metabolic responses of stressed plants, such as gas exchange, leaf water
potential, relative water content, and proline buildup, were enhanced by biostimulants. The
highest essential oil (EO) ratio was found in the NN treatment with 70% CSC (3.35%). The
fraction of 1,8-cineol increased and that of pulegone reduced in EOs under 70% and 50% CSC
with NN treatment. Increased catalase and superoxide dismutase activities, decreased H2O2
levels, and increased antioxidant activities were all noted. Applications of ND and NN under
water stress conditions boosted the mint EOs' economic and therapeutic characteristics, which
have uses in the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries (Elansary et al., 2019)
Note: NN - Nanozim NXTTM , ND - Nanozim De‘Lite™, CSC - container substrate capacity
References
Elansary, H., Mahmoud, E.A., El-Ansary, D.O. and Mattar, M.A., 2019. Effects of water stress
and modern biostimulants on growth and quality characteristics of
mint. Agronomy, 10(1), p.6.
Pourhadi, M., Badi, H.N., Mehrafarin, A., Omidi, H., Aghaee, R.H., Rafiee, H., Roodbaraki, M.
and Khosravi, M.T., 2017, November. Effect of biostimulants application on leaves and
phytochemical traits of Mentha piperitha L. under farm conditions. In The 3rd World
Congress on the use of Biostimulants in Agriculture. The 3rd World Congress on the use
of Biostimulants i in Agriculture.
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*P. K. Thakar and P. S. Patel
Department of Entomology, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, Dantiwada
Taluka, Satsan, Gujarat 385506
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
The emission of light by a living thing that carries out a biological purpose is known as
bioluminescence. One of the oldest scientific disciplines is bioluminescence, which dates back to
the earliest Greek writings. The inquiry of insect luminescence and its significant contribution to
insect activity are discussed in this article. Studies of bioluminescence played a significant role
in the development of the scientific method and were among the many visual phenomena that
had to be taken into account in developing a theory of light because many aspects of this field are
readily accessible for investigation without the need for advanced technology.
Keywords: Bioluminescence, Living lightening, Insects and Fireflies
Introdution
Bioluminescence is the term for the phenomenon in which a living thing generates and
emits light as a result of a chemical reaction. Bio in Greek means \"living,\" while lumin in Latin
means \"light.\" Chemical energy is transformed into light energy throughout the process. A
chemolumine scence reaction that is catalysed by an enzyme is what triggers the reaction. A
chemical process within an organism produces bio luminescence, which is caused by a group of
substances known as luciferins (literally, \"light bringers\"). Light and an ineffectual substance
(oxyluciferin) are produced when the luciferin oxidizes in the presence of the catalytic enzyme
luciferase.
According to Hastings and Wilson (1976), bioluminescence (BL) has a variety of
functions, including courtship and sexual attraction, predation, and defense. The occurrence of
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INSECT BIOLUMINESCENCE - THE MAGICAL SCIENCE OF
LIVING LIGHTENING
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many luciferin/luciferase systems that result in various patterns of light emission, such as color,
intensity, timing, etc., is thought to represent the idea that this
mechanism emerged after O2 appeared on Earth at least 30
times during evolution. Quantum yield of BL of fireflies is
0.88, suggesting that bioluminescence has likely evolved
from early, extremely weak chemiluminescent oxidasecatalyzed reactions to become highly functioning lightemitting processes. These species may have thrived thanks to a primordial role in O2
detoxification and the evolutionary benefits provided by particular light communication.
Origin of Bioluminescence
The Greeks and Romans were the first to define the characteristics of luminous beings.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) named 180 marine species and is credited with creating the phrase \"cold
light.\" Greek writers also made reference to marine phosphorescence around 500 BC (Harvey,
1957). The earliest book on bioluminescence and chemiluminescence was written by Conrad
Gesner in 1555. Later in the 19th century, Raphael Dubois conducted a significant experiment in
which he was able to create light by separating the two crucial components of a bioluminescent
process. He also created the term \"luciferine\" and the heat-labile enzyme \"luciferase\". The first
luciferin was found in 1956.
The atomic structure of luciferin
The class of light-emitting heterocyclic compounds known as luciferins, or \"lightbringer\"
in Latin, is found in organisms and is the cause of
bioluminescence. When the enzyme luciferase is present,
small molecules called luciferins go through an oxidation
process that produces oxyluciferin and light energy. The
following is a list of some of the better-studied molecules,
however the precise number of luciferin variations is
unclear. Despite the fact that luciferins can have many
different shapes, they all produce light by employing reactive oxygen species.
The freshwater snail Latianeritoides produces a substance called latialuciferin. (E)-2-
methyl-4-(2, 6, 6-trimethyl-1-cyclohex1-yl)-1-buten-1-ol formate is its chemical name. Firefly
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luciferin is the name given to the luciferin found in several Lampyridae species. The firefly's
bright yellow light is produced by the luciferase substrate.
Bacterial luciferin is one type of luciferin that may be
found in bacteria, some of which can be found in the specialized
tissues of certain fish and squid. The molecule contains a reduced
riboflavin phosphate (Green and McElroy, 1956). Coelenterazine
is found in radiolarians, ctenophores, cnidarians, squid, brittle
stars, copepods, chaetognaths, fish, and shrimp.
The prosthetic group of the protein aequorin is responsible for the emission of blue light.
Dinoflagellate luciferin, a tetrapyrrole derivative of chlorophyll that causes the phenomenon of
nocturnal shimmering waves (formerly known as phosphorescence, although this is a misleading
name), is one of the dinoflagellates. It is very similar to luciferin in some species of euphausiid
shrimp. In particular, Poricthys, an ostracod, and other deep-sea fish have a chemical called
vargulin. It is an imidazopyrazinone that emits mostly blue light in animals, much like the
chemical coelenterazine. ATP and Mg2+ salts are present during the usual for fireflies luciferin
oxidation process with oxygen under the control of luciferase. Under the influence of luciferase,
Mg2+, and ATP consumption, luciferin interacts with oxygen in the first phase to produce the
highly reactive intermediate Int1. This intermediate breaks down into carbon dioxide and the
excited intermediate Int2 in the second stage (Phase 2). By emitting a photon with a distinctive
wavelength, Int2 is de-excited (Phase 3). The peak emission wavelength for luciferin is between
550 and 570 nm.
Coleoptera are insects the most luminous species, both in terms of diversity and
quantity, are found in beetles. They are mostly found in the
superfamily Elateroidea, which also contains the families of click
beetles, railroad worms, and fireflies (Lampyridae, Phengodidae, and
allied families). Additionally, luminescence has been seen in the larvae
and adults of an unidentified species as well as a luminous Xantholinus
larva of the Staphylinidae (Costa et al., 1986). The objective of the
green-yellow flashes that fireflies release from their ventral lanterns is to pique the interest of
potential mates.
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Click beetles have two dorsal prothoracic lanterns that typically emit a continuous green
light as well as a ventral abdominal light organ that, when the insect is flying, emits a continuous
green-orange light. Among luminescent beetles, railroad worms have the widest color spectrum.
Some of the most striking examples have rows of lateral lanterns
along the body on the females and larvae that emit green-orange
light. Other South American species have cephalic lanterns that,
depending on the species, can emit anything from yellow-green to
red light. The primary role of bioluminescence in the larval stage
is defense, but it has also been shown that the larvae of the Brazilian Pyrearinuster mitilluminans
click beetle, which exhibit the phenomena of light termite mounds, can lure prey (Bechara,
1988).
In Diptera, the Mycetophilidae exhibit luminescence. The most well-known are the
Arachnocampa species from the Australasian and New Zealand caves,
whose larvae build webs on cave roofs. The genera Keroplatus and
Orfelia contain other luminous mycetophilids (Harvey, 1952). The
eastern United States' Appalachian Mountains are home to Orfelia fultoni,
another species that builds webs (Fulton, 1941).
Functions
Arachnocampa larvae weave webs on cave roofs and draw their prey, flying insects, with
their constant blue-green light. Luminescence is produced by the terminal ends of Malpighi
tubules. When a female pupa is about to emerge, up to three males may be holding on to her. She
shines when a man puts his attention on her. A guy on horseback must fend off opponents who
want to shove him aside. Emerging females use their light to attract males if any are present. The
Fulgoridae family of planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea; sometimes referred to as
lanternflies) contains unusual and attractive insects. Many fulgorid species produce cuticular
waxes that are mostly formed of keto Esters and have brilliant hues.
Relevance of insect bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is assumed to have functional relevance in primitive forms of life. In
many arthropods, the light produced by bioluminescence is utilized to entice the opposite sex for
mating, attract prey, or defend the organism.
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Signal of mating
Light has been seen to serve as a mating signal in fireflies. In some species,
bioluminescence draws members of the same species together, which inadvertently increases the
likelihood of mating. Since the females of some Lampyridae
species lack wings and are stationary, it is crucial for them to
produce light in order to draw in wingless males. Between
species and between sexes, bioluminescent insect flash patterns
differ. Some animals wait 5.5 seconds on a chilly night before
releasing a single, brief flash. Other animals could wait a full
second before holding the flash. Some tropical species gather in huge groups and flash
simultaneously. Photuris pyralis fireflies, both male and female, emerge at dusk and produce a
single, brief flash at regular intervals. Typically, the flashes are from male fireflies looking for a
partner. There are fifty to one more man than females. When males flash within 10 to 12 feet of
the ladies, the females climb a blade of grass and flash back. Up to ten repetitions of signal
exchange are required before they begin mating.
Predation
The New Zealand glowworm fly, Arachnocampa luminosa, is the most unusual example
of light working as a lure for prey. The female fly lays its eggs
on the cave roof. The larvae create light and hang down by a
sticky thread after hatching. This light may illuminate the
entire cave at night, luring other bug species. The larvae feed
on these attracted insects that become tangled in the sticky
strands. In New Zealand, the fly-filled caverns, sometimes
known as the \"luminous caves,\" are famous tourist destinations.
Defence
When railroad worm larvae are traveling, the head area glows continuously, suggesting a
potential illuminating function, while the conditions that cause the lateral light organs to turn on
imply a possible defensive role. Potential predators can be deterred by sudden flashes. The
railroad worm larvae are restricted to limited spaces and live in high densities. They may emit
light simultaneously to scare away possible adversaries or to warn mated females who are about
to lay eggs about crowding and competition for food supplies.
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Bioluminescence in pest management
Using bioluminescence for pest control It is possible to trace the patterns of organism
dispersion by using bioluminescence. In 2001, American scientists tweaked the pink bollworm's
genetic makeup by introducing a green fluorescent protein (GFP) produced from the jellyfish
Aequora victoria. When seen in its larval stage, the GFP transgenic pink bollworm strain
fluoresces intensely green. The primary goal of this study is to create a strain of pink bollworm
that has been GFP tagged for field performance tests and to map the pest's range. It could also be
used by field managers as an extra tool. Their long-term goal is to ultimately combine the GFP
gene with a temperature-sensitive deadly gene in the pink bollworm. It could also be used by
field managers as an extra tool. Their long-term goal is to someday combine the GFP gene with a
temperature-sensitive lethal gene that can be used to control pink bollworms.
References
Bechara, E. J. 1988. Luminescent elaterid beetles: biochemical, biological and ecological
aspects. Adv. Oxygen. Process, 1: 123 -178.
Costa, C., Vanin, S. and Colepicolo, P. N. 1986. Larvae of Neotropical Coleoptera XIV: first
record of bioluminescence in the family Staphylinidae (Xantholini). Rev. Bras. Entomol.,
30: 101–104.
Fulton, B. B. 1941. luminous fly larva with spider traits. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am., 34: 289-302.
Green, A. and McElroy, W.D. 1956. ―Function of adenosine triphosphate in the activation of
luciferin‖. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 64 (2): 257–71.
Hastings, J.W. and Wilson, T. 1976. Bioluminescence and chemiluminescence. Photochem.
Photobiol., 23, 461–473.
Harvey E. N. 1952. Bioluminescence. Academic Press, New York.
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Deepak Kumar1* and Anita Kumari Meena2
1
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Chander Shekhar
Azad University of Ag. & Tech., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
2
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Animal production, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Milking machines were developed to meet demands for milking more cows more quickly
using fewer people and less effort. Initially, this was achieved by the introduction of bucket units
which were carried from cow to cow in traditional cowsheds or milking barns. Pipeline milking
achieved considerable improvement in labour efficiency and reduction in manual lifting and
carrying, but the major development was the change to parlours where the operators use
stationary equipment to milk the cows as they pass through the installation during the course of
milking.
Milking parlour installations
At first, static parlour design followed the cowshed stall arrangement with the cows
standing side-by-side and a milking unit positioned between each pair of stalls. In these abreast
parlours, cows enter across the operator's working area and both are on the same floor level.
Later, a step was included to elevate the cows 0.3–0.4 m. Even with this addition milking cannot
be carried out in an upright position and it was not until the introduction of the tandem parlour
that genuine two-level milking became possible. In these, the cows stand head-to-tail in
individual stalls on one or both sides of the operator's pit or work area with a floor level
difference of 0.8 m. Each stall is fitted with an entry and exit gate giving access to and from a
passage flanking the stalls. A simplified version of the tandem, known as the chute parlour,
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eliminates the need for separate access passages by having batch entry/exit of cows through the
stalls when a division between each stall is opened. The number of cows in each batch equals the
number of stalls on each side of the operator's pit. In both the tandem and the chute, the distance
between udders of adjacent cows is 2.5 m.
This disadvantage renders large parlours impracticable, a problem which was solved by
the development of the herringbone parlour. By standing a batch of cows in echelon formation at
an angle of 30°–35° to the sides of the operator's pit, the distance between udders is reduced to
0.9 m. There are no individual stalls, the cows being restrained on the platform (or standing) by
an entry gate, an exit gate and a rump rail parallel to the pit side. Herringbones have become
popular in all major milk producing countries, being suitable for herds of 50 to 400 cows. In a
recent modification, called the side-by-side, the cows stand at right angles to the pit so that 3
cows can occupy the space required for 2 cows in a herringbone.
Abreast parlours
Construction costs are low per cow place. Operators must bend or crouch to perform
most of the routine tasks on each cow. Milking efficiency is hindered by cows crossing the
operator's work area. Cows in the exit passage are remote from the operator's control. Individual
stalls allow individual attention during milking.
Tandem parlours
Construction costs are high per cow place. Operators can milk standing upright. Cows in
the entry/exit passages are remote from the operator's control. Size of parlour and throughput are
limited by the distance (2.5m) between udders. Individual stalls allow individual attention during
milking. Food troughs can be easily reached and inspected by the operator.
Chute parlours
Cheaper, batch milking version of the tandem. Cows enter and leave through the stalls.
Operator has control over cow entry/exit.
Herringbone parlours
Cows stand in echelon formation at 30°–35° to the operator's pit with no division
between cows. Distance between udders is reduced to 0.9 m. Operator has control over cow
entry/exit Cows enter and leave in batches. Suitable for herds of 50–400 cows.
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Trigon parlours
Three-sided herringbone with, consequently, smaller batches causing less delay from a
slow milking cow. Comparative parlour performance capacity will require 20%–25% fewer units
and stalls than the conventional herringbone. Four-sided (polygon) and, more recently, threesided (trigon) herringbones have been built for larger herds. These multi-sided parlours
economize in the number of units and stalls required compared with the conventional two-sided
herringbone because fewer units are idle at any one-time during milking. (eg. a 16/16 trigon is
equivalent to a 20/20 herringbone in terms of parlour performance capacity). Also, the smaller
batch size for a given number of units means that a slow milking cow has less effect on batch
milking time.
Originally, rotary parlours were built for very large herds but more recently smaller ones
have been designed to provide an alternative to the herringbone. As in the case of static parlours,
the cows stand either side-by-side, i.e., rotary abreast; head-to-tail ie, rotary tandem or in echelon
formation, i.e., rotary herringbone. During milking, cows walk onto a rotating platform singly
with the operator standing at the point of entry to prepare the udders for milking and attach the
teat cup clusters. The cows leave the platform when rotation brings them opposite the exit
passage, the clusters having been removed automatically when milk flow ceased. High capital
and maintenance costs, mechanical faults and the introduction of automation into static parlours
have all contributed to a declining interest in rotaries. The most successful version is
undoubtedly the rotary abreast which has no moving parts on the platform, the cows face inwards
towards the center and the operator is positioned at the circumference of the platform to control
cow entry.
Side-by-side parlours
Modification of the herringbone. Cows stand at right angles to the operator's pit, so that 3
cows occupy the length required for 2 in the herringbone. Cows must be milked through the back
legs.
Rotary abreast
Least expensive rotary per cow place in terms of cost and space requirement. Cows face
inwards separated by static tubular metal divisions. No moving parts on the platform. Operator
standing at the platform perimeter can assist cow entry but cannot see the cows during rotation.
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Rotary tandem
Most expensive per cow place in terms of cost and space requirement. Cows stand noseto-tail in stalls circling the operator‘s work area. Operator cannot assist cow entry but can see all
cows easily during rotation.
Rotary herringbone
Cows stand in echelon formation facing outwards around a central work area. Designs
vary from simple yoke ties only on the platform to rotationally operated moving divisions which
position the cows and allow entry and exit.
Types of Parlours
One milking unit per two stalls (½):
Each milking unit is shared between two stalls. Comparatively short unit ideal time of
0.2 mins. Slow milking cows can delay throughput.
One milking unit per stall (1/1)
Each stall has a milking unit. More costly installation than ½. Throughout milking, about
50% of units will, on average, be idle with an average unit idle time of 1.2 mins. ―Doubling-up‖
the number of units is equivalent to adding one more unit (e.g., 5/10 to 10/106/12) in terms of
available milking time per cow. Work routine time and feeding time per cow will be unaffected
(in batch milking). Operators can select sequence of cluster attachment. More regular interval
between udder preparation and cluster attachment.
Even though there are several parlour designs and configurations there are only two basic
types; those having one milking unit to each pair of stalls (e.g., 5 units, 10 stalls), or one unit to
each stall (eg. 10 units, 10 stalls). With the exception of rotaries, trigons and polygons, milking
parlours can be of either type. In recent years, many 1 unit per 2 stall parlours have been
―doubled-up‖ to the 1 unit per 1 stall version and it is important that the effect of this change is
understood, particularly in relation to comparative parlour performance capacity. The operator's
work routine time (i.e., the time available to carry out the routine jobs on each cow) is
unaffected.
This is because, in the doubled-up version about 50% of the units will, on average, be
idle at any one time, and the content of the work routine will be unchanged (see multiple activity
charts). Also unaffected is the available eating time for cows in parlours where batch milking is
practiced, (e.g., the herringbone). Although the average interval between cluster attachment and
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removal (ie. the available milking time per cow) becomes greater in the doubled-up version for a
given performance level, this advantage can be exploited only if the operator had previously
been waiting for cows to milk out. In terms of performance capacity (i.e., available milking time
per cow) doubling up a 5/10 herringbone to a 10/10 for example, is equivalent to adding one
more unit to the 5/10 to make a 6/12.
Conclusion
One unit per stall installations are that delays caused by slow milking cows can be
minimized because the operator can select the sequence of cluster attachment to cater for known
differences in the milking out times of cows; the interval between cow preparation and cluster
attachment is likely to be more constant and, milk flow can be gravity assisted to pipelines below
udder level.
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E.L. Aadhie Shrie1
, E.L. Aruneshwaran*
1
, S. Vigneshwara1
, S. Mohammed Zubair2
, G.
Sathriyan2
1UG student, 2
PG scholar, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Tamilnadu Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University, Namakkal
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Introduction
Climate change is becoming a serious problem threatening livestock production by
affecting their environment, health, and feed sources. During summer, there is a lack of water
and decreased soil moisture, which prevents forage growth and quality. Dry season management
of animals entails balancing pasture and water supply against forage and water demand.
Adequate supply of fodder, either green or dry, is crucial to the livelihoods of farmers involved
in animal husbandry during dry seasons.
Failures of Dry season feeding management of animals lead to
Loss of weight and reduced meat and milk production
Abortions, still births and Retained fetal membranes
Metabolic and mineral deficiencies (Botulinism, Pica)
Immune suppression (Salmonellosis, Coccidiosis, Pulpy Kidney disease)
Reduction in palatability and digestibility of forage
Plant poisoning (Nitrate, oxalate poisoning)
Migration of flock and herd‘s men
Overcrowding of available graze land
Sales of animals at loss
Increased cost of production
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MANAGEMENT OF FODDER CRISIS DURING DRY
SEASON
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Strategies adopted to meet fodder crisis in dry season includes
1. Animal management
2. Fodder cultivation management
3. Fodder conservation
4. Feeding management
Animal Management
1. Culling of animals
Unproductive, old and deformed animals are culled during the dry season in order to
reduce the nutritional competition among animals for available forage.
2. Draught Resistant Breeds
Draught resistant indigenous breeds like Kangayam, Bargur breeds of cattle can grow
well with lower intake of feed and water in dry season when they compared with exotic
cattle and also they withstand heat stress to a great extent.
3. Parasitic control
Heats stressed and under nutritional animals are highly susceptible to parasitic infections.
During the beginning of dry season (summer), the animals must be dewormed in order to
avoid competition for nutrients between animals and parasite.
4. Herd segregation
Young animals cannot compete with mature animals for basal feed during fodder crisis.
Young, old, lactating and dry animals must be separated; feeding is done according to
their needs. Old and Dry animals are provided with less desirable pastures.
Fodder Cultivation Management
1. Use of drought-tolerant plants
Leguminous plants such as Cajanus cajan, mucuna, centrocema, cow pea, beans, lab lab,
lucerene etc. and non-leguminous plants such as maize, sorghum, guinea grass, elephant grass,
Andropogon spp etc. where they come up with little rains can be used for feeding animals during
scarcity period. Cactus is a drought-tolerant plant that can be grown on roadsides and in
degraded soils. Young cactus leaves can be used as a source of soluble carbohydrate and water
during a drought. Spines in spiny varieties can be removed by either burning individual pads or
chopping. Water hyacinth grows abundantly in ponds and stagnant water. It is high in crude
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protein but contains high oxalic acid (3.6%). It can be feed to the animals as hay, silage and with
20% molasses where it is not quite palatable.
2. Intercrop shrubs and trees
Many palatable trees (such as Acacia and Bauhinia spp.) retain their leaves for some or
all of the dry season can be used for fodder. Naturally growing trees can be managed for the
same purpose. The pods of many trees also provide abundant, high quality fodder during the dry
season (e.g., Acacia tortilis, Dichrostachys cinerea, Faidherbia albida, Piliostigma thonningii.) A
mature F. albida (msangu) tree may produce 100 kg or more of nutritious pods. Woody
perennials, trees, dwarf shrub‘s leaves, twigs, bark, wood, bulbs, tubers, roots, flowers, seedpods
and fruits can be used during the dry season when herbaceous forage is in short supply, this is
because being perennial plants, these plants are not susceptible to sudden climatic changes and
therefore continue to produce higher quality fodder in terms of quality and quantity even during
dry seasons.
3. Waste Land cultivation
Silvipastoral systems with multipurpose tree species such as Prosopis cineraria and
Zizphus nummularia, as well as grasses, are recommended for increasing forage production
From degraded and wastelands. If properly stabilized and managed, these lands have the
potential to be a hugely productive site for afforestation and grassland development.
4. Azolla cultivation
Azolla is a floating fern cultivated in a small pit hosts a symbiotic blue green algae
anabaena azollae which is responsible for the fixation and assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Azolla is very rich in proteins (25-35% on DM basis), minerals (10-15% on DM basis), vitamins
(A, B12, Beta carotene) and growth intermediaries. Carbohydrate and oil content in Azolla is
very low. Azolla can be easily digested by livestock, owing to its high protein and low lignin
content. Azolla can be used as an ideal feed substitute for cattle, fish, pig and poultry apart from
its utility is bio fertilizer for wetland paddy.
5. Water conserving Agricultural Practices
Drip irrigation involving precise, slow application of water in the form of tiny streams
through mechanical devices called emitters located at selected points along delivery lines. It
saves 50 to 65% of water when compared to other methods. It can be adopted for crops Coconut,
banana, maize, sugarcane where they are used as a source of green fodder supply for animals
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during scarcity fodder. Rain gun sprinkler irrigation can be used for plants such as groundnut,
cotton where the water is applied as spray or as rain drops over the crops.
6. Grazing Management
Good grazing management produces a lot of leaf material which is necessary for the plant
to take advantage of any moisture that does fall and produces energy for its roots and basal buds.
The less energy a plant can provide to its roots, the more vulnerable to drought and grazing.
Rotational grazing system is preferable to continuous grazing because periodic rest helps plants
to maintain vigor.
Fodder Conservation
During the rainy season when there is abundant supply of fresh, succulent and highly
nutritious forages, it is advised to cut up a mixture of grasses and legumes and conserve them in
form of hay (dry fodder) or silage to feed animals during the period of scarcity (dry season).
1.Hay making
Hay refers to grasses or legumes that are harvested, dried and stored at 85-90
percent dry matter. High quality hay is green in color, leafy and pliable and free from
mustiness. When harvested in the proper physiological stage of growth and well cured to
15 per cent or less moisture at the time of storing, hay can be utilized as an excellent
feed for dairy cattle, particularly when fodder is scarce or pasturage is insufficient. Hay is
rich in Vitamin D content and also the toxicity of sorghum is reduced in hay making. Oats are
best plant for hay making.
2.Silage making
Silage is a fermented feed resulting from the storage of high moisture crops (60-
70%), usually green forages, under anaerobic conditions in a structure known as a silo.
Maize and sorghum are important fodder crops, that are rich in carbohydrates used for silage
making. Organic acids produced in the silage are similar to those of produced in the animal‘s
digestive tract and thus the digestibility of fodder increases. It provided succulent green forage
where the vegetation growth is dormant during dry period.
3.Fodder Banks
Fodder banks are plantings of high-quality fodder species. Their goal is to maintain
healthy productive animals. They can be utilized all year, but are designed to bridge the forage
scarcity of annual dry seasons. Fodder banks do not provide 100% of feed requirements, but
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supplement the available dry season forage. Fodder bank plants are usually trees or shrubs, and
often legumes. The relatively deep roots of these woody perennials allow them to reach soil
nutrients and moisture not available to grasses and herbaceous plants. This characteristic enables
these plants to retain fresh foliage into the dry season. The ability of some legumes to fix
atmospheric nitrogen makes them protein-rich feeds. Crop residues such as straws of wheat and
paddy are also not utilized efficiently during normal years. Under normal years, if straws are
properly stored in the fodder bank, then they will be very useful during drought.
FEEDING MANAGEMENT
1.Reallocation of available feed
Lactating animals are provided with high palatable nutritious palatable green forages whereas
dry animals are given with unpalatable forages and crop residues.
2.Use of crop residues
Crop residues are post-harvest roughage materials or plant materials left after the removal
of the primary food from the crop plant. They are referred to as ―farm waste‖. Hulls and husks,
Mustard plant parts (stem + leaves + pod cover), stalks of cotton, pigeon pea and other
similar crops can also provide bulk to the animals in satisfying hunger of large bovine
population. They can be fed after grinding and mixing with concentrate and roughage or
by incorporating them in complete feeds upto 30% level in preparing complete feeds. The
vegetable crop residues are grown wherever irrigation facilities are available. The crop
residues of vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, sweet potato creepers, potato tops and
leaves, pod covers of legume crops etc. are available in large quantity. They can be used
effectively during scarcity. However they should be fed in limited quantity along with some
dry fodder so as to avoid problem of digestive disorders.
3.Agro-industrial by-products
Agro-industrial by products (AIBPs) is waste products arising from the processing of
crop or animal products usually by an agricultural firm. Agro-industrial by-products which can
be used as livestock feed include brewer's dry grain, palm kernel cake, maize offal‘s, wheat
offal‘s, citrus pulp, citrus molasses, citrus seed meal, root and tuber by products, ground nut
cake, cotton seed cake, Neem cake, Sugar cane tops and bagasse etc. All these by-products can
be utilized by ruminants during the dry season when forage is lacking.
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4.Complete feed Blocks
Complete feed block is composed of forage, concentrate and other supplementary
nutrients in desired proportions capable to nutrient requirement of an animal. The CFB‘s supply
uniform roughage concentrate ratio, uniform feed intake favoring, uniform supply of nutrients
and maintenance of rumen environment. This system is economical as it allows inclusions of low
cost agro industrial by products, low quality crop residues and unpalatable feed ingredients with
their efficient utilization
5.Feeding of mineral mixtures and common salt
As forages contain only fewer minerals and vitamins during dry season, it can be more
efficiently supplemented through water, protein energy licks and through injections. Dicalcium
phosphate and salt is provided to the animals in the licks throughout the year.
6.Fodder Enrichment : To increase nutrient palatability and digestibility
Urea molasses mineral blocks
Molasses contains a high concentration of sugars that are easily digested in the rumen. It
is also high in minerals such as calcium, potassium, sulfur, and trace minerals, but low in
nitrogen and phosphorus. As it is highly palatable, molasses is frequently used as a carrier for
urea. During dry seasons, urea molasses blocks are used as lick, in addition to straw feeding. The
block contains urea, molasses, minerals, grain/cakes, and a binder. Animals get their energy,
protein, and minerals from licking these blocks. Molasses/urea supplements in liquid or block
form.
Urea treatment of straw
Urea-treated straw improves the digestibility and nutritive value of low nutrient forages.
It reduces the need for concentrate feeding and the amount of land needed for green fodder
production. The procedure involves evenly spraying urea solution (40g urea/L water) @ the rate
of 40g urea/kg straw is sprinkled over the straw.
7.Reduction of wastage by chaffing
Straws with thick stems such as sorghum, pearl millet etc. must be chopped before
feeding. Chaffing reduces the wastage to 15 to 20%.
Major Limitations To The Alternative Feeds and Feeding In Dry Seasons
The cost of concentrate feed is high especially when a large herd is involved therefore small
farm holders are not able to afford it.
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Some dry season feed stuff such as hay and crop residue are low in nutrients when compared to
succulent forages therefore they may only act as maintenance rations and may not be sufficient
enough to boost production especially when they are not supplemented with nutrient
supplements.
Sales of unproductive animals in the herd may cause the farmers to sell at a loss if the farmers
are desperate to sell their products.
Some dry season feedstuff such as contain some anti-nutritional factors which may be harmful
to the animals. E.g. mimosine contained in Leucaena leucocephala, aflatoxin contained in
ground nuts, gossypol contained in cotton seed, etc.
During prolonged dry season or a drought, nitrate problems increased due to increased
concentrations in surface water.
References
Faji Dida, M. (2023). Strategies for Goat Feeding and Management during Drought. IntechOpen.
doi: 10.5772/intechopen.101161
F.O.A. Food Agricultural Organization, (1983). The use of concentrate feeds in livestock
production systems.
Lamidi, Akeem & Ologbose, Festus. (2014). Dry Season Feeds and Feeding: A Threat to
Sustainable Ruminant Animal Production in Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Social
Research. Volume 14.
Oladotun, A.O, Aina, A.B.J. and Oguntona, E.B. (2003). Evaluation of formulated Agroindustrial wastes as a dry season feed for sheep. Nigeria Journal of Animal Production.
30(1) 71-80.
Sajjan sihag, Zile singh sihag, Sushil kumar and Narender singh. Effect of feeding Azolla (Azolla
Pinnata) based Total Mixed Ration on Growth Performance and nutrients utilization in
Goats. Forage Res. (2018), 43 (4): pp. 314-318
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Ayisha Naziba T*1
, Ramachandran J2
, Balaji Kannan3
, Ramesh D4
1M.Tech Scholar, 2
Teaching Assistant, 3
Professor, 4
Professor and Head
1,3,4 Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, 2Department of Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering, Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Construction of renewable energy facilities, including those for wind, solar, hydrogen,
and geothermal energy, as well as the infrastructure needed to support them, are by their very
nature spatial in character. Geospatial analysis is currently being used in renewable energy
projects to assist leaders in optimizing energy transmission infrastructure, which is transforming
how businesses use renewable resources. By locating areas with the greatest energy potential and
the best economic development while minimizing environmental damage, GIS is enabling new
energy production. GIS helps to understand energy potential, choose the best locations, and
enhance operational efficiency by utilizing maps, imaging and remote sensing data. Workflow
efficiency can be increased by incorporating field, machine, and real-time data into operational
dashboards. Clean and smart energy projects can also be maintained to ensure a future with
minimal carbon emissions. Improve renewable energy production, transmission and delivery for
better economic and social resilience by deploying systems on-premises or in the cloud using
contemporary architectures.
Keywords: Renewable energy, geospatial data, GIS, vectors
Introduction
Globally, the potential of renewable energy as a source for generating electricity and
biofuels is currently being examined using geographic information systems. Many models are
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GIS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY: ITS CRUCIAL
SIGNIFICANCE
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being created to help with planning for the introduction of renewable technologies into rural
areas without present electrical infrastructure or the replacement of existing fuel sources. It is
advantageous for policymakers, utility companies, planning commissions, and environmentalists
to use these analytical tools. Some of the published research on these GIS models and how it was
used in case studies is shown below.
Voivontas et al., claimed that the renewable energy sources (RES), lessen environmental
impact during the production of electricity and reduce energy loss. They also increase the energy
system's dependability and stability. In their suggested architecture, a decision support system
(GIS-DSS) would work in tandem with GIS to assess the theoretical, practical, technological,
and commercial viability of RES in a specific region. Based on local knowledge, their theory
suggests that social and environmental consequences be reduced by taking into account both the
location of people and the presence of challenging or sensitive places. This framework should be
used by policy makers, investors, and utilities to maximize the RES potential.
The brief document by Sorensen et al., outlines the procedure for estimating the potential
for biomass, wind, and solar energy generation in Denmark. To estimate the population and
potential for renewable energy in each 0.5°x0.5° lat/long grid cell, the scientists used UN
demographic data. This was done in consideration of topographical factors, annual rainfall, and
energy demand. The optimal energy source for each energy project in issue can be determined by
combining all of these elements in the GIS for the same geographic area. The authors made an
effort to estimate demand for 2050 using existing energy standards in order to establish whether
renewable energy will be adequate or if additional sources would be required to meet demand.
The analysis' findings weren't very cutting-edge.
Muselli et al., stated that in order to build data layers from scratch for the configuration
of the electrical grid, the potential for solar energy, and topographical elements on the ground
surface, the creator of this methodology adopted a new approach. The researchers analysed this
data to determine the most economical way to supply electricity to Corsican farmers who are
currently without access to either local electricity production or existing infrastructure. It was
shown that decentralised power utilising a mix of photovoltaic cells and batteries was a more
cost-effective alternative than extending the grid network to these homes for residential use of
less than 10 kWh per day and night. Through the incorporation of fuel transportation costs into
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engine generator estimates and the connection of the mask phenomenon, this study aims to one
day add to the GIS analysis potential.
Quinonez-Varela et al., quoted that the Scottish Executive is looking for measures to
boost the amount of electricity produced from renewable sources in an effort to satisfy Kyoto
Protocol standards. The time it takes for energy providers to evaluate a location for its potential
for renewable energy and the effects it would have on the current network can be one of the
many obstacles to this. A method for integrating GIS analysis (IDRISI) with power system
simulation (PSS) software has been developed by a team of engineers. In place of weeks, an
analysis that determines the ideal position for connecting a new power source to the grid while
taking factors like friction and network capability into account may now be completed in roughly
a day.
Numerous tests were conducted using SolarGIS to compare the levelling electric costs
(LEC) of renewable energy production, such as wind or solar, and conventional energy
production. Based on medium and low voltage loads on the current network, systems of
dispersed production and concentrated production were also evaluated. Finally, the authors were
able to modify the SolarGIS programme to automate the accumulation calculation, remove
gasoline as a source material in analysis, give users access to all GIS required parameters, and
give users access to other crucial parameters that will change the output, such as the population
associated with each grid cell and advancements in real-world technology.
In the study, Yue et al., sought to assess for decision-makers the optimum use of
renewable energy for a specific 12,560 ha parcel of land in the Chigua region. The region is
special in that the government has previously expressed a strong interest in transforming the
abandoned fish farm area into farms for renewable energy (including solar, wind, and/or biomass
from sugar cane). A portion of agricultural land is present in the area and should be conserved
with the installation of the renewable energy system. The endangered Black-Faced Spoonbill
(Platalea minor) bird migrates through there as well. The analysis showed that solar energy and
sugar cane biomass for use in autos would be more advantageous than wind turbines for the close
shore area.
Applications of GIS in Renewable Energy
Cleaner energy is clearly needed in the long run. Climate change won't stop happening.
Greater economic and social resilience is required, which is supported by the use of distributed
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and renewable energy sources including wind, solar, hydrogen, geothermal, and battery storage.
To transform how businesses utilize renewable resources, leaders can use GIS to better evaluate
energy potential, influence site selection, enhance operational performance, and optimize energy
transmission infrastructure.
Wind energy
It includes all contributing aspects, including wind energy potential, land use, population
density, distance to the nearest road, slope, biodiversity, regulatory requirements, and distance to
transmission lines, in the wind energy projects using wind GIS. Assemble all the knowledge that
require to create and run wind energy installations safely and effectively.
Solar energy
GIS is used in every aspect of the solar energy industry, from commercial analytics to
mapping energy potential. Use GIS to guide site selection, analyze opportunities, and support the
processes of design, visualization, and public involvement. Use GIS to involve different
stakeholders in initiatives and give them life.
Hydrogen Energy
Analysis of hydrogen infrastructure, demand, markets, and resources heavily use
hydrogen GIS modelling. The use of GIS enables you to take into account various multivariate
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scenarios in order to create the best possible business plans, from considering the potential for
hydrogen from renewable energy sources to infrastructure and consumer demand.
Solar GHI - India Solar DNI - India Solar PV power potential - India
Geothermal Energy
Leaders in the energy industry utilize GIS to find and develop renewable and geothermal
resources. Determining ideal places to install geothermal technology, possible customers, and the
necessary infrastructure are significant GIS-supported workflows. GIS makes it possible for
exploration workflows to find resources, choose sites, encourage public participation, and
provide visualizations while also maximizing operational efficiency.
Economic Benefits
A region, province or state (more generally an administrative unit) may benefit from
exploiting and using RES through:
federal and state subsidies
lower energy bills
increase in foreign direct investment (FDI)
increase in real-estate value
increase in RES supplier revenues
decrease in dependency on energy imports
increase in security of energy supply
economic value of the entire supply chain involved in RES
Social Benefits
Social benefits include generation of employment, particularly in rural communities, for
example through the construction of wind farms. A simple indicator is the number of firms
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within an administrative unit manufacturing RES components and the potential jobs they may
create. Another indicator is the number of local jobs provided by RES industry per kWh of
electricity generated. A reduction in impacts on human health resulting from air quality
improvement is an important social benefit. In remote communities of poorer countries the use of
RES can contribute to a reduction in or avoidance of travel time for collecting kerosene for
lamps. The saved time can be used for working or learning, even during evening hours.
Environmental Benefits
The main environmental benefits of RES are reductions in air pollution and greenhousegas emissions. Other benefits, depending on region and energy sources used, might also be
significant. For example, in regions using oil as the main energy source the increased use of RES
would reduce water and soil pollution and impacts on aquatic and terrestrial biota. In regions
using nuclear energy, now or in the future, an increase in use of RES would reduce or avoid
radioactive waste generation and water and soil pollution. The most convenient indicator is the
carbon reduction potential in million metric tons of carbon per year (MtC/yr)
Conclusions
Urban Indian cities must be directed toward sustainable development. Better energy
efficiency and the use of locally produced renewable energy sources need to be emphasised. A
hybrid solar water purification and photovoltaic system that satisfies the need for both clean
water and electricity is one example of a clean technology strategy that can be used. Research
has to be focused on renewable energy sources that are abundant, easy to use, and dependable,
and that have the potential to generate a lot of jobs, such as biomass and solar photovoltaics.
Using the principles of green engineering and chemistry, which tend to enhance the quality of the
air and water and, in turn, the level of living, it may be possible to create a \"smart city.\" A
technical and experienced staff would be needed for the design and networking of \"smart grid\"
and other similar technologies.
Another effect would be felt by the educational system, where the enhancement of
environmental quality, environmental law and policies, and resource security are expected to
take centre stage. However, India's rapid population increase is a significant contributor to
environmental stressors such air and water pollution, declining land fertility, etc. The reduction
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is urgently required. Planning for cities must be done in a
way that minimises or eliminates the production of GHGs. GIS is a practical tool for assessing a
AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine
www.agrigatemagazine.com Page 442
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
region's natural resources, helping city planners determine a region's carrying capacity as well as
other demand and supply requirements.
References
Voivontas, D., Assimacopoulos, D., Mourelatos, A., & Corominas, J. (1998). Evaluation of
renewable energy potential using a GIS decision support system. Renewable energy,
13(3), 333-344.
GIS Tools for Renewable Energy Modelling Renewable Energy, Vol. 16 1999 p. 1262-1267
Sorensen, Bent Erik, Meibom, Peter
Muselli, M., Notton, G., Poggi, P., & Louche, A. (1999). Computer-aided analysis of the
integration of renewable-energy systems in remote areas using a geographicalinformation system. Applied Energy, 63(3), 141-160.
Quinonez-Varela, G., Cruden, A., Graham, C., Punton, B., Blair, L., & Thomson, J. (2007). A
GIS/PSS planning tool for the initial grid connection assessment of renewable generation.
Renewable Energy, 32(5), 727-737.
Amador, J., & Domínguez, J. (2005). Application of geographical information systems to rural
electrification with renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy, 30(12), 1897-1912.
Yue, C. D., & Wang, S. S. (2006). GIS-based evaluation of multifarious local renewable energy
sources: a case study of the Chigu area of southwestern Taiwan. Energy Policy, 34(6),
730-742.
https://learn.arcgis.com/en/projects/estimate-solar-power-potential/
Volume: 03 Issue No: 08
AgriGate Editorial Team
August 2023 | Volume 03 | Issue 08
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