Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Hindu Kush/Afghanistan

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Plant Biogeography and Vegetation of High Mountains of Central and South-West Asia

Part of the book series: Plant and Vegetation ((PAVE,volume 17))

Abstract

Afghanistan is a mountainous country in C Asia with connections to S Asia. The main mountain ranges are the Hindu Kush with several partly isolated ranges, which diverge from NE to the W and SW. Deep valleys, basins and very high mountains form a complex mosaic of sites with contrasting climatic conditions. The Hindu Kush has significantly higher elevational belts than the Alps, the Caucasus, and the Iranian mountains. Thus, the ecological conditions are very diverse and are the reason for a high biodiversity and very diverse vegetation cover. The climate is high continental with hot summers and cold winters. Most regions are rather dry or even arid, having precipitation only during fall, winter or spring. However, the SE facing parts of the Hindu Kush in Nuristan, Nangarhar and Paktia (Safed Koh) receive additional summer-rains by monsoonal influence. Phytogeographically, those regions with their Himalayan influence had dense forests, whereas most other parts of the Hindu Kush have predominantly Irano-Turanian species with open woods, steppes or semi-deserts often with thorny cushion plants. The family Asteraceae has the most genera and species, and the genus Astragalus has the highest number of species. The upper elevational belts are home to some Siberian and boreal floristic elements. The most recent estimations of species numbers for Afghanistan are about 5000 species and 25% endemism.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

C:

Central

E:

East

K:

Kelvin (Δ°C)

N:

North

S:

South

W:

West

ITCZ:

inner tropical convergence zone

NP:

National Park

PET:

Potential Evapotranspiration

P:

Precipitation

References

  • Afghanzada A (1970) Ecological conditions of forests in Afghanistan. Stage d’études sur les études intégrées et l’écologie et l’amenagement des terrains de parcours. CAZRI Jodhpur

    Google Scholar 

  • Agakhanjanz OE, Breckle S–W (1995) Geographische Modellierung der Gebirgsflorogenese Eurasiens. In: Geographische Aspekte des Zusammenwirkens der Gesellschaft mit der Natur. Russ Geogr Ges, 4–5 [Russ], St. Petersburg

    Google Scholar 

  • Agakhanjanz OE, Breckle S–W (2002) Plant diversity and endemism in high Mountains of Central Asia, the Caucasus and Siberia, chapter 9. In: Körner C, Spehn E (eds) Mountain biodiversity – a global assessment. Parthenon Publ Group, Boca Raton, New York etc, pp 117–127

    Google Scholar 

  • Barthlott W (2018) Ökologie und Religion – Über die Potenziale einer mächtigen Partnerschaft In: Jahrbuch für Ökologie 2017/2018. Hirzel Publishers, Stuttgart, pp 103–117. https://jahrbuch-oekologie.de/jahrbuch-oekologie-2017-2018-2/

  • Barthlott W, Rafiqpoor MD (2018) Biodiversität im Wandel zwischen Evolution, Migration, Kultur und Religion. In: Frohn H-W, Wickert F (eds) Naturschutz sozial, interkulturell und inkludierend?! BfN-Script, vol 514. Bundesamt f. Naturschutz, Bonn, pp 71–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Barthlott W, Obholzer J, Rafiqpoor MD (2016) Pflanzen der Heiligen Bücher Bibel und Koran. BfN-Skripten 448, ISBN 978-3-89624-185-6, 106 S

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1967) Fossile Pflanzenreste am Latahband–Pass in Afghanistan. Science (Kabul) 4:16–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1971a) Ökologie und Mikroklima in der alpinen Stufe des afghanischen Hindukusch. Ber Deutsch Bot Ges 84:721–730

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W (1971b) Vegetation in alpine regions of Afghanistan. In: Davis PH, Harper PC, Hedge IC (eds) Plant life of south-west Asia. Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, pp 107–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1972) Alpenrosen im Hindukusch? Jahrb Ver Schutze Alpenpflanzen und –tiere 37:140–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1973) Mikroklimatische Messungen und ökologische Beobachtungen in der alpinen Stufe des afghanischen Hindukusch. Bot Jahrb Syst 93:25–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1974) Notes on Alpine and Nival Flora of the Hindu Kush, East Afghanistan. Bot Not (Lund) 127:278–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1975) Ökologische Beobachtungen oberhalb der Waldgrenze des Safed Koh (Ost–Afghanistan). Vegetatio (Acta Geobotanica) 30:89–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1981) Zum Stand der Erforschung von Flora und Vegetation Afghanistans. In: Rathjens C (ed) Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan. Leske, Opladen, pp 87–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (1988) Vegetation und Flora der nivalen Stufe im Hindukusch. In: Grötzbach E (Hrsg): Neue Beiträge zur Afghanistanforschung, Schriftenreihe der Stiftung Bibliotheca Afghanica, 6 (Liestal), pp 133–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (2004) Flora, Vegetation und Ökologie der alpin–nivalen Stufe des Hindukusch (Afghanistan). In: Breckle S–W, Schweizer B, Fangmeier A (eds) Proceed. 2nd Symposium AFW Schimper–Foundation: results of worldwide ecological studies. Stuttgart–Hohenheim, pp 97–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W (2007) Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan. Basic Appl Dryland Res (BADR) 1(2):155–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W (2017) Floristic analysis of the subnival-nival vegetation of Hindu Kush and Caucasus. Species recorded from the high alpine and nival zones (>3900m) of the Hindu Kush mountains (Afghanistan). Bielefelder Ökologische Beiträge (BÖB) 21:32–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W (2019) Vegetation, Climate and Soil – worldwide ecological and geobotanical studies. Progr Bot 80:1–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W, Frey W (1974) Die Vegetationsstufen im Zentralen Hindukusch. Afghan J (Graz) 1:75–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W, Frey W (1976a) Beobachtungen zur heutigen Vergletscherung der Hauptkette des Zentralen Hindukusch (Afghanistan). Afghan J (Graz) 3:95–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S–W, Frey W (1976b) Die höchsten Berge im Zentralen Hindukusch. Afghan J (Graz) 3:91–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Kull U (1971) Osmotische Verhältnisse und Zuckergehalte im Jahresgang bei Bäumen Ost-Afghanistans. I. Quercus baloot Griffith.- Flora B 160:43–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD (2010) Field guide Afghanistan – flora and vegetation. Scientia Bonnensis/Bonn, Manama, New York, Florianopolis, 864 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD (2011) Vielfalt der Flora und Vegetation Afghanistans. Geogr Rundsch 63(11):40–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD (2019) Vegetation und Klima. Springer Spektrum. 484 S

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Hedge IC, Rafiqpoor MD (2013) Vascular plants of Afghanistan – an augmented checklist. Scientia Bonnensis/Bonn, Manama, New York, Florianopolis, 598 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Fayvusch G, Murtazaliev R, Nakhutsrishvili G (2017) Floristic analysis of the subnival-nival vegetation of Hindu Kush and Caucasus. Bielefelder Ökologische Beiträge (BÖB) 21:7–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Breckle S-W, Hedge IC, Rafiqpoor MD (2018) Biodiversity in Afghanistan. In: Pullaiah T (ed) Global biodiversity, Asia, vol 1. Apple Academic Press, Waretown, pp 33–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Browicz K (1997) Chorology of trees and shrubs in SW Asia and adjacent regions. Phytogeogr Anal. Poznan, 18 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox CB, Moore PD (2005) Biogeography. An ecological and evolutionary approach, 7th ed. Blackwell, 428 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Dieterle A (1973) Vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen im Gebiet von Band-e Amir (C–Afghanistan). Diss Bot 24, 87 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Eswaran H, Lal R, Reich PF (2001) Land degradation: an overview. In: Bridges EM, Hannam ID, Oldeman LR, Pening DE et al (eds) Responses to land degradation. Proc 2nd international conference on land degradation and desertification, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Oxford Press, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Farhadi A (ed) (2008) Afghanistan – national development strategy. Govt of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 266 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Flohn H (1969) Zum Klima und Wasserhaushalt des Hindukuschs und der benachbarten Hochgebirge. Erdkunde 23:205–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankenberg P, Lauer W, Rafiqpoor MD (1983) Zur geoökologischen Differenzierung Afghanistans. In: Lauer W (ed) Beiträge zur Geoökologie von Gebirgsräumen in Südamerika und Eurasien. Abhandlungen d Math–nat Klasse d Akad d Wissenschaften u d Literatur, Mainz, pp 52–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitag H (1971a) Die natürliche Vegetation Afghanistans. Beiträge zur Flora und Vegetation Afghanistans. Vegetatio, Bd 22, H 4–5:255–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitag H (1971b) Studies on the natural vegetation of Afghanistan. In: Davis PH, Harper PC, Hedge IC (eds) Plant life of south west Asia. Bot Soc Edinburgh, Edinburgh, pp 89–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitag H (1982) Mediterranean characters of the vegetation in the Hindu Kush Mts., and their relationship between sclerophlous and laurophyllous forests. Ecol Mediterranea 8:381–388

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitag H, Hedge IC, Rafiqpoor MD, Breckle S-W (2010) Flora and vegetation geography of Afghanistan. In: Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD (eds) Field guide Afghanistan – flora and vegetation. Scientia Bonnensis/Bonn, Manama, New York, Florianopolis, pp 79–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey W, Probst W (1978) Vegetation und Flora des Zentralen Hindūkuš (Afghanistan). Beihefte Tübinger Atlas d Vorderen Orients, Reihe A (Naturw), 3, Reichert/Wiesbaden, 126 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey W, Probst W (1982) Zwischen Tagab und Alisang. Eine vegetationskundliche Exkursion im westlichen Grenzgebiet des monsunbedingten Waldgürtels auf der SE-Abdachung des Zentralen Hindukusch. Afghan J (Graz) 9:62–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert OL (1968) A general account of high altitude vegetation in the Samir valley. In: James A (ed) Environmental research in the Samir valley of the Hindu Kush 6. 4 Newcastle, pp 1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilli A (1969) Afghanische Pflanzengesellschaften I. Xerophile Pflanzengesellschaften. Vegetatio 16:307–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilli A (1971) Afghanische Pflanzengesellschaften II. Die mesophilen und hygrophilen Pflanzengesellschaften im sommertrockenen Gebiet. Vegetatio 23:199–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Groombridge B (ed) (1992) Global biodiversity – status of the earth’s living resources. Chapman & Hall/London, 585 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Grötzbach E (1982) Naturpotential und Probleme seiner effektiven Nutzung in Afghanistan. Geodynamik 3:141–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Grötzbach E, Rathjens C (1969) Die heutige und jungpleistozäne Vergletscherung des Afghanischen Hindukusch. Zeitschr Geomorph, N.F. Suppl 8:58–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedge IC, Wendelbo P (1970a) Some remarks on endemism in Afghanistan. Israel J Bot 19:401–417

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedge IC, Wendelbo P (1970b) A note on the rhododendrons of Afghanistan. Rhododendron Yearbook 1970:177–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedge IC, Wendelbo P (1978) Patterns of distribution and endemism in Iran. Notes RBG Edinb 36:441–464

    Google Scholar 

  • Huss H (1978) Zur Vegetation des Wakhan und Großen Pamir. In: De Grancy RS, Kostka R (eds) Grosser Pamir – Österreichisches Forschungsunternehmen 1975 in den Wakhan–Pamir, Afghanistan. Adeva/Graz, pp 167–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaever M (1972) Geology. In: Kraus W (ed) Afghanistan – Natur, Geschichte und Kultur, Staat, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft. Erdmann Verlag, Basel, pp 12–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura S (1960) Flora of Afghanistan. Results of the Kyoto University expedition to the Karakoram and the Hindu Kush 2. Kyoto, 486 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura S (1964) Plants of West Pakistan and Afghanistan. Results of the Kyoto University scientific expedition to the Karakoram and Hindu Kush, 1955, 3, Kyoto, 283 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaer W (1974) Kritische Anmerkungen zur neueren Literatur über Blockgletscherprobleme. Heidelberger Geogr Arb 40:275–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaer W (1977) Zur Morphogenese und Formendynamik innerhalb des periglazialen Stockwerkes der Hochgebirge Vorderasiens. In: Poser H (ed.): Formen, Formengesellschaften und Untergrenzen in den heutigen periglazialen Höhenstufen der Hochgebirge Europas und Afrikas zwischen Arktis und Äquator. Abh Akad Wiss Göttingen, Math–Phys Klasse, 3 F 31:261–274

    Google Scholar 

  • Körner C (1999) Alpine plant life. Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. Springer, Berlin, 344 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Kürschner H, Lüth M, Frey W (2020) Field guide Afghanistan –mosses and liverworts. Flora and augmented checklist. Medienhaus Alfter, 386 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen OL (2009) Per Wendelbo – en norsk plantejeger – og reintroduksjonen av to sjeldne rhododendronarter. Lapprosen 12(3):11–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Lauer W, Rafiqpoor MD, Theisen I (2001) Physiogeographie, Vegetation und Syntaxonomie des Páramo de Papallacta (Ostkordillere Ecuador). Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung, Bd. 39. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad S, Alam J, Izaz F, Iqbal Z et al (2017) Evaluation of the conservation status of Rhododendron afghanicum Aitch. & Hemsl.; a narrow endemic species of Pakistan. Pak J Bot 49:1387–1394

    Google Scholar 

  • Musselman LJ (2007) Figs, dates, laurel, and myrrh: plants of the bible and the Quran. Timber Press, Portland, 336 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Nedjalkov ST (1983a) Ecological classification of vegetation cover of Afghanistan. In: Sokolov VE (ed) Ecology and biogeography in Afghanistan. Moscow, pp 30–53. [in Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Nedjalkov ST (1983b) Woody shrub vegetation of region Konarha. In: Sokolov VE (ed) Ecology and biogeography in Afghanistan. Moscow, pp 76–100. [in Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Neubauer HF (1954a) Versuch einer Kennzeichnung der Vegetationsverhältnisse Afghanistans. Ann Naturhist Mus Wien 60:77–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Neubauer HF (1954b) Die Wälder Afghanistans. Angew Pflanzensoz 54:494–503

    Google Scholar 

  • Noroozi J, Akhani H, Breckle S–W (2008) Biodiversity and phytogeography of the alpine flora of Iran. Biodivers Conserv 17:493–521. (online/pdf)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov VN, Gubanov IA (1983) Geobotanic features of the mountain Afghanistan. In: Sokolov VE (ed) Ecology and biogeography in Afghanistan. Moscow, 54–75. [in Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelt J–M (1967) Aperçus sur la végétation et la flore de l’Afghanistan. Bull Assoc Philom Alsace Lorraine 13:227–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Petocz RG, Larsson JY (1977) Ecological reconnaissance of western Nuristan with recommendations for management. Unpubl. UNDP/FAO report, Fo: Do/Afg/74/016, Field Doc 9, 63 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Petocz RG, Skogland T (1974) Report on the status of Bande–e Amir National Park. Unpubl FAO/UNDP report Fo: Dp/Afg/72/005

    Google Scholar 

  • Petocz RG et al (1978) Report on Afghan Pamir (3 parts). Unpubl FAO report Fo: Dp/Afg/74/016 F.Doc 5–7, 33+42+35 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Podlech D, Anders O (1977) Florula des Wakhan (Nordost–Afghanistan). Mitt Botan Staatssamml München 13:361–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Quraischi A (2014) Afghanistan – natural condition and resources: geology. In: Dittmann A (ed) National atlas of Afghanistan. Scientia Bonnensis, Bonn, pp 10–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafiqpoor MD (1979) Niederschlaganalysen in Afghanistan – Versuch einer klimaräumlichen Differenzierung des Landes. Diplomarbeit, Geogr Inst Univ Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafiqpoor MD, Breckle S-W (2010) The physical geography of Afghanistan. In: Breckle S-W, Rafiqpoor MD (eds) Field guide Afghanistan – flora and vegetation. Scientia Bonnensis, Bonn, Manama, New York, Florianópolis, pp 23–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathjens C (1972) Fragen der horizontalen und vertikalen Landschaftsgliederung im Hochgebirgssystem des Hindukusch. Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung 4: 205–220. Wiesbaden

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathjens C (1974) Die Wälder von Nuristan und Paktia. Geogr Zeitschr 62:295–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathjens C (1978) Klimatische Bedingungen der Solifluktionsstufe im sommertrockenen Hochgebirge, am Beispiel des afghanischen Hindukusch. Z Geom NF, Suppl Bd 30:132–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Rathjens C (1980) Klima und Landschaft des Hochgebirges in den sommertrockenen Subtropen am Beispiel des afghanischen Hindukusch. Tüb Geogr Stud, Band 80:41–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Rechinger KH, resp. Rechinger W (eds) (1963–2015) Flora Iranica, No 1–181ff. Akad Druck– und Verlagsanstalt/Graz

    Google Scholar 

  • Roostai AH (ed) (2018) Probleme der Wasserversorgung in der Stadt Kabul – Die Bedeutung der Regeneration der Kareze in Afghanistan. in Roostai AH: مشکلات کمبود آب در شهر کابل – اهمیت احیای کاریزها در افغانستان. DCM-Druck Center Meckenheim. ISBN 978-3-00-059443-4. Ein Buch in Dari-Sprache, 204 S

    Google Scholar 

  • Salem MZ, Hole FD (1969) Soil geography and factors of soil formation in Afghanistan. Soil Sci 107:289–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Salem MZ, Hole FD (1973) Properties of certain soils of Afghanistan. Soil Sci 116:178–190

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sales F, Hedge IC (2013) Generic endemism in south-west Asia; an overview. Rostaniha 14(1):22–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Schickhoff U (2005) The upper timberline in the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum: a review of geographical and ecological aspects. In: Broll G, Beate K (eds) Mountain ecosystems studies in tree line ecology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 275–354

    Google Scholar 

  • Shank CC (2006) A biodiversity profile of Afghanistan in (2006) A component of the national capacity self-assessment (NCSA) in national adaption programme of action (NAPA) for Afghanistan, 169 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Shank CC, Larsson JY (1977) A strategy for the establishment and development of Band–e–Amir National Park. Unpubl FAO report, Fo: Dp/Afg/74/016, Field Doc, 37 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Shank CC, Petocz RG, Habibi K (1977) A preliminary management plan for the Ajar Valley wildlife reserve. Unpubl UNDP/FAO report, Fo: Do/Afg/74/016, Field Doc, 35 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Siehl A (2017) Structural setting and evolution of the Afghan orogenic segment – a review. In: Burnet M-F, McCann T, Sobel ER (eds): Geological Evolution of Central Asian Basin and the Western Tien Shan Range. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ 427(1):57–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivall TR (1977) Synoptic–climatological study of the Asian summer monsoon in Afghanistan. Geograf Annaler 59A:67–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Volk OH (1954) Klima und Pflanzenverbreitung in Afghanistan. Vegetatio 5(6):422–433

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfart R, Wittekindt HP (1980) Geologie von Afghanistan. Beiträge zur regionalen Geologie der Erde, vol 14. Borntraeger, Stuttgart, 500 pp

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Without the help of local people, many friends and collegues, it would have been impossible to do all the field work and data processing on flora and vegetation of Afghanistan. We acknowledge very much all the direct or indirect help of many people and institutions at Faculty of Science/Kabul, University of Bonn and Bielefeld University. All co-workers in the former Department of Ecology at University of Bielefeld were a good and reliable team, to whom we say many thanks. Special thanks are due to Ian C. Hedge for many years of intensive cooperation and for his help in smoothing this text as well as Uta Breckle for cooperation, many discussions and for critical proof reading.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ecology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

    Siegmar-W. Breckle

  2. Botanical Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

    M. Daud Rafiqpoor

Authors
  1. Siegmar-W. Breckle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. Daud Rafiqpoor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Siegmar-W. Breckle .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Jalil Noroozi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Breckle, SW., Rafiqpoor, M.D. (2020). The Hindu Kush/Afghanistan. In: Noroozi, J. (eds) Plant Biogeography and Vegetation of High Mountains of Central and South-West Asia. Plant and Vegetation, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45212-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation