Abstract
Oral carcinoma is a devastating disease with only minimal improvement in survival in the last decades despite progress made both in the understanding of molecular alterations involved and in the array of therapeutic options available. The most common malignant neoplasm is squamous cell carcinoma comprising over 90 % of oral cancers. Squamous cell carcinoma is an extremely heterogeneous neoplasm and probably in no other oncologic field collaboration between various specialties (surgeon, dentist, medical oncologist, radiation oncologist, pathologist) is as critical for the correct diagnosis, staging, and accurate characterization of the tumor essential for the appropriate management with the best chance for cure.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Wenig BM, Cohen JM. General principles of head and neck pathology. In: Harrison LB, Sessions RB, Kies MS, editors. Head and neck cancer: a multidisciplinary approach, fourth electronic edition. Philadelphia: LWW; 2014.
Barnes L, Fan CY. Pathology of head and neck: basic consideration and new concepts. In: Myers EN, Suen JY, Myers JN, Hanna EYN, editors. Cancer of the head and neck. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2003. p. 29–48.
Rosai J. Why microscopy will remain a cornerstone of surgical pathology. Lab Invest. 2007;87:403–8.
Merzianu M. Anatomic pathology in North America: a short but Rich Journey. Noesis XXXIV 2009:145–158.
Banks PM, Kraybill WG. Surgeon and pathologist. In: Banks PM, Kraybill WG, editors. Pathology for the surgeon. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1996. p. 1–19.
http://www.acgme.org/acgmeweb/portals/0/pfassets/programrequirements/440_general_surgery_07012014.pdf. Accessed 08/18/15.
Nakhleh RE, Myers JL, Allen TC, DeYoung BR, Fitzgibbons PL, Funkhouser WK, Mody DR, Lynn A, Fatheree LA, Smith AT, Lal A, Silverman JF. Consensus statement on effective communication of urgent diagnoses and significant, unexpected diagnoses in surgical pathology and cytopathology from the College of American Pathologists and Association of Directors of Anatomic and Surgical Pathology. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2012;136(2):148–54.
Slootweg PJ, De Groot JAM. Surgical pathological anatomy of head and neck specimens. London: Springer-Verlag; 1999.
Lester SC. Manual of surgical pathology. Head and neck. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2006. p. 477–90.
The Royal College of Pathologists. Tissue pathways for head and neck pathology. https://www.rcpath.org/resourceLibrary/head-and-neck-pathology--may-2014-.html. Accessed 11.18.15.
College of American Pathologists. Protocol for the examination of specimens from patients with carcinomas of the lip and oral cavity http://www.cap.org/ShowProperty?nodePath=/UCMCon/Contribution%20Folders/WebContent/pdf/liporalcaversion-13protocol.pdf. Accessed 4.18.15.
The Royal College of Pathologists. Dataset for histopathology reporting of mucosal malignancies of the oral cavity. https://www.rcpath.org/resourceLibrary/dataset-for-histopathology-reporting-of-mucosal-malignancies-of-the-oral-cavity.html. Accessed 11.18.15.
Warnakulasuriya S. Global epidemiology of oral and oropharyngeal cancer. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(4–5):309–16.
Slootweg PJ, Eveson JW. Tumors of the oral cavity and oropharynx: introduction. In: Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005. p. 166–7.
Patel S, Shah JP. Lip and oral cavity. In: Edge SB, Byrd DR, Carducci MA, Compton CA, editors. AJCC cancer staging manual. New York: Springer; 2009. p. 29–40.
Jemal A, Tiwari RC, Murray T, Ghafoor A, Samuels A, Ward E, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ, American Cancer Society. Cancer statistics, 2004. CA Cancer J Clin. 2004;54(1):8–29.
Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63(1):11–30.
Johnson N, Franceschi S, Ferlay J, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma. In: Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005. p. 168–75.
El-Mofty SK, Lewis JS. Cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. In: Barnes L, editor. Surgical pathology of the head and neck. New York: Informa Healthcare; 2009. p. 267–84.
Neville BW, Day TA. Oral cancer and precancerous lesions. CA Cancer J Clin. 2002;52(4):195–215.
Cooper JS, Porter K, Mallin K, Hoffman HT, Weber RS, Ang KK, Gay EG, Langer CJ. National Cancer Database report on cancer of the head and neck: 10-year update. Head Neck. 2009;31(6):748–58.
Allon I, Allon DM, Anavi Y, Kaplan I. The significance of surface ulceration as a sign of malignancy in exophytic oral mucosal lesions: myth or fact? Head Neck Pathol. 2013;7(2):149–54.
Waldron CA, Shafer WG. Leukoplakia revisited: a clinicopathologic study of 3256 oral leukoplakias. Cancer. 1975;36(4):1386–92.
Pentenero M, Navone R, Motta F, et al. Clinical features of microinvasive stage I oral carcinoma. Oral Dis. 2011;17(3):298–303.
Kandel Amatya S, Jayaprakash V, Merzianu M. Oral dysplasia adjacent to small t1 oral squamous cell carcinomas with superficial invasion. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(S2):307–308A.
Mashberg A, Samit A. Early diagnosis of asymptomatic oral and oropharyngeal squamous cancers. CA Cancer J Clin. 1995;45(6):328–51.
Sciubba JJ. Oral cancer. The importance of early diagnosis and treatment. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2001;2(4):239–51.
Mashberg A, Meyers H. Anatomical site and size of 222 early asymptomatic oral squamous cell carcinomas: a continuing prospective study of oral cancer. II. Cancer. 1976;37(5):2149–57.
Batsakis JG. Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1979.
Allon I, Allon DM, Gal G, Anavi Y, Chaushu G, Kaplan I. Re-evaluation of common paradigms regarding the clinical appearance of oral mucosal malignancies. J Oral Pathol Med. 2013;42(9):670–5.
Olson CM, Burda BU, Beil T, Whitlock EP. Screening for oral cancer: a targeted evidence update for the U.S., Preventive Services Task Force. Evidence Synthesis No. 102. AHRQ Publication No. 13-05186-EF-1. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2013.
American Cancer Society. American cancer society guidelines for the early detection of cancer. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2013. Accessed at http://www.cancer.org/healthy/findcancerearly/cancerscreeningguidelines/american-cancer-society-guidelines-for-the-early-detection-of-cancer on 27 April 2015.
Rethman MP, Carpenter W, Cohen EE, Epstein J, Evans CA, Flaitz CM, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations regarding screening for oral squamous cell carcinomas. J Am Dent Assoc. 2010;141(5):509–20.
Hornig JD, Malin BT, Oconnell B. Clinical evaluation of the head and neck cancer patient. In: Harrison LB, Sessions RB, Kies MS, editors. Head and neck cancer: a multidisciplinary approach, Fourth Electronic Edition. Philadelphia: LWW; 2014.
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Detecting oral cancer: a guide for health care professionals. Bethesda: National Institutes of Health; 2011. http://www.nidcr.nih.gov/OralHealth/Topics/OralCancer/DetectingOralCancer.htm. Accessed on 27 Apr 2015.
Holmstrup P, Vedtofte P, Reibel J, Stoltze K. Oral premalignant lesions: is a biopsy reliable? J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36(5):262–6.
Rapidis AD, Langdon JD, Patel MF, Harvey PW. STNMP: a new system for the clinico-pathological classification and identification of intra-oral carcinomata. Cancer. 1977;39(1):204–9.
Farr HW, Goldfarb PM, Farr CM. Epidermoid carcinoma of the mouth and pharynx at the Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Am J Surg. 1980;140:563–7.
Boldrup L, Coates PJ, Laurell G, Nylander K. Differences in p63 expression in SCCHN tumours of different sub-sites within the oral cavity. Oral Oncol. 2011;47:861–965.
Siriwardena BS, Rasnayaka RM, Masood Y, Masood M, Kumarasiri PV, Tilakaratne WM. Predictive model of oral cancer metastasis for different cancer sites and age groups. J Invest Clin Dent. 2015. doi:10.1111/jicd.12145 [Epub ahead of print].
Moore C, Catlin D. Anatomic origins and locations of oral cancer. Am J Surg. 1967;114(4):510–3.
Sugerman PB, Savage NW. Oral cancer in Australia: 1983–1996. Aust Dent J. 2002;47(1):45–56.
Stein AL, Tahan SR. Histologic correlates of metastasis in primary invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the lip. J Cutan Pathol. 1994;21(1):16–21.
Saywell MS, Weedon D. Histological correlates of metastasis in primary invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the lip. Australas J Dermatol. 1996;37(4):193–5.
Wermker K, Belok F, Schipmann S, Klein M, Schulze HJ, Hallermann C. Prediction model for lymph node metastasis and recommendations for elective neck dissection in lip cancer. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2015;43(4):545–52.
de Visscher JG, van den Elsaker K, Grond AJ, van der Wal JE, van der Waal I. Surgical treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip: evaluation of long-term results and prognostic factors – a retrospective analysis of 184 patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1998;56(7):814–20.
Frierson Jr HF, Cooper PH. Prognostic factors in squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip. Hum Pathol. 1986;17(4):346–54.
de Visscher JG, Schaapveld M, Grond AJ, van der Waal I. Relationship of tumor thickness in punch biopsy and subsequent surgical specimens in stage I squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1999;88(2):141–4.
Santos HB, Silva AL, Cavalcante LH, Alves PM, Godoy GP, Nonaka CF. Histopathological grading systems and their relationship with clinical parameters in lower lip squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;43(5):539–45.
Piccirillo JF, Costas I, Reichman ME. “Cancers of the Head and Neck” in SEER survival monograph: cancer survival among adults: US SEER program, 1988–2001. In: Ries LAG YJ, Keel GE, Eisner MP, editors. Patient and tumor characteristics. Bethesda: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program, NIH; 2007.
Pietersma NS, de Bock GH, de Visscher JG, Roodenburg JL, van Dijk BA. No evidence for a survival difference between upper and lower lip squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;44(5):549–54.
Rath GK, Parikh PM, Hukku S, Rajan B, Kumar S, Malhotra H, Vuthaluru S, Sharma DN, Vora A, Shukla DK, Kaur T, Gandhi AK. Indian Council of Medical Research consensus document for the management of buccal mucosa cancer. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol. 2014;35(2):136–9.
Chiou WY, Lin HY, Hsu FC, Lee MS, Ho HC, Su YC, Lee CC, Hsieh CH, Wang YC, Hung SK. Buccal mucosa carcinoma: surgical margin less than 3 mm, not 5 mm, predicts locoregional recurrence. Radiat Oncol. 2010;5:79.
Shaw RJ, McGlashan G, Woolgar JA, Lowe D, Brown JS, Vaughan ED, Rogers SN. Prognostic importance of site in squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;47(5):356–9.
Diaz Jr EM, Holsinger FC, Zuniga ER, Roberts DB, Sorensen DM. Squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa: one institution’s experience with 119 previously untreated patients. Head Neck. 2003;25(4):267–73.
Tai SK, Li WY, Yang MH, Chu PY, Wang YF, Chang PM. Perineural invasion as a major determinant for the aggressiveness associated with increased tumor thickness in t1–2 oral tongue and buccal squamous cell carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(11):3568–74.
Camilon PR, Stokes WA, Fuller CW, Nguyen SA, Lentsch EJ. Does buccal cancer have worse prognosis than other oral cavity cancers? Laryngoscope. 2014;124(6):1386–91.
Bachar G, Goldstein DP, Barker E, Lea J, O’Sullivan B, Brown DH, Gullane PJ, Gilbert RW, Xu W, Su J, Irish JC. Squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa: outcomes of treatment in the modern era. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(7):1552–7.
DeConde A, Miller ME, Palla B, Lai C, Elashoff D, Chhetri D, St John MA. Squamous cell carcinoma of buccal mucosa: a 40-year review. Am J Otolaryngol. 2012;33(6):673–7.
Pathak KA, Nason R, Talole S, Abdoh A, Pai P, Deshpande M, Chaturvedi P, Chaukar D, D’Cruz A, Bhalavat R. Cancer of the buccal mucosa: a tale of two continents. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;38(2):146–50.
Soo KC, Spiro RH, King W, Harvey W, Strong EW. Squamous carcinoma of the gums. Am J Surg. 1988;156(4):281–5.
Bodner L, Manor E, Friger MD, van der Waal I. Oral squamous cell carcinoma in patients twenty years of age or younger – review and analysis of 186 reported cases. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(2):84–9.
Woolgar JA, Triantafyllou A. Pitfalls and procedures in the histopathological diagnosis of oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma and a review of the role of pathology in prognosis. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(4–5):361–85.
Willén R, Nathanson A, Moberger G, Anneroth G. Squamous cell carcinoma of the gingiva. Histological classification and grading of malignancy. Acta Otolaryngol. 1975;79(1–2):146–54.
Eicher SA, Overholt SM, el-Naggar AK, Byers RM, Weber RS. Lower gingival carcinoma. Clinical and pathologic determinants of regional metastases. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1996;122(6):634–8.
Osaki T, Hirota J, Yoneda K, Yamamoto T, Ueta E. Clinical and histopathologic characteristics of tongue and gingiva carcinomas with occult and clinically evident cervical lymph-node metastasis. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1996;25(4):274–8.
Shaw RJ, Brown JS, Woolgar JA, Lowe D, Rogers SN, Vaughan ED. The influence of the pattern of mandibular invasion on recurrence and survival in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2004;26(10):861–9.
Marchetta FC, Sako K, Murphy JB. The periosteum of the mandible and intra oral carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1964;108:505–7.
Carter RL, Tsao SW, Burman JF, Pittam MR, Clifford P, Shaw HJ. Patterns and mechanisms of bone invasion by squamous carcinomas of the head and neck. Am J Surg. 1983;146:451455.
McGregor IA, McDonald DG. Spread of squamous cell carcinoma to the non-irradiated edentulous mandible – a preliminary report. Head Neck. 1987;9:157–61.
Brown JS, Lowe D, Kalavrezos N, D’Souza J, Magennis P, Woolgar J. Patterns of invasion and routes of tumor entry into the mandible by oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2002;24(4):370–83.
Nomura T, Shibahara T, Cui NH, Noma H. Patterns of mandibular invasion by gingival squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2005;63(10):1489–93.
Slootweg PJ, Muller H. Mandibular invasion by oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 1989;17:69–74.
Brown JS, Browne RM. Factors influencing the patterns of invasion of the mandible by oral squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1995;24(6):417–26.
Lam KH, Lam LK, Ho CM, Wei WI. Mandibular invasion in carcinoma of the lower alveolus. Am J Otolaryngol. 1999;20:267–72.
O’Brien CJ, Carter RL, Soo K-C, Barr LC, Hamlyn PJ, Shaw HJ. Invasion of the mandible by squamous carcinomas of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Head Neck Surg. 1986;8:247–56.
Politi M, Costa F, Robiony M, Rinaldo A, Ferlito A. Review of segmental and marginal resection of the mandible in patients with oral cancer. Acta Otolaryngol. 2000;120(5):569–79.
Genden EM, Rinaldo A, Jacobson A, Shaha AR, Suárez C, Lowry J, Urquhart AC, Werner JA, Gullane PJ, Ferlito A. Management of mandibular invasion: when is a marginal mandibulectomy appropriate? Oral Oncol. 2005;41(8):776–82.
Funk GF, Karnell LH, Robinson RA, Zhen WK, Trask DK, Hoffman HT. Presentation, treatment, and outcome of oral cavity cancer: a National Cancer Data Base report. Head Neck. 2002;24(2):165–80.
Barnes L, Verbin RS, Guggenheimer J. Cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. In: Barnes L, editor. Surgical pathology of the head and neck. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2001. p. 369–438.
Slootweg PJ, Richardson M. Squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive system. In: Gnepp DR, editor. Diagnostic surgical pathology of the head and neck. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2009. p. 45–110.
Genden EM, Ferlito A, Shaha AR, Rinaldo A. Management of cancer of the retromolar trigone. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(7):633–7.
Ayad T, Guertin L, Soulières D, Belair M, Temam S, Nguyen-Tân PF. Controversies in the management of retromolar trigone carcinoma. Head Neck. 2009;31(3):398–405.
Antoniades K, Lazaridis N, Vahtsevanos K, Hadjipetrou L, Antoniades V, Karakasis D. Treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the anterior faucial pillar-retromolar trigone. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(7):680–6.
Deo SV, Shukla NK, Kallianpur AA, Mohanti BK, Thulkar SP. Aggressive multimodality management of locally advanced retromolar trigone tumors. Head Neck. 2013;35(9):1269–73.
Byers RM, Anderson B, Schwarz EA, Fields RS, Meoz R. Treatment of squamous carcinoma of the retromolar trigone. Am J Clin Oncol. 1984;7(6):647–52.
Binahmed A, Nason RW, Abdoh AA, Sándor GK. Population-based study of treatment outcomes in squamous cell carcinoma of the retromolar trigone. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;104(5):662–5.
Hao SP, Tsang NM, Chang KP, Chen CK, Huang SS. Treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the retromolar trigone. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(6):916–20.
Cheng A, Cox D, Schmidt BL. Oral squamous cell carcinoma margin discrepancy after resection and pathologic processing. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66(3):523–9.
Binahmed A, Nason RW, Hussain A, Abdoh AA, Sándor GK. Treatment outcomes in squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary alveolus and palate: a population-based study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;105(6):750–4.
Mourouzis C, Pratt C, Brennan PA. Squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary gingiva, alveolus, and hard palate: is there a need for elective neck dissection? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;48(5):345–8.
Morris LGT, Patel SG, Shah JP, Ganly I. High rates of regional failure in squamous cell carcinoma of the hard palate and maxillary alveolus. Head Neck. 2011;33:824–30.
Brown JS, Bekiroglu F, Shaw RJ, Woolgar JA, Rogers SN. Management of the neck and regional recurrence in squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary alveolus and hard palate compared with other sites in the oral cavity. Head Neck. 2013;35(2):265–9.
Eskander A, Givi B, Gullane PJ, Irish J, Brown D, Gilbert RW, Hope A, Weinreb I, Xu W, Goldstein DP. Outcome predictors in squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary alveolus and hard palate. Laryngoscope. 2013;123(10):2453–8a.
Kumar V, Sindhu VA, Rathanaswamy S, Jain J, Pogal JR, Akhtar N, Gupta S. Cancers of upper gingivobuccal sulcus, hard palate and maxilla: a tertiary care centre study in North India. Natl J Maxillofac Surg. 2013;4(2):202–5.
Yang Z, Deng R, Sun G, Huang X, Tang E. Cervical metastases from squamous cell carcinoma of hard palate and maxillary alveolus: a retrospective study of 10 years. Head Neck. 2014;36(7):969–75.
Yang X, Song X, Chu W, Li L, Ma L, Wu Y. Clinicopathological characteristics and outcome predictors in squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary gingiva and hard palate. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;73(7):1429–36.
Meng FY, Ko JY, Lou PJ, Wang CP, Yang TL, Chang CH, Chang YL, Chen TC. The determining risk factors for treatment outcomes in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the hard palate. Ann Surg Oncol. 2012;19(6):2003–10.
Loree TR, Strong EW. Significance of positive margins in oral cavity squamous carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1990;160:410–4.
Jovanovic A, Schulten EA, Kostense PJ, Snow GB, van der Waal I. Tobacco and alcohol related to the anatomical site of oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 1993;22(10):459–62.
Barasch A, Morse DE, Krutchkoff DJ, Eisenberg E. Smoking, gender, and age as risk factors for site-specific intraoral squamous cell carcinoma. A case-series analysis. Cancer. 1994;73(3):509–13.
Shafer WG, Waldron CA. Erythroplakia of the oral cavity. Cancer. 1975;36:1021–8.
DiNardo LJ. Lymphatics of the submandibular space: an anatomic, clinical, and pathologic study with applications to floor-of-mouth carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 1998;108(2):206–14.
Brown B, Barnes L, Mazariegos J, Taylor F, Johnson J, Wagner RL. Prognostic factors in mobile tongue and floor of mouth carcinoma. Cancer. 1989;64(6):1195–202.
Hicks Jr WL, Loree TR, Garcia RI, Maamoun S, Marshall D, Orner JB, Bakamjian VY, Shedd DP. Squamous cell carcinoma of the floor of mouth: a 20-year review. Head Neck. 1997;19(5):400–5.
Binahmed A, Nason RW, Abdoh AA. The clinical significance of the positive surgical margin in oral cancer. Oral Oncol. 2007;43(8):780–4.
Lawaetz M, Homøe P. Risk factors for and consequences of inadequate surgical margins in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118(6):642–6.
Luryi AL, Chen MM, Mehra S, Roman SA, Sosa JA, Judson BL. Positive surgical margins in early stage oral cavity cancer: an analysis of 20,602 cases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;151(6):984–90.
Weijers M, Snow GB, Bezemer PD, van der Wal JE, van der Waal I. The clinical relevance of epithelial dysplasia in the surgical margins of tongue and floor of mouth squamous cell carcinoma: an analysis of 37 patients. J Oral Pathol Med. 2002;31(1):11–5.
Crissman JD, Gluckman J, Whiteley J, Quenelle D. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the floor of the mouth. Head Neck Surg. 1980;3(1):2–7.
Bryne M, Koppang HS, Lilleng R, Kjaerheim A. Malignancy grading of the deep invasive margins of oral squamous cell carcinomas has high prognostic value. J Pathol. 1992;166:375–81.
Bundgaard T, Rossen K, Henriksen SD, Charabi S, Sogaard H, Grau C. Histopathologic parameters in the evaluation of T1 squamous cell carcinomas of the oral cavity. Head Neck. 2002;24:656–60.
Woolgar JA, Scott J. Prediction of cervical lymph node metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue/floor of mouth. Head Neck. 1995;17(6):463–72.
Mohit-Tabatabai MA, Sobel HJ, Rush BF, Mashberg A. Relation of thickness of floor of mouth stage I and II cancers to regional metastasis. Am J Surg. 1986;152(4):351–3.
Spiro RH, Huvos AG, Wong GY, Spiro JD, Gnecco CA, Strong EW. Predictive value of tumor thickness in squamous carcinoma confined to the tongue and floor of the mouth. Am J Surg. 1986;152(4):345–50.
McGuirt Jr WF, Johnson JT, Myers EN, Rothfield R, Wagner R. Floor of mouth carcinoma. The management of the clinically negative neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;121(3):278–82.
Balasubramanian D, Ebrahimi A, Gupta R, Gao K, Elliott M, Palme CE, Clark JR. Tumour thickness as a predictor of nodal metastases in oral cancer: comparison between tongue and floor of mouth subsites. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(12):1165–8.
Larsen SR, Johansen J, Sørensen JA, Krogdahl A. The prognostic significance of histological features in oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38(8):657–62.
Prestin S, Rothschild SI, Betz CS, Kraft M. Measurement of epithelial thickness within the oral cavity using optical coherence tomography. Head Neck. 2012;34(12):1777–81.
Jones AS. Prognosis in mouth cancer: tumour factors. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1994;30B(1):8–15.
Weijers M, Snow GB, Bezemer PD, van der Waal I. Malignancy grading is no better than conventional histopathological grading in small squamous cell carcinoma of tongue and floor of mouth: retrospective study in 128 patients. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38(4):343–7.
Brandwein-Gensler M, Teixeira MS, Lewis CM, Lee B, Rolnitzky L, Hille JJ, Genden E, Urken ML, Wang BY. Oral squamous cell carcinoma: histologic risk assessment, but not margin status, is strongly predictive of local disease-free and overall survival. Am J Surg Pathol. 2005;29(2):167–78.
Ballard BR, Suess GR, Pickren JW, Greene Jr GW, Shedd DP. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the floor of the mouth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1978;45(4):568–79.
Kelner N, Vartanian JG, Pinto CA, Coutinho-Camillo CM, Kowalski LP. Does elective neck dissection in T1/T2 carcinoma of the oral tongue and floor of the mouth influence recurrence and survival rates? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;52(7):590–7.
Shah JP, Candela FC, Poddar AK. The patterns of cervical lymph node metastases from squamous carcinoma of the oral cavity. Cancer. 1990;66(1):109–13.
Alvarez J, Bidaguren A, McGurk M, Diaz-Basterra G, Brunsó J, Andikoetxea B, Martín JC, Barbier L, Arteagoitia I, Santamaría JA. Sentinel node biopsy in relation to survival in floor of the mouth carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;43(3):269–73.
Spiro RH, Guillamondegui Jr O, Paulino AF, Huvos AG. Pattern of invasion and margin assessment in patients with oral tongue cancer. Head Neck. 1999;21(5):408–13.
Högmo A, Kuylenstierna R, Lindholm J, Munck-Wikland E. Predictive value of malignancy grading systems, DNA content, p53, and angiogenesis for stage I tongue carcinomas. J Clin Pathol. 1999;52(1):35–40.
Scholl P, Byers RM, Batsakis JG, Wolf P, Santini H. Microscopic cut-through of cancer in the surgical treatment of squamous carcinoma of the tongue. Prognostic and therapeutic implications. Am J Surg. 1986;152(4):354–60.
Iseli TA, Lin MJ, Tsui A, Guiney A, Wiesenfeld D, Iseli CE. Are wider surgical margins needed for early oral tongue cancer? J Laryngol Otol. 2012;126(3):289–94.
Jakobsson PA, Eneroth CM, Killander D, Moberger G, Martensson B. Histologic classification and grading of malignancy in carcinoma of the larynx. Acta Radiol Ther Phys Biol. 1973;12:1–8.
Holm LE, Lundquist PG, Silfverswärd C, Sobin A. Histological grading of malignancy in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue. Acta Otolaryngol. 1982;94(1–2):185–92.
Anneroth G, Hansen LS, Silverman Jr S. Malignancy grading in oral squamous cell carcinoma. I. Squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue and floor of mouth: histologic grading in the clinical evaluation. J Oral Pathol. 1986;15(3):162–8.
Bryne M, Koppang HS, Lilleng R, Stene T, Bang G, Dabelsteen E. New malignancy grading is a better prognostic indicator than Broders’ grading in oral squamous cell carcinomas. J Oral Pathol Med. 1989;18(8):432–7.
Odell EW, Jani P, Sherriff M, Ahluwalia SM, Hibbert J, Levison DA, Morgan PR. The prognostic value of individual histologic grading parameters in small lingual squamous cell carcinomas. The importance of the pattern of invasion. Cancer. 1994;74(3):789–94.
Högmo A, Kuylenstierna R, Lindholm J, Nathansson A, Auer G, Munck-Wikland E. Nuclear DNA content and p53 overexpression in stage I squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue compared with advanced tongue carcinomas. Mol Pathol. 1998;51(5):268–72.
Brandwein-Gensler M, Smith RV, Wang B, et al. Validation of the histologic risk model in a new cohort of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34:677–88.
Chatzistamou I, Rodriguez J, Jouffroy T, et al. Prognostic significance of tumor shape and stromal chronic inflammatory infiltration in squamous cell carcinomas of the oral tongue. J Oral Pathol Med. 2010;39:667–71.
Almangush A, Bello IO, Keski-Säntti H, Mäkinen LK, Kauppila JH, Pukkila M, Hagström J, Laranne J, Tommola S, Nieminen O, Soini Y, Kosma VM, Koivunen P, Grénman R, Leivo I, Salo T. Depth of invasion, tumor budding, and worst pattern of invasion: prognostic indicators in early-stage oral tongue cancer. Head Neck. 2014;36(6):811–8.
Almangush A, Coletta RD, Bello IO, Bitu C, Keski-Säntti H, Mäkinen LK, Kauppila JH, Pukkila M, Hagström J, Laranne J, Tommola S, Soini Y, Kosma VM, Koivunen P, Kowalski LP, Nieminen P, Grénman R, Leivo I, Salo T. A simple novel prognostic model for early stage oral tongue cancer. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;44(2):143–50.
Huang SH, Hwang D, Lockwood G, Goldstein DP, O’Sullivan B. Predictive value of tumor thickness for cervical lymph-node involvement in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a meta-analysis of reported studies. Cancer. 2009;115(7):1489–97.
Ebrahimi A, Gil Z, Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Chaturvedi P, Agarwal JP, Kowalski LP, Kreppel M, Cernea CR, Brandao J, Bachar G, Bolzoni Villaret A, Fliss D, Fridman E, Robbins KT, Shah JP, Patel SG, Clark JR. Primary tumor staging for oral cancer and a proposed modification incorporating depth of invasion: an international multicenter retrospective study. International Consortium for Outcome Research (ICOR) in Head and Neck Cancer. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;140(12):1138–48.
Peng KA, Chu AC, Lai C, Grogan T, Elashoff D, Abemayor E, St John MA. Is there a role for neck dissection in T1 oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma? The UCLA experience. Am J Otolaryngol. 2014;35(6):741–6.
Morton RP, Ferguson CM, Lambie NK, Whitlock RM. Tumor thickness in early tongue cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;120(7):717–20.
Tai SK, Li WY, Chu PY, Chang SY, Tsai TL, Wang YF, Huang JL. Risks and clinical implications of perineural invasion in T1-2 oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2012;34(7):994–1001.
Matsushita Y, Yanamoto S, Takahashi H, Yamada S, Naruse T, Sakamoto Y, Ikeda H, Shiraishi T, Fujita S, Ikeda T, Asahina I, Umeda M. A clinicopathological study of perineural invasion and vascular invasion in oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;44(5):543–8.
Roh J, Muelleman T, Tawfik O, Thomas SM. Perineural growth in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a review. Oral Oncol. 2015;51(1):16–23.
Miller ME, Palla B, Chen Q, et al. A novel classification system for perineural invasion in noncutaneous head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: histologic subcategories and patient outcomes. Am J Otolaryngol. 2012;33(2):212–5.
Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Binenbaum Y, Chaturvedi P, Agarwal JP, Kowalski LP, Ebrahimi A, Clark JR, Cernea CR, Brandao SJ, Kreppel M, Zöller J, Fliss D, Bachar G, Shpitzer T, Bolzoni VA, Patel PR, Jonnalagadda S, Robbins KT, Shah JP, Patel SG, Gil Z, International Consortium for Outcome Research (ICOR) in Head and Neck Cancer. Clinical nodal stage is a significant predictor of outcome in patients with oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma and pathologically negative neck metastases: results of the international consortium for outcome research. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(11):3575–81.
Hinni ML, Ferlito A, Brandwein-Gensler MS, Takes RP, Silver CE, Westra WH, Seethala RR, Rodrigo JP, Corry J, Bradford CR, Hunt JL, Strojan P, Devaney KO, Gnepp DR, Hartl DM, Kowalski LP, Rinaldo A, Barnes L. Surgical margins in head and neck cancer: a contemporary review. Head Neck. 2013;35(9):1362–70.
Woolgar JA, Triantafyllou A, Lewis Jr JS, Hunt J, Williams MD, Takes RP, Thompson LD, Slootweg PJ, Devaney KO, Ferlito A. Prognostic biological features in neck dissection specimens. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;270(5):1581–92.
Maxwell JH, Thompson LD, Brandwein-Gensler MS, Weiss BG, Canis M, Purgina B, Prabhu AV, Lai C, Shuai Y, Carroll WR, Morlandt A, Duvvuri U, Kim S, Johnson JT, Ferris RL, Seethala R, Chiosea SI. Early oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma: sampling of margins from tumor bed and worse local control. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2015;30:1–8.
Farr HW, Arthur K. Epidermoid carcinoma of the mouth and pharynx 1960–1964. J Laryngol Otol. 1972;86(3):243–53.
Siriwardena BS, Tilakaratne A, Amaratunga EA, Udagama MN, Ogawa I, Kudo Y, Takata T, Tilakaratne WM. Analysis of histopathological and immunohistochemical differences of oral squamous cell carcinoma in young and old patients in Sri Lanka. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36(6):357–62.
Kurokawa H, Yamashita Y, Takeda S, Zhang M, Fukuyama H, Takahashi T. Risk factors for late cervical lymph node metastases in patients with stage I or II carcinoma of the tongue. Head Neck. 2002;24(8):731–6.
Arduino PG, Carrozzo M, Chiecchio A, Broccoletti R, Tirone F, Borra E, Bertolusso G, Gandolfo S. Clinical and histopathologic independent prognostic factors in oral squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective study of 334 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66(8):1570–9.
González-García R, Naval-Gías L, Román-Romero L, Sastre-Pérez J, Rodríguez-Campo FJ. Local recurrences and second primary tumors from squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a retrospective analytic study of 500 patients. Head Neck. 2009;31(9):1168–80.
Gutiérrez-Pascual M, Vicente-Martín FJ, Fernández-Álvarez JG, Martín-López R, Pinedo-Moraleda F, López-Estebaranz JL. Squamous cell carcinoma of the lip. A retrospective study of 146 patients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012;26(9):1116–21.
Borges AM, Shrikhande SS, Ganesh B. Surgical pathology of squamous carcinoma of the oral cavity: its impact on management. Semin Surg Oncol. 1989;5(5):310–7.
Hubert Low TH, Gao K, Elliott M, Clark JR. Tumor classification for early oral cancer: re-evaluate the current TNM classification. Head Neck. 2015;37(2):223–8.
Moore C, Kuhns JG, Greenberg RA. Thickness as prognostic aid in upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Arch Surg. 1986;121(12):1410–4.
Shinghaki S, Suzuki I, Wakajima T. Evaluation of histopathologic parameters in predicting cervical lymph node metastasis of oral and oropharyngeal carcinomas. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1988;66:683–8.
Ambrosch P, Kron M, Fischer G. Micrometastases in carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: detection, risk of metastasizing, and prognostic value of depth of invasion. Head Neck. 1995;17:473–9.
Gonzalez-Moles MA, Esteban F, Rodriguez-Archilla A, Ruiz-Avila I, Gonzales-Moles S. Importance of tumour thickness measurement in prognosis of tongue cancer. Oral Oncol. 2002;38:394–7.
O-charoenrat P, Pillai G, Patel S, Fisher C, Archer D, Eccles S, et al. Tumour thickness predicts cervical nodal metastases and survival in early tongue cancer. Oral Oncol. 2003;39:386–90.
Goerkem M, Braun J, Stoeckli SJ. Evaluation of clinical and histomorphological parameters as potential predictors of occult metastases in sentinel lymph nodes of early squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(2):527–35.
Pentenero M, Gandolfo S, Carrozzo M. Importance of tumor thickness and depth of invasion in nodal involvement and prognosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature. Head Neck. 2005;27(12):1080–91.
Howaldt HP, Kainz M, Euler B, Vorast H. Proposal for modification of the TNM staging classification for cancer of the oral cavity. DOSAK. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 1999;27(5):275–88.
Baqai S, Sule N, Tan W, Wilding G, Merzianu M. Reliability of tumor depth and thickness measurements in T1 oral cancer. Mod Pathol. 2016;S2:29–318A.
O’Brien CJ, Lauer CS, Fredricks S, Clifford AR, McNeil EB, Bagia JS, Koulmandas C. Tumor thickness influences prognosis of T1 and T2 oral cavity cancer – but what thickness? Head Neck. 2003;25(11):937–45.
Kane SV, Gupta M, Kakade AC, D’Cruz A. Depth of invasion is the most significant histological predictor of subclinical cervical lymph node metastasis in early squamous carcinomas of the oral cavity. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2006;32:795–803.
Sparano A, Weinstein G, Chalian A, Yodul M, Weber R. Multivariate predictors of occult neck metastasis in early oral tongue cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131:472–6.
Swain N, Patel S, Pathak J. Comment on : “Tumour thickness as a predictor of nodal metastases in oral cancer: comparison between tongue and floor of mouth subsites” by Balasubramanian D et al. Oral Oncol. 2015;51(5):e26.
Breslow A. Thickness, cross-sectional areas and depth of invasion in the prognosis of cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg. 1970;172(5):902–8.
Breslow A. Tumor thickness, level of invasion and node dissection in stage I cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg. 1975;182(5):572–5.
Wilder-Smith P, Lee K, Guo S, Zhang J, Osann K, Chen Z, Messadi D. In vivo diagnosis of oral dysplasia and malignancy using optical coherence tomography: preliminary studies in 50 patients. Lasers Surg Med. 2009;41(5):353–7.
Yuen AP, Lam KY, Wei WI, et al. A comparison of the prognostic significance of tumor diameter, length, width, thickness, area, volume, and clinicopathological features of oral tongue carcinoma. Am J Surg. 2000;180(2):139–43.
Alkureishi LW, Ross GL, Shoaib T, Soutar DS, Robertson AG, Sorensen JA, et al. Does tumor depth affect nodal upstaging in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck? Laryngoscope. 2008;118:629–34.
Brandwein-Gensler M, Smith RV. Prognostic indicators in head and neck oncology including the new 7th edition of the AJCC staging system. Head Neck Pathol. 2010;4(1):53–61.a.
Ganly I, Patel S, Shah J. Early stage squamous cell cancer of the oral tongue – clinicopathologic features affecting outcome. Cancer. 2012;118:101–11.
Ganly I, Goldstein D, Carlson DL, Patel SG, O’Sullivan B, Lee N, Gullane P, Shah JP. Long-term regional control and survival in patients with “low-risk,” early stage oral tongue cancer managed by partial glossectomy and neck dissection without postoperative radiation: the importance of tumor thickness. Cancer. 2013;119(6):1168–76.
Melchers LJ, Schuuring E, van Dijk BA, de Bock GH, Witjes MJ, van der Laan BF, van der Wal JE, Roodenburg JL. Tumour infiltration depth ≥4 mm is an indication for an elective neck dissection in pT1cN0 oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2012;48(4):337–42.
Melkane AE, Mamelle G, Wycisk G, Temam S, Janot F, Casiraghi O, Lumbroso J. Sentinel node biopsy in early oral squamous cell carcinomas: a 10-year experience. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(8):1782–8.
Yuen AP, Ng RW, Lam PK, Ho A. Preoperative measurement of tumor thickness of oral tongue carcinoma with intraoral ultrasonography. Head Neck. 2008;30(2):230–4.
Jerjes W, Upile T, Conn B, Hamdoon Z, Betz CS, McKenzie G, Radhi H, Vourvachis M, El Maaytah M, Sandison A, Jay A, Hopper C. In vitro examination of suspicious oral lesions using optical coherence tomography. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;48(1):18–25.
Hamdoon Z, Jerjes W, Al-Delayme R, McKenzie G, Jay A, Hopper C. Structural validation of oral mucosal tissue using optical coherence tomography. Head Neck Oncol. 2012;4:29.
Hamdoon Z, Jerjes W, Upile T, McKenzie G, Jay A, Hopper C. Optical coherence tomography in the assessment of suspicious oral lesions: an immediate ex vivo study. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2013;10(1):17–27.
http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/pdf/head-and-neck.pdf. Accessed on 12/04/15.
Broders AC. Squamous cell cancer of the lip: a study of five hundred and thirty-seven cases. JAMA. 1920;74:656–64.
Hiratsuka H, Miyakawa A, Nakamori K, Kido Y, Sunakawa H, Kohama G. Multivariate analysis of occult lymph node metastasis as a prognostic indicator for patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Cancer. 1997;80(3):351–6.
Wong RJ, Keel SB, Glynn RJ, Varvares MA. Histological pattern of mandibular invasion by oral squamous cell carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 2000;110(1):65–72.
Kang CJ, Lin CY, Wang HM, Fan KH, Ng SH, Lee LY, Chen IH, Huang SF, Liao CT, Yen TC. The number of pathologically positive lymph nodes and pathological tumor depth predicts prognosis in patients with poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011;81(4):e223–30.
Lindenblatt Rde C, Martinez GL, Silva LE, Faria PS, Camisasca DR, Lourenço SQ. Oral squamous cell carcinoma grading systems – analysis of the best survival predictor. J Oral Pathol Med. 2012;41(1):34–9.
Liao CT, Lee LY, Hsueh C, Lin CY, Fan KH, Wang HM, Ng SH, Lin CH, Tsao CK, Chen IH, Chang KP, Huang SF, Kang CJ, Fang KH, Wang YC, Chang YL, Huang YC, Tsai CY, Yen TC. Comparative outcomes in oral cavity cancer with resected pT4a and pT4b. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(3):230–6.
Piffkò J, Bànkfalvi A, Ofner D, Bryne M, Rasch D, Joos U, Böcker W, Schmid KW. Prognostic value of histobiological factors (malignancy grading and AgNOR content) assessed at the invasive tumour front of oral squamous cell carcinomas. Br J Cancer. 1997;75(10):1543–6.
Søland TM, Brusevold IJ, Koppang HS, Schenck K, Bryne M. Nerve growth factor receptor (p75 NTR) and pattern of invasion predict poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Histopathology. 2008;53(1):62–72.
Violaris NS, O’Neil D, Helliwell TR, Caslin AW, Roland NJ, Jones AS. Soft tissue cervical metastases of squamous carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1994;19(5):394–9.
Lim SC, Zhang S, Ishii G, Endoh Y, Kodama K, Miyamoto S, Hayashi R, Ebihara S, Cho JS, Ochiai A. Predictive markers for late cervical metastasis in stage I and II invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(1 Pt 1):166–72.
Umeda M, Yokoo S, Take Y, Omori A, Nakanishi K, Shimada K. Lymph node metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: correlation between histologic features and the prevalence of metastasis. Head Neck. 1992;14(4):263–72.
Sawair FA, Irwin CR, Gordon DJ, Leonard AG, Stephenson M, Napier SS. Invasive front grading: reliability and usefulness in the management of oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2003;32(1):1–9.
Anneroth G, Batsakis J, Luna M. Review of the literature and a recommended system of malignancy grading in oral squamous cell carcinomas. Scand J Dent Res. 1987;95:229–49.
Martínez-Gimeno C, Rodríguez EM, Vila CN, Varela CL. Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a clinicopathologic scoring system for evaluating risk of cervical lymph node metastasis. Laryngoscope. 1995;105(7 Pt 1):728–33.
Martínez-Gimeno C, Molinero AP, Castro V, Sastre MJ, Castro EE, Aguirre-Jaime A. Prospective validation of the Martinez-Gimeno clinicopathologic scoring system (MGSS) for evaluating risk of cervical lymph node metastases of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Head Neck. 2005;27(4):320–5.
Kurokawa H, Zhang M, Matsumoto S, Yamashita Y, Tomoyose T, Tanaka T, Fukuyama H, Takahashi T. The high prognostic value of the histologic grade at the deep invasive front of tongue squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2005;34(6):329–33.
Li Y, Bai S, Carroll W, Dayan D, Dort JC, Heller K, Jour G, Lau H, Penner C, Prystowsky M, Rosenthal E, Schlecht NF, Smith RV, Urken M, Vered M, Wang B, Wenig B, Negassa A, Brandwein-Gensler M. Validation of the risk model: high-risk classification and tumor pattern of invasion predict outcome for patients with low-stage oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck Pathol. 2013;7(3):211–23.
Sinha P, Lewis Jr JS, Piccirillo JF, et al. Extracapsular spread and adjuvant therapy in human papillomavirus-related, p16-positive oropharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer. 2012;118(14):3519–30.
Vered M, Dayan D, Dobriyan A, Yahalom R, Shalmon B, Barshack I, Bedrin L, Talmi YP, Taicher S. Oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma: recurrent disease is associated with histopathologic risk score and young age. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2010;136(7):1039–48.
de Matos FR, Lima E, Queiroz LM, da Silveira EJ. Analysis of inflammatory infiltrate, perineural invasion, and risk score can indicate concurrent metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012;70(7):1703–10.
Lundqvist L, Stenlund H, Laurell G, Nylander K. The importance of stromal inflammation in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. J Oral Pathol Med. 2012;41(5):379–83.
Wang C, Huang H, Huang Z, et al. Tumor budding correlates with poor prognosis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in tongue squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40:545–51.
Xie N, Wang C, Liu X, Li R, Hou J, Chen X, Huang H. Tumor budding correlates with occult cervical lymph node metastasis and poor prognosis in clinical early-stage tongue squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2015;44(4):266–72.
Angadi PV, Patil PV, Hallikeri K, Mallapur MD, Hallikerimath S, Kale AD. Tumor budding is an independent prognostic factor for prediction of lymph node metastasis in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Surg Pathol. 2015;23(2):102–10.
Silva SD, Perez DE, Nishimoto IN, Alves FA, Pinto CA, Kowalski LP, Graner E. Fatty acid synthase expression in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue: clinicopathological findings. Oral Dis. 2008;14(4):376–82.
Fang KH, Kao HK, Cheng MH, Chang YL, Tsang NM, Huang YC, Lee LY, Yu JS, Hao SP, Chang KP. Histological differentiation of primary oral squamous cell carcinomas in an area of betel quid chewing prevalence. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2009;141(6):743–9.
Ling W, Mijiti A, Moming A. Survival pattern and prognostic factors of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue: a retrospective analysis of 210 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;71(4):775–85.
Thiagarajan S, Nair S, Nair D, Chaturvedi P, Kane SV, Agarwal JP, D’Cruz AK. Predictors of prognosis for squamous cell carcinoma of oral tongue. J Surg Oncol. 2014;109(7):639–44.
Liebig C, Ayala G, Wilks JA, Berger DH, Albo D. Perineural invasion in cancer: a review of the literature. Cancer. 2009;115(15):3379–91.
Kurtz KA, Hoffman HT, Zimmerman MB, Robinson RA. Perineural and vascular invasion in oral cavity squamous carcinoma: increased incidence on re-review of slides and by using immunohistochemical enhancement. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2005;129(3):354–9.
Shen WR, Wang YP, Chang JY, Yu SY, Chen HM, Chiang CP. Perineural invasion and expression of nerve growth factor can predict the progression and prognosis of oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2014;43(4):258–64.
Fagan JJ, Collins B, Barnes L, D’Amico F, Myers EN, Johnson JT. Perineural invasion in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124(6):637–40.
Chang AM, Kim SW, Duvvuri U, Johnson JT, Myers EN, Ferris RL, Gooding WE, Seethala RR, Chiosea SI. Early squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue: comparing margins obtained from the glossectomy specimen to margins from the tumor bed. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(11):1077–82.
Suzuki M, Suzuki T, Asai M, Ichimura K, Nibu K, Sugasawa M, et al. Clinicopathological factors related to cervical lymph node metastasis in a patient with carcinoma of the oral floor. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 2007;559:129–35.
Montebugnoli L, Gissi DB, Flamminio F, Gentile L, Dallera V, Leonardi E, Beccarini T, Foschini MP. Clinicopathologic parameters related to recurrence and locoregional metastasis in 180 oral squamous cell carcinomas. Int J Surg Pathol. 2014;22(1):55–62.
Yeh CF, Li WY, Yang MH, Chu PY, Lu YT, Wang YF, Chang PM, Tai SK. Neck observation is appropriate in T1–2, cN0 oral squamous cell carcinoma without perineural invasion or lymphovascular invasion. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(9):857–62.
Durr ML, van Zante A, Li D, Kezirian EJ, Wang SJ. Oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma in never-smokers: analysis of clinicopathologic characteristics and survival. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;149(1):89–96.
Close LG, Brown PM, Vuitch MF, Reisch J, Schaefer SD. Microvascular invasion and survival in cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1989;115(11):1304–9.
Huang TY, Hsu LP, Wen YH, Huang TT, Chou YF, Lee CF, Yang MC, Chang YK, Chen PR. Predictors of locoregional recurrence in early stage oral cavity cancer with free surgical margins. Oral Oncol. 2010;46(1):49–55.
Bundgaard T, Bentzen SM, Wildt J, Sørensen FB, Søgaard H, Nielsen JE. Histopathologic, stereologic, epidemiologic, and clinical parameters in the prognostic evaluation of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Head Neck. 1996;18(2):142–52.
Garzino-Demo P, Dell’Acqua A, Dalmasso P, Fasolis M, La Terra Maggiore GM, Ramieri G, Berrone S, Rampino M, Schena M. Clinicopathological parameters and outcome of 245 patients operated for oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2006;34(6):344–50.
Hilly O, Shkedy Y, Hod R, Soudry E, Mizrachi A, Hamzany Y, Bachar G, Shpitzer T. Carcinoma of the oral tongue in patients younger than 30 years: comparison with patients older than 60 years. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(10):987–90.
Chen TC, Wang CP, Ko JY, Yang TL, Hsu CW, Yeh KA, Chang YL, Lou PJ. The impact of perineural invasion and/or lymphovascular invasion on the survival of early-stage oral squamous cell carcinoma patients. Ann Surg Oncol. 2013;20(7):2388–95.
Brennan S, Corry J, Kleid S, Porceddu S, Yuen K, Rischin D, Peters LJ. Prospective trial to evaluate staged neck dissection or elective neck radiotherapy in patients with CT-staged T1-2 N0 squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue. Head Neck. 2010;32(2):191–8.
Woolgar JA. Histopathological prognosticators in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2006;42(3):229–39.
King B, Corry J. Pathology reporting in head and neck cancer – snapshot of current status. Head Neck. 2009;31(2):227–31; discussion 232–3.
Ebrahimi A, Murali R, Gao K, Elliott MS, Clark JR. The prognostic and staging implications of bone invasion in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer. 2011;117:4460–7.
Vincent N, Dassonville O, Chamorey E, Poissonnet G, Pierre CS, Nao EE, Peyrade F, Benezery K, Viel D, Sudaka A, Marcy PY, Vallicioni J, Demard F, Santini J, Bozec A. Clinical and histological prognostic factors in locally advanced oral cavity cancers treated with primary surgery. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis. 2012;129(6):291–6.
Fried D, Mullins B, Weissler M, Shores C, Zanation A, Hackman T, Shockley W, Hayes N, Chera BS. Prognostic significance of bone invasion for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma considered T1/T2 by American joint committee on cancer size criteria. Head Neck. 2014;36(6):776–81.
Sobin LH, Gospodarowicz MK, Wittekind C. TNM classification of malignant tumours. 7th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009.
Ash CS, Nason RW, Abdoh AA, Cohen MA. Prognostic implications of mandibular invasion in oral cancer. Head Neck. 2000;22:794–8.
Mücke T, Hölzle F, Wagenpfeil S, Wolff KD, Kesting M. The role of tumor invasion into the mandible of oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2011;137(1):165–71.
Pandey M, Rao LP, Das SR, Shukla M. Tumor stage and resection margins not the mandibular invasion determines the survival in patients with cancers of oro-mandibular region. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2009;35(12):1337–42.
Nakayama E, Yoshiura K, Ozeki S, Nakayama H, Yamaguchi T, Yoshikawa H, Kanda S, Ohishi M, Shirasuna. The correlation of histologic features with a panoramic radiography pattern and a computed tomography pattern of bone destruction in carcinoma of the mandibular gingiva. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;96(6):774–82.
Pandey M, Rao LP, Das SR, Mathews A, Chacko EM, Naik BR. Patterns of mandibular invasion in oral squamous cell carcinoma of the mandibular region. World J Surg Oncol. 2007;5:12.
Bilodeau EA, Chiosea S. Oral squamous cell carcinoma with mandibular bone invasion: intraoperative evaluation of bone margins by routine frozen section. Head Neck Pathol. 2011;5(3):216–20.
Wysluch A, Stricker I, Holzle F, et al. Intraoperative evaluation of bony margins with frozen-section analysis and trephine drill extraction technique: a preliminary study. Head Neck. 2010;32:1473–8.
Forrest LA, Schuller DE, Lucas JG, Sullivan MJ. Rapid analysis of mandibular margins. Laryngoscope. 1995;105:475–7.
Mahmood S, Conway DI, Ramesar K. Use of intra-operative cytological assessment of mandibular marrow scrapings to predict resection margin status in patients with squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;59:1138–41.
Nieberler M, Häusler P, Drecoll E, Stoeckelhuber M, Deppe H, Hölzle F, Kolk A, Wolff KD, Kesting MR, Weirich G. Evaluation of intraoperative cytological assessment of bone resection margins in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Cytopathol. 2014;122(9):646–56.
Chen TY, Emrich LJ, Driscoll DL. The clinical significance of pathological findings in surgically resected margins of the primary tumor in head and neck carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13:833–7.
Sutton DN, Brown JS, Rogers SN, Vaughan ED, Woolgar JA. The prognostic implications of the surgical margin in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;32:30–4.
El-Husseiny G, Kandil A, Jamshed A, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue: an analysis of prognostic factors. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;38:193–9.
Meier JD, Oliver DA, Varvares MA. Surgical margin determination in head and neck oncology: current clinical practice. The results of an International American Head and Neck Society Member Survey. Head Neck. 2005;27:952–8.
Patel RS, Goldstein DP, Guillemaud J, et al. Impact of positive frozen section microscopic tumor cut-through revised to negative on oral carcinoma control and survival rates. Head Neck. 2010;32(11):1444–51.
Wong LS, McMahon J, Devine J, McLellan D, Thompson E, Farrow A, Moos K, Ayoub A. Influence of close resection margins on local recurrence and disease-specific survival in oral and oropharyngeal carcinoma. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012;50(2):102–8.
Nason RW, Binahmed A, Pathak KA, Abdoh AA, Sándor GK. What is the adequate margin of surgical resection in oral cancer? Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009;107(5):625–9.
Ravasz LA, Slootweg PJ, Hordijk GJ, Smit F, van der Tweel I. The status of the resection margin as a prognostic factor in the treatment of head and neck carcinoma. J Cranio-Maxillofac Surg. 1991;19:314–8.
Woolgar JA, Triantafyllou A. A histopathological appraisal of surgical margins in oral and oropharyngeal cancer resection specimens. Oral Oncol. 2005;41:1034–43.
Weijers M, Snow GB, Bezemer DP, van dr Wal JE, van der Waal I. The status of the deep surgical margins in tongue and floor of mouth squamous cell carcinoma and risk of local recurrence; an analysis of 68 patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004;33(2):146–9.
Ord RA, Aisner S. Accuracy of frozen sections in assessing margins in oral cancer resection. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1997;55(7):663–9; discussion 669–71.
de Visscher JG, Gooris PJ, Vermey A, Roodenburg JL. Surgical margins for resection of squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;31(2):154–7.
Ribeiro NF, Godden DR, Wilson GE, Butterworth DM, Woodwards RT. Do frozen sections help achieve adequate surgical margins in the resection of oral carcinoma? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;32(2):152–8.
Sharma SM, Prasad BR, Pushparaj S, Poojary D. Accuracy of intraoperative frozen section in assessing margins in oral cancer resection. J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 2009;8(4):357–61.
Olson SM, Hussaini M, Lewis Jr JS. Frozen section analysis of margins for head and neck tumor resections: reduction of sampling errors with a third histologic level. Mod Pathol. 2011;24:665–70.
Cooley ML, Hoffman HT, Robinson RA. Discrepancies in frozen section mucosal margin tissue in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2002;24(3):262–7.
Pathak KA, Nason RW, Penner C, Viallet NR, Sutherland D, Kerr PD. Impact of use of frozen section assessment of operative margins on survival in oral cancer. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009;107(2):235–9.
Batsakis JG. Surgical excision margins: a pathologist’s perspective. Adv Anat Pathol. 1999;6:140–8.
Mistry RC, Qureshi SS, Kumaran C. Post-resection mucosal margin shrinkage in oral cancer: quantification and significance. J Surg Oncol. 2005;91:131–3.
Johnson RE, Sigman JD, Funk GF, Robinson RA, Hoffman HT. Quantification of surgical margin shrinkage in the oral cavity. Head Neck. 1997;19:281–6.
El-Fol HA, Noman SA, Beheiri MG, Khalil AM, Kamel MM. Significance of post-resection tissue shrinkage on surgical margins of oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2015;43(4):475–82.
Black C, Marotti J, Zarovnaya E, Paydarfar J. Critical evaluation of frozen section margins in head and neck cancer resections. Cancer. 2006;107(12):2792–800.
Miyawaki A, Hijioka H, Ishida T, Nozoe E, Nakamura N, Oya R. Intraoperative frozen section histological analysis of resection samples is useful for the control of primary lesions in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Clin Oncol. 2015;3(1):55–62.
Ch’ng S, Corbett-Burns S, Stanton N, Gao K, Shannon K, Clifford A, Gupta R, Clark JR. Close margin alone does not warrant postoperative adjuvant radiotherapy in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer. 2013;119(13):2427–37.
Wang SJ, Patel SG, Shah JP, Goldstein DP, Irish JC, Carvalho AL, Kowalski LP, Lockhart JL, Holland JM, Gross ND. An oral cavity carcinoma nomogram to predict benefit of adjuvant radiotherapy. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;139(6):554–9.
Camisasca DR, Silami MA, Honorato J, Dias FL, de Faria PA, Lourenço Sde Q. Oral squamous cell carcinoma: clinicopathological features in patients with and without recurrence. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2011;73(3):170–6.
Maleki S, Schlecht NF, Keller C, Diaz J, Moss J, Prystowsky MB, Macian F, Brandwein-Gensler M. Lymphocytic host response to oral squamous cell carcinoma: an adaptive T-cell response at the tumor interface. Head Neck Pathol. 2011;5(2):117–22. 3(3):170–6.
Breuninger H, Schaumburg-Lever G, Holzschuh J, Horny HP. Desmoplastic squamous cell carcinoma of skin and vermilion surface: a highly malignant subtype of skin cancer. Cancer. 1997;79(5):915–9.
Vered M, Dobriyan A, Dayan D, Yahalom R, Talmi YP, Bedrin L, et al. Tumor-host histopathologic variables, stromal myofibroblasts and risk score, are significantly associated with recurrent disease in tongue cancer. Cancer Sci. 2010;101(1):274–80.
Kellerman MG, Sobral LM, da Silva SD, Zecchin KG, Graner E, Lopes MA, et al. Myofibroblasts in the stroma of oral squamous cell carcinoma are associated with poor prognosis. Histopathology. 2007;51(6):849–53.
Marsh D, Suchak K, Moutasim KA, et al. Stromal features are predictive of disease mortality in oral cancer patients. J Pathol. 2011;223:470–81.
Bello IO, Vered M, Dayan D, et al. Cancer-associated fibroblasts, a parameter of the tumor microenvironment, overcomes carcinoma-associated parameters in the prognosis of patients with mobile tongue cancer. Oral Oncol. 2011;47:33–8.
Montero PH, Yu C, Palmer FL, Patel PD, Ganly I, Shah JP, Shaha AR, Boyle JO, Kraus DH, Singh B, Wong RJ, Morris LG, Kattan MW, Patel SG. Nomograms for preoperative prediction of prognosis in patients with oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer. 2014;120(2):214–21.
Ackerman L. Verrucous carcinoma of the oral cavity. Surgery. 1948;23:670–8.
Rekha KP, Angadi PV. Verrucous carcinoma of the oral cavity: a clinico-pathologic appraisal of 133 cases in Indians. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;14(4):211–8.
Huang TT, Hsu LP, Hsu YH, Chen PR. Surgical outcome in patients with oral verrucous carcinoma: long-term follow-up in an endemic betel quid chewing area. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2009;71(6):323–8.
Koch BB, Trask DK, Hoffman HT, Lucy H, Karnell LH, Robinson RA, Zhen W, et al. National survey of head and neck verrucous carcinoma. Patterns of presentation care and outcome. Cancer. 2001;92:110–20.
Samman M, Wood H, Conway C, Berri S, Pentenero M, Gandolfo S, Cassenti A, Cassoni P, Al Ajlan A, Barrett AW, Chengot P, MacLennan K, High AS, Rabbitts P. Next-generation sequencing analysis for detecting human papillomavirus in oral verrucous carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118(1):117–25.
Stokes A, Guerra E, Bible J, Halligan E, Orchard G, Odell E, Thavaraj S. Human papillomavirus detection in dysplastic and malignant oral verrucous lesions. J Clin Pathol. 2012;65(3):283–6.
Walvekar RR, Chaukar DA, Deshpande MS, Pai PS, Chaturvedi P, Kakade A, Kane SV, D’Cruz AK. Verrucous carcinoma of the oral cavity: a clinical and pathological study of 101 cases. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(1):47–51.
Medina JE, Dichtel W, Luna MA. Verrucous-squamous carcinomas of the oral cavity. A clinicopathologic study of 104 cases. Arch Otolaryngol. 1984;110(7):437–40.
McGuirt WF. Snuff dipper’s carcinoma. Arch Otolaryngol. 1983;109(11):757–60.
Cooper JR, Hellquist HB, Michaels L. Image analysis in the discrimination of verrucous carcinoma and squamous papilloma. J Pathol. 1992;166(4):383–7.
Padilla RJ, Murrah VA. Carcinoma cuniculatum of the oral mucosa: a potentially underdiagnosed entity in the absence of clinical correlation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118(6):684–93.
Murrah VA, Batsakis JG. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and verrucous hyperplasia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1994;103(8 Pt 1):660–3.
Oliveira DT, de Moraes RV, Fiamengui Filho JF, Fanton Neto J, Landman G, Kowalski LP. Oral verrucous carcinoma: a retrospective study in São Paulo Region. Braz Clin Oral Invest. 2006;10(3):205–9.
Candau-Alvarez A, Dean-Ferrer A, Alamillos-Granados FJ, Heredero-Jung S, García-García B, Ruiz-Masera JJ, Arévalo-Arévalo R, Zafra-Camacho F, Valenzuela-Salas B. Verrucous carcinoma of the oral mucosa: an epidemiological and follow-up study of patients treated with surgery in 5 last years. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2014;19(5):e506–11.
Gokavarapu S, Chandrasekhara Rao LM, Patnaik SC, Parvataneni N, Raju KV, Chander R, Kumar KA. Reliability of incision biopsy for diagnosis of oral verrucous carcinoma: a multivariate clinicopathological study. J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 2015;14(3):599–604.
Cardesa A, Zidar N, Nadal A, et al. Papillary squamous cell carcinoma. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. In: Barnes EL, Eveson JW, Reichart P, et al., editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Lyons: IARC Press; 2005. p. 126.
Thompson LDR, Wenig BM, Heffner DK, et al. Exophytic and papillary squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx: a clinicopathologic series of 104 cases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;120:718.
Suarez PA, Adler-Storthz K, Luna MA, El-Naggar AK, Abdul-Karim FW, Batsakis JG. Papillary squamous cell carcinomas of the upper aerodigestive tract: a clinicopathologic and molecular study. Head Neck. 2000;22(4):360–8.
Mehrad M, Carpenter DH, Chernock RD, Wang H, Ma XJ, Luo Y, Luo J, Lewis Jr JS, El-Mofty SK. Papillary squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: clinicopathologic and molecular features with special reference to human papillomavirus. Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(9):1349–56.
Ishiyama A, Eversole LR, Ross DA, et al. Papillary squamous neoplasms of the head and neck. Laryngoscope. 1994;104:1446–52.
Jo VY, Mills SE, Stoler MH, Stelow EB. Papillary squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: frequent association with human papillomavirus infection and invasive carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2009;33(11):1720–4.
Cobo F, Talavera P, Concha A. Review article: relationship of human papillomavirus with papillary squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: a review. Int J Surg Pathol. 2008;16(2):127–36.
Stelow EB, Mills SE. Squamous cell carcinoma variants of the upper aerodigestive tract. Am J Clin Pathol. 2005;124(Suppl):S96–109. Review.
El-Mofty SK. Human papillomavirus-related head and neck squamous cell carcinoma variants. Semin Diagn Pathol. 2015;32(1):23–31.
Batsakis JG, Suarez P. Papillary squamous carcinoma: will the real one please stand up? Adv Anat Pathol. 2000;7(1):2–8. Review.
Lewis Jr JS, Westra WH, Thompson LD, Barnes L, Cardesa A, Hunt JL, Williams MD, Slootweg PJ, Triantafyllou A, Woolgar JA, Devaney KO, Rinaldo A, Ferlito A. The sinonasal tract: another potential “hot spot” for carcinomas with transcriptionally-active human papillomavirus. Head Neck Pathol. 2014;8(3):241–9.
Wenig BM. Squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: precursors and problematic variants. Mod Pathol. 2002;15(3):229–54. Review.
Wain SL, Kier R, Vollmer RT, Bossen EH. Basaloid-squamous carcinoma of the tongue, hypopharynx, and larynx: report of 10 cases. Hum Pathol. 1986;17(11):1158–66.
Fritsch VA, Lentsch EJ. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: location means everything. J Surg Oncol. 2014;109(6):616–22.
Linton OR, Moore MG, Brigance JS, Gordon CA, Summerlin DJ, McDonald MW. Prognostic significance of basaloid squamous cell carcinoma in head and neck cancer. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;139(12):1306–11.
Fritsch VA, Gerry DR, Lentsch EJ. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: an analysis of 92 cases. Laryngoscope. 2014;124(7):1573–8.
Woolgar JA, Lewis Jr JS, Devaney KO, Rinaldo A, Coskun HH, Takes RP, Hartl DM, Zárate CE, Zbären P, Ferlito A. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: a single squamous cell carcinoma subtype or two distinct entities hiding under one histologic pattern? Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;268(2):161–4.
Lassen P, Eriksen JG, Hamilton-Dutoit S, et al. Effect of HPV-associated p16INK4A expression on response to radiotherapy and survival in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:1992–8.
Ang KK, Harris J, Wheeler R, Weber R, Rosenthal DI, Nguyen-Tân PF, Westra WH, Chung CH, Jordan RC, Lu C, Kim H, Axelrod R, Silverman CC, Redmond KP, Gillison ML. Human papillomavirus and survival of patients with oropharyngeal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(1):24–35.
Chernock RD, Lewis Jr JS, Zhang Q, El-Mofty SK. Human papillomavirus-positive basaloid squamous cell carcinomas of the upper aerodigestive tract: a distinct clinicopathologic and molecular subtype of basaloid squamous cell carcinoma. Hum Pathol. 2010;41(7):1016–23.
El-Mofty SK. Histopathologic risk factors in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma variants: an update with special reference to HPV-related carcinomas. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2014;19(4):e377–85.
Begum S, Westra WH. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck is a mixed variant that can be further resolved by HPV status. Am J Surg Pathol. 2008;32(7):1044–50.
Ereño C, Gaafar A, Garmendia M, Etxezarraga C, Bilbao FJ, López JI. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: a clinicopathological and follow-up study of 40 cases and review of the literature. Head Neck Pathol. 2008;2(2):83–91.
Jayasooriya PR, Tilakaratne WM, Mendis BR, Lombardi T. A literature review on oral basaloid squamous cell carcinomas, with special emphasis on etiology. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2013;17(6):547–51.
Choi HR, Sturgis EM, Rosenthal DI, Luna MA, Batsakis JG, El-Naggar AK. Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the head and neck: molecular evidence for evolution and progression from conventional squamous cell carcinomas. Am J Surg Pathol. 2003;27:1216–20.
Thompson LDR, Wieneke JA, Miettinen M, Heffner DK. Spindle cell (sarcomatoid) carcinomas of the larynx. A clinicopathologic study of 187 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2002;26:153–70.
Olsen KD, Lewis JE, Suman VJ. Spindle cell carcinoma of the larynx and hypopharynx. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;116(1):47–52.
Ellis GL, Corio RL. Spindle cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. A clinicopathologic assessment of fifty-nine cases. Oral Surg. 1980;50:523–34.
Romañach MJ, Azevedo RS, Carlos R, de Almeida OP, Pires FR. Clinicopathological and immunohistochemical features of oral spindle cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2010;39(4):335–41.
Ellis GL, Langloss JM, Heffner DK, Hyams VJ. Spindle cell carcinoma of the aerodigestive tract: an immunohistochemical analysis of 21 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 1987;11:335–42.
Slootweg PJ, Roholl PJ, Müller H, Lubsen H. Spindle-cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and larynx. Immunohistochemical aspects. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 1989;17(5):234–6.
Viswanathan S, Rahman K, Pallavi S, Sachin J, Patil A, Chaturvedi P, D’Cruz A, Agarwal J, Kane SV. Sarcomatoid (spindle cell) carcinoma of the head and neck mucosal region: a clinicopathologic review of 103 cases from a tertiary referral cancer centre. Head Neck Pathol. 2010;4(4):265–75.
Gerughty RM, Hennigar GR, Brown FM. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the nasal, oral and laryngeal cavities. A clinicopathologic survey of ten cases. Cancer. 1968;22(6):1140–55.
Schick U, Pusztaszeri M, Betz M, Ghadjar P, Demiroz C, Kaanders JH, Ozsahin M. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the head and neck: report of 20 cases and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2013;116(3):313–20.
Alos L, Castillo M, Nadal A, Caballero M, Mallofre C, Palacin A, Cardesa A. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the head and neck: criteria for diagnosis in a study of 12 cases. Histopathology. 2004;44(6):570–9.
Fonseca FP, Ramos LM, Vargas PA, de Almeida OP, Lopes MA, Santos-Silva AR. Oral adenosquamous carcinoma: evidence that it arises from the surface mucosal epithelium. Histopathology. 2012;61(2):321–3.
Masand RP, El-Mofty SK, Ma XJ, Luo Y, Flanagan JJ, Lewis Jr JS. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the head and neck: relationship to human papillomavirus and review of the literature. Head Neck Pathol. 2011;5(2):108–16.
Keelawat S, Liu CZ, Roehm PC, Barnes L. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: a clinicopathologic study of 12 cases and review of the literature. Am J Otolaryngol. 2002;23(3):160–8.
Martinez-Madrigal F, Baden E, Casiraghi O, Micheau C. Oral and pharyngeal adenosquamous carcinoma. A report of four cases with immunohistochemical studies. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1991;248(5):255–8.
Napier SS, Gormely JS, Newlands C, Ramsay-Baggs P. Adenosquamous carcinoma. A rare neoplasm with an aggressive course. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1995;79(5):607–11.
Scully C, Porter SR, Speight PM, Eveson JW, Gale D. Adenosquamous carcinoma of the mouth: a rare variant of squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;28(2):125–8.
Cardesa A, Zidar N, Nadal A, et al. Acantholytic squamous cell carcinoma. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. In: Barnes EL, Eveson JW, Reichart P, et al., editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Lyons: IARC Press; 2005. p. 129.
Kerawala CJ. Acantholytic squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a more aggressive entity? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;47(2):123–5.
Papadopoulou E, Tosios KI, Nikitakis N, Papadogeorgakis N, Sklavounou-Andrikopoulou A. Acantholytic squamous cell carcinoma of the gingiva: report of a case and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Patholral Radiol Endod. 2010;109(6):e67–71.
Terada T. Adenoid squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2012;5(5):442–7.
Gu X, Jiang R, Fowler MR. Acantholytic squamous cell carcinoma in upper aerodigestive tract: histopathology, immunohistochemical profile and epithelial mesenchymal transition phenotype change. Head Neck Pathol. 2012;6(4):438–44.
Mardi K, Singh N. Acantholytic squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a rare entity. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2014;18 Suppl 1:S128–30.
Jones AC, Freedman PD, Kerpel SM. Oral adenoid squamous cell carcinoma: a report of three cases and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1993;51(6):676–81.
Batsakis JG, Huser J. Squamous carcinomas with gland-like (adenoid) features. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1990;99(1):87–8.
Ferlito A, Devaney KO, Rinaldo A, Milroy CM, Carbone A. Mucosal adenoid squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1996;105(5):409–13.
Rytkönen AE, Hirvikoski PP, Salo TA. Lymphoepithelial carcinoma: two case reports and a systematic review of oral and sinonasal cases. Head Neck Pathol. 2011;5(4):327–34.
Tsang WYW, Chan JKC, Westra W. Lymphoepithelial carcinoma. In: Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005. p. 176.
Worley NK, Daroca Jr PJ. Lymphoepithelial carcinoma of the minor salivary gland. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;123(6):638–40.
Mahomed F, Grayson W. A rare case of lymphoepithelial carcinoma of the lip. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;105(5):e49–52.
Möller P, Wirbel R, Hofmann W, Schwechheimer K. Lymphoepithelial carcinoma (Schmincke type) as a derivate of the tonsillar crypt epithelium. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol. 1984;405(1):85–93.
Singhi AD, Stelow EB, Mills SE, et al. Lymphoepithelial-like carcinoma of the oropharynx: a morphologic variant of HPV-related head and neck carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34:800–5.
Mamelle G, Pampurik J, Luboinski B, et al. Lymph node prognostic factors in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Am J Surg. 1994;168(5):494–8.
Kowalski LP, Medina JE. Nodal metastases: predictive factors. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1998;31(4):621–37.
Kim S, Smith BD, Haffty BG. Prognostic factors in patients with head and neck cancer. In: Harrison LB, Sessions RB, Kies MS, editors. Head and neck cancer: a multidisciplinary approach, fourth electronic edition. Philadelphia: LWW; 2014.
Woolgar JA. Histological distribution of cervical lymph node metastases from intraoral/oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1999;37(3):175–80.
Woolgar JA. The topography of cervical lymph node metastases revisited: the histological findings in 526 sides of neck dissection from 439 previously untreated patients. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;36(3):219–25.
Paleri V, Kumar Subramaniam S, Oozeer N, Rees G, Krishnan S. Dissection of the submuscular recess (sublevel IIb) in squamous cell cancer of the upper aerodigestive tract: prospective study and systematic review of the literature. Head Neck. 2008;30(2):194–200.
Contaldo M, Di Napoli A, Pannone G, Franco R, Ionna F, Feola A, De Rosa A, Santoro A, Sbordone C, Longo F, Pasquali D, Loreto C, Ricciardiello F, Esposito G, D’Angelo L, Itro A, Bufo P, Tombolini V, Serpico R, Di Domenico M. Prognostic implications of node metastatic features in OSCC: a retrospective study on 121neck dissections. Oncol Rep. 2013;30(6):2697–704.
Robbins KT, Shaha AR, Medina JE, et al. Consensus statement on the classification and terminology of neck dissection. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;134:536–8.
Kalnins IK, Leonard AG, Sako K, Razack MS, Shedd DP. Correlation between prognosis and degree of lymph node involvement in carcinoma of the oral cavity. Am J Surg. 1977;134:450–4.
Agrama MT, Reiter D, Cunnane MF, Topham A, Keane WM. Nodal yield in neck dissection and the likelihood of metastases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;128:185–90.
Köhler HF, Kowalski LP. How many nodes are needed to stage a neck? A critical appraisal. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2010;267(5):785–91.
Patel SG, Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Chaturvedi P, Agarwal JP, Kowalski LP, Ebrahimi A, Clark JR, Cernea CR, Brandao SJ, Kreppel M, Zöller J, Fliss D, Fridman E, Bachar G, Shpitzer T, Bolzoni VA, Patel PR, Jonnalagadda S, Robbins KT, Shah JP, Gil Z, International Consortium for Outcome Research (ICOR) in Head and Neck Cancer. Lymph node density in oral cavity cancer: results of the International Consortium for Outcomes Research. Br J Cancer. 2013;109(8):2087–95.
Gil Z, Carlson DL, Boyle J, et al. Lymph node density is a significant predictor of outcome in patients with oral cancer. Cancer. 2009;115:5700–10.
Ebrahimi A, Zhang WJ, Gao K, Clark JR. Nodal yield and survival in oral squamous cancer: defining the standard of care. Cancer. 2011;117(13):2917–25.
Friedman M, Lim JW, Dickey W, Tanyeri H, Kirshenbaum GL, Phadke DM, Caldarelli D. Quantification of lymph nodes in selective neck dissection. Laryngoscope. 1999;109(3):368–70.
Jose J, Coatesworth AP, MacLennan K. Cervical metastases in upper aerodigestive tract squamous cell carcinoma: histopathologic analysis and reporting. Head Neck. 2003;25(3):194–7.
Ebrahimi A, Clark JR, Amit M, Yen TC, Liao CT, Kowalski LP, Kreppel M, Cernea CR, Bachar G, Villaret AB, Fliss D, Fridman E, Robbins KT, Shah JP, Patel SG, Gil Z. Minimum nodal yield in oral squamous cell carcinoma: defining the standard of care in a multicenter international pooled validation study. Ann Surg Oncol. 2014;21(9):3049–55.
Koren R, Shvero J, Yaniv E, Veltman V, Konichezky M, Groushko I, Sadov R, Feinmesser R, Gal R. Neck-dissection surgical specimens treated by lymph node revealing solution. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;124(1):72–5.
van den Brekel MW, Stel HV, van der Valk P, van der Waal I, Meyer CJ, Snow GB. Micrometastases from squamous cell carcinoma in neck dissection specimens. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1992;249(6):349–53.
Ferlito A, Partridge M, Brennan J, Hamakawa H. Lymph node micrometastases in head and neck cancer: a review. Acta Otolaryngol. 2001;121:660–5.
Devaney KO, Rinaldo A, Ferlito A. Micrometastases in cervical lymph nodes from patients with squamous carcinoma of the head and neck: should they be actively sought? Maybe. Am J Otolaryngol. 2007;28(4):271–4.
Broglie MA, Haerle SK, Huber GF, Haile SR, Stoeckli SJ. Occult metastases detected by sentinel node biopsy in patients with early oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas: impact on survival. Head Neck. 2013;35(5):660–6.
Shaw RJ, Lowe D, Woolgar JA, Brown JS, Vaughan ED, Evans C, Lewis-Jones H, Hanlon R, Hall GL, Rogers SN. Extracapsular spread in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2010;32(6):714–22.
Woolgar JA, Rogers SN, Lowe D, Brown JS, Vaughan ED. Cervical lymph node metastasis in oral cancer: the importance of even microscopic extracapsular spread. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(2):130–7.
Brannon AG, Johnstone PAS, Cooper J. Extracapsular tumor extension in cervical lymph nodes: reconciling the literature and seer data. Head and Neck. 2011;33:525–8.
Lodder WL, van den Brekel MW. Re: extracapsular tumor extension in cervical lymph nodes: reconciling the literature and seer data. Head Neck. 2011;33(12):1809.
Lodder WL, Lange CA, van Velthuysen ML, Hauptmann M, Balm AJ, van den Brekel MW, Pameijer FA. Can extranodal spread in head and neck cancer be detected on MR imaging. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(6):626–33.
van den Brekel MW, Lodder WL, Stel HV, Bloemena E, Leemans CR, van der Waal I. Observer variation in the histopathologic assessment of extranodal tumor spread in lymph node metastases in the neck. Head Neck. 2012;34(6):840–5.
Jose J, Coatesworth AP, Johnston C, MacLennan K. Cervical node metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: the significance of extracapsular spread and soft tissue deposits. Head Neck. 2003;25(6):451–6.
Jose J, Moor JW, Coatesworth AP, Johnston C, MacLennan K. Soft tissue deposits in neck dissections of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: prospective analysis of prevalence, survival, and its implications. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;130(2):157–60.
Moor JW, Jose J, Johnston C, Coatesworth AP, MacLennan KA. Upper aerodigestive tract squamous cell carcinoma: distribution of extracapsular spread and soft tissue deposits in the neck. Acta Otolaryngol. 2004;124(1):97–101.
Govers TM, Hannink G, Merkx MA, Takes RP, Rovers MM. Sentinel node biopsy for squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx: a diagnostic meta-analysis. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(8):726–32.
Stoeckli SJ, Pfaltz M, Steinert H, Schmid S. Histopathological features of occult metastasis detected by sentinel lymph node biopsy in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 2002;112(1):111–5.
Alkureishi LW, Ross GL, Shoaib T, Soutar DS, Robertson AG, Thompson R, Hunter KD, Sorensen JA, Thomsen J, Krogdahl A, Alvarez J, Barbier L, Santamaria J, Poli T, Sesenna E, Kovács AF, Grünwald F, Barzan L, Sulfaro S, Alberti F. Sentinel node biopsy in head and neck squamous cell cancer: 5-year follow-up of a European multicenter trial. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(9):2459–64.
Flach GB, Bloemena E, Klop WM, van Es RJ, Schepman KP, Hoekstra OS, Castelijns JA, Leemans CR, de Bree R. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in clinically N0 T1–T2 staged oral cancer: the Dutch multicenter trial. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(10):1020–4.
Alkureishi LW, Burak Z, Alvarez JA, Ballinger J, Bilde A, Britten AJ, Calabrese L, Chiesa C, Chiti A, de Bree R, Gray HW, Hunter K, Kovacs AF, Lassmann M, Leemans CR, Mamelle G, McGurk M, Mortensen J, Poli T, Shoaib T, Sloan P, Sorensen JA, Stoeckli SJ, Thomsen JB, Trifiro G, Werner J, Ross GL, European Association of Nuclear Medicine Oncology Committee, European Sentinel Node Biopsy Trial Committee. Joint practice guidelines for radionuclide lymphoscintigraphy for sentinel node localization in oral/oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2009;16(11):3190–210.
Civantos FJ, Zitsch RP, Schuller DE, Agrawal A, Smith RB, Nason R, Petruzelli G, Gourin CG, Wong RJ, Ferris RL, El Naggar A, Ridge JA, Paniello RC, Owzar K, McCall L, Chepeha DB, Yarbrough WG, Myers JN. Sentinel lymph node biopsy accurately stages the regional lymph nodes for T1–T2 oral squamous cell carcinomas: results of a prospective multi-institutional trial. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(8):1395–400.
Thompson CF, St John MA, Lawson G, Grogan T, Elashoff D, Mendelsohn AH. Diagnostic value of sentinel lymph node biopsy in head and neck cancer: a meta-analysis. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;270(7):2115–22.
Sloan P. Head and neck sentinel lymph node biopsy: current state of the art. Head Neck Pathol. 2009;3(3):231–7.
Stoeckli SJ, Pfaltz M, Ross GL, et al. The second international conference on sentinel node biopsy in mucosal head and neck cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2005;12:919–24.
Seethala RR. Current state of neck dissection in the United States. Head Neck Pathol. 2009;3(3):238–45.
Bell RB, Markiewicz MR, Dierks EJ, Gregoire CE, Rader A. Thin serial step sectioning of sentinel lymph node biopsy specimen may not be necessary to accurately stage the neck in oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;71(7):1268–77.
Jefferson GD, Sollaccio D, Gomez-Fernandez CR, Civantos Jr F. Evaluation of immunohistochemical fine sectioning for sentinel lymph node biopsy in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2011;144(2):216–9.
Thomsen JB, Christensen RK, Sorensen JA, Krogdahl A. Sentinel lymph nodes in cancer of the oral cavity: is central step sectioning enough? J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:425–9.
Cochran AJ, Ohsie SJ, Binder SW. Pathobiology of the sentinel node. Curr Opin Oncol. 2008;20:190–5.
Denoth S, Broglie MA, Haerle SK, Huber GF, Haile SR, Soltermann A, Jochum W, Stoeckli SJ. Histopathological mapping of metastatic tumor cells in sentinel lymph nodes of oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas. Head Neck. 2015;37(10):1477–82.
Trivedi NP, Ravindran HK, Sundram S, Iyer S, Kekatpure V, Durah S, Kuriakose MA. Pathologic evaluation of sentinel lymph nodes in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2010;32(11):1437–43.
Vorburger MS, Broglie MA, Soltermann A, Haerle SK, Haile SR, Huber GF, Stoeckli SJ. Validity of frozen section in sentinel lymph node biopsy for the staging in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. J Surg Oncol. 2012;106(7):816–9.
Terada A, Hasegawa Y, Yatabe Y, Hyodo I, Ogawa T, Hanai N, et al. Intraoperative diagnosis of cancer metastasis in sentinel lymph node of oral cancer patients. Oral Oncol. 2008;44:838–43.
Tschopp L, Nuyens M, Stauffer E, Krause T, Zbaren P. The value of frozen section analysis of the sentinel lymph node in clinically N0 squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;132:99–102.
Terada A, Hasegawa Y, Yatabe Y, Hanai N, Ozawa T, Hirakawa H, Maruo T, Kawakita D, Mikami S, Suzuki A, Miyazaki T, Nakashima T. Follow-up after intraoperative sentinel node biopsy of N0 neck oral cancer patients. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;268(3):429–35.
Nieuwenhuis EJ, van der Waal I, Leemans CR, Kummer A, Pijpers R, Castelijns JA, Brakenhoff RH, Snow GB. Histopathologic validation of the sentinel node concept in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2005;27(2):150–8.
Yang H, Bullock MJ, Hart RD, Nasser JG, Trites JR, Taylor SM, Barnes D. Comparison of two sentinel lymph node biopsy processing protocols in clinically N0 head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Histopathology. 2006;49(5):541–2.
de Bree R, Takes RP, Castelijns JA, Medina JE, Stoeckli SJ, Mancuso AA, Hunt JL, Rodrigo JP, Triantafyllou A, Teymoortash A, Civantos FJ, Rinaldo A, Pitman KT, Hamoir M, Robbins KT, Silver CE, Hoekstra OS, Ferlito A. Advances in diagnostic modalities to detect occult lymph node metastases in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2015;37(12):1829–39.
Ferris RL, Xi L, Seethala RR, Chan J, Desai S, Hoch B, Gooding W, Godfrey TE. Intraoperative qRT-PCR for detection of lymph node metastasis in head and neck cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(7):1858–66.
Sturgis EM, Cinciripini PM. Trends in head and neck cancer incidence in relation to smoking prevalence: an emerging epidemic of human papillomavirus-associated cancers? Cancer. 2007;110:1429–35.
Chaturvedi AK, Engels EA, Pfeiffer RM, Hernandez BY, Xiao W, Kim E, Jiang B, Goodman MT, Sibug-Saber M, Cozen W, Liu L, Lynch CF, Wentzensen N, Jordan RC, Altekruse S, Anderson WF, Rosenberg PS, Gillison ML. Human papillomavirus and rising oropharyngeal cancer incidence in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(32):4294–301.
D’Souza G, Cullen K, Bowie J, Thorpe R, Fakhry C. Differences in oral sexual behaviors by gender, age, and race explain observed differences in prevalence of oral human papillomavirus infection. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e86023.
Goldenberg D, Begum S, Westra WH, Khan Z, Sciubba J, Pai SI, Califano JA, Tufano RP, Koch WM. Cystic lymph node metastasis in patients with head and neck cancer: an HPV-associated phenomenon. Head Neck. 2008;30(7):898–903.
Yasui T, Morii E, Yamamoto Y, Yoshii T, Takenaka Y, Nakahara S, Todo T, Inohara H. Human papillomavirus and cystic node metastasis in oropharyngeal cancer and cancer of unknown primary origin. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e95364.
Schache AG, Liloglou T, Risk JM, Filia A, Jones TM, Sheard J, Woolgar JA, Helliwell TR, Triantafyllou A, Robinson M, Sloan P, Harvey-Woodworth C, Sisson D, Shaw RJ. Evaluation of human papilloma virus diagnostic testing in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: sensitivity, specificity, and prognostic discrimination. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(19):6262–71.
Jordan RC, Lingen MW, Perez-Ordonez B, et al. Validation of methods for oropharyngeal cancer HPV status determination in US cooperative group trials. Am J Surg Pathol. 2012;36:945–54.
Bishop JA, Ma XJ, Wang H, et al. Detection of transcriptionally active high-risk HPV in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma as visualized by a novel E6/E7 mRNA in situ hybridization method. Am J Surg Pathol. 2012;36:1874–82.
Lewis Jr JS, Ukpo OC, Ma XJ, et al. Transcriptionally-active high-risk human papillomavirus is rare in oral cavity and laryngeal/hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas – a tissue microarray study utilizing E6/E7 mRNA in situ hybridization. Histopathology. 2012;60:982–91.
Merzianu M, Kanehira K, Sule N, Marimuthu S, Jayaprakash V. Interobserver variability in assessing p16 expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Mod Pathol. 2014;27:S2–325A.
Schlecht NF, Brandwein-Gensler M, Nuovo GJ, Li M, Dunne A, Kawachi N, Smith RV, Burk RD, Prystowsky MB. A comparison of clinically utilized human papillomavirus detection methods in head and neck cancer. Mod Pathol. 2011;24(10):1295–305.
Cai C, Chernock RD, Pittman ME, El-Mofty SK, Thorstad WL, Lewis Jr JS. Keratinizing-type squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx: p16 overexpression is associated with positive high-risk HPV status and improved survival. Am J Surg Pathol. 2014;38(6):809–15.
Lewis Jr JS, Thorstad WL, Chernock RD, Haughey BH, Yip JH, Zhang Q, El-Mofty SK. p16 positive oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: an entity with a favorable prognosis regardless of tumor HPV status. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34(8):1088–96.
Lingen MW, Xiao W, Schmitt A, et al. Low etiologic fraction for high-risk human papillomavirus in oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas. Oral Oncol. 2013;49:1–8.
Poling JS, Ma XJ, Bui S, et al. Human papillomavirus (HPV) status of nontobacco related squamous cell carcinomas of the lateral tongue. Oral Oncol. 2014;50:306–10.
Kreimer AR, Clifford GM, Boyle P, Franceschi S. Human papillomavirus types in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas worldwide: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:467–75.
Termine N, Panzarella V, Falaschini S, et al. HPV in oral squamous cell carcinoma vs. head and neck squamous cell carcinoma biopsies: a metaanalysis (1988–2007). Ann Oncol. 2008;19:1681–90.
Mirghani H, Amen F, Moreau F, Lacau St Guily J. Do high-risk human papillomaviruses cause oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma? Oral Oncol. 2015;51(3):229–36.
Bishop JA, Lewis Jr JS, Rocco JW, Faquin WC. HPV-related squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: an update on testing in routine pathology practice. Semin Diagn Pathol. 2015;32(5):344–51.
Myers JN, Elkins T, Roberts D, Byers RM. Squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue in young adults: increasing incidence and factors that predict treatment outcomes. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2000;122(1):44–51.
Müller S, Pan Y, Li R, Chi AC. Changing trends in oral squamous cell carcinoma with particular reference to young patients: 1971–2006. The Emory University experience. Head Neck Pathol. 2008;2(2):60–6.
Patel SC, Carpenter WR, Tyree S, Couch ME, Weissler M, Hackman T, et al. Increasing incidence of oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma in young white women age 18 to 44 years. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:1488–94.
Hirota SK, Braga FP, Penha SS, Sugaya NN, Migliari DA. Risk factors for oral squamous cell carcinoma in young and older Brazilian patients: a comparative analysis. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2008;13(4):E227–31.
Sherin N, Simi T, Shameena P, Sudha S. Changing trends in oral cancer. Indian J Cancer. 2008;45(3):93–6.
De Paula AM, Souza LR, Farias LC, Corrêa GT, Fraga CA, Eleutério NB, Silveira AC, Santos FB, Haikal DS, Guimarães AL, Gomez RS. Analysis of 724 cases of primary head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) with a focus on young patients and p53 immunolocalization. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(9):777–82.
Toner M, O’Regan EM. Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma in the young: a spectrum or a distinct group? Part 1. Head Neck Pathol. 2009;3(3):246–8.
O’Regan EM, Toner ME, Finn SP, Fan CY, Ring M, Hagmar B, Timon C, Smyth P, Cahill S, Flavin R, Sheils OM, O’Leary JJ. p16(INK4A) genetic and epigenetic profiles differ in relation to age and site in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Hum Pathol. 2008;39(3):452–8.
Santos-Silva AR, Ribeiro AC, Soubhia AM, Miyahara GI, Carlos R, Speight PM, Hunter KD, Torres-Rendon A, Vargas PA, Lopes MA. High incidences of DNA ploidy abnormalities in tongue squamous cell carcinoma of young patients: an international collaborative study. Histopathology. 2011;58(7):1127–35.
van Monsjou HS, Wreesmann VB, van den Brekel MW, Balm AJ. Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma in young patients. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(12):1097–102.
Tremblay S, Pintor Dos Reis P, Bradley G, Galloni NN, Perez-Ordonez B, Freeman J, Brown D, Gilbert R, Gullane P, Irish J, Kamel-Reid S. Young patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma: study of the involvement of GSTP1 and deregulation of the Fanconi anemia genes. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;132(9):958–66.
Ur Rahaman SM, Ahmed Mujib B. Histopathological correlation of oral squamous cell carcinoma among younger and older patients. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2014;18(2):183–8.
Troeltzsch M, Knösel T, Eichinger C, Probst F, Troeltzsch M, Woodlock T, Mast G, Ehrenfeld M, Otto S. Clinicopathologic features of oral squamous cell carcinoma: do they vary in different age groups? J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;72(7):1291–300.
Llewellyn CD, Linklater K, Bell J, Johnson NW, Warnakulasuriya S. An analysis of risk factors for oral cancer in young people: a case-control study. Oral Oncol. 2004;40(3):304–13.
Majchrzak E, Szybiak B, Wegner A, Pienkowski P, Pazdrowski J, Luczewski L, Sowka M, Golusinski P, Malicki J, Golusinski W. Oral cavity and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma in young adults: a review of the literature. Radiol Oncol. 2014;48(1):1–10.
Bachar G, Hod R, Goldstein DP, Irish JC, Gullane PJ, Brown D, Gilbert RW, Hadar T, Feinmesser R, Shpitzer T. Outcome of oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma in patients with and without known risk factors. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(1):45–50.
Verschuur HP, Irish JC, O’Sullivan B, Goh C, Gullane PJ, Pintilie M. A matched control study of treatment outcome in young patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope. 1999;109(2 Pt 1):249–58.
Tiu J, Li H, Rassekh C, van der Sloot P, Kovach R, Zhang P. Molecular basis of posttransplant squamous cell carcinoma: the potential role of cyclosporine a in carcinogenesis. Laryngoscope. 2006;116(5):762–9.
Chow CW, Tabrizi SN, Tiedemann K, Waters KD. Squamous cell carcinomas in children and young adults: a new wave of a very rare tumor? J Pediatr Surg. 2007;42(12):2035–9.
Curtis RE, Metayer C, Rizzo JD, Socié G, Sobocinski KA, Flowers ME, Travis WD, Travis LB, Horowitz MM, Deeg HJ. Impact of chronic GVHD therapy on the development of squamous-cell cancers after hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: an international case-control study. Blood. 2005;105(10):3802–11.
Wang WL, Chang WL, Yang HB, Chang IW, Lee CT, Chang CY, Lin JT, Sheu BS. Quantification of tumor infiltrating Foxp3+ regulatory T cells enables the identification of high-risk patients for developing synchronous cancers over upper aerodigestive tract. Oral Oncol. 2015;51(7):698–703.
Shah AT, Wu E, Wein RO. Oral squamous cell carcinoma in post-transplant patients. Am J Otolaryngol. 2013;34(2):176–9.
Epstein JB, Kish RV, Hallajian L, Sciubba J. Head and neck, oral, and oropharyngeal cancer: a review of medicolegal cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;119(2):177–86.
Westra WH, Kronz JD, Eisele DW. The impact of second opinion surgical pathology on the practice of head and neck surgery: a decade experience at a large referral hospital. Head Neck. 2002;24(7):684–93.
Kronz JD, Westra WH. The role of second opinion pathology in the management of lesions in the head and neck. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;13:81–4.
Manion E, Cohen MB, Weydert J. Mandatory second opinion in surgical pathology referral material: clinical consequences of major disagreements. Am J Surg Pathol. 2008;32:732–7.
Jones K, Jordan CK. Patterns of second-opinion diagnosis in oral and maxillofacial pathology. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:865–9.
Mullin MH, Brierley DJ, Speight PM. Second opinion reporting in head and neck pathology: the pattern of referrals and impact on final diagnosis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;119(6):656–60.
Woolgar JA, Triantafyllou A, Thompson LD, Hunt JL, Lewis Jr JS, Williams MD, Cardesa A, Rinaldo A, Barnes L, Slootweg PJ, Devaney KO, Gnepp DR, Westra WH, Ferlito A. Double reporting and second opinion in head and neck pathology. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2014;271(5):847–54.
Batsakis JG, Rice DH, Howard DR. The pathology of head and neck tumors: spindle cell lesions (sarcomatoid carcinomas, nodular fasciitis, and fibrosarcoma) of the aerodigestive tracts, part 14. Head Neck Surg. 1982;4(6):499–513.
Dunlap CL, Barker BF. Diagnostic problems in oral pathology. Semin Diagn Pathol. 1985;2(1):16–30.
Kong M, Drill EN, Morris L, West L, Klimstra D, Gonen M, Ghossein R, Katabi N. Prognostic factors in myoepithelial carcinoma of salivary glands: a clinicopathologic study of 48 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2015;39(7):931–8.
Skálová A, Weinreb I, Hyrcza M, Simpson RH, Laco J, Agaimy A, Vazmitel M, Majewska H, Vanecek T, Talarčik P, Manajlovic S, Losito SN, Šteiner P, Klimkova A, Michal M. Clear cell myoepithelial carcinoma of salivary glands showing EWSR1 rearrangement: molecular analysis of 94 salivary gland carcinomas with prominent clear cell component. Am J Surg Pathol. 2015;39(3):338–48.
Meer S, Altini M. CK7+/CK20- immunoexpression profile is typical of salivary gland neoplasia. Histopathology. 2007;51(1):26–32.
Regauer S, Beham A, Mannweiler S. CK7 expression in carcinomas of the Waldeyer’s ring area. Hum Pathol. 2000;31(9):1096–101.
Seethala RR, Dacic S, Cieply K, Kelly LM, Nikiforova MN. A reappraisal of the MECT1/MAML2 translocation in salivary mucoepidermoid carcinomas. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34(8):1106–21.
Antonescu CR, Katabi N, Zhang L, Sung YS, Seethala RR, Jordan RC, Perez-Ordoñez B, Have C, Asa SL, Leong IT, Bradley G, Klieb H, Weinreb I. EWSR1-ATF1 fusion is a novel and consistent finding in hyalinizing clear-cell carcinoma of salivary gland. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2011;50(7):559–70.
Stenman G. Fusion oncogenes in salivary gland tumors: molecular and clinical consequences. Head Neck Pathol. 2013;7 Suppl 1:S12–9.
Fonseca FP, Sena Filho M, Altemani A, Speight PM, Vargas PA. Molecular signature of salivary gland tumors: potential use as diagnostic and prognostic marker. J Oral Pathol Med. 2015. doi:10.1111/jop.12329 [Epub ahead of print].
Williams L, Thompson LD, Seethala RR, Weinreb I, Assaad AM, Tuluc M, Ud Din N, Purgina B, Lai C, Griffith CC, Chiosea SI. Salivary duct carcinoma: the predominance of apocrine morphology, prevalence of histologic variants, and androgen receptor expression. Am J Surg Pathol. 2015;39(5):705–13.
Lewis Jr JS. Spindle cell lesions – neoplastic or non-neoplastic?: spindle cell carcinoma and other atypical spindle cell lesions of the head and neck. Head Neck Pathol. 2008;2(2):103–10.
Pantanowitz L, Balogh K. Significance of the juxtaoral organ (of Chievitz). Head Neck. 2003;25:400–5.
El-Khoury J, Kibbi AG, Abbas O. Mucocutaneous pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia: a review. Am J Dermatopathol. 2012;34(2):165–75.
Ling YH, Zhu CM, Wen SH, Luo RZ, Li P, Cao Y, Rao HL, Lin SX, Cai MY. Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia mimicking invasive squamous cell carcinoma in extranodal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma: a report of 34 cases. Histopathology. 2015;67(3):404–9.
Meleti M, Mooi WJ, van der Waal I. Oral malignant melanoma associated with pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia. Report of a case. J Cutan Pathol. 2006;33(4):331–3.
Isaac U, Issac JS, Ahmed KN. Histopathologic features of oral submucous fibrosis: a study of 35 biopsy specimens. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106(4):556–60.
Viswanathan S, Chawla N, D’Cruz A, Kane SV. Head and neck histoplasmosis – a nightmare for clinicians and pathologists! Experience at a tertiary referral cancer centre. Head Neck Pathol. 2007;1(2):169–72.
Shibata T, Yamashita D, Hasegawa S, Saito M, Otsuki N, Hashikawa K, Tahara S, Nibu K. Oral candidiasis mimicking tongue cancer. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2011;38(3):418–20.
Dojcinov SD, Venkataraman G, Raffeld M, et al. EBV positive mucocutaneous ulcer – a study of 26 cases associated with various sources of immunosuppression. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34(3):405–17.
Everett JB, Falck VG, Dort JC, Matthews TW. Mandibular pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia following treatment for oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2011;40(1):E1–4.
Hansen T, Kunkel M, Weber A, James Kirkpatrick C. Osteonecrosis of the jaws in patients treated with bisphosphonates – histomorphologic analysis in comparison with infected osteoradionecrosis. J Oral Pathol Med. 2006;35(3):155–60.
Seoane J, González-Mosquera A, García-Martín JM, García-Caballero L, Seoane-Romero JM, Varela-Centelles P. Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia after diode laser oral surgery. An experimental study. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2015;20(5):e554–9.
Johnston WH, Miller TA, Frileck SP. Atypical pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia and squamous cell carcinoma in chronic cutaneous sinuses and fistulas. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1980;66(3):395–400.
Zarovnaya E, Black C. Distinguishing pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia from squamous cell carcinoma in mucosal biopsy specimens from the head and neck. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2005;129(8):1032–6.
You TK, Kim KM, Noh SJ, Bae JS, Jang KY, Chung MJ, Moon WS, Kang MJ, Lee DG, Park HS. Expressions of E-cadherin, cortactin and MMP-9 in pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: their relationships with clinicopathologic factors and prognostic implication. Korean J Pathol. 2012;46(4):331–40.
Su A, Ra S, Li X, Zhou J, Binder S. Differentiating cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia by multiplex qRT-PCR. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(11):1433–7.
Abrams AM, Melrose RJ, Howell FV. Necrotizing sialometaplasia: a disease simulating malignancy. Cancer. 1973;32:130–5.
Brannon RB, Fowler CB, Hartman KS. Necrotizing sialometaplasia. A clinicopathologic study of sixty-nine cases and review of the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1991;72(3):317–25.
Schöning H, Emshoff R, Kreczy A. Necrotizing sialometaplasia in two patients with bulimia and chronic vomiting. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1998;27(6):463–5.
Solomon LW, Merzianu M, Sullivan M, Rigual NR. Necrotizing sialometaplasia associated with bulimia: case report and literature review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(2):e39–42.
Rizkalla H, Toner M. Necrotizing sialometaplasia versus invasive carcinoma of the head and neck: the use of myoepithelial markers and keratin subtypes as an adjunct to diagnosis. Histopathology. 2007;51(2):184–9.
Carlson DL. Necrotizing sialometaplasia: a practical approach to the diagnosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2009;133(5):692–8.
Fajardo LF. Radiation injury in surgical pathology of the head and neck. Balnes L(ed) Dekker 2001. p. 2171–80.
Bonan PR, Kaminagakura E, Pires FR, Vargas PA, de Almeida OP. Histomorphometry and immunohistochemical features of grade I (WHO) oral radiomucositis. Oral Dis. 2007;13(2):170–6.
Warter A, Walter P, Meyer C, Barrière P, Galatir L, Wilk A. Mandibular pseudocarcinomatous hyperplasia. Histopathology. 2000;37(2):115–7.
Warnakulasuriya S, Johnson NW, van der Waal I. Nomenclature and classification of potentially malignant disorders of the oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36(10):575–80.
Petti S. Pooled estimate of world leukoplakia prevalence: a systematic review. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(8):770–80.
Napier SS, Speight PM. Natural history of potentially malignant oral lesions and conditions: an overview of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37(1):1–10.
Dionne KR, Warnakulasuriya S, Zain RB, Cheong SC. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral cavity: current practice and future directions in the clinic and laboratory. Int J Cancer. 2015;136(3):503–15.
Downer MC, Petti S. Leukoplakia prevalence estimate lower than expected. Evid Based Dent. 2005;6(1):12.
Bancozy J, Sugar L. Longitudinal studies in oral leukoplakias. J Oral Pathol. 1972;1:265–72.
Silverman Jr S, Gorsky M, Lozada F. Oral leukoplakia and malignant transformation. A follow-up study of 257 patients. Cancer. 1984;53(3):563–8.
Holmstrup P, Vedtofte P, Reibel J, Stoltze K. Long-term treatment outcome of oral premalignant lesions. Oral Oncol. 2006;42(5):461–74.
Liu W, Shi LJ, Wu L, Feng JQ, Yang X, Li J, Zhou ZT, Zhang CP. Oral cancer development in patients with leukoplakia-clinicopathological factors affecting outcome. PLoS One. 2012;7(4):e34773.
van der Waal I, Axe´ll T. Oral leukoplakia: a proposal for uniform reporting. Oral Oncol. 2002;38:521–6.
Gale N, Pilch BZ, Sidransky D, Westra WH, Califano JA. Epithelial precursor lesions. In: Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of head and neck tumours. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005. p. 140–3.
van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2010;46(6):423–5.
van der Waal I. Oral potentially malignant disorders: is malignant transformation predictable and preventable? Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2014;19(4):e386–90.
Arduino PG, Bagan J, El-Naggar AK, Carrozzo M. Urban legends series: oral leukoplakia. Oral Dis. 2013;19(7):642–59.
Warnakulasuriya S, Kovacevic T, Madden P, Coupland VH, Sperandio M, Odell E, Møller H. Factors predicting malignant transformation in oral potentially malignant disorders among patients accrued over a 10-year period in South East England. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40(9):677–83.
Schepman KP, van der Meij EH, Smeele LE, van der Waal I. Malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia: a follow-up study of a hospital-based population of 166 patients with oral leukoplakia from The Netherlands. Oral Oncol. 1998;34(4):270–5.
Ho MW, Risk JM, Woolgar JA, Field EA, Field JK, Steele JC, Rajlawat BP, Triantafyllou A, Rogers SN, Lowe D, Shaw RJ. The clinical determinants of malignant transformation in oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Oncol. 2012;48(10):969–76.
Wang YY, Tail YH, Wang WC, Chen CY, Kao YH, Chen YK, Chen CH. Malignant transformation in 5071 southern Taiwanese patients with potentially malignant oral mucosal disorders. BMC Oral Health. 2014;14:99.
Brouns E, Baart J, Karagozoglu K, Aartman I, Bloemena E, van der Waal I. Malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia in a well-defined cohort of 144 patients. Oral Dis. 2014;20(3):e19–24.
Lumerman H, Freedman P, Kerpel S. Oral epithelial dysplasia and the development of invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1995;79(3):321–9.
Bánóczy J. Follow-up studies in oral leukoplakia. J Maxillofac Surg. 1977;5(1):69–75.
World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Oral Precancerous lesions. Definition of leukoplakia and related lesions: an aid to studies on oral precancer. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1978;46:518–39.
Axéll T, Pindborg JJ, Smith CJ, van der Waal I. Oral white lesions with special reference to precancerous and tobacco- related lesions: conclusions of an international symposium held in Uppsala, Sweden, May 18–21 1994. International Collaborative Group on Oral White Lesions. J Oral Pathol Med. 1996;25(2):49–54.
Hashibe M, Mathew B, Kuruvilla B, Thomas G, Sankaranarayanan B, Parkin DM, et al. Chewing tobacco, alcohol and the risk of erythroplakia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9:639–45.
Reichart PA, Philipsen HP. Oral erythroplakia – a review. Oral Oncol. 2005;41:551–61.
Hansen LS, Olson JA, Silverman Jr S. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia. A long-term study of thirty patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1985;60:285–98.
Gillenwater AM, Vigneswaran N, Fatani H, Saintigny P, El-Naggar AK. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: recognition and differentiation from conventional leukoplakia and mimics. Head Neck. 2014;36(11):1662–8.
Carrard VC, Brouns ER, van der Waal I. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia; a critical appraisal of the diagnostic criteria. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2013;18(3):e411–3.
Cerero-Lapiedra R, Baladé-Martínez D, Moreno-López LA, Esparza-Gómez G, Bagán JV. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: a proposal for diagnostic criteria. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2010;15(6):e839–45.
Bagan JV, Jiménez-Soriano Y, Diaz-Fernandez JM, Murillo-Cortés J, Sanchis-Bielsa JM, Poveda-Roda R, Bagan L. Malignant transformation of proliferative verrucous leukoplakia to oral squamous cell carcinoma: a series of 55 cases. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(8):732–5.
Bagan JV, Jiménez Y, Murillo J, Poveda R, Díaz JM, Gavaldá C, Margaix M, Scully C, Alberola TM, Torres Puente M, Pérez AM. Epstein-Barr virus in oral proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma: a preliminary study. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2008;13(2):E110–3.
Bagan JV, Jimenez Y, Murillo J, Gavaldá C, Poveda R, Scully C, Alberola TM, Torres-Puente M, Pérez-Alonso M. Lack of association between proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and human papillomavirus infection. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;65(1):46–9.
García-López R, Moya A, Bagan JV, Pérez-Brocal V. Retrospective case-control study of viral pathogen screening in proliferative verrucous leukoplakia lesions. Clin Otolaryngol. 2014;39(5):272–80.
Slootweg P, Merkx TMAW. Premalignant lesions of the oral cavity. In: Barnes L, editor. Surgical pathology of the head and neck. New York: Informa Healthcare; 2009. p. 267–84.
Cabay RJ, Morton Jr TH, Epstein JB. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and its progression to oral carcinoma: a review of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36(5):255–61.
Sciubba JJ, Helman JI. Current management strategies for verrucous hyperkeratosis and verrucous carcinoma. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2013;25(1):77–82.
Silverman Jr S, Gorsky M. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: a follow-up study of 54 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1997;84(2):154–7.
Bagan JV, Jimenez Y, Sanchis JM, Poveda R, Milian MA, Murillo J, Scully C. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: high incidence of gingival squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Pathol Med. 2003;32(7):379–82.
Gandolfo S, Castellani R, Pentenero M. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: a potentially malignant disorder involving periodontal sites. J Periodontol. 2009;80(2):274–81.
Akrish S, Ben-Izhak O, Sabo E, Rachmiel A. Oral squamous cell carcinoma associated with proliferative verrucous leukoplakia compared with conventional squamous cell carcinoma – a clinical, histologic and immunohistochemical study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;119(3):318–25.
Ghazali N, Bakri MM, Zain RB. Aggressive, multifocal oral verrucous leukoplakia: proliferative verrucous leukoplakia or not? J Oral Pathol Med. 2003;32:383–92.
Aguirre JM. Proliferative multifocal leukoplakia better name than proliferative verrucous leukoplakia. World J Surg Oncol. 2011;9:122–3.
Shear M, Pindborg J. Verrucous hyperplasia of the oral mucosa. Cancer. 1980;46:1855–62.
Batsakis JG, Suarez P, el-Naggar PAK. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and its related lesions. Oral Oncol. 1999;35(4):354–9.
Kallarakkal TG, Ramanathan A, Zain RB. Verrucous papillary lesions: dilemmas in diagnosis and terminology. Int J Dent. 2013;2013:298249.
Arakeri G, Brennan PA. Oral submucous fibrosis: an overview of the aetiology, pathogenesis, classification, and principles of management. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;51(7):587–93.
Pindborg JJ, Chawla TN, Srivastava AN, Gupta D. Epithelial changes in oral submucous fibrosis. Acta Odontol Scand. 1965;23:277–86.
Tilakaratne WM, Klinikowski MF, Saku T, Peters TJ, Warnakulasuriya S. Oral submucous fibrosis: review on aetiology and pathogenesis. Oral Oncol. 2006;42(6):561–8.
Rajendran R, George T. Morphohistometric analysis of advancing tumor fronts in malignancies associated with oral submucous fibrosis. Indian J Dent Res. 2003;14(4):194–205.
Kerr AR, Warnakulasuriya S, Mighell AJ, Dietrich T, Nasser M, Rimal J, Jalil A, Bornstein MM, Nagao T, Fortune F, Hazarey VH, Reichart PA, Silverman S, Johnson NW. A systematic review of medical interventions for oral submucous fibrosis and future research opportunities. Oral Dis. 2011;17 Suppl 1:42–57.
van der Meij EH, Schepman KP, van der Waal I. The possible premalignant character of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: a prospective study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;96(2):164–71.
Fitzpatrick SG, Hirsch SA, Gordon SC. The malignant transformation of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc. 2014;145(1):45–56.
Müller S. Oral manifestations of dermatologic disease: a focus on lichenoid lesions. Head Neck Pathol. 2011;5(1):36–40.
van der Meij EH, Mast H, van der Waal I. The possible premalignant character of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: a prospective five-year follow-up study of 192 patients. Oral Oncol. 2007;43(8):742–8.
Lodi G, Scully C, Carrozzo M, Griffiths M, Sugerman PB, Thongprasom K. Current controversies in oral lichen planus: report of an international consensus meeting. Part 2. Clinical management and malignant transformation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2005;100(2):164–78.
Al-Hashimi I, Schifter M, Lockhart PB, Wray D, Brennan M, Migliorati CA, Axéll T, Bruce AJ, Carpenter W, Eisenberg E, Epstein JB, Holmstrup P, Jontell M, Lozada-Nur F, Nair R, Silverman B, Thongprasom K, Thornhill M, Warnakulasuriya S, van der Waal I. Oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(Suppl):S25. e1–12.
Eisen D. The clinical features, malignant potential, and systemic associations of oral lichen planus: a study of 723 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;46(2):207–14.
Mehanna HM, Rattay T, Smith J, McConkey CC. Treatment and follow-up of oral dysplasia – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Head Neck. 2009;31(12):1600–9.
Liu W, Bao ZX, Shi LJ, Tang GY, Zhou ZT. Malignant transformation of oral epithelial dysplasia: clinicopathological risk factors and outcome analysis in a retrospective cohort of 138 cases. Histopathology. 2011;59(4):733–40.
Sperandio M, Brown AL, Lock C, Morgan PR, Coupland VH, Madden PB, Warnakulasuriya S, Møller H, Odell EW. Predictive value of dysplasia grading and DNA ploidy in malignant transformation of oral potentially malignant disorders. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2013;6(8):822–31.
Nankivell P, Williams H, Webster K, Pearson D, High A, MacLennan K, Senguven B, McConkey C, Rabbitts P, Mehanna H. Investigation of p16(INK4a) as a prognostic biomarker in oral epithelial dysplasia. J Oral Pathol Med. 2014;43(4):245–9.
Dost F, Lê Cao K, Ford PJ, Ades C, Farah CS. Malignant transformation of oral epithelial dysplasia: a real-world evaluation of histopathologic grading. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;117(3):343–52.
Warnakulasuriya S, Reibel J, Bouquot J, Dabelsteen E. Oral epithelial dysplasia classification systems: predictive value, utility, weaknesses and scope for improvement. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:127–33.
Gale N, Kambic V, Michaels L, Cardesa A, Hellquist H, Zidar N, et al. The Ljubljana classification: a practical strategy for the diagnosis of laryngeal precancerous lesions. Adv Anat Pathol. 2000;7:240–51.
Gale N, Michaels L, Luzar B, Poljak M, Zidar N, Fischinger J, et al. Current review on squamous intraepithelial lesions of the larynx. Histopathology. 2009;54:639–56.
Sakr WA, Gale N, Gnepp DR, Crissman JD. Squamous intraepithelial neoplasia of the upper aerodigestive tract. In: Gnepp DR, editor. Diagnostic surgical pathology of the head and neck. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2009. p. 45–110.
Hart WR. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: historical aspects and current status. Int J Gynecol Pathol. 2001;20:16Y30.
Arsenic R, Kurrer MO. Differentiated dysplasia is a frequent precursor or associated lesion in invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and pharynx. Virchows Arch. 2013;462(6):609–17.
Crissman JD, Zarbo RJ. Dysplasia, in situ carcinoma, and progression to invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract. Am J Surg Pathol. 1989;13 Suppl 1:5–16.
Tilakaratne WM, Sherriff M, Morgan PR, Odell EW. Grading oral epithelial dysplasia: analysis of individual features. J Oral Pathol Med. 2011;40(7):533–40.
Pentenero M, Carrozzo M, Pagano M, Galliano D, Broccoletti R, Scully C, Gandolfo S. Oral mucosal dysplastic lesions and early squamous cell carcinomas: underdiagnosis from incisional biopsy. Oral Dis. 2003;9(2):68–72.
Wang YP, Chen HM, Kuo RC, Yu CH, Sun A, Liu BY, Kuo YS, Chiang CP. Oral verrucous hyperplasia: histologic classification, prognosis, and clinical implications. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38(8):651–6.
Zain RB, Kallarakkal TG, Ramanathan A, et al. A consensus report from the first Asian regional meeting on the terminology and criteria for verruco-papillary lesions of the oral cavity held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Ann Dent Univ Malaya. 2013;20:1–3.
Patil S, Warnakulasuriya S, Raj T, Sanketh DS, Rao RS. Exophytic oral verrucous hyperplasia: a new entity. J Invest Clin Dent. 2015. doi:10.1111/jicd.12166 [Epub ahead of print].
Hazarey VK, Ganvir SM, Bodhade AS. Verrucous hyperplasia: a clinico-pathological study. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2011;15(2):187–91.
Jayaprakash V, Sullivan M, Merzianu M, Rigual NR, Loree TR, Popat SR, Moysich KB, Ramananda S, Johnson T, Marshall JR, Hutson AD, Mang TS, Wilson BC, Gill SR, Frustino J, Bogaards A, Reid ME. Autofluorescence-guided surveillance for oral cancer. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2009;2(11):966–74.
Brennan M, Migliorati CA, Lockhart PB, Wray D, Al-Hashimi I, Axéll T, Bruce AJ, Carpenter W, Eisenberg E, Epstein JB, Holmstrup P, Jontell M, Nair R, Sasser H, Schifter M, Silverman B, Thongprasom K, Thornhill M, Warnakulasuriya S, van der Waal I. Management of oral epithelial dysplasia: a review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(Suppl):S19. e1-12.
Bosman FT. Dysplasia classification: pathology in disgrace? J Pathol. 2001;194(2):143–4.
Pindborg JJ, Reibel J, Holmstrup P. Subjectivity in evaluating oral epithelial dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, and initial carcinoma. J Oral Pathol. 1985;14:698–708.
Kujan O, Oliver RJ, Khattab A, Roberts SA, Thakker N, Sloan P. Evaluation of a new binary system of grading oral epithelial dysplasia for prediction of malignant transformation. Oral Oncol. 2006;42(10):987–93.
Kujan O, Khattab A, Oliver RJ, Roberts SA, Thakker N, Sloan P. Why oral histopathology suffers inter-observer variability on grading oral epithelial dysplasia: an attempt to understand the sources of variation. Oral Oncol. 2007;43(3):224–31.
Rosin MP, Cheng X, Poh C, et al. Use of allelic loss to predict malignant risk for low-grade oral epithelial dysplasia. Clin Cancer Res. 2000;6:357–62.
Smith J, Rattay T, McConkey C, Helliwell T, Mehanna H. Biomarkers in dysplasia of the oral cavity: a systematic review. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(8):647–53.
Lingen MW, Pinto A, Mendes RA, Franchini R, Czerninski R, Tilakaratne WM, Partridge M, Peterson DE, Woo SB. Genetics/epigenetics of oral premalignancy: current status and future research. Oral Dis. 2011;17 Suppl 1:7–22.
Christiansen JJ, Rajasekaran AK. Reassessing epithelial to mesenchymal transition as a prerequisite for carcinoma invasion and metastasis. Cancer Res. 2006;66:8319–26.
Kaur J, Sawhney M, DattaGupta S, Shukla NK, Srivastava A, Walfish PG, Ralhan R. Clinical significance of altered expression of β-catenin and E-cadherin in oral dysplasia and cancer: potential link with ALCAM expression. PLoS One. 2013;8(6):e67361.
von Zeidler SV, de Souza Botelho T, Mendonça EF, Batista AC. E-cadherin as a potential biomarker of malignant transformation in oral leukoplakia: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:972.
Minca E, Charles G, Merzianu M. HMGA2 is overexpressed in preneoplastic precursors of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Poster presentation at USCAP 2011. Mod Pathol. 2011;24 Suppl 1:280–281A.
Larsson L, Jäwert F, Magnusson B, Hasséus B, Kjeller G. Expression of high mobility group A proteins in oral leukoplakia. Anticancer Res. 2013;33(10):4261–6.
Jayaprakash V, Reid M, Hatton E, Merzianu M, Rigual N, Marshall J, Gill S, Frustino J, Wilding G, Loree T, Popat S, Sullivan M. Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in epithelial dysplasia of oral cavity and oropharynx: a meta-analysis, 1985–2010. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(11):1048–54.
Syrjänen S, Lodi G, von Bültzingslöwen I, Aliko A, Arduino P, Campisi G, Challacombe S, Ficarra G, Flaitz C, Zhou HM, Maeda H, Miller C, Jontell M. Human papillomaviruses in oral carcinoma and oral potentially malignant disorders: a systematic review. Oral Dis. 2011;17 Suppl 1:58–72.
Woo SB, Cashman EC, Lerman MA. Human papillomavirus-associated oral intraepithelial neoplasia. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(10):1288–97.
McCord C, Xu J, Xu W, Qiu X, McComb RJ, Perez-Ordonez B, Bradley G. Association of high-risk human papillomavirus infection with oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2013;115(4):541–9.
Gologan O, Barnes EL, Hunt JL. Potential diagnostic use of p16INK4A, a new marker that correlates with dysplasia in oral squamoproliferative lesions. Am J Surg Pathol. 2005;29(6):792–6.
Karabulut A, Reibel J, Therkildsen MH, Praetorius F, Nielsen HW, Dabelsteen E. Observer variability in the histologic assessment of oral premalignant lesions. J Oral Pathol Med. 1995;24(5):198–200.
Abbey LM, Kaugars GE, Gunsolley JC, Burns JC, Page DG, Svirsky JA, Eisenberg E, Krutchkoff DJ, Cushing M. Intraexaminer and interexaminer reliability in the diagnosis of oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1995;80(2):188–91.
Abbey LM, Kaugars GE, Gunsolley JC, Burns JC, Page DG, Svirsky JA, Eisenberg E, Krutchkoff DJ. The effect of clinical information on the histopathologic diagnosis of oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1998;85(1):74–7.
Brothwell DJ, Lewis DW, Bradley G, Leong I, Jordan RC, Mock D, Leake JL. Observer agreement in the grading of oral epithelial dysplasia. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2003;31(4):300–5.
Manchanda A, Shetty DC. Reproducibility of grading systems in oral epithelial dysplasia. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012;17(6):e935–42.
Speight PM, Abram TJ, Floriano PN, James R, Vick J, Thornhill MH, Murdoch C, Freeman C, Hegarty AM, D’Apice K, Kerr AR, Phelan J, Corby P, Khouly I, Vigneswaran N, Bouquot J, Demian NM, Weinstock YE, Redding SW, Rowan S, Yeh CK, McGuff HS, Miller FR, McDevitt JT. Interobserver agreement in dysplasia grading: toward an enhanced gold standard for clinical pathology trials. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120(4):474–82.
Nankivell P, Williams H, Matthews P, Suortamo S, Snead D, McConkey C, Mehanna H. The binary oral dysplasia grading system: validity testing and suggested improvement. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2013;115(1):87–94.
Mani H, Richardson M, Seethala R, Lewis J, Hunt Schaefer E, Crist H. Grading of head-neck squamous dysplasia – a multi-institutional study. Mod Pathol. 2012;S1:312A.
Wright A, Shear M. Epithelial dysplasia immediately adjacent to oral squamous cell carcinomas. J Oral Pathol. 1985;14(7):559–64.
Sarode S, Sarode G, Karmarkar S. Comment on: clinical features of micro-invasive stage I oral carcinoma. Oral Dis. 2011;17(7):727–8.
Speight PM. Update on oral epithelial dysplasia and progression to cancer. Head Neck Pathol. 2007;1(1):61–6.
Abdel-Mesih A, Daya D, Onuma K, Sur M, Tang S, Akhtar-Danesh N, Boutross-Tadross O, Ceballos KM, Chapman W, Colgan T, Deb P, Nucci MR, Oliva E, Lytwyn A. Interobserver agreement for assessing invasion in stage 1A vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(9):1336–41.
Daley TD, Lovas JG, Peters E, Wysocki GP, McGaw TW. Salivary gland duct involvement in oral epithelial dysplasia and squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996;81:186–92.
Browne RM, Potts AJ. Dysplasia in salivary ducts in sublingual leukoplakia and erythroplakia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1986;62:44–9. 30.
Sinha P, Mehrad M, Chernock RD, Lewis Jr JS, El-Mofty SK, Wu N, Nussenbaum B, Haughey BH. Histologic and systemic prognosticators for local control and survival in margin-negative transoral laser microsurgery treated oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2015;37(1):52–63.
Panizza B, Warren TA, Solares CA, Boyle GM, Lambie D, Brown I. Histopathological features of clinical perineural invasion of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck and the potential implications for treatment. Head Neck. 2014;36(11):1611–8.
Expert Panel on Radiation Oncology-Head and Neck, Salama JK, Saba N, Quon H, Garg MK, Lawson J, McDonald MW, Ridge JA, Smith RV, Yeung AR, Yom SS, Beitler JJ. ACR appropriateness criteria® adjuvant therapy for resected squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(7):554–9.
Bouquot JE. Oral verrucous carcinoma. Incidence in two US populations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1998;86(3):318–24.
Chow TL, Chow TK, Lui YH, Sze WM, Yuen NW, Kwok SP. Lymphoepithelioma-lik carcinoma of oral cavity: report of three cases and literature review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;31(2):212–8.
Weinreb I, Tabanda-Lichauco R, Van der Kwast T, Perez-Ordoñez B. Low-grade intraductal carcinoma of salivary gland: report of 3 cases with marked apocrine differentiation. Am J Surg Pathol. 2006;30(8):1014–21.
Gill S, Hinchy N, Sullivan M, Jayaprakash V, Merzianu M. Oral mucosa and soft tissue alterations associated with osteonecrosis of the jaw. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(S2):307A.
Palefsky JM, Silverman Jr S, Abdel-Salaam M, Daniels TE, Greenspan JS. Association between proliferative verrucous leukoplakia and infection with human papillomavirus type 16. J Oral Pathol Med. 1995;24(5):193–7.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Merzianu, M. (2017). Histopathology of Oral Cavity Cancer and Potentially Malignant Disorders. In: Kuriakose, M.A. (eds) Contemporary Oral Oncology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14911-0_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14911-0_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-14910-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-14911-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)