Abstract
Brainstem lesions are often accompanied by disorders of ocular motility. This may be accounted for by the fact that functionally different types of eye movements are generated in different neuronal networks localized primarily in the brainstem.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Literature
“Eye Movement Disturbances”
Abel LA, Daroff RB, Dell’Osso LF (1979) Horizontal pursuit defect nystagmus. Ann Neurol 5:449–452
Ashe J, Hain TC, Zee DS, Schatz NJ (1991) Microsaccadic flutter. Brain 114:461–472
Averbuch-Heller L, Kori AA, Rottach KG, Dell’Osso LF, Remler BF, Leigh RJ (1996) Dysfunction of pontine omnipause neurons causes impaired fixation: macrosaccadic oscillations with unilateral pontine lesions. Neuroophthalmology 16:99–106
Averbuch-Heller L, Tusa RJ, Fuhry L, Rottach KG, Ganser GL, Heide W, Büttner U, Leigh RJ (1997) A double-blind controlled study of gabapentin and baclofen as treatment for acquired pendular nystagmus. Ann Neurol 41:818–825
Averbuch-Heller L, Zivotofsky AZ, Das VE, DiScenna AO, Leigh RJ (1995) Investigations of the pathogenesis of acquired pendular nystagms. Brain 118:369–378
Baloh RW, Spooner JW (1981) Downbeat Nystagmus: a type of central vestibular nystagmus. Neurology 31:304–310
Barton JJS, Cox TA (1993) Acquired pendular nystagmus in multiple sclerosis – clinical observations and the role of optic neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:262–267
Bhidayasiri R, Plant GT, Leigh RJ (2000) A hypothetical scheme for brainstem control of vertical gaze. Neurology 54:1985–1993
Brandt T, Dieterich M (1993) Skew deviation with ocular torsion: a vestibular brainstem sign of topographic diagnostic value. Ann Neurol 33:528–534
Brandt T, Dieterich M (1998) Two types of ocular tilt reaction: the ‘ascending’ pontomedullary VOR-OTR and the ‘descending’ mesencephalic integrator-OTR. Neuroophthalmology 19:83–92
Brandt T (1990) Positional and positioning vertigo and nystagmus. J Neurol Sci 95:2–28
Brandt T (1991) Benign paroxysmal positioning vertigo (BPPV). In Vertigo: its multisensory syndromes. 1st ed. London: Springer-Verlag, 39–151
Brodsky MC, Donahue SP, Vaphiades M, Brandt T (2006) Skew deviation revisited. Surv Opthalmol 51:105–128
Büttner U, Brandt T, Helmchen C (1999) The direction of nystagmus is important for the diagnosis of central paroxysmal positioning nystagmus (cPPV). Neuro Ophthalmol 21:97–104
Cannon SC, Robinson DA (1987) Loss of the neural integrator of the oculomotor system from brain stem lesions in monkey. J Neurophysiol 57:1383–1409
Cher LM, Hochberg FH, Teruya J, Nitschke M, Valenzuela RF, Schmah-mann JD, Herbert M, Rosas HD, Stowell C (1995) Therapy for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes in six patients with Protein A Column immunabsorption. Cancer 75:1678–1683
Chou T, Demer JL (1998) Isolated inferior rectus palsy caused by a metastasis to the oculomotor nucleus. Am J Ophthalmol 126:737–740
Corbett JJ, Schatz NJ, Shults WT, Behrens M, Berry RG (1981) Slowly alternating skew deviation: description of a pretectal syndrome in three patients. Ann Neurol 10:540–546
Crawford JD, Cadera W, Vilis T (1991) Generation of torsional and vertical eye position signals in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal. Science 252:1551–1553
Dieterich M, Brandt T, Fries W (1989) Otolith function in man. Results from a case of otolith Tullio phenomenon. Brain 112: 1377–1392
Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993a) Ocular torsion and tilt of subjective visual vertical are sensitive brainstem signs. Ann Neurol 33: 292–299
Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993b) Ocular torsion and perceived vertical in oculomotor, trochlear and abducens nerve palsies. Brain 116: 1095–1104
Donahue SP, Lavin PJM, Hamed LM (1999) Tonic ocular tilt retraction simulating a superior oblique palsy. Arch Ophthalmol 117: 347–352
Donahue SP, Lavin PJM, Mohney B, Hamed L (2001) Skew deviation and inferior oblique palsy. Am J Ophthalmol 132:751–756
Fisher CM (1967) Some neuro-ophthalmological observations. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 30:383–392
Ford CS, Schwartze GM, Weaver RG, Troost BT (1984) Monocular elevation paresis caused by an ipsilateral lesion. Neurology 34: 1264–1267
Gauntt CD, Kashii S, Nagata I (1995) Monocular elevation paresis caused by an oculomotor fascicular impairment. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol 15:11–14
Glasauer S, von Lindeiner H, Siebold C, Büttner U (2004) Vertical vestibular responses to head impulses are symmetric in downbeat nystagmus. Neurology 63:621–625
Halmagyi GM, Aw ST, Dehaene I, Curthoys IS, Todd MJ (1994) Jerk-waveform see-saw nystagmus due to unilateral meso-diencephalic lesions. Brain 117:775–788
Hedges TR, Hoyt WF (1982) Ocular tilt treaction due to an upper brainstem lesion: paroxysmal skew deviation, torsion, and oscillation of the eyes with head tilt. Ann Neurol 11:537–540
Helmchen C, Glasauer BK, Büttner U (1996) Contralesionally beating torsional nystagmus in a unilateral rostral midbrain lesion. Neurology 47:482–486
Helmchen C, Rambold H, Fuhry L, Büttner U (1998) Deficits in vertical and torsional eye movements after uni- and bilateral muscimol inactivation of the interstitial nucleus of Cajal of the alert monkey. Exp Brain Res 119:436–452
Helmchen C, Rambold H, Sprenger A, Erdmann C, Binkofski F (2003) Cerebellar activation in opsoclonus. An fMRI study. Neurology 61:412–415
Helmchen C, Straube A, Büttner U (1994) Saccadic lateropulsion in Wallenberg’s syndrome may be caused by a functional lesion of the fastigial nucleus. J Neurol 241:421–426
Hommel M, Bogousslavsky J (1991) The spectrum of vertical gaze palsy following unilateral brainstem stroke. Neurology 41:1229–1234
Ito M, Nisimaru N, Yamamoto M (1977) Specific patterns of connexions involved in the control of the rabbit’s vestibulo-ocular reflexes by the cerebellar flocculus. J Physiol Lond 265:833–854
Jampel RS, Fells P (1968) Monocular elevation paresis caused by a central nervous system lesion. Arch Ophthalmol 80:45–57
Kalla R, Deutschlander A, Hufner K, Stephan T, Jahn K, Glasauer S, Brandt T (2006) Strupp. Detection of floccular hypometabolism in downbeat nystagmus by fMRI. Neurology 66:281–283
Kalla R, Glasauer S, Büttner U, Brandt T, Strupp M (2007) 4-aminopyridine restores vertical and horizontal neural integrator function in downbeat nystagmus. Brain 130:2441–2451
Keane JR (1985) Alternating skew deviation: 47 patients. Neurology 35:725–728
Keane JR (1975) Ocular skew deviation. Analysis of 100 cases. Arch Neurol 32:185–190
Keane JR (1990) The pretectal syndrome. 206 patients. Neurology 40:684–690
Kömpf D (1992) Die internukleäre Ophthalmoplegie der Abduktion nach Lutz (‘hintere’ INO) – ein sinnvolles Syndrom? Akt Neurol 19:25–28
Kommerell G, Hoyt WF (1973) Lateropulsion of saccadic eye movements. Electro-oculographic studies in a patient with Wallenberg’s syndrome. Arch Neurol 28:313–318
Kwon JH, Kwon SU, Ahn HS, Sung KB, Kim JS (2003) Isolated superior rectus palsy due to contralateral midbrain infarction. Arch Neurol 60:1633–1635
Lee AG, Tang RA, Wong GG, Schiffman JS, Singh S (2000) Isolated inferior rectus muscle palsy resulting from a nuclear third nerve lesion as the initial manifestation of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroophthalmol 20:246–247
Leigh RJ, Foley JM, Remler BF, Civil RH (1987) Oculogyric crisis: a syndrome of thought disorder and ocular deviation. Ann Neurol 22: 13–17
Leigh RJ, Zee DS (2006) The neurology of eye movements. Oxford University Press, New York
Lessell S (1975) Supranuclear paralysis of monocular elevation. Neurology 25:1134–1136
Lopez L, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Du Boulay EP, Rudge P (1996a) Clinical and MRI correlates in 27 patients with acquired pendular nystagmus. Brain 119:465–472
Lopez L, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Rudge P, du Boulay EP (1992) Torsional nystagmus. A neuro-otological and MRI study of thirty five cases. Brain 115:1107–1124
Marti S, Palla A, Straumann D (2002) Gravity dependence of ocular drift in patients with cerebellar downbeat nystagmus. Ann Neurol 52:712–721
Marti S, Straumann D, Glasauer S (2005) The origin of downbeat nystagmus. An asymmetry in the distribution of on-directions of vertical gazevelocity purkinje cells. Ann NY Acad Sci 1039:548–553
Miller NR, Keane JR (1998) Spasm of the near reflex. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ (eds) Walsh & Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol 1. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 1780–1782
Mitchell JM, Smith JL, Quencer RM (1981) Periodic alternating skew deviation. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1:5–7
Moster ML, Schatz NJ, Savino PJ, Benes S, Bosley TM, Sergott RC (1988) Alternating skew on lateral gaze (bilateral abducting hypertropia). Ann Neurol 23:190–192
Negoro K, Sasabe F, Morimatsu M (1993) Isolated inferior rectus paresis from midbrain infarction. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 33:434–436
Ochs AL, Stark L, Hoyt WF, D’Amico D (1979) Opposed adducting saccades in convergence-retraction nystagmus. A patient with sylvian aqueduct syndrome. Brain 102:497–508
Parks MM (1958) Isolated cyclovertical muscle palsy. Arch Ophthalmol 60:1027–1035
Pless M, Ronthal M (1996) Treatment of opsoclonus-myoclonus with highdose intravenous immunoglobulin. Neurology 46:583–584
Pullicino P, Lincoff N, Truax BT (2000) Abnormal vergence with upper brainstem infarcts. Pseudoabducens palsy. Neurology 55:352–358
Pusateri TJ, Sedwick LA, Margo CE (1987) Isolated inferior rectus muscle palsy from a solitary metastasis to the oculomotor nucleus. Arch Ophthalmol 105:675–677
Rabinovich HE, Sharpe JA, Sylvester TO (1977) The ocular tilt reaction. A paroxysmal dyskinesia asssciated with elliptical nystagmus. Arch Ophthalmol 95:1395–1398
Rambold H, Helmchen C, Büttner U (1999) Unilateral muscimol inactivations of the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the alert rhesus monkey do not elict seesaw nystagmus. Neurosci Lett 272:75–78
Rambold H, Helmchen C, Straube A, Büttner U (1998) Seesaw nystagmus associated with involuntary torsional head oscillations. Neurology 51:831–837
Rambold H, Kömpf D, Helmchen C (2001) Convergence retraction nystagmus: a disorder of vergence? Ann Neurol 50:679–681
Rambold H, Neumann G, Helmchen C (2004) Vergence deficits in pontine lesions. Neurology 62:1850–1853
Sakata E, Ohtsu K, Itoh Y (1991) Positional nystagmus of benign paroxysmal type (BPPN) due to cerebellar vermis lesions. Pseudo-BPPN. Acta Otolaryngol 481:254–257
Shallo-Hoffmann J, Schwarze H, Simonsz HJ, Mühlendyck H (1990) A reexamination of end-point and rebound nystagmus in normals. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31:388–392
Smith CH (1998) Divergence weakness and its relationship to abducens nerve palsy. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ (eds) Walsh & Hoyt‘s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol 1. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 1257–1258
Straube A, Leigh RJ, Bronstein A, Heide W, Riordan-Eva P, Tijssen CC, Dehaene I, Straumann D (2004) EFNS task force – therapy of nystagmus and oscillopsia. Eur J Neurol 11:83–89
Strupp M, Schuler O, Krafczyk S, Jahn K, Schautzer F, Buttner U, Brandt T (2003) Treatment of downbeat nystagmus with 3, 4-diaminopyridine: a placebo-controlled study. Neurology 61: 165–170
Suzuki DA, Yamada T, Hoedema R, Yee RD (1999) Smooth-pursuit eye-movement deficits with chemical lesions in macaque nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis. J Neurophysiol 82:1178–1186
Thömke F, Hopf HC, Krämer G (1992) Internuclear ophthalmoplegia of abduction: clinical and electrophysiological data on the existence of an abduction paresis of prenuclear origin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:105–111
Thömke F, Hopf HC (2001) Abduction paresis with rostral pontine and/or mesencephalic lesions: Pseudoabducens palsy and its relation to the so-called posterior internuclear ophthalmoplegia of Lutz. BMC Neurol 1:4
Thömke F, Hopf HC (1992) Aquired monocular elevation paresis – an asymmetric upgaze palsy. Brain 115:1901–1910
Thömke F, Strothjohann M, Mika-Grüttner A (2000) Adaptive Phänome bei internukleärer Ophthalmoplegie. Klin Neurophysiol 31:16–20
Thömke F (2001) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 128–215
Thömke F (2002) Brainstem diseases causing isolated ocular motor nerve palsies. Neuroophthalmology 28:53–67
Thömke F (1993) The internuclear ophthalmoplegias. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem Localization and function. Springer, Berlin pp 119–132
Thömke F (1996) Some observations on abduction nystagmus in internuclear ophthalmoplegia. Neuroophthalmologie 16:27–37
Wall M, Wray SH (1983) The one-and-a-half syndrome – a unilateral disorder of the pontine tegmentum: a study of 20 cases and review of the literature. Neurology 33:971–980
Westheimer G, Blair SM (1975) The ocular tilt reaction – a brainstem oculomotor routine. Invest Ophthalmol 14:833–839
Wiest G, Baumgartner C, Schnider P, Trattnig S, Deecke L, Mueller C (1996) Monocular elevation paresis and contralateral downgaze paresis from unilateral mesodiencephalic infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 60:579–581
Wong AMF, Musallam S, Tomlinson RD, Shannon P, Sharpe JA (2001) Opsoclonus in three dimensions: oculographic, neuropathologic and modelling correlates. J Neurol Sci 189:71–81
Zee DS, Friendlich AR, Robinson DA (1974) The mechanism of downbeat nystagmus. Arch Neurol 30:227–237
Zee DS, Hain TC, Carl JR (1987) Abduction nystagmus in internuclear ophthalmoplegia. Ann Neurol 21:383–388
Zee DS, Robinson DA (1979) A hypothetical explanation of saccadic oscillations. Ann Neurol 5:405–414
Zee DS (1996) Considerations on the mechanism of alternating skew deviation in patients with cerebellar lesions. J Vest Res 6:395–401
“Horner’s Syndrome”
Amonoo-Kuofi HS (1999) Horner’s syndrome revisited: With an update of the central pathway. Clin Anat 12:345–361
Birklein F, Spitzer A, Riedl B (1999) Die Schweißmessung zur Diagnostik autonomer Störungen. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 67:287–295
Carpenter MB (1985) Core text of neuroanatomy. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 266–279
Hopf HC, Fitzek C, Marx J, Urban PP, Thömke F (2000a) Isolated emotional facial paresis in pontine pathology. Neurology 54:1217
Horner JF (1869) Über eine Form von Ptosis. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkunde 7:193–198
Jaffe NS (1950) Localization of lesions causing Horner’s syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 44:710–728
Lee AG, Hayman LA, Tang RA, Schiffman JS, Nagy AN (1996) An imaging guide for Horner’s syndrome. Int J Neurorad 2:196–200
Loewy AD, Araujo JC, Kerr FW (1973) Pupillodilatator pathways in the brain stem of the cat: anatomical and electrophysiological identification of a central autonomic pathway. Brain Res 60:65–91
Low PA, Walsh JC, Huang CJ, McLeod G (1975) The sympathetic nervous system in diabetic neuropathy. A clinical and pathological study. Brain 98:341–356
Maloney WF, Younge BR, Moyer NJ (1980) Evaluation of the causes and accuracy of pharmacological localization in Horner’s syndrome. Am J Ophthal 90:394–402
Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Mika-Gruettner A, Thoemke F, Fitzek S, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC (2003) Topodiagnostic investigations on the sympathoexcitatory brainstem pathway using a new method of three-dimensional brainstem mapping. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:250–255
Minor V (1927) Ein neues Verfahren zu der klinischen Untersuchung der Schweißabsonderung. Z Neurol 101:302–308
Mosqueda-Garcia R (1996) Central autonomic regulation. In: Robertson D, Low PA, Polinsky RJ (eds) Primer on the autonomic nervous system. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 3–12
Nagy AN, Hayman LA, Diaz-Marchan PJ, Lee AG (1997) Horner’s syndrome due to first-order neuron lesions of the oculosympathetic pathway. Am J Radiol 169:581–584
Nathan PW, Smith MC (1986) The location of descending fibres to sympathetic neurons supplying the eye and sudomotor neurons supplying the head and neck. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49:187–194
Pilley SFJ, Thompson HF (1975) Pupillary dilatation lag in Horner’s syndrome. Br J Opthal 59:731–735
Saper CB, Loewy AD, Swanson LW, Cowan WM (1976) Direct hypothalamoautonomic connections. Brain Res 117:305–312
Schliack H (1976) Ninhydrin-Schweißtest nach Moberg. Dtsch Med Wochen Schr 101:1336
Smith SA, Smith SE (1999) Bilateral Horner’s syndrome: detection and occurrence. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:48–51
Thömke F (2001b) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart
Wilhelm H (1988) Störungen der Pupillomotorik. In: Huber A, Kömpf D (eds) Klinische Neuroophthalmologie. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 623–630
“Central Vestibular Disturbances”
Averbuch-Heller L, Tusa RJ, Fuhry L, Rottach KG, Ganser GL, Heide W, Büttner U, Leigh RJ (1997) A double-blind controlled study of gabapentin and baclofen as treatment for acquired nystagmus. Ann Neurol 41:818–825
Baier B, Bense S, Dietrich M (2008) Are signs of ocular tilt reaction in patients with cerebellar lesions mediated by the dentate nucleus? Brain 131:1445–1454
Baier B, Dieterich M (2009) Ocular tilt reaction – a clinical sign of cerebellar infarctions? Neurology 72(6):572–573
Baier B, Stoeter P, Dieterich M (2009) Anatomical correlates of ocular motor deficits in cerebellar lesions. Brain 132(8):2114–2124
Bense S, Best C, Buchholz HG, Wiener V, Schreckenberger M, Barten-stein P, Dieterich M (2006) 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose hypometabolism in cerebellar tonsil and flocculus in downbeat nystagmus. NeuroReport 17:599–603
Brandt T, Dieterich M, Strupp MV (2003) Leitsymptom Schwindel. Steinkopff, Darmstadt
Brandt T, Dieterich M (1995) Central vestibular syndromes in the roll, pitch, and jaw planes. Topographic diagnosis of brainstem disorders. Neuroophthalmology 15:291–303
Brandt T, Dieterich M (1994) Vestibular syndromes in the roll plane: Topo-graphic diagnosis from brainstem to cortex. Ann Neurol 36:337–347
Brandt T, Brandt TV (1999) Its multisensory syndromes, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin
Cox TA, Corbett JJ, Thompson HS, Lennarson L (1981) Upbeat nystagmus changing to downbeat nystagmus with convergence. Neurology 31:891–892
Das VE, Orugenti P, Kramer PD, Leigh RJ (2000) Experimental tests of a neu-ral network model for ocular oscillations caused by disease of central myelin. Exp Brain Res 133:189–197
Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993c) Ocular torsion and tilt of subjective visual vertical are sensitive brainstem signs. Ann Neurol 33: 292–299
Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993d) Thalamic infarctions: Differential effects on ves-tibular function in the roll plane (35 patients). Neurology 43:1732–1740
Dieterich M, Brandt T (1992) Wallenberg’s syndrome: lateropulsion, cycloro-tation, and subjective visual vertical, indicating midbrain lesions. Neuroophthalmology 31:399–408
Dieterich M, Straube A, Brandt T, Paulus W, Büttner U (1991) The effects of baclofen and cholinergic drugs on upbeat and downbeat nystagmus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54:627–632
Endres M, Heide W, Kömpf D (1996) See-saw nystagmus. Clinical aspects, diagnosis, pathophysiology: observations in 2 patients. Nervenarzt 67:484–489
Furman JMR, Wall C, Pang D (1986) Vestibular function in periodic alternat-ing nystagmus. Brain 113:1425–1439
Glasauer S, Dieterich M, Brandt T (2001) Central positional nystagmus simu-lated by a mathematical ocular motor model of otolith-dependent modification of Listing’s plane. J Neurophysiol 86: 1546–1554
Glasauer S, Kalla R, Büttner U, Strupp M, Brandt T (2005) 4-aminopyridine restores visual ocular motor function in upbeat nystagmus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:451–453
Halamgyi GM, Leigh RJ (2004) Upbeat about downbeat nystagmus. Neurology 63:606–607
Halmagyi GM, Aw ST, Dehaene I, Curthoys IS, Todd MJ (1994b) Jerk waveform see-saw nystagmus due to unilateral meso-diencephalic lesion. Brain 117:789–803
Halmagyi GM, Curthoys IS (1988) A clinical sign of canal paresis. Arch Neurol 45:737–739
Halmagyi GM, Rudge P, Gresty MA, Sander SMD (1983) Downbeating nys-tagmus. Review of 62 cases. Arch Neurol 40:777–784
Janssen JC, Larner AJ, Morris H, Bronstein AM, Farmer SF (1998) Upbeat nystagmus: clinicoanatomical correlation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:380–381
Kalla R, Glasauer S, Schautzer F, Lehnen N, Büttner U, Strupp U, Brandt T (2004) 4-aminopyridine improves downbeat nystagmus, smooth pursuit, and VOR gain. Neurology 61:165–170
Leigh RJ, Burnstine TH, Ruff RL, Kasmer RJ (1991) The effect of anticholinergic agents upon acquired nystagmus: a double-blind study of trihexy-phenidyl and trihexethyl chloride. Neurology 41:1737–1741
Leigh RJ, Zee DS. The neurology of eye movements. 4th ed. Oxford Uni-versity Press, New York 2006
Lopez LI, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Du Boulay EP, Rudge P (1996) Clinical and MRI correlates in 27 patients with acquired pendular nystag-mus. Brain 119:465–472
Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Milea D, Sirmai J, Papeix C, Rivaud-Pechoux S (2005) Upbeat nystagmus due to a small pontine lesion: evidence for existence of a crossing ventral tegmental tract. Eur Neurol 54:186–190
Ranalli RJ, Sharpe JA (1988) Upbeat nystagmus and the ventral tegmental pathway of the upward vestibulo-ocular reflex. Neurology 38:1329–1330
Stahl JS, Averbuch-Heller L, Leigh RJ (2000) Acquired nystagmus. Arch Ophthalmol 118:544–549
Starck M, Albrecht H, Pöllmann W, Straube A, Dieterich M (1997) Drug therapy of acquired nystagmus in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 244:9–16
Starck M, Albrecht H, Pöllmann W, Straube A, Dieterich M (2010) Acquired pendular nystagmus in multiple sclerosis: an examiner-blind cross-over study of memantine and gabapentin. J Neurol 257(3):322–337
Straube A, Leigh RJ, Bronstein A, Heide W, Riordan-Eva P, Tijssen CC, Dehaene I, Straumann D (2004) EFNS task force – therapy of nystagmus and oscillopsia. European J Neurol 11:83–89
Strupp M, Schüler O, Krafczyk S, Jahn K, Schautzer F, Büttner U, Brandt T (2003b) Treatment of downbeat nystagmus with 3.4-diaminopyridine – a placebo-controlled study. Neurology 61: 165–170
Waespe W, Cohen B, Raphan T (1985) Dynamic modification of the vestibu-loocular reflex by nodulus and uvula. Science 228: 199–202
“Tinnitus and Auditory Disturbances”
Adams PF, Hendershot GE, Marano MA (1999) Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, 1996. National Center for Health Statistics 1999, Hyattsville, MD
Andersson G, Lyttkens L, Hirvela C, Furmark T, Tillfors M, Frederikson M (2000) Regional cerebral blood flow during tinnitus: a PET case study with lidocaine and auditory stimulation. Acta Otolaryngol 120:967–972
Chen GD, Jastreboff PJ (1995) Salicylate-induced abnormal activity in the in-ferior colliculus of rats. Hear Res 82:158–178
Dobie RA (1999) A review of randomized clinical trials in tinnitus. Laryngoscope 109:1202–1211
Dobie RA (2003) Depression and tinnitus. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 36:383–388
Eggermont JJ, Kenmochi M (1998) Salicylate and quinine selectively increase spontaneous firing rates in secondary auditory cortex. Hear Res 117:149–160
Giraud AL, Chery-Croze S, Fischer C, Vighetto A, Gregoire MC, Collet L (1999) A selective imaging of tinnitus. NeuroReport 10:1–5
Häusler R, Levine RA (2000) Auditory dysfunction in stroke. Acta Otolaryngol 120:689–703
Heller AJ (2003) Classification and epdemiology of tinnitus. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 36:239–248
Jastreboff PJ, Sasaki CT (1994) An animal model of tinnitus: a decade of devel-opment. Am J Otol 15:19–27
Kaltenbach JA, Zhang J, Finlayson P (2005) Tinnitus as a plastic phenomenon and its possible neural underpinnings in the dorsal cochlear nucleus. Hear Res 206:200–226
Lee H, Baloh RW (2005) Sudden deafness in vertebrobasilar ischemia: clinical features, vascular topographical patterns and long-term outcome. J Neurol Sci 228:99–104
Lenarz T (1998) Leitlinie Tinnitus der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie. Laryngorhinootologie 77:531–535
Levine RA (1999) Somatic (craniocervical) tinnitus and the dorsal cochlear nucleus hypothesis. Am J Otolaryngol 20:351–362
Lockwood AH, Salvi RJ, Burkhard RF (2002) Tinnitus. New Engl J Med 347:904–910
Lockwood AH, Salvi RJ, Coad ML, Towsley ML, Wack DS, Murphy BW (1998) The functional anatomy of tinnitus: evidence for limbic system links and neuronal plasticity. Neurology 50:114–120
Lockwood AH, Wack DS, Burkard RF, Coad ML, Reyes SA, Arnold SA, Salvi RJ (2001) The functional anatomy of gaze-evoked tinnitus and sus-tained lateral gaze. Neurology 56:472–480
Melcher JR, Sigalovsky IS, Guinan JJ Jr, Levine RA (2000) Lateralized tinnitus studied with functional magnetic resonance imaging: abnormal inferior colliculus activation. J Neurophysiol 83: 1058–1072
Mühlnickel W, Elbert T, Taub E, Flor H (1998) Reorganization of auditory cortex in tinnitus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:10340–10343
Müller M, Klinke R, Arnold W, Östreicher E (2003) Auditory nerve fibre responses to salicylate revisited. Hear Res 183:37–43
Reyes SA, Salvi RJ, Burkard RF, Coad ML, Wack DS, Galantowicz PJ, Lookwood AH (2002) Brain imaging of the effects of lidocaine on tinnitus. Hear Res 171:43–50
Salvi RJ, Saunders SS, Gratton MA, Arehole S, Powers N (1990) Enhanced evoked response amplitudes in the inferior colliculus of the chinchilla following acoustic trauma. Hear Res 50:245–257
Salvi RJ, Wang J, Ding D (2000) Auditory plasticity and hyperactivity following cochlear damage. Hear Res 147:261–274
Schweri T, Geusing BG (1996) Acute vestibular deficit with initial deafness as the first manifestation of late onset multiple sclerosis. HNO 44:397–399
Weissmann JL, Hirsch BE (2000) Imaging of tinnitus. A review. Radiology 216:342–349
Zaffaroni M, Baldinin SM, Ghezzi A (2001) Cranial nerve, brainstem and cerebellar syndromes in the differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Neuro Sci 22:74–78
“Intra-axial Cranial Nerve Lesions”
Achard C, Lévi L (1901) Paralysie totale et isolée du moteur oculaire commun par foyer de ramollisement pédonculaire. Rev Neurol 9:646–648
Asbury AK, Aldredge H, Hershberg R, Fisher CM (1970) Oculomotor palsy in diabetes mellitus: a clinico-pathological study. Brain 93:555–566
Benito-Léon J, Alvarez-Cermeño JC (2003) Isolated total tongue paralysis as a manifestation of bilateral medullary infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74:1698–1699
Bogousslavsky J, Maeder P, Regli F, Meuli R (1994) Pure midbrain infarction: Clinical syndromes, MRI, and etiologic patterns. Neurology 44:2032–2040
Brandt T (1999a) Miscellaneous central vestibular disorders. In: Brandt T (ed) Vertigo. Its multisensory syndromes. Springer, London, pp 241–246
Burde RM, Savino PJ, Trobe JD (1992) Incomitant ocular misalignment. In: Burde RM, Savino PJ, Trobe JD (eds) Clinical decisions in neuro-ophthalmology. Mosby Year Book, St. Louis, pp 239–281
Dreyfus PM, Hakim S, Adams RD (1957) Diabetic ophthalmoplegia: report of a case with postmortem study and comments on vascular supply of human oculomotor nerve. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 77:337–349
Duvernoy AM (1978) Human brainstem vessels. Springer, Berlin
Fisher CM (1982) Lacunar strokes and infarcts: a review. Neurology 32:871–876
Francis DA, Bronstein AM, Rudge P, du Boulay EP (1992) The site of brainstem lesions causing semicircular canal paresis: an MRI study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:446–449
Hassler O (1967) Arterial pattern of human brainstem. Normal appearance and deformation in expanding supratentorial conditions. Neurology 17:368–375
Hopf HC (1994a) Topodiagnostic value of brainstem reflexes. Muscle Nerve 17:475–484
Jacobs L, Kaba S, Pullicino P (1994) The lesion causing continous facial myokymia in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 51: 1115–1119
Kamitani T, Kuroiwa Y, Hidaka M (2004a) Isolated hypesthesia in the right V2 and V3 dermatomes after a midpontine infarction localised at an ipsilateral principal sensory trigeminal nucleus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1508–1509
Keane JR, Ahmadi J (1998) Most diabetic third nerve palsies are peripheral. Neurology 51:1910
Krasnianski M, Neudecker S, Zierz S (2004) Klassische alternierende Syndrome der Brücke. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 72:460–468
Krasnianski M, Winterholler M, Neudecker S, Zierz S (2003a) Klassische alternierende medulla-oblongata-syndrome. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 71:397–405
Kumral E, Bayulkem G, Akyol A, Yunten N, Sirin H, Sagduyu A (2002a) Mesencephalic and associated posterior circulation infarcts. Stroke 33:2224–2231
Kumral E, Bayülkem G, Evyapa D (2002b) Clinical spectrum of pontine infarction. Clinical-MRI correlations. J Neurol 249:1659–1670
Lee H, Cho YW (2004) A case of isolated nodulus infarction presenting as a vestibular neuritis. J Neurol Sci 221:117–119
Lee H, Yi HA, Cho YW, Sohn CH, Whitman GT, Ying S, Baloh RW (2003) Nodulus infarction mimicking acute peripheral vestibulopathy. Neurology 63:1700–1702
Liu GT, Crenner CW, Logigian EL, Charness ME, Samuels MA (1992) Midbrain syndromes of Benedikt, Claude, and Nothnagel: setting the records straight. Neurology 42:1820–1822
Marx JJ, Mika-Grüttner A, Thömke F, Fitzek S, Fitzek C, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2002) Electrophysiological brainstem testing in the diagnosis of reversible brainstem ischemia. J Neurol 249:1041–1047
Marx JJ, Thömke F, Mika-Gruettner A, Fitzek S, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2004) Diffusionsgewichtetes MRT bei vertebrobasilären Ischämien. Anwendung, Sensitivität und prognostischer Wert. Nervenarzt 75:341–346
Messé SR, Shin RK, Liu GT, Galetta SL, Volpe NJ (2001) Oculomotor synkinesis following a midbrain stroke. Neurology 57:1106–1107
Mohr JP (1982) Lacunes. Stroke 13:3–11
Nieuwenhuys R, Voogd J, van Huijzen C (1989) The human central nervous system. Springer, Berlin
Richards BW, Jones FR, Younge BR (1992) Causes and prognosis in 4 278 cases of paralysis of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens cranial nerves. Am J Ophthalmol 113:489–496
Thömke F, Gutmann L, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2002) Cerebrovascular brainstem diseases with isolated cranial nerve palsies. Cerebrovascular Diseases 13:147–155
Thömke F, Hopf HC (1999) Pontine lesions mimicking acute peripheral vestibulopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:340–349
Thömke F, Lensch E, Ringel K, Hopf HC (1997a) Isolated cranial nerve palsies in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63: 682–685
Thömke F, Tettenborn B, Hopf HC (1995) Third nerve palsy as the sole manifestation of midbrain ischemia. Neuroophthalmology 15: 327–335
Thömke F (2002) Brainstem diseases causing isolated ocular motor nerve palsies. Neuroophthalmology 28:53–67
Thömke F (1998) Isolated abducens palsies due to pontine lesions. Neuroophthalmology 20:91–100
Thömke F (1999a) Isolated cranial nerve palsies due to brainstem lesions. Muscle Nerve 22:1168–1176
Weber RB, Daroff RB, Mackey EA (1970) Pathology of oculomotor nerve palsy in diabetics. Neurology 20:835–838
Yoritaka A, Tsukamoto T, Ohta K, Kishida S (2001) Facial myokymia associated with an isolated lesion of the facial nucleus. Acta Neurol Scand 104:182–184
“Speech Disorders”
Alexander MP (2001) Chronic akinetic mutism after mesencephalic–diencephalic infraction: remediated with dopaminergic medications. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 15:151–156
Esposito A, Demeurisse G, Alberti B, Fabbro F (1999) Complete mutism after midbrain periaqueductal gray lesion. NeuroReport 10: 681–685
Kammer T, Linden D, Diehl RR, Hennerici M (1993a) Paroxysmal ataxia and dysarthria with a single lesion in the cerebellar peduncle. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem localization and function. Springer, Berlin, pp 75–78
Kumral E, Bayülkem G, Evyapan D (2002c) Clinical spectrum of pontine infarction. J Neurol 249:1659–1670
Matsui M, Tomimoto H, Sano K, Hashikawa K, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H (2004a) Paroxysmal dysarthria and ataxia after midbrain infarction. Neurology 63:345–347
Orefice G, Fragassi NA, Lanzillo R, Castellano A, Grossi D (1999) Transient muteness followed by dysarthria in patients with pontomesencephalic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 9:124–126
Ozimek A, Richter S, Hein-Kropp C, Schoch B, Gorißen B, Kaiser O, Gizewski E, Ziegler W, Timmann D (2004) Cerebellar mutism. J Neurol 251:963–972
Schulz GM, Varga M, Jeffires K, Ludlow CL, Braun AR (2005) Functional neuroanatomy of human vocalization: an H215O PET study. Cereb Cortex 15:1835–1847
Urban PP, Beer S, Hopf HC (1997a) Cortico-bulbar fibers to orofacial muscles: recordings with enoral surface electrodes. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 105:8–14
Urban PP, Connemann B, Hundemer HP, Koehler J, Hopf HC (1996a) Course of the cortico-hypoglossal projections in the human brainstem. Functional testing by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain 119:1031–1038
Urban PP, Hopf HC, Fleischer S, Zorowka P, Müller-Forell W (1997b) Impaired cortico-bulbar tract function in dysarthria due to hemispheric stroke. Brain 120:1077–1084
Urban PP, Hopf HC, Zorowka P, Fleischer S, Andreas J (1996b) Dysarthria and lacunar stroke. Pathophysiological aspects. Neurology 47:1135–1141
Urban PP, Marx J, Hunsche S, Gawehn J, Vucurevic G, Wicht S, Massing-er C, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2003) Cerebellar speech representation: lesion topography in dysarthria as derived from cerebellar ischemia and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Neurol 60(7):965–972
Urban PP, Wicht S, Hopf HC, Fleischer S, Nickel O (1999a) Isolated dysarthria due to extracerebellar lacunar stroke – a central monoparesis of the tongue. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:495–501
Urban PP, Wicht S, Vukurevic G, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Massinger C, Hopf HC (2001a) Dysarthria in ischemic stroke – Localization and etiology. Neurology 56:1021–1027
Urban PP (1999) Zur pathophysiologie der dysarthrophonie bei akuten zerebralen Ischämien. Habilitationsschrift, Mainz
Weimar C, Kley C, Kraywinkel K, Schacker A, Riepe M, Wimmer MLJ, Goertler M, Diener HC (2002) Klinische Präsentation und Prognose von Hirnstamminfarkten. Nervenarzt 73:166–173
Ziegler W, Ackermann H (1994) Mutismus und Aphasie. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 62:366–371
“Dysphagia”
Bartolome G, Buchholz DW, Hannig C, Neumann S, Prosiegel M, Schröter-Morasch H, Wuttge-Hannig A (1993) Diagnostik und therapie neurologisch bedingter Schluckstörungen. Urban & Fischer, München
Chiti-Batelli S, Delap T (2001) Lateral medullary infarct presenting as acute dysphagia. Acta Otolaryngol 121:419–420
Ertekin C, Aydogdu I, Tarlaci S, Turman AB, Kiylioglu N (2000) Mechanisms of dysphagia in suprabulbar palsy with lacunar infarct. Stroke 31:1370–1376
Horner J, Buoyer FG, Alberts MJ, Helms MJ (1991) Dysphagia following brainstem stroke. Arch Neurol 48:1170–1173
Jean A (2001) Brain stem control of swallowing: neuronal network and cellular mechanisms. Physiol Rev 81:929–969
Kameda W, Kawanami T, Kurita K, Daimon M, Kayama T, Hosoya T, Kato T (2004) Lateral and medial medullary infarction: a comperative analysis of 214 patients. Stroke 35:694–699
Kim H, Chung C-S, Lee K-H, Robbins J (2000) Aspiration subsequent to a pure medullary infarction. Arch Neurol 57:478–483
Kuhlemeier KV, Rieve JE, Kirby NA, Siebens AA (1989) Clinical correlates of dysphagia in stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 70:A56
Kwon M, Lee JH, Kim JS (2005) Dysphagia in unilateral medullary infarction. Neurology 65:714–718
Lee B-C, Hwang S-H, Chang GY (1999) Isolated dysphagia due to a medullary infarction: a new lacunar syndrome. Eur Neurol 41: 53–54
Meng N-H, Wang T-G, Lien I-N (2000) Dysphagia in patients with brainstem stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 6:170–175
Prosiegel M, Heintze M, Wagner-Sonntag E, Hannig C, Wuttge-Hannig A, Yassouridis A (2002) Schluckstörungen bei neurologischen Patienten. Nervenarzt 73:364–370
Prosiegel M, Holing R, Heintze M, Wagner-Sonntag E, Wiseman K (2005) The localization of central pattern generators for swallowing in humans. Acta Neurochir Suppl 93:85–88
Prosiegel M (2003) Qualitätskriterien und Standards für die Diagnostik und Therapie von Patienten mit neurologischen Schluckstörungen. Neurol Rehabil 9:157–181
The FOOD Trial Collaboration (2005) Effect of timing and method of enteral tube feeding for dysphagic stroke patients (FOOD): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 365:764–772
Urban PP, Zahn M, Schranz S, Glassl U, Dieterich M (2004) Abnormal patterns of swallowing in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 251:25
“Ataxia”
Arias M, Requena I, Lema C, Pereiro I, Villalba C, Iglesias C (1999) Isolated hemi-ataxia as a sign of mesencephalic lacunar infarction. Rev Neurol 29:1179–1181
Baehring JM, Phipps M, Wollmann G (2008) Rostral midbrain infarction producing isolated lateropulsion. Neurology 70:655–656
Bhidayasiri R, Hathout G, Cohen SN, Tourtellotte WW (2003) Midbrain ataxia: possible role of the pedunculopontine nucleus in human locomotion. Cerebrovasc Dis 16:95–96
Chua KS, Kong KH (1996) Functional outcome in brainstem stroke patients after rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 77:194–197
Duus P (2003) Neurologisch topische Diagnostik. 8. Aufl. Thieme, Stuttgart
Eidelberg E, Walden JG, Nguyen LH (1981) Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. Brain 104:647–663
Fisher Miller C (1978) Ataxic hemiparesis. Arch Neurol 35:126–128
Kammer T, Linden D, Diehl RR, Hennerici M (1993) Paroxysmal ataxia and dysarthria with a single lesion in the cerebellar peduncle. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem localization and function. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 75–78
Kuo S-H, Kennen C, Jankovic J (2008) Bilateral pedunculopontine nuclei strokes presenting as freezing of gait. Mov Disord 23: 616–619
Lee H, Cho YW (2003) Bilateral cerebellar ataxia as the sole manifestation of a unilateral rostral pontine tegmental infarct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74:1444–1446
Marx JJ, Thoemke F, Ianetti GD, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC, Dieterich M (2006) MRT-basiertes Hirnstamm-Mapping zur topodiagnostischen Bedeutung der Hemiataxie. Klin Neurophysiol 37:69
Matsui M, Tomimoto H, Sano K, Hashikawa K, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H (2004b) Paroxysmal dysarthria and ataxia after midbrain infarction. Neurology 63:345–347
Mitoma H, Hayashi R, Yanagisawa N, Tsukagoshi H (2000) Gait disturbances in patients with pontine medial tegmental lesions. Arch Neurol 57:1048–1057
Rossetti AO, Reichhart MD, Bogousslavsky J (2003a) Central Horner’s syndrome with contralateral ataxic hemiparesis. Neurology 61: 334–338
Schmahmann JD, Rosene DL, Pandya DN (2004a) Ataxia after pontine stroke: insights from pontocerebellar fibers in monkey. Ann Neurol 55:585–589
Seo SW, Heo JH, Lee KY, Shin WC, Chang DI, Kim SM, Heo K (2001) Localization of Claude’s syndrome. Neurology 57:2304–2307
Thömke F, Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Cruccu G, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2005) A topodiagnostic investigation on body lateropulsion in medullary infarcts. Neurology 64:716–718
Withiam-Leitch S, Pullicino P (1995) Ataxic hemiparesis with bilateral leg ataxia from pontine infarct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 59:557–558
“Pareses”
Bauer G, Gerstenbrand F, Hengl W (1980) Involuntary motor phenomena in the locked-in syndrome. J Neurol 223:191–198
Cerrato P, Imperiale D, Bergui M, Giraudo M, Baima C, Grasso M, Len-tini A, Bergamasco B (2003) Emotional facial paresis in a patient with a lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 60:723–724
Hopf HC, Fitzek C, Marx J, Urban PP, Stoeter P (2000b) Emotional facial paresis of pontine origin. Neurology 54:1217
Hopf HC, Gutmann L (1990) Diabetic 3rd nerve palsy: evidence for a mesencephalic lesion. Neurology 40:1041–1045
Hopf HC (1994) Topodiagnostic value of brainstem reflexes. Muscle Nerve 17:475–484
Humm JL, Kozlowski DA, James DC, Gotts JE, Schallert T (1998) Use-dependent exacerbation of brain damage occurs during an early postlesion vulnerable period. Brain Res 783:286–292
Khurana D, Sreekanth VR, Prabhakar S (2002) A case of emotional facial palsy with ipsilateral anterior inferior cerebellar artery territory infarction. Neurol India 50:102–103
Kimura Y, Hashimoto H, Tagaya M, Abe Y, Etani H (2003) Ipsilateral hemiplegia in a lateral medullary infarct – Opalski’s syndrome. J Neuroimaging 13:83–84
Krasnianski M, Gaul C, Neudecker S, Behrmann C, Schluter A, Winterholler M (2003b) Yawning despite trismus in a patient with locked-in syndrome caused by a thrombosed megadolichobasilar artery. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 106:44–46
Maeder-Ingvar M, van Melle G, Bogousslavsky J (2005) Pure monoparesis: a particular stroke subtype? Arch Neurol 62: 1221–1224
Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Thömke F, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2005) Somatotopic organization of the corticospinal tract in the human brainstem: a MRI-based mapping analysis. Ann Neurol 57:824–831
Melo TP, Bogousslavsky J, van Melle G, Rgeli F (1992) Pure motor stroke: a reappraisal. Neurology 42:789–795
Müri RM, Baumgartner RW (1995) Horner’s syndrome and contralateral trochlear nerve palsy. Neuroophthalmology 15:161–163
Paulin M, de Seze J, Wyremblewski P, Zephir H, Leys D, Vermersch P (2005) Man-in-the-barrel syndrome caused by a pontine lesion. Neurology 64:1703
Rossetti AO, Reichhart MD, Bogousslavsky J (2003) Central Horner’s syndrome with contralateral ataxic hemiparesis. Neurology 61:334–338
Ruff RL, Leigh RJ, Wiener SN, Adams NL, Newman CW, Nam KH, Thurston SE (1987) Long-term survivors of the ‘locked-in’ syndrome: patterns of recovery and potential for rehabilitation. J Neuro Rehabil 1:31–42
Scheidtmann K, Freis W, Müller F, Koenig E (2001) Effect of levodopa in combination with physiotherapy on the functional motor recovery after stroke: a prospective, randomised, double-blind study. Lancet 258:787–790
Schmahmann JD, Ko R, MacMore J (2004b) The human basis pontis: motor syndromes and topographic organization. Brain 127:1269–1291
Sherman SC, Thompson TT (2005) Pontine hemorrhage presenting as an isolated facial nerve palsy. Ann Emerg Med 46:64–66
Taub E, Miller NE, Novack TA, Cook EW, Fleming WC, Nepomuceno CS, Connell JS, Crago JE (1993) Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74:347–354
Thömke F, Lensch E, Ringel K, Hopf HC (1997) Isolated cranial nerve palsies in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63:682–685
Thömke F (1999) Isolated cranial nerve palsies due to brainstem lesions. Muscle Nerve 22:1168–1176
Urban PP, Beer S, Hopf HC (1997c) Cortico-bulbar fibers to orofacial muscles: recordings with enoral surface electrodes. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 105:8–14
Urban PP, Connemann B, Hundemer HP, Koehler J, Hopf HC (1996c) Course of the cortico-hypoglossal projections in the human brain stem. Functional testing by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain 119:1031–1038
Urban PP, Wicht S, Fitzek S, Marx J, Thomke F, Fitzek C, Hopf HC (1999b) Ipsilateral facial weakness in upper medullary infarction – supranuclear or infranuclear origin? J Neurol 246: 798–801
Urban PP, Wicht S, Marx J, Mitrovic S, Fitzek C, Hopf HC (1998) Isolated facial paresis due to pontine ischemia. Neurology 50:1859–1862
Urban PP, Wicht S, Vucurevic G, Fitzek S, Marx J, Thömke F, Mika-Grüttner A, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2001b) The course of cortico-facial projections in the human brainstem. Brain 124: 1866–1876
Urban PP, Wicht S, Vukurevic G, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Massinger C, Hopf HC (2001c) Dysarthria in ischemic stroke – localization and etiology. Neurology 56:1021–1027
Zakaria T, Flaherty MC (2006) Locked-in syndrome resulting from bilateral cerebral peduncle infarctions. Neurology 67:1889
Zickler P, Seitz RJ, Hartung HP, Hefter H (2005) Bilateral medullary pyramid infarction. Neurology 64:1801
“Sensory Disturbances”
Cerrato P, Imperiale D, Bergui M, Giraudo M, Baima C, Grasso M, Lo-piano L, Bergamasco B (2000) Restricted dissociated sensory loss in a patient with a lateral medullary syndrome. Stroke 31: 3064–3066
Combarros O, Berciano J, Oterino A (1996) Pure sensory deficit with crossed orocrural topography after pontine haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:534–535
Cruccu G, Pennisi E, Truini A, Ianetti GD, Romaniello A, Le Pera D, De Armas L, Leandri M, Manfredi M, Valeriani M (2003) Unmyelinated trigeminal pathways as assessed by laser stimuli in humans. Brain 126:2246–2256
Fitzek S, Baumgärtner U, Fitzek C, Magerl W, Urban P, Thömke F, Marx J, Treede RD, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2001) Mechanisms and predictors of chronic facial pain in lateral medullary infarction. Ann Neurol 49:493–500
Frese A, Husstedt I, Wingelstein EB, Evers S (2006) Pharmacologic treatment of central post-stroke pain. Clin J Pain 22:252–260
Graham SH, Sharp FR, Dillon W (1988) Intraoral sensation in patients with brainstem lesions: role of the rostral spinal trigeminal nuclei in pons. Neurology 38:1529–1533
Iizuka O, Hosokai Y, Mori E (2006) Trigeminal neuralgia due to pontine infarction. Neurology 66:48
Ikeda K, Iwasaki Y, Kishi H, Imai K, Kinoshita M (1995) Brain stem cheirooral syndrome: neurological signs for brain stem lesions. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 97:192–194
Julkunen L, Tenovuo O, Jääskeläinen SK, Hämäläinen H (2005) Recovery of somatosensory deficits in acute stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 111:366–372
Kamitani T, Kuroiwa Y, Hidaka M (2004) Isolated hypesthesia in the right V2 and V3 dermatomes after a midpontine infarction localised at an ipsilateral principal sensory trigeminal nucleus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1508–1589
Kim JS, Jo KD (1992) Pure lemniscal sensory deficit caused by pontine hemorrhage. Stroke 23:300–301
Kim JS, Lee JH, Lee MC (1997) Patterns of sensory dysfunction in lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 49:1557–1563
Kim JS (1993) Trigeminal sensory symptoms due to midbrain lesions. Eur Neurol 33:218–220
Lee S-H, Kim D-E, Song E-C, Roh J-K (2001) Sensory dermatomal representation in the medial lemniscus. Arch Neurol 58: 649–651
MacGowan DJL, Janal MN, Clark WC, Wharton RN, Lazar RM, Sacco RL, Mohr JP (1997) Central poststroke pain and Wallenberg’s lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 49:120–125
Minagar A, Sheremata WA (2000) Glossopharyngeal neuralgia and MS. Neurology 54:1368–1370
Nakamura K, Yamamoto T, Yamashita M (1996) Small medullary infarction presenting as painful trigeminal sensory neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:138
Peyron R, Garcia-Larrea L, Gregoire MC, Convers P, Lavenne F, Veyre L, Froment JC, Maugiere F, Michel D (1998) Laurent. Allodynia after lateralmedullary (Wallenberg) infarct. Brain 121:345–356
Schommer M, Weiß J, Kiehl P, Kapp A, Prawitz RH, Brodersen JP (2000) Trigeminotrophe Ulzeration des Nasenflügels bei Wallenberg-Syndrom. Hautarzt 51:434–438
Shiga K, Miyagawa M, Yamada K, Nakajima K (2003a) Pontine pseudoathetosis: lemniscal involvement visualized by axonal tracking method with diffusion tensor imaging. J Neurol 250:511–512
Stöhr M, Petruch F, Scheglmann K (1981) Somatosensory evoked potentials following trigeminal nerve stimulation in trigeminal neuralgia. Ann Neurol 9:63–66
Treede RD, Lorenz J, Baumgärtner U (2003) Clinical usefulness of laser-evoked potentials. Neurophysiol Clin 33:303–314
Urban PP, Hansen C, Baumgärtner U, Fitzek S, Marx J, Fitzek C, Treede RD, Hopf HC (1999c) Abolished laser-evoked potentials and normal blink reflex in midlateral medullary infarction. J Neurol 246:347–352
Valls-Solé J (2005) Neurophysiological assessment of trigeminal nerve reflexes in disorders of central and peripheral nervous system. Clin Neurophysiol 116:2255–2265
Vuadens P, Bogousslavsky J (1998) Face-arm-trunk-leg sensory loss limited to the contralateral side in lateral medullary infarction: a new variant. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:255–257
Yasuda Y, Akiguchi I, Ishikawa M, Kakeyama M (1988) Bilateral cheirooral syndrome following pontine hemorrhage. J Neurol 235:489–490
Yasuda Y, Watanabe T, Tanaka H, Ogura A (1998) Localizing value of bilateral cheiro-oral sensory impairment. Intern Med 37:982–985
Yekutiel M, Guttman E (1993) A controlled trial of the retraining of the sensory function of the hand in stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:241–244
“Bladder Disturbances”
Athwal BS, Berkley KJ, Hussain I, Brennan A, Craggs M, Sakakibara R, Frackowiak RSJ, Fowler CJ (2001) Brain responses to changes in bladder volume and urge to void in healthy men. Brain 124:369–377
Barrington FJF (1925) The effect of lesions of hind and midbrain on micturation in the cat. Q J Exp Physiol 127:958–963
Blok BF, Holstege G (1994) Direct projections from the periaqueductal gray to the pontine micturation center (M-region). An anterograde and retrograde tracing study in the cat. Neurosci Lett 166: 93–96
Blok BFM, Willemsen ATM, Holstege G (1997) A PET study on brain control of micturation in humans. Brain 120:111–121
Deleu D, El Siddij A, Kamran S, Hamad A, Salim K (2004) Urinary retention associated with mild rhombencephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1504–1509
Grifiths D, Holstege G, Dalm E, de Wall H (1990) Control and coordination of bladder and urethral function in the brainstem of the cat. Neurourol Urodyn 9:63–82
Komiyama A, Kubota A, Hidai H (1998) Urinary retention with a unilateral lesion in the dorsolateral tegmentum of the rostral pons. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:953–954
Naganuma M, Inatomi Y, Yonehara T, Hashimoto Y, Hirano T, Uchino M (2005) Urinary retention associated with unilateral medullary infarction. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 45:431–436
Nour S, Svarer C, Kristensen JKI, Paulson OB, Law I (2000) Cerebral activation during micturation in normal men. Brain 123:781–789
Vanderhorst VG, Mouton LJ, Blok BF, Holstege G (1996) Distinct cell groups in the lumbosacral cord in the cat project to different areas in the periaqueductal gray. J Comp Neurol 376:361–385
Yaguchi H, Soma H, Miyazaki Y, Tashiro J, Yabe I, Kikuchi S, Sasaki H (2004) A case of urinary retention caused by periaqueductal grey lesion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1200–1207
“Drop Attacks”
Baloh RW, Jacobson K, Winter T (1990) Drop attacks with Meniere’s syndrome. Ann Neurol 28:384–387
Brantberg K, Ishiyama A, Baloh RW (2005) Drop attacks secondary to superior canal dehiscence syndrome. Neurology 64:2126–2128
Brust JCM, Plank CR, Healton EB, Sanchez GF (1979) The pathology of drop attacks: a case report. Neurology 29:786–790
Gerstner E, Liberato B, Wright CB (2005) Bi-hemispheric anterior cerebral artery with drop attacks and limb shaking TIAs. Neurology 65:174
Grunwald T, Mothersill I, Krämer G (2005) Stürze. In: Schmitz B, Tettenborn B (eds) Paroxysmale Störungen in der Neurologie. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 27–49
Kubala M, Milikan C (1964) Diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment of drop attacks. Arch Neurol 11:107–113
Lee MS, Choi YC, Heo JH, Choi IS (1994) Drop attacks with stiffening of the right leg associated with posterior fossa arachnoid cyst. Mov Disord 9:377–378
Meisner I, Wiebers DO, Swanson JW, O’Fallon WM (1986) The natural history of drop attacks. Neurology 36:1029–1034
Mumenthaler M (ed) (1984) Synkopen und Sturzanfälle. Thieme, Stuttgart, p 55
Schelosky L (2005) Paroxysmale Bewegungsstörungen. In: Schmitz B, Tettenborn B (eds) Paroxysmale Störungen in der Neurologie. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 156–175
Stevens DL, Mathews WB (1973) Cryptogenetic drop attacks: an affliction of women. Br Med J I:439–442
Tinuper P, Cerullo A, Marini C, Avoni P, Rosati A, Riva R, Baruzzi A, Lugaresi E (1998) Epileptic drop attacks in partial epilepsy: clinical features, evolution, and prognosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64:231–237
“Respiratory Disturbances”
Holstege G (1991) Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system: limbic and non-limbic components. Prog Brain Res 87:307–421
Hui SHL, Wing YK, Poon W, Chan YL, Bukley TA (2000) Alveolar hypoventilation syndrome in brainstem glioma with improvement after surgical resection. Chest 118:266–268
Lanczik O, Szabo K, Lecei O, Binder J, Thiel S, Gass A, Hennerici M (2006) Central respiratory dysfunction following vertebral artery dissection. Neurology 66:944
Lassman AB, Mayer SA (2005) Paroxysmal apnea and vasomotor instability following medullary infarction. Arch Neurol 62:1286–1288
Munschauer FE, Mador MJ, Ahuja A, Jacobs L (1991) Selective paralysis of voluntary but not limbically influenced automatic respiration. Arch Neurol 48:1190–1192
Oya S, Tsutsumi K, Yonekura I, Inoue T (2001) Delayed central respiratory dysfunction after Wallenberg’s syndrome. Neurol Med Chir Tokyo 41:502–504
Plum F, Posner JB (1982) The diagnosis of stupor and coma. Davis, Philadelphia
Rao GSU, Ramesh VJ, Lalla RK (2005) Ventilatory management and weaning in a patient with central hypoventilation caused by a brainstem cavernoma. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 49:1214–1217
Schäfer D, Bianchi O, Greulich W, Schäfer C, Schäfer T, Schläfke ME (1996) Störungen von Schlaf und Atmung bei Patienten mit Hirnstammläsionen. Wien Med Wschr 146:296–298
Schestatsky P, Fernandes LNT (2004) Acquired ondine’s curse. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 62:523–527
Smith JC, Ellenberger HH, Ballanyi K, Richter DW, Feldman JL (1991) Pre-Bötzinger complex: a brainstem region that may generate respiratory rhythm in mammals. Science 254:726–729
Urban PP, Morgenstern M, Brause K, Wicht S, Vucurevic G, Kessler S, Stoeter P (2002) Distribution of cortico-respiratory projections for voluntary activation in man. J Neurol 249:735–744
Whit DP, Zwillich CW, Pickett CR (1982) Central sleep apnea. Improvement with acetazolamide therapy. Ann Intern Med 142:1816–1819
“Disturbances of Consciousness”
Markowitsch HJ (1999) Funktionelle anatomie von Bewusstsein und Bewusstseinsstörungen. In: Hopf HC, Deuschl G, Diener HC, Reich-mann H (eds) Neurologie in Praxis und Klinik. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 61–65
Parvizi J, Damasio AR (2003) Neuroanatomical correlates of brainstem coma. Brain 126:1524–1536
Posner JB, Saper CB, Schiff ND, Plum F (2007) Plum and posner’s diagnosis of stupor and coma. Oxford University Press, New York
Moruzzi G, Magoun HW (1949) Brainstem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroenecphalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1:455–473
Thömke F (2001c) Augenbewegungsstörungen im Koma. In: Thömke F (ed) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 229–234
“Brain Death Diagnosis in Primary Brainstem Injury”
Besser R (1994) EEG-Diagnostik beim Hirntod. EEG Labor 16:64–74
Bonetti MG, Ciritella P, Valle G, Perrone E (1995) 99mTc-HMPAO brain perfusion SPECT in brain death. Neuroradiology 37:365–369
Buchner H, Schuchardt V (1990) Reliability of electroencephalogram in the diagnosis of brain death. Eur Neurol 30:138–141
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Klinische Neurophysiologie (1994) Empfehlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Klinische Neurophysiologie (Deutsche EEG-Gesellschaft) zur Bestimmung des Hirntodes. Z EEG EMG 25:163–166
George MS (1991) Establishing brain death: the potential role of nuclear medicine in the search for reliable confirmatory test. Eur J Nucl Med 12:707–713
Goodman JM, Heck LL, Moore BD (1985) Confirmation of brain death with portable isotope angiography: a review of 204 consecutive patients. Neurosurgery 16:492–497
Grigg MM, Kelly MA, Celesia GG, Ghobrial MW, Ross ER (1987) Electroencephalographic activity after brain death. Arch Neurol 44:948–954
Hassler W, Steinmetz H, Gawlowski J (1988) Trancranial Doppler ultrasonography in raised intracranial pressure and intracranial circulatory arrest. J Neurosurg 68:745–751
Lemmon GW, Franz RW, Roy N, McCarthy MC, Peoples JB (1995) Determination of brain death with use of color duplex scanning in the intensive care unit setting. Arch Surg 130:517–522
Pallis C (1995) Brainstem death. In: Braakman R (ed) Handbook of clinical neurology, vol 57 (volume 13 revised series). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 441–496
Payen DM, Lamer C, Pilorget A, Moreau T, Beloucif S, Echter E (1990) Evaluation of pulsed doppler common carotid blood flow as a noninvasive method for brain death diagnosis: a prospective study. Anesthesiology 72:222–226
Petty GW, Mohr JP, Pedley TA, Tatemichi TK, Lennihan L, Duterte DI, Sacco RL (1990) The role of transcranial Doppler in confirming brain death: Sensitivity, specificity, and suggestions for performance and interpretation. Neurology 40:300–303
Powers AD, Graeber MC, Smith RR (1989) Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography in the determination of brain death. Neurosurgery 24:884–889
Schlake H-P, Böttger IG, Grotemeyer K-H, Husstedt IW, Brandau W, Schober O (1992) Determination of cerebral perfusion by means of planar scintigraphy and 99mTc-HMPAO in brain death, persistent vegetative state and severe coma. Intensive Care Med 18:76–81
Wijdicks EFM (1995) Determining brain death in adults. Neurology 45:1003–1011
Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesärztekammer. Richtlinien zur Feststellung des Hirntodes. Dritte Fortschreibung 1997 mit Ergänzung gemäß Transplantationsgesetz (TPG) (1998). Dtsch Ärztebl 95: B1509–1516
“Clinical Brainstem Reflexes”
Addington WR, Stephens RE, Widdicombe JG, Rekab K (2005) Effect of stroke location on the laryngeal cough reflex and pneumonia risk. Cough 4:1–4
Davies AE, Kidd D, Stone SP, MacMahon J (1995) Pharyngeal sensation and gag reflex in healthy subjects. Lancet 345:487–488
Duus P (1983) Neurologisch-topische Diagnostik. Thieme, Stuttgart
Hughes TAT, Wiles CM (1996) Palatal and pharyngeal reflexes in health and in motor neuron disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:96–98
Ongerboer de Visser BW (1980) The corneal reflex: electrophysiological and anatomical data in man. Progr Neurobiol 15:71–83
Pantaleo T, Bongianni F, Mutolo D (2002) Central nervous mechanisms of cough. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 15:227–233
“Rare Findings/Symptoms”
Al Deeb SM, Sharif H, Al Moutaery K, Biary N (1991) Intractable hiccup induced by brainstem lesion. J Neurol Sci 103:144–150
Arif H, Mohr JP, Elkind MSV (2005) Stimulus-induced pathologic laughter due to basilar artery dissection. Neurology 64: 2154–2155
Arita H, Oshima T, Kita I, Sakamoto M (1994) Generation of hiccup by electrical stimulation in medulla of cats. Neurosci Lett 175:67–70
Braak H, Tredici KD, Rüb U, de Vos RAI, Jansen Steur ENH, Braak E (2003) Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 24:197–211
Brandt T, Dieterich M, Strupp M (2004) Vertigo. Steinkopff, Darmstadt, S. 54
Brandt T (1999b) Vertigo: its multisensory syndromes, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg
Cascino GD, Adams RD (1986) Brainstem auditory hallucinosis. Neurology 36:1042–1047
Cattaneo L, Cucurachi L, Chierici E, Pavesi G (2006) Pathological yawning as a presenting symptom of brain stem ischaemia in two patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77:98–100
Cerrato P, Lentini A, Baima C, Grasso M, Azzaro C, Bosco G, Destefanis E, Benna P, Bergui M, Bergamasco B (2005) Hypogeusia and hearing loss in a patient with an inferior collicular infarction. Neurology 65:1840–1841
Dabby R, Watemberg N, Lampl Y, Eilam A, Rapaport A, Sadeh M (2004) Pathological laughter as a symptom of midbrain infarction. Behav Neurol 15:73–76
Esteban Munoz J, Tolosa E, Saoz A, Vila N, Marti MJ, Blesa R (1996) Upperlimb dystonia secondary to a midbrain hemorrhage. Mov Disord 11:96–99
Fink JN (2001) Localization of the sneeze center. Neurology 56:138
Hersch M (2000) Loss of ability to sneeze in lateral medullary syndrome. Neurology 54:520–521
Hornby PJ (2001) Central neurocircuitry associated with emesis. Am J Med 111:106S–112S
Jacome DE (1997) Gaze-evoked orbicularis oculi myokymia. J Neuroophthalmol 17:95–100
Kamalakannan D, Ravi S, Moudgil SS (2004) Peduncular hallucinosis: unusual complication of cardiac catheterization. S Med J 97: 99–1000
Kataoka S, Hori A, Shirakawa T, Hirose G (1997) Paramedian pontine infarction. Stroke 28:809–815
Kaufman DK, Brown RD, Karnes WE (1994) Involuntary tonic spasms of a limb due to a brainstem lacunar infarction. Stroke 25: 217–219
Kellett MW, Young GR, Fletcher NA (1997) Painful tonic spasms and pure motor hemiparesis due to lacunar pontine infarct. Mov Disord 12:1094–1096
Kim BS, Kim YI, Lee KS (1995) Contralateral hyperhidrosis after cerebral infarction. Stroke 26:896–899
Kim JS (1997) Pathologic laughter after unilateral stroke. J Neurol Sci 148:121–125
Korpelainen JT, Huikuri HV, Sotaniemi KA, Myllylä VV (1996) Abnormal heart rate variability reflecting autonomic dysfunction in brainstem infarction. Acta Neurol Scand 94:337–342
Korpelainen JT, Sotaniemi KA, Myllylä VV (1993) Ipsilateral hypohidrosis in brainstem infarction. Stroke 24:100–104
LeDoux MS, Brady KA (2003) Secondary cervical dystonia associated with structural lesions of the central nervous system. Mov Disord 18:60–69
Lee B-C, Hwang SH, Rison R, Chang GY (1998) Central pathway of taste: clinical and MRI study. Eur Neurol 39:200–203
Manford M, Andermann F (1998) Complex visual hallucinations. Brain 121:1819–1840
Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Mika-Gruettner A, Thoemke F, Fitzek S, Vu-curevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC (2004b) Topodiagnostic investigations on the sympathoexcitatory brainstem pathway using a new method of three dimensional brainstem mapping. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:250–255
Marx JJ, Thömke F, Birklein F (2004c) Das Horner-Syndrom – ein update zur Neuroanatomie, topographischen Differentialdiagnostik und Ätiologie. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat 72:1–7
Meglic B, Kobal J, Osredkar J, Pogacnik T (2001) Autonomic nervous system function in patients with acute brainstem stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 11:2–8
Misu T, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, Sato S, Itoyama Y (2005) Intractable hiccup and nausea with periaqueductal lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 65:1479–1482
Morgan JC, Sethi KD (2003) Midbrain infarct with parkinsonism. Neurology 60:E10
Mumentahler M, Altermatt M (1967) Zur Klinik der tonischen Hirnstammanfälle. Schweiz Arch Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr 100: 70–87
Nikkah G, Prokop T, Hellwig B, Lücking CH, Ostertag CB (2004) Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus ventralis intermedius for Holmes (rubral) tremor and associated dystonia caused by upper brainstem lesions. J Neurosurg 100:1079–1083
Okuda DT, Chyung ASC, Chin CT, Waubant E (2005) Acute pathological laughter. Mov Disord 20:1389–1390
Orima S, Amino T, Tanaka H, Mitani K, Ishiwata K, Ishii K (2004) A case of hemiparkinsonism following ischemic lesion of the contralateral substantia nigra: a PET study. Eur Neurol 51: 175–177
Parisis D, Poulis I, Karkavelas G, Drevelengas A, Artemis N, Karacostas D (2003) Peduncular hallucinosis secondary to brainstem compression by cerebellar metastases. Eur Neurol 50:107–109
Park MH, Kim BJ, Koh SB, Park MK, Park KW, Lee DH (2005) Lesional location of lateral medullary infarction presenting hiccups (singultus). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:95–98
Patzner J, Pfister R, Pfadenhauer K (2004) Paradoxe Innervation der Kaumuskulatur bei ipsilateraler Hirnstammläsion. Akt Neurol 31:200–202
Pellecchia MT, Crisuolo C, Joanna G, D’Amico A, Santor L, Barone P (2003) Pure unilateral hyperhidrosis after pontine infarct. Neurology 61:1305
Phillips AM, Jardine DL, Parkin PJ, Hughes T, Ikram H (2000) Brain stem stroke causing baroreflex failure and paroxysmal hypertension. Stroke 31:1997–2001
Saglitz SA, Gaab MR (2002) Investigations using magnetic resonance imaging: is neurovascular compression present in patients with essential hypertension? J Neurosurg 96:1006–1012
Sawaii S, Sakakibara R, Kanai K, Kawaguchi N, Uchiyama T, Yamamoto T, Ito T, Liu Z, Haltori T (2006) Isolated vomiting due to a unilateral dorsal vagal complex lesion. Eur Neurol 56: 246–248
Schielke E, Reuter U, Hoffmann O, Weber JR (2000) Musical hallucinations with dorsal pontine lesions. Neurology 55:454–455
Seijo-Martinez M, Varela-Freijanes A, Grandes J, Varquez F (2006) Sneeze related area in the medulla: localisation of the human sneezing centre? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77:559–561
Sheperd GMG, Tauböll E, Bakke SJ, Nyberg-Hansen R (1997) Midbrain tremor and hypertrophic olivary degeneration after pontine hemorrhage. Mov Disord 12:432–437
Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y (1974) Painful tonic seizure in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 30:47–51
Shiga K, Miyagawa M, Yamada K, Nakajima K (2003) Pontine pseudoathetosis: lemniscal involvement visualized by axonal tracking method with diffusion tensor imaging. J Neurol 250: 511–512
Spissu A, Cannas A, Ferrigno P, Pelaghi AE, Spissu M (1999) Anatomic correlates of painful tonic spasms in multiple sclerosis. Mov Disord 14:331–335
Sunada I, Akano Y, Yamamoto S, Tashiro T (1995) Pontine haemorrhage causing disturbance of taste. Neuroradiology 37:659
Sved AF, Ito S, Sved JC (2003) Brainstem mechanisms of hypertension: role of the rostral ventrolateral medulla. Curr Hypertens Rep 5:262–268
Tan EK, Chan LL, Auchus AP (2005) Hemidystonia precipitated by acute pontine infarct. J Neurol Sci 234:109–111
Tiliket C, Ventre-Dominey J, Vighetto A, Grochowicki M (1996) Room tilt illusion. A central otolith dysfuction. Arch Neurol 53:1259–1264
Torres L, Codentino C, Suarez R (2002) Pseudoathetosis after medullary and pontine hemorrhage. Rev Neurol 34:89–90
Uesaka Y, Nose H, Ida M, Takagi A (1998) The pathway of gustatory fibres of the human ascends ipsilaterally in the pons. Neurology 50:827–828
Weidemann J, Sparing R (2002) Hemiageusia resulting from a cavernous haemangioma in the brain stem. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 73:319
Wild B, Rodden FA, Grodd W, Ruch W (2003) Neural correlates of laughter and humour. Brain 126:2121–2138
Williams DR (2004) Gaze-evoked brainstem myoklonus. Mov Disord 19:346–349
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Urban, P.P., Caplan, L.R. (2011). Diagnostic Findings. In: Urban, P., Caplan, L. (eds) Brainstem Disorders. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04203-4_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04203-4_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-04202-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-04203-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)