Skip to main content

Diagnostic Findings

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Brainstem Disorders
  • 2259 Accesses

Abstract

Brainstem lesions are often accompanied by disorders of ocular motility. This may be accounted for by the fact that functionally different types of eye movements are generated in different neuronal networks localized primarily in the brainstem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Literature

“Eye Movement Disturbances”

  • Abel LA, Daroff RB, Dell’Osso LF (1979) Horizontal pursuit defect nystagmus. Ann Neurol 5:449–452

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashe J, Hain TC, Zee DS, Schatz NJ (1991) Microsaccadic flutter. Brain 114:461–472

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Averbuch-Heller L, Kori AA, Rottach KG, Dell’Osso LF, Remler BF, Leigh RJ (1996) Dysfunction of pontine omnipause neurons causes impaired fixation: macrosaccadic oscillations with unilateral pontine lesions. Neuroophthalmology 16:99–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Averbuch-Heller L, Tusa RJ, Fuhry L, Rottach KG, Ganser GL, Heide W, Büttner U, Leigh RJ (1997) A double-blind controlled study of gabapentin and baclofen as treatment for acquired pendular nystagmus. Ann Neurol 41:818–825

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Averbuch-Heller L, Zivotofsky AZ, Das VE, DiScenna AO, Leigh RJ (1995) Investigations of the pathogenesis of acquired pendular nystagms. Brain 118:369–378

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baloh RW, Spooner JW (1981) Downbeat Nystagmus: a type of central vestibular nystagmus. Neurology 31:304–310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barton JJS, Cox TA (1993) Acquired pendular nystagmus in multiple sclerosis – clinical observations and the role of optic neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:262–267

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhidayasiri R, Plant GT, Leigh RJ (2000) A hypothetical scheme for brainstem control of vertical gaze. Neurology 54:1985–1993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M (1993) Skew deviation with ocular torsion: a vestibular brainstem sign of topographic diagnostic value. Ann Neurol 33:528–534

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M (1998) Two types of ocular tilt reaction: the ‘ascending’ pontomedullary VOR-OTR and the ‘descending’ mesencephalic integrator-OTR. Neuroophthalmology 19:83–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T (1990) Positional and positioning vertigo and nystagmus. J Neurol Sci 95:2–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T (1991) Benign paroxysmal positioning vertigo (BPPV). In Vertigo: its multisensory syndromes. 1st ed. London: Springer-Verlag, 39–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brodsky MC, Donahue SP, Vaphiades M, Brandt T (2006) Skew deviation revisited. Surv Opthalmol 51:105–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Büttner U, Brandt T, Helmchen C (1999) The direction of nystagmus is important for the diagnosis of central paroxysmal positioning nystagmus (cPPV). Neuro Ophthalmol 21:97–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon SC, Robinson DA (1987) Loss of the neural integrator of the oculomotor system from brain stem lesions in monkey. J Neurophysiol 57:1383–1409

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cher LM, Hochberg FH, Teruya J, Nitschke M, Valenzuela RF, Schmah-mann JD, Herbert M, Rosas HD, Stowell C (1995) Therapy for paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes in six patients with Protein A Column immunabsorption. Cancer 75:1678–1683

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chou T, Demer JL (1998) Isolated inferior rectus palsy caused by a metastasis to the oculomotor nucleus. Am J Ophthalmol 126:737–740

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett JJ, Schatz NJ, Shults WT, Behrens M, Berry RG (1981) Slowly alternating skew deviation: description of a pretectal syndrome in three patients. Ann Neurol 10:540–546

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford JD, Cadera W, Vilis T (1991) Generation of torsional and vertical eye position signals in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal. Science 252:1551–1553

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T, Fries W (1989) Otolith function in man. Results from a case of otolith Tullio phenomenon. Brain 112: 1377–1392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993a) Ocular torsion and tilt of subjective visual vertical are sensitive brainstem signs. Ann Neurol 33: 292–299

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993b) Ocular torsion and perceived vertical in oculomotor, trochlear and abducens nerve palsies. Brain 116: 1095–1104

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donahue SP, Lavin PJM, Hamed LM (1999) Tonic ocular tilt retraction simulating a superior oblique palsy. Arch Ophthalmol 117: 347–352

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donahue SP, Lavin PJM, Mohney B, Hamed L (2001) Skew deviation and inferior oblique palsy. Am J Ophthalmol 132:751–756

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher CM (1967) Some neuro-ophthalmological observations. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 30:383–392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ford CS, Schwartze GM, Weaver RG, Troost BT (1984) Monocular elevation paresis caused by an ipsilateral lesion. Neurology 34: 1264–1267

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gauntt CD, Kashii S, Nagata I (1995) Monocular elevation paresis caused by an oculomotor fascicular impairment. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol 15:11–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glasauer S, von Lindeiner H, Siebold C, Büttner U (2004) Vertical vestibular responses to head impulses are symmetric in downbeat nystagmus. Neurology 63:621–625

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halmagyi GM, Aw ST, Dehaene I, Curthoys IS, Todd MJ (1994) Jerk-waveform see-saw nystagmus due to unilateral meso-diencephalic lesions. Brain 117:775–788

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges TR, Hoyt WF (1982) Ocular tilt treaction due to an upper brainstem lesion: paroxysmal skew deviation, torsion, and oscillation of the eyes with head tilt. Ann Neurol 11:537–540

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helmchen C, Glasauer BK, Büttner U (1996) Contralesionally beating torsional nystagmus in a unilateral rostral midbrain lesion. Neurology 47:482–486

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helmchen C, Rambold H, Fuhry L, Büttner U (1998) Deficits in vertical and torsional eye movements after uni- and bilateral muscimol inactivation of the interstitial nucleus of Cajal of the alert monkey. Exp Brain Res 119:436–452

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helmchen C, Rambold H, Sprenger A, Erdmann C, Binkofski F (2003) Cerebellar activation in opsoclonus. An fMRI study. Neurology 61:412–415

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helmchen C, Straube A, Büttner U (1994) Saccadic lateropulsion in Wallenberg’s syndrome may be caused by a functional lesion of the fastigial nucleus. J Neurol 241:421–426

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hommel M, Bogousslavsky J (1991) The spectrum of vertical gaze palsy following unilateral brainstem stroke. Neurology 41:1229–1234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ito M, Nisimaru N, Yamamoto M (1977) Specific patterns of connexions involved in the control of the rabbit’s vestibulo-ocular reflexes by the cerebellar flocculus. J Physiol Lond 265:833–854

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jampel RS, Fells P (1968) Monocular elevation paresis caused by a central nervous system lesion. Arch Ophthalmol 80:45–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalla R, Deutschlander A, Hufner K, Stephan T, Jahn K, Glasauer S, Brandt T (2006) Strupp. Detection of floccular hypometabolism in downbeat nystagmus by fMRI. Neurology 66:281–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalla R, Glasauer S, Büttner U, Brandt T, Strupp M (2007) 4-aminopyridine restores vertical and horizontal neural integrator function in downbeat nystagmus. Brain 130:2441–2451

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keane JR (1985) Alternating skew deviation: 47 patients. Neurology 35:725–728

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane JR (1975) Ocular skew deviation. Analysis of 100 cases. Arch Neurol 32:185–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane JR (1990) The pretectal syndrome. 206 patients. Neurology 40:684–690

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kömpf D (1992) Die internukleäre Ophthalmoplegie der Abduktion nach Lutz (‘hintere’ INO) – ein sinnvolles Syndrom? Akt Neurol 19:25–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kommerell G, Hoyt WF (1973) Lateropulsion of saccadic eye movements. Electro-oculographic studies in a patient with Wallenberg’s syndrome. Arch Neurol 28:313–318

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon JH, Kwon SU, Ahn HS, Sung KB, Kim JS (2003) Isolated superior rectus palsy due to contralateral midbrain infarction. Arch Neurol 60:1633–1635

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee AG, Tang RA, Wong GG, Schiffman JS, Singh S (2000) Isolated inferior rectus muscle palsy resulting from a nuclear third nerve lesion as the initial manifestation of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroophthalmol 20:246–247

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh RJ, Foley JM, Remler BF, Civil RH (1987) Oculogyric crisis: a syndrome of thought disorder and ocular deviation. Ann Neurol 22: 13–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh RJ, Zee DS (2006) The neurology of eye movements. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lessell S (1975) Supranuclear paralysis of monocular elevation. Neurology 25:1134–1136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez L, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Du Boulay EP, Rudge P (1996a) Clinical and MRI correlates in 27 patients with acquired pendular nystagmus. Brain 119:465–472

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez L, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Rudge P, du Boulay EP (1992) Torsional nystagmus. A neuro-otological and MRI study of thirty five cases. Brain 115:1107–1124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marti S, Palla A, Straumann D (2002) Gravity dependence of ocular drift in patients with cerebellar downbeat nystagmus. Ann Neurol 52:712–721

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marti S, Straumann D, Glasauer S (2005) The origin of downbeat nystagmus. An asymmetry in the distribution of on-directions of vertical gazevelocity purkinje cells. Ann NY Acad Sci 1039:548–553

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller NR, Keane JR (1998) Spasm of the near reflex. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ (eds) Walsh & Hoyt’s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol 1. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 1780–1782

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JM, Smith JL, Quencer RM (1981) Periodic alternating skew deviation. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1:5–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moster ML, Schatz NJ, Savino PJ, Benes S, Bosley TM, Sergott RC (1988) Alternating skew on lateral gaze (bilateral abducting hypertropia). Ann Neurol 23:190–192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Negoro K, Sasabe F, Morimatsu M (1993) Isolated inferior rectus paresis from midbrain infarction. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 33:434–436

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ochs AL, Stark L, Hoyt WF, D’Amico D (1979) Opposed adducting saccades in convergence-retraction nystagmus. A patient with sylvian aqueduct syndrome. Brain 102:497–508

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parks MM (1958) Isolated cyclovertical muscle palsy. Arch Ophthalmol 60:1027–1035

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pless M, Ronthal M (1996) Treatment of opsoclonus-myoclonus with highdose intravenous immunoglobulin. Neurology 46:583–584

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pullicino P, Lincoff N, Truax BT (2000) Abnormal vergence with upper brainstem infarcts. Pseudoabducens palsy. Neurology 55:352–358

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pusateri TJ, Sedwick LA, Margo CE (1987) Isolated inferior rectus muscle palsy from a solitary metastasis to the oculomotor nucleus. Arch Ophthalmol 105:675–677

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rabinovich HE, Sharpe JA, Sylvester TO (1977) The ocular tilt reaction. A paroxysmal dyskinesia asssciated with elliptical nystagmus. Arch Ophthalmol 95:1395–1398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rambold H, Helmchen C, Büttner U (1999) Unilateral muscimol inactivations of the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the alert rhesus monkey do not elict seesaw nystagmus. Neurosci Lett 272:75–78

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rambold H, Helmchen C, Straube A, Büttner U (1998) Seesaw nystagmus associated with involuntary torsional head oscillations. Neurology 51:831–837

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rambold H, Kömpf D, Helmchen C (2001) Convergence retraction nystagmus: a disorder of vergence? Ann Neurol 50:679–681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rambold H, Neumann G, Helmchen C (2004) Vergence deficits in pontine lesions. Neurology 62:1850–1853

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sakata E, Ohtsu K, Itoh Y (1991) Positional nystagmus of benign paroxysmal type (BPPN) due to cerebellar vermis lesions. Pseudo-BPPN. Acta Otolaryngol 481:254–257

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shallo-Hoffmann J, Schwarze H, Simonsz HJ, Mühlendyck H (1990) A reexamination of end-point and rebound nystagmus in normals. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31:388–392

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith CH (1998) Divergence weakness and its relationship to abducens nerve palsy. In: Miller NR, Newman NJ (eds) Walsh & Hoyt‘s clinical neuro-ophthalmology, vol 1. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 1257–1258

    Google Scholar 

  • Straube A, Leigh RJ, Bronstein A, Heide W, Riordan-Eva P, Tijssen CC, Dehaene I, Straumann D (2004) EFNS task force – therapy of nystagmus and oscillopsia. Eur J Neurol 11:83–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strupp M, Schuler O, Krafczyk S, Jahn K, Schautzer F, Buttner U, Brandt T (2003) Treatment of downbeat nystagmus with 3, 4-diaminopyridine: a placebo-controlled study. Neurology 61: 165–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki DA, Yamada T, Hoedema R, Yee RD (1999) Smooth-pursuit eye-movement deficits with chemical lesions in macaque nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis. J Neurophysiol 82:1178–1186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Hopf HC, Krämer G (1992) Internuclear ophthalmoplegia of abduction: clinical and electrophysiological data on the existence of an abduction paresis of prenuclear origin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:105–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Hopf HC (2001) Abduction paresis with rostral pontine and/or mesencephalic lesions: Pseudoabducens palsy and its relation to the so-called posterior internuclear ophthalmoplegia of Lutz. BMC Neurol 1:4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Hopf HC (1992) Aquired monocular elevation paresis – an asymmetric upgaze palsy. Brain 115:1901–1910

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Strothjohann M, Mika-Grüttner A (2000) Adaptive Phänome bei internukleärer Ophthalmoplegie. Klin Neurophysiol 31:16–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (2001) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 128–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (2002) Brainstem diseases causing isolated ocular motor nerve palsies. Neuroophthalmology 28:53–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (1993) The internuclear ophthalmoplegias. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem Localization and function. Springer, Berlin pp 119–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (1996) Some observations on abduction nystagmus in internuclear ophthalmoplegia. Neuroophthalmologie 16:27–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wall M, Wray SH (1983) The one-and-a-half syndrome – a unilateral disorder of the pontine tegmentum: a study of 20 cases and review of the literature. Neurology 33:971–980

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westheimer G, Blair SM (1975) The ocular tilt reaction – a brainstem oculomotor routine. Invest Ophthalmol 14:833–839

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiest G, Baumgartner C, Schnider P, Trattnig S, Deecke L, Mueller C (1996) Monocular elevation paresis and contralateral downgaze paresis from unilateral mesodiencephalic infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 60:579–581

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wong AMF, Musallam S, Tomlinson RD, Shannon P, Sharpe JA (2001) Opsoclonus in three dimensions: oculographic, neuropathologic and modelling correlates. J Neurol Sci 189:71–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zee DS, Friendlich AR, Robinson DA (1974) The mechanism of downbeat nystagmus. Arch Neurol 30:227–237

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zee DS, Hain TC, Carl JR (1987) Abduction nystagmus in internuclear ophthalmoplegia. Ann Neurol 21:383–388

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zee DS, Robinson DA (1979) A hypothetical explanation of saccadic oscillations. Ann Neurol 5:405–414

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zee DS (1996) Considerations on the mechanism of alternating skew deviation in patients with cerebellar lesions. J Vest Res 6:395–401

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Horner’s Syndrome”

  • Amonoo-Kuofi HS (1999) Horner’s syndrome revisited: With an update of the central pathway. Clin Anat 12:345–361

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birklein F, Spitzer A, Riedl B (1999) Die Schweißmessung zur Diagnostik autonomer Störungen. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 67:287–295

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter MB (1985) Core text of neuroanatomy. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 266–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopf HC, Fitzek C, Marx J, Urban PP, Thömke F (2000a) Isolated emotional facial paresis in pontine pathology. Neurology 54:1217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horner JF (1869) Über eine Form von Ptosis. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkunde 7:193–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe NS (1950) Localization of lesions causing Horner’s syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 44:710–728

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee AG, Hayman LA, Tang RA, Schiffman JS, Nagy AN (1996) An imaging guide for Horner’s syndrome. Int J Neurorad 2:196–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Loewy AD, Araujo JC, Kerr FW (1973) Pupillodilatator pathways in the brain stem of the cat: anatomical and electrophysiological identification of a central autonomic pathway. Brain Res 60:65–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Low PA, Walsh JC, Huang CJ, McLeod G (1975) The sympathetic nervous system in diabetic neuropathy. A clinical and pathological study. Brain 98:341–356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maloney WF, Younge BR, Moyer NJ (1980) Evaluation of the causes and accuracy of pharmacological localization in Horner’s syndrome. Am J Ophthal 90:394–402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Mika-Gruettner A, Thoemke F, Fitzek S, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC (2003) Topodiagnostic investigations on the sympathoexcitatory brainstem pathway using a new method of three-dimensional brainstem mapping. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:250–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Minor V (1927) Ein neues Verfahren zu der klinischen Untersuchung der Schweißabsonderung. Z Neurol 101:302–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosqueda-Garcia R (1996) Central autonomic regulation. In: Robertson D, Low PA, Polinsky RJ (eds) Primer on the autonomic nervous system. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy AN, Hayman LA, Diaz-Marchan PJ, Lee AG (1997) Horner’s syndrome due to first-order neuron lesions of the oculosympathetic pathway. Am J Radiol 169:581–584

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nathan PW, Smith MC (1986) The location of descending fibres to sympathetic neurons supplying the eye and sudomotor neurons supplying the head and neck. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 49:187–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pilley SFJ, Thompson HF (1975) Pupillary dilatation lag in Horner’s syndrome. Br J Opthal 59:731–735

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saper CB, Loewy AD, Swanson LW, Cowan WM (1976) Direct hypothalamoautonomic connections. Brain Res 117:305–312

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schliack H (1976) Ninhydrin-Schweißtest nach Moberg. Dtsch Med Wochen Schr 101:1336

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith SA, Smith SE (1999) Bilateral Horner’s syndrome: detection and occurrence. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:48–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (2001b) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm H (1988) Störungen der Pupillomotorik. In: Huber A, Kömpf D (eds) Klinische Neuroophthalmologie. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 623–630

    Google Scholar 

“Central Vestibular Disturbances”

  • Averbuch-Heller L, Tusa RJ, Fuhry L, Rottach KG, Ganser GL, Heide W, Büttner U, Leigh RJ (1997) A double-blind controlled study of gabapentin and baclofen as treatment for acquired nystagmus. Ann Neurol 41:818–825

    Google Scholar 

  • Baier B, Bense S, Dietrich M (2008) Are signs of ocular tilt reaction in patients with cerebellar lesions mediated by the dentate nucleus? Brain 131:1445–1454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baier B, Dieterich M (2009) Ocular tilt reaction – a clinical sign of cerebellar infarctions? Neurology 72(6):572–573

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baier B, Stoeter P, Dieterich M (2009) Anatomical correlates of ocular motor deficits in cerebellar lesions. Brain 132(8):2114–2124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bense S, Best C, Buchholz HG, Wiener V, Schreckenberger M, Barten-stein P, Dieterich M (2006) 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose hypometabolism in cerebellar tonsil and flocculus in downbeat nystagmus. NeuroReport 17:599–603

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M, Strupp MV (2003) Leitsymptom Schwindel. Steinkopff, Darmstadt

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M (1995) Central vestibular syndromes in the roll, pitch, and jaw planes. Topographic diagnosis of brainstem disorders. Neuroophthalmology 15:291–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M (1994) Vestibular syndromes in the roll plane: Topo-graphic diagnosis from brainstem to cortex. Ann Neurol 36:337–347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Brandt TV (1999) Its multisensory syndromes, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox TA, Corbett JJ, Thompson HS, Lennarson L (1981) Upbeat nystagmus changing to downbeat nystagmus with convergence. Neurology 31:891–892

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Das VE, Orugenti P, Kramer PD, Leigh RJ (2000) Experimental tests of a neu-ral network model for ocular oscillations caused by disease of central myelin. Exp Brain Res 133:189–197

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993c) Ocular torsion and tilt of subjective visual vertical are sensitive brainstem signs. Ann Neurol 33: 292–299

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T (1993d) Thalamic infarctions: Differential effects on ves-tibular function in the roll plane (35 patients). Neurology 43:1732–1740

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Brandt T (1992) Wallenberg’s syndrome: lateropulsion, cycloro-tation, and subjective visual vertical, indicating midbrain lesions. Neuroophthalmology 31:399–408

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich M, Straube A, Brandt T, Paulus W, Büttner U (1991) The effects of baclofen and cholinergic drugs on upbeat and downbeat nystagmus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54:627–632

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endres M, Heide W, Kömpf D (1996) See-saw nystagmus. Clinical aspects, diagnosis, pathophysiology: observations in 2 patients. Nervenarzt 67:484–489

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furman JMR, Wall C, Pang D (1986) Vestibular function in periodic alternat-ing nystagmus. Brain 113:1425–1439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glasauer S, Dieterich M, Brandt T (2001) Central positional nystagmus simu-lated by a mathematical ocular motor model of otolith-dependent modification of Listing’s plane. J Neurophysiol 86: 1546–1554

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glasauer S, Kalla R, Büttner U, Strupp M, Brandt T (2005) 4-aminopyridine restores visual ocular motor function in upbeat nystagmus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:451–453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halamgyi GM, Leigh RJ (2004) Upbeat about downbeat nystagmus. Neurology 63:606–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halmagyi GM, Aw ST, Dehaene I, Curthoys IS, Todd MJ (1994b) Jerk waveform see-saw nystagmus due to unilateral meso-diencephalic lesion. Brain 117:789–803

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halmagyi GM, Curthoys IS (1988) A clinical sign of canal paresis. Arch Neurol 45:737–739

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halmagyi GM, Rudge P, Gresty MA, Sander SMD (1983) Downbeating nys-tagmus. Review of 62 cases. Arch Neurol 40:777–784

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen JC, Larner AJ, Morris H, Bronstein AM, Farmer SF (1998) Upbeat nystagmus: clinicoanatomical correlation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:380–381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalla R, Glasauer S, Schautzer F, Lehnen N, Büttner U, Strupp U, Brandt T (2004) 4-aminopyridine improves downbeat nystagmus, smooth pursuit, and VOR gain. Neurology 61:165–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh RJ, Burnstine TH, Ruff RL, Kasmer RJ (1991) The effect of anticholinergic agents upon acquired nystagmus: a double-blind study of trihexy-phenidyl and trihexethyl chloride. Neurology 41:1737–1741

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh RJ, Zee DS. The neurology of eye movements. 4th ed. Oxford Uni-versity Press, New York 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez LI, Bronstein AM, Gresty MA, Du Boulay EP, Rudge P (1996) Clinical and MRI correlates in 27 patients with acquired pendular nystag-mus. Brain 119:465–472

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Milea D, Sirmai J, Papeix C, Rivaud-Pechoux S (2005) Upbeat nystagmus due to a small pontine lesion: evidence for existence of a crossing ventral tegmental tract. Eur Neurol 54:186–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ranalli RJ, Sharpe JA (1988) Upbeat nystagmus and the ventral tegmental pathway of the upward vestibulo-ocular reflex. Neurology 38:1329–1330

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl JS, Averbuch-Heller L, Leigh RJ (2000) Acquired nystagmus. Arch Ophthalmol 118:544–549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Starck M, Albrecht H, Pöllmann W, Straube A, Dieterich M (1997) Drug therapy of acquired nystagmus in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 244:9–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Starck M, Albrecht H, Pöllmann W, Straube A, Dieterich M (2010) Acquired pendular nystagmus in multiple sclerosis: an examiner-blind cross-over study of memantine and gabapentin. J Neurol 257(3):322–337

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straube A, Leigh RJ, Bronstein A, Heide W, Riordan-Eva P, Tijssen CC, Dehaene I, Straumann D (2004) EFNS task force – therapy of nystagmus and oscillopsia. European J Neurol 11:83–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Strupp M, Schüler O, Krafczyk S, Jahn K, Schautzer F, Büttner U, Brandt T (2003b) Treatment of downbeat nystagmus with 3.4-diaminopyridine – a placebo-controlled study. Neurology 61: 165–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waespe W, Cohen B, Raphan T (1985) Dynamic modification of the vestibu-loocular reflex by nodulus and uvula. Science 228: 199–202

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Tinnitus and Auditory Disturbances”

  • Adams PF, Hendershot GE, Marano MA (1999) Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, 1996. National Center for Health Statistics 1999, Hyattsville, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson G, Lyttkens L, Hirvela C, Furmark T, Tillfors M, Frederikson M (2000) Regional cerebral blood flow during tinnitus: a PET case study with lidocaine and auditory stimulation. Acta Otolaryngol 120:967–972

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen GD, Jastreboff PJ (1995) Salicylate-induced abnormal activity in the in-ferior colliculus of rats. Hear Res 82:158–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobie RA (1999) A review of randomized clinical trials in tinnitus. Laryngoscope 109:1202–1211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobie RA (2003) Depression and tinnitus. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 36:383–388

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eggermont JJ, Kenmochi M (1998) Salicylate and quinine selectively increase spontaneous firing rates in secondary auditory cortex. Hear Res 117:149–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giraud AL, Chery-Croze S, Fischer C, Vighetto A, Gregoire MC, Collet L (1999) A selective imaging of tinnitus. NeuroReport 10:1–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Häusler R, Levine RA (2000) Auditory dysfunction in stroke. Acta Otolaryngol 120:689–703

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller AJ (2003) Classification and epdemiology of tinnitus. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 36:239–248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jastreboff PJ, Sasaki CT (1994) An animal model of tinnitus: a decade of devel-opment. Am J Otol 15:19–27

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaltenbach JA, Zhang J, Finlayson P (2005) Tinnitus as a plastic phenomenon and its possible neural underpinnings in the dorsal cochlear nucleus. Hear Res 206:200–226

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee H, Baloh RW (2005) Sudden deafness in vertebrobasilar ischemia: clinical features, vascular topographical patterns and long-term outcome. J Neurol Sci 228:99–104

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lenarz T (1998) Leitlinie Tinnitus der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde, Kopf- und Hals-Chirurgie. Laryngorhinootologie 77:531–535

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levine RA (1999) Somatic (craniocervical) tinnitus and the dorsal cochlear nucleus hypothesis. Am J Otolaryngol 20:351–362

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood AH, Salvi RJ, Burkhard RF (2002) Tinnitus. New Engl J Med 347:904–910

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood AH, Salvi RJ, Coad ML, Towsley ML, Wack DS, Murphy BW (1998) The functional anatomy of tinnitus: evidence for limbic system links and neuronal plasticity. Neurology 50:114–120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood AH, Wack DS, Burkard RF, Coad ML, Reyes SA, Arnold SA, Salvi RJ (2001) The functional anatomy of gaze-evoked tinnitus and sus-tained lateral gaze. Neurology 56:472–480

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Melcher JR, Sigalovsky IS, Guinan JJ Jr, Levine RA (2000) Lateralized tinnitus studied with functional magnetic resonance imaging: abnormal inferior colliculus activation. J Neurophysiol 83: 1058–1072

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mühlnickel W, Elbert T, Taub E, Flor H (1998) Reorganization of auditory cortex in tinnitus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:10340–10343

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller M, Klinke R, Arnold W, Östreicher E (2003) Auditory nerve fibre responses to salicylate revisited. Hear Res 183:37–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reyes SA, Salvi RJ, Burkard RF, Coad ML, Wack DS, Galantowicz PJ, Lookwood AH (2002) Brain imaging of the effects of lidocaine on tinnitus. Hear Res 171:43–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salvi RJ, Saunders SS, Gratton MA, Arehole S, Powers N (1990) Enhanced evoked response amplitudes in the inferior colliculus of the chinchilla following acoustic trauma. Hear Res 50:245–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salvi RJ, Wang J, Ding D (2000) Auditory plasticity and hyperactivity following cochlear damage. Hear Res 147:261–274

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schweri T, Geusing BG (1996) Acute vestibular deficit with initial deafness as the first manifestation of late onset multiple sclerosis. HNO 44:397–399

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weissmann JL, Hirsch BE (2000) Imaging of tinnitus. A review. Radiology 216:342–349

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaffaroni M, Baldinin SM, Ghezzi A (2001) Cranial nerve, brainstem and cerebellar syndromes in the differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Neuro Sci 22:74–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

“Intra-axial Cranial Nerve Lesions”

  • Achard C, Lévi L (1901) Paralysie totale et isolée du moteur oculaire commun par foyer de ramollisement pédonculaire. Rev Neurol 9:646–648

    Google Scholar 

  • Asbury AK, Aldredge H, Hershberg R, Fisher CM (1970) Oculomotor palsy in diabetes mellitus: a clinico-pathological study. Brain 93:555–566

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benito-Léon J, Alvarez-Cermeño JC (2003) Isolated total tongue paralysis as a manifestation of bilateral medullary infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74:1698–1699

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogousslavsky J, Maeder P, Regli F, Meuli R (1994) Pure midbrain infarction: Clinical syndromes, MRI, and etiologic patterns. Neurology 44:2032–2040

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T (1999a) Miscellaneous central vestibular disorders. In: Brandt T (ed) Vertigo. Its multisensory syndromes. Springer, London, pp 241–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Burde RM, Savino PJ, Trobe JD (1992) Incomitant ocular misalignment. In: Burde RM, Savino PJ, Trobe JD (eds) Clinical decisions in neuro-ophthalmology. Mosby Year Book, St. Louis, pp 239–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreyfus PM, Hakim S, Adams RD (1957) Diabetic ophthalmoplegia: report of a case with postmortem study and comments on vascular supply of human oculomotor nerve. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 77:337–349

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duvernoy AM (1978) Human brainstem vessels. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher CM (1982) Lacunar strokes and infarcts: a review. Neurology 32:871–876

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Francis DA, Bronstein AM, Rudge P, du Boulay EP (1992) The site of brainstem lesions causing semicircular canal paresis: an MRI study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:446–449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassler O (1967) Arterial pattern of human brainstem. Normal appearance and deformation in expanding supratentorial conditions. Neurology 17:368–375

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopf HC (1994a) Topodiagnostic value of brainstem reflexes. Muscle Nerve 17:475–484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs L, Kaba S, Pullicino P (1994) The lesion causing continous facial myokymia in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 51: 1115–1119

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamitani T, Kuroiwa Y, Hidaka M (2004a) Isolated hypesthesia in the right V2 and V3 dermatomes after a midpontine infarction localised at an ipsilateral principal sensory trigeminal nucleus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1508–1509

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane JR, Ahmadi J (1998) Most diabetic third nerve palsies are peripheral. Neurology 51:1910

    Google Scholar 

  • Krasnianski M, Neudecker S, Zierz S (2004) Klassische alternierende Syndrome der Brücke. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 72:460–468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krasnianski M, Winterholler M, Neudecker S, Zierz S (2003a) Klassische alternierende medulla-oblongata-syndrome. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 71:397–405

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumral E, Bayulkem G, Akyol A, Yunten N, Sirin H, Sagduyu A (2002a) Mesencephalic and associated posterior circulation infarcts. Stroke 33:2224–2231

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumral E, Bayülkem G, Evyapa D (2002b) Clinical spectrum of pontine infarction. Clinical-MRI correlations. J Neurol 249:1659–1670

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee H, Cho YW (2004) A case of isolated nodulus infarction presenting as a vestibular neuritis. J Neurol Sci 221:117–119

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee H, Yi HA, Cho YW, Sohn CH, Whitman GT, Ying S, Baloh RW (2003) Nodulus infarction mimicking acute peripheral vestibulopathy. Neurology 63:1700–1702

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu GT, Crenner CW, Logigian EL, Charness ME, Samuels MA (1992) Midbrain syndromes of Benedikt, Claude, and Nothnagel: setting the records straight. Neurology 42:1820–1822

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Mika-Grüttner A, Thömke F, Fitzek S, Fitzek C, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2002) Electrophysiological brainstem testing in the diagnosis of reversible brainstem ischemia. J Neurol 249:1041–1047

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Thömke F, Mika-Gruettner A, Fitzek S, Vucurevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2004) Diffusionsgewichtetes MRT bei vertebrobasilären Ischämien. Anwendung, Sensitivität und prognostischer Wert. Nervenarzt 75:341–346

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Messé SR, Shin RK, Liu GT, Galetta SL, Volpe NJ (2001) Oculomotor synkinesis following a midbrain stroke. Neurology 57:1106–1107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohr JP (1982) Lacunes. Stroke 13:3–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuys R, Voogd J, van Huijzen C (1989) The human central nervous system. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards BW, Jones FR, Younge BR (1992) Causes and prognosis in 4 278 cases of paralysis of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens cranial nerves. Am J Ophthalmol 113:489–496

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Gutmann L, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2002) Cerebrovascular brainstem diseases with isolated cranial nerve palsies. Cerebrovascular Diseases 13:147–155

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Hopf HC (1999) Pontine lesions mimicking acute peripheral vestibulopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:340–349

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Lensch E, Ringel K, Hopf HC (1997a) Isolated cranial nerve palsies in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63: 682–685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Tettenborn B, Hopf HC (1995) Third nerve palsy as the sole manifestation of midbrain ischemia. Neuroophthalmology 15: 327–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (2002) Brainstem diseases causing isolated ocular motor nerve palsies. Neuroophthalmology 28:53–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (1998) Isolated abducens palsies due to pontine lesions. Neuroophthalmology 20:91–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (1999a) Isolated cranial nerve palsies due to brainstem lesions. Muscle Nerve 22:1168–1176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber RB, Daroff RB, Mackey EA (1970) Pathology of oculomotor nerve palsy in diabetics. Neurology 20:835–838

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoritaka A, Tsukamoto T, Ohta K, Kishida S (2001) Facial myokymia associated with an isolated lesion of the facial nucleus. Acta Neurol Scand 104:182–184

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Speech Disorders”

  • Alexander MP (2001) Chronic akinetic mutism after mesencephalic–diencephalic infraction: remediated with dopaminergic medications. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 15:151–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esposito A, Demeurisse G, Alberti B, Fabbro F (1999) Complete mutism after midbrain periaqueductal gray lesion. NeuroReport 10: 681–685

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kammer T, Linden D, Diehl RR, Hennerici M (1993a) Paroxysmal ataxia and dysarthria with a single lesion in the cerebellar peduncle. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem localization and function. Springer, Berlin, pp 75–78

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kumral E, Bayülkem G, Evyapan D (2002c) Clinical spectrum of pontine infarction. J Neurol 249:1659–1670

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsui M, Tomimoto H, Sano K, Hashikawa K, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H (2004a) Paroxysmal dysarthria and ataxia after midbrain infarction. Neurology 63:345–347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orefice G, Fragassi NA, Lanzillo R, Castellano A, Grossi D (1999) Transient muteness followed by dysarthria in patients with pontomesencephalic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 9:124–126

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozimek A, Richter S, Hein-Kropp C, Schoch B, Gorißen B, Kaiser O, Gizewski E, Ziegler W, Timmann D (2004) Cerebellar mutism. J Neurol 251:963–972

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz GM, Varga M, Jeffires K, Ludlow CL, Braun AR (2005) Functional neuroanatomy of human vocalization: an H215O PET study. Cereb Cortex 15:1835–1847

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Beer S, Hopf HC (1997a) Cortico-bulbar fibers to orofacial muscles: recordings with enoral surface electrodes. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 105:8–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Connemann B, Hundemer HP, Koehler J, Hopf HC (1996a) Course of the cortico-hypoglossal projections in the human brainstem. Functional testing by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain 119:1031–1038

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Hopf HC, Fleischer S, Zorowka P, Müller-Forell W (1997b) Impaired cortico-bulbar tract function in dysarthria due to hemispheric stroke. Brain 120:1077–1084

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Hopf HC, Zorowka P, Fleischer S, Andreas J (1996b) Dysarthria and lacunar stroke. Pathophysiological aspects. Neurology 47:1135–1141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Marx J, Hunsche S, Gawehn J, Vucurevic G, Wicht S, Massing-er C, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2003) Cerebellar speech representation: lesion topography in dysarthria as derived from cerebellar ischemia and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Neurol 60(7):965–972

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Hopf HC, Fleischer S, Nickel O (1999a) Isolated dysarthria due to extracerebellar lacunar stroke – a central monoparesis of the tongue. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66:495–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Vukurevic G, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Massinger C, Hopf HC (2001a) Dysarthria in ischemic stroke – Localization and etiology. Neurology 56:1021–1027

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP (1999) Zur pathophysiologie der dysarthrophonie bei akuten zerebralen Ischämien. Habilitationsschrift, Mainz

    Google Scholar 

  • Weimar C, Kley C, Kraywinkel K, Schacker A, Riepe M, Wimmer MLJ, Goertler M, Diener HC (2002) Klinische Präsentation und Prognose von Hirnstamminfarkten. Nervenarzt 73:166–173

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler W, Ackermann H (1994) Mutismus und Aphasie. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatry 62:366–371

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Dysphagia”

  • Bartolome G, Buchholz DW, Hannig C, Neumann S, Prosiegel M, Schröter-Morasch H, Wuttge-Hannig A (1993) Diagnostik und therapie neurologisch bedingter Schluckstörungen. Urban & Fischer, München

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiti-Batelli S, Delap T (2001) Lateral medullary infarct presenting as acute dysphagia. Acta Otolaryngol 121:419–420

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ertekin C, Aydogdu I, Tarlaci S, Turman AB, Kiylioglu N (2000) Mechanisms of dysphagia in suprabulbar palsy with lacunar infarct. Stroke 31:1370–1376

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horner J, Buoyer FG, Alberts MJ, Helms MJ (1991) Dysphagia following brainstem stroke. Arch Neurol 48:1170–1173

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jean A (2001) Brain stem control of swallowing: neuronal network and cellular mechanisms. Physiol Rev 81:929–969

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kameda W, Kawanami T, Kurita K, Daimon M, Kayama T, Hosoya T, Kato T (2004) Lateral and medial medullary infarction: a comperative analysis of 214 patients. Stroke 35:694–699

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim H, Chung C-S, Lee K-H, Robbins J (2000) Aspiration subsequent to a pure medullary infarction. Arch Neurol 57:478–483

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhlemeier KV, Rieve JE, Kirby NA, Siebens AA (1989) Clinical correlates of dysphagia in stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 70:A56

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwon M, Lee JH, Kim JS (2005) Dysphagia in unilateral medullary infarction. Neurology 65:714–718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee B-C, Hwang S-H, Chang GY (1999) Isolated dysphagia due to a medullary infarction: a new lacunar syndrome. Eur Neurol 41: 53–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meng N-H, Wang T-G, Lien I-N (2000) Dysphagia in patients with brainstem stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 6:170–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prosiegel M, Heintze M, Wagner-Sonntag E, Hannig C, Wuttge-Hannig A, Yassouridis A (2002) Schluckstörungen bei neurologischen Patienten. Nervenarzt 73:364–370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prosiegel M, Holing R, Heintze M, Wagner-Sonntag E, Wiseman K (2005) The localization of central pattern generators for swallowing in humans. Acta Neurochir Suppl 93:85–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prosiegel M (2003) Qualitätskriterien und Standards für die Diagnostik und Therapie von Patienten mit neurologischen Schluckstörungen. Neurol Rehabil 9:157–181

    Google Scholar 

  • The FOOD Trial Collaboration (2005) Effect of timing and method of enteral tube feeding for dysphagic stroke patients (FOOD): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 365:764–772

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Zahn M, Schranz S, Glassl U, Dieterich M (2004) Abnormal patterns of swallowing in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 251:25

    Google Scholar 

“Ataxia”

  • Arias M, Requena I, Lema C, Pereiro I, Villalba C, Iglesias C (1999) Isolated hemi-ataxia as a sign of mesencephalic lacunar infarction. Rev Neurol 29:1179–1181

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baehring JM, Phipps M, Wollmann G (2008) Rostral midbrain infarction producing isolated lateropulsion. Neurology 70:655–656

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhidayasiri R, Hathout G, Cohen SN, Tourtellotte WW (2003) Midbrain ataxia: possible role of the pedunculopontine nucleus in human locomotion. Cerebrovasc Dis 16:95–96

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chua KS, Kong KH (1996) Functional outcome in brainstem stroke patients after rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 77:194–197

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duus P (2003) Neurologisch topische Diagnostik. 8. Aufl. Thieme, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Eidelberg E, Walden JG, Nguyen LH (1981) Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. Brain 104:647–663

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher Miller C (1978) Ataxic hemiparesis. Arch Neurol 35:126–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kammer T, Linden D, Diehl RR, Hennerici M (1993) Paroxysmal ataxia and dysarthria with a single lesion in the cerebellar peduncle. In: Caplan LR, Hopf HC (eds) Brain-stem localization and function. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 75–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuo S-H, Kennen C, Jankovic J (2008) Bilateral pedunculopontine nuclei strokes presenting as freezing of gait. Mov Disord 23: 616–619

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee H, Cho YW (2003) Bilateral cerebellar ataxia as the sole manifestation of a unilateral rostral pontine tegmental infarct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74:1444–1446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Thoemke F, Ianetti GD, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC, Dieterich M (2006) MRT-basiertes Hirnstamm-Mapping zur topodiagnostischen Bedeutung der Hemiataxie. Klin Neurophysiol 37:69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsui M, Tomimoto H, Sano K, Hashikawa K, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H (2004b) Paroxysmal dysarthria and ataxia after midbrain infarction. Neurology 63:345–347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitoma H, Hayashi R, Yanagisawa N, Tsukagoshi H (2000) Gait disturbances in patients with pontine medial tegmental lesions. Arch Neurol 57:1048–1057

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rossetti AO, Reichhart MD, Bogousslavsky J (2003a) Central Horner’s syndrome with contralateral ataxic hemiparesis. Neurology 61: 334–338

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmahmann JD, Rosene DL, Pandya DN (2004a) Ataxia after pontine stroke: insights from pontocerebellar fibers in monkey. Ann Neurol 55:585–589

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seo SW, Heo JH, Lee KY, Shin WC, Chang DI, Kim SM, Heo K (2001) Localization of Claude’s syndrome. Neurology 57:2304–2307

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Cruccu G, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2005) A topodiagnostic investigation on body lateropulsion in medullary infarcts. Neurology 64:716–718

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Withiam-Leitch S, Pullicino P (1995) Ataxic hemiparesis with bilateral leg ataxia from pontine infarct. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 59:557–558

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Pareses”

  • Bauer G, Gerstenbrand F, Hengl W (1980) Involuntary motor phenomena in the locked-in syndrome. J Neurol 223:191–198

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerrato P, Imperiale D, Bergui M, Giraudo M, Baima C, Grasso M, Len-tini A, Bergamasco B (2003) Emotional facial paresis in a patient with a lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 60:723–724

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopf HC, Fitzek C, Marx J, Urban PP, Stoeter P (2000b) Emotional facial paresis of pontine origin. Neurology 54:1217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopf HC, Gutmann L (1990) Diabetic 3rd nerve palsy: evidence for a mesencephalic lesion. Neurology 40:1041–1045

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopf HC (1994) Topodiagnostic value of brainstem reflexes. Muscle Nerve 17:475–484

    Google Scholar 

  • Humm JL, Kozlowski DA, James DC, Gotts JE, Schallert T (1998) Use-dependent exacerbation of brain damage occurs during an early postlesion vulnerable period. Brain Res 783:286–292

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khurana D, Sreekanth VR, Prabhakar S (2002) A case of emotional facial palsy with ipsilateral anterior inferior cerebellar artery territory infarction. Neurol India 50:102–103

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kimura Y, Hashimoto H, Tagaya M, Abe Y, Etani H (2003) Ipsilateral hemiplegia in a lateral medullary infarct – Opalski’s syndrome. J Neuroimaging 13:83–84

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krasnianski M, Gaul C, Neudecker S, Behrmann C, Schluter A, Winterholler M (2003b) Yawning despite trismus in a patient with locked-in syndrome caused by a thrombosed megadolichobasilar artery. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 106:44–46

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maeder-Ingvar M, van Melle G, Bogousslavsky J (2005) Pure monoparesis: a particular stroke subtype? Arch Neurol 62: 1221–1224

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Thömke F, Fitzek S, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Dieterich M, Hopf HC (2005) Somatotopic organization of the corticospinal tract in the human brainstem: a MRI-based mapping analysis. Ann Neurol 57:824–831

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melo TP, Bogousslavsky J, van Melle G, Rgeli F (1992) Pure motor stroke: a reappraisal. Neurology 42:789–795

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Müri RM, Baumgartner RW (1995) Horner’s syndrome and contralateral trochlear nerve palsy. Neuroophthalmology 15:161–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulin M, de Seze J, Wyremblewski P, Zephir H, Leys D, Vermersch P (2005) Man-in-the-barrel syndrome caused by a pontine lesion. Neurology 64:1703

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rossetti AO, Reichhart MD, Bogousslavsky J (2003) Central Horner’s syndrome with contralateral ataxic hemiparesis. Neurology 61:334–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruff RL, Leigh RJ, Wiener SN, Adams NL, Newman CW, Nam KH, Thurston SE (1987) Long-term survivors of the ‘locked-in’ syndrome: patterns of recovery and potential for rehabilitation. J Neuro Rehabil 1:31–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheidtmann K, Freis W, Müller F, Koenig E (2001) Effect of levodopa in combination with physiotherapy on the functional motor recovery after stroke: a prospective, randomised, double-blind study. Lancet 258:787–790

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmahmann JD, Ko R, MacMore J (2004b) The human basis pontis: motor syndromes and topographic organization. Brain 127:1269–1291

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherman SC, Thompson TT (2005) Pontine hemorrhage presenting as an isolated facial nerve palsy. Ann Emerg Med 46:64–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taub E, Miller NE, Novack TA, Cook EW, Fleming WC, Nepomuceno CS, Connell JS, Crago JE (1993) Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74:347–354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F, Lensch E, Ringel K, Hopf HC (1997) Isolated cranial nerve palsies in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63:682–685

    Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (1999) Isolated cranial nerve palsies due to brainstem lesions. Muscle Nerve 22:1168–1176

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Beer S, Hopf HC (1997c) Cortico-bulbar fibers to orofacial muscles: recordings with enoral surface electrodes. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 105:8–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Connemann B, Hundemer HP, Koehler J, Hopf HC (1996c) Course of the cortico-hypoglossal projections in the human brain stem. Functional testing by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain 119:1031–1038

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Fitzek S, Marx J, Thomke F, Fitzek C, Hopf HC (1999b) Ipsilateral facial weakness in upper medullary infarction – supranuclear or infranuclear origin? J Neurol 246: 798–801

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Marx J, Mitrovic S, Fitzek C, Hopf HC (1998) Isolated facial paresis due to pontine ischemia. Neurology 50:1859–1862

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Vucurevic G, Fitzek S, Marx J, Thömke F, Mika-Grüttner A, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2001b) The course of cortico-facial projections in the human brainstem. Brain 124: 1866–1876

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Wicht S, Vukurevic G, Fitzek C, Stoeter P, Massinger C, Hopf HC (2001c) Dysarthria in ischemic stroke – localization and etiology. Neurology 56:1021–1027

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zakaria T, Flaherty MC (2006) Locked-in syndrome resulting from bilateral cerebral peduncle infarctions. Neurology 67:1889

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zickler P, Seitz RJ, Hartung HP, Hefter H (2005) Bilateral medullary pyramid infarction. Neurology 64:1801

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

“Sensory Disturbances”

  • Cerrato P, Imperiale D, Bergui M, Giraudo M, Baima C, Grasso M, Lo-piano L, Bergamasco B (2000) Restricted dissociated sensory loss in a patient with a lateral medullary syndrome. Stroke 31: 3064–3066

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Combarros O, Berciano J, Oterino A (1996) Pure sensory deficit with crossed orocrural topography after pontine haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:534–535

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cruccu G, Pennisi E, Truini A, Ianetti GD, Romaniello A, Le Pera D, De Armas L, Leandri M, Manfredi M, Valeriani M (2003) Unmyelinated trigeminal pathways as assessed by laser stimuli in humans. Brain 126:2246–2256

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzek S, Baumgärtner U, Fitzek C, Magerl W, Urban P, Thömke F, Marx J, Treede RD, Stoeter P, Hopf HC (2001) Mechanisms and predictors of chronic facial pain in lateral medullary infarction. Ann Neurol 49:493–500

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frese A, Husstedt I, Wingelstein EB, Evers S (2006) Pharmacologic treatment of central post-stroke pain. Clin J Pain 22:252–260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham SH, Sharp FR, Dillon W (1988) Intraoral sensation in patients with brainstem lesions: role of the rostral spinal trigeminal nuclei in pons. Neurology 38:1529–1533

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iizuka O, Hosokai Y, Mori E (2006) Trigeminal neuralgia due to pontine infarction. Neurology 66:48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda K, Iwasaki Y, Kishi H, Imai K, Kinoshita M (1995) Brain stem cheirooral syndrome: neurological signs for brain stem lesions. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 97:192–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Julkunen L, Tenovuo O, Jääskeläinen SK, Hämäläinen H (2005) Recovery of somatosensory deficits in acute stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 111:366–372

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamitani T, Kuroiwa Y, Hidaka M (2004) Isolated hypesthesia in the right V2 and V3 dermatomes after a midpontine infarction localised at an ipsilateral principal sensory trigeminal nucleus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1508–1589

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim JS, Jo KD (1992) Pure lemniscal sensory deficit caused by pontine hemorrhage. Stroke 23:300–301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JS, Lee JH, Lee MC (1997) Patterns of sensory dysfunction in lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 49:1557–1563

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JS (1993) Trigeminal sensory symptoms due to midbrain lesions. Eur Neurol 33:218–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee S-H, Kim D-E, Song E-C, Roh J-K (2001) Sensory dermatomal representation in the medial lemniscus. Arch Neurol 58: 649–651

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacGowan DJL, Janal MN, Clark WC, Wharton RN, Lazar RM, Sacco RL, Mohr JP (1997) Central poststroke pain and Wallenberg’s lateral medullary infarction. Neurology 49:120–125

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minagar A, Sheremata WA (2000) Glossopharyngeal neuralgia and MS. Neurology 54:1368–1370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura K, Yamamoto T, Yamashita M (1996) Small medullary infarction presenting as painful trigeminal sensory neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peyron R, Garcia-Larrea L, Gregoire MC, Convers P, Lavenne F, Veyre L, Froment JC, Maugiere F, Michel D (1998) Laurent. Allodynia after lateralmedullary (Wallenberg) infarct. Brain 121:345–356

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schommer M, Weiß J, Kiehl P, Kapp A, Prawitz RH, Brodersen JP (2000) Trigeminotrophe Ulzeration des Nasenflügels bei Wallenberg-Syndrom. Hautarzt 51:434–438

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiga K, Miyagawa M, Yamada K, Nakajima K (2003a) Pontine pseudoathetosis: lemniscal involvement visualized by axonal tracking method with diffusion tensor imaging. J Neurol 250:511–512

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stöhr M, Petruch F, Scheglmann K (1981) Somatosensory evoked potentials following trigeminal nerve stimulation in trigeminal neuralgia. Ann Neurol 9:63–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treede RD, Lorenz J, Baumgärtner U (2003) Clinical usefulness of laser-evoked potentials. Neurophysiol Clin 33:303–314

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Hansen C, Baumgärtner U, Fitzek S, Marx J, Fitzek C, Treede RD, Hopf HC (1999c) Abolished laser-evoked potentials and normal blink reflex in midlateral medullary infarction. J Neurol 246:347–352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valls-Solé J (2005) Neurophysiological assessment of trigeminal nerve reflexes in disorders of central and peripheral nervous system. Clin Neurophysiol 116:2255–2265

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vuadens P, Bogousslavsky J (1998) Face-arm-trunk-leg sensory loss limited to the contralateral side in lateral medullary infarction: a new variant. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:255–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y, Akiguchi I, Ishikawa M, Kakeyama M (1988) Bilateral cheirooral syndrome following pontine hemorrhage. J Neurol 235:489–490

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y, Watanabe T, Tanaka H, Ogura A (1998) Localizing value of bilateral cheiro-oral sensory impairment. Intern Med 37:982–985

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yekutiel M, Guttman E (1993) A controlled trial of the retraining of the sensory function of the hand in stroke patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:241–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Bladder Disturbances”

  • Athwal BS, Berkley KJ, Hussain I, Brennan A, Craggs M, Sakakibara R, Frackowiak RSJ, Fowler CJ (2001) Brain responses to changes in bladder volume and urge to void in healthy men. Brain 124:369–377

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrington FJF (1925) The effect of lesions of hind and midbrain on micturation in the cat. Q J Exp Physiol 127:958–963

    Google Scholar 

  • Blok BF, Holstege G (1994) Direct projections from the periaqueductal gray to the pontine micturation center (M-region). An anterograde and retrograde tracing study in the cat. Neurosci Lett 166: 93–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blok BFM, Willemsen ATM, Holstege G (1997) A PET study on brain control of micturation in humans. Brain 120:111–121

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deleu D, El Siddij A, Kamran S, Hamad A, Salim K (2004) Urinary retention associated with mild rhombencephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1504–1509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grifiths D, Holstege G, Dalm E, de Wall H (1990) Control and coordination of bladder and urethral function in the brainstem of the cat. Neurourol Urodyn 9:63–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Komiyama A, Kubota A, Hidai H (1998) Urinary retention with a unilateral lesion in the dorsolateral tegmentum of the rostral pons. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 65:953–954

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naganuma M, Inatomi Y, Yonehara T, Hashimoto Y, Hirano T, Uchino M (2005) Urinary retention associated with unilateral medullary infarction. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 45:431–436

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nour S, Svarer C, Kristensen JKI, Paulson OB, Law I (2000) Cerebral activation during micturation in normal men. Brain 123:781–789

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanderhorst VG, Mouton LJ, Blok BF, Holstege G (1996) Distinct cell groups in the lumbosacral cord in the cat project to different areas in the periaqueductal gray. J Comp Neurol 376:361–385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yaguchi H, Soma H, Miyazaki Y, Tashiro J, Yabe I, Kikuchi S, Sasaki H (2004) A case of urinary retention caused by periaqueductal grey lesion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1200–1207

    Article  Google Scholar 

“Drop Attacks”

  • Baloh RW, Jacobson K, Winter T (1990) Drop attacks with Meniere’s syndrome. Ann Neurol 28:384–387

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brantberg K, Ishiyama A, Baloh RW (2005) Drop attacks secondary to superior canal dehiscence syndrome. Neurology 64:2126–2128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brust JCM, Plank CR, Healton EB, Sanchez GF (1979) The pathology of drop attacks: a case report. Neurology 29:786–790

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstner E, Liberato B, Wright CB (2005) Bi-hemispheric anterior cerebral artery with drop attacks and limb shaking TIAs. Neurology 65:174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grunwald T, Mothersill I, Krämer G (2005) Stürze. In: Schmitz B, Tettenborn B (eds) Paroxysmale Störungen in der Neurologie. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 27–49

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kubala M, Milikan C (1964) Diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment of drop attacks. Arch Neurol 11:107–113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee MS, Choi YC, Heo JH, Choi IS (1994) Drop attacks with stiffening of the right leg associated with posterior fossa arachnoid cyst. Mov Disord 9:377–378

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meisner I, Wiebers DO, Swanson JW, O’Fallon WM (1986) The natural history of drop attacks. Neurology 36:1029–1034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mumenthaler M (ed) (1984) Synkopen und Sturzanfälle. Thieme, Stuttgart, p 55

    Google Scholar 

  • Schelosky L (2005) Paroxysmale Bewegungsstörungen. In: Schmitz B, Tettenborn B (eds) Paroxysmale Störungen in der Neurologie. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 156–175

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens DL, Mathews WB (1973) Cryptogenetic drop attacks: an affliction of women. Br Med J I:439–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tinuper P, Cerullo A, Marini C, Avoni P, Rosati A, Riva R, Baruzzi A, Lugaresi E (1998) Epileptic drop attacks in partial epilepsy: clinical features, evolution, and prognosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64:231–237

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Respiratory Disturbances”

  • Holstege G (1991) Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system: limbic and non-limbic components. Prog Brain Res 87:307–421

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hui SHL, Wing YK, Poon W, Chan YL, Bukley TA (2000) Alveolar hypoventilation syndrome in brainstem glioma with improvement after surgical resection. Chest 118:266–268

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanczik O, Szabo K, Lecei O, Binder J, Thiel S, Gass A, Hennerici M (2006) Central respiratory dysfunction following vertebral artery dissection. Neurology 66:944

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lassman AB, Mayer SA (2005) Paroxysmal apnea and vasomotor instability following medullary infarction. Arch Neurol 62:1286–1288

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munschauer FE, Mador MJ, Ahuja A, Jacobs L (1991) Selective paralysis of voluntary but not limbically influenced automatic respiration. Arch Neurol 48:1190–1192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oya S, Tsutsumi K, Yonekura I, Inoue T (2001) Delayed central respiratory dysfunction after Wallenberg’s syndrome. Neurol Med Chir Tokyo 41:502–504

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plum F, Posner JB (1982) The diagnosis of stupor and coma. Davis, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao GSU, Ramesh VJ, Lalla RK (2005) Ventilatory management and weaning in a patient with central hypoventilation caused by a brainstem cavernoma. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 49:1214–1217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schäfer D, Bianchi O, Greulich W, Schäfer C, Schäfer T, Schläfke ME (1996) Störungen von Schlaf und Atmung bei Patienten mit Hirnstammläsionen. Wien Med Wschr 146:296–298

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schestatsky P, Fernandes LNT (2004) Acquired ondine’s curse. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 62:523–527

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith JC, Ellenberger HH, Ballanyi K, Richter DW, Feldman JL (1991) Pre-Bötzinger complex: a brainstem region that may generate respiratory rhythm in mammals. Science 254:726–729

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban PP, Morgenstern M, Brause K, Wicht S, Vucurevic G, Kessler S, Stoeter P (2002) Distribution of cortico-respiratory projections for voluntary activation in man. J Neurol 249:735–744

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whit DP, Zwillich CW, Pickett CR (1982) Central sleep apnea. Improvement with acetazolamide therapy. Ann Intern Med 142:1816–1819

    Article  Google Scholar 

“Disturbances of Consciousness”

  • Markowitsch HJ (1999) Funktionelle anatomie von Bewusstsein und Bewusstseinsstörungen. In: Hopf HC, Deuschl G, Diener HC, Reich-mann H (eds) Neurologie in Praxis und Klinik. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 61–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Parvizi J, Damasio AR (2003) Neuroanatomical correlates of brainstem coma. Brain 126:1524–1536

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner JB, Saper CB, Schiff ND, Plum F (2007) Plum and posner’s diagnosis of stupor and coma. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Moruzzi G, Magoun HW (1949) Brainstem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroenecphalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1:455–473

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thömke F (2001c) Augenbewegungsstörungen im Koma. In: Thömke F (ed) Augenbewegungsstörungen. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 229–234

    Google Scholar 

“Brain Death Diagnosis in Primary Brainstem Injury”

  • Besser R (1994) EEG-Diagnostik beim Hirntod. EEG Labor 16:64–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonetti MG, Ciritella P, Valle G, Perrone E (1995) 99mTc-HMPAO brain perfusion SPECT in brain death. Neuroradiology 37:365–369

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchner H, Schuchardt V (1990) Reliability of electroencephalogram in the diagnosis of brain death. Eur Neurol 30:138–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsche Gesellschaft für Klinische Neurophysiologie (1994) Empfehlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Klinische Neurophysiologie (Deutsche EEG-Gesellschaft) zur Bestimmung des Hirntodes. Z EEG EMG 25:163–166

    Google Scholar 

  • George MS (1991) Establishing brain death: the potential role of nuclear medicine in the search for reliable confirmatory test. Eur J Nucl Med 12:707–713

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman JM, Heck LL, Moore BD (1985) Confirmation of brain death with portable isotope angiography: a review of 204 consecutive patients. Neurosurgery 16:492–497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grigg MM, Kelly MA, Celesia GG, Ghobrial MW, Ross ER (1987) Electroencephalographic activity after brain death. Arch Neurol 44:948–954

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassler W, Steinmetz H, Gawlowski J (1988) Trancranial Doppler ultrasonography in raised intracranial pressure and intracranial circulatory arrest. J Neurosurg 68:745–751

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemmon GW, Franz RW, Roy N, McCarthy MC, Peoples JB (1995) Determination of brain death with use of color duplex scanning in the intensive care unit setting. Arch Surg 130:517–522

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pallis C (1995) Brainstem death. In: Braakman R (ed) Handbook of clinical neurology, vol 57 (volume 13 revised series). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 441–496

    Google Scholar 

  • Payen DM, Lamer C, Pilorget A, Moreau T, Beloucif S, Echter E (1990) Evaluation of pulsed doppler common carotid blood flow as a noninvasive method for brain death diagnosis: a prospective study. Anesthesiology 72:222–226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petty GW, Mohr JP, Pedley TA, Tatemichi TK, Lennihan L, Duterte DI, Sacco RL (1990) The role of transcranial Doppler in confirming brain death: Sensitivity, specificity, and suggestions for performance and interpretation. Neurology 40:300–303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powers AD, Graeber MC, Smith RR (1989) Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography in the determination of brain death. Neurosurgery 24:884–889

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlake H-P, Böttger IG, Grotemeyer K-H, Husstedt IW, Brandau W, Schober O (1992) Determination of cerebral perfusion by means of planar scintigraphy and 99mTc-HMPAO in brain death, persistent vegetative state and severe coma. Intensive Care Med 18:76–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wijdicks EFM (1995) Determining brain death in adults. Neurology 45:1003–1011

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesärztekammer. Richtlinien zur Feststellung des Hirntodes. Dritte Fortschreibung 1997 mit Ergänzung gemäß Transplantationsgesetz (TPG) (1998). Dtsch Ärztebl 95: B1509–1516

    Google Scholar 

“Clinical Brainstem Reflexes”

  • Addington WR, Stephens RE, Widdicombe JG, Rekab K (2005) Effect of stroke location on the laryngeal cough reflex and pneumonia risk. Cough 4:1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies AE, Kidd D, Stone SP, MacMahon J (1995) Pharyngeal sensation and gag reflex in healthy subjects. Lancet 345:487–488

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duus P (1983) Neurologisch-topische Diagnostik. Thieme, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TAT, Wiles CM (1996) Palatal and pharyngeal reflexes in health and in motor neuron disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61:96–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ongerboer de Visser BW (1980) The corneal reflex: electrophysiological and anatomical data in man. Progr Neurobiol 15:71–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pantaleo T, Bongianni F, Mutolo D (2002) Central nervous mechanisms of cough. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 15:227–233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

“Rare Findings/Symptoms”

  • Al Deeb SM, Sharif H, Al Moutaery K, Biary N (1991) Intractable hiccup induced by brainstem lesion. J Neurol Sci 103:144–150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arif H, Mohr JP, Elkind MSV (2005) Stimulus-induced pathologic laughter due to basilar artery dissection. Neurology 64: 2154–2155

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arita H, Oshima T, Kita I, Sakamoto M (1994) Generation of hiccup by electrical stimulation in medulla of cats. Neurosci Lett 175:67–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braak H, Tredici KD, Rüb U, de Vos RAI, Jansen Steur ENH, Braak E (2003) Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 24:197–211

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T, Dieterich M, Strupp M (2004) Vertigo. Steinkopff, Darmstadt, S. 54

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt T (1999b) Vertigo: its multisensory syndromes, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Cascino GD, Adams RD (1986) Brainstem auditory hallucinosis. Neurology 36:1042–1047

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cattaneo L, Cucurachi L, Chierici E, Pavesi G (2006) Pathological yawning as a presenting symptom of brain stem ischaemia in two patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77:98–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cerrato P, Lentini A, Baima C, Grasso M, Azzaro C, Bosco G, Destefanis E, Benna P, Bergui M, Bergamasco B (2005) Hypogeusia and hearing loss in a patient with an inferior collicular infarction. Neurology 65:1840–1841

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dabby R, Watemberg N, Lampl Y, Eilam A, Rapaport A, Sadeh M (2004) Pathological laughter as a symptom of midbrain infarction. Behav Neurol 15:73–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban Munoz J, Tolosa E, Saoz A, Vila N, Marti MJ, Blesa R (1996) Upperlimb dystonia secondary to a midbrain hemorrhage. Mov Disord 11:96–99

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fink JN (2001) Localization of the sneeze center. Neurology 56:138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hersch M (2000) Loss of ability to sneeze in lateral medullary syndrome. Neurology 54:520–521

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hornby PJ (2001) Central neurocircuitry associated with emesis. Am J Med 111:106S–112S

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacome DE (1997) Gaze-evoked orbicularis oculi myokymia. J Neuroophthalmol 17:95–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamalakannan D, Ravi S, Moudgil SS (2004) Peduncular hallucinosis: unusual complication of cardiac catheterization. S Med J 97: 99–1000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kataoka S, Hori A, Shirakawa T, Hirose G (1997) Paramedian pontine infarction. Stroke 28:809–815

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman DK, Brown RD, Karnes WE (1994) Involuntary tonic spasms of a limb due to a brainstem lacunar infarction. Stroke 25: 217–219

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kellett MW, Young GR, Fletcher NA (1997) Painful tonic spasms and pure motor hemiparesis due to lacunar pontine infarct. Mov Disord 12:1094–1096

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim BS, Kim YI, Lee KS (1995) Contralateral hyperhidrosis after cerebral infarction. Stroke 26:896–899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JS (1997) Pathologic laughter after unilateral stroke. J Neurol Sci 148:121–125

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korpelainen JT, Huikuri HV, Sotaniemi KA, Myllylä VV (1996) Abnormal heart rate variability reflecting autonomic dysfunction in brainstem infarction. Acta Neurol Scand 94:337–342

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korpelainen JT, Sotaniemi KA, Myllylä VV (1993) Ipsilateral hypohidrosis in brainstem infarction. Stroke 24:100–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux MS, Brady KA (2003) Secondary cervical dystonia associated with structural lesions of the central nervous system. Mov Disord 18:60–69

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee B-C, Hwang SH, Rison R, Chang GY (1998) Central pathway of taste: clinical and MRI study. Eur Neurol 39:200–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manford M, Andermann F (1998) Complex visual hallucinations. Brain 121:1819–1840

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Iannetti GD, Mika-Gruettner A, Thoemke F, Fitzek S, Vu-curevic G, Urban PP, Stoeter P, Cruccu G, Hopf HC (2004b) Topodiagnostic investigations on the sympathoexcitatory brainstem pathway using a new method of three dimensional brainstem mapping. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:250–255

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marx JJ, Thömke F, Birklein F (2004c) Das Horner-Syndrom – ein update zur Neuroanatomie, topographischen Differentialdiagnostik und Ätiologie. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat 72:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meglic B, Kobal J, Osredkar J, Pogacnik T (2001) Autonomic nervous system function in patients with acute brainstem stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 11:2–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Misu T, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, Sato S, Itoyama Y (2005) Intractable hiccup and nausea with periaqueductal lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 65:1479–1482

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan JC, Sethi KD (2003) Midbrain infarct with parkinsonism. Neurology 60:E10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mumentahler M, Altermatt M (1967) Zur Klinik der tonischen Hirnstammanfälle. Schweiz Arch Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr 100: 70–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikkah G, Prokop T, Hellwig B, Lücking CH, Ostertag CB (2004) Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus ventralis intermedius for Holmes (rubral) tremor and associated dystonia caused by upper brainstem lesions. J Neurosurg 100:1079–1083

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okuda DT, Chyung ASC, Chin CT, Waubant E (2005) Acute pathological laughter. Mov Disord 20:1389–1390

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orima S, Amino T, Tanaka H, Mitani K, Ishiwata K, Ishii K (2004) A case of hemiparkinsonism following ischemic lesion of the contralateral substantia nigra: a PET study. Eur Neurol 51: 175–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parisis D, Poulis I, Karkavelas G, Drevelengas A, Artemis N, Karacostas D (2003) Peduncular hallucinosis secondary to brainstem compression by cerebellar metastases. Eur Neurol 50:107–109

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park MH, Kim BJ, Koh SB, Park MK, Park KW, Lee DH (2005) Lesional location of lateral medullary infarction presenting hiccups (singultus). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76:95–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patzner J, Pfister R, Pfadenhauer K (2004) Paradoxe Innervation der Kaumuskulatur bei ipsilateraler Hirnstammläsion. Akt Neurol 31:200–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellecchia MT, Crisuolo C, Joanna G, D’Amico A, Santor L, Barone P (2003) Pure unilateral hyperhidrosis after pontine infarct. Neurology 61:1305

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips AM, Jardine DL, Parkin PJ, Hughes T, Ikram H (2000) Brain stem stroke causing baroreflex failure and paroxysmal hypertension. Stroke 31:1997–2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saglitz SA, Gaab MR (2002) Investigations using magnetic resonance imaging: is neurovascular compression present in patients with essential hypertension? J Neurosurg 96:1006–1012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sawaii S, Sakakibara R, Kanai K, Kawaguchi N, Uchiyama T, Yamamoto T, Ito T, Liu Z, Haltori T (2006) Isolated vomiting due to a unilateral dorsal vagal complex lesion. Eur Neurol 56: 246–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schielke E, Reuter U, Hoffmann O, Weber JR (2000) Musical hallucinations with dorsal pontine lesions. Neurology 55:454–455

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seijo-Martinez M, Varela-Freijanes A, Grandes J, Varquez F (2006) Sneeze related area in the medulla: localisation of the human sneezing centre? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77:559–561

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sheperd GMG, Tauböll E, Bakke SJ, Nyberg-Hansen R (1997) Midbrain tremor and hypertrophic olivary degeneration after pontine hemorrhage. Mov Disord 12:432–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y (1974) Painful tonic seizure in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 30:47–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiga K, Miyagawa M, Yamada K, Nakajima K (2003) Pontine pseudoathetosis: lemniscal involvement visualized by axonal tracking method with diffusion tensor imaging. J Neurol 250: 511–512

    Google Scholar 

  • Spissu A, Cannas A, Ferrigno P, Pelaghi AE, Spissu M (1999) Anatomic correlates of painful tonic spasms in multiple sclerosis. Mov Disord 14:331–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunada I, Akano Y, Yamamoto S, Tashiro T (1995) Pontine haemorrhage causing disturbance of taste. Neuroradiology 37:659

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sved AF, Ito S, Sved JC (2003) Brainstem mechanisms of hypertension: role of the rostral ventrolateral medulla. Curr Hypertens Rep 5:262–268

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan EK, Chan LL, Auchus AP (2005) Hemidystonia precipitated by acute pontine infarct. J Neurol Sci 234:109–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiliket C, Ventre-Dominey J, Vighetto A, Grochowicki M (1996) Room tilt illusion. A central otolith dysfuction. Arch Neurol 53:1259–1264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torres L, Codentino C, Suarez R (2002) Pseudoathetosis after medullary and pontine hemorrhage. Rev Neurol 34:89–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uesaka Y, Nose H, Ida M, Takagi A (1998) The pathway of gustatory fibres of the human ascends ipsilaterally in the pons. Neurology 50:827–828

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weidemann J, Sparing R (2002) Hemiageusia resulting from a cavernous haemangioma in the brain stem. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 73:319

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wild B, Rodden FA, Grodd W, Ruch W (2003) Neural correlates of laughter and humour. Brain 126:2121–2138

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams DR (2004) Gaze-evoked brainstem myoklonus. Mov Disord 19:346–349

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Peter P. Urban , Frank Thömke , Jürgen Marx , Marianne Dieterich , Marianne Dieterich , Frank Thömke , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Peter P. Urban , Frank Thömke , Frank Thömke , Peter P. Urban or Peter P. Urban .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Urban, P.P., Caplan, L.R. (2011). Diagnostic Findings. In: Urban, P., Caplan, L. (eds) Brainstem Disorders. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04203-4_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04203-4_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-04202-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-04203-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics