Abstract
At different stages of host–pathogen interactions, natural conditions and modern agricultural settings foster the evolution of new and virulent pathogenic races by selection pressure on R genes in crucifer genotypes. Polyploidy in Albugo candida contributes to race diversification and evolution by selection pressure imposed from cultivated Brassica species. Molecular studies have revealed high degree of genetic diversity within Albugo pathogenic to Brassica species with wide host range and six new specialized species along with virulent races. ITS and COX2, molecular approaches of phylogenetic analysis and morphological variations of oospores have divided A. candida into three groups (1, 2, 3) infecting different cruciferous with different races. Several races/pathotypes of A. candida have been identified at global level infecting different crucifers. The virulence of A. candida races varies from very narrow to wide infecting different Brassica species and genotypes. Phylogenetic analysis and nucleotide sequences have distinguished races of A. candida infecting different crucifers in different countries of the world. Albugo candida isolates from different crucifers have been characterized based on virulence genes specificity to their hosts in Australia. A single dominant gene AvrAC1 controls avirulence in race 2 of A. candida infecting B. rapa cv. Torch. The genetic variation among geographically distinct isolates of A. brassicae has been assessed using RAPD-PCR markers. The genetic structure of A. brassicicola population indicates the occurrence of sexual recombination’s with a cryptic sexual stage. Mutation of Amr1 gene in A. brassicicola causes increased virulence. Three pathotypes of A. brassicae viz., RM1, RM2, and V3 have been identified using eight commonly cultivated Brassica species. The isolates of A. brassicae collected from different geographical areas are different in conidial morphology, cultural characteristics, and symptom production on different hosts. A brassicae isolates from different locations show high degree of genetic similarity. There is differential protein expression by the isolates of A. brassicae. The isolates of A. brassicae show variability in biochemical contents, sensitivity to different fungicides and plant extracts. The variation in relative levels of virulence in the form of disease incidence, severity, and defoliation within and between Alternaria spp. causing leaf spot disease on rapeseed-mustard has been recorded. Several pathotypes of Alternaria species have been identified with different designations using differential determinant attributes. The function of effectors/genes, ChELP1, and ChELP2 homologs of Lysm proteins has been characterized in C. higginsianum. In India, powdery mildew pathogen produces both asexual and sexual stages on B. juncea, so there is every possibility for Erysiphe cruciferarum to express pathogenic variability. The isolates of Hyaloperonospora parasitica collected from different countries, locations, and host species have been characterized in the form of pathotypes showing host specificity and differential virulence. The isolates of H. parasitica from different host species and genotypes have been molecularly identified as pathotypes with their virulence potential using DNA (RAPD) finger printing. The isolates of H. parasitica collected and characterized on different crucifers as race and pathotypes cannot be compared in the absence of use of standardized host differentials (isogenic lines) and uniform designation/nomenclature system at international level. Hybridization of Hyaloperonospora isolates has also been observed. The evolution of virulent races in Leptosphaeria has been observed in the areas where crops with major gene resistance coupled with genetic uniformity have been sown. The avirulence genes of L. maculans races have been identified from Europe. Leptosphaeria maculans field populations have high level of gene diversity and genotypic diversity in France. An avirulent mutated AvrLm gene of L. maculans has been identified to detect new R genes for breeding blackleg resistant cultivars of Brassica. The genome-wide DNA variants and SNP haplotypes of L. maculans pathotypes have been identified. Pathotypes of Plasmodiophora brassicae has been identified from various countries using different differential host sets and designating pathotypes in their own way without following any sound uniform system of nomenclature. The genomes of P. brassicae pathotypes Pb2, Pb5, and Pb8 have been sequenced to gain insight into genome variations and its correlation with host specificity. Proteomics of P. brassicae has revealed potential effectors/genes of pathotypes. The isolates of P. brassicae from different countries have been phylogenetically analyzed for similarities and differences of pathotypes. Polymorphism in P. brassicae in case of Korean isolates collected from field has been recorded. The Cr811 gene in P. brassicae pathotypes P5 plays an important role as molecular markers for identification of race P5 and other new virulences. The different geographical isolates of P. brassicae have been identified by rDNA sequence polymorphism. Pathogenic and genetic variations in P. brassicae pathotypes infecting a weed C. flexuosa and crucifers have been analyzed using RAPDs in Japan. The virulence of P. brassicae changes during interaction with CR genes in the host cultivars. The changes in P. brassicae pathotypes structure under field conditions have been analyzed through whole genome DNA similarity sequences. The application of RAPD seq has revealed distinct P. brassicae populations under Canadian conditions. ITS sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of P. capsellae isolates from Brassica hosts clearly differentiated them in to virulence factors/races. High level of genetic diversity and recombination’s in Sclerotinia populations in tropical countries has been identified with the groups of isolates as MCGs and MLHs infecting crucifers. The aggressiveness of Sclerotinia isolates on Brassica has been measured using AUDPC as one of the parameters. The sequence variation of ITS region of S. sclerotiorum isolates revealed higher heterogenecity and genetic variability showing presence of clonal and sexual progenies of the pathogen in B. juncea growing areas of India. The genetic diversity is higher in Sclerotinia populations from Canola and Sunflower in the NCUS. Distribution of microsatellite haplotypes regions is often on multiple crops. The genetic diversity and populations structure of S. sclerotiorum has been analyzed with DNA (RAPD) sequences from different countries of the world. The virulence factors of Sclerotinia has been identified on the basis of pathogenicity as virulent pathotypes (aggressiveness), genomic factors (dsRNA) controlled Hypo virulence, MCGs, cloned variables, haplotypes, genetic diversity of isolates, and population biology studies with markers such as MCGs, DNA finger printing or micro satellites. The TuMV isolates collected from different hosts could not be characterized on Brassica species for virulence. The molecular characterization of isolates from different species of Verticillium indicated that isolates infecting crucifers are long spored (amphihaploids or allodiploids) because of Verticillium interspecific hybridization events. Black rot of crucifers’ bacterium has been characterized into pathovars of X. campestris on different species of crucifers. The X. campestris isolates from oilseed rape are more genetically diverse with specialization to their nonhost than their Brassica hosts. The virulent effectors/genes of pathogens have different evolutionary mechanisms to counteract with the defense mechanisms of the host. The identification, classification, and utilization of crucifer’s pathogen pathotypes from different countries is most challenging task since scientists have not followed standardized uniform system and procedures in selecting host differentials, designation and nomenclature of pathotypes, pure isolates (single spore), and scoring of infection phenotypes. The expression of high genetic diversity by crucifers’ pathogens under natural as well as modern agriculture settings is another challenge of variation in pathogenic populations.
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Singh Saharan, G., Mehta, N.K., Meena, P.D. (2023). Pathogenomics of Pathogenic Variability. In: Genomics of Crucifer's Host- Pathosystem . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3812-2_5
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