Abstract
Plant disease can significantly reduce the market size of edible nuts in the regions where these nut trees are growing. This chapter covers economically essential diseases of almond, pistachio, pecan nut, hazelnut, walnut, and chestnut crops. Here, we address the biotic agents limiting the cultivation of nut fruits worldwide and imposing huge economic yield losses in the nut industry. We summarise some important diseases in terms of developed symptoms on the infected tree, pathogen description, epidemiology, and recommended measures in managing nut disease. We discuss the environmental conditions, facilitating disease development, and, eventually, suggest appropriate measures to control nut diseases. Nut crops are common snacks and come in many fruit crops, which include almond, pistachio, hazelnut, walnut, chestnut, pecannut, and chilgoza. In 2020, the edible nuts market size in the U.S. was calculated at US$24 billion, and this country accounts for a 27.06% share in the global market (Anonymous, Edible nuts-global market trajectory and analytics, Global Industry Analysts, Inc., San Jose, 2021). A plethora of biotic and abiotic agents account for imposing significant economic losses on the nut industry. In this chapter, we aim to address the investigation of epidemiology and biology of the phytopathogens infecting nut crops and imposing economic losses on growers. Additionally, we summarise the remaining nut crops disease in a separate table.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adaskaveg JE, Hartin RJ (1997) Characterization of Colletotrichum acutatum isolates causing anthracnose of almond and peach in California. Phytopathology 87(9):979–987
Adaskaveg JE, Ogawa JM, Butler EE (1990) Morphology and ontogeny of conidia in Wilsonomyces carpophilus, gen. nov. and comb. nov., causal pathogen of shot hole disease of Prunus species. Mycotaxon 37:275–290
Ahmadpour A, Ghosta Y, Javan-Nikkhah M, Ghazanfari K, Fatahi R (2012) Study on morphology, pathogenicity and genetic diversity of Wilsonomyces carpophilus isolates, the causal agent of shot hole of stone fruit trees based on RAPD-PCR in Iran. Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect 45(17):2076–2086
Anagnostakis SL (1987) Chestnut blight: the classical problem of an introduced pathogen. Mycologia 79(1):23–37
Anagnostakis SL, Aylor DE (1984) The effect of temperature on growth of Endothia (Cryphonectria) parasitica in vitro and in vivo. Mycologia 76(3):387–397
Anonymous (2021) Edible nuts-global market trajectory and analytics. Global Industry Analysts, Inc., San Jose. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5030789/edible-nuts-global-market-trajectory-and
Avenot H, Morgan DP, Michailides TJ (2008) Resistance to pyraclostrobin, boscalid and multiple resistance to Pristine® (pyraclostrobin + boscalid) fungicide in Alternaria alternata causing alternaria late blight of pistachios in California. Plant Pathol 57(1):135–140
Banihashemei Z (1990) Biology and control of Polystigma ochraceum, the cause of almond red leaf blotch. Plant Pathol 39(2):309–315
Barnes G (1964) Growth responses of the pecan scab fungus,‘Fusicladium effusum’, on various common and exotic agar media. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
Bauman JM, Keiffer CH, McCarthy BC (2014) Growth performance and chestnut blight incidence (Cryphonectria parasitica) of backcrossed chestnut seedlings in surface mine restoration. New For 45:813–828
Bock CH, Brenneman TB, Wood BW, Stevenson KL (2017) Challenges of managing disease in tall orchard trees—pecan scab, a case study. CAB Rev 12(8):1–18
Borja M, Sánchez F, Rowhani A, Bruening G, Ponz F (1995) Long, nearly identical untranslated sequences at the 3′ terminal regions of the genomic RNAs of cherry leafroll virus (walnut strain). Virus Genes 10(3):245–252
Branzanti MB, Rocca E, Pisi A (1999) Effect of ectomycorrhizal fungi on chestnut ink disease. Mycorrhiza 9(2):103–109
Brenneman TB (1989) Recent occurrence of pecan anthracnose caused by Glomerella cingulata. Plant Dis 73(9):775
Brooks M, Bruening G (1995) Transient gene expression of antisense RNA and coat protein-encoding sequences reduced accumulation of cherry leafroll virus in tobacco protoplasts. Virology 208(1):132–141
Büttner C, Von Bargen S, Bandte M, Myrta A (2011) Chapter 24: Cherry leaf roll virus. In: Virus and virus-like diseases of pome and stone fruits. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, pp 119–125
Cannon PF (1996) Systematics and diversity of the phyllachoraceae associated with rosaceae, with a monograph of Polystigma. Mycol Res 100(12):1409–1427
Cao TA, Duncan RC, Kirkpatrick BA, Shackel KM, Dejong T (2013) Effect of calcium and nitrogen fertilization on bacterial canker susceptibility in stone fruits. Fruits 68(3):245–254
Charlton ND, Yi M, Bock CH, Zhang M, Young CA (2020) First description of the sexual stage of Venturia effusa, causal agent of pecan scab. Mycologia 112(4):711–721
Chen SF, Morgan DP, Michailides TJ (2014) Botryosphaeriaceae and Diaporthaceae associated with panicle and shoot blight of pistachio in California, USA. Fungal Divers 67(1):157–179
Connell JH (2002) Leading edge of plant protection for almond. HortTechnology 12(4):619–622
Crandall BS, Gravatt GF, Ryan MM (1945) Root disease of Castanea species and some coniferous and broadleaf nursery stocks, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Phytopathology 35:162–180
de Silva DD, Crous PW, Ades PK, Hyde KD, Taylor PWJ (2017) Life styles of Colletotrichum species and implications for plant biosecurity. Fungal Biol Rev 31(3):155–168
de Silva DD, Mann RC, Kaur J, Ekanayake PN, Sawbridge TI, McKay S, Taylor PWJ, Edwards J (2021) Revisiting the Colletotrichum species causing anthracnose of almond in Australia. Australas Plant Pathol 50(3):267–279
Demaree J (1924) Pecan scab with special reference to sources of the early spring infections. J Agric Res 28:321–330
Förster H, Adaskaveg JE (1999) Identification of subpopulations of Colletotrichum acutatum and epidemiology of almond anthracnose in California. Phytopathology 89(11):1056–1065
González M, Caetano P, Sánchez ME (2017) Testing systemic fungicides for control of Phytophthora oak root disease. For Pathol 47(4):e12343
Gottwald TR, Bertrand PF (1982) Patterns of diurnal and seasonal airborne spore concentrations of Fusicladium effusum and its impact on a pecan scab epidemic. Phytopathology 72(3):330–335
Gottwald TR, Cameron HR (1979) Studies in the morphology and life history of Anisogramma Anomala. Mycologia 71(6):1107–1126
Gottwald TR, Cameron HR (1980a) Infection site, infection period, and latent period of canker caused by Anisogramma anomala in European Filbert. Phytopathology 70(11):1083–1087
Gottwald TR, Cameron HR (1980b) Disease increase and the dynamics of spread of canker caused by Anisogramma anomala in European Filbert in the Pacific Northwest. Phytopathology 70(11):1087–1092
Grandall BS (1950) The distribution and significance of the chestnut root rot Phytophthoras, P. cinnamomi and P. cambivora. Plant Dis Report 34(6):194–196
Highberg LM (1986a) Yield reduction in almond related to incidence of shot-hole disease. Plant Dis 70(9):825–828
Highberg LM (1986b) Survival of shot-hole inoculum in association with dormant almond buds. Plant Dis 70(9):828–831
Hirano SS, Upper CD (1990) Population biology and epidemiology of pseudomonas syringae. Annu Rev Phytopathol 28(1):155–177
Hoefnagels MH, Mason B (2016) Pecan scab. In: The plant health instructor. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHI-I-2016-0620-01
Jacobs DF (2007) Toward development of silvical strategies for forest restoration of American chestnut (Castanea dentata) using blight-resistant hybrids. Biol Conserv 137(4):497–506
Johnson KB, Pinkerton JN, Gaudreault SM, Stone JK (1994) Infection of European hazelnut by Anisogramma anomala: site of infection and effect of host developmental stage. Phytopathology 84(12):1465–1470
Johnson KB, Mehlenbacher SA, Stone JK, Pscheidt JW, Pinkerton JN (1996) Eastern filbert blight of European hazelnut: It’s becoming a manageable disease. Plant Dis 80(12):1308–1316
Jung T, Orlikowski L, Henricot B, Abad-Campos P, Aday AG, Aguín Casal O, Bakonyi J, Cacciola SO, Cech T, Chavarriaga D, Corcobado T, Cravador A, Decourcelle T, Denton G, Diamandis S, Dogmus-Lehtijärvi HT, Franceschini A, Ginetti B, Glavendekic M, Hantula J, Hartmann G, Herrero M, Ivic D, Horta Jung M, Lilja A, Keca N, Kramarets V, Lyubenova A, Machado H, di San M, Lio G, Mansilla Vázquez PJ, Marçais B, Matsiakh I, Milenkovic I, Moricca S, Nagy ZÁ, Nechwatal J, Olsson C, Oszako T, Pane A, Paplomatas EJ, Pintos Varela C, Prospero S, Rial Martínez C, Rigling D, Robin C, Rytkönen A, Sánchez ME, Scanu B, Schlenzig A, Schumacher J, Slavov S, Solla A, Sousa E, Stenlid J, Talgø V, Tomic Z, Tsopelas P, Vannini A, Vettraino AM, Wenneker M, Woodward S, Peréz-Sierra A (2016) Widespread Phytophthora infestations in European nurseries put forest, semi-natural and horticultural ecosystems at high risk of Phytophthora diseases. For Pathol 46(2):134–163
Jung T, Pérez-Sierra A, Durán A, Jung MH, Balci Y, Scanu B (2018) Canker and decline diseases caused by soil- and airborne Phytophthora species in forests and woodlands. Persoonia: Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi 40:182–220
Kennelly MM, Cazorla FM, De Vicente A, Ramos C, Sundin GW (2007) Pseudomonas syringae diseases of fruit trees: Progress toward understanding and control. Plant Dis 91(1):4–17
Lamichhane JR, Varvaro L (2014) Xanthomonas arboricola disease of hazelnut: current status and future perspectives for its management. Plant Pathol 63(2):243–254
Lamichhane JR, Fabi A, Ridolfi R, Varvaro L (2013) Epidemiological study of hazelnut bacterial blight in Central Italy by using laboratory analysis and geostatistics. PLoS One 8(2):e56298
Little EL, Bostock RM, Kirkpatrick BC (1998) Genetic characterization of pseudomonas syringae pv. Syringae strains from stone fruits in California. Appl Environ Microbiol 64(10):3818–3823
Littrell RH (1981) Management of pecan fruit and foliar diseases with fungicides. Plant Dis 65:769
López-Moral A, Raya-Ortega MC, Agustí-Brisach C, Roca L, Lov era, M., Luque, F., Arquero, Q. and Trapero, A. (2017) Morphological, pathogenic, and molecular characterization of Colletotrichum acutatum isolates causing almond anthracnose in Spain. Plant Dis 101(12):2034–2045
López-Moral A, Agustí-Brisach C, Lovera M, Arquero O, Trapero A (2020) Almond anthracnose: current knowledge and future perspectives. Plan Theory 9(8):945
Ma Z, Michailides TJ (2004) A real-time PCR assay for the detection of azoxystrobin-resistant Alternaria populations from pistachio orchards in California. Crop Prot 23(12):1259–1263
Ma Z, Morgan DP, Felts D, Michailides TJ (2002) Sensitivity of Botryosphaeria dothidea from California pistachio to tebuconazole. Crop Prot 21(9):829–835
Mantovi P, Bonazzi G, Maestri E, Marmiroli N (2003) Accumulation of copper and zinc from liquid manure in agricultural soils and crop plants. Plant Soil 250(2):249–257
Mantz G, Minhot R, Morrelli G, Maiale S (2010) First report of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing pecan anthracnose in Argentina. J Plant Pathol 92(2):544
Meyer JB, Gallien L, Prospero S (2015) Interaction between two invasive organisms on the European chestnut: does the chestnut blight fungus benefit from the presence of the gall wasp? FEMS Microbiol Ecol 91(11):1–10
Miarnau X, Zazurca L, Torguet L, Zuniga E, Batlle I, Alegre S, Luque J (2021) Cultivar susceptibility and environmental parameters affecting symptom expression of red leaf blotch of almond in Spain. Plant Dis 105(4):940–947
Michailides TJ (1992) Effects of temperature and wetness duration on infection of pistachio by Botryosphaeria dothidea and management of disease by reducing duration of irrigation. Phytopathology 82(12):1399–1406
Michailides TJ (1993) Spore release by Botryosphaeria dothidea in pistachio orchards and disease control by altering the trajectory angle of sprinklers. Phytopathology 83(2):145–152
Michailides TJ (2002) Panicle and shoot blight. In: Teviotdale BL, Michailides TJ, Pscheidt JW (eds) Compendium of nut crop diseases in temperate zones. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, pp 68–69
Michailides TJ, Morgan DP (1993) Principles for the control of Alternaria late blight of pistachio caused by Alternaria alternata in California. In: Caruso T, Barone E, Sottile F (eds) Proceeding of the GREMPA meeting–Pistachio, 9th. Bront, Sciacca, Italy. Springer, New York, pp 56–63
Michailides T, Morgan DP (2004) Panicle and shoot blight of pistachio: a major threat to the California pistachio industry. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul. https://doi.org/10.1094/APSnetFeature-2004-0104
Mircetich SM (1980) Natural spread, graft-transmission, and possible etiology of walnut blackline disease. Phytopathology 70(10):962–968
Mircetich SM (1984) The relationship of Cherry Leafroll Virus and blackline disease of English walnut trees. Phytopathology 74(4):423–428
Mircetich SM, Dezoeten GA, Lauritis JA (1981) Etiology and natural spread of blackline disease of English walnut trees. Acta Hortic 94:147–152
Moral J, Pérez-Rodríguez M, Michailides TJ, Trapero A (2015) First report of the teleomorph of Neofusicoccum mediterraneum, a pathogen of olive. Phytopathology 105(11):97–98
Muehlbauer MF, Honig JA, Capik JM, Vaiciunas JN, Molnar TJ (2014) Characterization of eastern filbert blight-resistant hazelnut germplasm using microsatellite markers. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 139(4):399–432
Nafesa L (2015) Cherry leaf roll virus and blackline disease in walnut. University of California, Davis
Neely D (1981) Application of nitrogen fertilizer to control anthracnose of black walnut. Plant Dis 65(7):580–581
Oh JY, Heo JI, Lee DH (2021) First report of anthracnose on pecan (Carya illinoensis) caused by Colletotrichum siamense in Korea. Plant Dis 105(10):3296. https://doi.org/10.1094/pdis-11-20-2458-pdn
Peres NA, Timmer LW, Adaskaveg JE, Correll JC (2005) Lifestyles of Colletotrichum acutatum. Plant Dis 89(8):784–796
Pinkerton JN (1993) Susceptibility of European hazelnut clones to eastern filbert blight. Plant Dis 77(3):261–266
Pinkerton JN, Stone JK, Nelson SJ, Johnson KB (1995) Infection of European hazelnut by Anisogramma anomala: ascospore adhesion, mode of penetration of immature shoots, and host response. Phytopathology 85(10):1260–1268
Prospero S, Rigling D (2013) Chestnut blight. In: Gonthier P, Nicolotti G (eds) Infectious forest diseases. CABI, Wallingford, pp 318–338
Prospero S, Conedera M, Heiniger U, Rigling D (2006) Saprophytic activity and sporulation of Cryphonectria parasitica on dead chestnut wood in forests with naturally established hypovirulence. Phytopathology 96(12):1337–1344
Pryor BM, Michailides TJ (2002) Morphological, pathogenic, and molecular characterization of Alternaria isolates associated with alternaria late blight of pistachio. Phytopathology 92(4):406–416
Pscheidt JW, Heckert S, Cluskey SA (2017) Evaluation of quinone outside and succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors for effectiveness against eastern filbert blight of hazelnut. Plant Dis 101(11):1868–1873
Rhoades CC, Brosi SL, Dattilo AJ, Vincelli P (2003) Effect of soil compaction and moisture on incidence of phytophthora root rot on American chestnut (Castanea dentata) seedlings. For Ecol Manag 184(1-3):47–54
Rigling D, Prospero S (2018) Cryphonectria parasitica, the causal agent of chestnut blight: invasion history, population biology and disease control. Mol Plant Pathol 19(1):7–20
Ristaino JB, Gumpertz ML (2000) New frontiers in the study of dispersal and spatial analysis of epidemics caused by species in the genus Phytophthora. Annu Rev Phytopathol 38(1):541–576
Saad AT, Masannat K (1997) Economic importance and cycle of Polystigma ochraceum, causing red leaf blotch disease of almond in Lebanon. EPPO Bull 27(4):481–485
Sanfaçon H, Wellink J, Le Gall O, Karasev A, Van Der Vlugt R, Wetzel T (2009) Secoviridae: a proposed family of plant viruses within the order Picornavirales that combines the families Sequiviridae and Comoviridae, the unassigned genera Cheravirus and Sadwavirus, and the proposed genus Torradovirus. Arch Virol 154(5):899–907
Saremi H, Amiri ME (2010) Evaluation of resistance to anthracnose (Marssonina juglandis) among diverse Iranian clones of walnut (Juglans regia L.). J Food Agric Environ 8(2):375–378
Schubert K, Rischel A, Braun DU (2013) A monograph of Fusicladium s.lat. (Hyphomycetes). Schlechtendalia 9:1–132
Sena K, Crocker E, Vincelli P, Barton C (2018) Phytophthora cinnamomi as a driver of forest change: implications for conservation and management. For Ecol Manag 409:799–807
Sharpe SR (2017) Phytophthora species associated with American, Chinese, and backcross hybrid chestnut seedlings in field sites in the Southeastern United States. Clemson University, Clemson
Shaw DA (1990) Influence of wetness period and temperature on infection and development of shot-hole disease of almond caused by Wilsonomyces carpophilus. Phytopathology 80(8):749–756
Sogonov MV, Castlebury LA, Rossman AY, Mejía LC, White JF (2008) Leaf-inhabiting genera of the Gnomoniaceae, Diaporthales. Stud Mycol 62:1–77
Standish JR, Brenneman TB, Bock CH, Stevenson KL (2021) Fungicide resistance in Venturia effusa, cause of pecan scab: current status and practical implications. Phytopathology 111(2):244–252
Stone JK (1992) Natural infection period and susceptibility of vegetative seedlings of European hazelnut to Anisogramma anomala. Plant Dis 76(4):348–352
Terabe NI, Martins CM, Homechin M (2008) Microorganisms associated with fruits of different cultivars of pecan nut. Ciencia Agrotecnol 32(2):659–662
Teviotdale BL, Sibbett GS, Viveros M, Mark CI (1989) Effect of fungicides on shot hole disease of almonds. Calif Agric 43(3):21–23
Trapiello E, González-Varela G, González AJ (2015) Chestnut blight control by agrochemicals in Castanea sativa under managed conditions. J Plant Dis Protect 122(3):120–124
Troncoso-Rojas R, Tiznado-Hernández ME (2014) Alternaria alternata (black rot, black spot). In: Postharvest decay: control strategies. Elsevier Inc., Amsterdam, pp 147–187
Turechek WW, Stevenson KL (1998) Effects of host resistance, temperature, leaf wetness, and leaf age on infection and lesion development of pecan scab. Phytopathology 88(12):1294–1301
Vettraino AM, Natili G, Anselmi N, Vannini A (2001) Recovery and pathogenicity of Phytophthora species associated with a resurgence of ink disease in Castanea sativa in Italy. Plant Pathol 50(1):90–96
Vettraino AM, Morel O, Perlerou C, Robin C, Diamandis S, Vannini A (2005) Occurrence and distribution of Phytophthora species in European chestnut stands, and their association with ink disease and crown decline. Eur J Plant Pathol 111(2):169–180
Vonica I (1970) Biology and control of Gnomonia leptostyla and its conidial state Marssonina juglandis, causing anthracnose of walnut. Analele Institutului de Cercetari pentru Protectia Plantelor 8:69–80
Webber JB, Putnam M, Serdani M, Pscheidt JW, Wiman NG, Stockwell VO (2020) Characterization of isolates of Xanthomonas arboricola pv. corylina, the causal agent of bacterial blight, from Oregon hazelnut orchards. J Plant Pathol 102(3):799–812
Westbrook JW, James JB, Sisco PH, Frampton J, Lucas S, Jeffers SN (2019) Resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi in American chestnut (Castanea dentata) backcross populations that descended from two Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima) sources of resistance. Plant Dis 103(7):1631–1641
Woeste KE, Beineke WF (2001) An efficient method for evaluating black walnut for resistance to walnut anthracnose in field plots and the identification of resistant genotypes. Plant Breed 120(5):454–456
Xin XF, Kvitko B, He SY (2018) Pseudomonas syringae: what it takes to be a pathogen. Nat Rev Microbiol 16(5):316–328
Yang H, Cao G, Jiang S, Han S, Yang C, Wan X, Zhang F, Chen L, Xiao J, Zhu P, Zhang D, He F, Xing W (2021) Identification of the anthracnose fungus of walnut (Juglans spp.) and resistance evaluation through physiological responses of resistant vs. susceptible hosts. Plant Pathol 70(5):1219–1229
Zamani AR, Imani A, Mirza Aghayan M, Mohammadi R (2011) A study and comparison of control methods of anthracnose disease in walnut trees of roodbar region. Int J Nuts Relat Sci 2(4):75–81
Zhang YB, Meng K, Shu JP, Zhang W, Wang HJ (2019) First report of anthracnose on pecan (Carya illinoensis) caused by Colletotrichum nymphaeae in China. Plant Dis 103(6):1432
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mirzadi Gohari, A., Feechan, A. (2023). Diseases of Temperate Nuts. In: Mir, M.M., Rehman, M.U., Iqbal, U., Mir, S.A. (eds) Temperate Nuts. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9497-5_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9497-5_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-19-9496-8
Online ISBN: 978-981-19-9497-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)