Abstract
Ginger is one of the earliest known oriental spices grown for its edible rhizome, which is widely used as a fresh vegetable, spice, and as a popular folk medicine. Ginger crop is being affected by insect pests, and pathogenic and non-pathogenic diseases cause production constraints. Severely, various pathogenic diseases of viral, bacterial, fungal, and nematode origin reduce its potential yields drastically. Among the various diseases, soft rot, yellows, Phyllosticta leaf spot, storage rot, bacterial wilt, mosaic, and chlorotic fleck are important. The present chapter includes the symptoms, causative agent, disease cycle, epidemiology and host resistance, cultural, biological, chemical, and integrated management of these diseases.
Keywords
- ginger
- soft rot
- yellows
- leaf spot
- wilt
- mosaic
- chlorotic fleck
1. Introduction
India is considered as a ‘
Ginger is being cultivated in the various parts of the world. The total production of ginger in the world is 1683 thousand tons with the total acreage of 310.43 thousand ha [1]. China, India, Nepal and Thailand are the major producers of ginger in the world. India is the leading producer and exporter of ginger in the world. Annually, India produces 385.33 thousand tons of ginger [1].
The production of ginger is being affected by biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic factors include virus, bacteria, fungus and nematodes [2, 3]. Among the biotic factors, bacteria are most important, causes wilt and soft rot. Fungus is the next major pathogen causes rhizome rot, soft rot, Sclerotium rot and yellows disease. Nematode produces root knot disease and virus’s causes mosaic and chlorotic fleck in ginger plants reduce the yield of the rhizome. The ginger is also affected by various insects like
It is imperative to know the symptoms of the disease, the organism responsible and the protection measures. This chapter emphasizes the importance of diseases of ginger by including the symptoms, causative agent, epidemiology and protection from these diseases.
2. Viral disease
2.1 Mosaic
2.1.1 Symptoms
The symptoms appear with yellowish and dark-green mosaic on leaves of ginger in the early stage and stunted of leaves and rhizomes at the late stage of infection. Infection of this virus on ginger causes severe reduction of rhizome yield.
2.1.2 Causative agent
Virus isolated from affected ginger plants by So [4] named the virus as Ginger mosaic virus. The virus infected ginger possesses spherical particles with a diameter of 23–38 nm. The purified virus particle showed positive to serological reaction for cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) antiserum. Serological relationship and electron microscopic observation of this virus conclusively suggested that ginger mosaic virus could be the CMV group. To support this, last year (2018), a group from Malaysia identified that the mosaic disease in ginger was due to the CMV which is based on the partial nucleic acid sequence of coat protein (GenBank: MH355647.1).
2.1.3 Epidemiology
Virus produces mosaic disease in 18 cultivars of ginger and 23 other plant species [4]. The virus is transmitted through the sap to different plants which are believed to the hosts of CMV [4]. Nambiar and Sarma [5] failed to absorb the sap transmission from ginger to ginger, ginger to
2.1.4 Transmission
The virus is transmitted by insect vectors such as
2.2 Chlorotic fleck
Thomas [6] from Australia reported the chlorotic fleck in ginger is because of ginger chlorotic fleck virus (GCFV). From Australia, this virus is distributed to a number of countries which import ginger from Australia.
2.2.1 Symptoms
The leaves of infected plants show chlorotic flecks, 1–10 mm long on the centered and parallel to the veins (Figure 1). Symptoms started appearing in the young leaves at the 3–4 weeks of infection and subsequently to other leaves. No obvious symptoms occur on the rhizomes.
2.2.2 Causative agent
Chlorotic fleck in ginger is due to ginger chlorotic fleck virus (GCFV). It can be readily purified from the virus ginger leaves through ultracentrifugation with a sedimentation coefficient of 111 s. The purified virus is an isometric nature with size of 28–33 nm. Virus particle contains a major coat protein with molecular weight of 29 kDa and single stranded RNA with molecular weight of 1.5 × 106 Da.
2.2.3 Epidemiology
It differs from mosaic virus in particle properties, host range and serology. Many properties namely size of particles, possession of ssRNA, salt-labile nature of particles and a limited host range of this virus are similar to sobemovirus group [7] but it, serologically unrelated to several sobemoviruses including lucerne transient streak virus, cocksfoot mottle virus, sowbane mosaic virus, Solanum nodiflorum mottle virus, southern bean mosaic virus, velvet tobacco mottle virus and turnip rosette virus.
2.2.4 Transmission
GCFV is mechanically transmitted only to ginger but not like ginger mosaic virus, transmitted by
2.2.5 Protection
The viral diseases of ginger are controlled in tissue cultures by heating at 50°C for 5 min [8].
2.3 Viruses infecting flowering ginger
Flowering ginger is a member of the Alpinia genus of
3. Bacterial diseases
3.1 Bacteria wilt
Bacterial wilt of ginger is the most serious rhizome-borne diseases. It is also soil and seed-borne disease. It is widespread and exceedingly destructive for the ginger grows in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Bacterium causes rapid wilt in ginger within 5–10 days of the infection [10]. The severity of the disease is occurred due to the rapid spread of the pathogen happens during the favorable environment conditions like high rain fall and warm weather.
3.1.1 Symptoms
Initially, water soaked patches or linear streaks appear at the collar region of the pseudo stem and then progresses both upwards and downwards. The pseudo stems from the infected plant can be easily separated with a gentle pull and can be broken off at the base. Mild drooping and curling of leaf margins of lower leaf is the first prominent symptom occurred after the infection, then the infection spread upwards later. Yellowing starts from the lower-most leaves which gradually progresses upwards. In the advanced stage, infected ginger exhibit intense yellowish and wilting symptoms (Figure 2). Dark streaks are observed in the vascular tissues of the affected pseudo stems. In the infected plants, leaf sheaths look yellowish to dull green. The leaves roll up and the whole plant dries up, finally. The plants which are infested by the disease stand persistently and do not collapse. The base of the infected pseudo stem and the rhizome emit foul smell. The affected pseudo stem and rhizome extrudes milky ooze from the vascular strands while they pressed gently. Milky bacterial exudates ooze out from the cut end (Figure 2).
3.1.2 Causative agent
Yu et al. [18] studied the genetic diversity of
3.1.3 Transmission
3.1.4 Protection
Difficulties are associated with controlling this pathogen due to its endophytic nature, survive in deep soil, travel along water, and its relationship with weeds. The available physical, chemical, biological, methods and cultural practices to manage this pathogen are discussed below.
3.1.4.1 Physical methods
Physical control methods like solarization and hot water treatment have proved to be effective against the pathogen. Rhizome solarization for 2–4 h on ginger seeds reduce the bacterial wilt (90–100%) at 120th day of planting, and further with discontinuous microwaving (10-s pulses) at 45°C reduces the wilt by 100% [25]. Tsang and Shintaku [26] reported that bacterial wilt pathogen is eliminated when the rhizome is exposed to heat for 30 min at 50°C and 45 min at 49°C, respectively. Exposing ginger seed pieces to hot air at 75% RH until their temperatures attained 49°C for 30 and 60 min and 50°C for 30 min, resulted in minimal injury to the hosts. More than 87% of the seed pieces germinated without adverse effect on growth.
3.1.4.2 Chemical methods
Treating seed rhizomes with emisan in addition to plantomycin for 30 min followed by three sprayings, first at 30 days after planting and others at an interval of 15 days, gave good protection against wilt disease [27]. Streptocyclin (20 g/100 l water) treatment on seed and drenching the soil with 0.2% copper oxychloride, protect the seed from the bacteria infection. Sinha et al. [28] observed that streptomycin and streptopenicillin are superior over the other antibiotics against the bacterial wilt pathogen.
3.1.4.3 Biological methods
3.1.4.4 Cultural practices
The effective management of ginger against the pathogen is depends up on the various factors. Selecting the disease free seeds, sowing the disease free seed on disease free land based on previous history, following 4–5 years of crop rotation with non-solanaceous plants, planting on raised beds (help to avoid water stagnation during rainy season), giving thick mulching (to avoid weed growth and to conserve soil moisture), reduces the disease causing potential of the soil. Indrasenan et al. [30] suggested selection of healthy seed rhizomes, eradication of weeds and adoption of an effective crop rotation as control measures for the disease.
3.2 Bacterial soft rot
This is not considered as a major problem in ginger, but periodic outbreaks occur when ginger is planted in waterlogged soil [12]. The disease is more prevalent in rhizomes that have formed deep in the ground. The sections closer to the surface are generally healthy. Disease is not found in well-drained soils.
3.2.1 Symptoms
The disease causes a gradual softening of the rhizome tissue accompanied by an offensive odor.
3.2.2 Causative agent
3.2.3 Disease cycle
Ginger can have the bacteria either from the infected seed, or from direct inoculation, through wounds or natural openings. The bacteria started to feed liquids released from injured cells and multiply. Bacteria secrete pectolytic enzymes degrade and break the cells providing more food for the bacteria. Often the epidermis is left unscathed, keeping the rotten flesh contained within until a crack allows the ooze to leak out and infect others around it. The bacteria from the harvested infected plant to others placed with it and also through the insects.
3.2.4 Prevention
The most effective way to prevent this disease is simply keeping sanitary growing practices. It includes removing all plant debris from storage ware houses and disinfecting walls and floors with either formaldehyde or copper sulfate between harvests, maintaining low humidity and temperature of the storage facility with an adequate ventilation system. It also by planting in well-drained soils, rotating susceptible plants with non-susceptible plants.
4. Fungal diseases
Ginger plantation is majorly affected by deuteromycetous group of fungi cause variable symptoms [31]. In India, fungal diseases reduce the potential yield to a greater extent in field, storage and market and may cause losses of even more than 50% [32].
4.1 Soft rot/rhizome rot
Soft rot found in all the ginger growing countries, reported as the most dangerous and destructive disease of ginger which can reduce the production by 50–90%. Disease cause significant losses during warm and humid conditions. Butler on 1907, recorded this disease first time in Surat district of Gujarat, India [33].
4.1.1 Symptoms
This disease is prevalent in ginger crop throughout the growing period. Sprouts, roots, developing rhizome and collar region of the pseudo stem are highly prone to infection. Symptoms first appear on the aerial parts of the plant. Pathogen form watery and brown lesions in the collar region of the pseudo stem. Later the lesion enlarges, coalesce and cause the stem to rot and collapse [34]. In the old leaves, initially, yellowing (chlorosis) symptoms appear in the tips, which then spread downward along the margin involving the rest of the leaf blade and, eventually, the leaf sheath. Later, chlorosis from the older leaves progress to younger leaves start developing a similar symptom progression until the entire plant dies [35] (Figure 3). The appearance of lesion in pseudo stem and chlorosis in the leaf indirectly show the sign of rhizome rot. Due to the infection, rhizomes appear soft, brown, water soaked, rotten, and decay gradually [34] (Figure 3). It is not like bacterial rots, the soft rot caused by fungus does not produce offensive odors.
4.1.2 Causative agent
Eleven species of
Booster PCR method to detect
4.1.3 Disease cycle and epidemiology
It is seed and soil borne disease carried by two ways: (1) Through diseased rhizomes scales [40] and (2) through soil as oospores.
4.1.4 Protection
Soft rot is a complex disease problem and various methods should be applied to combat the disease.
4.1.4.1 Physical methods
Using disease-free seeds is an essential step to prevent the contamination of
4.1.4.2 Chemical methods
4.1.4.3 Biological methods
Treating with
4.1.4.4 Cultural practices
Cultural practices such as seed selection, crop rotation, organic amendment, tillage, drainage and quarantine practicing in ginger plantation not only control the disease but also limit the spread of
Planting the disease free rhizomes is the best method to manage the disease [71]. Harvey and Lawrence [72] believed that crop rotations reduce
Addition of organic matter from various plants, oil seed cakes and neem cake, reduce the incidence of soft rot [74, 75]. Mixing organic matter with poultry manure and sawdust enriched the soil microbial populations in the ginger growing soils [73] and enhance the soil carbon levels and water infiltration rates, support the growth and yield of ginger [51, 76]. Kadam et al. [77] reported that neem seed cake with least average mortality (20.3%) followed by poultry manure (22.7). Kumar et al. [78] also reported that
4.1.4.5 Host resistance
Identifying
4.1.4.6 Integrated management
Following a single approach is not ideal way to a have soft rot resistant. It is an important to have a multiple approach. Smith and Abbas [51] focused on cultural practices with strict quarantine procedure to manage the disease. Soil solarization with fungicides effectively reduces the
4.2 Yellows/wet rot
Yellows disease is serious problems of ginger causes stem and rhizome rot. It is wide spread and prevailed in warm and humid environmental conditions. It was first described by Simmonds [90] from Queensland. Later this disease was reported from Hawaii [91] and India [92].
4.2.1 Symptoms
Yellowing starts on the margins of the lower leaves which gradually spreads and cover the entire leaves. Later, the yellowing diffuse to older leaves. Old leaves dry first and then younger leaves. The affected plants wilt and dry up but do not fall on the ground in contrast to soft rot and bacterial wilt. Infected pseudo stem comes off from the rhizome with a gentle pull. Rhizomes become soft and watery with a creamy discoloration of the vascular system and cortical rot. Plants may show a premature drooping, wilting, yellowing, drying in patches or in whole bed and show stunting. Rotting of roots is common. Mycelial growth in the form of white, peach or buff colored cushions can be seen on the surface of rhizomes [93].
4.2.2 Causative agent
Genetic variation of
4.2.3 Disease cycle and epidemiology
The seasonal carryover of fungus inoculum takes place through infected rhizomes and soil. The fungus survives in soil as chlamydospores which may remain viable for many years in the field. The fungus spreads through infected seed rhizomes and about 87% of field infection is due to infected rhizomes [102]. The secondary spread of the disease can also take place through irrigation water and by mechanical means.
For the development of yellows disease, a temperature range of 15–30°C is favorable (the optimum being 23–29°C) with very high humidity and continuous presence of free water [103]. Maximum disease incidence occurred when soil temperature ranged from 24 to 25°C and the soil moisture from 25 to 30% [104].
4.2.4 Protection
4.2.4.1 Chemical methods
The various chemicals have been shown promising result against the pathogen [105, 106, 107, 108, 109]. So far fungicides like Bavistin 50WP, Ridomil Gold MZ-72, Captan, Dithane M-45, copper oxychloride and Bordeaux mixture are found to be effective against the disease [110, 111].
4.2.4.2 Biological methods
Microorganisms like
Among 14 plant extracts, the plant extract of
4.2.4.3 Cultural practices
The disease is spread mainly through contaminated rhizomes. Planting healthy seed rhizomes is the best way to avoid this disease [71, 119]. Applying organic manure, tillage and crop rotation reduces the yellows disease [76]. Planting the seed rhizome (size of 50–75 g) with spacing of 25 × 30 cm is ideal for good yield and lower disease incidence [120].
4.2.4.4 Host resistance
Developing a
4.2.4.5 Integrated management
The integrated approach like treating the seed and well as in soil with fungicides mancozeb and carbendazim and biocontrol agents like
4.3 Leaf spot
Leaf spot disease is becoming increasingly important in many places of India due to severe leaf rot and blight it causes. Ramakrishnan [125] reported this disease first time from Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh and Malabar area of Kerala.
4.3.1 Symptoms
On the young leaves, small spindle to oval to elongated spots size of 1–10 mm × 0.5–4 mm appears. Later, the spots developed as white papery center and dark brown margins surrounded by yellow halos [125]. The spots increase in size and coalesce to form larger lesions which lead to the reduction of effective photosynthetic area on the leaves. The affected leaves become shredded and may suffer extensive desiccation (Figure 4). Symptoms appear first on younger leaves. As the plants put forth fresh leaves, these get infected subsequently.
4.3.2 Causal organism
Phyllosticta leaf spot is caused by
4.3.3 Disease cycle and epidemiology
Primarily, disease is spread from the debris of infected plants and from the infected seeds. Under the laboratory condition, pycnidiospores and mycelia of fungi alive for 14 months [126] and spores remain viable in soil even at 25 cm depth for 6 months. Pycnidia of
During the rainfall, the dispersal of spore occurred. Higher precipitation along with high wind give greater impact on dispersion of spores to many leaves which are in longer distances [128]. Factors like air temperature, relative humidity and rainfall influence the incidence of disease to an extent of 85.5% [129]. Six to seven months old plants are prone to infection of
4.3.4 Protection
4.3.4.1 Chemical methods
Treating the plant with Bordeaux mixture, zineb and maneb are effective in treating the disease [132]. Grech and Frean [133] observed that spraying mixture of benomyl (0.1%), mancozeb (0.2%) and soluble boron (0.1%) and iprodione (0.2%) reduces the production of disease. Highest reduction of the incidence of disease is observed with spraying chlorothalonil [127]. Verma and Vyas [134] observed higher protection while spraying carbendazim (0.15%) and mancozeb (0.25%) and due to this higher yield also obtained. Increased yield of rhizome and decrease disease incidence was found while treating the rhizome and doing foliar spraying with Bordeaux mixture (1%), Companion (0.2%), Indofil M-45 (0.25%), Unilax (0.2%) and Baycor (0.05%) [129].
4.3.4.2 Cultural practices
Growing the crop under the partial shade reduce the severity of Phyllosticta leaf spot. Growing the ginger under the partial shade of mandarin orange increase the growth of the plant and reduce the disease intensity [135]. Reduction of leaf spot and sun burn on leaves occurred while growing plants under shade have increased the number of tillers per clump recommends the growing of ginger in partial shade to avoid the fungicidal spray [107].
4.3.4.3 Host resistance
None of the 18 cultivars tested in Karnataka, India were resistant to
4.4 Storage rots
Post-harvest losses in ginger are a serious concern. The post-harvest losses are affected by various biotic and abiotic causes. Rhizomes are stored for seed and commercial purpose. During storage, rhizomes soft are affected by fungi [71] and bacteria.
4.4.1 Symptoms
Fungal mycelia discolored the surface of rhizome accompanied with dry rotting and decaying (Figure 5).
4.4.2 Causal organism
Fungus like
Pathogenicity test is available for
4.4.3 Protection
4.4.3.1 Chemical methods
Incidence of storage rots is reduced while the rhizome is treated with benomyl (750 ppm) and/or gibberellic acid (150 ppm) before the storage [144]. Dipping the rhizomes with imazalil or prochloraz (0.8 g a.i/liter) and then storing at 10°C gave good protection against
Treating the rhizome with aureofungin (0.02%) and Benomyl (0.2%) before the Storage, control the disease [148]. Immersing the rhizome in carbendazim (0.1%) for 60 min reduce the disease from 71.4 to 18.2% [112].
Sharma et al. [149] reported that mancozeb fungicides compared to carbendazim is best chemical to protect the rhizome for the longer period from the fungus infection. The presence of Mancozeb was observed at 120th days of storage. But the health point of human, carbendazim treated rhizomes is safe than mancozeb treated rhizome Pre-storage treatment of rhizome with Topsin-M and Bavistin (each at 0.2% concentration for 60 min) reduce the appearance of disease on rhizome, increase the weight of rhizome, surface shriveling and sprouting of rhizomes [31].
4.4.3.2 Cultural practices
Storing the rhizomes in lower temperature avoid weight loss, increase the sprouting but with higher risk of infection when comparing with storage at room temperature. Rhizomes packed in PVC film preserve the weight but has high chance of disease [150]. Dipping the rhizomes in the
5. Nematodes causing disease in ginger
5.1 Root-knot
Disease causes 74% of reduction in rhizome weight. Nematode infections aggregate the fungus and bacterial infection.
5.1.1 Symptoms
Nematode feeds rhizomes, roots and base of the pseudo stems. In the root, it causes the swellings or knots. The symptoms of root knot are very similar to root gall. Irregular round galls and spindle-shaped enlargements appear on the tap and side roots. Diameter of gall is 3.3 cm. Infested plants show stunting, chlorosis and marginal necrosis of leaves. Roots are often stunted and deformed. Roots and rhizomes exhibit galling and rotting. Cortex of the rhizomes becomes lumpy and cracked during the severe infection. During the infection process, female nematode attains the maturity and emerges from the gall by breaking the epidermis of the rhizome which gives corky in appearance for rhizome. Small, circular, water soaked, slightly brown lesions with mature females of the nematode (Figure 6) below the epidermis of the rhizomes are quite numerous in severely infected rhizomes. The lesions serve as entry points for bacteria and fungi, invade, extend the injury into other tissues and destroy the rhizomes.
5.1.2 Causative agent
It is caused by the plant parasitic nematode,
5.1.3 Protection
Crop rotation with non-hosts such as graminaceous and a few antagonistic crops for 1 or 2 years reduces the nematode. Crop rotation with groundnut-mustard was effective in reducing the population of
5.2 Burrowing nematode
5.2.1 Symptoms
Infected plants exhibits stunting, reduced vigor and tillering. Top most leaves become chlorotic with scorched tips. Infected plants show yellow leaves with less number of shoots and stunted growth. Infected rhizomes possess small, water-soaked shallow lesions which later turn brown. These small lesions merge and rot the rhizome.
5.2.2 Causative agent
The causative agent is Radopholus similis.
5.2.3 Protection
Crop rotation with taro and cassava, applying large qualities of poultry manure, dipping seed in hot water at 51°C for 10 min before sowing, reduce the infection of
5.3 Lesion nematodes
5.3.1 Symptoms
It affects roots and rhizome severely. It causes extensive damage to cortical tissues of root. Infestation of the nematodes causes yellowing of leaves and dry rot on rhizome. Dark brown necrotic lesion is observed in nematode infected rhizomes. The fingers are severely affected by this nematode.
5.3.2 Causative agent
Several species of
6. Minor diseases
Some diseases of minor importance have also been reported on ginger like Cercospora leaf spot caused by
7. Nonparasitic diseases
7.1 Sunburn
Young ginger plants are very susceptible to sunburn when the temperatures exceed 90°F due to high light intensity. Mild sunburn affects only the leaves, but acute sunburn damages the entire shoot [158]. Drought and lack of water may cause the same effects as sunburn.
7.2 Lime-induced chlorosis
Excessive liming or abundant coral sand in the soil may cause yellowing of the blades and poor growth.
8. Disease caused by arthropods
Insect involved in spreading the pathogens responsible for the diseases and also involved in damaging the foliage and rhizomes.
8.1 Shoot borer
8.1.1 Symptoms
The moth lay eggs on the growing bud, petiole or leaf of the young plants. Caterpillars bore through the central shoots, feed the growing buds resulting in withered and dried shoot referred to as “Dead Heart”. The presence of a bore hole on the pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and withered and yellow central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest infestation.
8.1.2 Causative pest
Shoot borer caused by
8.1.3 Management
Ginger is protected from the shoot borer by collecting the entire emerged adult, destroying and by installing light trap for adult mass trapping, destroying infested plant and by chemical application of Metarhizium and treating with
8.2 White grub
8.2.1 Symptoms
It feeds the base of the pseudo stem, roots and newly formed rhizomes. Pest infestation leads to yellowing of the leaves. It make large hole in the rhizome and reduce its market value. The entire crop may be lost in severely infested plantations. The adults are dark brown beetles and measures about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm in size. The grubs are creamy white and live in soil.
8.2.2 Causative pest
White grub caused by
8.2.3 Management
Leaving the land fallow for 2 consecutive years reduce the pest population. Growing of resistant crops such as sunflower also checks the buildup of grub population. Sowing of trap crops such as sorghum, maize and onion reduce the white grub infestation. Application of
8.3 Leaf roller
8.3.1 Symptoms
It is an olive green caterpillar with a distinct black head. It folds the leaves and stays inside the fold and defoliates the leaves from the tip and margins. When one portion is complete, it moves and makes another fold.
8.3.2 Causal organism
Leaf roller is caused by
8.3.3 Protection
Maintain the field sanitation and application of
8.4 Chinese rose beetle
The Chinese rose beetle,
8.4.1 Protection
Chinese rose beetles are repelled by bright light and so shining the plants with bright light deter them from feeding; covering young plants with e.g. floating row covers can help to protect plants until they are old enough to withstand attacks by the beetle.
8.5 Fullers rose beetle
The Fullers rose beetle,
8.6 Grasshoppers
Ginger leaves are occasionally damaged by grasshoppers. This occurs at times when there is a high population incidence of these insects [160].
8.7 Scavenger flies
These flies breed in decayed plant tissues of ginger. These include
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