Next Article in Journal
Effects of Priestia aryabhattai on Phosphorus Fraction and Implications for Ecoremediating Cd-Contaminated Farmland with Plant–Microbe Technology
Previous Article in Journal
Interactive Effects of Blue Light and Water Turbulence on the Growth of the Green Macroalga Ulva australis (Chlorophyta)
Previous Article in Special Issue
An In Situ Evaluation of Different CAM Plants as Plant Microbial Fuel Cells for Energy Recovery in the Atacama Desert
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 13
Issue 2
10.3390/plants13020267
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Different Preharvest Diseases in Garlic and Their Eco-Friendly Management Strategies

by
Hadiqa Anum
1,
Yuxin Tong
1,2,* and
Ruifeng Cheng
1,2
1
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
2
Key Laboratory of Energy Conservation and Waste Management of Agricultural Structures, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100081, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2024, 13(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13020267
Submission received: 28 October 2023 / Revised: 15 December 2023 / Accepted: 4 January 2024 / Published: 17 January 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant-Soil-Microbe Interactions)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: garlic reproduces mainly through clove planting, as sexual reproduction via seeds is uncommon. Growers encounter challenges with pathogens due to the larger size and vegetative nature of seed cloves, as well as the storage conditions conducive to fungal growth. Some Phyto-pathogenic fungi, previously unrecognized as garlic infections, can remain latent within bulb tissues long after harvest. Although outwardly healthy, these infected bulbs may develop rot under specific conditions. Aim of review: planting diseased seed cloves can contaminate field soil, with some fungal and bacterial infections persisting for extended periods. The substantial size of seed cloves makes complete eradication of deeply ingrained infections difficult, despite the use of systemic fungicides during the preplanting and postharvest phases. Additionally, viruses, resistant to fungicides, persist in vegetative material. They are prevalent in much of the garlic used for planting, and their host vectors are difficult to eliminate. To address these challenges, tissue-culture techniques are increasingly employed to produce disease-free planting stock. Key scientific concepts of the review: garlic faces a concealed spectrum of diseases that pose a global challenge, encompassing fungal threats like Fusarium’s vascular wilt and Alternaria’s moldy rot, bacterial blights, and the elusive garlic yellow stripe virus. The struggle to eliminate deeply ingrained infections is exacerbated by the substantial size of seed cloves. Moreover, viruses persist in garlic seeds, spreading through carrier vectors, and remain unaffected by fungicides. This review emphasizes eco-friendly strategies to address these challenges, focusing on preventive measures, biocontrol agents, and plant extracts. Tissue-culture techniques emerge as a promising solution for generating disease-free garlic planting material. The review advocates for ongoing research to ensure sustainable garlic cultivation, recognizing the imperative of safeguarding this culinary staple from an array of fungal and viral threats.

1. Introduction

The cycle of garlic (Allium sativum L.) production depends heavily on seed-garlic germination. For optimum crop development, production, and yield, high-quality seed stock is necessary. Growers may build a solid foundation for productive garlic growing by starting with healthy and disease-free garlic seeds. Garlic holds a global agricultural reign with an annual production exceeding 28 million tonnes in 2021 [1]. China, the undisputed king, dominates the market, contributing a staggering 73% of this total, equivalent to filling nearly 11.3 million Olympic-sized swimming pools with garlic cloves [2] (Table 1). The production and financial success of garlic farms are directly impacted by the quality of the seed garlic. Breeders value the ability of some cultivars of this plant to reproduce from genuine seed [3]. U.S. Patent 5746024 covers the method of making genuine seeds from garlic [4]. The utilization of clonal propagules, such as seed cloves [5] or, in rare circumstances, inflorescence bulbils [6], is the most common technique for growing garlic. Our primary concern in this review is the control of infections that harm seed cloves or are spread by them.
Garlic cloves are typically obtained from plants that have been harvested in the late summer (e.g., in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, from early July to mid-September) and then stored for planting in the autumn (mid-September to November) or, for some varieties, in the early spring (March) [13,14]. In order to prevent sprouting during storage and ensure quick germination and development after planting, storage conditions with a temperature range of around 12–14 °C and a relative humidity of 55% are used [15]. Since storing garlic bulbs at temperatures close to 5 °C for lengthy periods of time increases the danger of sprouting, or even a storage temperature of roughly 10 °C [16], garlic cultivars intended for spring planting have been effectively preserved at 0 °C or −3 °C, even though some varieties can be susceptible to such low temperatures [17,18].

2. Garlic Seed Cloves as Habitat Pathogens

In order to maintain the development of healthy seed stock, effective disease management is essential in the seed-garlic industry. Garlic plants are susceptible to diseases, which can lead to decreased yields, poor bulb quality, and greater susceptibility to secondary infections. Growers may lessen the effects of infections and preserve the health and vigor of the seed-garlic crop by implementing good disease-control practices into action. Implementing disease-control strategies in garlic production systems disrupts the perpetuation of pathogens across subsequent harvests, thereby safeguarding the long-term sustainability and productivity of the crop. Garlic cloves are larger than the true seeds of the majority of other field crops, and because they are stored at temperatures between 10 °C and 14 °C, disease control can be challenging. As a result of their size, even systemic fungicide treatment during preplanting or postharvest dips is insufficient to entirely eliminate deeply entrenched diseases [19]. The application of fungicidal dips therefore does not ensure a considerable reduction in inoculum inside the planting stock, unlike with the majority of genuine seeds. Although systemic fungicides are authorized for use against Fusarium and Penicillium-caused bulb rots in ornamental flowers as well as Allium species, fungicidal dips target recently established infections that are superficial [20,21]. Additionally, infestations of the wheat curl mite (Eriophyes tulipae Keifer) and bulb mites (Tyrophagus spp. and Rhizoglyphus spp.) during storage might promote the development of garlic rot. According to [4], the same storage conditions that encourage fungal development also support mite populations. Histiostoma onioni Eraky, Rhizoglyphus robini Claparède, and Tyrophagus putrescentiae Shrank have been demonstrated as capable vectors of A. ochraceus Wilhelm, Aspergillus niger Van Tieghem, Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Ito, Penicillium spp., and other fungi [22]. Despite relying on chemical agents, controlling mites in garlic remains a challenge. There is a detailed manual on garlic diseases and pests [23] (Figure 1).

2.1. Fungal Pathogens

The production of garlic seed is vulnerable to fungal infections. Multiple diseases, including bulb rots and leaf spots, can be brought on by pathogens, including Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria species. These microorganisms can remain latent and grow in storage environments, infecting garlic bulbs either before planting or while being stored. Effective disease-management techniques depend on having a thorough understanding of the symptoms and harm that fungi-based infections produce. Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. cepae H.N. Hans. W.C. Snyder and H.N. Hans. (Foc), Alternaria embellisia (syn. Embellisia allii), Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium hirsutum Dierckx, and F. proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg are the main fungi that attack garlic bulbs while they are being stored [24].
There have also been reports of Fusarium verticillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg and Botrytis porri Buchw. causing rot [24]. It is important to remember, though, that not every isolate with these names necessarily displays aggressive pathogenic behavior. Among pathogenic species, isolates of A. ochraceus, A. niger, and E. allii exhibit varying degrees of virulence. Notably, E. allii presents a greater threat under damp field conditions [20]. Furthermore, it appears that some isolates of the highly aggressive Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae and F. proliferatum, which are also found in onions, are less aggressive in garlic, especially after the garlic bulbs have undergone postharvest aging or “hardening” [25]. It is still completely unclear how long some of these infections may remain latent or quiescent in tissues, as was the case with Velásquez-Valle et al. [26], who comment on Fusarium culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc.
Dugan, Hellier, and Lupien [24] identified three or more of these pathogenic species from each of the seven lots examined, including six lots from diverse locations in the USA and one lot from mainland China, in a study of commercially available asymptomatic seed garlic. Buslyk, et al. [27] reported molecular–genetic techniques for the identification and classification of mycotoxin-producing fungus found in garlic. The Penicillium species, which has recently been the focus of debates surrounding its proper name, is one of the most active fungal infections responsible for the rot in garlic. Prior to its synonym, P. hirsutum, being more often used, the term P. corymbiferum (P. verrucosum var. corymbiferum (Westling) Samson, Stolk, and Hadlok), was also frequently used [28]. Penicillium species that cause rot in garlic have been referred to by a variety of names [29]. Only isolates identified as Penicillium allii Vincent and Pitt were shown to be extremely harmful to garlic by Salinas and Cavagnaro [30], whereas isolates classified as P. hirsutum were less aggressive.
Gálvez and Palmero [31] used the name P. allii to refer to pathogenic isolates, while [28] utilized the name P. hirsutum. Despite acknowledging diverse preferences among isolates, Dugan [4] opted for a broad application of the name P. hirsutum to all garlic-pathogenic isolates in his study, motivated by the presence of a characteristically dark exudate in some isolates [32]. Prior to the discovery of P. allii, several species in the Corymbifera section, notably P. hirsutum var. allii (Vincent and Pitt) Fisvad [33], were thought to be variations of P. hirsutum. While the type material for P. hirsutum is a neotype isolated from aphids, the viable-type material (strictly speaking, extype) for P. allii comes from garlic [34]. Sclerotium cepivorum Berk., the causative agent of white rot, poses a grave threat to garlic agriculture, inflicting substantial yield losses and persistent soil contamination. Recognizing the significant economic and ecological consequences, some regions have implemented stringent quarantine protocols for seed cloves. These measures are aimed at curtailing the dissemination of the pathogen, safeguarding garlic crops, and ensuring agricultural sustainability. This proactive approach to disease management shields garlic-farming communities from the devastating effects of white rot. [35]. Although total eradication may not be possible, hot water treatments can be successful in controlling S. cepivorum in planting stock [36,37] (Table 2).

2.2. Fungal Pathogens in Soil

A pathogen that also affects onions, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae, forms chlamydospores and has the capacity for long-term survival [51]. Unlike F. proliferatum, which does not form chlamydospores [52], it may survive in soil for a long time if it is present in agricultural wastes [53]. In simulated winter conditions in field soil, [24] found that both F. proliferatum and F. oxysporum survived prolonged freezing. The potential of Fusarium verticillioides to thrive in agricultural settings is also well documented [54]. A. ochraceus and Botrytis porri both have the ability to create sclerotia, and both can do so in a sizeable amount [55]. Sclerotium cepivorum, as its name implies, also generates sclerotia, which may survive for years without a host plant [56]. To reduce the occurrence of S. cepivorum sclerotia, many management techniques have been devised, such as the use of substances that stimulate germination by imitating Allium root exudates [57]. Penicillium hirsutum, on the other hand, does not show long-term persistence in the soil [58] (Figure 2).

2.3. Mycotoxin

While the emphasis of this analysis is focused on seed garlic, it is important to recognize that a number of fungi have the capacity to create poisons that might be substantial in table garlic. F. proliferatum, which was first discovered in market garlic in Germany by [59], has now been found in North American garlic fields [60]. Despite the fact that F. verticillioides was just recently identified as a pathogen that causes garlic to rot [4], the organism has been studied for its capacity to produce mycotoxin [20]. Fumonisins are most frequently produced by F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides; F. proliferatum also produces other mycotoxins [61].

3. Bacteria and Virus

A garlic disease known as “maladie café au lait,” attributed to Pseudomonas fluorescens and caused by the pathogen Migula, poses a significant threat to garlic cultivation, impacting both yield and quality [62]. On at least one pest list for garlic, Burkholderia cepacia (Palleroni and Holmes) is designated as a controlled organism [63]. Several organisms, including E. chrysanthemi, Erwinia carotovora, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas gladioli, and Burkholder, can cause soft rot in onions and garlic. However, these organisms are more damaging to onions than they are to garlic [64] (Table 3 and Table 4).
Many studies, most notably [87], have documented yield losses brought on by viral infections, particularly the prevalent OYDV. Numerous viruses can coexist in a single illness, which is known as a mixed infection [88]. Several mite-borne viruses that infect Allium species are included in the relatively new genus Allexivirus in the family Flexiviridae, in addition to the viruses already described. These include the garlic mite-borne filamentous virus (GarMbFV), garlic virus A (Gar V-A), garlic virus B (Gar V-B), garlic virus C (Gar V-C), garlic virus D (Gar V-D), garlic virus E (Gar V-E), and garlic virus X (Gar V-X) [89].

4. Nematodes

Nematode infections, in particular Ditylenchus dipsaci, pose considerable problems to the growth of seed garlic. These tiny roundworms invade the roots, bulbs, and leaves of the garlic plant, resulting in stunted development, deformed bulbs, and decreased harvests. Seed garlic contaminated with nematodes can hasten the spread of nematodes in succeeding harvests, escalating the harm. For a healthy seed supply to be maintained, effective nematode management is essential. Several Allium species in temperate climates are negatively impacted by the pest Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) Filipjev [90,91,92]. Nematode numbers in garlic seeds have been managed by hot water treatments. This method efficiently kills nematodes without doing much harm to the garlic by dipping seed cloves or bulbs in hot water for certain amounts of time and temperature. Nematode populations can be reduced by hot water treatments, which also help to stop the transmission of nematode-borne illnesses to future crops. The nematode can be controlled with hot water treatments, especially when they are followed by a long soak in cold water [93,94]. The adaptability of different garlic cultivars to greater temperatures without suffering damage varies; thus, care should be taken. Finding temperatures that are high enough to kill the worm without seriously harming the garlic plants is essential. Conducting lengthy investigations may be difficult due to the restricted availability of germplasm in significant numbers for testing. However, hot water treatments can be helpful, when there is a plentiful supply of a specific garlic species (Table 5).

5. Disease-Free Planting Stock

Garlic that is free of disease may now be produced by utilizing tissue-culture methods, particularly a meristem culture employing one or two leaf primordia. Researchers can get rid of viruses and grow clean, virus-free, garlic plants by cultivating tiny pieces of plant tissue in a controlled lab setting. Tissue culture makes it possible to quickly multiply disease-free planting stock, enabling the production of healthy seed garlic. Since garlic cloves are vegetative propagules, viruses continue to infect garlic plants, whether they are cultivated for the table or as seed stock. Although most seed garlic contains viruses, not all of them are obviously harmful [103]. Alternative management approaches are preferred since the chemical treatment of numerous viral vectors (aphids, nematodes, and thrips) is challenging and expensive [104] (Figure 3).
The creation of virus-free garlic plants via tissue culture, specifically meristem culture using one or two leaf primordia, has become possible. According to study [105], clones grown by tissue cultures that are virus-free have better yields and profitability than clones that are infected. Improvements in methods, such as the use of inflorescence bulbil primordia, have enhanced success rates even if the successive cultivation of meristems from shoot tips does not always ensure total viral eradication. In vegetatively grown Allium cepa var. ascalonicum (shallots), viral infections have been eradicated using comparable tissue-culture techniques [106]. Garlic has been successfully cryopreserved, and the stocks are frequently virus-free. Nevertheless, the efficiency of cryopreservation may differ depending on the tissues (bulbils vs. cloves) and varieties of garlic (hard-neck versus soft-neck). In places like California, Australia, and Canada [107], tissue-culture techniques are currently used to produce disease-free commercial planting stock. It is crucial to keep in mind that producers who engage in large-scale production may most easily afford this equipment.

5.1. Resistant Cultivars

The management of viral and fungal infections in garlic has been investigated in regard to prospective techniques, including resistance and/or tolerance. Observing the absence of viral symptoms or the inability to detect viruses in particular cultivars has been the focus of some reports (e.g., [3,105]), whereas other studies have gone through extensive testing to determine garlic’s resistance to the viruses leek yellow stripe virus (LYSV) and onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV) [108]. There are also reports describing resistance to a number of fungi that attack garlic, including Alternaria porri (Ellis) Cif. [109], Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae [110], Penicillium hirsutum [111,112], Pyrenochaeta terrestris (H.N.). Although certain white-skinned varieties also show resistance, red-skinned garlic types often show stronger resistance to Embellisia allii than white-skinned cultivars [113]. However, there are other accounts of attempts to find resistance that were unsuccessful, such as those with Sclerotium cepivorum [114], Puccinia allii F. Rudolphi [115], and Penicillium hirsutum [116]. The complicated processes and difficulties involved in detecting resistance in germplasm are shown by the divergent findings from numerous studies on the same diseases.

5.2. Genetic Modification

Particle bombardment, often referred to as biolistic transformation, can change garlic using plasmid DNA [11,28]. Significant consequences for the transmission of resistance genes in garlic result from this method. Gamma radiation is proposed as a method for inducing beneficial mutations in garlic, potentially leading to disease resistance [117] (Figure 4).

6. Challenges

Due to the involvement of several small farmers and gardeners, garlic production is not only of horticultural importance but also has societal value. Numerous cities in North America, Europe, and the UK have annual garlic fairs and festivals. Bulb garlic is frequently exchanged or sold as seed and eaten for culinary purposes. The internet has given garlic aficionados, especially those with modest financial means but plenty of zeal and knowledge, a forum for enhanced communication and germplasm exchange. While there are numerous advantages to this, there are also hazards related to the transfer of infections along with genetic material. Even if the majority of garlic infections are common, there is always a risk of spreading novel diseases or more aggressive genotypes into fields that had not previously been impacted. The early identification of infections in seed garlic has improved because of developments in diagnostic technology. Affordably priced viral detection kits may provide rapid and accurate testing, enabling producers to recognize affected plants and implement the proper disease-control strategies. Additionally, introducing disease-resistant cultivars created via conventional breeding or genetic alteration has the potential to improve disease control in seed-garlic production. For both their personal use and the market, growers with more financial means are progressively able to use tissue-culture programs to produce disease-free planting material. It is predicted that the establishment of cooperatives or other methods would make tissue culture accessible to smaller producers as well. Both big and small farmers can benefit from improvements in diagnostic technologies, including readily available and reasonably priced viral testing and disease-resistant cultivars.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Chen, S.-P.J.; Pan, B.S. 13 Food Flavors. In Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Components; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2023; p. 363. [Google Scholar]
  2. Goldstein, R.K.; Shemesh-Mayer, E. Crop Development–Garlic. In Edible Alliums: Botany, Production and Uses; CABI GB: Wallingford, UK, 2022; pp. 90–110. [Google Scholar]
  3. Shemesh-Mayer, E.; Kamenetsky-Goldstein, R. Traditional and novel approaches in garlic (Allium sativum L.) breeding. In Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Vegetable Crops: Volume 8: Bulbs, Roots and Tubers; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 3–49. [Google Scholar]
  4. Dugan, F.M. Diseases and disease management in seed garlic: Problems and prospects. Am. J. Plant Sci. Biotechnol. 2007, 1, 47–51. [Google Scholar]
  5. Marodin, J.C.; Resende, F.V.; Gabriel, A.; Souza, R.J.d.; Resende, J.T.V.d.; Camargo, C.K.; Zeist, A.R. Agronomic performance of both virus-infected and virus-free garlic with different seed bulbs and clove sizes. Pesqui. Agropecuária Bras. 2019, 54, e01448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Bhusal, H.; Shemesh-Mayer, E.; Forer, I.; Kryukov, L.; Peters, R.; Kamenetsky-Goldstein, R. Bulbils in garlic inflorescence: Development and virus translocation. Sci. Hortic. 2021, 285, 110146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Zafar, S.; Aslam, N.; Zia-Ul-Haq, M.; Perveen, S.; Iqbal, N. Garlic. In Essentials of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2023; pp. 459–482. [Google Scholar]
  8. Hossain, M.S.; Shahiduzzaman, M.; Rahim, M.A.; Paul, M.; Sarkar, R.; Chaity, F.S.; Uddin, M.N.; Rana, G.M.; Yeasmin, M.S.; Kibria, A. Bioactive properties and organosulfur compounds profiling of newly developed garlic varieties of Bangladesh. Food Chem. X 2023, 17, 100577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Yun, K.; Shin, M.; Moon, K.H.; Kim, S.-H. An integrative process-based model for biomass and yield estimation of hardneck garlic (Allium sativum). Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 783810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Elasraag, Y.H. Economic study for onion and garlic production in Egypt. Minia J. Agric. Res. Dev. 2022, 42, 3. [Google Scholar]
  11. Parreño, R.; Rodríguez-Alcocer, E.; Martínez-Guardiola, C.; Carrasco, L.; Castillo, P.; Arbona, V.; Jover-Gil, S.; Candela, H. Turning Garlic into a Modern Crop: State of the Art and Perspectives. Plants 2023, 12, 1212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Rosen, C.; Hutchison, B.; Tong, C.; Becker, R.; Sharma, V.; Ford, J.; Nesser, S. Growing Garlic in Minnesota; University of Minnesota: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  13. El-Shabasi, M.; Osman, Y.; Rizk, S. Effect of planting date and some pre-planting treatments on growth and yield of garlic. J. Plant Prod. 2018, 9, 1091–1096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Desta, B.; Woldetsadik, K.; M Ali, W. Effect of harvesting time, curing and storage methods on storability of garlic bulbs. Open Biotechnol. J. 2021, 15, 36–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Madhu, B.; Mudgal, V.D.; Champawat, P.S. Storage of garlic bulbs (Allium sativum L.): A review. J. Food Process Eng. 2019, 42, e13177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Wu, C.; Wang, M.; Dong, Y.; Cheng, Z.; Meng, H. Growth, bolting and yield of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in response to clove chilling treatment. Sci. Hortic. 2015, 194, 43–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Marcuzzo, L.; Xavier, A. Effect of temperature and photoperiod on the mycelial development of Stromatinia cepivora, the causal agent of white rot of garlic and onion. Summa Phytopathol. 2017, 43, 68–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Khokhar, K.M. Bulb development in garlic–a review. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 2022, 98, 432–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Nikitin, D.A.; Ivanova, E.A.; Semenov, M.V.; Zhelezova, A.D.; Ksenofontova, N.A.; Tkhakakhova, A.K.; Kholodov, V.A. Diversity, Ecological Characteristics and Identification of Some Problematic Phytopathogenic Fusarium in Soil: A Review. Diversity 2023, 15, 49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Gálvez, L.; Palmero, D. Fusarium dry rot of garlic bulbs caused by Fusarium proliferatum: A review. Horticulturae 2022, 8, 628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Elshahid, M.; Tony, H.S.; Isamail, M.E.; Galal, A.A. Effects of certain fungicide alternatives on garlic yield, storage ability and postharvest rot infection. New Val. J. Agric. Sci. 2022, 2, 357–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Hofstetter, R.; Moser, J. The role of mites in insect-fungus associations. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2014, 59, 537–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Jeffers, A.; Chong, J.H. Biological Control Strategies in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programs; Clemson University Cooperative, Land-Grant Press by Clemson Extension, LGP: Clemson, SC, USA, 2021; Volume 1111, pp. 1–9. [Google Scholar]
  24. Dugan, F.; Hellier, B.; Lupien, S. Pathogenic fungi in garlic seed cloves from the United States and China, and efficacy of fungicides against pathogens in garlic germplasm in Washington State. J. Phytopathol. 2007, 155, 437–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Choiruddin, M.R.; Fatawi, Z.D.; Hadiwiyono, H. Virulence and genetic diversity of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae as the cause of root rot in garlic. Asian J. Trop. Biotechnol. 2019, 16, 31–36. [Google Scholar]
  26. Velásquez-Valle, R.; Macias-Valdez, L.M.; Reveles-Hernández, M. Common pathogens of garlic seed in Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, Mexico. Rev. Mex. Cienc. Agrícolas 2017, 8, 1881–1885. [Google Scholar]
  27. Buslyk, T.; Rosalovsky, V.; Salyha, Y. PCR-based detection and quantification of mycotoxin-producing fungi. Cytol. Genet. 2022, 56, 16–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Khar, A.; Hirata, S.; Abdelrahman, M.; Shigyo, M.; Singh, H. Breeding and genomic approaches for climate-resilient garlic. In Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Vegetable Crops; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 359–383. [Google Scholar]
  29. Aysan, Y.; Horuz, S. Commercially Important Vegetable Crop Diseases. In Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2015; pp. 137–156. [Google Scholar]
  30. Salinas, M.C.; Cavagnaro, P.F. In vivo and in vitro screening for resistance against Penicillium allii in garlic accessions. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2020, 156, 173–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Gálvez, L.; Palmero, D. Incidence and etiology of postharvest fungal diseases associated with bulb rot in garlic (Alllium sativum) in Spain. Foods 2021, 10, 1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Khan, I.H.; Javaid, A. Penicillium echinulatum causing blue mold on tomato in Pakistan. J. Plant Pathol. 2022, 104, 1143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Visagie, C.; Houbraken, J.; Frisvad, J.C.; Hong, S.-B.; Klaassen, C.; Perrone, G.; Seifert, K.; Varga, J.; Yaguchi, T.; Samson, R. Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium. Stud. Mycol. 2014, 78, 343–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Houbraken, J.; Kocsubé, S.; Visagie, C.M.; Yilmaz, N.; Wang, X.-C.; Meijer, M.; Kraak, B.; Hubka, V.; Bensch, K.; Samson, R. Classification of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces and related genera (Eurotiales): An overview of families, genera, subgenera, sections, series and species. Stud. Mycol. 2020, 95, 5–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Yimer, O. Different mulch material on growth, performance and yield of garlic: A review. Int. J. Food Sci. Agric. 2020, 4, 38–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Kamenetsky, R. Garlic: Botany and horticulture. In Horticultural Reviews-Westport then New York; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007; Volume 33, p. 123. [Google Scholar]
  37. Kumar, V.; Iqbal, N. Post-harvest pathogens and disease management of horticultural crop: A brief review. Plant Arch 2020, 20, 2054–2058. [Google Scholar]
  38. Al-Askar, A.A.; Rashad, E.M.; Ghoneem, K.M.; Mostafa, A.A.; Al-Otibi, F.O.; Saber, W.I. Discovering Penicillium polonicum with high-lytic capacity on Helianthus tuberosus tubers: Oil-based preservation for mold management. Plants 2021, 10, 413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Abba, J.F. Preliminary Studies on Fungus Associated with Storage Disease of Garlic (Allium Sativum L.) in Nigeria. Dutse J. Pure Appl. Sci. 2019, 5, 161–168. [Google Scholar]
  40. Chen, J.; Yan, R.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, N.; Hu, H. Compositional shifts in the fungal diversity of garlic scapes during postharvest transportation and cold storage. Lwt 2019, 115, 108453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Rawat, S.; Sharma, G.; Sharma, K. Major Diseases of Garlic (Allium Sativum L.) and Their Management. In Diseases of Horticultural Crops: Diagnosis and Management: Volume 2: Vegetable Crops; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2022; p. 225. [Google Scholar]
  42. Le, D.; Audenaert, K.; Haesaert, G. Fusarium basal rot: Profile of an increasingly important disease in Allium spp. Trop. Plant Pathol. 2021, 46, 241–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Cavalcanti, V.P.; Araújo, N.A.; Schwanestrada, K.R.; Pasqual, M.; Dória, J. Athelia (Sclerotium) rolfsii in Allium sativum: Potential biocontrol agents and their effects on plant metabolites. An. Acad. Bras. Ciências 2018, 90, 3949–3962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Chohan, S.; Perveen, R.; Abid, M.; Naqvi, A.H.; Naz, S. Management of seed borne fungal diseases of tomato: A review. Pak. J. Phytopathol. 2017, 29, 193–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Khan, I.; Hussain, H.; Shah, B.; Ullah, W.; Naeem, A.; Ali, W.; Khan, N.; Adnan, M.; Junaid, K.; Shah, S.R.A. Evaluation of phytobiocides and different culture media for growth, isolation and control of Rhizoctonia solani in vitro. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 2016, 4, 417–420. [Google Scholar]
  46. Bisht, I.; Agrawal, R. Susceptibility to purple blotch (Alternaria porri) in garlic (Allium sativum). Ann. Appl. Biol. 1993, 122, 31–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Zhang, B.; Zhang, Y.; Ma, L.; Qi, K.; Wang, P.; Li, C.; Qi, J. Identification of Pythium species as pathogens of garlic root rot. J. Plant Pathol. 2021, 103, 259–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Cavalcanti, V.P.; Araújo, N.A.F.; Machado, N.B.; Júnior, P.S.P.C.; Pasqual, M.; Alves, E.; Schwan-Estrada, K.R.F.; Doria, J. Yeasts and Bacillus spp. as potential biocontrol agents of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in garlic. Sci. Hortic. 2020, 261, 108931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Dutta, R.K.J.; Nadig, S.M.; Manjunathagowda, D.C.; Gurav, V.S.; Singh, M. Anthracnose of onion (Allium cepa L.): A twister disease. Pathogens 2022, 11, 884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. van Bruggen, A.H.; Gamliel, A.; Finckh, M.R. Plant disease management in organic farming systems. Pest Manag. Sci. 2016, 72, 30–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Sidharthan, V.K.; Aggarwal, R.; Shanmugam, V. Fusarium wilt of crop plants: Disease development and management. In Wilt Diseases of Crops and Their Management; Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publisher: Delhi, India, 2019; pp. 519–533. [Google Scholar]
  52. De la Lastra, E.; Camacho, M.; Capote, N. Soil bacteria as potential biological control agents of Fusarium species associated with asparagus decline syndrome. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Jambhulkar, P.P.; Raja, M.; Singh, B.; Katoch, S.; Kumar, S.; Sharma, P. Potential native Trichoderma strains against Fusarium verticillioides causing post flowering stalk rot in winter maize. Crop Prot. 2022, 152, 105838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Leslie, J.; Summerell, B. Fusarium laboratory workshops—A recent history. Mycotoxin Res. 2006, 22, 73–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Oh, J.-Y.; Kim, K.-D. Control strategies for fungal pathogens on stored onion (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum): A Review. Life Resour. Res. 2016, 24, 31–40. [Google Scholar]
  56. Rivera-Mendez, W.; Obregon, M.; Moran-Diez, M.E.; Hermosa, R.; Monte, E. Trichoderma asperellum biocontrol activity and induction of systemic defenses against Sclerotium cepivorum in onion plants under tropical climate conditions. Biol. Control 2020, 141, 104145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Qian, Y.L.; Hua, G.K.H.; Scott, J.C.; Dung, J.K.; Qian, M.C. Evaluation of Sulfur-Based Biostimulants for the Germination of Sclerotium cepivorum Sclerotia and Their Interaction with Soil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2022, 70, 15038–15045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Gillis-Madden, R.; Rehmen, S.; Hildebrand, P. Garlic Storage, Post-Harvest Diseases, and Planting Stock Considerations. FACT SHEET. 2020. Available online: https://www.perennia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Fact-Sheet-Garlic-Post-Harvest-final.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2023).
  59. Seefelder, W.; Gossmann, M.; Humpf, H.-U. Analysis of fumonisin B1 in Fusarium proliferatum-infected asparagus spears and garlic bulbs from Germany by liquid chromatography—Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 2778–2781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Anisimova, O.K.; Seredin, T.M.; Danilova, O.A.; Filyushin, M.A. First report of Fusarium proliferatum causing garlic clove rot in Russian Federation. Plant Dis. 2021, 105, 3308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Desjardins, A.E. Fusarium mycotoxins: Chemistry, Genetics, and Biology; American Phytopathological Society (APS Press): St. Paul, MN, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  62. Jacques, M.-A.; Luçon, N.; Houdault, S. Clove-transmissibility of Pseudomonas salomonii, the causal agent of ‘Café au lait’disease of garlic. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2009, 124, 695–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Wallock-Richards, D.; Doherty, C.J.; Doherty, L.; Clarke, D.J.; Place, M.; Govan, J.R.; Campopiano, D.J. Garlic revisited: Antimicrobial activity of allicin-containing garlic extracts against Burkholderia cepacia complex. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e112726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Akar, A.A.; Abbas, E.E.; Tohamy, M.; El-Said, H. Effective factors on onion bacterial soft rot disease incidence during storage. Zagazig J. Agric. Res. 2019, 46, 1039–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Roumagnac, P.; Gagnevin, L.; Gardan, L.; Sutra, L.; Manceau, C.; Dickstein, E.; Jones, J.B.; Rott, P.; Pruvost, O. Polyphasic characterization of xanthomonads isolated from onion, garlic and Welsh onion (Allium spp.) and their relatedness to different Xanthomonas species. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 2004, 54, 15–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Gardan, L.; Bella, P.; Meyer, J.-M.; Christen, R.; Rott, P.; Achouak, W.; Samson, R. Pseudomonas salomonii sp. nov., pathogenic on garlic, and Pseudomonas palleroniana sp. nov., isolated from rice. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 2002, 52, 2065–2074. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  67. Sawada, H.; Horita, H.; Nishimura, F.; Mori, M. Pseudomonas salomonii, another causal agent of garlic spring rot in Japan. J. Gen. Plant Pathol. 2020, 86, 180–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Nurjanah, N.; Joko, T.; Subandiyah, S. Characterization of Pantoea ananatis isolated from garlic and shallot. J. Perlindungan Tanam. Indones. 2017, 21, 120–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Koike, S.T.; Gladders, P.; Paulus, A.O. Vegetable Diseases: A Color Handbook; Gulf Professional Publishing: Houston, TX, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
  70. Júnior, P.S.P.C.; Cardoso, F.P.; Martins, A.D.; Buttrós, V.H.T.; Pasqual, M.; Dias, D.R.; Schwan, R.F.; Dória, J. Endophytic bacteria of garlic roots promote growth of micropropagated meristems. Microbiol. Res. 2020, 241, 126585. [Google Scholar]
  71. Li, E.; Tian, X.; Zhao, R.; Wang, Y.; Wang, G. First Report of Enterobacter cloacae Causing Bulb Decay on Garlic in China. Plant Dis. 2022, 106, 310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. van der Wolf, J.M.; Acuña, I.; De Boer, S.H.; Brurberg, M.B.; Cahill, G.; Charkowski, A.O.; Coutinho, T.; Davey, T.; Dees, M.W.; Degefu, Y. Diseases caused by Pectobacterium and Dickeya species around the world. In Plant Diseases Caused by Dickeya and Pectobacterium Species; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 215–261. [Google Scholar]
  73. Eady, C.; Davis, S.; Catanach, A.; Kenel, F.; Hunger, S. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of leek (Allium porrum) and garlic (Allium sativum). Plant Cell Rep. 2005, 24, 209–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Bellardi, M.; Marani, F.; Betti, L.; Rabiti, A. Detection of garlic common latent virus (GCLV) in Allium sativum L. in Italy. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 1995, 34, 58–61. [Google Scholar]
  75. Yong-Jian, F.; Chu-Hua, W.; Zhen-Xiao, L.; Zheng, X. Molecular Cloning and Nucleotide Sequence of the Coat Protein Gene from Garlic Mosaic Virus. Virol. Sin. 2015, 9, 333. [Google Scholar]
  76. Lunello, P.; Di Rienzo, J.; Conci, V.C. Yield loss in garlic caused by Leek yellow stripe virus Argentinean isolate. Plant Dis. 2007, 91, 153–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Majumder, S.; Baranwal, V.; Joshi, S. Simultaneous detection of Onion yellow dwarf virus and Shallot latent virus in infected leaves and cloves of garlic by duplex RT-PCR. J. Plant Pathol. 2008, 90, 371–374. [Google Scholar]
  78. Lot, H.; Chovelon, V.; Souche, S.; Delecolle, B. Effects of onion yellow dwarf and leek yellow stripe viruses on symptomatology and yield loss of three French garlic cultivars. Plant Dis. 1998, 82, 1381–1385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Bag, S.; Schwartz, H.F.; Cramer, C.S.; Havey, M.J.; Pappu, H.R. Iris yellow spot virus (Tospovirus: Bunyaviridae): From obscurity to research priority. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2015, 16, 224–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  80. Stefanac, Z. Cucumber mosaic virus in garlic. Acta Bot. Croat. 1980, 39, 21M26. [Google Scholar]
  81. Koenig, R.; Lesemann, D.-E.; Pleij, C. Tobacco rattle virus genome alterations in the Hosta hybrid ‘Green Fountain’and other plants: Reassortments, recombinations and deletions. Arch. Virol. 2012, 157, 2005–2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Song, S.I.; Song, J.T.; Kim, C.H.; Lee, J.S.; Choi, Y.D. Molecular characterization of the garlic virus X genome. J. Gen. Virol. 1998, 79, 155–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Majumder, S.; Baranwal, V. First report of Garlic common latent virus in garlic from India. Plant Dis. 2009, 93, 106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Amin, H.M.; Majeed, A.J. Effect of growing seasons, plant extracts with various rates on Black Bean Aphid, Aphis Fabae (Aphididae: Homoptera). Kurd. J. Appl. Res. 2018, 3, 22–26. [Google Scholar]
  85. Goswami, B.; Archana, M.; Sharma, S. Nematode vectors of plant diseases and its perspectives. In Advances in Nematology; Scientific Publishers: New Delhi, India, 2003; p. 37. [Google Scholar]
  86. Gharekhani, G.; Ghorbansyahi, S.; Saber, M.; Bagheri, M. Influence of the colour and height of sticky traps in attraction of Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) and predatory thrips of family Aeolothripidae on garlic, onion and tomato crops. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2014, 47, 2270–2275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Lee, E.T.; Koo, B.J.; Jung, J.H.; Chang, M.U.; Kang, S.G. Detection of allexiviruses in the garlic plants in Korea. Plant Pathol. J. 2007, 23, 266–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Lunello, P.; Mansilla, C.; Sánchez, F.; Ponz, F. A developmentally linked, dramatic, and transient loss of virus from roots of Arabidopsis thaliana plants infected by either of two RNA viruses. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2007, 20, 1589–1595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Mavrič, I.; Ravnikar, M. A carlavirus serologically closely related to Carnation latent virus in Slovenian garlic. Acta Agric. Slov. 2005, 85, 343–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Yu, Q.; Ye, W.; Badiss, A.; Sun, F. Description of Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kuhn, 1857) Filipjev, 1936 (Nematoda: Anguinidae) infesting garlic in Ontario, Canada. International journal of Nematology 2010, 20, 185–192. [Google Scholar]
  91. Yu, Q.; Zaida, M.; Hughes, B.; Celetti, M. Discovery of potato rot nematode, Ditylenchus destructor, infesting garlic in Ontario, Canada. Plant disease 2012, 96, 297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Guiñez, S. Control of the stem and bulb nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kuhn) Filipjev on garlic crops (Allium sativum L.). Agric. Técnica 1992, 51, 233–236. [Google Scholar]
  93. Draghici, D.; Mihut, A.; Hanganu, M.; Virteiu, A.M.; Grozea, I. Evaluation and keeping under control the pest populations of garlic cultivated in an organic system. Res. J. Agric. Sci. 2022, 54, 58. [Google Scholar]
  94. El-Saadony, M.T.; Abuljadayel, D.A.; Shafi, M.E.; Albaqami, N.M.; Desoky, E.-S.M.; El-Tahan, A.M.; Mesiha, P.K.; Elnahal, A.S.; Almakas, A.; Taha, A.E. Control of foliar phytoparasitic nematodes through sustainable natural materials: Current progress and challenges. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2021, 28, 7314–7326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Mollov, D.; Subbotin, S.; Rosen, C. First report of Ditylenchus dipsaci on garlic in Minnesota. Plant Dis. 2012, 96, 1707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Ravindra, H.; Sehgal, M.; Narasimhamurthy, H.; Soumya, D. First Report of Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) on Garlic in India. Indian J. Nematol. 2015, 45, 121–122. [Google Scholar]
  97. Mani, A.; Al Hinai, M.S.; Handoo, Z. Occurrence, population density, and distribution of root-lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus spp., in the Sultanate of Oman. Nematropica 1997, 27, 209–219. [Google Scholar]
  98. Amin, A.; Youssef, M. Population dynamics of the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, on navel orange as affected by some plant residues, an organic manure and a biocide. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2014, 47, 2233–2241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Creech, J.E.; Johnson, W.G. Survey of broadleaf winter weeds in Indiana production fields infested with soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines). Weed Technol. 2006, 20, 1066–1075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Anupriya, P.; Anita, B.; Kalaiarasan, P.; Karthikeyan, G. Population dynamics and community analysis of plant parasitic nematodes associated with carrot, potato and garlic in the Nilgiris district, Tamil Nadu. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 2019, 7, 627–630. [Google Scholar]
  101. Yavuzaslanoglu, E.; Sonmezoglu, O.A.; Genc, N.; Akar, Z.M.; Ocal, A.; Karaca, M.S.; Elekcioglu, I.H.; Ozsoy, V.S.; Aydogdu, M. Occurrence and abundance of nematodes on onion in Turkey and their relationship with soil physicochemical properties. Nematology 2019, 21, 1063–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Milne, D.; Keetch, D. Other Contributions: Some Observations on the Host Plant Relationships of Radopholus similis in Natal. Nematropica 1976, 6, 13–17. [Google Scholar]
  103. Loyola-Vargas, V.M.; Ochoa-Alejo, N. An introduction to plant cell culture: The future ahead. In Plant Cell Culture Protocols; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012; pp. 1–8. [Google Scholar]
  104. Tegen, H.; Mohammed, W. The role of plant tissue culture to supply disease free planting materials of major horticultural crops in Ethiopia. J. Biol. Agric. Healthc. 2016, 6, 122–129. [Google Scholar]
  105. Bikis, D. Review on the application of biotechnology in garlic (Allium sativum) improvement. Int. J. Res. Stud. Agric. Sci. 2018, 4, 23–33. [Google Scholar]
  106. Twaij, B.M.; Jazar, Z.H.; Hasan, M.N. Trends in the use of tissue culture, applications and future aspects. Int. J. Plant Biol. 2020, 11, 8385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Hussain, A.; Qarshi, I.A.; Nazir, H.; Ullah, I. Plant tissue culture: Current status and opportunities. Recent Adv. Plant Vitr. Cult. 2012, 6, 1–28. [Google Scholar]
  108. Bagi, F.; Stojscaron, V.; Budakov, D.; El Swaeh, S.M.A.; Gvozdanovi-Varga, J. Effect of onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV) on yield components of fall garlic (Allium sativum L.) in Serbia. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2012, 7, 2386–2390. [Google Scholar]
  109. Mehra, R.; Batra, V. Evaluation of garlic varieties against purple blotch disease and yield. J. Med. Aromat. Plant Sci. 2005, 27, 7–9. [Google Scholar]
  110. Afzal, M.M.; Sahi, S.T.; Habib, A.; Ashraf, W.; Zeshan, M.A.; Raheel, M.; Shakeel, Q. Management of Fusarium basal rot of onion caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae through desert plants extracts. Sarhad J. Agric. 2021, 37, 1377–1383. [Google Scholar]
  111. Valdez, J.G.; Makuch, M.A.; Ordovini, A.F.; Frisvad, J.C.; Overy, D.P.; Masuelli, R.W.; Piccolo, R.J. Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of Penicillium spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina. Plant Pathol. 2009, 58, 352–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Valdez, J.G.; Makuch, M.A.; Ordovini, A.F.; Masuelli, R.W.; Overy, D.P.; Piccolo, R. First report of Penicillium allii as a field pathogen of garlic (Allium sativum). Plant Pathol. 2006, 55, 583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Dugan, F.; Crowe, F. Embellisia skin blotch and bulb canker of garlic. In Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and Pests, 2nd ed.; Schwartz, H.F., Mohan, S.K., Eds.; American Phytopathological Society: St. Paul, MN, USA, 2008; pp. 17–18. [Google Scholar]
  114. Martínez, F.L.; Noyola, P.P. Caracterización molecular de aislados de Sclerotium cepivorum mediante análisis del polimorfismo de los fragmentos amplificados al azar. Acta Univ. 2001, 11, 44–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Koike, S.; Smith, R. First report of rust caused by Puccinia allii on wild garlic in California. Plant Dis. 2001, 85, 1290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Bertolini, P.; Tian, S.P. Low-temperature biology and pathogenicity of Penicillium hirsutum on garlic in storage. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 1996, 7, 83–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Gultom, T.; Simbolon, D.L.; Nainggolan, W.S. Effect of gamma rays on phenotypic of garlic cultivar doulu. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2020; p. 012081. [Google Scholar]
Plants 13 00267 g001
Figure 1. Cultural Cycle of Garlic.
Figure 1. Cultural Cycle of Garlic.
Plants 13 00267 g001
Plants 13 00267 g002
Figure 2. Cycle of fusarium dry rot in garlic.
Figure 2. Cycle of fusarium dry rot in garlic.
Plants 13 00267 g002
Plants 13 00267 g003
Figure 3. Virus free garlic seed production.
Figure 3. Virus free garlic seed production.
Plants 13 00267 g003
Plants 13 00267 g004
Figure 4. Particle bombardment for genetic transformation.
Figure 4. Particle bombardment for genetic transformation.
Plants 13 00267 g004
Table 1. Worldwide production of garlic.
Table 1. Worldwide production of garlic.
RankCountryProduction (Tonnes)Yield (Tonnes/ha)% of Global ProductionReference
1China20,000,0001871.40%[2]
2India1,250,000124.50%[7]
3Bangladesh466,389151.70%[8]
4South Korea387,671171.40%[9]
5Egypt318,800131.10%[10]
6Spain271,350191.00%[11]
7United States237,340160.80%[12]
Table 2. Fungal pathogens in garlic seed.
Table 2. Fungal pathogens in garlic seed.
Fungal PathogenCommon NameDisease SymptomsReferences
Penicillium spp.Blue MoldDecay of seed cloves during storage[38,39]
Botrytis spp.Gray MoldGray mold on garlic bulbs[40,41]
Fusarium spp.Basal RotBasal rot and vascular wilt in plants[20,42]
Sclerotium spp.White RotWhite rot in garlic bulbs[43]
Rhizoctonia spp.Root RotDamping off, root rot, and basal plate rot[44,45]
Alternaria spp.Leaf BlightLeaf blight and bulb rot[46]
Pythium spp.Damping offDamping off and root rot in seedlings[47]
Sclerotinia spp.White MoldWhite mold on garlic bulbs[48]
Colletotrichum spp.AnthracnoseAnthracnose with sunken lesions[49]
Myrothecium spp.Bulb RotBulb rot and leaf blight[50]
Table 3. Bacterial species causing diseases in garlic seed.
Table 3. Bacterial species causing diseases in garlic seed.
Bacterial PathogenCommon NameDisease SymptomsReferences
Xanthomonas spp.Bacterial Leaf SpotWater-soaked lesions on leaves and bulbs[65]
Pseudomonas spp.Soft RotSoftening and decay of bulbs[66]
Erwinia spp.Bacterial Bulb DecaySlimy rotting of bulbs[67]
Pantoea ananatisCenter RotRotting and discoloration of bulb centers[68]
Clavibacter spp.Bacterial CankerRaised, corky cankers on leaves and stems[69]
Burkholderia cepaciaBulb RotRotting and foul odor in bulbs[70]
Enterobacter cloacaeBasal Plate RotRotting at the base of bulbs[71]
Dickeya spp.BlacklegBlackened and soft rotting of stems[72]
Agrobacterium tumefaciensCrown GallTumor-like growths on stems and roots[73]
Another significant issue in the development of seed garlic is viral infections. The common viruses that affect garlic are the onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV), leek yellow stripe virus (LYSV), garlic common latent virus (GCLV), and shallot latent virus (SLV). Viral infections can result in slowed development, smaller bulbs, and generally less healthy plants. The efforts to control diseases are made more difficult by the nonpersistent transmission of these viruses by aphids and other vectors.
Table 4. Viruses affecting garlic seeds and their vectors.
Table 4. Viruses affecting garlic seeds and their vectors.
VirusCommon NameSymptoms and EffectsVectorsReferences
Garlic common latent virus (GCLV)Common Latent VirusNo visible symptoms, latent infection in garlic plantsUnknown[74]
Garlic mosaic virus (GarMV)Garlic Mosaic VirusMosaic patterns on leaves, stunted growth, reduced yieldAphids (Myzus persicae)[75]
Leek yellow stripe virus (LYSV)Leek Yellow Stripe VirusYellow stripes on leaves, stunted growth, bulb deformitiesOnion thrips (Thrips tabaci)[76]
Shallot latent virus (SLV)Shallot Latent VirusNo visible symptoms, latent infection in shallotsUnknown[77]
Onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV)Onion Yellow Dwarf VirusStunted growth, yellowing of leaves, bulb size reductionOnion thrips (Thrips tabaci)[78]
Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV)Iris Yellow Spot VirusYellow spots on leaves, necrotic streaks, bulb damageOnion thrips (Thrips tabaci)[79]
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)Cucumber Mosaic VirusMosaic patterns, leaf curling, plant stuntingAphids (various species)[80]
Tobacco rattle virus (TRV)Tobacco Rattle VirusStunted growth, yellowing, necrosis, bulb deformitiesSoil-borne nematodes (Trichodorus spp.)[81]
Shallot virus X (ShVX)Shallot Virus XYellowing, stunted growth, distorted bulbsUnknown[82]
Garlic latent virus (GarLV)Garlic Latent VirusNo visible symptoms, latent infection in garlic plantsUnknown[83]
The development of garlic germplasm is disadvantaged by viral infections, both because of the decreased yield and quality and because minor virus signs might be misconstrued for varietal variations in the garlic germplasm. Garlic is commonly infected by a number of viruses, including the onion yellow dwarf virus (OYDV), which is spread by aphids like Myzus persicae and a number of other aphid species in a nonpersistent way; leek yellow stripe virus (LYSV), which is also aphid-transmitted in a temporary manner by various aphid species; garlic common latent virus (GCLV), transmitted through mechanical inoculation and aphids; shallot latent virus (SLV), transmitted nonpersistently by Myzus ascolonicus (Sciamyzus); and, possibly, Aphis fabae [84]. Garlic is infected by the tobacco rattle virus (TRV), which is transmitted by nematodes of the Trichodoridae family [85]. A developing issue in onion, leek, and, to a lesser extent, garlic is the iris yellow spot virus (IYSV), which is spread by thrips (Thrips tabaci) [86]. There is ambiguity around the names of viruses that cause mosaic symptoms in garlic, such as the garlic mosaic virus.
Table 5. Nematodes affecting garlic seed.
Table 5. Nematodes affecting garlic seed.
Nematode PestCommon NameDamage SymptomsReferences
Ditylenchus dipsaciStem and Bulb NematodeStunted growth, leaf yellowing, bulb rot, and reduced yield[95]
Meloidogyne spp.Root-Knot NematodeGalls on roots, stunted growth, nutrient deficiency[96]
Pratylenchus spp.Lesion NematodeLesions on roots, reduced root system, poor nutrient uptake[97]
Tylenchulus semipenetransCitrus NematodeFeeding damage on roots, decline in plant health[98]
Heterodera spp.Cyst NematodeFormation of cysts on roots, stunted growth, yield loss[99]
Xiphinema spp.Dagger NematodeFeeding damage on roots, yellowing, wilting[96]
Longidorus spp.Needle NematodeStunted growth, root damage, nutrient deficiency[96]
Trichodorus spp.Sting NematodeFeeding damage on roots, reduced root system[100]
Pratylenchoides spp.False Root-Knot NematodeRoot galling, stunted growth, reduced yield[101]
Radopholus similisBurrowing NematodeTunneling in roots, stunting, wilted leaves[102]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Anum, H.; Tong, Y.; Cheng, R. Different Preharvest Diseases in Garlic and Their Eco-Friendly Management Strategies. Plants 2024, 13, 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13020267

AMA Style

Anum H, Tong Y, Cheng R. Different Preharvest Diseases in Garlic and Their Eco-Friendly Management Strategies. Plants. 2024; 13(2):267. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13020267

Chicago/Turabian Style

Anum, Hadiqa, Yuxin Tong, and Ruifeng Cheng. 2024. "Different Preharvest Diseases in Garlic and Their Eco-Friendly Management Strategies" Plants 13, no. 2: 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13020267

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop