The Enigmatic World of Fungal Melanin: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Types of Melanin
3. Biosynthesis
3.1. DHN Melanins
3.2. DOPA Melanins
4. Optimization for Enhancing Pigment Production
5. The Functional Role of Fungal Melanin
5.1. The Role of Melanin in Anti-Microbial Effects
5.2. The Role of Melanin in Photoprotection
5.3. The Role of Melanin in Thermoregulation
5.4. The Role of Melanin in Protection from Radiation
5.5. The Role of Melanin in Protecting against Oxidative Damage
5.6. The Role of Melanin in Metal Chelation
6. The Extraction and Purification of Melanin
6.1. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
6.2. Negative Pressure Cavitation (NPC)
6.3. Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MWE)
6.4. Hydrodynamic Cavitation Extraction (HCE)
7. The Characterization of Melanin
7.1. UV–Visible Spectroscopy
7.2. Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) Spectroscopy
7.3. Elemental Analysis
7.4. Physicochemical Properties
7.5. Thermal Characterization
7.6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
7.7. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR)
8. Applications of Melanins
8.1. Applications in Bio-Electronic Industries
8.2. Applications in the Dyeing Industries
8.3. Applications in Pharmaceutical Industries
8.4. Applications in the Dermocosmetic Industry
8.5. Applications in Packaging Materials
9. Future Approaches
9.1. The Use of Statistical Methods
9.2. The Use of Economical Substrates
9.3. The Production of Water-Soluble Melanin
9.4. The Copper-Mediated Expression of Tyrosinase-Encoding Genes
9.5. The Use of Melanin Nanoparticles
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Rao, M.P.; Xiao, M.; Li, W.J. Fungal and bacterial pigments: Secondary metabolites with wide applications. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 1113. [Google Scholar]
- Arora, S. Textile dyes: Its impact on environment and its treatment. J. Bioremed. Biodeg. 2014, 5, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manzoor, J.; Sharma, M. Impact of textile dyes on human health and environment. In Impact of Textile Dyes on Public Health and the Environment; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2020; pp. 162–169. [Google Scholar]
- Durán, N.; Teixeira, M.F.; De Conti, R.; Esposito, E. Ecological-friendly pigments from fungi. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2002, 42, 53–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalra, R.; Conlan, X.A.; Goel, M. Fungi as a potential source of pigments: Harnessing filamentous fungi. Front. Chem. 2020, 8, 369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lagashetti, A.C.; Dufossé, L.; Singh, S.K.; Singh, P.N. Fungal pigments and their prospects in different industries. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suthar, M.; Lagashetti, A.C.; Räisänen, R.; Singh, P.N.; Dufossé, L.; Robinson, S.C.; Singh, S.K. Industrial Applications of Pigments from Macrofungi. In Advances in Macrofungi; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2021; pp. 223–251. [Google Scholar]
- Dufossé, L.; Fouillaud, M.; Caro, Y.; Mapari, S.A.; Sutthiwong, N. Filamentous fungi are large-scale producers of pigments and colorants for the food industry. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2014, 26, 56–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chambergo, F.S.; Valencia, E.Y. Fungal biodiversity to biotechnology. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016, 100, 2567–2577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riley, P.A. Melanin. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 1997, 29, 1235–1239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solano, F. Photoprotection versus photodamage: Updating an old but still unsolved controversy about melanin. Polym. Int. 2016, 65, 1276–1287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenman, H.C.; Casadevall, A. Synthesis and assembly of fungal melanin. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 93, 931–940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chatragadda, R.; Dufossé, L. Ecological and biotechnological aspects of pigmented microbes: A way forward in development of food and pharmaceutical grade pigments. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pombeiro-Sponchiado, S.R.; Sousa, G.S.; Andrade, J.C.; Lisboa, H.F.; Gonçalves, R.C. Production of melanin pigment by fungi and its biotechnological applications. Melanin 2017, 1, 47–75. [Google Scholar]
- Agustinho, D.P.; Nosanchuk, J.D. Functions of fungal melanins. In Reference Module in Life Sciences; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Płonka, P.; Grabacka, M. Melanin synthesis in microorganisms: Biotechnological and medical aspects. Acta Biochim. Pol. 2006, 53, 429–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gómez, B.L.; Nosanchuk, J.D. Melanin and fungi. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2003, 16, 91–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Butler, M.J.; Day, A.W. Fungal melanins: A review. Can. J. Microbiol. 1998, 44, 1115–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belozerskaya, T.A.; Gessler, N.N.; Aver’yanov, A.A. Melanin pigments of fungi. Fungal Metab. 2017, 2017, 263–291. [Google Scholar]
- Ozeki, H.; Ito, S.; Wakamatsu, K.; Ishiguro, I. Chemical characterization of pheomelanogenesis starting from dihydroxyphenylalanine or tyrosine and cysteine. Effects of tyrosinase and cysteine concentrations and reaction time. Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA-Gen. Subj. 1997, 1336, 539–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Almeida-Paes, R.; Nosanchuk, J.D.; Zancope-Oliveira, R.M. Fungal melanins: Biosynthesis and biological functions. In Melanin: Biosynthesis, Functions, and Health Effects; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 77–107. [Google Scholar]
- Jolivet, S.; Arpin, N.; Wichers, H.J.; Pellon, G. Agaricus bisporus browning: A review. Mycol. Res. 1998, 102, 1459–1483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wheeler, M.H. Comparisons of fungal melanin biosynthesis in ascomycetous, imperfect and basidiomycetous fungi. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1983, 81, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, M. Melanins. In Modern Methods of Plant Analysis/Moderne Methoden der Pflanzenanalyse; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1955. [Google Scholar]
- Raman, N.M.; Ramasamy, S. Genetic validation and spectroscopic detailing of DHN-melanin extracted from an environmental fungus. Biochem. Biophys. Rep. 2017, 12, 98–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langfelder, K.; Streibel, M.; Jahn, B.; Haase, G.; Brakhage, A.A. Biosynthesis of fungal melanins and their importance for human pathogenic fungi. Fungal Genet. Biol. 2003, 38, 143–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lim, W.; Konings, M.; Parel, F.; Eadie, K.; Strepis, N.; Fahal, A.; Verbon, A.; van de Sande, W.W. Inhibiting DHN-and DOPA-melanin biosynthesis pathway increased the therapeutic value of itraconazole in Madurella mycetomatis infected Galleria mellonella. Med. Mycol. 2022, 60, myac003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Koehler, A.; Heidrich, D.; Pagani, D.M.; Corbellini, V.A.; Scroferneker, M.L. Melanin and chromoblastomycosis agents: Characterization, functions, and relation with antifungals. J. Basic Microbiol. 2021, 61, 203–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maranduca, M.A.; Branisteanu, D.; Serban, D.N.; Branisteanu, D.C.; Stoleriu, G.; Manolache, N.; Serban, I.L. Synthesis and physiological implications of melanic pigments. Oncol. Lett. 2019, 17, 4183–4187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, A.A.; Wheeler, M.H. Biosynthesis and functions of fungal melanins. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 1986, 24, 411–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williamson, P.R.; Wakamatsu, K.; Ito, S. Melanin biosynthesis in Cryptococcus neoformans. J. Bacteriol. 1998, 180, 1570–1572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, M.; Chen, W.; Li, W.; Zhao, J.; Hong, Y.L.; Nishiyama, Y.; Dhinojwala, A. Elucidation of the hierarchical structure of natural eumelanins. J. R. Soc. Interface 2018, 15, 20180045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bayram, S. A comparative characterization study between fungal and bacterial eumelanin pigments. Indian J. Microbiol. 2022, 62, 393–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vitiello, G.; Melone, P.; Silvestri, B.; Pezzella, A.; Di Donato, P.; D’Errico, G.; Di Napoli, M.; Zanfardino, A.; Varcamonti, M.; Luciani, G. Titanium based complexes with melanin precursors as a tool for directing melanogenic pathways. Pure Appl. Chem. 2019, 91, 1605–1616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manap, A.S.A.; Lum, Y.K.; Ong, L.H.; Tang, Y.Q.; Gew, L.T.; Chia, A.Y.Y. Perspective approaches on melanogenesis inhibition. Dermatol. Sin. 2021, 39, 1. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, R.; Meng, X.; Mo, C.; Wei, X.; Ma, A. Melanin of fungi: From classification to application. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2022, 38, 228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Singh nee’ Nigam, P. Production of bioactive secondary metabolites. In Biotechnology for Agro-Industrial Residues Utilisation: Utilisation of Agro-Residues; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2009; pp. 129–145. [Google Scholar]
- Nigam, P.S.N.; Pandey, A. (Eds.) Biotechnology for Agro-Industrial Residues Utilisation: Utilisation of Agro-Residues; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Gadd, G.M. Effects of media composition and light on colony differentiation and melanin synthesis in Microdochium bolleyi. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 1982, 78, 115–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gunasekaran, S.; Poorniammal, R. Optimization of fermentation conditions for red pigment production from Penicillium sp. under submerged cultivation. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2008, 7, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joshi, V.K.; Attri, D.; Bala, A.; Bhushan, S. Microbial Pigments; NISCAIR-CSIR: New Delhi, India, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Tudor, D.; Robinson, S.C.; Cooper, P.A. The influence of pH on pigment formation by lignicolous fungi. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2013, 80, 22–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Said, F.M.; Chisti, Y.; Brooks, J. The effects of forced aeration and initial moisture level on red pigment and biomass production by Monascus ruber in packed bed solid state fermentation. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Dev. 2010, 1, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singhania, R.R.; Soccol, C.R.; Pandey, A. Application of tropical agro-industrial residues as substrate for solid-state fermentation processes. In Current Developments in Solid-State Fermentation; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2008; pp. 412–442. [Google Scholar]
- Velmurugan, P.; Hur, H.; Balachandar, V.; Kamala-Kannan, S.; Lee, K.J.; Lee, S.M.; Oh, B.T. Monascus pigment production by solid-state fermentation with corn cob substrate. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2011, 112, 590–594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, S.; Zhang, X.; Chen, W.; Zhang, L.; Zhu, H. Production of natural edible melanin by Auricularia auricula and its physicochemical properties. Food Chem. 2016, 196, 486–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babitskaya, V.G.; Scherba, V.V.; Ikonnikova, N.V.; Bisko, N.A.; Mitropolskaya, N.Y. Melanin complex from medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus (Pers.: Fr.) Pilat (Chaga)(Aphyllophoromycetidae). Int. J. Med. Mushrooms 2002, 4, 139–145. [Google Scholar]
- Jalmi, P.; Bodke, P.; Wahidullah, S.; Raghukumar, S. The fungus Gliocephalotrichum simplex as a source of abundant, extracellular melanin for biotechnological applications. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 28, 505–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suwannarach, N.; Kumla, J.; Watanabe, B.; Matsui, K.; Lumyong, S. Characterization of melanin and optimal conditions for pigment production by an endophytic fungus, Spissiomyces endophytica SDBR-CMU319. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0222187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, M.; Yu, M.; Shi, T.; Ma, J.; Fu, X.; Meng, X.; Shi, L. Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of melanin and its hypoglycemic activities from Sporisorium reilianum. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2020, 44, e14707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arun, G.; Eyini, M.; Gunasekaran, P. Characterization and biological activities of extracellular melanin produced by Schizophyllum commune (Fries). Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2015, 53, 380–387. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Apte, M.; Girme, G.; Bankar, A.; RaviKumar, A.; Zinjarde, S. 3, 4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine-derived melanin from Yarrowia lipolytica mediates the synthesis of silver and gold nanostructures. J. Nanobiotechnol. 2013, 11, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Surendirakumar, K.; Pandey, R.R.; Muthukumar, T.; Sathiyaseelan, A.; Loushambam, S.; Seth, A. Characterization and biological activities of melanin pigment from root endophytic fungus, Phoma sp. RDSE17. Arch. Microbiol. 2022, 204, 171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bin, L.; Wei, L.; Xiaohong, C.; Mei, J.; Mingsheng, D. In vitro antibiofilm activity of the melanin from Auricularia auricula, an edible jelly mushroom. Ann. Microbiol. 2012, 62, 1523–1530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, C.; Li, J.; Yang, L.; Shi, F.; Yang, L.; Ye, M. Antibacterial activity and a membrane damage mechanism of Lachnum YM30 melanin against Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Staphylococcus aureus. Food Control 2017, 73, 1445–1451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Łopusiewicz, Ł. The isolation, purification and analysis of the melanin pigment extracted from Armillaria mellea rhizomorphs. World Sci. News 2018, 100, 135–153. [Google Scholar]
- Łopusiewicz, Ł. Isolation, characterization and biological activity of melanin from Exidia nigricans. World Sci. News 2018, 91, 111–129. [Google Scholar]
- Łopusiewicz, Ł. Scleroderma citrinum melanin: Isolation, purification, spectroscopic studies with characterization of antioxidant, antibacterial and light barrier properties. World Sci. News 2018, 94, 115–130. [Google Scholar]
- Oh, J.J.; Kim, J.Y.; Son, S.H.; Jung, W.J.; Seo, J.W.; Kim, G.H. Fungal melanin as a biocompatible broad-spectrum sunscreen with high antioxidant activity. RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 19682–19689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maier, T.; Korting, H.C. Sunscreens–which and what for? Ski. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2005, 18, 253–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gessler, N.N.; Egorova, A.S.; Belozerskaya, T.A. Melanin pigments of fungi under extreme environmental conditions (Review). Appl. Biochem. Microbiol. 2014, 50, 105–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pacelli, C.; Cassaro, A.; Maturilli, A.; Timperio, A.M.; Gevi, F.; Cavalazzi, B.; Stefan, M.; Ghica, D.; Onofri, S. Multidisciplinary characterization of melanin pigments from the black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2020, 104, 6385–6395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, L.; Xu, J. Fungal pigments and their roles associated with human health. J. Fungi 2020, 6, 280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lu, Y.; Ye, M.; Song, S.; Li, L.; Shaikh, F.; Li, J. Isolation, purification, and anti-aging activity of melanin from Lachnum singerianum. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2014, 174, 762–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rosas, Á.L.; Casadevall, A. Melanization affects susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to heat and cold. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1997, 153, 265–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Selbmann, L.; Isola, D.; Zucconi, L.; Onofri, S. Resistance to UV-B induced DNA damage in extreme-tolerant cryptoendolithic Antarctic fungi: Detection by PCR assays. Fungal Biol. 2011, 115, 937–944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Suryanarayanan, T.S.; Ravishankar, J.P.; Venkatesan, G.; Murali, T.S. Characterization of the melanin pigment of a cosmopolitan fungal endophyte. Mycol. Res. 2004, 108, 974–978. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dighton, J.; Tugay, T.; Zhdanova, N. Fungi and ionizing radiation from radionuclides. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2008, 281, 109–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paolo, W.F.; Dadachova, E.; Mandal, P.; Casadevall, A.; Szaniszlo, P.J.; Nosanchuk, J.D. Effects of disrupting the polyketide synthase gene WdPKS1 in Wangiella [Exophiala] dermatitidis on melanin production and resistance to killing by antifungal compounds, enzymatic degradation, and extremes in temperature. BMC Microbiol. 2006, 6, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prota, G.; D’Ischia, M.; Napolitano, A. The chemistry of melanins and related metabolites. In The Pigmentary System: Its Physiology and Pathophysiology; IRIS: Pisa, Italy, 1998; pp. 307–332. [Google Scholar]
- Venil, C.K.; Velmurugan, P.; Dufossé, L.; Devi, P.R.; Ravi, A.V. Fungal pigments: Potential coloring compounds for wide ranging applications in textile dyeing. J. Fungi 2020, 6, 68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, Y.; Shan, L.; Yang, S.; Ma, A. Identification and antioxidant activity of melanin isolated from Hypoxylon archeri, a companion fungus of Tremella fuciformis. J. Basic Microbiol. 2008, 48, 217–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dong, C.; Yao, Y. Isolation, characterization of melanin derived from Ophiocordyceps sinensis, an entomogenous fungus endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2012, 113, 474–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ye, M.; Chen, X.; Li, G.W.; Guo, G.Y.; Yang, L. Structural characteristics of pheomelanin-like pigment from Lachnum singerianum. Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 284, 1742–1745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fogarty, R.V.; Tobin, J.M. Fungal melanins and their interactions with metals. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 1996, 19, 311–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rizzo, D.M.; Blanchette, R.A.; Palmer, M.A. Biosorption of metal ions by Armillaria rhizomorphs. Can. J. Bot. 1992, 70, 1515–1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dadachova, E.; Bryan, R.A.; Howell, R.C.; Schweitzer, A.D.; Aisen, P.; Nosanchuk, J.D.; Casadevall, A. The radioprotective properties of fungal melanin are a function of its chemical composition, stable radical presence and spatial arrangement. Pigment. Cell Melanoma Res. 2008, 21, 192–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garcia-Rivera, J.; Casadevall, A. Melanization of Cryptococcus neoformans reduces its susceptibility to the antimicrobial effects of silver nitrate. Sabouraudia 2001, 39, 353–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marcovici, I.; Coricovac, D.; Pinzaru, I.; Macasoi, I.G.; Popescu, R.; Chioibas, R.; Zupko, I.; Dehelean, C.A. Melanin and melanin-functionalized nanoparticles as promising tools in cancer research—A review. Cancers 2022, 14, 1838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solano, F. Melanins: Skin pigments and much more—Types, structural models, biological functions, and formation routes. New J. Sci. 2014, 2014, 498276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Q.; Xiao, J.; Liu, B.; Zhuang, Y.; Sun, L. Study on the preparation and chemical structure characterization of melanin from Boletus griseus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 3736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Souza, R.A.; Kamat, N.M.; Nadkarni, V.S. Purification and characterisation of a sulphur rich melanin from edible mushroom Termitomyces albuminosus Heim. Mycology 2018, 9, 296–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ito, S. Reexamination of the structure of eumelanin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA-Gen. Subj. 1986, 883, 155–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aghajanyan, A.E.; Hambardzumyan, A.A.; Hovsepyan, A.S.; Asaturian, R.A.; Vardanyan, A.A.; Saghiyan, A.A. Isolation, purification and physicochemical characterization of water-soluble Bacillus thuringiensis melanin. Pigment. Cell Res. 2005, 18, 130–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Panda, D.; Manickam, S. Cavitation technology—The future of greener extraction method: A review on the extraction of natural products and process intensification mechanism and perspectives. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zou, Y.; Xie, C.; Fan, G.; Gu, Z.; Han, Y. Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of melanin from Auricularia auricula fruit bodies. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2010, 11, 611–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chuyen, H.V.; Nguyen, M.H.; Roach, P.D.; Golding, J.B.; Parks, S.E. Microwave assisted extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction for recovering carotenoids from Gac peel and their effects on antioxidant capacity of the extracts. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 6, 189–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tatke, P.; Jaiswal, Y. An overview of microwave assisted extraction and its applications in herbal drug research. Res. J. Med. Plant 2011, 5, 21–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghadge, V.A.; Singh, S.; Kumar, P.; Mathew, D.E.; Dhimmar, A.; Sahastrabudhe, H.; Shinde, P.B. Extraction, Purification, and Characterization of Microbial Melanin Pigments. In Melanins: Functions, Biotechnological Production, and Applications; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 91–110. [Google Scholar]
- Borovansky, J.; Riley, P.A. (Eds.) Melanins and Melanosomes: Biosynthesis, Structure, Physiological and Pathological Functions; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Guo, X.; Chen, S.; Hu, Y.; Li, G.; Liao, N.; Ye, X.; Xue, C. Preparation of water-soluble melanin from squid ink using ultrasound-assisted degradation and its anti-oxidant activity. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51, 3680–3690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pralea, I.E.; Moldovan, R.C.; Petrache, A.M.; Ilieș, M.; Hegheș, S.C.; Ielciu, I.; Iuga, C.A. From extraction to advanced analytical methods: The challenges of melanin analysis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- d’Ischia, M.; Wakamatsu, K.; Napolitano, A.; Briganti, S.; Garcia-Borron, J.C.; Kovacs, D.; Ito, S. Melanins and melanogenesis: Methods, standards, protocols. Pigment. Cell Melanoma Res. 2013, 26, 616–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, C.G.; Mongolla, P.; Pombala, S.; Kamle, A.; Joseph, J. Physicochemical characterization and antioxidant activity of melanin from a novel strain of Aspergillus bridgeri ICTF-201. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2011, 53, 350–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- El-Naggar, N.E.A.; El-Ewasy, S.M. Bioproduction, characterization, anticancer and antioxidant activities of extracellular melanin pigment produced by newly isolated microbial cell factories Streptomyces glaucescens NEAE-H. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 42129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ribera, J.; Panzarasa, G.; Stobbe, A.; Osypova, A.; Rupper, P.; Klose, D.; Schwarze, F.W. Scalable biosynthesis of melanin by the basidiomycete Armillaria cepistipes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 67, 132–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Choi, M.; Choi, A.Y.; Ahn, S.Y.; Choi, K.Y.; Jang, K.S. Characterization of molecular composition of bacterial melanin isolated from Streptomyces glaucescens using ultra-high-resolution FT-ICR mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrom. Lett. 2018, 9, 81–85. [Google Scholar]
- Qi, C.; Fu, L.H.; Xu, H.; Wang, T.F.; Lin, J.; Huang, P. Melanin/polydopamine-based nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Sci. China Chem. 2019, 62, 162–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mattoon, E.R.; Cordero, R.J.; Casadevall, A. Fungal melanins and applications in healthcare, bioremediation and industry. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonçalves, R.C.R.; Lisboa, H.C.F.; Pombeiro-Sponchiado, S.R. Characterization of melanin pigment produced by Aspergillus nidulans. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 28, 1467–1474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomez-Marin, A.M.; Sanchez, C.I. Thermal and mass spectroscopic characterization of a sulphur-containing bacterial melanin from Bacillus subtilis. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 2010, 356, 1576–1580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simonovic, B.; Vucelic, V.; Hadzi-Pavlovic, A.; Stepien, K.; Wilczok, T.; Vucelic, D. Thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry of natural and synthetic melanins. J. Therm. Anal. 1990, 36, 2475–2482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, J.J.; Kim, J.Y.; Kwon, S.L.; Hwang, D.H.; Choi, Y.E.; Kim, G.H. Production and characterization of melanin pigments derived from Amorphotheca resinae. J. Microbiol. 2020, 58, 648–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buszman, E.; Pilawa, B.; Zdybel, M.; Wilczyński, S.; Gondzik, A.; Witoszyńska, T.; Wilczok, T. EPR examination of Zn2+ and Cu2+ binding by pigmented soil fungi Cladosporium cladosporioides. Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 363, 195–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zdybel, M.; Pilawa, B.; Drewnowska, J.M.; Swiecicka, I. Comparative EPR studies of free radicals in melanin synthesized by Bacillus weihenstephanensis soil strains. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2017, 679, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bárcena, A.; Medina, R.; Franco, M.E.E.; Elíades, L.A.; Cabello, M.N.; Taborda, C.P.; Saparrat, M.C.N. Humicolopsis cephalosporioides synthesizes DHN-melanin in its chlamydospores. Mycol. Prog. 2023, 22, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strycker, B.D.; Han, Z.; Bahari, A.; Pham, T.; Lin, X.; Shaw, B.D.; Scully, M.O. Raman characterization of fungal DHN and DOPA melanin biosynthesis pathways. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singla, S.; Htut, K.Z.; Zhu, R.; Davis, A.; Ma, J.; Ni, Q.Z.; Burkart, M.D.; Maurer, C.; Miyoshi, T.; Dhinojwala, A. Isolation and characterization of allomelanin from pathogenic black knot fungus-a sustainable source of melanin. ACS Omega 2021, 6, 35514–35522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schmaler-Ripcke, J.; Sugareva, V.; Gebhardt, P.; Winkler, R.; Kniemeyer, O.; Heinekamp, T.; Brakhage, A.A. Production of pyomelanin, a second type of melanin, via the tyrosine degradation pathway in Aspergillus fumigatus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75, 493–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hu, W.L.; Dai, D.H.; Huang, G.R.; Zhang, Z.D. Isolation and characterization of extracellular melanin produced by Chroogomphus rutilus D447. Am. J. Food Technol. 2015, 10, 68–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hou, R.; Liu, X.; Xiang, K.; Chen, L.; Wu, X.; Lin, W.; Fu, J. Characterization of the physicochemical properties and extraction optimization of natural melanin from Inonotus hispidus mushroom. Food Chem. 2019, 277, 533–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ye, M.; Guo, G.Y.; Lu, Y.; Song, S.; Wang, H.Y.; Yang, L. Purification, structure and anti-radiation activity of melanin from Lachnum YM404. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2014, 63, 170–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Selvakumar, P.; Rajasekar, S.; Periasamy, K.; Raaman, N. Isolation and characterization of melanin pigment from Pleurotus cystidiosus (telomorph of Antromycopsis macrocarpa). World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2008, 24, 2125–2131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rajagopal, K.; Kathiravan, G.; Karthikeyan, S. Extraction and characterization of melanin from Phomopsis: A phellophytic fungi Isolated from Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2011, 5, 762–766. [Google Scholar]
- Ligonzo, T.; Ambrico, M.; Augelli, V.; Perna, G.; Schiavulli, L.; Tamma, M.A.; Capozzi, V. Electrical and optical properties of natural and synthetic melanin biopolymer. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 2009, 355, 1221–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ambrico, M.; Ambrico, P.F.; Cardone, A.; Ligonzo, T.; Cicco, S.R.; Mundo, R.D.; Augelli, V.; Farinola, G.M. Melanin Layer on Silicon: An Attractive Structure for a Possible Exploitation in Bio-Polymer Based Metal–Insulator–Silicon Devices. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 3332–3336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, W.; Xu, X.; Yang, H.; Hua, J.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, L.; Long, Y.; Tian, H. D–π–M–π–A structured platinum acetylide sensitizer for dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21, 10666–10671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordero, R.J. Melanin for space travel radioprotection. Environ. Microbiol. 2017, 19, 2529–2532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Revskaya, E.; Chu, P.; Howell, R.C.; Schweitzer, A.D.; Bryan, R.A.; Harris, M.; Casadevall, A. Compton scattering by internal shields based on melanin-containing mushrooms provides protection of gastrointestinal tract from ionizing radiation. Cancer Biother. Radiopharm. 2012, 27, 570–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Yu, Z.; Qi, C.; Tang, R.; Zhao, B.; Wang, H.; Han, Y. Microbial dyes: Dyeing of poplar veneer with melanin secreted by Lasiodiplodia theobromae isolated from wood. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2020, 104, 3367–3377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahn, S.Y.; Jang, S.; Sudheer, P.D.V.N.; Choi, K.Y. Microbial production of melanin pigments from caffeic acid and L-tyrosine using Streptomyces glaucescens and FCS-ECH-expressing Escherichia coli. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 2413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tran-Ly, A.N.; Reyes, C.; Schwarze, F.W.; Ribera, J. Microbial production of melanin and its various applications. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2020, 36, 170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Araújo, M.; Viveiros, R.; Correia, T.R.; Correia, I.J.; Bonifácio, V.D.; Casimiro, T.; Aguiar-Ricardo, A. Natural melanin: A potential pH-responsive drug release device. Int. J. Pharm. 2014, 469, 140–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dunford, R.; Salinaro, A.; Cai, L.; Serpone, N.; Horikoshi, S.; Hidaka, H.; Knowland, J. Chemical oxidation and DNA damage catalysed by inorganic sunscreen ingredients. FEBS Lett. 1997, 418, 87–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brand, R.M.; Pike, J.; Wilson, R.M.; Charron, A.R. Sunscreens containing physical UV blockers can increase transdermal absorption of pesticides. Toxicol. Ind. Health 2003, 19, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kurian, N.K.; Bhat, S.G. Photoprotection and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Non–Cytotoxic Melanin from Marine Isolate Providencia rettgeri Strain BTKKS1. Biosci. Biotechnol. Res. Asia 2017, 14, 1475–1484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurian, N.K.; Bhat, S.G. Food, cosmetic and biological applications of characterized DOPA-melanin from Vibrio alginolyticus strain BTKKS3. Appl. Biol. Chem. 2018, 61, 163–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Łopusiewicz, Ł.; Kwiatkowski, P.; Drozłowska, E.; Trocer, P.; Kostek, M.; Śliwiński, M.; Polak-Śliwińska, M.; Kowalczyk, E.; Sienkiewicz, M. Preparation and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose-based bioactive composite films modified with fungal melanin and carvacrol. Polymers 2021, 13, 499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeon, J.R.; Le, T.T.; Chang, Y.S. Dihydroxynaphthalene-based mimicry of fungal melanogenesis for multifunctional coatings. Microb. Biotechnol. 2016, 9, 305–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Naggar, N.E.A.; Saber, W.I. Natural melanin: Current trends, and future approaches, with especial reference to microbial source. Polymers 2022, 14, 1339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghoniem, A.A.; El-Naggar, N.E.A.; Saber, W.I.; El-Hersh, M.S.; El-Khateeb, A.Y. Statistical modeling-approach for optimization of Cu2+ biosorption by Azotobacter nigricans NEWG-1; characterization and application of immobilized cells for metal removal. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 9491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, M.; Xiao, G.; Thring, R.W.; Chen, W.; Zhou, H.; Yang, H. Production and characterization of melanin by submerged culture of culinary and medicinal fungi Auricularia auricula. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2015, 176, 253–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghadge, V.; Kumar, P.; Maity, T.K.; Prasad, K.; Shinde, P.B. Facile alternative sustainable process for the selective extraction of microbial melanin. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2022, 10, 2681–2688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vilkhu, K.; Mawson, R.; Simons, L.; Bates, D. Applications and opportunities for ultrasound assisted extraction in the food industry—A review. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2008, 9, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Entezari, M.H.; Petrier, C. A combination of ultrasound and oxidative enzyme: Sono-biodegradation of phenol. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2004, 53, 257–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saitoh, Y.; Izumitsu, K.; Morita, A.; Tanaka, C. A copper-transporting ATPase BcCCC2 is necessary for pathogenicity of Botrytis cinerea. Mol. Genet. Genom. 2010, 284, 33–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, S.; Nimse, S.B.; Mathew, D.E.; Dhimmar, A.; Sahastrabudhe, H.; Gajjar, A.; Shinde, P.B. Microbial melanin: Recent advances in biosynthesis, extraction, characterization, and applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 2021, 53, 107773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caldas, M.; Santos, A.C.; Veiga, F.; Rebelo, R.; Reis, R.L.; Correlo, V.M. Melanin nanoparticles as a promising tool for biomedical applications—A review. Acta Biomater. 2020, 105, 26–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Siddiqui, I.A.; Sanna, V.; Ahmad, N.; Sechi, M.; Mukhtar, H. Resveratrol nanoformulation for cancer prevention and therapy. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2015, 1348, 20–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakamura, Y.; Mochida, A.; Choyke, P.L.; Kobayashi, H. Nanodrug delivery: Is the enhanced permeability and retention effect sufficient for curing cancer? Bioconjug. Chem. 2016, 27, 2225–2238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fungi That Produce Melanin | Salient Findings Regarding Melanin | Reference |
---|---|---|
Amorphotheca resinae | The study examined melanin production from A. resinae, achieving 4.5 g/L in 14 days, with potent antioxidant properties and structural characterization via elemental analysis and spectroscopy. | [103] |
Armillaria mellea | Isolated and characterized melanin from A. mellea rhizomorphs displayed antioxidant, light barrier, and antibacterial properties. | [56] |
Aspergillus bridgeri | The study identified a melanin pigment from A. bridgeri, confirming its identity via FTIR and EPR spectroscopy, with potential applications in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. | [94] |
Auricularia auricula | The study used a low-cost fermentation medium with wheat bran extract, L-tyrosine, and CuSO4 for melanin production in A. auricula. | [46] |
Auricularia auricula | The study examined melanin production in A. auricula, finding the highest growth rates in low-carbon and carbon-free media and low yields in nitrogen-free media. | [86] |
Apiosporina morbosa | The study revealed melanin extracted from A. morbosa, a pathogenic black knot fungus, with a 10% yield. This nitrogen-free allomelanin is low-cost and invasive, making it an alternative green source for UV light absorbers and antioxidants. | [108] |
Aspergillus fumigatus | A. fumigatus, an immunosuppressed fungal pathogen, produces DHN melanin and alternative pyomelanin through a different pathway, confirming the identity as pyomelanin through the deletion of essential enzymes. | [109] |
Aspergillus nidulans | The study identified a melanin-type pigment extracted from A. nidulans, revealing physical and chemical properties similar to synthetic DOPA-melanin. Tricyclazole and tropolone inhibit melanin production. | [100] |
Chroogomphus rutilus | C. rutilus produces melanin with UV absorption, FTIR, and chemical reactions, offering potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. | [110] |
Cryomyces antarcticus | The study found the potential of melanin from C. antarcticus in radioprotection research, offering potential applications in bioremediation and biomedical fields. | [62] |
Exidia nigricans | The study investigated melanin from E. nigricans, focusing on its isolation, characterization, and color properties. Purified melanin showed better light properties and higher antioxidant activity. | [57] |
Gliocephalotrichum simplex | UV, 13C, and 1H NMR spectra characterized an extracellular melanin pigment from G. simplex; tyrosine and peptone supplementation enhanced melanin production up to 6.6 g/L. | [48] |
Humicolopsis cephalosporioides | The study investigated the environmental factors affecting chlamydospore differentiation and pigment biosynthesis in H. cephalosporoides, finding that temperature and light influence the development and melanization essential for survival in sub-Antarctica soils. | [106] |
Inonotus hispidus | The study characterized I. hispidus melanin using solid-state fermentation and ultrasonic-assisted extraction, revealing its antioxidant activity. | [111] |
Inonotus obliquus | I. obliquus studies showed increases melanin complex production under submerged conditions, with potential antioxidant and genoprotective effects. | [47] |
Lachnum YM404 | LEM404-A extracellular melanin exhibits a strong UV radiation activity, increasing bacterial survival rates against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. | [112] |
Lachnum singerianum | The microwave-assisted extraction of melanin from L. singerianum YM296 increased its yield by 11.08% and 40.43% compared to alkali and acid precipitation. LIM-a showed anti-aging activity in aged mice, enhancing body weight and reducing MDA levels. | [64] |
Phoma sp. RDSE17 | Phoma sp. RDSE17 melanin exhibits antioxidant, anti-microbial, and anticancer properties, with low nitrogen content and high DPPH-free radical-scavenging activity. | [53] |
Phyllosticta capitalensis | P. capitalensis produces DHN-melanin, a pigment crucial for its survival in stressful environments, which was characterized via UV, IR, and ESR tests. | [67] |
Pleurotus cystidiosus | The study identified melanin in edible P. cystidiosus mushrooms and black coremea produced by Antromycopsis macrocarpa. | [113] |
Phomopsis | The pigment extracted from the endophyte Phomopsis was characterized to be a DOPA type of melanin. | [114] |
Schizophyllum commune | Extracellular melanin from an S. commune mushroom fungus showed significant antibacterial, antifungal, and concentration-dependent HEP-2 inhibition. | [51] |
Scleroderma citrinum | The study investigated the biological properties of raw and purified melanins from S. citrinum, finding that purified melanins have better light properties and antioxidant activity. | [58] |
Spissiomyces endophytica | The study examined melanin production and characterization from S. endophytica using UV, FTIR, EPR, and chemical tests, revealing a low nitrogen content. | [49] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Suthar, M.; Dufossé, L.; Singh, S.K. The Enigmatic World of Fungal Melanin: A Comprehensive Review. J. Fungi 2023, 9, 891. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090891
Suthar M, Dufossé L, Singh SK. The Enigmatic World of Fungal Melanin: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Fungi. 2023; 9(9):891. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090891
Chicago/Turabian StyleSuthar, Malika, Laurent Dufossé, and Sanjay K. Singh. 2023. "The Enigmatic World of Fungal Melanin: A Comprehensive Review" Journal of Fungi 9, no. 9: 891. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090891