Crops Fruits of Warm Climates 2004

Fruits of Warm Climates
Index | Search | Home
Fruits of Warm
Climates
Julia F. Morton
Published by
Julia F. Morton
20534 SW 92 Ct.
Miami, FL. 33189
ISBN: 0-9610184-1-0
Distributed by
Creative Resource Systems, Inc.
Box 890, Winterville, N.C. 28590
PALMEA
Date
Pejibaye
ARACEAE
Ceriman
BROMELIACEAE
Pineapple
MUSACEAE
Banana
MORACEAE
Fig
Breadfruit
Jackfruit and Related Species
Amazon Tree-Grape
ANNONACEAE
Cherimoya
Sugar Apple
Atemoya
Soursop
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:26:49 PM]
Custard Apple
Ilama
Soncoya
Wild Custard Apple and Related Species
Biriba
LAURACEAE
Avocado and Related Species
ROSACEAE
Loquat
Capulin
Mysore Raspberry
Red Ceylon Peach
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
Sansapote
LEGUMINOSAE
Tamarind
Carob
OXALIDACEAE
Carambola
Bilimbi
RUTACEAE
Sour Orange
Orange
Mandarin Orange
Tangor
Pummelo
Grapefruit
Tangelo
Orangelo
Lemon
Mexican Lime
Tahiti Lime
Sweet Lime
Calamondin
Mandarin Lime
Citron
Kumquat
Sundry Hybrids and Rootstocks
Bael Fruit
Wood-Apple
White Sapote
Wampee
MELIACEAE
Santol
Langsat
MALPIGHIACEAE
Barbados Cherry
Nance
EUPHORBIACEAE
Bignay and Related Species
Emblic
Otaheite Gooseberry
Rambai and Related Species
ANACARDIACEAE
Mango and Related Species
Cashew Apple
Ambarella and Related Species
Purple Mombin
Yellow Mombin and Related Species
SAPINDACEAE
Lychee
Longan
Rambutan
Pulasan
Mamoncillo
Akee
RHAMNACEAE
Indian Jujube
TILIACEAE
Phalsa
ELAEOCARPACEAE
Jamaica Cherry
MALVACEAE
Roselle
BOMBACACEAE
Durian and Related Species

Chupa-Chupa
ACTINIDIACEAE
Kiwifruit and Related Species
GUTTIFERAE
Mangosteen
Mamey
Bakuri
Bakupari and Related Species
FLACOURTIACEAE
Ketembilla and Related Species
Kei Apple and Related Species
PASSIFLORACEAE
Passionfruit
Giant Granadilla
Sweet Granadilla
Water Lemon
Banana Passion Fruit
Sweet Calabash
CARICACEAE
Papaya and Related Species
CACTACEAE
Strawberry Pear and Related Species
Barbados Gooseberry
PUNICACEAE
Pomegranate
MYRTACEAE
Guave
Cattley Guava
Costa Rican Guava
Brazilian Guava and Related Species
Feijoa
Jaboticabas
Jambolan
Malay Apple
Java Apple
Water Apple
Rose Apple
Surinam Cherry
Rumberry and Related Species
Grumichama
Pitomba
SAPOTACEAE
Sapodilla
Sapote and Related Species
Canistel
Lucmo
Abiu
Star Apple
EBENACEAE
Japanese Persimmon
Black Sapote
Mabolo
APOCYNACEAE
Carissa
Karanda
SOLANACEAE
Naranjilla and Closely Related Species
Cocona
Cape Gooseberry
Mexican Husk Tomato
Tree Tomato
RUBIACEAE
Genipap
CUCURBITACEAE
Cassabanana
Bibliography
CropINDEX A-B
Crop Index
Crops are listed alphabetically by genus and common name.
AB C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Abelmoschus esculentus
Abelmoschus manihot
Abelmoschus moschatus
Abies balsamea
Abiu
Absinthe
Acacia species
Acacia albida
Acacia auriculiformis
Acacia cyclops
Acacia decurrens
Acacia farnesiana
Acacia heteracantha
Acacia mangium
Acacia mearnsii
Acacia mollisima
Acacia negra
Acacia nilotica
Acacia raddiana
Acacia redolens
Acacia saligna
Acacia senegal
Acacia seyal
Acacia spirocarpa
Acacia tortilis
Acacia verek
Acanthosicyos horrida
Acer nigrum
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (1 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]
CropINDEX A-B
Acer saccharum
Acerola
Acha
Achillea filipendulina
Achillea millefolium
Achiote
Achocha
Achras zapota (Manilkara)
Acidanthera bicolor
Aconitum napellus
Acorus calamus
Acroceras macrum
Acrocomia aculeata
Actinidia arguta
Actinidia deliciosa
Adanka Bean
Adzuki Bean
Aegle marmelos
Aesculus hippocastanum
Aframomum melegueta
African foxtail
African horned cucumber
African millet
African oil palm
Agaricus sp.
Agati
Agave species
Ageratum conyzoides
Agropyron sp.
Agropyron cristatum
Agropyron dasystachyum
Agropyron desertorum
Agropyron elongatum
Agropyron glaucum
Agropyron intermedium
Agropyron intermedium var. trichophorum
Agropyron repens
Agropyron riparuim
Agropyron sibiricum
Agropyron smithii
CropINDEX A-B
Agropyron sp.
Agropyron spicatum f. inerme
Agropyron spicatum
Agropyron trachycaulum
Agrostis alba
Agrostis canina
Agrostis palustris
Agrostis sp.
Agrostis tenuis
Aguacate
Ailanthus altissima
Air potato
Akee
Albizia falcataria
Albizia lebbek
Albizia procera
Aletris farinosa
Aleurites fordii
Aleurites moluccana
Aleurites montana
Aleurites triloba
Alexanders
Alfalfa
Algarrobo
Algarrobo blanco
Aligator pepper
Alkali sacaton
Allium ampeloprasum
Allium cepa
Allium chinense
Allium fistulosum
Allium odorum
Allium sativum
Allium schoenoprasum
Allium sphaerocephalum
Allium tricoccum
Allium tuberosum
Allspice
Almond
Almum sorghum
CropINDEX A-B
Alnus glutinosa
Alnus maritima
Alnus nepalensis
Alnus rugosa
Alocasia spp.
Aloe barbadensis
Aloe vera
Alopecurus arundinaceus
Alopecurus pratensis
Aloysia triphylla
Alpine strawberry
Alpinia officiarum
Alsike clover
Alyce Clover
Alysicarpus vaginalis
Amaranth
Amaranthus species
Amazon Tree-Grape
Ambarella
Ambrette
Amelanchier species
American Linden
American mayapple
American Mountain-Ash
American pennyroyal
American upland cotton
Amla
Ammophila arenaria
Ammophila breviligulata
Amomum cardamomum
Amomum melegueta
Amphilophis pertusa
Ana tree
Anacardium occidentale
Ananas comosus
Ancistrocladus korupensis
Andrographis paniculata
Andropogon gayanus
Andropogon gerardii
Andropogon hallii
CropINDEX A-B
Andropogon pertusus
Andropogon virginicus
Anemone coronaria
Anethum graveolens
Angelica archangelica
Angelica atropurpurea
Angled luffa
Anigozanthos species
Anise
Annatto
Annona cherimola
Annona chrysophylla
Annona diversifolia
Annona muricata
Annona purpurea
Annona reticulata
Annona scleroderma
Annona squamosa
Annual Bunchgrass
Annual wormwood
Anon
Anona blanca
Anthriscus cerefolium
Antidesma bunius
Au
Apios americana
Apium graveolens
Apocynum cannabinum
Apple
Apple cactus
Apple-ring acacia
Apricot
Apricot kernel oil
Ara-boi
Ara-pera
Arachis hypogaea
Aralia cordata
Aralia nudicaulis
Araliopsis tabouensis
Araza
CropINDEX A-B
Arborvitae
Arctium lappa
Arctium minus
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Argan
Argania spinosa
Argemone mexicana
Arisaema triphyllum
Aristolochia reticulata
Aristolochia serpentaria
Arjun
Armoracia rusticana
Aronia melanocarpa
Arracacha
Arracacia xanthorrhiza
Arrhenatherum elatius
Arrugula
Artemisia abrotanum
Artemisia absinthium
Artemisia annua
Artemisia dracunculus
Artichoke, Globe
Artocarpus altilis
Artocarpus integrifolia
Artocarpus lakoocha
Arugula
Arundinaria sp.
Arundo donax
Asarum canadense
Asclepias syriaca
Asclepias tuberosa
Asgandh
Asiatic mangrove
Asimina grandiflora
Asimina triloba
Asparagus
Asparagus bean
Asparagus officinalis
Asperula odorata
Aster
CropINDEX A-B
Astragalus species
Astrocaryum aculeatum
Assam Aur Aur
Ataco
Atemoya
Atriplex hortensis
Aubergine
Auricularia spp.
Australian pine
Aveloz
Avena sp.
Averrhoa bilimbi
Averrhoa carambola
Avicennia germinans
Avicennia marina
Avicennia nitida
Avicennia officinalis
Avocado
Avocado oil
Axonopus affinis
Azuki bean
BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Babaco
Babool, Israeli
Baby's breath
Baccaurea motleyana
Baccharis hybrid
Bactris gasipaes
Bacur
Bacuripari
Bael Fruit
Bahiagrass
Bakupari
Bakuri
Bala
Ball clover
Balm
Balm of Gilead
CropINDEX A-B
Balm-of-Gilead poplar
Balsam apple
Balsam pear
Balsam fir
Bambara Ground Nut
Bamboo
Bamboo greenbrier
Bambusa sp.
Bambusa arundinacea
Banana
Banana Passionfruit
Banksia species
Baptisia tinctoria
Bargad
Baramagrass
Barbados Cherry
Barbados Gooseberry
Barbarea verna
Barbarea vulgaris
Barley
Barnyardgrass
Basella rubra
Basil
Basin wild-rye
Bayberry
Bea balm
Beachgrasses
Bean (Sp.)
Bean, Adanka
Bean, Adzuki
Bean, Asparagus
Bean, Broad
Bean (Common)
Bean (Common-Dry)
Bean, Goa
Bean, Hyacinth
Bean, Jack
Bean, Lima
Bean, Moth
Bean, Mung
CropINDEX A-B
Bean, Pea, Navy

Bean, Scarlet Runner
Bean, Urd
Bean, Velvet
Bearberry
Beardless bluebunch wheatgrass
Beech nuts
Beefsteak plant
Beet
Begonia
Ben Moringa seed oil
Benincasa hispida
Benne Seed
Bentgrasses
Berberis aquifolium
Bergamont
Bermudagrass
Bertholletia excelsa
Beta vulgaris
Betula lenta
Bhuiaonla
Bhuinimb
Big bluegrass
Big bluestem
Big trefoil
Bigflower clover
Bignay
Bija
Bilberry
Bilimbi
Bimli
Birch
Birdsfoot trefoil
Birib
Bitter apple
Bitter kola
Bitter melon
Bitter nightshade
Bitter potato
Bittersweet
CropINDEX A-B
Bixa orellana
Black alder
Blackberry
Black cherry
Black cohosh
Black grama
Blackhaw
Black locust
Black mangrove
Black mulberry
Black mustard
Black nightshade
Black Sapote
Black walnut
Black wattle
Black wattle, Darwin
Black willow
Black-eyed pea
Bladder pod
Blero
Blessed Thistle
Blighia sapida
Blimbe
Blood root
Bluebunch wheatgrass
Blue Cohosh
Blueflag Iris
Blue grama
Blue panicgrass
Blue Vervain
Blue wild-rye
Blueberry
Bluegrasses
Bluegrass, Big
Bluegrass, Bulbous
Bluegrass, Canada
Bluegrass, Kentucky
Bluegrass, Mutton
Bluegrass, Roughstalk
CropINDEX A-B
Bluegrass, Sandberg
Bluegrass, Texas
Bluestem, Big
Bluestem, Caucasian
Bluestem, Diaz
Bluestem, Little
Bluestem, Sand
Bluestem, Yellow
Blumea lacera
Boer lovegrass
Boerhaavia diffusa
Boerhaavia repens
Bogbean
Bog bilberry
Bois immortelle
Boneset
Borage
Borago officinalis
Boronia
Bothriochloa caucasica
Bothriochloa ischaemum
Bothriochloa pertusa
Bottle gourd
Bouteloua curtipendula
Bouteloua eriopoda
Bouteloua gracilis
Bouteloua sp.
Bracatinga
Brachiaria mutica
Brachiaria ramosa
Brassica alba
Brassica campestris
Brassica hirta
Brassica japonica
Brassica juncea
Brassica kaber
Brassica napiformis
Brassica napus
Brassica nigra
Brassica oleracea
CropINDEX A-B
Brassica rapa
Brassica parachinensis
Brazilian ginseng
Brazilian Guava
Brazil nut
Breadfruit
Breadnut
Bread wheat
Broccoli
Broccoli, Chinese
Broccoli Raab
Brodiaea laxa
Brome grasses
Brome, California
Brome, Mountain
Brome, Smooth
Bromus arvensis
Bromus carinatus
Bromus commutatus
Bromus glabrescens
Bromus inermis
Bromus japonicus
Bromus marginatus
Bromus secalinus
Bromus sp.
Bromus tatewakii
Bromus tectorum
Bromus willdenowii
Broomcorn
Broomsedge
Brown mustard
Bruguiera conjugata
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Brussels Sprouts
Buchloe dactyloides
Buckwheat
Buffalo berry
Buffalo gourd
Buffalograss
Buffelgrass
CropINDEX A-B
Bugleweed
Bulbous bluegrass
Bunchgrass, Annual
Bunchgrasses
Bunchosia armeniaca
Bur-clovers
Burdock
Burdock Edible
Burma mangrove
Burnet
Butterfly Weed
Butternut
Button mangrove
Button-Snakeroot
Butyrospermum parkii
Byrsonima crassifolia
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
NewCROP Search Engine
Index | Home
CropSEARCH
Seeking NewCROP
Information?
Type plant names below (or other key
words) and click the "Search" button.
Search:
must contain
Search
in the body
the words
Clear
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]
NewCROP HomePage
Horticulture and Landscape Architecture|Purdue University
Welcome to NewCROPTM
the New Crop Resource Online
Program
The Web site of the Center for New Crops & Plant Products, at
Purdue University. NewCROP provides windows to new and
specialty crop profiles.
Trends in New Crops and New Uses
All copies purchased as part of the New Crop Symposium
registration have been shipped. Additional copies will soon be
available from ASHS Press
order the New Crop Compendium CD-ROM

Help Strategies for using NewCROP
CropINDEX A list of scientific and common names of crops for
information access
CropSEARCH A search engine to access crop information based
upon key words such as crop names or authors
CropMAP A nation-wide (US) location-specific crop information
system
Current Projects Classes, presentations, websites
CropREFERENCE Books and manuals on crops
CropEXPERT Directory of new crop resource personnel
NewCropEVENTS Conferences, events and upcoming symposia
NewCrop DISCUSSION GROUP An e-mail list for queries, discussion, and information on
crops
Aromatic-MedicinalPLANTS A guide to aromatic & medicinal plants, culinary herbs & spices
IMPORTEXPORT Plant quarantine information and phytosanitation permits for all countries.
Famine Foods A list of unconventional food sources
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:26:53 PM]
NewCROP HomePage
NewCrop LINKS Connections to related web sites, external data-bases, and libraries
Australian New Crops Project
What is NewCROP?
Online since 1995, NewCROP (New Crops Resource Online Program) is an information-rich site
related to crop plants. It is a project of the Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plant
Products and is associated with the New Crop Diversification project and the Jefferson Institute.
Acknowledgements:
Funding provided by the Indiana Business Modernization and Technology Corporation and the Indiana Center for
New Crops and Plant Products, Indiana Value-Added Grant Program, and the Jefferson Institute.
We welcome your comments, constructive suggestions and hope you'll let us know if you are experiencing any
problems while using the system. Good luck and welcome again to NewCROPTM.
NewCROP Server Statistics

This is an official World Wide Web page of Purdue University.
Suggestions and comments about this web site may be directed to:
Jules Janick 765-494-1329
Center for New Crops & Plant Products
Purdue University
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
625 Agriculture Mall Drive
West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010
Fax: 765-494-0391
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:26:53 PM]
CropINDEX C-D
Crop Index
AB
CD E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Cabbage
Cabbage, Chinese
Cacao
Cacao butter
Cactus pear
Caj
Cajanus cajun
Cajanus indicus
Cajeput
Calabaza
Calamondin
Calamus root
Calathea allouia
Calendula officinalis
California brome
Calla
Calliandra calothyrsus
Calocarpum sapota
Calocarpum viride
Calophylum spp.
Calotropis gigantea
Caltha palustris
Cambuc
Camelina sativa
Camellia oleifera
Camellia sinensis
Campanula medium
Campanula rapunculus
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (1 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]
CropINDEX C-D
Canada balsam
Canada bluegrass
Canada Wildginger
Canada wild-rye
Canarium ovatum
Canary grass
Canary grass, Reed
Canavalia ensiformis
Candlenut oil tree
Canicha
Canihua
Canistel
Canna spp.
Cannabis sativa
Cantaloupe
Canola
Cape gooseberry
Cape marigold
Caper
Caper spurge
Capparis spinosa
Capsicum spp.
Capulin
Caragana arborescens
Carambola
Caraota
Caraway
Cardamom
Cardoon
Carica heilbornii
Carica papaya
Carica pentagona
Carica pubescens
Carissa
Carissa congesta
Carissa macrocarpa
Carob
Carolina-jessamine
Carolina-vanilla
Carpathian walnut
CropINDEX C-D
Carpetgrass
Carrot
Carthamus tinctorius
Carum carvi
Carya glabra
Carya illinoinensis
Carya laciniosa
Carya myristicaeformis
Carya ovalis
Carya sp.
Carya tomentosa
Cascara buckthorn
Cashew
Cashew Apple
Casimiroa
Casimira edulis
Cassabanana
Cassava
Cassia
Cassia fistula
Cassia tora
Cassie
Castanea crenata
Castanea dentata
Castanea mollissima
Castanea pumila
Castanea sativa
Castanea sp.
Castor bean
Castor oil
Casuarina cunninghamiana
Casuarina equisetifolia
Casuarina glauca
Casuarina junghuhniana
Catha edulis
Catharanthus roseus
Catjan
Catjang
Catnip
Cat's claw
CropINDEX C-D
Cattail
Cattail Millet
Cattley Guava
Caucasian bluestem
Cauliflower
Caulophyllum thalictroides
Ceiba pentandra
Celandine
Celastrus paniculatus
Celastrus scandens
Celeriac
Celery
Celosia argentia
Cenchrus ciliaris
Centipedegrass
Cephaelis ipecacuanha
Ceratonia siliqua
Cercidium species
Cereus peruvianus
Ceriman
Ceriops candolliana
Ceriops tagal
Chaenomeles sp.
Chaerophyllum bulbosum
Chago
Chakod
Chamaelaucian uncinatum
Chamaelirium luteum
Chamaemelum nobile
Chamburo
Chamisa
Chamomile
Chan
Chard
Charlock
Charota
Chasmanthera dependens
Chaya
Chayote
Che
CropINDEX C-D
Chelidonium majus
Chelone glabra
Chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum
Chenopodium bonus-henricus
Chenopodium pallidicaule
Chenopodium quinoa
Cherimoya
Cherry, Sour
Cherry, Sour oil
Cherry, Sweet
Cherry Tart
Chervil
Chervil, Turnip-rooted
Chestnut
Chewing's fescue
Chhui-mui
Chia
Chicken corn
Chickpea
Chicle
Chico sapote, Chicozapota
Chicory
Chili Pepper
Chilopsis linearis
Chimaphila maculata
Chimaphila umbellata
China sumac
Chinese artichoke
Chinese cabbage
Chinese chive
Chinese date
Chinese Gooseberry
Chinese garlic
Chinese mulberry
Chinese okra
Chinese quince
Chinese Spinach
Chinese tallow tree
Chinkapin
Chionanthus virginica
CropINDEX C-D
Chives
Chloris gayana
Chlorophytum
Chocolate
Chokeberry
Choy Sum, Chinese Cabbage
Chotagokhru
Chrysactinia mexicana
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
Chrysanthemum coronarium
Chrysanthemum majus
Chrysanthemum spatiosum
Chrysophyllum cainito
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Chufa
Chufa oil
Chupa-Chupa
Cicer arietinum
Cichorium endivia
Cichorium intybus
Cilantro
Cimicifuga racemosa
Cinnamon
Cinnamomum cassia
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Ciruela de Madagascar
Cissus quadrangula
Citrofortunella mitis
Citron
Citron, melon
Citronella horsebalm
Citrullus colocynthis
Citrullus echirrhosus
Citrullus lanatus var. citrioides
Citrullus lanatus
Citrus aurantifolia
Citrus aurantium
Citrus latifolia
Citrus limettioides
Citrus limon
CropINDEX C-D
Citrus limonia
Citrus maxima
Citrus medica
Citrus paradisi
Citrus reticulata
Citrus paradisi Citrus reticulata
Citrus reticulata x Citrus sinensis
Citrus sinensis
Citrus sp.
Clarkia
Clary
Clausena lansium
Cloud berry
Cloves
Clover, Alsike
Clover, Alyce
Clover, Ball
Clover, Bigflower
Clover, Cluster
Clover, Crimson
Clover, Holy
Clover, Hop
Clover, Italian
Clover, Ladino
Clover, Lappa
Clover, Large hop
Clover, Persian
Clover, Red
Clover, Rose
Clover, Scarlet
Clover, Seaside
Clover, Small hop
Clover, Strawberry
Clover, Striate
Clover, Sub
Clover, Swedish
Clovers, Sweet
Clover, White
Clover, White sweet
Clover, Whitetip
CropINDEX C-D
Clover, Yellow-flowered sweet

Club moss
Cluster clover
Cnicus benedictus
Cnidoscolus chayamansa
Coccinia cordifolia
Cocksfootgrass
Cocoa
Cocoloba uvifera
Cocona
Coconut
Cocos nucifera
Cocoyam
Coffea arabica
Coffea liberica
Coffee
Cohosh bugbane
Coix lacryma-jobi
Cola
Cola acuminata
Cola nitilda
Collards
Collinsonia canadensis
Colocasia esculenta
Coltsfoot
Columbus grass
Comfrey
Commelina benghalensis
Common bahai
Common bean
Common oats
Common stargrass
Common wheat
Comptonia peregrina
Conium maculatum
Conocarpus erectus
Conringia orientalis
Coolibah
Copaifera langsdorfii
Coptis trifolia
CropINDEX C-D
Coralbean
Corchorus olitorius
Cordeauxia edulis
Cordyline terminalis
Coriander
Coriandrum sativum
Corkscrew willow
Corkwood tree
Corn
Corn Salad
Corn, sweet
Corn oil
Cornus florida
Coronilla cannabina
Coronilla varia
Corylus avellana
Costa Rican Guava
Costmary
Cotinus coggygria
Costus speciosus
Cotton
Cotton seed oil
Couepia longipendula
Couma utilis
Courbaril
Cowgrass
Cowhage
Cowpea
Cowslip
Crabapple
Crabapple mangrove
Crambe abyssinica
Crambe maritima
Cranberry
Cranberrybush
Craspedia
Crataegus aestivalis
Crataegus opaca
Crataegus rufula
Crayfish
CropINDEX C-D
Creeping foxtail
Cress, Garden
Cress, Upland
Cress, Water
Crested wheatgrass
Crimson clover
Crocus sativus
Crotalaria intermedia
Crotalaria juncea
Crotalaria lanceolata
Crotalaria mucronata
Crotalaria sp.
Crotalaria spectabilis
Croton moluccanus
Croton tiglium
Crown vetch
Crown Daisy
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta
Cryptotaenia japonica
Cucumber
Cucumber, Armenian
Cucumis anguria
Cucumis melo
Cucumis metuliferus
Cucumis sativus
Cucurbita argyrosperma
Cucurbita ficifolia
Cucurbita foetidissima
Cucurbita maxima
Cucurbita mixta
Cucurbita moschata
Cucurbita pepo
Cucuzzi
Cudrang
Cudrania tricuspidata
Culantro
Culvers-physic
Cumin
Cuminum cyminum
Cupania sapida
CropINDEX C-D
Cupesi
Cuphea spp.
Cupuassu
Curcuma longa
Curcuma spp.
Curly mesquite
Currant
Curry leaf
Cushaw
Custard apple
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Cyclanthera pedata
Cydonia oblonga
Cymbopogon spp.
Cynara cardunculus
Cynara scolymus
Cynodon dactylon
Cyperus esculentus
Cyperus hexastachyos
Cyperus papyrus
Cyperus rotundus
Cyphomandra betacea
Cypripedium parviflorum
Cypripedium pubescens
ABC
DE F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Dactylis glomerata
Dalbergia sissoo
Dalea capitata
Dallisgrass
Damianita
Danchi
Dandelion
Darwin black wattle
Dasheen
Dasylirion longissimum
Date, Chinese
Date palm
Datura stramonium
CropINDEX C-D
Daucus carota
Deccan hemp
Dendrocalamus sp.
Derris indica
Devilgrass
Dewberry
Dhal
dhatura
Dhubgrass
Diaz bluestem
Dichanthium annulatum
Dichanthium aristatum
Diesel tree
Digitalis spp.
Digitaria decumbens
Digitaria exilis
Dill
Dilly
Dimocarpus longan
Dimorphotheca pluvialis
Dioscorea alata
Dioscorea batatas
Dioscorea bulbifera
Dioscorea cayenesis
Dioscorea rotundata
Dioscorea trifida
Dioscorea villosa
Diospyros blancoi
Diospyros digyna
Diospyros kaki
Diospyros virginiana
Diplotaxis tenuifolia
Diplotaxis muralis
Dipteryx odorata
Dittany of Crete
Dock
Dolichos lablab
Dolichos sp.
Doob
Dovyalis caffra
CropINDEX C-D
Dovyalis hebecarpa
Dronpushpi
Drumstick-tree
Drupes (StoneFruits)
Dryandra species
Dryopteris filixmas
Dryopteris marginalis
Dunchi fiber
Durian
Durio zibethinus and other species
Durra
Durum wheat
Dutch parsley
CropINDEX E-H
Crop Index
E F G HI JK LM NO PQ RS TU VW XY Z
ABCD
East Indian walnut
Eastern cottonwood
Echinacea species
Echinochloa crusgalli
Echinops ritro
Eclipta alba
edamame
Edible honeysuckle
Egg nut
Eggplant
Egusi
Egyptian mimosa
Ehrharta calycina
Eichornia crassipes
Einkorn
Einkorn, wild
Ekoa
Elaeis guineensis
Elaeis melanococca
Elderberry
Elecampane
Eleocharis dulcis
Elephant grass
Elettaria cardamomum
Eleusine coracana
Eleutherococcus senticosis
Elymus canadensis
Elymus cinereus
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (1 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]
CropINDEX E-H
Elymus condensatus
Elymus glaucus
Elymus hispidus
Elymus junceus
Elymus sp.
Elytriga intermedia
Emblic
Emblica officinalis
Emmer
Emmer, wild
Endive
English walnut
Ephedra species
Epigaea repens
Eragrostis chloromelas
Eragrostis curvula
Eragrostis lehmanniana
Eragrostis sp.
Eragrostis tef
Eragrostis trichodes
Eremochloa ophiuroides
Erigeron canadensis
Eriobotrya japonica
Eriodictyon californicum
Eruca sativa
Eryngium aquaticum
Eryngium foetidum
Eryngium planum
Erythrina berteroana
Erythrina fusca
Erythrina glauca
Erythrina poeppigiana
Escarole
Espinheira santa
Ethiopian pepper
Eucalyptus sp.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus citriodora
Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptus gomphocephala
CropINDEX E-H
Eucalyptus grandis
Eucalyptus microtheca
Eucalyptus occidentalis
Eucalyptus robusta
Eucalyptus saligna
Eucalyptus tereticornis
Eucalyptus viminalis
Eugenia brasiliensis
Eugenia caryophyllus
Eugenia jambos
Eugenia luschnathiana
Eugenia malaccense
Eugenia stipitata
Eugenia uniflora
Euonymus atropurpureus
Eupatorium perfoliatum
Euphorbia biglandulosa
Euphorbia lagascae
Euphorbia lathyris
Euphorbia tirucalli
Euphoria longan
European alder
European grape
Eustoma
Eutrema wasabi
ABCDE
F G H I JK LM NO PQ RS TU VW XY Z
Fababean
Fagopyrum emarginatum
Fagopyrum esculentum
Fagopyrum tataricum
Fagus grandifolia
Fagus sp.
Fagus sylvatica
Fairway wheatgrass
False acacia
Falseflax
False-Hellebore
False melic grass
CropINDEX E-H
Fanweed
Favabean
Feijao
Feijoa
Feijoa sellowiana
Fennel
Fennel, Florence
Fenugreek
Feronia limonia
Fescue grasses
Fescue, Chewing's
Fescue, Idaho
Fescue, Meadow
Fescue, Red
Fescue, Sheep
Fescue, Tall
Festuca arundinacea
Festuca elatior
Festuca idahoensis
Festuca ovina
Festuca pratensis
Festuca rubra var. commutata
Festuca rubra
Festuca sp.
Feverfew
Ficus benghalensis
Ficus carica
Field bean
Field bromegrass
Field pea
Fig
Fig-leaved gourd
Figwort
Finger millet
Finnocchio
Five-year sorghum
Flacourtia indica
Flammulina velutipes
Flax
Flowering Dogwood
CropINDEX E-H
Fonio
Flooded box
Flooded gum
Foeniculum vulgare
Forest mangrove
Forest redgum
Fortunella sp.
Fox Grape, Southern
Foxglove
Foxtail, Creeping
Foxtail, Meadow
Foxtail millet
Fragaria chiloensis
Fragaria vesca
Fragaria virginiana
Fraxinus americana
French bean
Frijol Fringetree
Fruta de pan
Funde
Fuzzy melon
A B CD EF
GHI JK LM NO PQ RS TU VW XY Z
Galangal
Galium odoratum
Galleta grass
Gallito
Gamba grass
Ganoderma lucidum
Garbanzo
Garcinia hombrioniana
Garcinia kola
Garcinia livingstonei
Garcinia mangostana
Garden beet
Garden Cress
Garden pea
Garlic
Garlic, Elephant
CropINDEX E-H
Gaultheria procumbens
Gaylussacia sp.
Gelsemium sempervirens
Genipa americaca
Genipap
Geraldton wax-flower
Geranium
Geranium maculatum
Gerasol
Gerbera jamesonii
German millet
Ghaf
Gherkin, West Indian
Giant Granadilla
Giant reed
Giant wild-rye
Ginger
Ginkgo biloba
Ginseng
Ginseng, Siberian
Girasol
Glasswort
Gleditsia triacanthos
Gliricidia sepium
Gloriosa superba
Glory lily
Glycine max
Glycine sp.
Glycycrhiza glabra
Gmelina arborea
Gnaphalium obtusifolium
Goatnut
Gold of Pleasure
Goldenberry
Golden groundsel
Goldenrod
Goldenseal
Goldthread
Gomboom
Gomphrena
CropINDEX E-H
Good King Henry

Gooseberry
Gooseberry, Chinese
Gopher plant
Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium mexicanum
Gourds
Gow Kee
Grains of Paradise
Grama grasses
Grama, Black
Grama, Blue
Grama, Side-oats
Granada
Granadilla
Grape, American
Grape, European
Grape, Muscadine
Grape, Old World
Grape seed oil
Grapefruit
Grasspea
Great-headed Garlic
Green needlegrass
Grevillea species
Grewia asiatica
Grewia subinaequalis
Grey mangrove
Grifola frondosa
Grindelia camporum
Grindelia robusta
Grindelia squarrosa
Ground Cherry
Ground-Ivy
Groundnut
Grumichama
Gruya
Guaba
Guamachil
Guar
CropINDEX E-H
Guaran
Guava
Guava machete
Guava, pineapple
Guayaba
Guayule
Gudmar
Guiana Chestnut
Guilielma gasipaes
Guinea arrowroot
Guinea corn
Guineagrass
Guinea Pepper
Guizotia abyssinica
Gum arabic
Gumbo
Gum Plant
Guma
Gumweed
Gymnema sylvestre
Gypsophila paniculata
ABCDEFG
H I JK LM NO PQ RS TU VW XY Z
Hairy melon
Hamamelis virginiana
Hamburg parsley
Hamilgrass
Hanga
Hanover Salad
Hansen bush cherry
Hardinggrass
Hare's Ear Mustard
Haricot bean
Hay millet
Hazel Alder
Hazelnut
Hedeoma pulegioides
Hediondilla
CropINDEX E-H
Helianthus annus
Helianthus tuberosus
Hemlock
Hemp
Hemp Dogbane
Henna
Hepatica acutiloba
Hepatica americana
Herdgrass
Hericium erinaceus
Hesperaloe davyi
Hesperaloe funifera
Hesperaloe nocturna
Hevea brasiliensis
Hibiscus abelmoschus
Hibiscus cannabinus
Hibiscus, edible
Hibiscus esculentus
Hibiscus manihot
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Hibiscus spp.
Hickory nuts
Higo
Hilaria belangeri
Hilaria jamesii
Hilaria mutica
Hippophae rhamnoides
Hoarhound
Hog Millet
Holcus pertusus
Holland Greens
Honeydew melon
Hon-toi-moi
Honeylocust
Honey mesquite
Hop clovers
Hophornbeam
Hops
Hoptree
Hordeum distichon
CropINDEX E-H
Hordeum irregulare
Hordeum vulgare
Horehound
Horned melon
Horsebean
Horsechestnut
Horse nettle
Horseradish
Horseradish, Japanese
Horseradish tree
Horsetail tree
Horseweed
Hosta
Huckleberry
Huisache
Humulus lupulus
Huperzia serrata
Hydrangea arborescens
Hydrastis canadensis
Hylocereus
Hylocereus undatus
Hymenaea courbaril
Hymenoxys acaulis
Hypericum perforatum
Hypsizygus marmoreus
Hyptis suaveolens
Hyssop
Hyssopus officinalis
A B C DE FGH IJ KL MN OP QR ST UV WX YZ
CropINDEX I-L
Crop Index
A B C D EF GH
I J K L M NO PQ RS TU VW XY Z
Ibope
Ice-cream bean
Idaho fescue
Igope
Ilama
Ilex paraguariensis
Ilex verticillata
Imbe
Imbu
Indian beech
Indian hemp
Indian mangrove
Indian mustard
Indian ricegrass
Indian rosewood
Indiangrass
Indigo
Indigofera spp.
Inga cipo
Inga edulis
Inga feuillei
Inga vera
Intermediate wheatgrass
Introduced Panicgrasses
Inula helenium
Ipecac
Ipomoea aquatic
Ipomoea batatas
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]
CropINDEX I-L
Ipomoea fastigiata
Ipomoea reptans
Iris
Iris versicolor
Iron bark
Isopogon species
Israeli babool
Isu
Italian fennel
Italian millet
Italian ryegrass
Ivy gourd
A B CD EF GH I
JK L MN OP QR ST UV WX Y Z
Jaborandi
Jaboticaba
Jackfruit
Jack-In-The-Pulpit
Jamaica Cherry
Jambolan
Jandi
Jangli moong
Japanese arrowroot
Japanese barnyardgrass
Japanese greens
Japanese Horseradish
Japanese Knotweed
Japanese millet
Japanese Mint
Japanese quince
Jasmine
Jasminum spp.
Jatropha curcas
Java Apple
Jeffersonia diphylla
Jemara
Jerusalem artichoke
Jcama
Jimson Weed
CropINDEX I-L
Jobo de la India
Job's-tears
Johnsongrass
Jojoba
Juglans cinerea
Juglans cordiformis var. ailantifolia
Juglans hindsii
Juglans nigra
Juglans regia
Jujube
Jujube, Indian
Jumbie bean
Juneberry
Juniperus communis
Juniperus virginiana
Jute
ABCDEFGHIJ
KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Kaber Mustard
Kaempferia spp.
Kai choy
Kaki
Kalanchoe
Kale, Common
Kale, Siberian
Kalihari
Kalmegh
Kamut
Kangoroo paw
Kaniwa
Kapikachu
Kapok oil
Karanda
Karrir corn
Kava
Kei Apple
Kenaf
Kentucky bluegrass
Kerosene tree
CropINDEX I-L
Keshi
Ketembilla
Keukand
Khareti
Khat
Kher
Kiawe
Kidney bean
Kiwano
Kiwifruit
Kleingrass
Kochia scoparia
Koha
Kohlrabi
Koleagrass
Korean lespedeza
Korila
Kaua-kaini
Kudzu
Kumquat
Kumta
Kura Clover
Kurakkan
ABCDEFGHIJK
LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Lablab
Lactuca spp.
Lactuca scariola
Ladino clover
Ladyslipper
Lagenaria siceraria
Lagenaria sp.
Lakoocha
Langras galaga
Langsat
Lansium domesticum
Laguncularia racemosa
Lahong
Lai
CropINDEX I-L
Lappa clover
Larix laricina
Lathyrus cicera
Lathyrus hirsutus
Lathyrus sativus
Laurel, Cherry
Laurus nobilis
Lavender
Lavendula spp.
Lawsonia inermis
Leadtree
Leafcup
Leather Woodfern
Leek
Lehmann lovegrass
Lemon
Lemon balm
Lemon, Garden
Lemongrass
Lemon-scented gum
Lemon verbena
Lens culinaris
Lentil
Lentinula edodes
Lepidium meyenii
Lepidium sativum
Lepidium virginicum
Lepista nuda
Leptandra virginica
Leren
Lespedeza
Lespedeza cuneata
Lespedeza, Korean
Lespedeza, Sericea
Lespedeza sp.
Lespedeza stipulacea
Lespedeza striata
Lespedeza, Striate
Lesquerella fendleri
Lettuce
CropINDEX I-L
Leucadendron species
Leucas cephalotes
Leucaena leucocephala
Leucophyllum candidum
Leucophyllum langmaniae
Leucospermum species
Levisticum officinale
Liatris odoratissima
Liatris spicata
Licania platypus
Licorice
Lime
Limnanthes alba
Limonium
Lingonberry
Linum usitatissimum
Litchi chinensis
Little bluestem
Liverleaf
Loa haole
Lobelia infata
Lolium multiflorum
Lolium perenne
Longan
Lonicera caerulea
Loquat
Lotus corniculatus
Lotus pedunculatus
Lotus Root
Lovage
Love grasses
Lovegrass, Boer
Lovegrass, Lehmann
Lovegrass, Sand
Lovegrass, Weeping
Lucerne
Lucmo
Lucuma
Lucuma nervosa
Luffa acutangula
CropINDEX I-L
Luffa aegyptiaca
Luffa cylindrica
Lunaria annua
Lupines
Lupinus albus
Lupinus augustifolius
Lupinus luteus
Lupinus mutabilis
Lupinus sp.
Lychee
Lycium chinense
Lycopersicon esculentum
Lycopersicon pimpernellifolium
Lycopodium serratum
Lycopus virginicus
CropINDEX M-P
Crop Index
MNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABCDEFGHIJKL
Mabolo
Maca
Macadamia integrifolia
Macadamia Nut
Macadamia ternifolia
Macadamia tetraphylla
Macauba
Mace
Macha wheat
Machette
Madagascar periwinkle
Mad-Dog Skullcap
Madre de cacao
Mahonia nevinii
Mahuang
Maize
Malabar chestnut
Malabar, Spinach
Malay apple
Malay padauk
Malkangni
Mallontonia gnaphalodes
Malpighia glabra
Malus sp.
Mamey
Mamey Sapote
Mammea americana
Mamoncillo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_mnop.html (1 of 14) [5/16/2004 1:26:58 PM]
CropINDEX M-P
Manchurian wild rice

Mandarin
Mandarin Lime
Mandioca
Mangifera indica
Mangium
Mango
Mangosteen
Manihot esculenta
Manihot sp.
Manioc
Manila tamarind
Manilkara zapota
Manna eucalyptus
Maple, Black sugar
Maple, Sugar
Maracuja
Maranta arundinacea
Marigold
Marigold, Cape
Marigold, pot
Marijuana
Marjoram, Sweet
Mashua
Marliera edulis
Marmaladebox
Marrubium vulgare
Martynia
Marula
Marvel
Matasano
Mat
Matricaria recutita
Matrimony vine
Matthiola incana
Mauka
Mayapple
Mayhaw
Maytenus ilicifolia
Meadow fescue
CropINDEX M-P
Meadow foxtail
Meadowfoam
Medicago arabica
Medicago polymorpha var. vulgaris
Medicago sativa
Medicago spp.
Medlar, Japanese
Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melano
Melanzana
Melegueta pepper
Melicoccus bijugatus
Melilotus alba
Melilotus officinalis
Melilotus sp.
Melinis minutiflora
Melissa officinalis
Melofon
Melograno
Melon, Chinese preserving
Melon pear
Melon, winter
Menispermum canadense
Mentha gentilis
Mentha piperita
Mentha pulegium
Mentha rotundifolia
Mentha sp.
Mentha spicata
Menyanthes trifoliata
Merasingi
Merkergrass
Mesquite
Metulon
Mexican husk tomato
Mexican lime
Mexican prickly poppy
Milk bush
Milkweed
Milk thistle
CropINDEX M-P
Milk vetch
Millet, pearl
Millet, proso
Milo
Mimetes species
Mimosa bracatinga
Mimosa farnesiana
Mimosa nilotica
Mimosa pudica
Mimosa scabrella
Minor annual brome grasses
Mint
Minthostachys spp.
Mirabilis expansa
Miracle berry
Miracle fruit
Mithi patti
Mitsuba
Mocambo
Molassesgrass
Mole plant
Mombin, red
Momordica balsamina
Momordica charantia
Momordica grosvenori
Monarda
Money plant
Mongongo
Monkey orange
Monstera deliciosa
Montery pine
Montia perfoliate
Moonseed
Mora blanco
Morchella esculenta
Moringa oleifera
Mortio
Morus alba
Morus spp.
Motha
CropINDEX M-P
Motse
Mountain brome
Mountain papaw
Mucuna deeringiana
Mucuna pruriens
Muhlenbergia capillaris
Muhlenbergia filipes
Mulberry
Mulberry, Chinese
Mullein
Mungbean
Mungesa
Muntingia calabura
Mu-oil tree
Murraya koenigii
Musa species
Muscadine Grape
Mushroom
Muskdana
Muskmelon
Mustard
Mutton bluegrass
Myoga ginger
Myrciaria cauliflora
Myrciaria floribunda
Myrica carolinensis
Myrica cerifera
Myristica fragrans
Myrrh
Myrrhis odorata
Mysore Raspberry
ABCDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Nalgrass
Nalta jute
Name Mapuey
Nance
Nanking cherry
Napier grass
CropINDEX M-P
Naranjilla
Narrow Dock
Naseberry
Nashi
Nasturtium, Garden
Nasturtium officinale
Natal Plum
Nauclea latifolia
Necotiana tabacum
Nectarine
Needle-and-thread grass
Needlegrasses
Needlegrass, Green
Nelumbo nucifera
Nepalese alder
Nepeta cataria
Nepeta hederacea
Nephelium lappaceum
Nephelium mutabile
Nerine spp.
Nevin's barberry
Nicotiana tabacum
Niger
Nile grass
Nispero (Eriobotrya japonica)
Nispero (Manilkara zapota)
Noblecane
Nopalitos
Northern white cedar
Norway Spruce
Nut grass
Nutmeg
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OPQRSTUVWXYZ
Oats
Oca
Ocimum spp.
Okra
Olea europaea
CropINDEX M-P
Olive
Olive oil
Olluco
Onion
Onobrychio viriaefolia
Opium poppy
Opuntia spp.
Orach
Orange Grapefruit
Orangelo
Orange, Sour
Orange, Sweet
Orange, Trifoliate
Orange wattle
Orchardgrass
Orconectes viriles
Oregano
Oregon hollygrape
Origanum spp.
Origanum dictamnus
Ornithogalum spp.
Oryzia glaberrima
Oryza sativa
Oryzopsis hymenoides
Oryzopsis miliacea
Ostrya virginiana
Otaheite Apple
Otaheite Gooseberry
Oxalis tuberosus
Oxydendrum arboreum
Oxypetalum caeruleum
Oyster nut
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
PQRSTUVWXYZ
Pacay
Pachira aquatica
Pachyrhizus erosus
Paeonia lactiflora
Pakchoi
CropINDEX M-P
Palm oil
Palo de tomate
Panax spp.
Pangola grass
Panicum antidotale
Panicum barbinode
Panicum coloratum
Panicum maximum
Panicum miliaceum
Panicum muticum
Panicum obtusum
Panicum pupurascens
Panicum ramosum
Panicum repens
Panicum sp.
Panicum virgatum
Papaver somniferum
Papaya
Papyrus
Para rubber
Paragrass
Parsley
Parsley, Turnip-rooted
Parsnip
Parthenium argentatum
Parthenium hysterophorus
Parthenium lozanianum
Paspalum dilatatum
Paspalum notatum
Paspalum urvillei
Passiflora edulis
Passiflora laurifolia
Passiflora ligularis
Passiflora maliformis
Passiflora mollissima
Passiflora quadrangularis
Passiflora spp.
Passion fruit
Pastinaca sativa
Paullinia cupana
CropINDEX M-P
Paulownia tomentosa
Pawpaw
Pea, Edible-podded
Pea, Field
Pea, Garden
Pea, Pigeon
Pea, Rough
Pea, Southern
Pea, Winged
Pea, Winter
Peach
Peach palm
Peanut
Peanut oil
Pear
Pearl millet
Peavine
Pecan
Pejibaye
Pelargonium graveolens
Pellaea ovata
Peng
Pennisetum cenchroides
Pennisetum ciliare
Pennisetum glaucum
Pennisetum purpureum
Pennisetum typhoides
Pennyroyal, American
Pennyroyal, European
Pensicola bahai
Penstemon species
Pentas lanceolata
Peony
Pepino
Pepino Dulce
Pepper
Pepper, Guinea
Pepper, Melegueta
Pepper, Long
Peppers
CropINDEX M-P
Peppergrass
Peppermint
Perennial veldtgrass
Perennial ryegrass
Pereskia aculeata
Perilla
Perilla frutescens
Persea americana
Persian clover
Persian walnut
Persimmon
Persimmon, Japanese or Oriental
Petroleum nut
Petroleum plant
Petroselinum crispum
Pfaffia paniculata
Phalaenopsis spp.
Phalaris arundinacea
Phalaris canariensis
Phalaris coerulescens
Phalaris japonica
Phalaris stenoptera
Phalaris tuberosa var. hirtiglumis
Phalsa
Phaseolus aconitifolius
Phaseolus acutifolius
Phaseolus angularis
Phaseolus aureus
Phaseolus coccineus
Phaseolus limensis
Phaseolus lunatus
Phaseolus mungo
Phaseolus polyanthus
Phaseolus spp.
Phaseolus trilobatus
Phaseolus vulgaris
Phleum nodosum
Phleum pratense
Phoenix dactylifera
Pholiota nameko
CropINDEX M-P
Phragmites australis
Phragmites communis
Phragmites vulgaris
Phyllanthus acidus
Phyllanthus debilis
Phyllanthus emblica
Phyllanthus niruri
Phyllanthus urinaria
Phyllostachys sp.
Phlox paniculata
Physalis ixocarpa
Physalis peruviana
Phytolacca americana
Physic nut
Picea spp.
Pigeon pea
Pigweed
Pili nut
Pilocarpus microphyllus
Pimenta dioica
Pimenta-longa
Pimpinella anisum
Pia
Pine nut
Pineapple
Pineapple Guava
Pinkroot
Pinus edulis
Pinus elliottii
Pinus quadrifolia
Pinus radiata
Pinus strobus
Piper chaled
Piper hispidinervum
Piper longum
Piper methysticum
Piper nigrum
Pipsissewa
Pistache nut
Pistacia vera
CropINDEX M-P
Pistachio
Pisum sativum
Pitahaya agria
Pitaya
Pithecellobium dulce
Pitomba
Pitted bluestem
Pittosporum resiniferum
Plantain
Plantago spp.
Platonia esculenta
Platonia insignis
Pleurotus spp.
Plum, American
Plum, Bullace
Plum, Damson
Plum, Japanese
Plum, prune
Plum oil
Plum rose
Plum, Sandhill
Poa ampla
Poa arachnifera
Poa bulbosa
Poa compressa
Poa fendleriana
Poa pratensis
Poa secunda
Poa sp.
Poa trivialis
Podophyllum peltatum
Pointed gourd
Poison Hemlock
Pokeberry
Polianthes tubersoa
Polish wheat
Polygala senega
Polygonum cuspidatum
Polymnia sonchifolia
Pomarosa or Pomarrosa
CropINDEX M-P
Pomarrosa Malay
Pomegranate
Poncirus trifoliata
Pongam
Pongamia glabra
Pongamia pinnata
Popcorn
Poppy
Populus balsamifera
Populus candicans
Populus deltoides
Poro
Portulaca oleracea
Potato
Potato Onion
Poulard wheat
Pourouma cecropiaefolia
Pouteria caimito
Pouteria campechiana
Pouteria lucuma
Pouteria obovata
Pouteria sapota
Praecitrullus fistulosus
Prickly-Ash
Prickly Lettuce
Prickly saltwort
Proboscidea louisianica
Proso Millet
Prosopis spp.
Protea species
Prunus angustifolia
Prunus armeniaca
Prunus avium
Prunus cerasus
Prunus domestica
Prunus dulcis
Prunus insititia
Prunus laurocerasus
Prunus maritima
Prunus persica
CropINDEX M-P
Prunus salicifolia
Prunus salicina
Prunus serotina
Prunus subcordata
Prunus triflora
Prunus tomentosa
Psidium angulatum
Psidium cattleianum
Psidium friedrichsthalianum
Psidium guajava
Psidium guineense
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Psychotria ipecacuanha
Psyllium
Ptelea trifoliata
Pterocarpus indicus
Pubescent wheatgrass
Pueraria lobata
Pulasan
Pummelo
Pumpkin
Punanrnava
Punica granatum
Purging cassia
Purging croton
Purging nut
Purple coneflower
Purple Mombin
Purplestem angelica
Purple trillium
Purslane, Kitchen, Garden
Pussy willow
Pyrus communis
Pyrus cydonia
Pyrus pyrifolia
Pyrus serotina
Pyrus sp.
CropINDEX Q-T
Crop Index
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
QRSTUVWXYZ
Qinghao
Quack grass
Quaker comfrey
Quararibea cordata
Quebra pedra
Queen-Anne's lace
Quercus alba
Quince
Quinoa
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
RSTUVWXYZ
Rabbitbrush, Rubber
Radicchio
Radish
Ragi
Rain tree
Rakkyo
Rambai
Rambutan
Rampion
Ramps
Rapeseed
Raphanus sativus
Raspberry
Rauvolfia serpentina
Red clover
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_qrst.html (1 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:27:00 PM]
CropINDEX Q-T
Red Ceylon Peach

Red fescue
Redgum eucalyptus
Red mangrove
Redtop
Reed canarygrass
Reed, common
Rescuegrass
Rhamnus purshiana
Rheedia brasiliensis
Rheedia macrophylla
Rheum sp.
Rhizophora mangle
Rhizophora mucronata
Rhodesgrass
Rhodohpyoxis
Rhubarb
Rhus glabra
Ribes hirtellum
Ribes nigrum
Ribes rubrum
Ribes sativum
Ribes sp.
Ribes uva-crispa
Rice
Rice, wild
Ricinodendron rautanenii
Ricinus communis
River sheoak
Robinia pseudoacacia
Rocket
Rollinia mucosa
Rooikrans
Roquette
Rosa spp.
Rose apple
Rose clover
Roselle
Rosmarinus officinalis
Rosemary
CropINDEX Q-T
Rough pea
Roughstalk bluegrass
Rubber
Rubber Rabbitbrush
Rubus spp.
Rubus adenotrichus
Rubus chamaemorus
Rubus glaucus
Rubus idaeus var. strigosus
Rubus idaeus
Rubus macrocarpus
Rubus niveus
Rubus occidentalis
Rubus roseus
Rucola
Rue
Rughetta
Rumberry
Rumex acetosa
Rumex crispus
Rumex patienta
Rumex scutalus
Ruscus hypoglossum
Russian comfrey
Russian mulberry
Russian thistle
Russian wild-rye
Ruta graveolens
Rutabaga
Rye
Ryegrass, Italian
Ryegrass, Perennial
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR
STUVWXYZ
Saba nut
Sacaton
Sacaton, Alkali
Saccharum officinarum
Safed moosli
CropINDEX Q-T
Safflower
Safflower seed oil
Saffron
Sage
Sainfoin
Saligna eucalypt
Salix nigra
Salix spp.
Salsify
Salsify, Black
Salsify, Spanish
Salsola kali
Salvia spp.
Samanea saman
Sambucus canadensis
Sambucus coerulea
Sambucus sp.
Sand bluestem
Sand dropseed
Sand lovegrass
Sandberg bluegrass
Sandersonia auriantiaca
Sandoricum koetjape
Sangorache
Sanguinaria canadensis
Sanguisorba minor
Sansapote
Santhi
Santol
Sapium sebiferum
Sapodilla
Sapote
Sapote, Green
Sapote, Mamey
Sapote, White
Saskatoon berry
Sassafras variifolium
Satureja spp.
Satyanashi
Savory
CropINDEX Q-T
Saw palmetto
Schisandra chinensis
Schizachne purpurascens
Schizachyrium scoparium
Sclerocarya birrea
Scolymus hispanicus
Scolymus maculatus
Scoparia dulcis
Scorzonera hispanica
Scrophularia marilandica
Scutellaria spp.
Sea buckthorn
Sea grape
Seakale
Sea-lavender
Seaside alder
Seaside clover
Secale cereale
Sechium edule
Selenicereus megalanthus
Seneca-Snakeroot
Senecio aureus
Serenoa repens
Serenoa serrulata
Sericea lespedeza
Serruria species
Serviceberry
Sesame
Sesame oil
Sesamum indicum
Sesbania
Sesbania bispinosa
Sesbania exaltata
Sesbania grandiflora
Seso vegetal
Setaria italica
Shallot
Shattercane
Sharon Fruit
Shea butter
CropINDEX Q-T
Sheoak
Sheep fescue
Shepherdia argentea
Sheoak
Shiso
Shittim wood
Shum
Siberian ginseng
Siberian Kale
Siberian peashrub
Siberian wheatgrass
Sicana odorifera
Sida cordifolia
Side-oats grama
Silkworm mulberry
Silkworm Thorn
Silybum marianum
Simmondsia chinensis
Sinapis alba
Sindora supa
Sissoo
Sisu
Sium sisarum
Skirret
Skullcap
Skunkcabbage
Slash pine
Slender wheatgrass
Slenderstem
Slippery elm
Smilax pseudo-china
Smilograss
Smooth brome
Smooth hydrangea
Smooth Sumac
Smyrnium olusatrum
Snake melon
Snakeroot
Snap bean
Solanum betaceum
CropINDEX Q-T
Solanum carolinense
Solanum curtilobum
Solanum dulcamara
Solanum esculentum
Solanum juzepczukii
Solanum mauritianum
Solanum melongena
Solanum muricatum
Solanum nigrum
Solanum quitoense
Solanum sessiliflorum
Solanum tuberosum
Solidago odora
Solidago suaveolens
Soncoya
Sonneratia caseolaris
Sorbus americana
Sorghastrum nutans
Sorghum
Sorghum spp.
Sorrel, French
Sorrel, Garden
Sorva
Soursop
Sourwood
Southernpea
Southernwood
Soybean
Soybean oil
Spanish cane
Spanish lime
Spathyema foetida
Spearmint
Spelt
Sphaeranthus indicus
Spigelia marilandica
Spinach
Spinach, Chinese
Spinach, New Zealand
Spinacia oleracea
CropINDEX Q-T
Spiny bamboo
Spiranthes
Spondias cytherea
Spondias dulcis
Spondias lutea
Spondias mombin
Spondias purpurea
Spondias tuberosa
Sporobolus airoides
Sporobolus cryptandrus
Sporobolus wrightii
Spotted golden thistle
Spruce
Squash, Summer
Squash, Winter
Squill
St. Augustine grass
St. John's Wort
Stachys sieboldii
Star apple
Star Fruit
Stenocereus gummosus
Stentoaphrum secundatum
Steirodiscus
Stevia rebaudiana
Stilingia Oil Tree
Stinkgrass
Stipa comata
Stipa sp.
Stipa viridula
Stock
Stokes Aster
Stokesia laevis
Stone Fruits (Drupes)
Storehousebush
Strawberry
Strawberry clover
Strawberry Pear
Streambank wheatgrass
Striate lespedeza
CropINDEX Q-T
Striate clover
String bean
Strychnos cocculoides
Sub clover
Sudangrass
Sugar apple
Sugarbeets
Sugarcane
Sugar pea
Sunflower
Sunflower seed oil
Sunnhemp
Sunolgrass
Sunsapote
Supa
Surinam cherry
Swamp mahogany
Swamp sheoak
Swamp yate
Sweet Annie
Sweet bay
Sweet birch
Sweet Calabash
Sweet clovers
Sweet clover, White
Sweet clover, Yellow-flowered
Sweet cudweed
Sweetfern
Sweetflag
Sweet Granadilla
Sweet Lime
Sweet potato
Sweet wormwood
Sweetgrass
Switchgrass
Symphytum spp.
Synsepalum dulcificum
Syzygium aqueum
Syzygium aromaticum
Syzygium cumini
CropINDEX Q-T
Syzygium jambos
Syzygium malaccense
Syzygium samarangense
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS
TU V W X Y Z
Tabelak
Tacso
Tacu
Tagal mangrove
Tagetes spp.
Tahiti Lime
Tall fescue
Tall oatgrass
Tall wheatgrass
Tallow tree, Chinese
Tamarack
Tamarillo
Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
Tamarugo
Tanacetum parthenium
Tanacetum vulgare
Tangelo
Tangerine
Tangor
Tannia
Tansy
Tanta
Tapereb
Tapioca
Taraxacum californicum
Taraxacum officinale
Taro
Tarragon
Tarwi
Tasmanian bluegum
Taxus spp.
Tea
Tea oil camellia
CropINDEX Q-T
Teff
Telfairia occidentalis
Telfairia pedata
Telopia species
Tepari bean
Terminalia arjuna
Tetragonia tetragonioides
Tetragonolobus purpureus
Texas bluegrass
Theobroma bicolor
Thalspi arvense
Theobroma cacao
Theobroma grandiforum
Thickspike wheatgrass
Thinopyrum intermedium
Thuja occidentalis
Thurian
Thymus spp.
Thyme
Timopheevi wheat
Ti Palm
Tickbean
Tilia americana
Timothy
Tobacco
Tobosa grass
Tomarillo
Tomatillo
Tomato
Tomato, Currant
Tomato de Arbol
Tomato, Mexican Husk
Tomato Tree
Tonka bean oil
Torpedograss
Trachelium caeruleum
Tragacanth Gum
Tragopogon porrifolius
Trailing-Arbutus
Transvala digitgrass
CropINDEX Q-T
Trapa natans
Tree of heaven
Tree Spinach
Tree Tomato
Tremella fuciformis
Trichosanthes cucumerina
Trichosanthes dioica
Trifolium ambiguum
Trifolium agrarium
Trifolium campestre
Trifolium dubium
Trifolium fragiferum
Trifolium glomeratum
Trifolium hirtum
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium incarnatum
Trifolium lappaceum
Trifolium michelanum
Trifolium nigrescens
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium repens
Trifolium resupinatum
Trifolium sp.
Trifolium striatum
Trifolium subterraneum
Trifolium variegatum
Trifolium wildenovii
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Trilisa odoratissima
Trillium erectum
Trillium grandiflorum
Triticale
Triticosecale
Triticum aestivum
Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum
Triticum aestivum ssp. compactum
Triticum aestivum ssp. macha
Triticum aestivum ssp. sphaeroccum
Triticum aestivum ssp. vavilova
Triticum aestivum
CropINDEX Q-T
Triticum boeoticum
Triticum carthlicum
Triticum dicoccoides
Triticum dioccon
Triticum furum
Triticum monococcum
Triticum polonicum
Triticum spelta
Triticum timopheevi
Triticum turanicum
Triticum turgidum
Tropaeolum majus
Tropaeolum tuberosum
Tsuga canadensis
Tuart
Tucuma
Tumbleweed
Tumeric
Tuna
Tung-oil tree
Turnip
Turtlehead
Tussilago farfara
Tutong
Twinleaf
Tyfon
Typha spp.
Typha angustifolia spp.
Typha latifolia spp.
CropINDEX U-Z
Crop Index
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZ
Udo
Uganda grass
Ullucus tuberosus
Ulmus fulva
Umbrella thorn
Umb
Uncaria guianensis
Uncaria tomentosa
Urginea maritima
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
Vaccinium angustifolium
Vaccinium ashei
Vaccinium corymbosum
Vaccinium deliciosum
Vaccinium floribundum
Vaccinium macrocarpon
Vaccinium membranaceum
Vaccinium myrtillus
Vaccinium ovalifolium
Vaccinium uliginosum
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Valerianella eriocarpa
Valerianella olitoria
Valerian
Valeriana officinalus
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_uvwxyz.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:27:01 PM]
VWXYZ
CropINDEX U-Z
Vanilla
Vanilla planifolia
Vasey grass
Vavilovi wheat
Vegetable tallow
Veltheimia bracteata
Velvet bean
Velvet mesquite
Veratrum viride
Verbascum thapsus
Verbena hastata
Vernonia galamensis
Veronica virginica
Veronicastrum virginica
Vetches
Vetch, Bitter
Vetch, Common
Vetch, Hairy
Vetch, Hungarian
Vetches, Minor
Vetch, Narbonne
Vetch, Purple
Vetchling
Vetiveria zizanioides
Viburnum opulus
Viburnum prunifolium
Viburnum trilobum
Vicia articulata
Vicia augustifolia
Vicia benghalensis
Vicia dasycarpa
Vicia ervilia
Vicia faba
Vicia monanthos
Vicia narbonensis
Vicia pannonica
Vicia sativa
Vicia villosa
Vigna angularis
Vigna cylindrica
CropINDEX U-Z
Vigna radiata
Vigna sesquipedalis
Vigna sinensis (Cylindrica group)
Vigna sinensis
Vigna sp.
Vigna sinensis
Vigna unguiculata
Vine-mesquite
Viola
Vitis labrusca
Vitis quadrangula
Vitis rotundifolia
Vitis sp.
Vitis vinifera
Voandzeia subterranea
Volvariella spp.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
Wahoo
Walnut, Black
Walnut, Persian
Wampee
Wasabi
Wasabia japonica
Water Apple
Water bamboo
Water chestnut
Water convolvus
Water sweet potato
Watercress
Waterhyacinth
Water Lemon
Watermelon
Wattles
Wattle, orange
Wax bean
Wax gourd
Weeping lovegrass
Welsh Onion
WXYZ
CropINDEX U-Z
West Indian locust

West Indian pea
Wheat
Wheatgrasses
Wheatgrass, Beardless bluebunch
Wheatgrass, Bluebunch
Wheatgrass, Crested
Wheatgrass, Fairway
Wheatgrass, Intermediate
Wheatgrass, Pubescent
Wheatgrass, Siberian
Wheatgrass, Slender
Wheatgrass, Streambank
Wheatgrass, Tall
Wheatgrass, Thickspike
Wheatgrass, Western
Whistling wood, White
White algarobo
White Ash
White clover
White foam
White mangrove
White maruda
White mulberry
White mustard
White Oak
White Pine
White sapote
White sweet clover
White teak
White wax berry
White whistling wood
Whitetip clover
Wild Custard Apple
Wild Geranium
Wild leek
Wild rice
Wild rose
Wild-rye grasses
Wild-rye, Basin
CropINDEX U-Z
Wild-rye, Blue
Wild-rye, Canada
Wild-rye, Giant
Wild-rye, Russian
Wild-Sarsaparilla
Wild Triga
Wild Yam
Windsorbean
Winged bean
Winterberry
Winter gourd
Winter pea
Winter purslane
Winter thorn
Wintergreen
Witch-Hazel
Withania somnifera
Witloof chicory
Wonderberry
Wood-Apple
Woodruff
Wormseed
Wormwood
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ
Xanthium strumarium
Xanthorhiza simplicissima
Xanthosoma sp.
Xylopia aethiopica
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX
Yacn
Yam
Yam bean
Yard long bean
Yarrow
Yautia
Yehib
YZ
CropINDEX U-Z
Yellow bluestem
Yellow-flowered sweet clover
Yellow Mombin
Yellow mustard
Yellow pitaya
Yellowroot
Yellow-top
Yellow Wild-Indigo
Yerba Santa
Yew
Yuca
Yucca funifera
Yuquilla
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXY
Zambo
Zantedeschia spp.
Zanthoxylum americanum
Zanthoxylum clava-herculis
zapote
zapote blanco
Zapotillo
Zarcilla
Zea mays
Zerna inermis
Zingiber mioga
Zingiber officinale
Zinnia
Zizania aquatica
Zizania latifolia
Zizania palustris
Ziziphus jujuba
Ziziphus mauritiana
Zoysia grasses
Zoysia japonica
Zoysia martella
Zoysia sp.
Zoysia tenuifolia
Abelmoschus esculentus - Okra
Index| Search| Home
Abelmoschus esculentus
(syn. Hibiscus esculentus)
Malvaceae
Bamia, Bendi, Bhindee, Bhindi, Bindi, Cantarela, Gombaut,
Gombo, Bumbo, Lady-finger, Mesta, Ochro, Okra, Okro, Quiabo,
Quimbambo, Quingombo, Rosenapfel, Vendakai
NewCROP has Okra information from:
Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Okra, a General Introduction
Outside links:
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, University of Arkansas
Commercial Production of Okra in Mississippi
The California Rare Fruit Growers
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Abelmoschus_esculentus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:02 PM]
CRFG Fruit List
CRFG Publications 1969-1989

Index - A
Up to Main Index page - Forward to B
ABELMOSCHUS ESCULENTUS (Hibiscus esculentus) - Okra
This annual herbaceous shrub originated in Africa where it was cultivated
for many generations. The fruit, large green erect pod, is eaten cooked and
the seeds are toasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee. There are
many selections.
Fruit Facts
Plant/Tree Descriptions List
1969-1989 Publications
Seed Bank
ABELMOSCHUS MANIHOT (Hibiscus manihot) - Edible Hibiscus

A shrub from the South Pacific that bears edible leaves when cooked; it
grows well in warmer areas of the U.S.
ABIU - Pouteria caimito
ABYSSINIAN BANANA - Ensete ventricosum See Bananas, Ornamental
ACER SACCHARUM - Sugar Maple
Fruit Specialists (Q & A)
ACEROLA
Acerola Comes to California Loaded with Vitamin C. By Floyd L.
CRFG Member Nurseries and Fruit Sources
Cooper. 1971 YB, pp 2-8
Tidbits of Info
Culture of Rare Fruits in the San Francisco Bay Area. By J. Garrin
Fullington. 1974, pp 3-6
For the Beginner: Suggestions for New Gardeners. By Phil Clark.
1985 #2, pp 6-9
From the Editor's Mailbag. 1980 #4, pp 4-7
Ground Cover Acerola. By Peggy Winter. 1980 #4, p 7
Malphighia Suitable for Ground Cover. By John M. Riley. 1976 #3,
pp 7-8
More Acerolas Than You Can Eat. By Raymond F. Vincent. 1978 #4,
pp 13-15
Notes from a Grower/experimenter. By David Silber. 1987 #3, pp
20-21
Notes on Growing Tropical Fruits in Southeast Florida. By Claude D.
Reese. 1977 YB, pp 15-17
Some Experiments on Cherimoya Pollination. By Raymond F.
Vincent. 1983 YB, pp 30-36
ACHIOTE - Bixa orellana
ACHIRA - Canna edulis
ACMENA SMITHII - Acmena
Myrtaceae: The Family of the Guava. By John F. Donan. 1984 YB,
pp 5-17
ACTINIDIA ARGUTA - Siberian Gooseberry, Hardy Kiwi
ACTINIDIA DELICIOSA - Kiwi
A climbing vine from China with feather-veined simple leaves and a brown,
hairy fruit about 3" long. The flesh is emerald green with many small seeds
and the flavor is pleasant, slightly acid, and juicy. It grows well in
California and New Zealand but cannot stand salt exposure and is
http://www.crfg.org/fg/xref/xref-a.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:27:04 PM]
CRFG Fruit List
susceptible to nematodes. See Kiwi

ACTINIDIA KOLOMIKTA See Kolomikta
ACTINIDIA POLUGAMA - Silver vine
AEGLE MARMELOS - Bael Fruit, Golden Apple, Bengal Quince
A citrus family member that grows as a small spiny tree much desired in
India. Fruit is round to pear-shaped, 2-4" in diameter; covered with a
smooth, hard rind. Pulp is orange, sweet and aromatic with many seeds in
the 8-16 fruit cells. Used for drinks, jellies and eating out-of-hand. The
wood is used for carving; the shells are made into boxes and the flowers are
made into perfume.
AFRICA
Agroforestry in Zaire. By Roy M.Danforth. 1986 YB, pp 37-48
Cultivation of Granadillas in South Africa. By Frans A. Kuhne. 1975
YB, pp 56-70
Irrigation in South Africa; Kepel Apple. By Brian Lanton. 1983 #1,
pp 3-4
Letter from Zaire. By Roy Danforth and Paul Noren. 1987 #4, pp
20-24
Rare Fruit in Zaire. By Roy Danforth. 1987 J, pp 13-15
Subtropical Fruits and Nuts of Spain, Kenya and South Africa. By
Muriel B. Fisch 1975 #1, pp 6-13
Wild Fruit of South Africa Part I. By Ian Hartland. 1975 #1, pp 13-16
AFRICAN GOOSEBERRY See Dovyalis
AFRICAN HORNED CUCUMBER - Cucumis metuliferus. Kiwano
AFRICAN HONEYSUCKLE
Halleria lucida. By Bernard King. 1986 #2, p 26
Research Corner Notes. By John Riley. 1984 #2, pp 26-27
AIR LAYERING - MARCOTTING
Cherimoya Riddle. By Jim Neitzel. 1982 #3, pp 8-12
Coffee Tree in Folger's Commercial. By Peggy Winter. 1984 #3, pp
5-6
Jaboticaba. By Peggy Winter. 1980 #4, p 24
Planting Instructions for Litchis after Marcotting. By David
Guggenheim. 1984 #4, pp 27-28
Preliminary Report of a Successful Mango Air Layer. By Louis G.
Lopyan. 1988 #3, pp 9-10
Sapindaceae Family. By Bill Louscher. 1980 YB, pp 41-45
Update from Palm Beach. By Tommy Reese. 1982 #2, pp 19-21
ALECTRYON EXCELSUS See Titoki
ALEURITES MOLUCCANA - Candlenut, Country Walnut
A large, open and well-formed tree native to tropical Asia. The oily nuts
were used by the natives as candles, hence the name of the tree. The shells
are black when ripe and, in Hawaii, are polished and used in leis. The
kernels are eaten as a relish after baking and act as a laxative on some
people. The plant grows in Hawaii and in the warmer protected areas of
South Florida. Propagation is by seeds or cuttings.
ALLSPICE
Bits & Pieces: By Peggy Winter. 1985 #1, pp 25-26
Myrtaceae: The Family of the Guava. By John F. Donan. 1984 YB,
pp 5-17
CRFG Fruit List
News from the Hills. By David Silber. 1988 #4, pp 5-7
ALMOND
A Naturalist in Western China. By Ernest H. Wilson. 1976 YB, p 94
Bare Root Time Again. By Jim Neitzel. 1979 #1, pp 18-21
Deciduous Fruit Varieties. By Jim Neitzel. 1980 YB, pp 20-40
ALPINA OFFICIANARUM See Galangale
AMBARELLA
Return to the Philippines. By John McIntyre Jr. 1978 YB, pp 5-13
AMELANCHIER CANADENSIS See Serviceberry
AMERICAN CRABAPPLE See Crabapple
AMERICAN PERSIMMON
Rare Fruit Sources. By Arlo Hale Smith. 1977 #1, pp 3-16
Wild Fruit the United States. By Ian Hartland. 1973 #2, pp 6-7
AMERICANA (QUIZ)
Horticultural Puzzle. By Burt and Muriel Fisch. 1979 #2, p 22
AMAIIT See Rukam
ANACARDIACEAE
Anacardiaceae: Lacquer Mastic and Poison Ivy. By John F. Donan.
1986 YB, pp 1-9
ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTAL - Cashew
An easily grown evergreen relative of the mango, poison sumac and poison
ivy. Very sensitive to cold, especially in warm winters followed by a freeze.
Leaves are simple, leathery, light-green with a copper-red blush when
young. The nut is not edible or safe when raw. Touching an uncooked nut
can cause skin eruptions and the smoke given off by roasting is itself an
irritant and poisonous. The cashew apple grows above the nut; it is edible
and safe without treatment and makes good jelly or fermented liquor. See
Cashew
ANANAS COSOSUS See Pineapple
ANNATTO - Bixa orellana
ANNONA ASIATIC (Cananga odorata) See Yang-yang
ANNONA CHERIMOLA - Cherimoya
This tropical highland is reportedly the best of the annonas. It is a spreading,
deciduous, small tree that prefers sun, can't stand wet feet and can survive a
light frost but not heavy freezes. A seedling will bear in 4-5 years. The fruit
is 3-9" long, generally conical, smooth skin with bumps or dents, green to
yellow when ripe. October to May in California. The pulp is white, sweet
and aromatic with a custard-like texture. See Cherimoya
ANNONA CHERIMOLA X A. SQUAMOSA - Atemoya
A cross between cherimoya and sugar apple which does well in Florida. It
resembles the sugar apple in growth but the fruit is much like the
cherimoya. Propagation is by budding or grafting to seedling rootstock. See
Atemoya
ANNONA DIVERSIFOLIA - Illama
Considered an excellent annona of the tropical lowlands, it is not well
known outside Mexico and Guatemala. This slender, erect or spreading tree
grows to 20-25'. Maroon-colored 1" flowers yield fruit weighing 1 lbs.,
with a sweet flavor like sugar apple. See Illama
CRFG Fruit List
ANNONA GLABRA See Pond Apple

ANNONA MONTANA - Mountain soursop
Similar to guanabana but the fruit is less desirable and about the size of a
small custard apple. Native to the West Indies, where it is called wild
guanabana, the tree is larger than the guanabana and hardier, withstanding
temperatures several degrees below 32F.
ANNONA MURICATA - Soursop, Guanabana
A small, upright evergreen which cannot stand frost. It may be grown only
in warmest parts of Florida or in greenhouses. The leaves are dark green and
glossy. The fruit is 6-9", yellow green in color, with white flesh. The pulp is
excellent for making drinks and sherbets and, though slightly sour-acid, can
be eaten out-of-hand. See Soursop
ANNONA PURPUREA - Soncoya
From Mexico and Central America, this tropical lowland, moisture-loving
tree has a fruit up to 6" in diameter. It is brownish-gray and covered with
protuberances ending in hooks curved toward the stem. The flesh is bright
orange and soft. See Soncoya
ANNONA RETICULATA - Custard apple, Bullock's Heart
A 25' low-branched deciduous tree, scraggly in appearance. The fruit is
large, with yellow or brownish skin and a creamy pulp. Like all annonas, it
cannot stand wet feet. Generally used as a rootstock for other annonas. See
Annona Species
ANNONA SQUAMOSA - Sugar Apple, Sweetsop
A deciduous tree, small and open. The fruit is green, heart-shaped, 3" long,
broken up by protuberances on the skin. The flesh is sweet and refreshing,
considered the best of the tropical annonas. It is eaten raw, in drinks or
sherbets. The flavor is best when picked before maturity and ripened in a
bag. The tree does well in alkaline soils but freezes at about 27F. See
Sweetsop
ANNONA SPECIES
7th International Fruit Club Seminar. By David M. Guggenheim.
1989, #4 pp 3-10
A Journey to Vilcabamba - the Sacred Valley of Ecuador. By Steven
Spangler. 1981 #3, pp 14-17
Bits & Pieces: Annonas. By Peggy Winter. 1988 #4, p 41
Book Review: Classification of the Genus Annona with Descriptions
of New and Imperfectly Known Species. 1988 #4. p 54
Chelonocarpus - a New Section of the Genus Annona. By W. E.
Safford. 1982 #3, pp 1-3, 28
Chromosome Numbers in the Annonaceae. By Wray M. Bowden.
1974 YB, pp 73-81
Two Scholars at the CRFG Meeting. By Clytia M. Chambers. 1980
#3 pp 13-14, 21-22
ANON See Rollinia
ANONILLA - Annona palmeri
ANTIDESMA BUNIUS - Bignai, Bignay
Dioecious. This large evergreen with shiny deep-green leaves is easily
grown and bears large amounts of small shiny red fruits which are edible
out of hand but generally used for wine or jelly. It freezes at 26F but will
recover from the roots. See Bignai
ANTIDESMA DALLACHYANUM - Herbert River Cherry
Small to medium Australian Tree. The best of the Antidesma species. It is
dioecious, but a single female plant will bear a small amount of fruit.
CRFG Fruit List
Sweeter than the bignay, the fruit are large and black. Grows well in Florida
and has been grown in San Diego.
APPLE CACTUS See Pitaya
APPLE
(Poem) A Pie in the Sky. By Charles E. Estep Sr. 1988 J, p 48
Adapting Apples to the Tropics. By Voon Boon Hoe. 1983 #4, pp
28-32
An Apple Experiment. By Marianne Friedman. 1987 #3, p 19
Apple Trees and Scions Via: Covered Wagon, Pack Mule, Vacation
Van. By Charles E. Estep Sr. 1988 J, pp 49-56
Apples for a Mild Climate. By Wilbur G. Wood. 1978 YB, pp 1-2
Apples for Low Chill Areas. By Frank James. 1989 YB, pp 6-8
Book Review: North American Apples: Varieties. Rootstocks. 1981
#1, p 13
Containerized Layering of Malus Rootstocks. By Richard H.
Munson. 1982 YB, pp 50-54
Crusades of an Apple Lover. By Charles E. Estep, Sr.. 1989 #2, pp
20-25
Cultural Nuggets for Would-be Apple Growers. Talk by Jim Rider.
Reported by Melita Israel. 1989 #2, pp 16-19
Deciduous Fruits for Southern California. By Paul H. Thomson. 1971
#4, pp 4-8
Early Dawn Letter. By L.D Claypool. 1983, #2 p 2
Editor's Mailbag. By Peggy Winter. 1982 #3, pp 2-4
Exotics: County's Hope for Top Dollar. By Frank Mickadeit. 1985
#3, pp 25-27
Fewer Leaves Mean More Fruit. By Lynn Yarris. 1983 #4, pp 33-34
For the Beginner: Suggestions for New Gardeners. By Phil Clark.
1985 #2, pp 6-9
Gleanings: Triploid Apples. By Jim Neitzel. 1982 #3, pp 24-25
Gleanings: Apples. By Jim Neitzel. 1981 #4, pp 17-19
Gleanings: Low Chill Apples By Jim Neitzel. 1985 #3, pp 24-25
Gleanings: Low Chill Pears and Apples By Jim Neitzel. 1982 #2, pp
14-15
Growing Blueberries, Cherries, Cherimoyas, Longans, Apples in
Thousand Oaks. By Robert F. Vieth. 1978 #4, pp 6-7
Growing Grapes and Apples in Tropical Indonesia. By Rick
Parkhurst. 1981 #2, pp 3-14
Low Chilling Apple Varieties. By John Bregger. 1973 #2, p 4
Miracle of Plant Propagation. By Phil Clark. 1982 #3, pp 1-4, 29
News from the Hills. By David Silber. 1988 #4, pp 5-7
Over Emphasis On Low Chill??? By Charles E. Estep. Sr. 1988 #1,
pp 6-10
Pest Control: Collar Rot of Apples: Prevention. By Robert W.
Fitzpatrick. 1987 #2, p 24
Plants of Interest in Hawaii. By Peggy Winter. 1983 #3, pp 15-17
Rare Fruits, But Not New. By C.T. Kennedy. 1985 YB, pp 40-51
Rootstock Propagation: Your Choice. By Charles E. Estep. Sr. 1987
#2, pp 11-15
Search For an Apple , To Eat. By Charles E. Estep, Sr.. 1986 #4, pp
3-4
CRFG Fruit List
The Anna Apple in Florida. By Robert S. Hardwick. 1978 #4, pp 7-8

Two Million Apple Trees of Indonesia. By Surachmat Kusumo. 1983
#2, pp 12-13
Update on Apple Hobby. By Charles E. Estep, Sr.. 1988 #2, pp 14-15
APRICOT
CRFG Kitchen: Apricot Walnut Candy. By Rose B. Blum. 1986 #2, p
22
Deciduous Fruits for Southern California. By Paul H. Thomson. 1971
#4, pp 4-8
Editor's Mailbag. By Clytia M. Chambers. 1989 #4, pp 31-32
Gleanings: Apricots. By Jim Neitzel. 1985 #3, pp 24-25
Gold-Kist Apricot. By Leo Manuel. 1982 #1, p 4
Planting Seedlings of Tropical Fruit. By Walter V. Jerris. 1987 #3, pp
4-8
Preliminary Apricot and Peachnectarine Comparisons. By David
Guggenheim. 1986 #1, pp 22-24
Rare Fruits, But Not New. By C.T. Kennedy. 1985 YB, pp 40-51
Rating Deciduous Fruits. By Robert W. Fitzpatrick. 1980 #2, pp
11-15
ARATICU See Rollinia
ARAUCARIA ARAUCANA - Monkey Puzzle Tree
This Chilean pine tree is a relative of the Norfolk Island Pine, but the tiered
branches are weirdly shaped, which accounts for its common name. Grown
from North Carolina southward in the U.S., it is both lovely and grotesque.
The seeds are boiled and eaten in Chile, where they are well liked.
ARAUCARIA BIDWILLI - Bunya-Bunya, Brunya
This Australian relative of the Monkey Puzzle grows to 150' in its native
habitat and will grow well, though not that tall, in Florida and Southern
California.
ARBUTUS UNEDO See Strawberry Tree
ARIZONA
Mangoes in the Arizona Desert. By Alois Falkenstein, M.D. 1989 #4,
pp 12-13
ARTOCARPUS COMMUNIS - Breadfruit, Breadnut
An exceedingly difficult to grow tree as temperatures below 40F kill it.
Fruit is green, round, to 8" and generally seedless. A seeded form is
common in the tropics and called Breadnut. Fruits are cooked as vegetables.
Seeds are used like chestnuts. See Breadfruit
ARTOCARPUS HYPARGYRAEUS - Kwaimuk
This S.E. Asian tree is extremely ornamental; moderately slow grower and
not as cold sensitive as previously thought. The fruit is small, yellow and
quite good to eat, with best flavor when picked dead ripe from the tree.
ARTOCARPUS INTEGRIFOLIA - Jackfruit, Jakfruit
A large interesting relative of the breadfruit. Cold sensitive (27F) but will
grow in protected areas. It bears the largest of tree fruits, on the trunk and
larger branches. Spiked on the outside and weighing up to 80 lbs., the flesh
is edible, soft and quite aromatic; the seeds are chestnut-like when roasted.
The tree grows wild in India and S.E. Asia. Will grow in Florida and
Southern California but not to its full size. Only care required is watering
and fertilization. See Jackfruit
CRFG Fruit List
ARTOCARPUS ODORATISSIMUS See Marang

ASIAN PEAR
Nostalgic Memories of North China Fruits. By Albert Fei. 1971 #1,
pp 5-7
ASIMINA PARVIFLORA - Dwarf Pawpaw
ASIMINA TRILOBA - Pawpaw, Paw Paw
Native to North America and related to the custard apple. Cold hardy and
grown as far north as New York and Michigan. This may give it promise as
a rootstock for the Annonas. The fruit is edible, brown-black, with soft
orange flesh tasting something like banana when ripe. The fruit must be
thoroughly ripened or it is unpalatable. See Pawpaw
ASPARAGUS BEAN See Winged Bean
ATEMOYA
Book Review: Growing Custard Apples. Reviewed by Ron Kadish.
1988 #4, p 53
Cherimoya Riddle. By Jim Neitzel. 1982 #3, pp 8-12
Chromosome Numbers in the Annonaceae. By Wray M. Bowden.
1974 YB, pp 73-81
AUSTRALIA
Book Review: Growing Fruit in Australia. Reviewed by Eph
Konigsberg. 1983 #2, pp 28-29
Book Review: Tropical Tree Fruits for Australia. By P.E. Page.
Reviewed by Robert R. Chambers. 1984 #4, p 26
Down Under. By Muriel B. Fisch. 1977 YB, pp 22-31
Growing Mangoes... Down Under. By David Wallace. 1988 #1, pp
13-14
Newsletter, RFC of Australia. Reviewed by Ron Kadish. 1989 #1, pp
22-23
Rare Fruit Council of Australia Common Names List. 1989 YB, pp
51-53
RFCA Comprehensive Guide to Tropical and Subtropical Fruits.
1989 YB, pp 54-69
Wild Fruits of Australia. By John M. Riley. 1982 YB, pp 68-75
AUSTRALIAN ALMOND - Terminalia canescens
AUSTRALIAN BRUSH CHERRY - Syzygium paniculatum
AUTUMN OLIVE
Growing Rare Fruit in Northern Calif. By John M. Riley. 1973 YB,
pp 67-90
AVERRHOA BILIMBI - Bilimbi
A medium-sized Asian tree similar to carambola but with fewer branches
and longer leaves clustered at the branch tips. The red and white flowers
develop on the trunk and lower branches; the fruit is 2-3" long, waxy, green
cucumber-like and sour. They can be used to remove stains from clothing,
can be pickled or cooked with sugar. See Camias
AVERRHOA CARAMBOLA - Carambola, Star Fruit
This dense, evergreen tree common in India and China grows to about 20'.
Red and white flowers appear on bare branches or at leaf bases. Fruit has a
thin, waxy, green-yellow, yellow or orange skin. Oblong and five-angled it
is star-shaped when cut across the middle. It has a sweet, watery, slightly
acid, pleasant tasting pulp that is eaten raw or preserved. Seedlings have
been known to bear in 3 years. Large trees have been known to survive
26F without damage but young trees must be protected from frost. See
CRFG Fruit List
Carambola
AVOCADO
A Mercadante Tribute. By Gray Martin. 1987 #4, p 7
Avocado. By Donald W. Mitchell. 1979 YB, pp 14-16
Avocado Flower Types. USDA, U.C. San Diego. 1983 #1, pp 7-8
Avocado Girdling and Grafting. By Orton Englehart. 1971 #1, p 15
Avocado Notes. By Bob Fitzpatrick. 1984 #2, pp 9-10
Avocado Pollination in the San Fernando Valley. By Phillip Frankel.
1970 #4, p 6
Avocados for Cold Climates. By Robert W. Fitzpatrick. 1988 #4, pp
42-43
Avocados Growing in San Jose. By J.W. Stephenson. 1984 #3, pp 4-5
Biological Control of Avocado Root Rot. By Robert W. Fitzpatrick.
1987 #2, p 16
Book Review: Avocado Growers Handbook. Reviewed by Bob
Chambers. 1984 #1, p 20
Down Under. By Muriel B. Fisch. 1977 YB, pp 22-31
Dwarf Avocado. By Robert S. Fitzpatrick. 1982 #2, p 9
From the Editor's Mailbag. 1980 #4. p 4-7; 1984 #3, p 4
Fruits Recommended by Specialists. 1989 YB, pp 34-35
Further Thoughts on Adjusting to Our Drier Climate. By E. Hager, R.
Watts and A. Ramirez. 1989 #4, pp 14-21
Giant Avocado. By Donald W. Mitchell. 1979 #2, pp 15-16
Growing Avocados in a Desert Climate. By N.C. Moerland. 1980 #3,
pp 9-11
Growing Rare Fruit in Northern Calif. By John M. Riley. 1973 YB,
pp 67-90
Herb Trees for Warm Climates. By Robert E. Bond. 1989 J, pp 43-44
Notes from Members, Laguna Beach, Calif. 1977 #2 p 8
Rare Fruit at UC Santa Cruz. By Kermit Carter. 1972 YB, p 112
Rare Fruits in Coastal San Diego. By David B. Lloyd. 1975 #3, pp
1-5
Remembered Fruits of the Philippines. By John McIntyre Jr.. 1976
YB, p 54
Subtropical Fruits and Nuts of Spain, Kenya and South Africa. By
Muriel B. Fisch. 1975 #1, pp 6-13
Summer Bearing Avocado Possibilities. By Jim Neitzel. 1980 #4, pp
13-14
Unclassified Avocado Varieties on the Property of Joe Massidda. By
John Delevoryas. 1974 YB, pp 207-214
Winter in Santa Cruz. By Andrew P. Werner. 1976 #2, p 10
Up to Main Index page - Forward to B
Copyright 1995, California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.
Questions or comments? Contact us.
Muskdana
Index | Search | Home | Aromatic, Spice and Medicinal Plants
Muskdana or Ambrette (Abelmoschus

moschatus): Aromatic and Medicinal
Pankaj Oudhia
Society for Parthenium Management (SOPAM)
28-A, Geeta Nagar, Raipur - 492001 India
pankaj.oudhia@usa.net
www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia
Copyright 2001. All Rights Reserved. Quotation from this document should cite and
acknowledge the contributor.
Abelmoschus moschatus (L.) Medic, Malvaceae (Syn. Hibiscus abelmoschus L.) is a tropical
weedy shrub native to India valued for its scented seed. Ambrette is a close relative to Okra, a
popular horticultural crop. The genus Abelmoschus has six species distributed in the South and
South East Asia and in North Australia. Abelmoschus moschatus Medic., A. manihot (L.) Medic.,
and A. esculentus (L.) Moench, contain wild and cultivated forms, and A. ficulneus, A. crinitus,
and A. angulosus, are only wild. Abelmoschus manihot, A. moschatus and A. esculentus are
compared in Table 1. In Hindi, it is popularly known as mushkdana, kasturi bhendi (kasturi =
musk; bhendi = ladys finger). In other Indian languages it is known as gukhia korai (Assamese),
kasturi bhenda (Telgu), kattukasturi (Malylam), varttilai kasturi (Tamil), lalkasturika (Sanskrit)
(Krishnamurty 1993). The area under ambrette is presently low in India but is increasing rapidly
(Oudhia and Tripathi 2000) with seed exports to France, Germany, Japan, Singapore, Spain for its
use as an aromatic oil. Indian drug manufacturers are introducing new herbal drugs containing
ambrette for medicinal use.
Table 1. Comparison of A. esculentus, A. manihot and A. moschatus.
Particulars
A. esculentus
(n=65)
A. manihot
(n=60)
A. moschatus
(n=36)
English name
Okra, Gumbo
Manihot-mallow
Musk-mallow
Place of origin
Old world tropics
East Asia
India
Life cycle
Annual
Annual or perennial
Annual or biennial
Leaves
Large often 12 inch or Leaves large ovate to

more across;
nearly orbicular in outline
cordate-ovate.
6-12 inch or more.
Manihot probably suggests
the resemblance of leaves
to those of cassava or
manihot
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/muskdana.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:27:05 PM]
With variously 3-9

lobed or divided.
Margins coarsely
toothed
Muskdana
Floral characteristics Calyx large and

Calyx large and
spathe-like; bracts of spathe-like; bracts ovate to
involucre linear; pod oblong.
4-5 inch or more long.
Calyx large and

spathe-like; Bracts of
involucre linear; pod
3 inch or less long.
Flower colour
Yellow with a
crimson center.
Yellow with a reddish Yellow or whitish with a

center
dark brown center.
Botany
Erect hispid herbs or undershrubs, 0.5-2.5 meters high, with a long slender tap root. Leave
extremely variable, lower suborbicular in outline, cordate, lower or palmately 3-7 lobed, upper
narrower, hastate or sagittate at the base with linear-oblong or triangular lobes. Flowers regular,
bisexual, involucral bracts 8-12, hairy yellow with purple centre. Fruits capsule fulvous hairy,
oblong lanceolate, acute. Seeds subreniform and blackish (Verma et al. 1993; Agharkar 1991;
Lindley 1985).
Uses
Ambrette oil obtained from seeds possess an odor similar to that of musk and its aromatic
constitents have long been used in perfumery industry. Different grades of essential, or aromatic
absolute, are marked in Europe as high-grade perfumes (Singh et al. 1996 ) The seeds are valued
for the volatile oil present in the seed coat. Seed analysis report 11.1% moisture, 31.5% crude
fiber; 14.5% lipids, 13.4% starch, 2.3% protein, volatile oil (0.2-0.6% ) and ca/ 5% resin
(Srivastava 1995).
Analysis of volatiles report myricetin-3-glucoside and a glycoside of cyanidin in flowers, an
aromatic constituent in seeds, beta-sitosteral and its beta-D-glucoside, myricetin and its glucoside
in leaves and petals and beta-sitosterol from dry fruit husk (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991a,b).
In India, roots, leaves (rarely), and seeds of ambrette are considered valuable traditional medicines.
The bitter, sweet, acrid, aromatic seeds are used as a tonic and are considered "cooling,
aphrodisiac, opthalmic, cardiotonic, digestive, stomachic, constipating, carminative, pectoral,
diuretic, stimulant, antispasmodic, deodorant, and effective against "kapha" and "vata," intestinal
complaints, stomatitis; and diseases of the heart, allays thirst and checks vomiting. According to
Unani system of medicine seeds allay thirst, cure stomatitis, dyspepsia, urinary discharge,
gonorrhea, leucoderma and itch. Roots and leaves are cures for gonorrhea (Agharkar 1991). Even
use against venomous reptiles has been reported (Lindley 1985).
Cultivation
Ambrette is cultivated as pre-kharif crop in India. It is usually sown in MarchApril but as late as
the first week of July in Central India (Oudhia 2001a). Seed rates of 41g/kg are optimum (Oudhia
2000b). Application of dried Neem leaves (500Kg/ha) at last ploughing increased oil content and
quality. April sown crop start flowering in September; fruits ripen from November to January and
are harvested when fully mature. Applications of fertilizers improves growth of plant and seed
yields (Krishnamurty 1993) but studies conducted by SOPAM indicate the use of chemical inputs
resulted in negative impact on oil content and quality. Harvested capsules are sun dried and seeds
Muskdana
dehisce when the capsules burst. The oil for perfumery is extracted by steam distillation of crushed
seeds.
References
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. Scientific Publ. Jodhpur, India. First
reprint p. 1-2
Krishanamurty, T. 1993. Minor forest products of India. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi.
Lindley, J. 1985. Flora medica.. Ajay Book Service, New Delhi.
Oudhia, P. 2001a. My experiences with worlds top ten Indian medicinal plants: Glimpses of
research at farmers field in Chhattisgarh (India). In: Abstract. Workshop cum Seminar on
Sustainable Agriculture for 21st Century, IGAU, Raipur, India, 20-21 Jan.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 2001. The possibilities of commercial cultivation of rare medicinal
plants in Chhattisgarh (India) In : Abstract. VII National Science Conference, Directorate of
Cropping System Research, Meerut, India, 12-14 April .
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991a. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. I
(1960-1969). Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow and Publications and Information
Directorate, New Delhi.
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. II.
(1970-1979). Central Drug Research Institute, Luckhnow and Publ. and Information Directorate,
New Delhi.
Singh, U., A.M. Wadhwani, and B.M. Johri. 1996. Dictionary of economic plants in India. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Srivastava, U.C. 1995. Ambrette seed. p. 887-897. In: K.L. Chadha and Rajendra Gupta (eds.),
Advances in Horticulture Vol. 11-Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (1995). Malhotra Publ. House,
New Delhi.
Verma, D.M., R.R. Balakrishnan, and R.D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical
Survey f India, Lucknow, India p. 90191.
Warrier, P.K., V.P.K. Nambiar, and C. Ramankutty. 1996. Indian medicinal plants. Orient
Longman, Chennai, India p. 4-6.
Abies balsamea
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.

Abietaceae
Balsam Fir, Balm of Gilead Tree, Canada Balsam
Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
11. Yields and Economics
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
The balsam or pitch, in extreme emergency, forms a highly concentrated, though disagreeable,
food." (Fernald, Kinsey, and Rollins, 1958). Bark of conifers, mostly, was so important in the diet
of some tribes that at least one tribe, the Adirondacks, owe their name to the Mohawk term for
"tree eaters." Erika Gaertner devotes a four-page article to the making of breadstuff from the bark
of balsam fir. In contrast to pine bark, the fir bark is a delight to chew in winter or early spring,
slightly mucilaginous and sweetish, better raw than cooked (Gaertner, 1970). Inner bark that does
not show any discoloration can be used for breadstuff and it takes about an hour to peel enough for
one loaf. Leaves average 0.65% essential oil, ranging to 1.4% or higher. Trunks also yield oil of
"Canada balsam" or turpentine, used as a permanent mounting medium in microscopy and as a
cement for glassware. Canada turpentine yields 1525% volatile oil, the resin being used for
caulking and incense (Erichsen-Brown, 1979). Often used for Christmas trees. Abies species are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Abies_balsamea.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:27:08 PM]
Abies balsamea
commercially valuable for timber even though their wood is relatively soft, weak, and perishable.
Balsam fir is used in the US for timber and plywood, and is the mainstay of the pulp wood
industry in the northeast.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the buds, resin, and/or sap are used in folk remedies for
cancers, corns, and warts. Reported to be anodyne, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic, masticatory,
and vulnerary, balsam fir is a folk remedy for bronchitis, burns, cancer, catarrh, cold, consumption,
cough, dysentery, earache, gleet, gonorrhea, heart ailments, leucorrhea, paralysis, rheumatism,
scurvy, sores, ulcers, urogenital ailments, warts, and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981;
Erichsen-Brown, 1979). Chippewa used the gum as an analgetic, the root decoction as an
antirheumatic. Kwakiutl used the gum as a laxative and held the root in the mouth to cure sores
there. Menominee used the gum for colds, cuts, lungs, and sores, the inner bark for chest pains,
colds, and skin. Montagnai applied the gum for chest or heart pain. Ojibwa use the gum for colds,
sores, sore eyes, and venereal diseases; the leaves as stimulant; Penobscot used the gum for cuts
and sores; Pillagers used the needles in sweat baths and fumitories. Potawatomi used the gum for
colds and sores, the bark infusion for consumption and other ailments. Caughnawaga used the gum
as a cataplasm for cancer (Duke, 1983c).
Chemistry
Reducing sugars are said to account for 47% of the DM of balsam fir bark. The leaf oil contains
17.6% bornyl acetate and probably 1--pinene, Canada balsam contains ca 20% 1--phellandrene
and smaller quantities of - and -pinene bornyl acetate, and the alcohols androl and bupleurol
(Guenther, 1948-1952). Oils are also reported to contain juvabione and dehydrojuvabione (List
and Horhammer, 19691979). The term Canada Balsam is a misnomer because balsams are
supposed to contain benzoic and cinnamic acids, both absent from the Canada oleoresin.
"Turpentine" is also a misnomer, implying that the oleoresin is entirely steam volatile. Actually it
contains 7080% resin, only 16-20% voaltile oil (Anderson, 1955). One analysis of the essential
oils reports 14.6% bornyl acetate, 36.1% -pinene, 11.1% 3-carene, 11.1% limonene, 6.8%
camphene, and 8.4% -pinene (Erichsen-Brown, 1979).
Toxicity
Canada balsam is reported to produce dermatitis when applied as perfume. The foliage has also
induced contact dermatitis.
Description
Tree to 20 m tall; trunk 35 dm in diameter. Bark brown, broken into scaly plates with resin-filled
pockets. Twigs pale green and pubescent when young, becoming gray, reddish, or purplish. Leaves
dark green, linear, sessile, spiral in origin, but twisted at base to form two ranks; leaves persisting
Abies balsamea
many years; leaf-scars circular. Lower leaves to 3 cm long, those on coniferous branches much
shorter. Winter buds globose, 36 mm in diameter, with orange-green scales, resinous. Mature
cones nearly cylindrical, 38.5 cm long by 23 cm thick, dark purple when growing. Bracts ovate,
the distinct awn protruding beyond the scale below it. Seeds ovoid or oblong, acute at base, with
thin wing and resinous vesicles, maturing in one summer. Germination phanerocotylar (Brown and
Brown, 1972).
Germplasm
Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, balsam fir, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate frost and slope. (2n = 24)
Distribution
Labrador and Newfoundland south to New York and Pennsylvania, west to central-Wisconsin and
Minnesota, north and west to Alberta; generally south of 55N latitude, except in Alberta and
Saskatchewan (Ag. Handbook 450, 1974).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Boreal Moist to Wet Forest Life
Zones, balsam fir is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 6 to 15 dm, annual temperature of
5 to 12C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Female strobili may be wholly or partially aborted up to 6 to 8
weeks after bud burst by late spring frosts. Pollen dispersal can be reduced by adverse weather
(Ag. Handbook No. 450)
Cultivation
Flowering in May, fruiting August-September; seeds are dispersed in late September. Extensive
data on seed vitality etc. are reported in Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Seeds should be moist
stratified 1428 days at 15C. Seed may be sown in autumn without stratification, with target
seedling densities in the nursery ca 450500/m2, often mulched with sawdust. Of slow initial
growth, the stock is usually outplanted as 2- to 3-year-old seedlings or 3- to 4-year-old transplants
(Ag. Handbook 450, 1974).
Harvesting
"Turpentine" is usually collected July-August by breaking the turpentine blisters into small metal
cans with sharp-pointed lids. Trees are then allowed to recuperate 12 years. For the leaf oil, it
would appear that branches should be snipped off younger trees in early spring (January-March).
Abies balsamea
Yields and Economics

Fifteen year old trees yield 70% more leaf oil than 110-year-old trees; oil yields are highest in
JanuaryMarch and September, lowest from April to August. Around 1800, one author reported
averaging nearly a ton of balsam at "6 pence a lb." (Erichsen-Brown, 1979).
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges from 9 to 13 MT/ha,
standing biomass from 77200 MT/ha. Gaertner cites references dealing with the potential use of
bark for fuel, as charcoal or briquets.
Biotic Factors
The following are listed as affecting Abies balsamea: Acanthostigma parasiticum, Adelopus nudus,
Aleurodiscus abietis, A. amorphus, Armillaria mellea, Ascocalyx abietis, Bifusella faulii, B.
linearis, Cenangium ferruginosum, Cephalosporium sp., Coniophora puteana, Corticium
galactinum, Coryne sarcoides, Cryptosporium macrospermum, Cyptospora pinastri, Dasyscypha
agassizii, D. arida, D. calyciformis, D. calycina, D. resinaria, Dermea balsamea, Dimerosporium
balsamicola, Echinodontium tinctorium, Flammula alnicola, Fomes pini, F. pinicola, F. robustus,
F. roseus, F. subroseus, Fusicoccum abietinum, Gloeosporium balsameae, Herpotrichia nigra,
Hyalopsora aspidiotus, Hydnum balsameum, Hymenochaete tabacina, H. mirabilis, H. nervata, H.
punctata, Lenzites saepiaria, Leucostoma kunzei, Limacina alaskensis, Lophodermium autumnale,
L. lacerum, L. piceae, Melampsora abieti-capraearum, M. epitea, Melampsorella
caryophyllacearum, M. cerastii, Merulius himantoides, Micropera abietis, Milesina fructuosa, M.
laeviuscula, M. marginalis, M. polypodophila, M. pycnograndis, M. vogesiaca, Nectria
cucurbitula, Nothophacidium abietinellum, Odontia bicolor, Ophionectria scolecospora,
Peniophora gigantea, Peridermium balsameum, Phacidium abietinellum, P. abietis, P. balsameae,
P. infestans, Phaeocryptopus nudus, Phaeophacidium abietinum, Polyporus abietinus, P. anceps,
P. balsameus, P. circinatus, P. fragilis, P. guttulatus, P. hirtus, P. mollis, P. resinosus, P.
schweinitzii, P. tomentosus, Poria sericeo-mollis, P. subacida, P. vaporaria, Potebniamyces
balsamicola, Pucciniastrum epilobii, P. goeppertianum, P. pustulatum, Rehmiel-lopsis abietis, R.
balsamea, Rhizosphaera pini, Rhizothyrium abietis, Sarcotrochila balsamea, Scoleconectria
cucurbitula, Sphaeropsis abietis, Stereum chailletii, S. pini, S. sanguinolentum, Thyronectria
balsamea, Trametes heteromorpha, Trichoscyphella resinaria, Tympanis pinastri, Uredinopsis
ceratophora, U. longimucronata, U. mirabilis, U. osmundae, U. phegopteris, U. struthiopteridis,
Valsa abietis, V. pini (Ag. Handbook 165, 1960; Browne, 1968). Also listed in Browne (1968) are
the following: Angiospermae: Viscum album; Acarina: Trisetacus grosmanni; Coleoptera:
Dryocoetes confusus, Hylobius pales, H. pinicola, H. warreni, Melanophila drummondi,
Monochamus scutellatus, Pityokteines sparsus, Pityophthorus cariniceps, P. granulatus, P.
puberulus, Polygraphus rufipennis; Diptera: Dasyneura balsamicola; Hemiptera: Adelges piceae,
Aphrophora parallela, Cinara curvipes, Mindarus abietinus, Prociphilus bumeliae; Hymenoptera:
Camponotus spp., Gilpinia hercyniae, Megastigmus specularis, Neodiprion abietis, Pleroneura
borealis, Urocerus albicornis, Xeris spectrum; Lepidoptera: Acleris variana, Choristoneura
Abies balsamea
fumiferana, Cladaria limitaria, Dasychira plagiata, Dioryctria abietivorella, Hemerocampa

leucostigma, Lambdina fiscellaria, Lymantria dispar, Melanolophia imitata, Orgyia antiqua,
Protoboarmia porcelaria, Semiothisa granitata, Zeiraphera canadensis; Aves: Loxia curvirostra,
L. leucoptera; and Mammalia: Alces alces, Erethizon dorsatum, Euarctos americanus, Odocoileus
virginianus, Peromyscus sp., Tamiasciurus hudsonicus. Seed production may be reduced by
squirrels and birds. Abies cones are preferred source of food for squirrels in some localities. Large
quantities of cones are cut and cached; such cutting may also reduce future cone crops. Cone and
seed insects may significantly reduce seed yields and occasionally totally destroy seed crops. Seed
chalcids (Megastigmus spp.) are most common and may be abundant enough to have a major
impact. For example, Megastigmus pinus typically infest 8-10% of A. concolor seed and have
destroyed as much as 60% of a crop. Cone moths (e.g., Barbara colfaxiana siskiyouana and
Dioryctria abietivorlla) and cone maggots (Earomyia spp.) cause the most conspicuous damage;
all seeds are lost in heavily infested cones. Cone and scale midges cause no significant loss, but
seed or gall midges may reduce seed yields by fusing seeds to cone scales (Ag. Handbook 450,
1974). Nematodes reported include Criconemella (Criconemoides) lobata, Paratylenchus sp.,
Rotylenchus sp., Tylenchorhynchus maximus and Xiphinema americana (Golden, p.c. 1984).
References
Agriculture Handbook 165. 1960. Index of plant diseases in the United States. USGPO.
Washington.
Agriculture Handbook 450. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Forest
Service, USDA. USGPO. Washington.
Anderson, A.B. 1955. Recovery and utilization of tree extractives. Econ. Bot. 9(2):108-140.
Brown, R.C. and Brown, M.L. 1972. Woody plants of Maryland. Port City Press, Baltimore.
Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and diseases of forest plantations trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Duke, J.A. 1981b. The gene revolution. Paper 1. p. 89-150. In: Office of Technology
Assessment, Background papers for innovative biological technologies for lesser developed
countries. USGPO. Washington.
Duke, J.A. 1983c. Amerindian medicinal plants. Typescript.
Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the world. Computer index with more
than 85,000 entries. 3 vols.
Erichsen-Brown, C. 1979. Use of plants for the past 500 years. Breezy Creeks Press.
Aurora, Canada.
Fernald, M.L., Kinsey, A.C., and Rollins, R.C. 1958. Edible wild plants of eastern North
America. Rev. Ed. Harper & Bros., New York.
Gaertner, E.E. 1970. Breadstuff from fir (Abies balsamea). Econ. Bot. 24(1):69-72.
Guenther, E. 1948-1952. The essential oils. 6 vols. D. van Nostrand Co., Inc. Toronto, New
York, London.
Hartwell, J.L. 1967-1971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 30-34.
List, P.H. and Horhammer, L. 1969-1979. Hager's handbuch der pharmazeutischen praxis.
vols 2-6. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Abies balsamea
Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops

Last update November 10, 1997
Pouteria caimito
Pouteria caimito Radlk.

Sapotaceae
Abiu
We have information from several sources:
AbiuJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
SapotaceaeR.J. Campbell, South American fruits deserving further attention
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pouteria_caimito_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:09 PM]
Artemisia absinthium L.
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Wormwood, Absinthe
NewCROP holds information from the following sources:
Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography. 1971-1980J.E. Simon, A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker
The Herb Hunters GuideSievers, A.F. 1930.
Outside links to Wormwood info:

Illustration of Artemisia absinthium L. from Hermann A. Khler's 3-part tomes Medizinal Pflanzen
(1887) plates.
Wormwood and absinthe FAQ's.
Wormwood from the "Vaults of Erowid"
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artemisia_absinthium_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:09 PM]
Acacia species
Acacia species
Mimosaceae or Leguminosae
(Fabaceae), subfamily Mimosoideae
Acacia, Catclaw acacia, Egyptian thorn, Mimosa,
Prairie acacia, Wattle
The genus Acacia includes about 800 species, which are mostly tropical shrubs and trees. The
genus is very similar to the genus Mimosa, with many species having been reassigned from one
genus to the other, creating synonomous epithets.
NewCROP has Acacia information at:
Acacia in Australia: Ethnobotany and Potential Food Crop. Lister, P.R., P. Holford, T. Haigh, and
D.A. Morrison. 1996. p. 228-236. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
The following in-depth articles on Acacia species are from from Handbook of Energy Crops.
James A. Duke. 1984. (unpublished).
Acacia albidaApple-Ring Acacia, Ana Tree, Winter Thorn.
Acacia auriculiformisDarwin Black Wattle.
Acacia cyclops - Rooikrans
Acacia farnesiana , Syn.: Mimosa farnesiana - Cassie, Huisache.
Acacia mangium - Mange, Forest Mangrove
Acacia mearnsii, Syn.: Acacia mollissima, Syn.: Acacia decurrens, var. mollis Lindl. - Black
Wattle, Acacia Negra, Acacia Noir, Schwarze Akazie, Gomboom
Acacia nilotica, Syn.: Mimosa nilotica - "Motse.html", Egyptian Mimosa, Thorn.
Acacia saligna - Orange Wattle
Acacia senegal, Syn.: Acacia verek - Gum Arabic, Senegal Gum, Sudan Gum Arabic, Kher,
Kumta
Acacia seyal - Shittim Wood, White Whistling wood
Acacia tortilis, , Syn.: Acacia raddiana, , Syn.: Acacia spirocarpa, Syn.: Acacia
heteracantha - Umbrella Thorn, Israeli Babool
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Acacia_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:10 PM]
Acacia species
And outside links to more Acacia info:

Hundreds of Acacia photographs from the Australian National Botanic Gardens Photograph
Collection
Care and cultivation information of various Acacias in California.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Acacia_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:10 PM]
Acacia albida
Acacia albida Del.

Mimosaceae
Apple-Ring Acacia, Ana Tree, Winter Thorn
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Acacia albida is a widely used tree well documented for increasing the yields of crops grown
under it. According to VITA (1977) "A. albida is highly valued in conservation efforts. It is the
only species which loses its leaves during the rainy season; therefore, farming under these trees is
not only possible but profitable." It is held sacred by the Africans of the Transvaal. In Nigeria, the
pod is used as camel food. The gum that exudes spontaneously from the trunk is sometimes
collected like gum arabic. The timber, though straight grained, close, and weighty, is soft, fibrous,
and unsuitable for agricultural implements (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). One writer even
questions its value for fuel wood. Masai use it as the soft flat wood upon which the firestick is
twirled to make fire. Wood is used for canoes, mortars, and pestles. The bark is pounded in Nigeria
and used as a packing material on pack animals. Ashes of the wood are used in making soap and as
a depilatory and tanning agent for hides. VITA (1977) says the wood is used for carving; the
thorny branches useful for a natural barbed fence. Pods and foliage are highly regarded as
livestock fodder. Some 90% of Senegalese farmers interviewed by Felker (1981) collected, stored,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_albida.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:10 PM]
Acacia albida
and rationed Acacia alba pods to livestock. Rhodesians use the pods to stupefy fish. Humans eat
the boiled seeds in times of scarcity in Rhodesia. Apparently it is erroneously taken as an indicator
of a shallow well site.
Folk Medicine
Reported to serve as an emetic in fevers (Masai), taken for diarrhea in Tanganyika. Also used for
colds, diarrhea, hemorrhage, and ophthalmia in West Africa. The bark of the Ana tree is a folk
remedy for diarrhea among several tribes. On the Ivory Coast it is used for leprosy. The bark
decoction curtails nausea. A liniment, made by steeping the bark, is used for bathing and massage
in pneumonia. The bark infusion is used for difficult delivery, and is used as a febrifuge for cough
(Irvine, 1961). Pods worn as charm by African women and children to avert smallpox.
Chemistry
The following table is reproduced, with permission from FAO's Tropical Feeds (1981):
Nutritive Table (Gohl, 1981)
DM
17.8
Fresh flowers, Sudan

Fresh whole leaves, Niger
Fresh leaflets, Sudan
Pods, Tanzania
Pods, Niger
Pods
Animal
Cattle
36.3
CP
51.0
CP
19.0
19.7
17.1
8.8
14.3
CF
12.5
19.6
12.4
24.4
24.7
As % of dry matter
Ash EE NFE
9.7
1.6 57.2
7.2
1.6 51.9
8.4
2.3 59.8
3.7
1.4 61.7
6.3
1.5 53.2
Digestibility
CF
EE
16.5
71.4
NFE
74.8
Ca
1.00
0.23
0.65
1.11
0.23
0.14
ME
2.09
Bark contains 228% tannin, the fruit 513%.
Description
A large thorny tree up to 20 m high and >2 m in diameter; bole forming up to 1/3 of height of tree;
bark dull grey, fissured when old, crown dense; tree puts out leaves during dry season and sheds
them during rains; branchlets light grey, spiny only at nodes, spines straight, up to 1 in. long;
leaves pale and glaucous, bluish grey, glabrous or pubescent, 2-pinnate, 9 to numerous pairs of
pinnae, cup-like glands on rachis, each pinna with 12 or more pairs of leaflets, leaflets oblong, up
to 1 cm long, hairy, unequal at base; flowers (Jan., Apr., Nov.) in yellow spikes 1012.5 cm long;
fruits (Jan., May, Nov.) bright yellowish green when dry, up to 1215 x 4 cm, slightly curved,
ends rounded (Irvine, 1961).
Acacia albida
Germplasm
Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the Ana Tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
poor soil, drought, savanna, and some waterlogging (VITA, 1977). Back in 1978, when Senegalese
farmers wanted seedlings, none were available. There is great variability in the morphology and
pod yields. Selection of wild plants for pod yield and/or fast growth would be a worthwhile
contribution to arid developing countries. (2n = 26)
Distribution
Native to the Transvaal and Southwest Africa, through West and North Africa to Egypt, East
Africa.
Ecology
Probably ranging from Tropical Thorn to Subtropical Moist Forest Life Zones, the Ana Tree is
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 6dm. Irvine (1961) describes it as the largest thorn
tree in Savanna Forest, especially in inhabited areas; often left untouched, sometimes gregarious.
In more mesic Sahelian regions (400600 mm/yr), yields of millet, peanuts, and sorghum are
increased from ca 500 to ca 900 kg/ha/yr by growing under the canopy of Acacia albida (Felker,
1978). Does best in sandy soils, growing well where millet grows. Though faring best on sandy
soils, it will tolerate heavier soils with some waterlogging.
Cultivation
As late as 1978, techniques for establishing new seedlings had not been worked out, according to
Felker (1978). Seeds devoid of bruchid holes should be scarified and started in deep containers to
accomodate development of the tap root. Good-sized plants develop in 1014 weeks, but frequent
root pruning is advised. Transplants from the wild are usually unsuccessful because of the long tap
root. VITA (1977) has a novel approach, feeding the seed to livestock, which then graze the
desired areas, eliminating seeds with their manure. Nursery plantings, spaced at 10 x 10 m may
require watering at first, and protection from grazing animals for 58 years.
Harvesting
Peasants gather pods to feed to their cattle, or lop the foliage in the dry season, when most other
trees are leafless.
Acacia albida

According to FAO (1980) a full grown tree can produce more than 100 kg pod/yr. Felker (1978)
notes that pod yields range from 6135 kg/tree. Some scientists believe that yields could be
managed to a much higher level than those of the grasses and annual crops grown under the tree.
Trees have reached 2 to 4 m after only 3 or 4 years growth.
Energy
Related species such as Acacia tortilis have been reported to yield giraffe forage to the tune of 5
MT/ha/yr. Yield increases under Acacia albida correlate with a several fold increase in soil N and
organic matter, coupled with improved soil water-holding capacity. Acacia albida has been shown
to nodulate and reduce acetylene. While Acacias cannot be recommended for cold and/or humid or
everwet climates, they are suggested by the NAS (1980a) as firewood sources in developing
countries. Among the species they consider are Acacia arabica, auriculiformis, brachystachya,
cambagei, cyanophylla, cyclops, dealbata, decurrens, ehrenbergiana, fistula, heteracantha,
holosericea, lysiophloia, mangium, mearnsii, mollissima, nilotica, nubica, raddiana, saligna,
senegal, seyal, spirocarpa, tortilis, and verek. The Ana Tree was not recommended for firewood.
Biotic Factors
Caterpillars, locusts, and grazing animals may destroy the seedlings.
References
FAO Handbooks in Press (FAO, 1982)
1. Taxonomy of Acacia spp.
2.Seed Collection, Handling, Storage and Treatment of Acacia spp.
3. Seed Insects in Acacia spp.
FAO. 1980a. 1979. Production yearbook. vol. 33. FAO, Rome.
Felker, P. 1981. Uses of tree legumes in semiarid regions. Econ. Bot. 35(2):174186.
Felker, P. 1978. State of the art: Acacia albida as a complementary intercrop with annual
crops. USAID Information Services. Washington.
Gohl, B. 1981. Tropical feeds. Feed information summaries and nutritive values. FAO
Animal Production and Health Series 12. FAO, Rome.
Irvine, F.R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana. Oxford University Press. London.
N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
VITA. 1977. Reforestation in arid lands. VITA Publications. Manual Series 37E.
Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants of
southern and eastern Africa. 2nd ed. E.&S. Livingstone, Ltd., Edinburgh and London.
Acacia albida

Last update November 10, 1997
Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn.

Mimosaceae
Darwin Black Wattle
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Used for fuelwood plantations as an ornamental and shade tree, quite tolerant of heat, the
Australian species is widely planted in Oceana and southeast Asia. The wood is also employed for
making farm tools and furniture (NAS, 1983a). Recent Australian tests suggest that 10-year old
trees can be pulped readily by the sulfate process, giving high pulp yields, with good strength
properties. Also produces high quality pulp by the neutral sulfite semichemical process. The tannin
produces a good quality leather, inclined to redden upon exposure to sunlight (NAS, 1980a). The
plant is amazing in its ability to recolonize wastes, papermill sludge, pH ca 9.5; even uranium
spoils, pH ca 3.0; the only tree found on 20-year old uranium spoil. Used for the cultivation of the
lac insect in India.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_auriculiformis.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:27:11 PM]
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
The gum contains 5.3% ash, 0.92% N, and 1.68% methoxyl, and ca 27.7% uronic acid. The sugar
from the gum after hydrolysis, contained 10.1% 4-0-methylglucuronic acid, 17.6% glucuronic
acid, 59% galactose, 8% arabinose, and 5% rhamnose (Anderson, 1978). Bark contains ca 13%
water.
Description
Resilient, vigorously growing, crooked or gnarled deciduous or evergreen tree, possibly attaining
30 m height, 60 cm DBH. Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes, lanceolate or oblong,
arcuate, long-attenuate at both ends, 1016 cm long, ca 1.52.5 cm broad, thick coriaceous,
glabrous with several long parallel veins from the base. Spikes 58 cm long, paired at the leaf
bases. Flowers sessile, ca 3 mm long, the calyx glabrous, 5-toothed, the 5 petals ca 2 mm long.
Stamens numerous, filiform, ca 3 mm long. Ovary pubescent, the style filiform. Pods 68 cm long,
11.5 cm broad, flattened but coiled. Seeds several, flattened-ellipsoid, ca 5 mm long, with a
reddish or orangish aril (Little, 1983). Seeds 53,00062,000/kg.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Acacia auriculiformis, or cvs thereof, is
reported to tolerate alkalinity, desiccation, drought, fire, high pH, laterite, poor soil, sand dunes,
and savanna. It is intolerant of hurricane, shade, and weeds, at least in early stages. Once
established, the tree is quite competitive with weeds. Though somewhat tolerant of fire, it is not so
resistant as Eucalyptus. (2n = 26)
Distribution
Native to the savannas of New Guinea, islands of the Torres Strait, and northern Australia, it has
been widely introduced, e.g. in Fiji, India, Indonesia, Java, Malaysia, Niger, Nigeria, Philippines,
Tanzania, Thailand, the Soloman Islands, Uganda, and Zanzibar.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
Acacia auriculiformis is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.5 to 27 dm, annual
temperature of 26 to 30C, and pH of 3.0 to 9.5. With practically no maintenance it will grow on a
wide range of deep and shallow soils, compacted clays, coral soils, laterites, limestone, mica
schist, mine spoil, podzols, even sand dunes and unstable slopes.
Cultivation
It has been suggested as an interplant with long-term timber Dalbergias, itself serving as a
short-term but renewable firewood source. Seeds, storable for 18 months in airtight containers,
should be soaked in hot water for 24 hours. Sow in full light, allowing 6 days for germination (ca
80% germination after 24 weeks). To reforest grassland, burn and plant in holes ca 36 x 30 x 30
cm, spaced at 12.5 or 13 m if intercropped with Cassia siamea. Recent spacings have been 2.5 x
2.5 m.
Harvesting
In Indomalaysia, stands are operated on 1012 year rotations. Trees coppice poorly. Indonesians
have gotten some coppice when trees are cut at least 50 cm above the ground. When trees are
felled, there is usually a swarm of seedlings, so cutover stands regenerate readily.

With rainfall at 2700 mm, at 3 years, average height of a stand with 1010 trees/ha was 12.4 m,
average diameter 12.2 cm, standing wood volume 73.2 m3/ha; at age 4, 13.1 m, 13.6 cm, and 96.1
m3/ha. Stemwood volume is ca 60% of total above ground biomass. Leaf biomass is important, the
LAI being 78, good for shading out weeds. Average amount of dead litter is 4800 kg/ha. In Java,
there may be 3 MT/ha leaves and 2 MT/ha twigs and branches beneath the trees (NAS, 1982a). On
infertile abandoned sites in Papua, trees grew 6 m in 2 years, 17 m in 8 years. On shallow arid soils
in West Bengal, yields were only 5m3/ha/yr at the 15th year. Under moister conditions 10 m3 is
reported, 1720 in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Energy
Wiersum and Ramlan report that yields can run higher than 20 m3/ha/yr on a 1020 year rotation.
On poor soils yields drop to 812 m3. On the Island of Madura, with annual rainfall 17001900
mm, 712 year old rotations run 7.69 m3/ha/yr, but on West Bengalese laterites with annual
precipitation 1,00014,000 mm, yields are only 26 m3/ha/yr in 1020 year rotations. With its
capacity to produce good fuelwood on poor soils, even where there are extended dry seasons, the
species "merits large scale testing as a fuelwood species" (NAS, 1980). Wood has specific gravity
of 0.60.75 and calorific value of 4,8004,900 kcal/kg. Wood yields excellent charcoal that glows
well and burns without smoke or sparks. Litter beneath the trees, both branches and dried leaves,
annually adds up to 4.56 MT/ha, all used for fuel in China. Hawaiian grown material possesses
N-fixing nodules.
Biotic Factors
While no pest or disease problems are reported in Indonesia, insects and nematodes have been
reported to attack seedlings in Zanzibar. The rust Uromyces digitatus has been a problem in Java,
where it is also occasionally infested with a rather inocuous black mildew, Meliola
adenanphererae. In India, the root rots are Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma applanatum.
Hypothenemus dimorphus has caused shoot fatality in Malaysia. The weevil Hypomeces
squamosus can be a pest in India and Malaysia. Used to cultivate Kerria lacca in India. On Java,
the ant Iridomyrmex rufoniger may protect the plant from some phytophagous insects.
References
Anderson, D.M.W. 1978. Chemotaxonomic aspects of the chemistry of acacia gum
exudates. Kew Bull. 32(3):529536.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their identification. McClain
Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
N.A.S. 1982. Priorities in biotechnology research for international development.
Proceedings of a Workshop. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
N.A.S. 1983a. Producer gas: another fuel for motor transport. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
Last update Tuesday, January 6, 1998 by aw
Acacia cyclops
Acacia cyclops A. Cunn. ex G.

Don
Mimosaceae
Rooikrans
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Producing a dense high quality firewood, this species has been recommended for stabilization of
coastal dunes. Goats and antelope browse the phyllodes. The seeds and their oily funicles are eaten
by birds, primates, and rodents, and if crushed, might be suitable for cattle.
Folk Medicine
With its high tannin content, the species could serve as an astringent.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_cyclops.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:27:12 PM]
Acacia cyclops
Chemistry
Bark has yielded 6.5% tannin, or in Natal, up to 12.1%. Seed contains 10% of fixed oil, the aril or
funicle 40%.
Description
Dense, evergreen bushy shrub, often multistemmed, or small tree 3 to 8 m tall, with a rounded
crown . In windy coastal sites it forms a hedge less than 0.5 m high. The foliage comprises light
green phyllodes, varnished when young, and growing in a downward vertical position. Pods,
maturing in summer, are not shed, but remain on the tree, exposing the seeds to predators and
dispersers.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Acacia cyclops is reported to tolerate drought,
salt, sand, weed, and wind.
Distribution
Native to southwestern Australia, where it grows mostly on coastal sand dunes. Used for
stabilization in South Africa, it is spreading on sand and sandstone into coastal bush and heathland.
This is an extremely weedy species spread by birds into indigenous vegetation. Once established,
it is difficult to remove or replace. There is little vegetation cover beneath an Acacia cyclops
thicket. The seeds remain viable in the soil for many years. It is relatively slow growing.
Ecology
Acacia cyclops can grow in dry areas with annual precipitation less than 300 mm. Tolerating salt
spray, wind, sand-blast, or salinity, it is useful for dune stabilization. This species has a high light
demand; it will not survive in deep shade. Monthly temperature means within the distribution
range of this species vary from 5C in winter to 31C in summer. It is slightly resistant to frost.
The species is generally found below 300 m altitude where annual rainfall is 200 to 800 mm. It
grows on quartzitic or calcareous sand or limestone. It also is found in drier sites such as dune
crests (NAS, 1980a).
Cultivation
Direct sowing of pretreated seed is recommended (NAS, 1980a). Seed are treated with abrasion,
acid, and hot water treatment.
Acacia cyclops
Harvesting
Trees may be harvested as needed. This species rarely coppices, and mature trees do not survive
felling. The pods are nondeciduous and are therefore not easily gathered. Unlike many Acacia
species, it is not considered a valuable tannin or gum producer (NAS, 1980a).

Standing biomass of Acacia cyclops in the southwestern cape of Africa, where it is replacing
indigenous Fynbos vegetation and coastal shrub communities, was 131 MT/ha. Of this, the
litterfall was said to represent 7.4% of the total biomass, 21.2% of the canopy mass.
Energy
Recommended by the NAS (1980a) as a firewood source. The wood is dense, the logs rarely
exceeding 20 cm in diameter. It is a very popular firewood in South Africa, sold regularly in Cape
Town. The annual litterfall of four Acacia species naturalized in the South African Cape,
comprising 60% foliage and 30% reproductive structures, averages 7 MT/ha, double the value
expected in evergreen scrub communities in winter rainfall regions. Standing biomass in the
Acacia thickets is ca 10 times greater than that of mature Fynbos (1126 MT/ha) and shrublands in
other Mediterranean climates (1530 MT/ha). Acacias lose ca 10% of their standing crop annually
as litter, at a rate 34 times that of the Mediterranean heath and shrub communities. The litter
accumulates on the ground. In a mature thicket, the dry mass of the ground litter per unit area
exceeds that of the living canopy. The ground litter layer runs 1428 MT/ha, which is fairly
average by world standards. "The annual nitrogen and phosphorus input by Acacia litter should be
about nine times as great per unit area as that of Fynbos." Assuming an N content of 1.5% and a P
content of 1.13%, Acacia litter would contribute 105 kg N/ha and 92 kg P. In an area where the
annual precipitation averages between 500 and 750 mm/yr and the annual temperature average
ranges between 16 and 18C, with radiation averaging 450500 Langleys/day (Capetown has an
average annual precipitation of ca 600 mm, average temperature approaching 18C), the total
annual litterfall is 9,680 kg/ha, with 1.4% as flowers, 35.5% as pods, 5.3% as seed, 11.3% as
twigs, 39.0% as phyllodes, and 7.7% unidentified fragments. The total standing biomass was 131
MT/ha DM, 4% (Milton, 1981).
Biotic Factors
Most African Acacias are thought to be cross pollinated. Pests and diseases are not an important
factor in South Africa; in fact, the lack of seed destroyers is partly responsible for the weediness of
the species. Grazers may damage seedlings.
Acacia cyclops
References
Milton, S.J. 1981. Litterfall. of the exotic acacias in the southeastern cape. J. S. Afr. Bot.
47(2):147-155.
Last update December 16, 1997
Acacia mearnsii
Acacia mearnsii de Wild.

Syn.: Acacia mollissima auct., not Willd.
Acacia decurrens var. mollis Lindl.
Mimosaceae
Black Wattle, Acacia Negra, Acacia Noir, Schwarze Akazie, Gomboom
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Tree of economic importance in South and East Africa, Rhodesia, India, and Rio Grande do Sul
area of South America etc. for tanning of soft-leather. Ranging from 3054 percent tannin in dried
bark. Wood furnishes badly needed fuel and building material in some areas. Trees not only
provide tannin and fuel, but also add nitrogen and organic material to improve the soil. Bark is
used for wood adhesives and flotation agents (Duke, 1981a). The pulp is suitable for wrapping
paper and hardboard. Some regard it as an attractive ornamental. Sometimes used for erosion
control on poor sloping soils unsuitable for agriculture. Densely packed plantations are effective in
preventing further erosion on 50 slopes. Some farmers claim that tobacco and vegetable yields are
doubled in rotating with the black wattle. In places it is regarded as a "green cancer", spreading
vigorously as a weed (NAS, 1980; Little, 1983).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_mearnsii.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:13 PM]
Acacia mearnsii
Folk Medicine
Products are often used in folk medicine as styptics or astringents (Duke, 1981).
Chemistry
Black wattle bark contains (-)-robinetinidol and (+)-catechin; the biflavonoids
(-)-fisetinidol-(+)-catechin (2 diastereoisomers), (-)-robinetinidol-(+)-catechin and
(-)-robinetinidol-(+)-gallocatechin; triflavonoids and condensed tannins. The heartwood is rich in
(+)-leucofisetinidin (mollisacacidin) together with (-)-fisetinidol, (+)-fustin, butin, fisetin, butein,
and biflavonoid condensates (tannins) (Duke, 1981).
Description
Tree 6 to 20 m tall, 10 to 60 cm in diameter; crown conical or rounded; all parts except flowers
usually pubescent or puberulous; stems without spines or prickles; leaves bipinnate, on petioles
1.52.5 cm long, with a gland above; rachis 412 cm long with numerous raised glands all along
its upper side; pinnae in 830 pairs, pinnules in 1670 pairs, linear-oblong, 1.54 mm long,
0.50.75 min wide; flowers in globose heads 58 mm in diameter, borne in panicles or racemes,
on peduncles 26 mm long; pale yellow and fragrant; pods gray-puberulous, or sometimes
glabrous, almost moniliform, dehiscing, usually 310 cm long, 0.50.8 cm wide, with 314 joints;
seeds black, smooth, elliptic or compressed ovoid, 35 mm long, 23.5 mm wide; caruncle
conspicuous; areole 3.5 mm long, 2 mm wide. Seeds 66,000 to 110,000/kg (Duke, 1981a).
Germplasm
Can be crossed with Acacia decurrens, hybrids show more sterility than parents. Meiosis is
regular, with no gross cytological abnormalities, and sterility may be due to gene differentiation
between species. There is little geographic overlap in the native Australian ranges of the species,
and there are differences in phenology (flowering; seedset). Most of the characters that vary
among the species are quantitative. The development of black wattle strains or of hybrids with
enhanced vigor, better quality bark, outstanding stem form, or resistance to insect pests and disease
would benefit the wattle industry. Assigned to the Australian Center of Diversity, black wattle or
cvs thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to drought, laterite, and poor soil (Duke, 1981). For an
Acacia, it is relatively tolerant to frost, and its growth is slowed by high temperatures. (2n = 26.)
Distribution
Native to Southeast Australia (Victoria to New South Wales and southern Queensland) and
Tasmania. Introduced and cultivated widely for afforestations. See Sherry (1971) for details.
Acacia mearnsii
Ecology
In Kenya grows on or near Equator at altitudes of 2,0002,800 m, is well adjusted to the climate of
East Africa. Grows well at 30S Lat. in South America on rolling terrain at altitudes of 5070 m.
Thrives on poor, dry soils but favors deeper, moister, more fertile soils. In Australia, black wattle
may occur on soils derived from shales, mudstones, sandstones, conglomerates, and alluvial
deposits. In Kenya on podsols, krasnozems, sandy hills, lava flows or on mixtures of lava and
contemporaneous volcanic tuffs and breccias. In South America, grown on red clay or sandy soils
that have suffered from severe erosion and soil depletion (ferruginous clay loams with little or no
free silica). In East Africa grows where annual rainfall is 1,0411,321 mm, (about 75% between
April and September). On the equator where black wattle is grown in South America, the rain
pattern is nearly opposite, mean annual temperature range is 1723C; there is little seasonal
variation, but considerable diurnal variation. At higher altitudes in South America, frost is a risk
and heavy snows may break tree limbs. Tannin content varies inversely with precipitaton. Ranging
from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Thorn to Tropical Moist Forest Life Zones, black
wattle is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.622.8 dm (mean of 6 cases=12.6), annual
mean temperature of 14.727.8C (mean of 6 cases=2.6C), and pH of 5.07.2 (mean of 5 cases =
0.5).
Cultivation
Propagation by seed is easy. Seeds retain their viability for several years. For germination seed are
covered with boiling water and allowed to stand until cool. This cracks the hard outer coat and
facilitates germination. Seeds may be broadcast or sown in rows on any barren site. Usually they
are sown about 5 cm apart in seedbeds, and are transplanted after 36 months. In South America,
fields are usually plowed and harrowed in April or May. Seedlings are set out MayNovember, but
usually in winter, JuneAugust, after a rain. Plants are spaced 2 m each way, at rate of 2,500/ha.
Propagation by cuttings is almost impossible without mist. Air layering is more promising. Two
types of farmers grow acacia: the tanner or business man plants 200 ha or so entirely to black
wattle, usually one section at a time so that he can plant and harvest within the same year and
continue year after year; the farmer plants half or less of his land to black wattle and the rest to
crops such as corn, beans, maniac, sugarcane, other vegetables, or pasture. He plants 26 hectares
of acacian each year and thus evenly distributes work and production. Oxen may be useful for
plowing, but most work is by hand. Usually only plows and hoes are used in Cultivation.
Intercrops may be grown the first year during which trees grow about 45 m in height, and about
2.5 cm in diameter (Duke, 1981).
Harvesting
Trees provide bark 510 years after seeding (avg 7). Bark is stripped from lower part of tree, then
tree is felled, the remaining bark removed, and tree and bark are cut into 1 m lengths. Thoroughly
dried bark is arranged in bales of 75 to 80 kg when ready for transportation. Tanning power
improves by 1015% in bark carefully stored for a season. Percent tannin does not differ between
barks harvested in dry and wet seasons. However, the amount of bark on trees may be less on poor
Acacia mearnsii
than on rich soils. Tannin runs about 2535% per kilo of dried bark, on either poor or rich soil.
Acacia bark may be sold as baled bark, or bark powder. Dried bark may go first to commercial
bark processors where it is ground or shredded in a hammermill, then sold in 40-kg sacks. Bark
powder is sold in 60-kg sacks. Liquid extract is sold in 300-kg wooden barrels. In Rio Grande do
Sul an estimated 5,000 MT of liquid extract is produced annually (Duke, 1981a).

Except for some mangrove species, black wattle in pure stand produces more tannin per hectare
than most tanniniferous plants. In South Africa well-managed have produced the equivalent of 3
MT/ha tannin, about twice the average, when grown in rotations in excess of 12 years. One
7-yr-old tree produces 35 kg of dried bark. Twelve trees produce 1 cu m of firewood. The wood
of debarked trees is dried and used for mine timbers, pulpwood, and fuel. Moisture loss is rapid in
first 4 weeks after felling, then much slower. Wood weighs 708.7 kg/cu m. One tree can produce
up to 10 cwt of bark or about 5 cwt stripped. One ton of black wattle bark is sufficient to tan 2,530
hides, best adapted for sole leather and other heavy goods; the leather is fully as durable as that
tanned with oak bark. One ton of bark yields 4 cwt of extract tar. Destructive distillation of the
wood yields 33.2% charcoal, 9.5% lime acetate, and 0.81 methyl alcohol. As a source of vegetable
tannin, black wattle shares with quebracho and chestnut a large portion of the world market for
vegetable tannins. According to Sherry (1971), plantation grown wattle in South Africa, Rhodesia,
Tanzania, Kenya, and Brazil supplied about 38% of world demand for tannin. South Africa was
the largest producer, with annual output of 72,000 MT of ca 120,000 MT on the world market.
Eucalyptus grandis produces more wood than wattle, but it is inferior for fuel and charcoal. At one
time in South Africa, 56% of the proceeds from wattle was from bark, the balance from timber
(Duke, 1981a).
Energy
An efficient N-fixer, it is reported to annually yield 2128 MT/ha wet leaves containing 245285
kg N. If we put the information in our cultivation paragraph and our yields paragraph, we find the
improbable 2,500 plants per hectare, with 12 producing 1 m3 firewood, suggesting a potential of
more than 200 m3/ha for 7 year old trees, suggesting annual yields of ca 30 m3/ha. NAS (1980a)
reports annual thickwood production of 1025 m3/ha and bark production of 0.84.0 MT. The
dense wood (sp. grav. = 0.70.85) 3,5004,000 kcal/kg (oven-dry Indonesian specimens 4,650
kcal/kg), its ash content ca 1.5%. The charcoal (sp. grav. = 0.30.5) has a calorific value of 6,600
kcal/kg, with an ash content of 0.4%.
Biotic Factors
The most serious disease is disback, caused by Phoma herbarum. Other fungi attacking black
wattle include: Chaetomium cochliodes, Daldinia sp., and Trichoderma viride. In Rio Grande do
Sul, disease and insects cause about 20% loss of trees. Principal insects attacking Brazilian wattle
are Molippa sabina, Achryson surinamum, Placosternus cyclene, Eburodacrys dubitata, Neoclytus
Acacia mearnsii
pusillus, Oncideres impluviata, Oncideres saga, and Trachyderes thoracica. Ants, termites, and
borers are the most damaging. The sauva ant which attacks the leaves is fought constantly with
arsenicals and carbon disulfide. Nematodes reported on this species include Meloidogyne arenaria,
M. incognita acrita, and M. javanica (Golden, pers. commun. 1984).
References
Duke, J.A. 1981a. Handbook of legumes of world economic importance. Plenum Press.
NewYork.
NAS, 1980.
Sherry, S.P. 1971. The black wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Wild.). University of Natal Press.
Pietermatitzburg.
Acacia farnesiana
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.

Syn.: Mimosa farnesiana L.
Mimosaceae
Cassie, Huisache
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Cassie perfume is distilled from the flowers. Cassie absolute is employed in preparation of violet
bouquets, extensively used in European perfumery. Cassie pomades are manufactured In Uttar
Pradesh and the Punjab. Pods contain 23 percent tannin, a glucoside of ellagic acid, and are used
for tanning leather. Bark also used for tanning and dying leather in combination with iron ores and
salts. In Bengal and West Indies, pods are used for a black leather dye. Gummy substance obtained
from pods used in Java as cement for broken crockery. Gum exuding from trunk considered
superior to gum arabic in arts. Trees used as ingredient in Ivory Coast for arrow poison; elsewhere
they are used as fences and to check erosion. Wood is hard and durable underground, used for
wooden plows and for pegs. Trees often planted as an ornamental (Duke, 1981). Morton (1981)
says that the seeds, containing an unnamed alkaloid, are used to kill rabid dogs in Brazil.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_farnesiana.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:14 PM]
Acacia farnesiana
Folk Medicine
Bark is astringent and demulcent, and along with leaves and roots is used for medicinal purposes.
Woody branches used in India as tooth brushes. The gummy roots also chewed for sore throat.
Said to be used for alterative, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent, diarrhea,
febrifuge, rheumatism, and stimulant (Duke, 1981a). Morton (1981) notes that Guatemalans value
the flower infusion as a stomachic. It is also used for dyspepsia and neuroses. Mexicans sprinkle
powdered dried leaves onto wounds. The flowers are added to ointment, rubbed on the forehead
for headache. Green pods are decocted for dysentery and inflammations of the skin and raucous
membranes. Colombians bathe in the bark decoction for typhoid. Costa Ricans decoct rhe gum
from the trunk for diarrhea, using the pod infusion for diarrhea, leucorrhea, and uterorrhagia.
Panamanians and Cubans used the pod to treat conjunctivitis. Cubans use the pod decoction for
sore throat. For rheumatic pains, West Indians bind bark strips to the afflicted joint. The root
decoction has been suggested as a folk remedy for tubersulosis. According to Hartwell
(19671971), the decoction of the root, used in hot baths, is said to help stomach cancer. A plaster,
made from the pulp, is said to alleviate tumors.
Chemistry
Dried seeds of one Acacia sp. are reported to contain per 100 g: 377 calories, 7.0% moisture, 12.6
g protein, 4.6 g fat, 72.4 g carbohydrate, 9.5 g flber, and 3.4 g ash. Raw leaves of Acacia contain
per 100 g: 57 calories, 81.4% moisture, 8.0 g protein, 0.6 g fat, 9.0 g carbohydrate, 5.7 g fiber, 1.0
g ash, 93 mg Ca, 84 mg P, 3.7 mg Fe, 12,255 g -carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.17 mg
riboflavin, 8.5 mg niacin, and 49 mg ascorbic acid. Reporting 55% protein on a dryweight basis,
Van Etten et al (1963) break down the amino acids as follows: lysine, 4.7 (g/16 g N); methionine,
0.9; arginine, 9.2; glycine, 3.4;. histidine, 2.3; isoleucine, 3.5; leucine, 7.5; phenylalanine, 3.5;
tyrosine, 2.8; threonine, 2.5; valine, 3.9; alanine, 4.3; aspartic acid, 8.8; glutamic acid, 12.6;
hydroxyproline, 0.0; proline, 5.1; serine, 4.1; with 76% of the total nitrogen as amino acids. Cassie
has been reported to contain anisaldehyde, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, butyric acid, coumarin,
cresol, cuminaidehyde, decyl aldehyde, eicosane, eugenol, farnesol, geraniol,
hydroxyacetophenone, methyleugenol, methyl salicylate, nerolidol, palmitic acid, salicylic acid,
and terpineol (Duke, 1981). The leaves contain lipids, carotenoids, alkaloids, and reducing and
non-reducing sugars (Morton, 1981). El Sissi et al (1973) isolated and identified from pods, seven
polyphenols (gallic acid, ellagic acid, m-digallic acid, methyl gallate, kaempferol, atomadendrin,
and narigenin). Also they found narigenin-7-glucoside and naringenin-7-rhamnoglucoside
(naringin), as well as naringenin, glucose, and gallic acid.
Description
Thorny bush or small tree, 8 m tall; bark light brown, rough; branches glabrous or nearly, purplish
to gray, with very small glands; stipules spinescent, usually short, up to 1.8 cm long, rarely longer,
never inflated; leaves twice pinnate, with a small gland on petiole and sometimes one on the rachis
near top of pinnae; pinnae 28 pairs, leaflets 1012 pairs, minute, 27 mm long, 0.751.75 mm
wide, glabrous, leathery; flowers in axillary pedunculate heads, calyx and corolla glabrous,
Acacia farnesiana
scented; pod indehiscent, straight or curved, 47.5 cm long, about 1.5 cm wide, subterete and
turgid, dark brown to blackish, glabrous, finely longitudinally striate, pointed at both ends; seeds
chestnut-brown, in 2 rows, embedded in a dry spongy tissue, 78 mm long, ca 5.5 mm broad,
smooth, elliptic, thick, only slightly compressed; areole 6.57 mm long, 4 mm wide (Duke,
1981a).
Germplasm
Both A. farnesiana and its var cavenia are extensively cultivated in and around Cannes, southern
France, which is the center for production of the perfume. The variety seems to be more resistant
to drought and frost. Assigned to the South American Center of Diversity, cassie or cvs thereof is
reported to exhibit tolerance to drought, high pH, heat, low pH, salt, sand, slope, and Savanna. (2n
= 52, 104). (Duke, 1981a).
Distribution
Probably native to tropical America, but naturalized and cultivated all over the world, e.g. Africa
(Rhodesia, Mozambique) and Australia. Planted in coastal areas of Ghana and elsewhere in
tropical Africa. Grown throughout India, and often planted in gardens (Duke, 1981a).
Ecology
Thrives in dry localities and on loamy or sandy soils where it may serve as a sand binder. Will
grow on loose sandy soil of river beds, on pure sand in plains of Punjab. Requires a dry tropical
climate. Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Desert to Moist Forest Life Zones,
cassie is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.440.3 dm (mean of 20 cases 14.0 dm),
annual mean temperature of 14.727.8C (mean of 20 cases = 24.1C), and pH of 5.08.0 (mean
of 15 cases = 6.8) (Duke, 1981).
Cultivation
Propagated mainly from seed and cuttings. Seeds germinate readily and plants grow rapidly. Plants
do not require much cultivation, watering or care (Duke, 1981a).
Harvesting
Trees begin to flower from the third year, mainly from November to March. Perfume is extracted
from the flowers in form of concrete or pomade. Macerated flowers are placed in melted purified
natural fat and allowed to stand for several hours. They are then replaced by fresh flowers and the
process repeated until the fat is saturated with perfume. Fat is then melted, strained and cooled.
This constitutes the pomade. Odor is that of violets but more intense. Absolute is prepared by
mixing pomade with alcohol (23 kg to about 4 laters) and allowed to stand for 34 weeks at about
Acacia farnesiana
-5C. The alcohol is then separated and distilled over. The extract obtained is an olive-green liquid
with strong odor of cassie flowers (Duke, 1981a).

Mature trees yield up to 1 kg of flowers per season. Southern France (Cannes and Grasse) is main
production center for cassie flower perfume. India and other Eastern countries produce much for
local use (Duke, 1981a).
Energy
Though omitted by the recent fuelwood books (NAS, 1980; Little, 1983), this species should be
considered along with other Acacias for its energy potential. Other species yield fuelwood at rates
of 520 m3/ha/yr, but lower yields may prevail in very humid environments. Of course the straggly
bushy forms would not make very good fuel sources. Morton (1981) notes that the wood is used
for fuel. Allen and Allen (1981) note that it fixes nitrogen.
Biotic Factors
Fungi reported on this plant include: Camptomeris albizziae, Clitocybe tabescens, Hypocrea
borneensis, Lenzites palisoti, L. repanda, Phyllachora acaciae, Phymatotrichum omnivorum,
Polystictus flavus, Ravenelia austris, R. hieronymi, R. siliquae, R. spegazziniana, Schizophyllum
commune, Systingophora hieronymi, Tryblidiella rufula, and Uromycladium notabile. It may also
be parasitized by the flowering plants Dendrophthoe falcata and Santalum album (Duke, 1981a).
References
Allen, O.N. and Allen, E.K. 1981. The Leguminosae. The University of Wisconsin Press.
812 p.
Duke, J.A. 1981.
NewYork.
El Sissi, H.I., El Ansari, M.A., and El Negoumy, S.I. 1973. Phenolics of Acacia farnesiana.
Phytochemical reports. Phytochemistry 12:2303.
Hartwell, J.L. 19671971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 3034.
Morton, J.F. 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of middle America. Bahamas to Yucatan. C.C.
Thomas, Springfield, IL.
Acacia farnesiana
Van Etten, C.H., Wolff, I.A., and Jones, Q. 1963. Amino acid composition of seeds from
200 angiospermous plant species. J. Agr. Food Chem. 11(5):399410.
Acacia tortilis
Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne

Syn.: Acacia raddiana Savi,
Acacia spirocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich
Acacia heteracantha Burch.
Mimosaceae
Umbrella Thorn, Israeli Babool
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Since this is one of the few timber species of the Arabian deserts, it is suspected as being the wood
from which the Biblical Ark of the Tabernacle was made. Kaplan (1979) says rather emphatically
it is the Shittim of the Bible, which provided the Israelites with the large-size timbers for the Ark.
The timber is also used for fenceposts, firewood, furniture, and wagonwheels. The prolific pods
made good fodder for desert grazers and the foliage is also palatable, being one of the major dry
season fodder trees for the Sahara-Sahelian belt. Bark, used for string in Tanganyika. Gum used as
a poor man's gum arabic, said to be edible. It is the tree most recommended for reclaiming dunes
in India and Africa (Roy et al, 1973). The thorny branches are used to erect temporary cages and
pens. Bark said to be a good source of tannin (Roy et al, 1973). Africans once strung the pods into
necklaces. Senegalese use the roots for spear shafts, Lake Chad natives use the stems for fish
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_tortilis.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:15 PM]
Acacia tortilis
spears. African nomads often use the flexible roots for frameworks of their temporary shelters.
Folk Medicine
While I find few data specific to this species, I suspect that the gum is used like that of gum
arabics in folk remedies. In French Guinea, the bark is used as a vermifuge and dusted onto skin
ailments (Dalziel, 1937).
Chemistry
Pods contain close to 19% protein (Palmer and Pitman, 1972). NAS (1979) reports unconfirmed
allegations that the foliage can be toxic to livestock. Certainly HCN has been reported in several
Acacias. The following tables are reproduced, with permission, from FAO's Tropical Feeds
(1981):
Nutritive tables (Gohl, 1981)
DM
CP
19.2
17.3
37.8
8.7
Fresh leaves, South Africa

Pods, South Africa
Seeds, South Africa
Pod husks, South Africa
CF
11.6
24.8
10.9
34.3
As % of dry matter
Ash EE NFE Ca
8.7 6.1 54.4 2.27
5.7 3.1 49.1 0.79
5.9 6.0 39.7 0.56
6.2 1.6 49.2 1.10
P
0.17
0.34
0.73
0.14
Ref.
213
213
213
213
Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. heteracantha (Burch.) Brenan
Fresh leaves, Sudan

Pods, Tanzania
Pods, Kenya
Pods
Animal
Cattle
DM
90.9
CP
46.2
CP
13.3
12.3
17.8
CF
42.0
CF
9.4
22.4
17.5
As % of dry matter
Ash EE NFE
9.6
8.3 59.4
5.6
1.8 57.9
8.4
1.7 54.6
Ca
4.00
0.98
1.34
Digestibility (%)
EE
NFE
74.0
76.6
ME
2.30
P
0.15
0.24
0.36
Ref.
64
166
129
Ref
166
Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne subsp. spirocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich) Brenan
Description
Medium umbrella-shaped tree 415 m tall, often with several trunks, reduced to a small wiry shrub
less than 1 m tall under extremely arid conditions. Two types of thorns abound (1) long, straight,
Acacia tortilis
and white, and (2) small, hooked, and brownish. Leaves up to 2.5 cm long with 410 pairs of
pinnae, each with ca 15 pairs of minute leaflets. Flowers white, aromatic, in small clusters. Pods
flat, glabrose, coiled into a spring-like array.
Germplasm
Reported from North African and Middle Eastern Centers of Diversity, Umbrella Thorn, or cvs
thereof, is reported to tolerate alkalinity, drought, heat, sand, slope, and stony soils. It seems to be
more frost tolerant than Prosopis juliflora, still plants less than 2 years old are easily damaged by
frost. Four subspecies are known in different ecological zones: subspecies tortilisSahel, Middle
East; subspecies raddianaSudan, Middle East, Sahel(2n=104); subspecies spirocarpaEastern
Africa, Sudan; and subspecies heteracanthaSouthern Africa (2n= 52). The different subspecies
seem to have different ecological tolerances, which is important to consider when choosing a
subspecies for plantations. (2n= 52, 104)
Distribution
Native to much of Africa and the Middle East, this species has been introduced in many arid parts
of the world. Ironically, it grows faster in the Rajastan Desert of India, where used for charcoal,
firewood, and fodder, than in its native Israel (Kaplan, 1979). In Malawi, this species is already
scorned by the rural public because it is thorny and difficult to work with. It is being tried for
fencings (Nkaonja, 1980).
Ecology
Deemed the most promising of 56 Acacia species tried at Jodhpur, India. Probably ranging from
Subtropical Desert to Dry through Tropical Desert Scrub to Very Dry Forest Life Zones, umbrella
tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 10 dm, estimated annual temperature of 18
to 28C, and pH of 6.5 to 8.5. This species tolerates hot, arid climates with temperatures as high as
50C subspecies raddiana grows where minimum temperatures are close to 0C. It is best adapted
to the lowlands. It thrives where rainfall is up to 1,000 mm. However, it is also extremely drought
resistant and can survive in climates with less than 100 mm annual rainfall with long, erratic dry
seasons. The tree favors alkaline soils. It grows fairly well in shallow soil, less than 0.25 m deep,
though it develops long lateral roots that can become a nuisance in nearby fields, paths, and
roadways. In shallow soil, the plants remain shrubby and must be widely spaced to allow for their
lateral root growth.
Cultivation
For good seed germination, seeds should be treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for 30
minutes (Roy et al, 1973). Artificial regeneration aiming at large-scale nursery production requires
full use of the germination capacity of the available seeds. This may be achieved by sulfuric acid
pretreatment, which brings about the germination of all viable seeds. Treatment with boiling water
Acacia tortilis
is selective and mainly breaks the dormancy of bruchid-infested seeds, some of which are no
longer able to germinate. Sowing of unripe seeds without pretreatment may be called for as an
emergency measure in case of very severe infestation, to achieve at least partial success. Prior to
storage, seeds should be fumigated to arrest progressing deterioration of seed viability by bruchids
(Karschon, 1975). NAS (1980a) recommends dipping the seed in hot water to soak overnight.
Seedlings require initial weeding to facilitate faster growth. Plantations can be spaced at 3 x 3 m.
Harvesting
Firewood harvested as needed, but 10-year rotations are suggested. In Jodhupr, flower initiation is
ca May-June in 3-year old trees, fruits forming in July but ripening from November through
February. Since the tree coppices well, there is no need to replant after every harvest.

Eleven-year old trees in deep sandy soils at Jodhpur averaged 6.4 m tall and 14 cm DBH. In
shallow sandy loams over hardpan at Pali, India, 7-year old trees (98% survival) averaged 4.8 m
tall, and 10 cm DBH. In sanddunes at Barmer, India, 5-year old trees averaged 3 m tall, 7 cm
DBH. An average tree yields 6 kg pods of which 2.6 kg is clean seed. One tree is said to yield
1418 kg pods and leaves per year in India (Muthana and Arora, 1980). Acacia tortilis has been
reported to yield giraffe forage at 5 MT/ha/yr.
Energy
A 12-year-old plantation in India yielded 54 MT fuel , suggest, annual returns of 4.5 MT, not a bad
return for the desert (NAS, 1980a). The heartwood has calorific value of 4,400 kcals/kg, making
superior firewood and charcoal. It is one of the main firewood and charcoal sources in parts of
Africa, e.g. around Khartoum. Nitrogen-fixing nodules are reported in South Africa and
Zimbabwe.
Biotic Factors
Bruchids often damage or destroy the seeds, on the tree or after collecting. Herbivores, tame and
wild alike, are liable to graze seedlings and innovations. Trees attacked by beetles, mimosoid
blights, and caterpillars. The wood is susceptible to termites. In Tanzania, elephants which eat the
bark are wiping out some park populations. In Israel, the native Acacias host several species (>40)
of mostly monophagous insects, whereas on one exotic, Australian Acacia saligna, only a few
polyphagous species occur (Halperin, 1980). Only Microcerotermes diversus and Kalotermes
flavicollis, which feed on woody parts of both Acacias and Apate monachus (a beetle which
tunnels the stems and branches, causing them to collapse in windblow), may seriously damage the
tree. In nature, regeneration and spread of Acacias are probably limited by bruchids destroying
much of the seed crop. Seedlings from natural regeneration may come from damaged seeds with a
still intact embryo axis, since seedcoat dormancy is removed by the effect of exit holes permitting
Acacia tortilis
rapid water absorption and germination. Intact seeds with hard impermeable seedcoats may require
a long time to germinate, and probably function as a reserve to ensure the survival of the species
(Karschon, 1975).
References
Dalziel, J.M. 1937. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. The Whitefriars Press, Ltd.,
London and Tonbridge.
Halperin, J. 1980. Forest insects and protection in the arid zones of Israel. J. Israel For.
Assoc. 30(3/4):6872.
Kaplan, J. 1979. Some examples of successful use of Acacia for afforestation. J. Israel For.
Assoc. 29(3/4):6364.
Karschon, R. 1975. Seed germination of Acacia raddiana Savi and A. tortilis Rayne as
related to infestation by bruchids. Ag. Res. Org. Leaflet 52. Bet Dagan.
Muthana, K.D. and Arora, G.D. 1980. Performance of Acacia tortilis (Forsk) under different
habitats of the Indian arid zone. Ann. Arid Zone 19(1/2):110118.
N.A.S. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, DC.
Nkaonja, R.S.W. 1980. Dryland afforestation problems in Malawi. J. Israel For. Assoc.
30(3/4):100105.
Palmer, E. and Pitman, N. 1972. Trees of Southern Africa. 3 vols. A.A. Balkemia, Cape
Town.
Roy, A.D., Kaul, R.N., and Gyanchand. 1973. Israeli babool a promising tree for arid and
semiarid lands.
Acacia mangium
Acacia mangium Willd.

Mimosaceae
Mangium, Forest mangrove
Handbook of Energy CropsJames A. Duke. 1983. unpublished.
New Crops: Solutions for Global ProblemsNoel Vietmeyer
last update October 23, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Acacia_mangium_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:15 PM]
Acacia nilotica
Acacia nilotica (L.) Del.

Syn.: Mimosa nilotica L.
Mimosaceae
"Motse", Egyptian Mimosa, or Thorn
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Some feel that the thorn bush of Exodus 3 was Acacia nilotica, the fire, the parasite Loranthus
acaciae. Inner bark contains 1823% tannin, used for tanning and dyeing leather black. Young
pods produce a very pale tint in leather, notably goat hides (Kano leather). Pods were used by the
ancient Egyptians. Young bark used as fiber, twigs esteemed for tooth brushes (chewsticks). Trees
tapped for gum arabic. The gum arabic is still used in making candles, inks, matches, and paints
(NAS, 1980). Tender pods and shoots used as vegetable, and used as forage for camels, sheep and
goats, especially in Sudan, where it is said to improve milk from these animals. Seeds are a
valuable cattle food. Roasted seed kernels, sometimes used for flavoring and when crushed
provide the dye for black strings worn by Nankani women. Trees used in Sudan for afforestation
of inundated areas. Sapwood is yellowish-white, heartwood reddish-brown, hard, heavy, durable,
difficult to work, though taking a high polish. Because of its resins, it resists insects and water, and
trees are harvested for the timber for boat-making, posts, buildings, water-pipes, well-planking,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_nilotica.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:16 PM]
Acacia nilotica
plows, cabinet-work, wheels, mallets and other implements. Wood yields excellent firewood and
charcoal (Duke, 1981a). The aqueous extract of the fruit, rich in tannin (1823%) has shown
algicidal activity against Chroccoccus, Closteruim, Coelastrum, Cosmarium, Cyclotella, Euglena,
Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Pediastrum, Rivularia, Spirogyra, and Spirulina (Ayoub, 1983).
Folk Medicine
Zulu take bark for cough, Chipi use root for tuberculosis. Masai are intoxicated by the bark and
root decoction, said to impart courage, even aphrodisia, and the root is said to cure impotence.
Astringent bark used for diarrhea, dysentery, and leprosy. Bruised leaves poulticed onto ulcers.
According to Hartwell, the gum or bark is used for cancers and/or tumors (of ear, eye, or testicles)
and indurations of liver and spleen, condylomas, and excess flesh. Said also to be used for cancer,
colds, congestion, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, gallbladder, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids,
leucorrhea, ophthalmia, sclerosis, smallpox, and tuberculosis. Bark, gum, leaves, and pods used
medicinally in West Africa. Sap or bark, leaves, and young pods are strongly astringent due to
tannin, and are chewed In Senegal as antiscorbutic; in Ethiopia as lactogogue. Bark decoction
drunk for intestinal pains and diarrhea. Other preparations used for coughs, gargle, toothache,
ophthalmia, and syphilitic ulcers. In Tonga, the root is used to treat tuberculosis. In Lebanon, the
resin is mixed with orange-flower infusion for typhoid convalescence. Masai use the bark
decoction as a nerve stimulant. In Italian Africa, the wood is used to treat smallpox. Egyptian
Nubians believe that diabetics may eat unlimited carbohydrates as long as they also consume
powdered pods (Duke, 1983a). Extracts are inhibitory to at least four species of pathogenic fungi
(Umalkar et al, 1976).
Chemistry
Babul has been reported to contain l-arabinose, catechol, galactan, galactoaraban, galactose,
N-acetyldjenkolic acid, N-acetyldjenkolic acid, sulphoxides pentosan, saponin, tannin. Seeds
contain crude protein 18.6%, ether extract 4.4%, fiber 10.1%, nitrogen-free extract 61.2%, ash
5.7%, and silica 0.44%. Phosphorus 0.29% and calcium 0.90% of DM. When bullocks were given
the seeds and bran (2:1) with dry pasture grass daily DM intakes were 1.82, 0.91, and 5.35 kg
respectively. Total DM intake/100 kg bodyweight was 1.40 kg. The animals retained 20.8 g N and
7.4 g Ca daily but the P balance was slightly negative (Pande et al, 1981). Walker (1980) puts the
CP content of the browse at 12.9%, the crude fiber at 15.2%
Description
Small tree, 2.514 m tall, quite variable in many aspects; bark of twigs not flaking off, gray to
brown; branches spreading, with flat or rounded crown; bark thin, rough, fissured, deep red-brown;
branchlets purple-brown, shortly or densely gray-pubescent, with lenticels; spines gray-pubescent,
slightly recurved, up to 3 cm long; leaves often with 12 petiolar glands and other glands between
all or only the uppermost pinnae; plnnae 211 (-17) pairs; leaflets 725 (-30) pairs, 1.57 mm
long, 0.51.5 mm wide, glabrous or pubescent, apex obtuse; peduncles clustered at nodes of leafy
and leafless branchlets; flowers bright yellow, in axillary heads 615 mm in diam.; involucel from
Acacia nilotica
near the base to about half-way up the peduncle, rarely somewhat higher; calyx 12 mm long,
subglabrous to pubescent; corolla 2.53.5 mm long, glabrous or pubescent outside; pods especially
variable, linear, indehiscent, 817 (-24) cm long, 1.32.2 cm broad, straight or curved, glabrous or
gray-velvety, turgid, blackish, about 12-seeded; seeds deep blackish-brown, smooth, subcircular,
compressed, areole 67 mm long, 4.55 mm wide. Fl. Oct.Dec.; fr. Mar.June (Duke, 1981a).
Germplasm
Acacia nilotica var. kraussiana (Benth.) Brenan is the most common form in east tropical Africa.
Young branches more or less densely pubescent; pods not necklace-like, 11.8 cm wide, oblong,
more or less pubescent all over at first with raised parts over seeds becoming glabrescent, shining
and black when dry, margins shallowly crenate. Exhibits wide range of altitudinal and habitat
requirements. Found in Botswana, Zambia, Rhodesia, Malawi, Tanzania, Angola, Mozambique,
Transvaal, and Natal. A. nilotica var. tomentosa A. F. Hill (A. arabica var. tomentosa Benth.), has
pods straight, constricted between seeds and densely tomentose; found in Senegal and northern
Nigeria, to Sudan, Arabia and India. A. nilotica var. adansonii (Guill. et Perr.) Kuntze is a tree up
to 17 m with dark reddish-brown bark deeply fissured, tomentose, reddish-brown twigs and gray
fruits; commonest variety in West Africa, from Senegal to Nigeria and widespread in northern
parts of Tropical Africa. Assigned to the African Center of Diversity, babul or cvs thereof is
reported to exhibit tolerance to clay, drought, heat, heavy soil, high pH, poor soils, salt, savanna,
and waterlogging. (2n=52.)
Distribution
Native from Egypt south to Mozambique and Natal; apparently introduced to Zanzibar, Pemba,
and India; Arabia. Considered a serious weed in South Africa.
Ecology
Woodlands of various sorts, wooded grasslands, scrub and thickets. Thrives in dry areas, but
endures floods. Grows 101,340 m altitude, in a wide range of conditions. Grows on a wide
variety of soils, seemingly thriving on alluvial soils, black cotton soils, heavy clay soils, as well as
even poorer soils (NAS, 1980). Ranging from Subtropical Desert to Subtropical Dry through
Tropical Desert to Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, babul is reported to tolerate annual
precipitation of 3.822.8 dm (mean of 12 cases = 12.0 dm), annual mean temperature of
18.727.8C (mean of 12 cases = 24.1C), and pH of 5.08.0 (mean of 10 cases = 6.9) (Duke,
1981a).
Cultivation
Trees propagated in forest by seeds. Direct seeding is the common practice. Stored seed may
require scarification. Young seedlings are said to "require full sun and frequent weeding" (NAS,
1980a).
Acacia nilotica
Harvesting
Although there are other sources of gum arabic, trees are still tapped for the gum by removing a bit
of bark 57.5 cm wide and bruising the surrounding bark with mallet or hammer. The resulting
reddish gum, almost completely soluble and tasteless, is formed into balls. Though used in
commerce to some extent, it is inferior to other forms of gum arabic, with which it is sometimes
mixed.

Various products of the tree are used locally in tropical Africa, but none enter international
markets. Trees usually add 23 cm in diameter each year (NAS, 1980a).
Energy
Extensively used, e.g. in India, for firewood and charcoal, this species has been used in
locomotives and steamships as well as industry balers. It is cultivated for industrial fuel in the
Sudan. The calorific value of the sapwood is 4,800 kcal/kg of the heartwood 4,950. The species
does nodulate and fix nitrogen.
Biotic Factors
Wood borers may afflict the stems and bruchids may afflict the seeds. Following fungi have been
reported on this plant: Ctyospora acaciae, Diatryphe acaciae, Diplodia acaciae, Fomes badius, F.
endotheius, F. fastuosus, F. rimosus, Fusicoccum indicum, Phyllactinia acaciae, Ravenelia
acaciae-arabicae, Septogloeum acaciae, Septoria mortolensis, Sphaerostilbe acaciae. Trees are
also parasitized by Dendrophthoe falcata and Loranthus globiferus var. verrucosus (Duke, 1981).
In a survey for phytophagous insects on Acacia nilotica, 43 species were recorded in Pakistan, of
these, 16 appeared stenophagous. The more promising for biological control of the tree were:
Anarsia sp. cf. acaciae, Pseudosterrha paulula, Azanus ubaldus, and Ceutholopha isidis feeding
on flowers; Bruchidius sahlbergi and Sulcobruchus sp. damaging seeds; Ascalenia callynella,
Gisilia stereodoxa and an unidentified gracillariid boring shoots; and Cydia sp. making stem galls
(Mohyuddin, 1981).

Various products of the tree are used locally in tropical Africa, blit none enter international
markets. Trees usually add 23 cm in diameter each year (NAS, 1980).
Acacia nilotica
References
Ayoub, S.M.H. 1983. Algicidal properties of Acacia nilotica. Fitoterapia 53(56):1758.
Duke, 1981.
NewYork.
Duke, J.A. 1983a. Medicinal plants of the Bible. Trado-Medic Books, Owerri, NY.
Mohyuddin, A.I. 1981. Phytophages associated with Acacia nilotica in Pakistan and
possibilities of their introduction into Australia. p. 161166. Proceedings of the 5th
International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Australia Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
Pande, M.B., Talpada, P.M., Patel, J.S., and Shukla, P.C. 1981. Note on the nutritive value
of babul (Acacia nilotica L.) seeds (extracted). In: Indian J. Anim. Sci. 51(1):107108.
Umalkar, C.V., Begum, S., Nehemiah, K.M.A. 1976. Inhibitory effect of Acacia nilotica
extracts on pectolytic enzyme production by some pathogenic fungi. Indian Phytopath.:
publ. 1977, 29(4):469470.
Walker, B.H. 1980. A review of browse and its role in livestock production in southern
Africa. p. 724. In: LeHouerou, H.N. (ed.), Browse in Africa. International Livestock Centre
for Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
New Arid Land Ornamentals: Recent Introductions for Desert Landscapes
Rademacher, J.H. 1999. New arid land ornamentals: recent introductions for desert landscapes.
p. 436440. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria,
VA.
New Arid Land Ornamentals: Recent

Introductions for Desert Landscapes
Janet H. Rademacher
Over the past decade, water conservation has become an increasingly important issue across the
southwestern United States. This concern has led local horticulturists and landscape architects to
explore the use of water-thrifty ornamentals from dry climates throughout the world. The
Chihuahuan and Sonoran deserts in particular have yielded a vast array of successful landscape
plants. Universities, growers, and plant enthusiasts have all participated in the collection,
propagation, evaluation, and promotion of new plant introductions. A group of recent proven
introductions, including trees, shrubs, ground covers, and perennials are included below with
information on their origins, growth habits, cultural requirements, and potential uses in the
landscape.
Acacia redolens
Maslin, Desert CarpetTM
Native to inland areas of Western
Australia, Acacia redolens Maslin has
been used extensively in southern
California and Arizona to cover large
areas inexpensively. Seedlings of Acacia
redolens vary widely in their growth
habits, often reaching heights in excess of
1.8 m (6 feet). The Desert Carpet clone
was selected from the first Phoenix
freeway plantings for its prostrate growth
habit, and was released by Mountain
States Wholesale Nursery in 1984. Since
that time, this groundcover has performed consistently on many projects, and years after
installation has maintained a height of only 0.6 m (24 inches). One plant can spread to a width of
3.6 m (12 feet), although we have observed that the cutting-grown Desert Carpet plants are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-436.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:27:25 PM]
slower to establish and reach their mature size than seedlings. The slower growth rate and prostrate
nature of this clone should reduce maintenance costs, since pruning is not necessary to control
vertical growth. Instead of true leaves, Acacia redolens has thick, leathery, gray-green phyllodes.
This plant blooms in the spring with small yellow flowers. Freeway acacia will tolerate low
temperatures of 11.1 to 9.4C (1215F), alkaline and slightly saline soils, and does not seem
to be choosy about soil types. In coastal areas it requires little or no supplemental irrigation, but
does require regular irrigation in hot desert regions. Desert CarpetTM seems to be disease and pest
free.
Baccharis
hybrid 'Starn' (P.P.A.F.) ThompsonTM
When Dr. Tommy Thompson and Dr. Chi Won Lee of the
University of Arizona released Baccharis hybrid
'Centennial', it filled a great void in our plant palette. Their
research has been carried on, and now the improved
Thompson clone is available. Since Baccharis
'Centennial' is a female plant, it has two undesirable
characteristics. First, it produces pappus, or white "fluff,"
which litters the landscape and reduces the esthetic
appearance of the plants for a short period of time. Also,
since 'Centennial' is a female plant, it can be pollinated by
nearby male Baccharis sarothroides Gray (Desert broom),
and seedlings often result. This is why you sometimes see
stands of 'Centennial' with taller Baccharis plants growing
up through them. The ThompsonTM clone is a male plant,
eliminating these two negative characteristics. Also,
ThompsonTM was selected from the next generation after
'Centennial', and has 25% more Baccharis sarothroides for
heat and disease resistance. The growth habits and uses of
these two clones are essentially the same: both grow to about 0.9 m (3 feet) tall by 1.21.5 m (4-5)
feet wide, are evergreen with bright green foliage and inconspicuous flowers, and provide a
low-maintenance, long-lived alternative for difficult locations.
Cercidium
species 'Desert Museum'
This hybrid palo verde is a three-way cross between

Parkinsonia aculeata L., Cercidium microphyllum (Torr.)
Rose & I.M. Johnst., and Cercidium floridum Benth. ex
Gray, and seems to combine the best qualities of all three
plants. 'Desert Museum' grows very rapidly to 6.1 m (20
feet) tall and wide in 3 to 5 years, after which it needs little
or no irrigation. It is completely thornless, and produces
very little litter, with few seed pods. It has a sturdy, upright
growth habit which requires very little pruning or staking. It
blooms over a long period of time, with the heaviest bloom
from about mid-March to May 1. It also tends to bloom
again in June and August. The yellow flowers are larger
than any of its three "parents." It does not reseed like the
messy Parkinsonia aculeata!
Chilopsis linearis
(Cav.) Sweet, Lucretia HamiltonTM
Desert willow trees occur along washes throughout the
southwestern US and northern Mexico. This small
deciduous tree has narrow, light green leaves that give it a
weeping appearance. In the summer, the tree is covered
with fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers. In the wild, the
flower colors range from white to purple, although a pale
pink to lavender flower color is the most common. The
Lucretia HamiltonTM clone was selected for its intense,
deep pink to purple flower color, as well as its small
stature. While many desert willow trees can grow to 7.6 m
(25 feet) tall and wide, this clone seems to stay below
5.46.1 m (18-20 feet) tall and wide. After flowering, long
narrow seed pods are produced. Plant Chilopsis linearis in
full sun and well-drained soil, and in regions where
temperatures do not drop below 17.8C (0F).
Chrysactinia mexicana
Gray (Damianita)
This small, compact shrub grows to 0.6 m
(2 feet) tall and wide, and bears a very
strong resemblance to turpentine bush,
with needle-like green leaves and yellow
daisy-like flowers. However, damianita
blooms from March to September, while
turpentine bush blooms from September
to November. Combining the two plants
would be a great way to prolong the color
display! Damianita has
wonderful-smelling foliage, and would be
a great selection for sensory gardens.
Damianita is a very tough, durable plant, tolerating extreme heat and cold, down to 17.8C (0F).
Plant in full sun, and almost any soil. If this plant starts to look woody, prune it back severely in
the early spring. Damianita ranges from New Mexico to west Texas and northeastern Mexico, at
elevations of 6092134 m (20007000 feet).
Dalea capitata
Sierra GoldTM
This well-behaved ground cover grows to about 20 cm (8
inches) tall by 0.9 m (3 feet) wide. Because of its compact
size, Sierra GoldTM is a good selection for tight planting
areas, such as small planters or medians. Its fine-textured,
light green foliage has a fresh, lemony scent. Rabbits seem
to avoid it! Yellow flowers carpet Sierra GoldTM in the
spring and the fall. This plant is hardy to at least 15C
(5F), but it will be deciduous at 3.9C (25F). The one
drawback to this plant is that the whiteflies seem to like it,
so some insecticide applications will be necessary in
heavily infested areas around Phoenix. Plant in full sun for
best results. No soil amendments should be necessary. In
hot desert regions this plant requires some supplemental
irrigation from spring to fall. Although most dales native to
Arizona and Mexico tend to rot out if overwatered, we
have observed this plant thriving right next to turfgrass,
where it receives heavy irrigation. More testing is needed
to determine if it will tolerate coastal areas, or regions with
high rainfall.
Dasylirion longissimum
This user-friendly accent plant is a great
selection for high-traffic areas such as
walkways and near entries. This grasslike
plant does well in containers, and its
symmetrical form provides a striking
focal point. Its thin, stiff green leaves are
completely unarmed, and have smooth
edges. Eventually, its single trunk can
grow to 1.8 m (6 feet), topped by a 1.5 m(5-foot-) wide rounded head of leaves.
The older, bottom leaves can be trimmed
off to expose the trunk. Dasylirion
longissimum is native to Mexico, and is hardy to about 8.3C (17F).
Euphorbia biglandulosa
Desf. (Gopher Plant)
This evergreen perennial or subshrub has
a very unusual form and appearance. Its
arching stems angle out and up, and can
reach a length of 0.6 m (2 feet). The plant
grows to 0.9 m (3 feet) tall by 1.2 m (4
feet) across; with narrow, fleshy
grey-green leaves. Broad clusters of
chartreuse flowers occur at the tips of the
arching stems, usually in the late winter
and early spring. Flowers are followed by
small brown seed pods that explode upon
ripening. The stems usually die back after
fruiting, leaving a small clump of grey-green foliage near the ground. Plant Euphorbia
biglandulosa in full sun or light shade, in a well-draining soil. It is cold hardy to 15C (5F).
Hesperaloe parviflora
(Torr.) J. Coult., 'Yellow' (Yellow yucca)
A clumping perennial with long, gray-green leaves,

Hesperaloe parviflora grows slowly to form a grasslike
clump 1.01.2 m (34 feet) tall and wide. From spring
through fall, it produces 1.5 m- (5-foot-) tall flower spikes.
Red-flowering plants have been a staple in southwestern
landscapes for many years. This is simply a
yellow-flowering selection. Use this tough accent plant in
full sun. Since it also tolerates reflected heat, yellow yucca
is a reliable plant to use along sidewalks, in parking lots,
etc. Tolerant of temperature extremes, yellow yucca is
cold-hardy to at least 17.8C (0F). Once established, it
requires little or no irrigation. All in all, yellow yucca is
one of the toughest and most maintenance-free plants.
Hymenoxys acaulis
(Pursh) K. Parker (Angelita Daisy)
This perennial is native to the
southwestern US, where it occurs most
often at elevations from 12192134 m
(40007000 feet), on dry rocky slopes
and mesas. Angelita daisy bears a strong
resemblance to Baileya multiradiata
Harv. & A. Gray ex Torr. (desert
marigold). However, the foliage is green
rather than gray, and the flower is a
deeper gold color. Forming rounded
clumps to fifteen inches tall and wide,
Hymenoxys acaulis is a wonderful plant
to use as a border in front of larger shrubs. I f water is available, it will naturalize in the landscape.
In Phoenix, this plant blooms all year, with especially heavy bloom in the spring and fall months.
This prolonged bloom period results in many dried flower stalks, which can make the plants look
scruffy. We recommend cutting off the old flower spikes occasionally to rejuvenate the plant and
initiate new flower production. Angelita daisy seems to prefer well-drained soils and full sun. It is
very cold hardy, heat tolerant, and drought tolerant.
Leucophyllum candidum
I.M. Johnst. Thunder CloudTM
As with all of the other Leucophyllum
species, this clone blooms when the
humidity is high. The silver, pubescent
foliage is a perfect foil for the masses of
indigo flowers that appear in the summer
and fall months. Thunder CloudTM was
selected and trademarked by Benny
Simpson of Texas A&M University. His
clone is highly valued because of its
small, dense growth habit. Unlike most of
the larger Leucophyllum species, Thunder
CloudTM remains reliably small, to three
feet tall and wide. This plant is cold hardy to at least 12.2C (10F). Plant all of the Leucophyllum
species in full sun and well-drained soil. Avoid overwatering.
Leucophyllum langmaniae
Rio BravoTM
Trademarked by Mountain States
Nursery, this clone has a nice, compact
growth habit very similar to L. frutescens
'Compacta'. Rio BravoTM has become
very popular because of its bright green
foliage and rounded, dense form. It has
lavender flowers and will eventually
grow to 1.5 m (5 feet) tall and wide. Like
the L. candidum species, it requires
well-drained soils and full sun. It is hardy
to 12.2C (10F).
Muhlenbergia capillaris
(Lam.) Trin. Regal MistTM
We feel that this ornamental grass shows

great promise for many different regions
of the country. Native to humid
southeastern Texas, this grass has adapted
extremely well to the hot, dry conditions
of deserts in Arizona and Nevada. In fact,
it has performed incredibly well in Las
Vegas, which is cursed with poor soils,
high winds, high summer temperatures,
and cold winters. Regal MistTM is also
happy in heavy soils, with ample
irrigation. In short, it has worked
everywhere it has been tried, so far! It is
hardy to at least 17.8C (0F). Regal MistTM has narrow, dark green, glossy leaves. It grows
quickly to form a rounded clump to 0.9 m (3 feet) tall and wide. The flower spikes on this grass
have attracted a lot of attention... they form misty masses of pink to purple flowers in October and
November. We recommend cutting this plant back in early spring to cut off the dead flower spikes
and any dormant foliage.
Penstemon
species
There are so many wonderful Penstemon species to try in
the garden, that is difficult to select just a few. Most of the
penstemons are perennials with a basal rosette of foliage,
which send up spikes of tubular flowers in the spring and
early summer. They add incredible color to the landscape,
and attract hummingbirds as well! Penstemons come in a
wide range of colors, including blue, purple, pink, and red.
After they finish blooming, allow the flower spikes to dry
on the plant. Then cut off the spikes and sprinkle the seed
in the garden to increase next year's mass of color. There
are two new species to try: Penstemon triflorus Heller,
which has short, 46 cm (18 inch) spikes of dark pink-purple
flowers which occur along the stem in clusters of three; and
Penstemon clevelandii Gray, native to southern and Baja
California, with spikes of clear, bright pink flowers to
0.60.8 m (22.5 feet) tall.
Acacia saligna
Acacia saligna (Labill.)

H.Wendl.
Mimosaceae
Orange Wattle
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Orange wattle is an extremely rugged tree, adaptable to barren slopes, derelict land, and
exceptionally arid conditions in Australia and North Africa. It grows rapidly and is used for
reclaiming eroded hillsides and wastelands and for stabilizing drift sands as well as for fuel. This is
one of the best woody species for binding moving sand. It is useful for windbreaks, amenity
plantings, beautification projects, and roadside stabilization in semiarid regions. The leaves, or
phyllodes, are palatable to livestock when fresh or dried into hay, especially used as
supplementary feed for sheep and goats. Crushed seeds have been fed to sheep without ill effects.
Regrowth of established bushes is so good that Acacia saligna can be completely grazed off
without harming the plants. The damaged bark exudes copious amounts of a very acidic gum that
seems to show promise for use in pickles and other acidic foodstuffs (NAS, 1980).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_saligna.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:27:25 PM]
Acacia saligna
Folk Medicine
No data observed.
Chemistry
Natal-grown bark contains up to 30.3% tannin compared to 19.123.0 at the Cape. The plant has
given negative test for HCN.
Description
Dense, bushy shrub, usually 25 m tall; may grow treelike to 8 m tall with a single main stem
(diameter to 30 cm). In spring its usually drooping branches are clad in beautiful and abundant
yellow flowers (NAS, 1980a).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, orange wattle, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate alkalinity, drought, heavy soil, poor soil, salinity, salt spray, sand, shade, slope,
waterlogging, and weeds. (2n = 26)
Distribution
Acacia saligna is native to the southwestern corner of western Australia. It was introduced to
South Africa in the 1840s in an attempt to stabilize the shifting sand dunes. It has also been planted
in Uruguay, Mexico Israel, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Greece, Cyprus, and North African countries
(NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Acacia saligna can grow throughout the tropical and the warm temperate regions of the world
(NAS, 1980a). In its native habitat, the summer temperature ranges from about 2336C, winter
temperatures from 49C. The plant does not withstand frost and grows best where the winter and
summer means are between 13 and 30C respectively. Grows from near sea level to about 300 m,
with isolated occurrences at higher elevations. Particularly drought hardy, it grows where annual
rainfall is as low as 250 mm, though it probably does better with 350600 mm. It grows well
where annual rainfall is as high as 1,000 mm. Grows mainly on sandy, coastal plains, but is found
from swampy sites and riverbanks to small, rocky hills (often granitic) and coastal slopes. It occurs
on poor acid or calcareous sands, under the most dry and adverse soil conditions, in moderately
heavy clays and a range of podzols (NAS, 1980a).
Acacia saligna
Cultivation
Seeds germinate readily; young plants can often be found under mature trees in the hundreds.
Seedlings are easily raised in a nursery and established in the field. This species develops root
suckers and coppices freely. Seeds are normally treated with boiling water, but nicking the seed
coat, soaking in sulfuric acid, and exposing the seeds to dry heat are also effective (NAS, 1980a).
Harvesting
In Mediterranean countries, the fuelwood from this species is harvested on a coppice rotation
system of 510 years (NAS, 1980).

Acacia saligna grows quickly, often reaching up to 8 m tall with a spread as great as its height in
just 4 or 5 years. In very dry situations, growth rate is slower. Annual yields vary from 1.5 to 10
m3 per ha, depending on site. Because of its hardiness and profuse reproductive abilities, Acacia
saligna has become a serious menace in parts of South Africa by invading and displacing
indigenous vegetation. It infests water courses (sometimes decreasing the water available for
irrigation), and has proved difficult to eradicate (NAS, 1980a).
Energy
Plantations for fuel have been established in some Mediterranean countries. But, according to one
report from South Africa, the wood is "sappy, light, and not a popular fuelwood." The plant can
withstand some shade and can be grown as an understory beneath pines or eucalypts in energy
plantations or village fuel and fodder areas (NAS, 1980a). The annual litterfall of four Acacia
species naturalized in the South African Cape, comprising 60% foliage and 30% reproductive
structures, averages 7 MT/ha, double the value expected in evergreen scrub communities in winter
rainfall regions.
Biotic Factors
Acacia saligna supports a diverse and abundant range of herbivores that cause damage to the plant.
Among pests cited are Icerya purchasi (Hemiptera) and Euproctis fasciata (Lepidoptera) (NAS,
1980a) and Meloidgogyne sp. (Nematoda)
References
Acacia saligna

Acacia senegal
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.

Syn.: Acacia verek Guill. et Perr.
Mimosaceae
Gum Arabic, Senegal Gum, Sudan Gum Arabic, Kher, Kumta
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Tree yields commercial gum arabic, used extensively in pharmaceutical preparations, inks, pottery
pigments, water-colors, wax polishes, and liquid gum; for dressing fabrics, giving lustre to silk and
crepe; for thickening colors and mordants in calico-printing; in confections and sweetmeats.
Causing partial destruction of many alkaloids including atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine,
homatropine, morphine, apomorphine, cocaine, and physostigmine, gum arabic might be viewed
as a possible antidote. Pharmaceutically used mainly in the manufacture of emulsions and in
making pills and troches (as an excipient); as demulcent for inflammations of the throat or stomach
and as masking agent for acrid tasting substances such as capsicum; also as a film-forming agent
in peel-off masks. Its major use is in foods, for example, as suspending or emulsifying agent,
stabilizer, adhesive, flavor fixative, and to prevent crystallization of sugar, etc. Used in practically
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_senegal.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:26 PM]
Acacia senegal
all categories of processed foods (candy, snack foods, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, baked
goods, frozen dairy desserts, gelatins, and puddings, imitation dairy products, breakfast cereals,
and fats and oils). Use levels range from less than 0.004% (40 ppm) in soups and milk products,
0.7 to 2.9% in nonalcoholic beverages, imitation dairy, and snack foods, to as high as 45% in
candy products (Leung, 1980). Strong rope made from bark fibers. White wood used for tool
handles, black heartwood for weaver's shuttles. The long flexible strands of surface roots provide
one of the strongest of local fibers, used for cordage, well-ropes, fishing nets, horsegirdles,
footropes, etc. Seeds are dried and preserved for human consumption (NAS, 1980). Young foliage
makes good forage. Plants useful for afforestation of arid tracts, soil reclamation, and windbreaks
(Duke, 1981a). In modern pharmacy, it is commonly employed as a demulcent in preparations
designed to treat diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, throat irritation, and fevers. It serves as an
emulsifying agent and gives viscosity to powdered drug materials; is used as a binding agent in
making pills and tablets and particularly cough drops and lozenges. Because of its enzyme, the
gum is not suitable for use in products having readily oxidizable ingredients. For example, it
reduces the vitamin A content of cod liver oil by 54% within three weeks. It is incompatible with
aminopyrine, morphine, vanillin, phenol, thymol, - and -naphthol, guiacol, cresols, creosol,
eugenol, apomorphine, eserine, epinephrine, isobarbaloin, gallic acid, and tannin; also with
strongly alcoholic liquids, solutions of ferric chloride and lead subacetate and strong solutions of
sodium borate. It was formerly given intravenously to counteract low blood pressure after
hemorrhages and surgery and to treat edema associated with nephrosis, but such practices caused
kidney and liver damage and allergic reactions and have been abandoned (Morton, 1977).
Folk Medicine
The demulcent, emollient gum is used internally in inflammation of intestinal mucosa, and
externally to cover inflamed surfaces, as burns, sore nipples and nodular leprosy. Also said to be
used for antitussive, astringent, catarrh, colds, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, expectorant, gonorrhea,
hemorrhage, sore throat, typhoid, urinary tract (Duke and Wain, 1981).
Chemistry
Gum acacia contains neutral sugars (rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose), acids (glucuronic acid
and 4-methoxyglucuronic acid), calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Its complex
structure is still not completely known. Its backbone chain consists of D-galactose units, and its
side chains are composed of D-glucuronic acid units with l-rhamnose or l-arabinose as end units.
The molecular weight has been reported to be between 200,000 to 300,000 and as high as 600,000
(Leung, 1980).
Toxicity
Ingested orally, acacia is nontoxic. However, some people are allergic to its dust and develop skin
lesions and severe asthmatic attacks when in contact with it. Acacia can be digested by rats to an
extent of 71%; guinea pigs and rabbits also seem to utilize it for energy, as does man to a certain
extent. Gum arabic may actually elevate serum or tissue cholesterol levels in rats (Leung, 1980).
Acacia senegal
Description
Savanna shrub or tree, up to 20 m tall, over 1.3 m in girth, spiny; bark gray to brown or blackish,
scaly, rough; young branchlets densely to sparsely pubescent, soon glabrescent, crown dense;
stipules not spinescent; prickles just below the nodes, either in threes up to 7 mm long, with the
middle one hooked downwards and the lateral ones curved upwards, or solitary with the laterals
absent; leaves bioinnate, up to 2.5 cm long; leaf-axis finely downy with 2 glands; pinnae 620
pairs; leaflets small, 725 pairs, rigid, leathery, glabrous, linear to elliptic-oblong, ciliate on
margins, pale glaucous-green, apex obtuse to subacute; flowers in spikes 510 cm long, not very
dense, on peduncles 0.72 cm long, normally produced with the leaves; calyx bell-shaped,
glabrous, deeply toothed; corolla white to yellowish, fragrant, sessile; pod straight or slightly
curved, retrap-shaped, 7.518 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, thin, light brown or gray, papery or woody,
firm, indehiscent, glabrous, 56-(-15) seeded; seeds greenish-brown. Fl. Jan.Mar.; fr. Jan.Apr.,
July, Aug. or Oct. (Duke, 1981a).
Germplasm
Tree with a single central stem and a dense flat-topped crown, bark without any papery peel,
rough, gray or brown, with pubescent, rarely glabrous inflorescence, and pods variable in size,
rounded to somewhat pointed but not rostrate or acuminate at apex. Variety rostrata Brenan is a
shrub, branching at or close to base, or a small tree, with a single stem, 16 m tall, with dense
flattened crown, bark normally with a flaking papery peel, creamy-yellow to yellow-green or
gray-brown, inflorescence axis always pubescent and pods 23.5 times as long as wide, rostrate or
acuminate at apex. Variety leiorhachis Brenan, is always a tree with central stem, and rounded or
irregular with straggling branches; bark with conspicuous yellow papery peel, and inflorescence
axis always glabrous. Variety pseudoglaucophylla occurs on fixed sand duned in Africa. Assigned
to the African Center of Diversity, gum arabic is reported to exhibit tolerance to alkali, drought,
fire, high pH, poor soil, sand, slope, and wind. (2n=26) (Duke, 1981a)
Distribution
Widespread in tropical Africa from Mozambique, Zambia to Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, and
Tanzania. Cultivated in India, Nigeria, and Pakistan.
Ecology
Thrives on dry rocky hills, in low-lying dry savannas, and areas where annual rainfall is 2536 cm.
This hardy species survives many adverse conditions, and seems to be favored by low rainfall and
absence of frost. Ranging from Warm Temperate Thorn through Tropical Thorn to Tropical Dry
Forest Life Zones, gum arabic is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.822.8 dm (mean of
9 cases = 12.4 dm), annual mean temperature of 16.227.8C (mean of 9 cases 23.8C), and pH of
5.07.7 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4), but Cheema and Qadir (1973) report 7.48.2.
Acacia senegal
Cultivation
In Sudan, trees are cultivated over a very large area. Best propagated from seeds which are
produced once every few years, grown in Sudan, in special "gum gardens." Elsewhere, it is
collected from wild trees. In Pakistan, the best period for afforestation is the early monsoon season
(Apr.Jun.). Surface sowing is recommended in mildly alkaline sandy soils. Plants can also be
reproduced by shoot cuttings. Trees coppice well (NAS, 1980).
Harvesting
Gum exudes froin cracks in bark of wild trees, mostly in the dry season, with little or none in the
rainy season when flowers are out. In some areas, a long strip of bark is torn off and the gum
allowed to exude. In Africa, it is regularly tapped from trees which are about 6 years old by
making narrow transverse incisions in bark in February and March. In about a month, tears of gum
form on surface and are gathered. Trees begin to bear between 418 years of age and are said to
yield only when they are in unhealthy state due to poor soil, lack of moisture or damaged.
Attempts to improve conditions tend to reduce yield. Gum from wild trees is variable and
somewhat darker colored than that from cultivated plants. Collected gum is carefully freed of
extraneous matter, sorted and sometimes ripened in sun before export. Gum arabic is oderless with
a bland taste, yellowish and some tears are vermiform in shape. Ripened or bleached gum occurs
in rounded or ovoid tears over 2.5 cm in diameter, and in broken fragments. Tears are nearly white
or pale yellow and break readily with a glassy fracture. Gum is almost completely soluble in an
equal volume of water and gives a translucent, viscous, slightly acid solution, but is insoluble in
90% alcohol. Kordofan (Sudan) Gum is yellow or pinkish, has fewer cracks and is more
transparent (Duke, 1981a).

Annual yields from young trees may range from 188 to 2856 g (avg. 900 g), from older trees, 379
to 6754 g (avg. 2,000 g). Gum arabic is important export product for some areas in tropical Africa
and Mauritania. From Africa some genuine gum is shipped to India then to Europe and America.
Between 1940 and 1950, United States imports range from 3,1798,989 MT (Duke, 1981a)
Morton (1977) reports >11,000 MT more recently.
Energy
Considered the best firewood in Mauritius and Senegal, this is not a big yielder, annual running
0.55 m3/ha wood, with an energy value of ca 3,500 kcal/kg. A nitrogen,fixing species, it can be
used to reestablish vegetation cover in degraded areas, as well as for sand-dune fixation and wind
erosion control (NAS, 1980a).
Acacia senegal
Biotic Factors
Fungi reported on this crop are Cladosporium herbarum, Fusarum sp., Ravenelia
acaciae-senegalae and R. acaciocola. Many insect visitors mimic the plant, the buffalo treehopper,
Stictocephala bisonia, being a good example. Spiders (Cyclops sp.) may completely cover the
young growing apex. Seedlings are often grazed by gazelles, goats, and pigs (Morton, 1977).
References
Cheema, M.S.Z.A. and Qadir, S.A. 1973. Autecology of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.
Vegetatio Vol. 27(13):131162.
NewYork.
Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and
cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
Acacia seyal
Acacia seyal Del.

Mimosaceae
Shittim Wood, White Whistling wood
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
According to some Biblical scholars, the Shittah tree is mentioned in the Bible only once (I will
plant in the wilderness... the Shittah tree. Isaiah 41), but its wood is referred to many times as
shittium, which is the plural of shittah in Hebrew. Some even speculate that it was only natural that
Moses should turn to shittium when he came to build the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle
and needed beams and timber. No one can really be sure which species of Acacia was meant.
Wood is white to yellow-brown, finely-striated with dark lines, coarse-grained, soft, easy to work,
polishes well, but discolors eastly with mold and is susceptible to insect attack. Ancient Egyptians
made coffins, some still intact, from the wood. Nigerians used sapling stems, or also the roots for
spear shafts. Tree also yields a gum of good quality, inferior to that of A. senegal. Systematic
tapping has produced a product of better color and taste. Bark contains tannin and yields a red
liquid extract. The gum is said to be edible. The leaves are important for forage and the wood for
fuel where the trees are abundant. In parts of Africa the tree is important for livestock, natives
driving their animals to where it is common and lopping off branches for them, both leaves and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_seyal.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:27:27 PM]
Acacia seyal
young pods being eaten. The pods are sold, especially for fattening sheep. The tree is believed to
provide the best firewood in Chad, and the best fodder in Sahelian savannas (NAS, 1980a; Duke,
1983a).
Folk Medicine
The gum is believed to be aphrodisiac. The bark decoction Is used for dysentery and leprosy.
Tanganyikans use the bark as a stimulant in tropical Africa. The gum is used as emollient and
astringent for colds, diarrhea, hemorrhage and ophhthalmia. Mixed with Acacia sieberana DC, it is
used for intestinal ailments on the Ivory Coast. Wood used as a fumigant for rheumatic pains, and
to protect puerperal mothers from colds and fevers. Eating the gum is supposed to afford some
protection against bronchitis and rheumatism (Duke, 1983a).
Chemistry
This species has been reported to contain 1820% tannin.
Description
Tree 312 m tall, crown flat-topped; bark powdery, white to greenish-yellow or orange-red;
sparsely branched, the branches horizontal or ascending; young branchlets with sparse hairs or
almost glabrous, with numerous reddish sessile glands; epidermis of twigs becoming reddish and
shed annually; leaves often with a large gland on petiole and between the top 12 pairs of pinnae;
stipules spinescent, up to 8 cm long, ant-galls present or absent; pinnae usually 37 pairs, the
leaflets in 1120 pairs, 38 cm long, 0.751 mm wide, sparingly ciliolate or glabrous; lateral veins
invisible beneath; flowers bright yellow, in axillary, pedunculate heads 1013 mm across, borne
on terminal or short lateral shoots of current season; involucel in lower half of peduncle 24 mm
long; apex of bracteoles rounded to elliptic, sometimes pointed; calyx 22.5 mm long, puberulous
in upper part; corolla 3.54 mm long, glabrous outside; pods 720 cm long, 0.50.9 cm in
diameter, dehiscent, falcate, constricted between seeds, glabrous except for sessile glands,
69-seeded; seeds elliptic, 79 mm long, 4.55 mm wide, compressed, minutely wrinkled,
olive-brown to olive; areole 56 mm long, 2.53.5 mm wide.
Germplasm
Species has several botanical varieties. The two main ones are: A. seyal var. fistula (Schweinf.)
Oliv. (A. fistula Schweinf.), is white-barked with some pairs of spines fused at base into 'ant-galls',
0.83 cm in diameter, grayish or whitish, often marked with sienna-red and with longitudinal
furrows down center, more or less 2-lobed. Found in Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique. A. seyal
var. multijuga Schweinf. ex Baker f. (A. stenocarpa Oliv., pro partem), a shrub or tree, usually less
than 5 m tall, sometimes up to 13 m, flattened crown; bark on main stem greenish-brown, peeling
in papery rolls; bark on branchlets red-brown, thorns straight, weak, usually less than 2.5 cm long,
sometimes absent; pinnae 412 pairs, leaflets 1020 pairs; flowers golden-yellow; pod
Acacia seyal
narrow-linear, strongly curved, up to 10 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, dehiscing on tree. Common in

overgrazed pastures and widely distributed in East Africa. Hybrids, A. seyal var. fistula X A.
xanthophloea Benth., are known from woodlands on black clay loams on flood plains in Malawi.
Pods are conspicuously irregular, 411 cm long, 610 mm wide, ill-formed and curved. Assigned
to the Africa Center of Diversity, shittim wood or cultivars thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance
to high pH, heavy soil, insects, mycobacteria, poor soil, salt, savanna, slope, and waterlogging.
(2n= 26.)
Distribution
Native to the Sahelian Zone from Senegal to Sudan, it also occurs in Egypt and eastern and
southern Africa, from Somalia to Mozambique and Namibia (NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Trees thrive in Sclerocarya caffra woodlands, wooded grasslands and especially on seasonally
flooded black-cotton soils along water courses. Requires a heavy clay-alluvium, but will grow on
stony ground at base of hills. Grows at 202,100 m altitude. A gregarious savanna tree, ranging
from Subtropical Desert to Dry through Tropical Desert to Very Dry Forest Life Zones, shittim
wood is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.722.8 dm (mean of 7 cases = 15.0 dm),
annual mean temperature of 18.727.8C (mean of 7 cases = 24.0C) and pH of 5.08.0 (mean of
5 cases = 6.9).
Cultivation
Propagated from scarified seed. large cuttings are said to strike root readity in moist soils.
Harvesting
Pods, bark or wood are harvested in season from trees or shrubs in native habitats. Gum also
obtained from native plantings, in manner similar to that for other gum arabic plants.
Energy
The dense wood is highly prized for firewood, in areas where few other plants survive. Considered
one of the best firewoods in Chad, it is used in the Sudan to make fragrant fires over which women
perfume themselves.
Acacia seyal
Biotic Factors
Following fungi reported on this plant: Fomes rimosus, Ganoderma lucidum, Leveillula taurica,
Ravenelia volkensii, Trametes meyenii, and Uromyces schweinfurthii. Although the plant is
reportedly resistant to insect attacks, felled logs may be severely damaged by wood borers.
References
Duke, J.A. 1983a. Medicinal plants of the Bible. Trado-Medic Books, Owerri, NY.
Cucurbit Resources in Namibia
Sarafis, V. 1999. Cucurbit resources in Namibia. p. 400402. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops
and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Cucurbit Resources in Namibia*

Vassilios Sarafis
1. ACANTHOSICYOS HORRIDA
2. CITRULLUS ECIRRHOSUS
3. CITRULLUS LANATUS
4. REFERENCES
Namibia has several cucurbits with potential for development into commercial crops either through selection or
through the introduction of genes into known crops. Acanthosicyos horrida Welw. ex J.D. Hook., wild Citrullus
ecirrhosus Cogn., and C. lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai in the Cucurbitaceae are examples of gene sources.
The areas from which these plants come are arid and the plants derive their water needs from dew precipitation
in the mornings, very occasional rains every few years, and deep ground water (Seely l987; Lovegrove 1993).
ACANTHOSICYOS HORRIDA
Acanthosicyos horrida forms clumps of vegetation in the dunes of the Sossuvlei region near Walvis Bay (Fig. 1)
(Craven and Marais 1986; Lovegrove 1993; Klopatek and Stock 1994). Acanthosicyos horrida is a dioecious
perennial cucurbit attaining a height of about 1.5 m (Fig. 2). It forms plants of one sex in single clumps which
may touch plants of the same or other sex nearby (Fig. l). It bears deep water table seeking roots (G.
WardellJohnson, pers. commun. 1998). The plants are totally leafless (Fig. 2) and have a fruiting habit of
oblong spherical fruits reaching up to 25 cm average diameter. The plants are able to build up sand deposits
around themselves and continuously grow to be above these sand deposits. New plants establish only when rain
falls and quickly form deeply growing roots that seek the water table (G. WardellJohnson, pers. commun.
1998).
Fig. 1. View of Acanthosicyos horrida in sand dunes

at the Sossuvlei region near Walvis Bay Namibia.
Fig. 2. A close up of Acanthosicyos horrida plants.

Note the leaflessness.
The fruit may not be spaced apart and may occur in clusters of several touching each other. The fruits are spiny
(Fig. 3). Maturation of the fruits occurs between February and April. The fruits do not change color and remain
green on the outside but the flesh surrounding the seeds dissociates from the skin, turns orange in color (Fig. 4),
extremely sweet in taste and strongly aromatic. Maturational changes are easily detected by the bushmen living
in the area without breaking the fruit in any way. The fruits are used by the bushmen for two main purposes. The
first is for the extraction of the seed which are consumed as pips by splitting in the mouth and the second is for
pulp processing where the flesh is boiled and poured to form a fruit leather. This fruit leather is eaten throughout
the year and is considerably less flavorful than the pulp. The plant thus forms an important food resource
because of the easy storage of both the seeds and the dried pulp (leather). The fruits are eaten also when
immature by animals including jackals and rodents who do not seem to be bothered by the bitter taste of the
fruits caused by cucurbitacins (Hylands and Magd 1986).
Fig. 3. Back of a mature fruit of Acanthosicyos

horrida showing the large spines on the surface of
the fruit. The distances separating the spines are
small in young fruits.
Fig. 4. Cross section through three fruits of

Acanthosicyos horrida. The one on the extreme right
is a bitter immature fruit of full size. The one on the
top an almost mature fruit with only a little
bitterness. The bottom left hand fruit a fully mature
fruit with a flesh having an orange color, no
bitterness and very aromatic in flavor.
The mature pulp has a flavor which is aromatic and maybe due in part to sulphur components as in some types
of Cucumis melo L. No trace can be tasted of cucurbitacins in the mature pulp. The pulp could be
commercialized and used to make ice-cream, and could be freeze dried and chocolate coated. The seeds which
are already sold to an European population in Walvis Bay can have their market expanded by selling the seeds
either whole or dehusked in packaging developed for nuts. Their rarity should provide a premium price and help
the economic existence of the bushmen in this area. Ice-cream manufacture and freeze drying facilities are only
within 30 km of the bushmen. Partnerships with firms interested in commericalizing the unique, aromatic pulp of
Acanthosicyos horrida could be fostered to further improve the economic existence of the native people in the
area.
CITRULLUS ECIRRHOSUS
Citrullus ecirrhosus is a desert perennial (Fig. 5, 6) which is monoecious. Fruits mature (Fig. 7, 8) February to
March. The leaves form an annual stems which die back each year. The leaves have a special feature where the
lamina is curved over the mid-rib and the lateral veins so that when viewed from above the top surface is only
visible in the vein regions and the leaves have a greenish white appearance due to the lower epidermis being
reflected up as the upper surface of the leaf. This lower epidermis is covered with warts and hairs which account
for the whitening effect. Both lower and upper epidermis contain similar amounts of stomata. The water
relations of this plant are reliant on a deep water layer in the ground which the roots reach and possibly some
water availability from morning fogs and the very occasional rainfall. The fruit and seeds contain cucurbitacins
but the seeds are harvested in times of need and processed by crushing and decantation to remove the bitter
substances. Citrulls ecirrhosus plants may be a source of drought tolerance genes for Citrulls lanatus. Successful
crossability of Citrulls ecirrhosus and C. lanatus is discussed in Navot and Zamir (1986) and Navot et al.
(1990). They have shown the way for breeding Citrullus lanatus containing genes from C. ecirrhosus.
Fig. 5. Citrullus ecirrhosus perennial plant growing

approximately 20 km inland from Walvis Bay,
showing a mature fruit on current years growth and
brown dead stems from last years growth.
Fig. 6. Citrullus ecirrhosus perennial plant showing

young developing fruit in the foreground and the
bending of the leaves over the mid-rib and lateral
veins.
Fig. 7. Mature Citrullus ecirrhosus

showing folded nature of the leaves of
the mid-rib and lateral veins.
Fig. 8. Fruit of Citrullus ecirrhosus cut

showing white creamy flesh which is non
juicy and brown seeds.
CITRULLUS LANATUS
Citrullus lanatus wild plants seen near Walvis Bay
have green fleshed fruit unknown from domesticated
watermelons (Fig. 9). The genetics of fruit color in the
watermelon, Citrullus colocynthis and ecirrhosus are
discussed by Navot et al. (1990). White, yellow,
orange, pink, red, and crimson flesh types are known.
The green flesh color of this wild Citrullus lanatus
(Fig. 9) is a unique feature which can be transferred to
domestic watermelon due to the crossability of wild
and domestic watermelons. This would offer a new
fruit type for consumers to enjoy. A red flesh cultivated
watermelon from the north of Namibia has some green
zone within the fruit suggesting that the green flesh
character can be easily introduced. However, the wild
watermelon has cucurbitacins which would render
them unfit for human consumption. Drought tolerance
and green flesh color from C. ecirrhosus and wild
Citrullus lanatus, could be valiable traits for
watermelon improvement.
Fig. 9. Citrullus lanatus mature fruit from a plant

growing on a dry river bed approximately 20 km
inland from Walvis Bay, cut to show chlorophyll in
the flesh and browny-black seeds. The more deeply
colored regions of the flesh are green. The flesh is
more juicy than in Citrullus ecirrhosus.
REFERENCES
Craven, P. and C. Marais. 1986. Namib Flora Swakopmund to the Giant Welwitschia via Goanikontes.
Gamsberg MacMillan Publishers: Windhoek. p. 8083.
Hylands, P.J and M.S. Magd. 1986. Cucurbitacins from Acanthosicyos horridus. Phytochemistry
25:16811684.
Klopatek J.M. and W.D. Stock. 1994. Partitioning of nutrients in Acanthosicyos horrida, a keystone
endemic species in the Namib Desert. J. Arid Environments 26:233240.
Lovegrove, B. 1993. The living deserts of Southern Africa. Fernwood Press, Vlaeberg, South Africa. p.
30, 47, 71, 158, 190.
Navot, N. and D. Zamir. 1987. Isozyme and seed protein phylogeny of the genus Citrullus
(Cucurbitaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 156:6168.
Navot, N., M. Sarfatti, and D. Zamir. 1990. Linkage relationships of genes affecting bitterness and flesh
colour in watermelon. J. Hered. 81:162165.
Seely, M. 1986. The Namib. Shell Namibia: Namibia. 2nd ed. 19, 4345, 50, 84, 90.
*This project was supported by the Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland and
the Centre for Horticulture and Plant Sciences, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury.
back
Black sugar maple
Black sugar maple

Hard maple
A. nigrum Michx. f.
Source: Magness et al. 1971
Maple sugar and syrup are obtained from the sap of these two species and are solely products of
the United States and Canada. The Indians were making crude syrups and sugar from maple sap
before the coming of white men. The preparation of maple sugar and syrup is strictly a farm
industry, occurring from Kentucky northwest to Iowa, northeast to Maine and north into Canada.
Native stands of these maple species are tapped to obtain the dilute juice or sap. The trees are not a
cultivated crop, although competing useless trees may be removed and maple stands may be
thinned to promote better growth and sugar yield. Only a small proportion of the available trees of
these species are actually tapped. It is estimated that more than 200 million such trees are growing
in the United States, and less than 6 million are tapped.
The tapping is done by boring a small hole (under 0.5-inch diameter) horizontally into the tree so
as to penetrate through the outer or sap wood. On large trees up to four such taps may be made at
one time. Tapered spouts (hollow tubes) are driven into the holes to fit tightly, and the sap flows
through this tube and is collected in sap buckets. it is important to protect the buckets and contents
from rain water. Tapping is done in late winter, before bud break. During periods when
temperatures are above freezing at this season sap flow is quite abundant, A tap hole usuallv
produces 5 to 15 gallons of sap, though much more than that is sometimes obtained. Sugar content
of the sap also varies widelv, from l0 to 30Brix or higher.
Portable tanks of various types are used to collect the sap, which is poured into the tank through
strainers. An alternative method is to use pipc lines to carry the sap to the evaporation equipment.
Originally a single open kettle over a fire was used to evaporate the excess water in the sap to
produce syrup. Now multiple evaporators are mainly used, the syrup being transferred as it
becomes more dense. Usually 2 or 3 transfers are made. Modem evaporating pans have flues in
them through which the heat from the fuel passes to speed the process and codserve fuel. For
standard-density syrup, concentration is to 65.5Brix, which is about 86 percent solids by weight.
If the sap tests 2.4Brix, 34 gallons would be required to produce one gallon of syrup.
Slow evaporation--or longer heating time--in the final stages of concentration result in a darker
colored syrup. More rapid evaporation at this stage gives a lighter colored, higher grade syrup.
Sensitive thermometers are used to determine when the syrup is concentrated to the standard of
65.5 Brix. The completed syrup contains solid granules, mainly calcium malate, termed sugar
sand. For toable syrup these must be removed. On the farm they may be allowed to settle out or are
removed by filtering. Centrifuging is efficient if available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Black_sugar_maple.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:32 PM]
Black sugar maple
To produce various types of maple sugar, the syrup is further heated and additional water driven
off. If heated to a boiling point of 230F. and cooled rapidly without stirring a solid cake is
formed. Stirring during cooling results in crystal formation. For fine crystals the highly
supersaturated solution is seeded with fine crystals and stirred rapidly, which results in rapid
formation of great numbers of fine crystals.
Numerous products, as maple cream, or butters, soft-sugar candies, maple spread, and candies
utilize maple syrup or sugar. Total maple syrup production in the United States averaged
approximately 1,400,000 gallons, 1961-66, inclusive. This includes that made into sugar. In
addition about 800,000 gallons of syrup and 5,145,000 pounds of sugar were imported annually
from Canada during those years.
Last update February 18, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Black_sugar_maple.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:32 PM]
Malphigia glabra
Malpighia glabra Millsp.

Malpighia punicifolia L.
Malpighiaceae
Acerola, Barbados cherry, buesito, Surinam
cherry, West Indies cherry
NewCROP has acerola information at:
Barbados Cherry Julia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Commercialization of Carambola, Atemoya, and Other Tropical Fruits in South FloridaJonathan
H. Crane
South American Fruits Deserving Further Attention Richard J. Campbell
And outside links to more acerola info:
ACEROLA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including botanical identification,
description and culture notes based on California research, and characteristics of cultivars).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Malpighia_glabra_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:33 PM]
Digitaria exilis
Digitaria exilis (Kipp.) Stapf

syn: Digitaria iburua
Gramineae
Fonio, Acha, Black fonio, Hungry rice, White fonio, Funde
Digitaria exilis as a Crop in the Dominican RepublicJ. Pablo Morales-Payn, J. Richard Ortiz,
Julio Cicero, and Francisco Taveras
Genetic Resources in AfricaJack R. Harlan
Outside links:
Fonio Digitaria exilis from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Digitaria_exilis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:33 PM]
New Flower Crops
Halevy, A.H. 1999. New flower crops. p. 407409. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new
crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
New Flower Crops

Abraham H. Halevy
1. MINOR OUTDOOR GROWN CROPS
1. Aconitum napellus L., Ranunculaceae (Monk's hood)
2. Asclepias tuberosa L., Asclepiadaceae (Butterfly weed) and A. incarnata L. (Swamp
milkweed)
3. Achillea filipendulina Lam., Asteraceae (Yarrow)
4. Liatris spicata Willd., Asteraceae
5. Phlox paniculata L., Polemoniaceae
6. Solidago sp. L., Asteraceae (Goldenrod)
7. Trachelium caeruleum L., Campanulaceae
2. NEW CULTIVARS OF ORNAMENTAL FIELD PLANTS
1. Anigozanthos hyb., Haemodoraceae (Kangaroo Paw)
2. Aster hyb., Asteraceae
3. Campanula medium L., Campanulaceae
4. Clarkia amoena Nels. & Macbr., Onagraceae (Godetia, Satin flower)
5. Eustoma grandiflorum Shinn (Syn. Lisianthus russellienus), Gentianaceae
6. Leucadendron Hyb., Proteaceae
7. Limonium hyb., Plumfaginaceae
3. GARDEN AND LANDSCAPING PLANTS
1. Cotinus coggygria Scop., Anacardiaceae (Smoke Tree)
2. Hypericum sp. (Hypericaceae)
3. Ruscus hypoglossum L. (Liliaceae)
4. ORNAMENTAL CULTIVARS OF FIELD CROPS
5. PLANTS GROWN IN BOTANICAL GARDENS
6. WILD PLANTS IN THEIR NATIVE HABITAT
New Flower Crops
7. REFERENCES
Most edible crops have been introduced into cultivation thousands of years ago. There are only a
few new edible plants in the contemporary western horticulture, such as pecan, blueberry, and
kiwifruit, but even these plants have been cultivated since ancient days by local farmers in their
native region. This is not the case with ornamental crops. Many of the commercial cut flowers and
pot-plants grown today have not been cultivated commercially until several years ago.
The ornamental plant industry is characterized by its great diversity. There are more ornamental
species cultivated today than all other agricultural and horticultural crops combined. In some ways
the introduction of new ornamental crops is easier that of edible crops. Neither their nutritional
value nor their general toxicity to human has to be considered, as evident in plants such as
Aconitum, Diffenbachia, Oleander, and many others. Our main considerations in the introduction
of new ornamental crops are the esthetic value, production costs, postproduction longevity,
quality, and marketability.
The introduction of new crops includes many research stages, that start with the initial search and
screening and concludes when the product is introduced commercially, as detailed in my other
presentation in this proceedings (Halevy 1999).
Ten years ago the traditional major crops constituted over 60% of the cut flowers grown in and
exported from Israel. This year over 60% of the exportable flowers are "new crops," most of them
have not been grown commercially 10 years ago as shown in Table 1. Many of these new
commercial flower crops are not even mentioned in a recently published textbook on floriculture
(Dole and Wilkins 1999). There are several sources that serve for the introduction of new plant
material as potential plant crops.
Table 1. Quantities of various exportable cut flowers from Israel in the 1996/7 export season.
Flowers
Exportable flowers
(millions of stems)
Roses
453
Carnation
144
Gypsophila
116
Solidago
105
Ruscus
78
Wax flower
74
Hypericum
48
Gerbera
45
Limonium
41
Aster
35
Helianthus
32
New Flower Crops
Asclepias
27
Anemone
27
Safari sunset
20
Anigozanthos
17
Phlox
Others
210
MINOR OUTDOOR GROWN CROPS

Many of the new greenhouse floral crops, grown and exported during the winter, are the so called
"Summer Flowers." They are field grown plants that were used in Europe during their natural
flowering season in the summer. Their introduction as a year round crop requires developing
physiological and horticultural techniques for out of season production. Gypsophila and peony
described above (Halevy 1999) are typical examples of such crops. Other examples are listed
below.
Aconitum napellus
L., Ranunculaceae (Monk's hood)
This is a tuberous plant native to Europe. For winter flowering, tubers are cold stored during the
summer and pretreated with gibberellic acid before planting.
Asclepias tuberosa L., Asclepiadaceae (Butterfly weed) and A.

incarnata L. (Swamp milkweed)
Both plants are native to the US and considered as weeds there. They are absolute long day (LD)
plants that require warm temperature during their growth and flowering. For winter production
they are grown in heated greenhouses and provided with supplementary light at night.
Achillea filipendulina Lam., Asteraceae (Yarrow)

Native to East Asia it is used mainly for summer harvest as dry flowers. Year round production is
obtained by digging the crowns and cold storing them for a few weeks before replanting.
Liatris spicata Willd., Asteraceae

Native to Eastern US, for winter production, tubers are cold-stored during the summer and plants
are lighted in the field.
New Flower Crops
Phlox paniculata L., Polemoniaceae

Native to Eastern US, this herbaceous summer perennial is now grown for year round production
in greenhouses. It is a LD plant, requiring supplementary night lighting.
Solidago sp. L., Asteraceae (Goldenrod)

Species of goldenrod native to North America are considered as weeds there. New interspecific
hybrids turned this plant into an important cut flowers. For winter production plants first receive
LD to extend their stems and then are exposed to the natural winter short days (SD) for flower
initiation and development.
Trachelium caeruleum L., Campanulaceae

Native to South Europe, it is an absolute LD plant and grown in the warmer parts of Israel for
winter production.
NEW CULTIVARS OF ORNAMENTAL FIELD

PLANTS
Plants of this group have been grown as minor cut flowers, but recent introduction of new
cultivars, with modified and improved horticultural traits, turned them into important floral crops.
Examples are:
Anigozanthos hyb., Haemodoraceae (Kangaroo Paw)

This Australian plant was grown mainly outdoors until a few years ago. Recently introduced
highly yielding interspecific hybrids are now grown indoors for year round production. These new
hybrids are propagated by in vitro tissue culture.
Aster hyb., Asteraceae

New interspecific hybrids of A. novi-belgii and other species native to Eastern North America
turned these herbaceous perennial, late summer garden plant, into an important greenhouse crop.
This is a LD-SD plant, requiring at first LD, until the stems reach a certain desired height and then
it is exposed to natural winter SD.
Campanula medium L., Campanulaceae

This plant, native to south Europe, was used only as garden and pot-plant until recently. The
original species required a long cold period followed by LD for flowering (Wellensiek 1985).
However, new varieties, introduced recently, have long flowering stems and require only LD for
flower induction. This enables growing the plant as a commercial cut flower crop.
New Flower Crops
Clarkia amoena Nels. & Macbr., Onagraceae (Godetia, Satin

flower)
This Western North American plant was mainly a garden plant until the recent introduction of
improved cultivars for use as cut flowers. The plant requires mild temperature and moderate
watering and feeding. It is a facultative LD plant.
Eustoma grandiflorum Shinn (Syn. Lisianthus russellienus),

Gentianaceae
Native to Southern US, it was used sparsely as garden and cut flower plant. Newly introduced F1
hybrids turned the plant into an important greenhouse cut flower crop for year round production.
Seed propagated, it requires mild-low temperatures in the first growing stage, followed by warmer
temperatures.
Leucadendron Hyb., Proteaceae

This South African shrub became an important outdoor crop for cut flowering shoots with the
introduction of new hybrid cultivars. The 'Safari Sunset' cultivar is now grown on over 200
hectares in Israel.
Limonium hyb., Plumfaginaceae

Interspecific hybrid cultivars of several perennial limoniums became important greenhouse cut
flower crop, used as "filler."
GARDEN AND LANDSCAPING PLANTS

These are mainly woody or herbaceous perennials, used for many years in gardens and introduced
recently into the floral trade. Examples are:
Cotinus coggygria Scop., Anacardiaceae (Smoke Tree)

A deciduous shrub, native to South Europe, used for many years as a garden plant. The cultivar
'Royal Purple' is now grown for cut foliage. LD is applied to prevent plants from entering
dormancy.
Hypericum sp. (Hypericaceae)

Several species and hybrids of these shrubby plants, native to the Mediterranean and the Canary
Islands, have recently became important floral crop grown both outdoors and in greenhouses for
cut shoots with fruits of various colors. This is an absolute LD plant that requires night lighting for
winter production.
New Flower Crops
Ruscus hypoglossum L. (Liliaceae)

This herbaceous perennial has been grown in Israel as a garden plants for many years. It is now the
main cut foliage crop in Israel, grown exclusively in shaded houses.
ORNAMENTAL CULTIVARS OF FIELD CROPS

In some plants, grown mainly as field crops, new ornamental cultivars have been introduced and
used as cut flowers. Examples are: sunflower (Helianthus annuus L., Asteraceae), cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum L., Malvaceae), and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L., Asteraceae).
PLANTS GROWN IN BOTANICAL GARDENS

Botanical gardens and specialized plant collections are rich sources for plant material, some of
which can be used for introduction as potential floral crops. Some examples are the bulbous plants
of the Liliaceae: Eremurus sp. of Central Asia, the South African Bulbinella kookerri of yellow,
orange, and white flowers, and Ornithogalum dubium of yellow and orange flowers, and the South
Asian Curcuma alismatifolia (Zingiberaceae).
WILD PLANTS IN THEIR NATIVE HABITAT

The introduction and development of Geraldton wax-flower described above (Halevy 1999) is an
example of such introduction. Some such plants are currently under intensive developmental
stages. They include plants originated from remote areas, but also plants native to Israel and
California.
REFERENCES
Dole, J.M. and H.F. Wilkins. 1999. Floriculture principles and species. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Halevy, A.H. 1999. Ornamentals: where diversity is kingthe Israeli experience. p.

398400. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
Wellensiek, S.J. 1985. Campanula medium. p. 123126. In: A.H. Halevy (ed.), Handbook of
flowering, Vol. II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Achillea millefolium
Index| Search| Home| Aromatic, Spice and Medicinal Plants
Achillea millefolium L.
Compositae
Yarrow, milfoil
Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography. 1971-1980J.E. Simon, A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Achillea_millefolium_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:35 PM]
Bixa orellana
Bixa orellana L.
Bixaceae
Achiote, anato, annatto, arnato, bija, bijol, bixa,
lipstick tree, roucou
New Crops from BrazilDavid Arkcoll
Achiote In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. Food
and Feed Crops of the United States. 1971.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Bixa_orellana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:36 PM]
Cyclanthera pedata
Cyclanthera pedata (L.)

Schrad.
Cucurbitaceae
Achocha, Achokcha, Caihua, Caygua, Cayua, Korila, Wild
Cucumber
New Opportunities in the CucurbitaceaeTimothy J. Ng
Outside links:
Achocha can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cyclanthera_pedata_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:37 PM]
Manilkara zapota
Manilkara zapota (L.) van

Royen
syn. M. zapotilla (Jacq.) Gilly, Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg, Achras
zapota (L.), Sapota achras Mill., Sapota zapotilla (Jacq.) Coville
Sapotaceae
Chicle, Chico, Chico sapote, Chico zapote, Chiku, Dilly, Mammee
sapota, Marmalade plum, Naseberry, Nispero, Sapodilla, Zapote,
Zapotillo
NewCROP has Sapodilla information at:
SapodillaJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Sapodilla: A Potential Crop For Subtropical ClimatesMichael V. Mickelbart
And outside links to more Sapodilla info:
SAPODILLA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
More Manilkara information:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Manilkara_zapota_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:37 PM]
New Herbaceous Ornamental Crops Research
Index | Search | Home | Table of Contents

Armitage, A.M. 1990. New herbaceous ornamental crops research. p. 453-456. In: J. Janick and
J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
New Herbaceous Ornamental Crops

Research
Allan M. Armitage
1. INTRODUCTION
2. UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA SYSTEMS APPROACH TO NEW CROP EVALUATION
3. SPECIFIC RESEARCH TOPICS
1. Flowering Physiology
2. Gas Exchange
3. Growth Regulators
4. Spacing
5. Shading (Field Flowers)
6. Postharvest
4. CONCLUSIONS
5. REFERENCES
6. Table 1
7. Fig. 1
INTRODUCTION
A great deal of interest in new floricultural crop research has occurred in recent years. The
conferences in Davis, California, 1986 (Criley 1987) and Aarslev, Denmark. 1988 provided new
and exciting avenues of study In general, three basic areas of research are presently being
conducted in herbaceous ornamental crops around the world (Armitage 1987a). The first area
consists of cultivar research in well-established ornamental species (type I species). For example,
research evaluating new inflorescence shapes of Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev., new flower
colors of Petunia xhybrida Vilm. or leaf varigation patterns of impatiens fall into this category.
The second area deals with new uses for well known minor crop species (type II species).
Examples include investigations into species of Aquilegia L., Armeria maritima Willd., Calendula
officinalis L., and Capsicum annuum L., well known garden species, as potted plants. The third
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-453.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:27:39 PM]
area of research involves development and evaluation of species about which little or no
information concerning flowering physiology or performance under production conditions exists
(type III species). The use of Melampodium paludosum L., Trachelium caeruleum L. or Cedrela
sinensis Juss. as pot plants falls under this type of research as do investigations into Achillea x
`Coronation Gold', Caryopteris incana Miq. or Oxypetalum caeruleum Decne. as field grown cut
flower crops. The greatest amount of prior selection occurs with type I species, followed by type II
while little, if any, selection has taken place in type III species. The grouping of species is dynamic
and in a constant state of change. As type III species become accepted in the floriculture trade,
they are relegated to type II or type I species. Examples of new crop species are listed in Table 1.
The potential for basic research is rich for type II and III species. Little is known concerning the
control of flowering in these species and fruitful areas of investigation might include gas
exchange, photoperiod manipulation, carbon partitioning, and factors affecting the onset of
flowering. Information pertinent to commercial use, however, such as height control, irradiance
levels, optimum temperatures and propagation techniques must also be understood before industry
accepts a new species. In the case of cut flowers, the influence of spacing, shading, fertility and
planting time on yield and shelf life may be exciting directions for research.
Little funding is available in the United States for new crop research in floriculture and scientists
must balance fundamental studies on flowering physiology with applied applications to industry.
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA SYSTEMS

APPROACH TO NEW CROP EVALUATION
The University of Georgia New Crops Program involves research on type II and type III species in
two facets of floriculture: new pot plant crops for the greenhouse and new cut flower crops for the
field. An enormous number of species exist with potential as new crops in one or both of these
areas. The dilemma of the scientist is to not overlook potential successful species while at the same
time ignoring or discarding those with little chance for acceptance. Therefore, a new crop program
must have a system to choose species for research and to evaluate and develop information on
those selected (Armitage, 1986). The most fundamental aspect of any system is that it be capable
of quickly discarding species from the program. The systems approach used at Georgia has a
number of places where the decision to terminate research on a species may be made (Fig. 1). The
primary objective of our program is to develop information on crops with the following
characteristics:
Potted plants must have at least 1 week shelf life without addition of extending sprays; cut flowers,
5 days without silver thiosulfate (STS). Floral preservatives are used in the case of cut flowers. If
the shelf life is less than this standard, the decision may be made to terminate the species or to
determine methods to extend shelf life.
The time from propagule (cutting or seed) to flower for pot plants must be less than 20 weeks.
Many species occur for which rapidly flowering cultivars may one day be developed, however,
there is little chance of commercial acceptance if greenhouse production time results in excessive
cost of production. The program in Georgia is not in the position to spend the time necessary to
breed and select new cultivars. The additional time required for slow flowering species detracts
from other species to be investigated. If flowering time is felt to be too long, work on the species is
terminated.
Exceptions may be made with species of outstanding potential such as Eustoma grandiflorum
(Raf.) Shinn. In these cases, production partitioning within the industry will evolve. That is,
propagation and growing occurs at one site while forcing into flower occurs at another. In this
instance, it behooves the scientist to similarly partition his research on the species.
Species must be relatively tolerant of "normal" pests and diseases. Introducing species particularly
attractive to whiteflies or highly susceptible to Botrytis should be avoided. If species being tested
show weakness to diseases and pests, work may be terminated.
The new species should not have a deleterious effect on established commercial species. For
example, our work with unproved cultivars of Primula obconica looked promising; however, the
species contains primin and results in dermatitis in a small percentage of people. The adverse
effects of primin could adversely affect sales of all primula species, particularly P. acaulis. Thus,
the work was terminated.
Although the system provides objectivity, decisions to terminate are at the discretion of the
scientist. Thus, the scientist in charge needs to work closely with industry.
SPECIFIC RESEARCH TOPICS

Flowering Physiology
Salvia leucantha. Plants are SD with a critical photoperiod of 12 hours for macrobud development
and 10 hours for subsequent flower development. Approximately 14 cycles are necessary for
initiation but 42 cycles are needed for normal anthesis and raceme elongation (Armitage and
Laushman 1989).
Trachelium caeruleum. Plants are LD with a minimum of 14 hours for flower initiation but day
neutral for subsequent flower development (Armitage 1988b).
Pentas lanceolata. Plants are quantitative LD, flowering 7-10 days earlier than SD (Armitage
1988a).
Oxypetalum caeruleum is day neutral for flowering but significant internode elongation occurs
with LD (Armitage et al. 1990).
Gas Exchange
Trachelium caeruleum. Light compensation and light saturation are approximately 15 and 600
moles s-1 m-2 respectively at 25C. At saturation, net photosynthesis is 10-12 mg CO2 dm-2 h-1
(Armitage, 1988b).
Oxypetalum caeruleum. Light compensation occurs at 25 moles s-1 m-2 and saturation at 700
(Armitage et al. 1990).
Growth Regulators
Height controlHeight regulation studies with Melampodium paludosum, Pentas lanceolata
(Armitage 1988a), Calendula officinalis (Armitage et al. 1987), and Trachelium caeruleum
(Armitage 1988b) have indicated that these crops may be useful for commercial pot plant
production.
Fruit ripeningUse of 150-300 ppm of 2-(chlorethyl) phosphonic acid resulted in accelerated
ripening of fruit of Capsicum annuum under greenhouse conditions (Armitage 1989a).
Concentrations of 75 ppm was less effective and 600 ppm resulted in phytotoxicity.
Spacing
Studies on spacing were conducted with Achillea x 'Coronation Gold', Physostegia virginiana
Benth. and Salvia leucantha as field grown cut flowers. Yield per plant increased as spacing
increased but yield per area decreased (Armitage 1987b).
Shading (Field Flowers)

Anemone coronaria L. Stem length increased significantly under 55% light reduction compared
with ambient (Armitage and Laushman, 1990).
Echinops ritro L., Eryngium planum L. Reduction of ambient light resulted in increased stem
lengths for both species. Yield of Eryngium decreased with 55% light reduction, however, yield of
Echinops, increased significantly. Additional shade reduced yield of both species.
Postharvest
Species with increased shelf life from dips with sodium silver thiosulfate (STS) include Anemone
coronaria, Physostegia virginiana and Salvia leucantha.
Optimum time of bulb planting was determined for Acidanthera bicolor Hochst., Anemone
coronaria, Brodiaea laxa Engler, Allium sphaerocephalum L., Polianthes tuberosa L. and Liatris
spicata Willd. Perenniality and yield response was determined over a 3-year-period (Armitage and
Laushman, 1990).
CONCLUSIONS
New crops are the lifeblood of the floriculture industry. New cultivars of established crops have
historically kept the industry strong but entirely new crops must be introduced continually to
maintain consumer interest. Research on new crops is necessary to provide information to control
flowering time, manipulate plant size, and provide repeatable schedules. However, far more
potential species exist than can be evaluated and developed. A systems approach to new crop
research is essential in order that limited resources are used efficiently.
REFERENCES
Armitage A.M. 1986. Evaluation of new floricultural crops: a systems approach.

HortScience 21:9-11.
Armitage A.M., B. Bergmann, and E.L. Bell. 1987. Effect of daminozide and light intensity
on growth and flowering of calendula as a potted plant. HortScience 22:611-612.
Armitage A.M. 1987a. What is a new crop. Acta Hort. 205:1-2.
Armitage A.M. 1987b. The influence of spacing on field-grown perennial crops.
Armitage A.M. 1988a. Influence of photoperiod, supplemental light, and growth regulators
on growth and flowering of Pentas lanceolata. HortScience 23:349-351.
Armitage A.M. 1988b. Effects of photoperiod, light source, and growth regulators on
growth and flowering of Trachelium caeruleum. J. Hort Sci. 63:667-674.
Armitage A.M. 1989a. Promotion of fruit ripening of ornamental peppers by 2 (chloroethyl)
phosphonic acid.
Armitage A.M. 1989. Promotion of fruit ripening of ornamental peppers by ethephon.
Armitage A.M. and J.M. Laushman. 1989. Photoperiodic control of flowering of Salvia
leucantha L. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114:755-758.
Armitage, A.M. and J.M. Laushman. 1990. Planting date and in-ground time affect yield
and quality of field grown bulb crops. 1. Acidanthera, Anemone, Allium, Brodiaea and
Crocosmia. HortScience (in press).
Armitage, A.M., Seager, N.G. Warrington and I.L. Greer, D. H. and J. Reyngold 1990.
Response of Oxypetalum caeruleum to irradiance, temperature and photoperiod. J. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci. (in press).
Criley, R.A. (ed.) 1987. Symposium on the development of new floricultural crops. Acta
Hort. 205.
Table 1. Potential species for pot and cut flower culture for new crop research.
Type I. (Species well established as ornamental plants)
Greenhouse pot plants
Bedding plants (in general)
Begonia x hiemalis
Denthanthema grandiflora Tzvelev.
Dianthus caryophyllus L
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.
Exacum affine Balf.
Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Poellnitz
Lilium longiflorum Thunb.
Pelargonium x hortorum Bailey

Sinningia speciosa Benth & Hook.
Greenhouse Cut Flowers
Antirrhinum majus L.
Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev.
Dianthus caryophyllus L.
Gerbera jamesonii Bolus.
Rosa x hybrida
Field Cut Flowers
Achilles filipendulina Lam.
Delphinium sp.
Gypsophila paniculata L.
Iris sp.
Iris xiphium L.
Limonium sinuatum Mill.
Type II Species (New uses for well known minor crops)
Greenhouse Pot Plants
Alstroemeria aurantiaca D. Don.
Aquilegia x hybrids
Armeria maritima Willd.
Astilbe x arendsii
Bouvardia longiflora HBK.
Calendula officinalis L.
Campanula carpatica Jazq.
Capsicum annuum L.
Eustoma grandiflora (Raf.) Shinn.
Fressia x hybrids
Lilium x hybridum
Zantedeschia aethiopica Spreng.
Type III Species (little information available)
Pot Plants
Allium neapolitanum Cyr.
Alonsoa warscewiczii Regel.
Cedrela sinensis Juss.
Coprosma x kirkii Cheesem.
Hebe speciosa Cockayne & Allan
Ixora coccinea L.
Melampodium paludosum L.
Nerine sarniensis (L.) Herb.
Pentas lanceolata Schum.
Reinwardtia indica Dumort
Rhodohypoxis baurei (Bak.) Nel
Tibouchina semidecandra Aubl.
Trachelium caeruleum L.
Veronica longiflora L.
Cut Flowers Field or Greenhouse
Achillea x 'Galaxy Series'
Achillea x 'Coronation Gold'
Acidanthera bicolor Hochst.
Allium giganteum L.
Anemone coronaria L.
Anigozanthos mangleslii D. Don
Brodiaea (Triteleia) laxa Benth.
Caryopteris incana Miq.
Centaurea americana Nutt.
Centaurea macrocephala Puschk.
Centaurea moschata L.
Chamelaucium uncinatum Schauer.
Consolida ambigua (L) P. W BallaHeyw.
Craspedia globosa G. Forst.
Crocosmia crocosmiiflora N.E. Br.
Echinops ritro L.
Emilia javonica Cass.
Eryngiun alpinum L.
Eryngium planum L.
Euphorbia fulgens Karw.
Euphorbia marginata Pursh.
Gomphrena globosa L.
Herbs (e.g. Foeniculum)
Hypericum androsaemum L. (fruit)
Limonium spp. (many)
Nerine sarniensis (L.) Herb.
Nigella damescena L. (fruit)
Ornithogalum spp.
Physalis alkekengi L. (fruit)

Physostegia virginiana Benth.
Polianthes tuberosa L.
Salvia leucantha Cav.
Fig. 1. Systems approach to crops research at University of Georgia New Crops Program (from
Armitage 1986).
Last update September 4, 1997 by aw
Acorus calamus
Acorus calamus L.
Araceae
Sweetflag, calamus, calamus root, flag root, myrtle
flag
Food and feed crops of the United StatesMagness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Acorus_calamus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:39 PM]
Acroceras macrum
Acroceras macrum Stapf

Poaceae
Nile Grass
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
A very palatable grass and rather extensively cultivated as pasture and hay, especially in the
highyield areas of South Africa. Forms dense cover used for grazing and haymaking. Unsuitable
for leys, as it is difficult to eradicate. Very useful as fodder source during dry season. The grass
has been described, perhaps hyperbolically, as "the king of fodder grassesa truly revolutionary
grass" (Rhind and Goodenough, 1979).
Folk Medicine
No data available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acroceras_macrum.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:27:40 PM]
Acroceras macrum
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the forage is reported to contain 8.7 g protein, nearly 6 g fat, 75.4 g total carbohydrate,
30.7 g fiber, 450 mg Ca, and 110 mg P (Bogdan, 1977). Other reports put the crude protein as high
as 22%; one report gives 21.3% for leaves, and 7.9% for the stems; crude fiber was given as 30.0%
for leaves, 38.5% for stems. On a zero moisture basis, South African hay was 8.5% CP, 31.8% CF,
6.1% ash, 1.8% EE and 51.8% NFE (Gohl, 1981). Many more nutritional details are tabulated in
the excellent review by Rhind and Goodenough (1979).
Description
Perennial grass, spreading by creeping slender rhizomes and stolons; culms up to 70 cm or more,
sometimes prostrate at base; leaves expanded, to 20 cm long and 12 mm broad, glabrous or
minutely hairy, rounded or almost cordate at base, tapering to sharp point, bright green; panicle up
to 20 cm long, spikelike, of 25 racemes up to 8 cm long, the lower 59 cm apart; spikelets light
green, acuminate or obtuse, 45 mm long, awnless, glabrous, with conspicuous indurate rounded
appendages at laterally compressed apex of glumes and lemmas; lower glume more than half as
long as spikelet, 3-nerved; upper glume 5-nerved; ligule a membrane fringed with short hairs,
sometimes greatly reduced. 4x = 36.
Germplasm
Reported from the Africa Center of Diversity, Nile grass or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate low
pH, photoperiod, sand, savanna, virus, and waterlogging. It does not tolerate drought very well.
Susceptibility to diseases and an apparent lack of seed-setting ability were partially overcomeby
breeding programs initiated at Cedara. Tetraploid (2n= 36), pentaploid (2n= 45), and hexaploid
(2n= 54) chromosome races occur. The species is self sterile, but certain combinations of strains of
similar chromosome number and flowering data highly cross fertile (Rhind and Goodenough,
1976). (2n= 36)
Distribution
Widely distributed in Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa, also in Angola and South West Africa;
introduced elsewhere e.g., Australia, Surinam, and Trinidad.
Ecology
Grows naturally in seasonally flooded valley bottoms in areas with 92150 cm rainfall annually. It
is indifferent to day length and will flower equally readily in long or short photoperiods.
Flourishes on poorly drained or seasonally flooded land, and does not grow well under dry
conditions. It has been successful on loams, sandy loams, and clay loams. Ranging from Warm
Temperate Dry through Tropical Moist Forest Life Zones, Nile grass is reported to tolerate annual
Acroceras macrum
precipitation of 8 to 27 dm (mean of 4 cases = 13), annual temperature of 16 to 26C (mean of 4

cases = 17), and pH of 4.3 to 7.3 (mean of 4 cases = 5.5). Rhind and Goodenough (1979) say it
favors areas at elevation ca 600 to 2000 m, annual precipitation of 7.515 dm where the dry season
is not too long.
Cultivation
Propagated by splits or cuttings of rhizomes or stolons. In some areas under humid conditions,
grass is cut at hay stage and scattered over surface of land and then covered by a disc-harrow, as in
Trinidad. Planted in holes 45 x 45 cm apart. Grass should be alllowed a full year to become
established. Although its growth habit, having both rhizomes and stolons, serves for vegetative
propagation and for exploring new ground, it also allows for carbohydrate storage in the rhizomes
and brings some of the growing points below ground level where they are more effectively
protected from frost, drought and burning. Has been used for improving natural moist pastures by
planting splits or rhizome cuttings into existing natural grassland or plowed grassland following an
arable crop. It was persistent although not very productive in Kenya and South Africa, and was
reasonably successful in Rhodesia, Surinam and Swaziland (Bogdan, 1977). Seeds have a
dormancy characteristic, germination improving after 9 months storage.
Harvesting
Grazed or cut for hay. Grass should be mown towards end of rainy season (summer) for hay or
silage. Good aftermath is available for grazing during dry autumn and winter months when it is
most valuable. A further flush can be grazed in spring during the early season.

Cut for hay, it yields 58 MT/ha (Bogdan, 1977). In one Rhodesian trial, it was one of the lowest
yielders, at 7 MT/ha. Yields may attain 12.5 T/ha per season. In Natal, it averaged 9.8 MT/ha/a for
three seasons (Theron and Arnott, 1979). A valuable pasture and fodder grass in areas of
adaptation especially in humid tropical areas, as South Africa.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981), annual productivity ranges from 4 to 12 MT/ha.
Rhind and Goodenough (1979) report 2 to 18 MT DM (the latter is Swaziland). Such DM (dry
matter) can be converted to energy by burning or conversion to alcohol or methane. According to
Gohl (1981), ME (metabolizable energy) is 2.35 megacalories per kilogram of dry matter in hay.
Acroceras macrum
Biotic Factors
The fungi, Phyllosticta sp. (leaf spot) and Ustilago syntherismae (smut) have been reported on this
grass.
References
Bogdan, 1977
Duke, 1981
Rhind, J.M.L.C. and Goodenough, D.C.W. 1979. Acroceras macrum Stapf. (Nile Grass)a
review. Proc. Grassland Soc. S. Africa 14:2736.
Theron, E.P. and Arnott, J.K. 1979. Notes on the performance of Acroceras macrum Stapf
cv Cedara select in Natal. Proc Grassland Soc. S. Africa 14:2325.
New Crops from Brazil
Index | Search | Home | Table of Contents | Aromatic, Spice and Medicinal Plants
Arkcoll, D. 1990. New crops from Brazil. p. 367-371. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.),
Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

David Arkcoll
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SELECTING NEW CROPS
1. Bactris gasipaes (Peach palm, Pejebaye)
2. Astrocaryum aculeatum (Tucuma)
3. Acrocomia aculeata (Macauba)
4. Cuphea spp.
5. Annona muricata (Soursop)
6. Eugenia stipitata (Ara-boi)
7. Psidium angulatum (Ara-Pera)
8. Spondias lutea (Tapereb, Caj)
9. Theobroma grandiflorum (Cupuassu)
10. Couepia longipendula (Egg nut)
11. Couma utilis (Sorva)
12. Paullinia cupana (Guaran)
13. Stevia rebaudiana (Stevia)
14. Bixa orellana (Annatto)
3. CONCLUSIONS
4. REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
Brazil and especially the unexplored regions of the Amazon, are extremely rich sources of plant
germplasm with potential as new crops. Establishing the correct selection criteria is important to
evaluate the true potential of the many promising species by calling attention to their assets and to
the missing information and problems facing each species. This must be accomplished efficiently
to justify the considerable investment in relevant research needed to develop the most promising
plants into commercially viable crops.

Much of the current interest in new crops arises from the over production of traditional cereals and
soybeans by major producer and exporting countries. This has led to the expensive practice of
paying farmers to leave land idle in the USA, clearly an undesirable situation. Furthermore,
traditional markets like Europe and the developing world are increasing their own production to
relieve their shortages and reduce their imports. In some cases, these countries are even compelling
in export markets with their surpluses. Examples are the explosion of rape seed in Europe and the
large amount of soybeans now being produced by Brazil and Argentina. The tendency is to replace
imports, hence the interest in the USA in finding alternatives to rubber (e.g. guayule), lauric oils
(e.g. Cuphea) and cellulose (e.g. kenaf). This in turn will force traditional producers of these
products to search for alternative crops as well.
There are many other good reasons for looking to new crops. These include the need to diversify
from vulnerable dependence on the few major grain crops, the increasing interest in novelty foods,
the industrial requirement for new compounds (e.g. new colorants, polyvinyl plastics), and new
nutritional recommendations (e.g. gamma linolenic acid and new low calorie sweeteners). There is
also a need for new crops to expand agriculture into marginal lands, especially in the tropics where
few viable alternatives are found. New systems like agroforestry and biomass production also may
require new crops.
SELECTING NEW CROPS

Ideally, having decided on a precise need, one would then look for a plant that has the desired
characteristics. In practice what has tended to happen is that a botanist studies an interesting
species and then tries to find a market for it. However, there are a series of characteristics that a
wild plant must have if it is to ever make the large jump from botanical curiosity into viable crop.
These include agricultural industrial and marketing characteristics (Arkcoll and Clement 1989). It
should be easy to propagate, precocious, rustic, productive, be easy to harvest, and fit into current
farm practice. The product must be easy to transport, store, and process. It should also be able to
enter an established market at a competitive price or should be so attractive that a new market can
be easily created.
We have been evaluating some of the most interesting species in this light in an effort to reduce
the number to a few with the greatest potential. These and other species being developed in Brazil,
are examined below to draw attention to the current stage of development, the missing data and the
major problems that each one faces.
Bactris gasipaes (Peach palm, Pejebaye)

The Peach palm has attracted much attention in the last decade because of the texture and
composition of the fruit mesocarp which is usually similar to that of a starchy cereal or root crop.
It is consequently an important backyard tree in much of tropical Latin America and is used as a
dietary staple by some Amerindian tribes (FAO 1986, Clement and Arkcoll 1989). The small
crown and very high yield of some trees have suggested that it could be a useful plantation crop
capable of producing large amounts of basic food in the wet tropics. We have been studying this
potential as an important part of attempts to create ecologically attractive "food forests" to produce
food from a permanent perennial system (Arkcoll 1978, 1979, 1984). Some introductions are very
rich in oil (62% of mesocarp dry matter) suggesting that selecting for this character would be an
interesting alternative because of the local and world markets for oil and protein rich meals
(Arkcoll and Aguiar 1984). Most fruit have a bland taste that is not exotic enough to export,
however some with a sweetish flavor may have more potential as a table fruit and at least expand
local markets. The crop has only been grown on a large commercial scale for palmhearts in Costa
Rica where over 2000 ha have been planted. The viability of this venture has been dependent on
Government subsidy as it is difficult for plantations to compete with raw material coming from
wild Euterpe edulis in Brazil. It is especially interesting as a source of palmhearts because it tillers
and grows extremely fast (Gomes and Arkcoll 1987). Unfortunately, this vegetative vigor is
proving to be a problem in fruit production as the fruit are produced too high above the ground to
harvest after a few years. Precocity has been observed and there are signs of different growth rates
suggesting that researchers might locate dwarf phenotypes. Managing tillers as in banana
plantations, is also being considered. While individual stem yields of over 80 kg/yr. have been
recorded, plantation yields have been frustrated by uneven bearing and tremendous fruit drop
caused by poor pollination, drought, nutrient deficiencies, and principally pests and diseases. It is
hoped that these problems can be controlled the crop is better understood. The successful selection
and combination of desired characteristics could make this crop as important as the coconut in the
wet tropics.
Astrocaryum aculeatum (Tucuma)

Tucuma, a heavily spined palm, is of interest because of the oily mesocarp and large kernel. A
very brief examination of a few dozen introductions from the Manaus market, identified one with
over 30% oil in the fresh fruit (Arkcoll et al. 1986, Arkcoll 1988). However, the species is only
used locally for the direct consumption of the very thin pulp. This is bitter, nutty, and oily and
rarely appreciated by the newcomer. However, it is so appreciated by locals that it costs as much
as a dollar a dozen. Despite the premium price, tucuma is not grown commercially because there
are enough native trees to satisfy demand. The species often becomes dominant in secondary
forests because of resistance to fire and perhaps this characteristic can be used to recover worn out
and abandoned pasture (FAO 1986). Difficulty in breaking seed dormancy and slow initial growth,
have dampened the enthusiasm of research workers, but the large variation found in A. vulgare
(Lima et al. 1986), a similar species with several stems, suggests that both species deserve more
attention.
Acrocomia aculeata (Macauba)

Macauba palm is somewhat similar to the last palm in that its fruit have a large amount of both
pulp and kernel oil and together with several very similar species, is widespread throughout central
and Latin America often on poor soils. Its apparent tolerance to drought, makes it an attractive
species for producing oil in regions that are too dry for the African oil palm and coconuts. The
very high yield predictions of 6 t/ha (Wandeck and Justo 1982) have not been confirmed yet
because of difficulties in breaking dormancy and slow early growth. Rapid hydrolysis of the
mesocarp oil and difficulty in separating oil from the moist, fibrous and mucilaginous pulp, are
among the other problems that still have to be faced (FAO 1986, Arkcoll 1988).
Cuphea spp.
The several hundred widely spread species in this genus have been of interest for about a decade,
because of the unique composition of their seed oils. This varies with species, with the most
interesting having over 80% lauric acid (Graham et al. 1981, Graham and Kleiman 1985). As most
species are small herbaceous plants and many are adapted to the colder regions of highland
Mexico, it is hoped that a mechanized crop suitable for temperate climates might be developed and
reduce the dependency of lauric oil importing countries on wildly fluctuating supplies from
coconut producers. Satisfactory yields have not been achieved in the USA because of shattering
(Hirsinger and Knowles 1984, Hirsinger 1985). Attention has been drawn to several other
problems such as seed dormancy, slow growth and the variable chromosome numbers and fatty
acid composition observed in different species (Arkcoll 1988). Many wild species have not yet
been studied and an effort is being made to collect this germplasm in order to locate desirable
characteristics. Research is also in progress to obtain indehiscence through mutations and also to
splice the appropriate Cuphea genes into a conventional crop such as rape (Thompson 1984,
Tokay 1985). Sudden success in either of these efforts could lead rapidly to the development of an
important new crop to supply the enormous market for lauric oils. It would also help to expand
markets for medium chain (mixtures of C8 and C10) triglycerides that have considerable
commercial potential, especially as lubricants and nutritionally desirable and medically useful oils
(Bach and Babayan 1982). There is considerable interest in the pharmacological properties of
extracts from the whole plant of some species used as a cure-all in local folk medicine in Brazil.
There is now scientific confirmation of several potentially useful separate effects including
depression of the central nervous system and the ability to reduce blood pressure in experimental
animals (Ericeira et al. 1984).
Annona muricata (Soursop)

The large fruit of the soursop is much appreciated in several Latin American countries mainly as a
sweetened juice but also as an ice cream and yoghurt flavoring. Several small commercial
plantations are now in operation with about 2000 ha planted in Brazil and more planned. Yields
have been disappointingly low, rarely reaching 7 t/ha in plantations sown from seed. Yields from
individual trees very significantly suggesting that considerable improvement could be achieved via
clonal selection. Production problems include low fruit set due to poor pollination and adverse
climatic conditions and the attack of several devastating pests and diseases (FAO 1986). The
flavor is somewhat volatile so pasteurized products are less attractive than fresh ones, and the off
white color can become an unpleasant grey unless oxidation is prevented. The premature sale of
several poor bottled products is thought to have limited market penetration. Frozen and chilled
products seem more successful elsewhere (Arkcoll 1987), especially in regions where the fresh
fruit is well known and appreciated.
Eugenia stipitata (Ara-boi)

Ara-boi, a little known fruit from the Western Amazon is very attractive in appearance and has
an exquisite fragrance. Although extremely sour to the taste, the sweetened juice has performed
well in acceptance trials. In early performance trials two-year old bushes produced high yields
(FAO 1986). The main production drawbacks are susceptibility to anthracnose, soft fruit texture
and volatility of aroma. Consequently, resistance is being sought, firm fruit are harvested a little
green with small loss in quality and the market will probably be restricted to fresh and frozen
products. Studies on the aroma are planned as this may have a market in its own right.
Psidium angulatum (Ara-Pera)

This is one of the most interesting of the many wild acidic guavas known collectively in Brazil as
Ara. Its sour juice is so concentrated that it must be diluted 10 times and well sweetened to
produce a very acceptable drink. Once again, the delicate flavor is affected by heating so that fresh
and frozen products are superior to pasteurized juices. The fruit comes from the eastern Amazon
and there are only a few experimental plantations at the moment. Initial impressions are that the
plant is rustic and productive although the yields are low compared to guavas. Interspecific
breeding may be promising. The leathery skin should avoid damage during transport and together
with the high acidity, give some resistance to insect attack. Fruit are quite variable and clonal
selection is needed to obtain superior introductions (FAO 1986). Another wild acidic guava
receiving attention is Feijoa sellowiana from the extreme south of the country (Mattos 1986).
Spondias lutea (Tapereb, Caj)

Tapereb or Caj is one of the most popular fruit in the North and Northeast of Brazil. The fruit
itself is rarely eaten directly as the pulp is thin and usually quite sour, however it makes a superb
sweetened juice and ice cream or ice lollipop of excellent flavor. The flavor is volatile and
pasteurized products are not attractive. No plantations are known which is surprising as the
demand is in excess of the current supply from the many large trees found scattered at low density
over a wide area of forest. Trees grow fast from seed but take over 5 years to fruit. Like most
Spondias, they can be propagated easily from large cuttings to fruit quickly and reduce the size of
the trees. This is important as the very soft fruit are often bruised when harvested from the ground
beneath large trees. Most fruit are small and have a large seed and thin layer of pulp so a search is
on for fruit said to be as large as S. dulcis. The tree appears to be rather rustic and productive
although no data on yields is available (FAO 1986).
Theobroma grandiflorum (Cupuassu)

A highly perfumed pulp surrounding the seeds of Cupuassu, a large relative of Cacao, is much
appreciated in the Amazon region for making sweetened juice, ice cream or charlotte desserts. It
fetches the highest price of all fruits in the local markets and there are now several hundred
hectares planted to supply the Belem and Manaus markets. Newcomers often find the aroma a
little overpowering at first, but soon acquire a liking for it. This volatile aroma could be extracted
and might find a market in the flavor and perfume industry. Yields are low in the field (Calzavara
1987) and there is only about 40% pulp in most fruit. Seedless fruit are known with larger amounts
of pulp. However, the seed can be made into a number of chocolate-like products and so could
become a useful byproduct if large scale production becomes viable (Arkcoll and Clement 1988).
Selection for higher yield and resistance to witches broom is needed (FAO 1986).
Couepia longipendula (Egg nut)

Apart from the major Brazilian nuts, (cashew and brazil) there are many other interesting
examples. One of these is Couepia longipendula (egg nut) because of its excellent flavor. This
large tree is common in the forest around Manaus but although widely eaten in the rural areas, it
never reaches the local market so is little known. The shell is hard and thick requiring an ax to
break it. Nuts with thinner shells are said to exist in the forest. Trees are rather slow growing so
grafting onto the more vigorous rootstock of C. subcordata is being considered (FAO 1986). The
kernels are rich in oil which appears to have some unusual polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Couma utilis (Sorva)

Over 5000 t of sorva latex are exported from this plant each year as a substitute for chicle gum.
Much of it is obtained by destructive tapping of wild trees. Because these are being decimated
quickly, Achras sapota trees are slow growing and increasingly rare and industrial substitutes are
contaminated with heavy metals, there is considerable interest in establishing plantations of C.
utilis. A few experimental trees have grown very fast on poor soil but tapping yields have not been
obtained yet. The tree is also very decorative and the good flavored fruit are sold in local markets.
The fruit might become a useful subproduct of latex plantations, however, they are too soft and not
thought to be interesting enough to consider more seriously in their own right (FAO 1986).
Paullinia cupana (Guaran)

Roasted seeds of this plant are ground up to make an interesting cola type drink called guaran.
Over 1000 t are now produced annually in Brazil on about 5000 ha of poor oxisols. Vegetative
propagation of selected plants is starting to increase yields and the local market is now thought to
be saturated. An export drive is now in progress and seems to be having some success, especially
in Japan. The drink owes much of its popularity to the stimulation produced by its high caffeine
content and the widely held belief in its rejuvenating and aphrodisiacal properties (Cavalcanti
1988). Well formulated products can be very good although several of the most popular brands
contained very little or no real guarana until recent legislation, aimed at supporting growers, made
the inclusion of a small amount compulsory.
Stevia rebaudiana (Stevia)

Dried leaves from this small shrub from the south of Brazil, have been used as a local sweetener
and cure-all for generations. The main active ingredient, stevioside, is said to be up to 300 times as
sweet as sucrose. Extraction processes have been developed in Japan and Brazil and over 100
t/year sold in a purified form until recently when doubt has been cast over its toxicity and the
mutagenicity of the metabolite, steviol (Pezzuto et al. 1985, S. Cascon pers. commun.). Studies are
in progress to clarify this situation and some derivatives that are believed to be safe, have been
synthesized and patented (Dubois et al. 1984). About a 100 ha are now planted annually in Brazil
to satisfy the local demand, mainly by natural health shops for dried leaves. Yields of 2 to 3 t/ha of
leaf with about 10% stevioside are obtained.
Bixa orellana (Annatto)

Restrictions on the use of many synthetic colorants and the relative instability of most other
carotenoids, are leading to the increasing use of bixin, especially in the dairy industry. World
production, estimated at about 3,000 t of annatto seed in 1983 (Anand 1983), is now thought to
have risen rapidly to over 10,000 t, about half of which comes from Brazil. Until recently, annatto
(or urucum as it is known in Brazil) was little more than a back garden crop. However, high prices
and the good yields have resulted in a few farmers planting it on a larger scale. Yields, after 4
years, can pass 2 t/ha with 0.9 to 6.9% (average about 2.5%) bixin covering the seeds in a sticky
resin (Nicholson 1964, I. Guimaraes pers. commun.). Yields from seedling trees are very variable
as the crop is cross pollinated. Variation in the exact composition of the colorants in the final
extracted products limits marketability. Vegetative propagation is easy and should make rapid
advances possible especially if the crop is selected for a combination of yield and bixin content.
The relatively small market for colorants could quickly become saturated so there is interest in the
potential of this rustic perennial crop as an alternative grain for growing on exhausted tropical
soils. The high yield potential despite any scientific attempts at improvement, makes it a very
promising crop.
CONCLUSIONS
The above species have been identified by a series of multidisciplinary criteria as some of the best
Brazilian options for development into new crops. They are found in various stages of
development from early germplasm collection to small commercial plantations. Attention is drawn
to some of the missing data and problems that they face if they are to overcome the risks of early
commercial plantations and make the large jump from botanical curiosities to useful crops.
Appropriate research is now underway to collect the missing data and to resolve the problems,
however it is bedeviled by a lack of continuity. Germplasm maintenance and work with tree crops,
especially breeding, are very long term projects that funding bodies have failed to face so much
research has been wasted in the past (Arkcoll and Clement 1989). Thought is needed on how one
forms and keeps a multidisciplinary team together over many years in countries with wildly
fluctuating economies and poor working conditions.
It is also well known that few crops have been successfully exploited on a large scale near their
center of diversity because of indigenous pests and diseases, so that local research will probably
benefit other regions of the globe. Thus, improvements in the exchange of germplasm are
important if many new crops are to be fully evaluated and developed.
REFERENCES
Anand, N. 1983. The market for annatto. Tropical Products Institute, London.
Arkcoll, D.B. 1978. Food forests, an alternative to shifting cultivation. Abstracts XI
International Nutrition Congress, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Arkcoll, D.B. 1979. The production of food from trees and forests. p. 171-3. In: Proceedings
of an International Symposium on forestry Science and its contribution to the development
of Latin America. Euned, Costa Rica.

Arkcoll, D.B. 1984. Nutrient recycling as an alternative to shifting cultivation. p. 39-44. In:
B. Glaeser (ed.). Ecodevelopment. Oxford: Pergamon.
Arkcoll, D.B. 1987. Some lesser known Brazilian fruit with unexploited potential. p. 27-34.
In: Proceedings of the XIX Symposium of the International Federation of Fruit juice
Producers. The Hague 1986. Juris Druck and Verlag, Zurich.
Arkcoll, D.B. 1988. Lauric oil resources. Econ. Bot. 42:195-205.
Arkcoll, D.B. and J.P.L. Aguiar, 1984. Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes HBK) a new source of
vegetative oil from the wet tropics. J. Sci. Food Agric. 35:520-6.
Arkcoll, D.B. and C.R. Clement. 1989. Potential new food crops from the Amazon. p.
150-165. In: G. Wickens, N. Haq and P. Day (eds.). New crops for food and industry.
Chapman and Hall, London.
Arkcoll, D.B., F.H. Jablonka, D.A. Pereira and J.P.L. Aguiar. 1986. Potential de Tucuma do
Amazonas como uma nova culture oleaginosa. In: Resumo IX Congresso Brasileiro de
Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos. Curitiba, Brazil.
Bach, A.C. and V.K. Babayan. 1982. Medium chain triglycerides, an update. Amer. J.
Clinical Nutr. 36:950-62.
Calzavara, B.B.G. 1987. Cupuacuzeiro. Recommendacoes Basicas No. 1 EMBRAPA,
Belem, Brazil.
Cavalcante, P.B. 1988. Frutas comestiveis de Amazonia. MCT/CNPQ, Belem, Brazil.
Clement, C.R. and D.B. Arkcoll. 1989. The Pejebaye palm (Bactris gasipaes) potential and
research needs. p. 304-322. In: G. Wickens, N. Haq and P. Day (eds.). New crops for food
and industry. Chapman and Hall, London.
Dubois, G.E., L.A. Bunes, P.S. Dietrich and R.A. Stephenson. 1984. Diterpenoid
sweeteners. Synthesis and sensory evaluation of biologically stable analogues of stevioside.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 32:1321-25.
Ericeira, V.R., M.M.R. Martins, C. Souccar and A.L. Lapa. 1984. Atividade farmacologica
do extrato etanolico de Sete Sangrias Cuphea balsamona. p. 35. In: Resumos do VIII
Simposio de Plantas Medicinais do Brasil. Manaus.
F.A.O. 1986. Food and fruit bearing forest species. No. 3: Examples from Latin America.
Forestry Paper 44/3. F.A.O. Rome.
Gomes, J.B.M. and D.B. Arkcoll. 1987. Estudos iniciais sobre a producao de palmito de
pupunha (Bactris gasipaes) em plantacoes. p. 271-277. In: Anais do I Encontro Nacional de
Pesquisadores em Palmito. Documentos, 19. EMBRAPA, Curitiba, Brazil. (In press).
Graham, S.A., F. Hirsinger and G. Robbelen. 1981. Fatty acids of Cuphea seed oils and their
systematic significance. Amer. J. Bot. 68:908-17.
Graham, S.A. and R. Kleiman. 1985. Fatty acid composition in Cuphea seed oils from
Brazil and Nicaragua. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:81-2.
Hirsinger, F. 1985. Agronomic potential and seed composition of Cuphea, an annual crop
for lauric and capric seed oils. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 62:76-80.
Hirsinger, F. and P.F. Knowles. 1984. Morphological and agronomic description of selected
Cuphea germplasm. Econ. Bot. 38:439-51.

Lima, R.R., L.C. Trassato and V. Coelho. 1986. O Tucuma principais characteristicas e
potencialidade agroindustrial. Boletim de Pesquisa 75. CPATU, EMBRAPA, Belem, Brazil.
Mattos, J.R. 1986. A Goiabeira serrana. Publicacao IPRNR 19, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Nicholson, D.D.A. 1964. Bixa. The Kenya Farmer. November, p 28.
Pezzuto, J.M., C.M. Compadre, S.M. Swanson, N.P.D. Nanayakkara and A.D. Kinghorn.
1985. Metabolically activated steviol the aglycone of stevioside, is mutagenic. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. (USA). 82:2478-82.
Thompson, A.E. 1984. Cuphea, a potential new crop. HortScience 19:352-54.
Tokay, B. 1985. Research sparks oleochemical hopes. Chem. Bus. Sept., p 13-16.
Wandeck, F.A. and P.G. Justo. 1982. Macauba, fonte energetica e insumo industrial. Vida
Industrial. (Sao Paulo, Brazil) Oct., p 33-37.
Kiwifruit, Chinese Gooseberry, Hardy Kiwifruit
Index| Search| Home
Actinidia deliciosa, Actinidia

arguta
Actinidiaceae
Kiwifruit, Chinese Gooseberry, Hardy Kiwifruit, Yang tao
New Temperate Fruits: Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia deliciosaA.R. Ferguson
KiwifruitJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
New Horticultural Crops in New ZealandErrol W. Hewett
Temperate Berry CropsChad Finn
Outside links:
The Kiwifruit (A. deliciosa) from the California Rare Fruit Growers.
The Hardy Kiwifruit (A. arguta) from the California Rare Fruit Growers.
Kiwifruit Production from the Northwest Berry and Grape Information Network
Kiwifruitfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Kiwifruit Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
California Kiwifruit Commission
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Actinidia_deliciosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:43 PM]
Vigna angularis
Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi

& Ohashi
syn: Phaseolus angularis (Willd.) W.
F. Wight
Fabaceae
Azuki bean, Adzuki bean, Adanka bean
Potential New Specialty Crops from Asia: Azuki Bean, Edamame Soybean, and
AstragalusThomas A. Lumpkin, J.C. Konovsky, K.J. Larson, and D.C. McClary
Alternative Crops Research in VirginiaHarbans L. Bhardwaj, Andy Hankins, Tadesse Mebrahtu,
Jimmy Mullins, Muddappa Rangappa, Ozzie Abaye, and Gregory E. Welbaum
Plant Configuration and Population Effects on Yield of Azuki Bean in Washington StateAn N.
Hang, D.C. McClary, G.C. Gilliland, and T.A. Lumpkin
Herbicides for Azuki ProductionDean C. McClary, A.N. Hang, G.C. Gilliland, J.M. Babcock,
T.A. Lumpkin, A.G. Ogg, and L.K. Tanigosh
Adzuki Bean: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Service, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant & Animal
Products
New Crops for Canadian AgricultureErnest Small
New Opportunities in VignaRichard L. Fery
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_angularis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:43 PM]
Aegle marmelos
Aegle marmelos Correa

Rutaceae
Bael, bael tree, bel-fruit, Bengal quince, Indian
bael, marmelo, Sirphal, Wood apple
We have information from several sources: FactSHEET contributed by K.K. Misra
Bael FruitJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Aegle_marmelos_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:44 PM]
Horsechestnut
Index | Search | Home | Herb Hunters | Aromatic, Spice and Medicinal Plants
Horsechestnut
Aesculus hippocastanum L.
Other common names.Hippocastanum, bongay, konker-tree
Habitat and range.This tree is largely cultivated in this country as
an ornamental shade tree and occasionally escapes from cultivation.
Description.The horsechestnut is a rather large tree, usually
reaching 40 feet or more in height. The large leaves are composed of
five to seven leaflets from 4 to 8 inches long, pointed, and broader at
the top than at the base. In June it produces handsome flower clusters
sometimes a foot in length, consisting of large white flowers spotted
with yellow and red. The fruit is round and prickly and contains a
large shining brown nut.
Part used.Horsechestnut bark is collected in autumn, and
preference is given to the bark from the younger branches.
Figure 66.Horsechestnut
(Aesculus hippocastanum)
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington DC.
Last update March 19, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/horsechestnut.html [5/16/2004 1:27:45 PM]
Amomum melegueta (syn. Aframomum melegueta) - Grains of Paradise
Index| Search| Home
Amomum melegueta
Roskoe
syn.Aframomum melegueta [Roskoe] K. Schum.

[the genetic epithet "Aframomum" is a nomen rej. see: Monog. Scitam. t. 98.]
Grains of Paradise or Guinea Pepper

also known as Guinea Grains, Melegueta Pepper, Atar and Aligator Pepper. In pharmacy,
Grana paradisi.
Zingiberaceae, the Ginger family

NewCROP has information from the following sources:
A summarized description of the flavor of grains of paradise from "What peppercorns only dream
of being" New York Times, May 3, 2000 by Ammanda Hesser.
Grains of Paradise Iwu, M.W., A.R. Duncan, and C.O. Okunji. 1999. New antimicrobials of
plant origin. p. 457-462. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
Grains of Paradise from Magness et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Outside links to Grains of Paradise info:

Essential oil of grains of paradise.
Grains of paradise from Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Aframomum_melegueta_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:45 PM]
Cenchrus ciliaris
Cenchrus ciliaris L.
Syn.: Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link
Pennisetum cenchroides Rich.
Poaceae
Buffelgrass, Anjangrass, African foxtail
African GrassesGlenn W. Burton
Article from:
Article from:
Last update October 27, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cenchrus_ciliaris_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:46 PM]
Cucumis metuliferus
Cucumis metuliferus E. Mey.

ex Naud or ex Schrad
Cucurbitaceae
Kiwano, African horned cucumber, African horned melon,
English tomato, Hedged gourd, Horned melon, Jelly melon,
Melano, Metulon
FactSHEET contributed by: Aliza Benzioni
Germination, Fruit Development, Yield and Post Harvest Characteristics of Cucumis
metuliferusA. Benzioni, S. Mendlinger, M. Ventura, and S. Huyskens
Evaluation of Cucumis metuliferus as a Specialty Crop for MissouriDyremple B. Marsh
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucumis_metuliferus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:46 PM]
Eleusine coracana
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.

Poaceae
African millet, Finger millet, Ragi
Outside links:
Finger milletEleusine coracana from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eleusine_coracana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:47 PM]
Elaeis guineensis
Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

Syn.: Elaeis melanococca J. Gaertn.
Arecaceae (Palmae)
African oil palm
Article from:
Article from:
Last update August 23, 1996 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Elaeis_guineensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:48 PM]
Mushroom
Mushroom
Agaricaceae Agaricus sp.
The term mushroom applies to edible, fleshy fungi, either gathered from the
wild or grown in cultivation. Under cultivation, mushrooms are grown mainly in the dark, in caves
or light-tight buildings, with temperature, moisture and ventilation control. The "spawn" or
mycelium is seeded in specially prepared compost in beds or suitable containers. After the mycelia
have spread through the compost, a layer of soil or "casing" is applied. The mushrooms, the
fruiting bodies of the fungi, first appear at the soil surface 6 or more weeks after seeding with
spawn, and continue to appear. They are usually harvested by cutting off the cap with a small
portion of the stem before the caps have become fully expanded. Beds produce the main crops in
the first 50 days after fruiting starts, but may be retained with light production for several months.
Season, seeding spawn to first harvest: 6 to 8 weeks.
Production in U.S.: 100,000 tons.
Use: Food flavoring, soups, sometimes as pot vegetable, or raw in salads.
Part of plant consumed: Fruiting "cap" and stem.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Mushroom.html [5/16/2004 1:27:48 PM]
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.

Fabaceae
Agati, Corkwood tree, West Indian pea
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The tender leaves, green fruit, and flowers are eaten alone as a vegetable or mixed into curries or
salads. Flowers may be dipped in batter and fried in butter. Tender portions serve as cattle fodder,
(overeating is said to cause diarrhea). Ripe pods apparently are not eaten. The inner bark can serve
as fiber and the white, soft wood not too durable, can be used for cork. The wood is used, like
bamboo, in Asian construction. The tree is grown as an ornamental shade tree, and for
reforestation. In Java, the tree is extensively used as a pulp source. A gum resembling kino (called
katurai), fresh when red, nearly black after exposure, exudes from wounds. This astringent gum is
partially soluble in water and in alcohol, but applied to fishing cord, it makes it more durable.
Pepper vines (Piper nigrum) are sometimes grown on and in the shade of the agati. According to
NAS (1980a), this small tree produces firewood, forage, pulp and paper, food, and green manure
and appears to hold promise for reforesting eroded and grassy wastelands throughout the tropics. It
combines well with agriculture (agroforestry) in areas where trees are not normally grown and
becomes an important fuelwood source. Dried and powdered bark is used as a cosmetic in Java.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sesbania_grandiflora.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:27:49 PM]
Allen and Allen enumerated three undesirable features (1) short lived (2) shallow-rooted and
subject to wind throw, and (3) prolific seeder, the pods often considered a litter. An aqueous
extract of bark is said to be toxic to cockroaches.
Folk Medicine
Resorted to be aperient, diuretic, emetic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, laxative, and tonic, agati is a
folk remedy for bruises, catarrh, dysentery, eyes, fevers, headaches, smallpox, sores, sorethroat,
and stomatitis (Duke and Wain, 1981). Bark, leaves, gums, and flowers are considered medicinal.
The astringent bark was used in treating smallpox and other eruptive fevers. The juice from the
flowers is used to treat headache, head congestion, or stuffy nose. As a snuff, the juice is supposed
to clear the nasal sinuses. Leaves are poulticed onto bruises. Rheumatic swellings are poulticed or
rubbed with aqueous decoctions of the powdered roots of the red-flowered variant. In India the
flowers are sacred to Siva, representing both the male and female sex organs; still I find no
mention of their use as aphrodisiacs. Ayurvedics, believing the fruits to be alexeteric, laxative, and
intellectually stimulating, prescribe them for anemia, bronchitis, fever, pain, thirst, and tumors; the
flowers, apertif and refrigerant, for biliousness, bronchitis, gout, nyctalopia, ozoena, and quartan
fever; the root for inflammation, the bark as astringent; leaves, alexeteric, anthelmintic, for
epilepsy, gout, itch, leprosy, nyctalopia, and ophthalmia. Yunani consider the tonic leaves useful in
biliousness, fever, and nyctalopia. Indians apply the roots in rheumatism, the juice of the leaves
and flowers for headache and nasal catarrh. Mixed with stramonium and pasted, the root is
poulticed onto painful swellings. In Amboina, flower juice is squeezed into the eye to correct dim
vision. The bark is used in infusions for smallpox. Cambodians consider the flowers emollient and
laxative, the bark for diarrhea, dysentery, and paludism. Malayans apply crushed leaves to sprains
and contusions. They gargle with the leaf juice to cleanse the mouth and throat. In small doses, the
bark is used for dysentery and sprue, in large doses, laxative, in still larger doses, emetic. Pounded
bark is applied to scabies. Philippines use the pounded bark for hemoptysis. The powdered bark is
also recommended for ulcers of the mouth and alimentary canal. In Java, the bark is used for
thrush and infantile disorders of the stomach. Leaves are chewed to disinfect the mouth and throat.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the leaf is reported to contain 73.1 g H2O, 8.4 g protein, 1.4 g fat, 11.8 g NFE, 2.2 g
fiber, 3.1 g ash, 1,130 mg Ca, 80 mg P, 3.9 mg Fe, 9,000 IU vit. A, 0.21 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg
riboflavin, 1.2 mg niacin, and 169 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves contain (ZMB) per 100 g, 321
calories, 36.3 g protein, 7.5 g fat, 47.1 g carbohydrate, 9.2 g fiber, 9.2 g ash, 1684 mg Ca, 258 mg
P, 21 mg Na, 2,005 mg K, 25,679 g -carotene equivalent, 1.00 mg thiamine, 1.04 mg riboflavin,
9.17 mg niacin and 242 mg ascorbic acid. The flowers (ZMB) contain per 100 g, 345 calories, 14.5
g protein, 3.6 g fat, 77.3 g carbohydrate, 10.9 g fiber, 4.5 g ash, 145 mg Ca, 290 mg P, 5.4 mg Fe,
291 mg Na, 1,400 mg K, 636 g -carotene equivalent, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.72 mg riboflavin,
14.54 mg niacin, and 473 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds (ZMB) contain 36.5% CP, 7.4% fat, 51.6% total
carbohydrate, and 4.5% ash. The seed oil contains 12.3% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 26.2% oleic, and
53.4% linoleic acids. The seed testa, which constitutes 20% of the seed, contains 5.2% moisture,
1.3% ash, 0.8% fat, 2.7% CF, 0.1% free reducing sugars, 1.4% sucrose, 2.8% nitrogen, 6.3%
pentosans, and 65.4% carbohydrates. Yields of 33% galactomannans are reported for alkali
extraction of the testae. Seeds allowed to germinate (sprouts) for 120 hours increased vit. C
content from 17166 mg/100 g. Extracellular invertase of Rhizobia japonicum and its role in free
sugar metabolism in the developing root nodules was studied. The enzyme hydrolyzed sucrose
extracellularly, and its release was substrate inducible. 0.1 m -mercaptoethanol released the
cell-bound form of this enzyme. The production of invertase was low when glucose, galactose,
mannose, fructose, and farrinose were used as carbon sources in the growth medium. In the
developing nodules sucrose was the major sugar. The content of fructose was low in comparison
with that of glucose, suggesting that in the nodules the fructose is converted to glucose prior to its
entry into the bacterial cell. The content of glucose synchronized with the pattern of change in the
activity of invertase in the nodules (Singh et al, 1980).
Description
A small erect quick-growing short-lived soft-wooded tree to 10 m tall, 25 cm DBH, sparsely
branched. Bole straight and cylindrical, the wood white and soft. Bark light gray, corky, deeply
furrowed. Leaves pinnate, 1530 cm long, with 1630 pairs of linear oblong leaflets. Racemes 2.5
cm long. Flowers 24, white to pink, pendulous the corolla 79 cm long. Pods 5060 cm long.
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, agati, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate drought, heavy soils, poor soil, and water-logging. Widely cultivated as ornamental or
curio vegetable in tropical Asia. (2n = 14, 24).
Distribution
Native to many Asian countries, e.g., India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines from sea
level to 800 m, agati commonly grows on dikes between rice paddies, along roadsides, and in
backyard vegetable gardens. It has been widely distributed in southern Florida and the West Indies
and from southern Mexico through most countries of Central America down to South America.
Cultivated in Mauritius (NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Apparently frost-sensitive, this species seems limited to the tropics. Ranging from Tropical Dry
through Tropical Moist Forest Life Zones, agati is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8
to 22.5 dm (mean of 11 cases = 15.1), annual temperature of 24.3 to 26.7C (mean of 8 cases =
25.6), and pH of 6.6 to 8.5.
Cultivation
Propagated readily by seeding or cuttings, requiring little maintenance. It has been aerially seeded,
apparently with success. For reforestation, Mendoza (1980) recommends spacing cuttings ca 1 m
long at 4 x 4 m. The saplings could serve as a nurse crop for mahogany, Banquet pine, etc.
Cuttings should be set out at the beginning of the rainy season. When grown as shade plant for
coconut seedlings, agati is sown in India in June and July, putting 34 seed per hole in a narrow
channel, 30 cm x 30 cm, ca 1 m from the coconut seedlings.
Harvesting
When cultivated for fodder, agati is usually cut when ca 1 m tall. Indonesian foresters, growing the
species for fuelwood, harvest on a 5-year rotation. One hectare can yield three m3 of stacked
fuelwood in a 2-year rotation. After the plant is harvested, shoots resprout with such vigor that
they seem irrepressible. The tree's outstanding quality is its rapid growth rate, particularly during
its first 3 or 4 years (NAS, 1980a).

Planted at 90 cm intervals, an agati plant yields 4.59.1 kg lvs/yr, which translates to ca 12,000
plants per hectare yielding 50100 MT leaves per year per hectare (C.S.I.R., 19481976), about
75% of which is water, suggesting DM yields of 1225 MTha. Javanese have obtained 55 MT
green matter per ha in 67 months. On a black, poorly structured clay, pH 8.5, in Australia, agati
outgrew all other species tested, attaining 4.35.5 (-8.3) m in one year's growth.
Energy
Long been used as firewood in Southeast Asia, has been planted in several areas in Indonesia to
provide fuel and other products in "turinisation" projects (after turi, the indigenous name).
However, the wood is white, soft, and has a rather low specific gravity of about 0.42, which is
poor for fuelwood. Wood yields of 2025 m3 per ha per year are commonly achieved in
plantations in Indonesia. Even when planted only along the edges of agricultural fields, as in Java,
yields of 3 m3 of stacked firewood per ha from 2-year rotation periods have been recorded. The
wood weighs 512 kg m3. Charcoal is used for gunpowder (C.S.I.R., 19481976). If 25 MT of dry
leaves are available, then certainly there must be 510 MT stem as well, all of which could be
diverted to energy.
Biotic Factors
Described as very susceptible to nematodes, agati is said to have been damaged by birds and
grasshoppers in northern Australia. Colletotrichum capsici causes seedling blight, forming
elongated or oblong cankers on the collar region of affected seedlings. The cankers, controlled
with a Bordeaux spray, have black bristle-like tufts of setae. Nematodes include Heterodera trifolii
and Meloidogyne sp. (Golden, p.c. 1984). Cercospora sesbaniae infects agathi. The Drosophilid
fly Protostegana lateralis is a serious pest in Tamil Nadu. The maggots bore into the tender shoots
of mature plants causing a gradual wilting of affected parts. The weevil Alcidodes buko causes
serious damage to young crop both in adult and larval stage. It bites holes through leaves and bores
the stem causing gall-like swellings DDT (0.05%) and BHC dust (5%) are cheap and effective;
Product 1250 and Parathion are also effective against the grub. The larvae of Azygophleps scalaris
tunnel through the stem and eat the contents leaving only the epidermis. The plant becomes weak
and breaks off at the slightest jerk. Uprooting the stumps immediately after harvesting and burning
them may prove effective means of control. Otinotus oneratus, the common 'tree hopper' infests
agati from July to February (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Sesbania seedlings are highly receptive to
infection by their homologous rhizobia, but different species have restricted susceptibility profiles.
Sesbania rhizobia have a rather restricted host range. Rhizobia from alfalfa, clover, lupines, peas,
soybeans failed to nodulate Sesbania species and vice versa.
References
C.S.I.R. (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 19481976. The wealth of India. 11
vols. New Delhi.
Mendoza, V.B. 1980. Katurai: a plant of many uses. Canopy International (Aug.
1980):1213.
Singh, R., Sidhu, P.S., Vadhera, S., Sital, J.S., Bhatia, S. 1980. Extra-cellular invertase of
Rhizobium japonicum and its role in free sugar metabolism in the developing root nodules of
Sesbania grandiflora. Physiologia Plantarum 48(4):504508.
Last update Friday, January 9, 1998 by aw
Abstracts

Ravetta, D. and A. Soriano. 1990. Colliguaya integerrima (Euphorbiaceae): A possible new crop
for temperate deserts. p. 267. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber
Press, Portland, OR.
Colliguaya integerrima
(Euphorbiaceae): A Possible New Crop
for Temperate Deserts
Damian Ravetta and Alberto Soriano
Patagonia, occupying more than one third of Argentina, has an and cold climate. Large areas have
no more than 150 mm of annual precipitation and very short periods without frosts. These
conditions make traditional crop production impossible. Wool and meat production by extensive
sheep grazing is the only economic option at the present time. The development of crops adapted
to these extreme conditions, could give an economic alternative to this and other regions with
similar environment constrains.
Colliguaya integerrima Gill. et Hook. ex Hook. (Euphorbiaceae), a native shrub of Patagonia
Argentina and Chile, produces seeds with high drying oil content and is being evaluated as a
potential new crop for this region.
Natural populations of this species from three different locations in Patagonia, Argentina were
studied in order to assess seed production, oil content and quality of different type of seeds. Plants
producing 400 g of seeds were not difficult to find. Proximate analysis of the seed is: 35% oil,
40% chaff, and 25% of meal (containing 51% of protein, with a lysine value of 3.17g/16g N2. This
meal was not toxic when included in mice diet. Latex production and composition is another
potentially useful characteristic of Colliguaya. The adaptation of this species to temperate
semi-deserts, together with other features such as seed attachment to the mother plant, the ease
with which dormancy can be broken by chilling or storage, and the possibility of asexual
propagation by rhizome cuttings, increase the interest and possibilities of domestication and
cultivation of the species.
McDaniel, R.G. 1990. Agave: A new crop for the desert southwest. p. 268. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Abstracts
Agave: A New Crop for the Desert

Southwest
Robert G. McDaniel
A number of agave species have been cultivated throughout the world for some time. Notable
among these are Agave sisalana, grown in plantations in Africa Asia and Brazil as a source of sisal
fiber Agave fourcroydes, grown in Mexico and the Caribbean Islands, providing henequen fiber;
Agave tequilana in Mexico for tequila liquor, and various species for production of hecogenin and
smilagenin, pharmaceutical steroidal sapogenins.
Several multi-hectare agave plantations have been established in Southern Arizona since 1980 to
evaluate growth potential of both native and introduced agave species under desert conditions.
This is the first extensive evaluation of agave as a row crop in the United States. With one or two
supplemental irrigations at the Marana Agricultural Center, several agave species achieved
biomass accumulations greater than 100 kg over a three-year growth period. Infra-red thermal
measurements indicated that all species showed CAM metabolism under periods of high
temperature stress (in excess of 40C) with adapted desert species responding more quickly to
irrigation than introduced tropical species. Root and crown tissues of A. americana, the fastest
growing species tested, contained 50% carbohydrate on a dry weight basis, which would qualify
them as a viable botanical ethanol source. HPLC analyses of steroid content of these species are
underway, as are fiber analyses. In summary, these data support agave as a potential multi-use crop
for the and Southwest. Ability to grow with less than 30 cm rainfall per year makes agave a low
input crop adaptable to large areas of this region presently not under cultivation.
Glumac, E. and J. Cowles. 1990. Chinese tallow: Multipurpose tree crop. p. 268. In: J. Janick and
J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Chinese Tallow: Multipurpose Tree

Crop
Edward Glumac and Joe Cowles
The Chinese tallow tree, a naturalized species that thrives and proliferates in the heavy clay soils
of the Gulf coastal region, could be exploited economically if harvesting techniques and markets
are established. Rapid, pest free growth of 10 t/ha-yr of dry wood make it suitable for energy
cropping under a short-rotation coppicing system. The tallow tree bears seed after 3 years with
yields of up to 12 t/ha-yr from mature wild trees. The seeds contain a saturated solid fat, or tallow,
on the outside and an unsaturated liquid inside the kernel. Commercial and industrial raw materials
obtainable from the seed are fuel oil drying oil, surfactants, soaps, emulsifiers, cocoa butter, seed
Abstracts
meal, confections, detergents, and bioactive extracts. Other economic benefits are as a forage crop
for honey production, firewood, soil reclamation, and ornamental planting.
Ageratum conyzoides: A Tropical Source of Medicinal and Agricultural Products
Ming, L.C. 1999. Ageratum conyzoides: A tropical source of medicinal and agricultural
products. p. 469473. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
Ageratum conyzoides: A Tropical

Source of Medicinal and Agricultural
Products
Lin Chau Ming
1. BOTANY
2. PHYTOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3. FOLK MEDICINAL USES AND PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES
4. BIOACTIVITY
5. CULTURAL STUDIES
6. FUTURE POTENTIAL
7. REFERENCES
Ageratum conyzoides L., Asteraceae, is an annual herbaceous plant with a long history of
traditional medicinal uses in several countries of the world and also has bioactivity with
insecticidal and nematocidal acitivity. This tropical species appears to be a valuable agricultural
resource.
BOTANY
Ageratum is derived from the Greek "a geras," meaning non-aging, referring to the longevity of
the flowers or the whole plant. The specific epithet "conyzoides" is derived from "knyz," the
Greek name of Inula helenium, which it resembles (Kissmann and Groth 1993).
The synonyms of A. conyzoides include A. album Stend; A. caeruleum Hort. ex. Poir.; A.
coeruleum Desf.; A. cordifolium Roxb.; A. hirsutum Lam.; A. humile Salisb.; A. latifolium Car.; A.
maritimum H.B.K.; A. mexicanum Sims.; A. obtusifolium Lam.; A. odoratum Vilm. and Cacalia
mentrasto Vell. (Jaccoud 1961). In Brazil, A. conyzoides has the following vernacular names:
catinga de bode, catinga de barro, erva de so joo, maria preta, mentrasto, erva de so jos,
pico roxo, erva de santa-lcia, camar-opela, agerato, camar apeba, camar iap, camar
jap, erva de santa maria, macela de so joo, macela francesa, matruo (Jaccoud 1961; Oliveira
et al. 1993).
Ageratum ranges from Southeastern North America to Central America, but the center of origin is
in Central America and the Caribbean. Most taxa are found in Mexico, Central America, the
Caribbean, and Florida. Ageratum conyzoides now is found in several countries in tropical and
sub-tropical regions, including Brazil (Baker 1965; Lorenzi 1982; Correa 1984; Cruz 1985).
Johnson (1971), classifies two subspecies, latifolium and conyzoides. Subspecies latifolium is
found in all the Americas and subsp. conyzoides has a pantropical distribution. The basic
chromosome number is 2n = 20 but natural tetraploids are found. A. conyzoides subsp. latifolium is
diploid and A. conyzoides subsp. conyzoides is tetraploid.
Ageratum conyzoides is an erect, herbaceous annual, 30 to 80 cm tall; stems are covered with fine
white hairs, leaves are opposite, pubescent with long petioles and include glandular trichomes. The
inflorescence contain 30 to 50 pink flowers arranged as a corymb and are self-incompatible (Jhansi
and Ramanujam 1987; Kaul and Neelangini 1989; Ramanujam and Kalpana 1992; Kleinschimidt
1993). The fruit is an achene with an aristate pappus and is easily dispersed by wind. In some
countries the species is considered a weed, and control is often difficult (Lorenzi 1982; Scheffer
1990; Kalia and Singh 1993; Lam et al. 1993, Paradkar et al. 1993; Waterhouse 1993; Kshatriya et
al. 1994). Seeds are positively photoblastic, and viability is often lost within 12 months (Marlks
and Nwachuku 1986; Ladeira et al. 1987). The optimum germination temperature ranges from 20
to 25C (Sauerborn and Koch 1988). The species has great morphological variation, and appears
highly adaptable to different ecological conditions.
PHYTOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
There is high variability in the secondary metabolities of A. conzyoide which include flavonoids,
alkaloids, cumarins, essential oils, and tannins. Many of these are biologically active. Essential oil
yield varies from 0.02% to 0.16% (Jaccoud 1961). Vyas and Mulchandani (1984) identified
conyzorigum, a cromene. Borthakur and Baruah (1986) identified precocene I and precocene II, in
a plant collected in India. These compounds have been shown to affect insect development, as
antijuvenile hormones, resulting in sterile adults (Borthakur and Baruah 1987). Ekundayo et al.
(1988) identified 51 terpenoid compounds, including precocene I and precocene II. Gonzales et al.
(1991) found 11 cromenes in essential oils, including a new cromene,
6-angeloyloky-7-methoxy-2,2-dimethylcromen. Vera (1993), in Reunion, found ageratocromene,
other cromenes, and beta cariophylene in its essential oil. Mensah et al. (1993) and Menut et al.
(1993) reported similar yields of precocene I in the essential oil of plants collected in Ghana.
Vyas and Mulchandani (1986), in India, identified flavones, including some considered new such
as ageconyfavones A, B, and C. Horrie et al. (1993) reported hexametoxyflavone. Ladeira et al.
(1987) in Brazil, reported three cumarinic compounds, including 1-2 benzopirone. The species
contains alkaloids, mainly the pirrolizidinic group, which suggest that it may be a good candidate
for pharmacological studies. Trigo et al. (1988) found several alkaloids, including 1,2desifropirrolizidinic and licopsamine which can have hepatotoxic activity. Alkaloids also were
found by Weindenfeld and Roder (1991) in a hexane extract of A. conyzoides in Africa.
FOLK MEDICINAL USES AND

PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES
A. conyzoides is widely utilized in traditional medicine by various cultures worldwide, although
applications vary by region. In Central Africa it is used to treat pneumonia, but the most common
use is to cure wounds and burns (Durodola 1977). Traditional communities in India use this
species as a bacteriocide, antidysenteric, and antilithic (Borthakur and Baruah 1987), and in Asia,
South America, and Africa, aqueous extract of this plant is used as a bacteriocide (Almagboul
1985; Ekundayo et al. 1988). In Cameroon and Congo, traditional use is to treat fever, rheumatism,
headache, and colic (Menut et al. 1993; Bioka et al. 1993). In Reunion, the whole plant is used as
an antidysenteric (Vera 1993). The use of this species in traditional medicine is extensive in Brazil.
Aqueous extracts of leaves or whole plants have been used to treat colic, colds and fevers,
diarrhea, rheumatism, spasms, or as a tonic (Penna 1921; Jaccoud 1961; Correa 1984; Cruz 1985;
Marques et al. 1988; Negrelle et al. 1988; Oliveira et al. 1993). A. conyzoides has quick and
effective action in burn wounds and is recommended by Brazilian Drugs Central as an
antirheumatic (Brasil 1989).
Several pharmacological investigations have been conducted to determine efficacy. Duradola
(1977) verified inhibitory activities of ether and chloroform extracts against in vitro development
of Staphylococus aureus. Almagboul et al. (1985), using methanolic extract of the whole plant,
verified inhibitory action in the development of Staphylococus aureus, Bacillus subtilis,
Eschericichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bioka et al. (1993) reported effective analgesic
action in rats using aqueous extract of A. conyzoides leaves (100 to 400 mg/kg). Assays realized in
Kenia, with aqueous extract of the whole plant, demonstrated muscle relaxing activities,
confirming its popular use as an antispasmotic (Achola et al. 1994).
In Brazil, assays conducted by State University of Campinas and Paraiba Federal University)
showed promising results. Marques Neto et al. (1988) in clinic trials with patients with arthrosis,
administered aqueous extract of the whole plant, and reported analgesic effect in 66% of patients
and improvement in articulation mobility in 24%, without side effect. Mattos (1988), using
aqueous extract of the whole plant, verified effective clinical control of arthrosis, reporting a
decrease in pain and inflammation or improvement in articulation mobility, after a week of
treatment.
BIOACTIVITY
Ageratum conyzoides has bioactive activity that may have agricultural use, as shown by several
research investigations in different countries. Pereira in 1929, cited by Jaccoud (1961), reported
use of the leaves as an insect (moth) repellent. The insecticide activity may be the most important
biological activity of this species. The terpenic compounds, mainly precocenes, with their
antijuvenile hormonal activity are probably responsible for the insecticide effects.
Assays conducted in Colombia by Gonzalez et al. (1991) showed activity of this species against
Musca domestica larvae, using whole plant hexane extract. Vyas and Mulchandani (1980) reported
the action of cromenes (precocenes I and II), isolated from Ageratum plants, which accelerate
larval metamorphosis, resulted in juvenile forms or weak and small adults.
Ekundayo et al. (1987) also demonstrated the juvenilizing hormonal action of precocene I and II in
insects, the most common effect being precocious metamorphosis, producing sterile or dying
adults. Raja et al (1987), using A. conyzoides methanolic extract from fresh leaves (250 and 500
ppm) in the fourth instar of Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), a sorghum pest, observed the
presence of a dark stain in the insects' cuticle and immature pupae formation, both symptoms of
deficiency of juvenile hormone.
A. conyzoides also induces morphogenetic abnormalities in the formation of mosquitoes larvae
(Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypt, and Anopheles stephensi). This has been verified using
petroleum ether extracts (5 and 10 mg/L) of the whole plants. The larvae showed intermediary
stages between larvaepupae, discolored and longer pupae, as well as incompletely developed
adults (Sujatha et al. 1988). Extracts of the flowers of this species showed activity against
mosquitoes (Anopheles stephensi), in the last instar, showing DL 50 with 138 ppm (Kamal and
Mehra 1991).
Cetonic extracts of the species produced significant effects against the mosquito, Culex
quinquefasciatus, in India, when applied to fourth instar larvae and adult females. In larvae, the
extracts produced altered individuals, intermediate between larvae and pupae, unmelaninized and
with inhibition of development, as well as adults with deformed wings muscles. In female adults,
there was loss of fecundity, lower eggs production, and production of defective eggs (Saxena et al.
1992). Similar results were observed in larvae of Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus
in others essays, confirming the antijuvenile potential of A. conyzoides (Saxena and Saxena 1992;
Saxena et al. 1994).
The species also has potential use in controlling other pests. Shabana et al. (1990), using aqueous
extract of the whole plant, verified reduction of larvae emergence of Meloidogyne incognita. Pu et
al. (1990) and Liang et al. (1994), verified that plants of A. conyzoides in Citrus orchards sheltered
predators of the spider Panonychus citri, suggesting that its development in orchards is beneficial.
Other Citrus spiders populations, Phyllocoptruta oleivora and Brevipalpus phoenicis were
decreased with maintenance of A. conyzoides in the orchards and a reduction of leprosy virus was
noted (Gravena et al. 1993)
The presence of A. conyzoides can also be used as an seed inhibitor, decreasing development of
several herbaceous plants. Jha and Dhakal (1990) in Nepal, reported that an aqueous extract of the
aerial part or roots of this species (15 g of aerial part or 3 g of roots in 100 ml of water, during 24
h) inhibited germination of wheat and rice seeds while Prasad and Srivastava (1991) in India,
reported a lower germination index in peanut seeds with aqueous extract.
CULTURAL STUDIES
Magalhaes et al. (1989) in Brazil evaluated fertilizer studies and plant density on biomass
production of A. conzyzoides. The higher the N level, the higher the biomass production (dry
weight basis). Optimum spacing was 70 cm between rows and 50 cm between plants. Biomass
yields was 1.3 t (dry weight)/ha.

Correa Jr. et al. (1991) obtained biomass yields of 3.3 to 5.3 t (fresh wt)/ha. Essential oil content
was 0.02% (fresh wt) and 0.16 % (dry wt) in the preflowering state. Preliminary data of Ming
(1998) indicated that essential oils, higher in leaves than in flowers, peaked during
early-flowering.
FUTURE POTENTIAL
There are some small pharmaceutical companies in Brazil using A. conyzoides as a raw material
for phytochemicals. The demand is increasing year by year and this situation warrants further
scientific research to develop both agricultural and medical uses. Research on medicinal plants
should be focused primarily on species whose pharmaceutical activities have already been
demonstrated. Positive preliminary clinical assays of A. conyzoides clearly demonstrate that this
species may be an important economic resource in several tropical countries. The use of this
species as a natural biocide or agent for pest management particularly requires further
investigation.
REFERENCES
Achola, K.J., R.W. Munenge, and A.M. Mwaura. 1994. Pharmacological properties of root
and aerial parts extracts of Ageratum conyzoides on isolated ileum and heart. Fitoterapia
65:322325.
Almagboul, A.Z, A.A. Farroq, and B.R. Tyagi. 1985. Antimicrobial activity of certain
sudanese plants used in folkloric medicine: Screening for antibacterial activity, part II.
Fitoterapia 56:103109.
Baker, H.G. 1965. Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. Academic Press, New
York.
Bioka, D., F.F. Banyikwa, and M.A. Choudhuri. 1993. Analgesic effects of a crude extract
of Ageratum conyzoides in the rat. Acta Hort. 332:171176.
Borthakur, N. and A.K.S. Baruah. 1987. Search for precocenes in Ageratum conyzoides
Linn. of North-East India. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 64:580581.
Brasil, Ministrio da Sade, Central de Medicamentos. 1989. Ageratum conyzoides. In:

Programa de pesquisas de plantas medicinais: Primeiros resultados. Braslia.
Correa Jr, C., L.C. Ming, and M.C. Scheffer. 1991. Cultivo de plantas medicinais,
condimentares e aromticas. Emater-PR, Curitiba.
Correa, M.P. 1984. Dicionario das plantas teis do Brasil e das exticas cultivadas.
Ministrio da Agricultura Rio de Janeiro, IBDF 2:139.
Cruz, G.L. 1985. Dicionrio das plantas teis do Brasil, 3 ed. Civilizao Brasileira, Rio de
Janeiro.
Durodola, J.J. 1977. Antibacterial property of crude extracts from herbal wound healing
remedyAgeratum conyzoides. Planta Med. 32:388390.
Ekundayo, O., S. Sharma, and E.V. Rao. 1988. Essential oil of Ageratum conyzoides. Planta
Med. 54:5557.
Gonzales, A.G., G. Thomas, and P. Ram. 1991. Chromenes form Ageratum conyzoides.
Phytochemistry 30:11371139.
Gravena, S., A. Coletti, and P.T. Yamamoto. 1993. Influence of green cover with Ageratum
conyzoides and Eupatorium pauciflorum on predatory and phytophagous mites in citrus.
Bul. OILB-SROP. 16(7):104114.
Horie, T., H. Tominaga, and Y. Kawamura. 1993. Revised structure of a natural flavone
from Ageratum conyzoides. Phytochemistry 32:10761077.
Jaccoud, R.J.S. 1961. Contribuio para o estudo formacognstico do Ageratum conyzoides

L. Rev. Bras. Farm. 42(11/12):17797.
Jha, S. and M. Dhakal. 1990. Allelopathic effects of various extracts of some herbs on rice
and wheat. J. Inst. Agr. Anim. Sci. 11:121123.
Jhansi, P. and C.G.K. Ramanujam. 1987. Pollen analysis of extracted and squeezed honey of
Hyderabad, India. Geophytology 17:237240.
Johnson, M.F. 1971. A monograph of the genus Ageratum L. (Compositae, Eupatorieae).

Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 58:688.
Kalia, B.D. and C.M. Singh. 1993. Studies on weed management in maize. p. 8990. Vol. 3.
In: Proc. Indian Society Weed Science Int. Symp, Hisar.
Kamal, R. and P. Mehra. 1991. Efficacy of pyrethrins extracted from Dysodia tennifolius
and Ageratum conyzoides against larvae of Anopheles stephensi. Pyrethrum Post.
18(2):7073.
Kaul, M.L.H. and S. Neelangini. 1989. Male sterility in diploid Ageratum conyzoides L.
Cytologia 54: 445448.
Kissmann, G. and D. Groth. 1993. Plantas infestantes e nocivas. Basf Brasileira, So Paulo.
Kleinschmidt, G. 1993. Colony nutrition on the Atherton tableland. Australasian Beekeeper

94:453464.
Kshattryya, S., G.D. Sharma, and R.R. Mishra. 1994. Fungal succession and microbes on
leaf litters in two degraded tropical forests of worth-east India. Pedobiologia 38(2):125137.
Ladeira, A.M, L.B.P. Zaidan, and R.C.L. Figueiredo-Ribeiro. 1987. Ageratum conyzoides L.
(Compositae): Germinao, florao e ocorrncia de derivados fenlicos em diferentes
estdios de desenvolvimento. Hoehnea 15:5362.
Lam, C.H., J.K. Lim, and B. Jantan. 1993. Comparative studies of a paraquat mixture and
glyphosate and/or its mixtures on weed succession in plantation crops. Planter 69:525535.
Liang, W.G., W. Hui, and W.K. Lee. 1994. Influence of citrus orchard ground cover plants
on arthropod communities in China: A review. Agr. Ecosyst. Environm. 50(1):2937.
Lorenzi, H. 1982. Plantas daninhas do Brasil. H. Lorenzi, Nova Odessa.
Magalhaes, P.M., I. Montanari, and G.M. Ferreira. 1989. Large scale cultivation of
Ageratum conyzoides L. Unicamp-Cpqba, Campinas.
Marks, M.K. and A.C. Nwachuku. 1986. Seed-bank characteristics in a group of tropical
weed. Weed Res. 26(3):151157.
Marques-Neto, J.F., A. Lapa, and M. Kubota. 1988. Efeitos do Ageratum conyzoides Line
no tratamento da artrose. Rev. Bras. Reumat. 28(4):3437.
Matos, F.J.A. 1988. Plantas medicinais: Boldo, colnia e mentrasto. O povo, Univ. Aberta,
Fortaleza, 27. Jan. 1988, p. 23.
Mensah, M., E.V. Rao, and S.P. Singh. 1993. The essential oil of Ageratum conyzoides L.
from Ghana. J. Essent. Oil Res. 5(1):113115.
Menut, C., S. Sharma, and C. Luthra. 1993. Aromatic plants of tropical central Africa, Part
XChemical composition of essential oils of Ageratum houstonianum Mill. and Ageratum
conyzoides L. from Cameroon. Flavour Fragrance J. 8(1):14.
Ming, L.C. 1996. Produo de biomassa e teor de leo essencial em funo de fases de
desenvolvimento, calagem e adubaes mineral e orgnica em Ageratum conyzoides L. PhD
Thesis, UNESP, Jaboticabal.
Negrelle, R.R.B., D. Sbalchiero, and A.C. Cervi. 1988. Espcies vegetais utilizadas na
teraputica popular no municpio de Curitiba, Paran, Brasil. Univ. Federal do Paran.
Oliveira, F., M.K. Akisue, and L.O. Garcia. 1993. Caracterizao farmacognstica da droga
e do extrato fludo de mentrasto, Ageratum conyzoides L. Lecta 11(1):63100.
Paradkar, V.K., R.K. Saraf, and J.P. Tiwari. 1993. Weed flora of winter vegetable of Satpura
Plateau, region of Madhya Pradesh. Proc. Indian Soc. Weed Science Int. Symp., Hisa, Vol.
2.
Penna, A. 1921. Notas sobre plantas brasileiras. Arajo Penna Filhos, Rio de Janeiro.
Prasad, K. and V.C. Srivastava. 1991. Teletoxic effect of some weeds on germination and
initial growth of groundnut (Arachis hypogea). Ind. J. Agr. Sci. 61:493494.
Pu, T.S., K.Y. Liao, and T. Chang. 1990. Investigations on predations mite resources in
Citrus orchards in Guang Xi and their utilization. Acta Phytophyarica Sin. 17:355358.
Raja, S.S., A. Singh, and S. Rao. 1987. Effect of Ageratum conyzoides on Chilo partelus
Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). J. Anim. Morphol. Physiol. 34(12):3537.
Ramanujam, C.G.K. and T.P. Kalpana. 1992. Tamarindus indica L. an important forage
plant for Apis florea F. in south central India. Apidologie 23:403413.
Sauerborn, J. and W. Kock. 1988. Untersuchungen zur Keimungsbiologie von sechs

tropischen Segetalaten. Weed Res. 28(1):4752.
Saxena, A. and R.C. Saxena. 1992. Effects of Ageratum conyzoides extracts on the
developmental stages of malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae). J.
Environm. Biol. 13:207209.
Saxena, R.C., A. Saxena, and C. Singh. 1994. Evaluation of growth disrupting activity of
Ageratum conyzoides crude extract on Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J.
Environm. Biol. 15(1):6774.
Saxena, R.C., O.P. Dixit, and P. Sukumaran. 1992. Laboratory assessment of indigenous
plant extracts for anti-juvenile hormone activity in Culex quinquefasciatu. Indian J. Med.
Res. 95:204206.
Scheffer, M.C. 1990. Recomendaes tcnicas para o cultivo das plantas medicinais
selecioandas pelo Projeto de Fitoterapia do SUDS-Paran. 2nd ed. Curitiba, SESA,
FCMR-GPC-PFS.
Shabana, N., S.I. Husain, and S. Nisar. 1990. Allelopathic effects of some plants on the
larval emergence of Meloidogyne incognita. J. Indian Appl. Pure Biol. 5:129130.
Sujatha, C.H., S. Nisar, and C. Jadhi. 1988. Evaluation of plant extracts for biological
activity against mosquitoes. Int. Pest. Control. 7:122124.
Trigo, J.R., S. Campos, and A.M. Pereira. 1988. Presena de alcalides pirrolizidinicos em
Ageratum conyzoides L. p. 13. In: Simposio de Plantas Medicinais do Brasil, Sao Paulo.
(Resumos).
Vera, R. 1993. Chemical composition of the essential oil of Ageratum conyzoides L.

(Asteraceae) from Reunion. Flavour Fragrance J. 8:256260.
Vyas, A.V. and N.B. Mulchadani. 1986. Polyoxigenated flavones from Ageratum
conyzoides. Phytochemistry 25:26252627.
Vyas, A.V. and N.Br. Mulchandani. 1984. Structure reinvestigation of conyzorigun, a new
chromone from Ageratum conyzoides. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin. Trans. 1:29452947.
Waterhouse, D.F. 1993. Prospects for biological control of paddy weeds in southeast Asia
and some recent success in the biological control of aquatic weed. Camberra. Ext. Bul. 366,
Australia.
Wiedenfeld, H. and E. Roder. 1991. Pyrrozidine alkaloids form Ageratum conyzoides.

Planta Med. 57:578579.
Wheatgrasses
Wheatgrasses
Gramineae, or Poaceae
Agropyron species (syn. Thinopyrum

sp.)
The wheatgrasses are hardy, mainly perennial, erect grasses, important especially in the Northern
Great Plains. The seed heads resemble wheat heads, hence the name. They may form sods or grow
in bunches. They are suitable feed for all classes of livestock. They produce growth early in the
spring.
Around 150 species of Agropyron are known in the temperate regions of the world, about 30 in
North America.
Last update September 22, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Wheatgrasses.html [5/16/2004 1:27:51 PM]
Fairway wheatgrass
Fairway wheatgrass
Gramineae, or Poaceae Agropyron
cristatum (L.) Gaertn.
Fairway is a bunch wheatgrass of Siberian origin more widely grown in Canada than in the United
States. It generally resembles crested wheatgrass but is finer stemmed and shorter than crested and
yields less forage. It is especially suited for dryland lawns and other turf planting because of its
dense growth and relatively fine texture. It is also used extensively for pasture and hay in Western
Canada and to a more limited extent in the Northern Great Plains and Intermountain Region in the
United States.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Fairway_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:52 PM]
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron dasystachym
(Hook.) Scribn
This is a sod forming wheatgrass native from the Hudson Bay and Alaska south to Nevada and
Colorado. Stems reach to 3 feet. The creeping rhizomes result in formation of fairly dense sod. It
does well on light textured soils and is very hardy. Growth starts early and provides good
pasturage while succulent, but becomes tough and wiry late in the season. It is rarely seeded but is
an important native grass over a wide area.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Thickspike_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:52 PM]
Crested wheatgrass
Crested wheatgrass
Gramineae Agropyron desertorum (Fisch. ex Link) Schult.
This is a hardy perennial bunch grass, originally introduced from Russian
Turkestan. Leaves are abundant, both at the base and along the stems. Leaves are 6 to 10 inches
long, about 1/4 inch wide, flat, and slightly hairy on the upper surface. Stems are slender, 2 to 3
feet in height, growing in dense clumps. It is deep-rooted and drought resistant, well adapted to the
Northern Plains and higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains. Growth starts early in spring. If cut
early, hay of excellent quality is produced. This is a highly valuable grass in its area of adaptation.
Stands once established will persist for many years. Propagation is by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Crested_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:53 PM]
Agropyron elongatum
Agropyron elongatum (Host).

Beauv.
Poaceae
Tall Wheatgrass
last update December 19, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Agropyron_elongatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:54 PM]
Thinopyrum intermedium (Host)

Barkworth & D.R. Dewey
Syn: Agropyron intermedium (Host)
Beauvois
also: Elytrigia intermedia (Host) Nevski
Elymus hispidus (Opiz) Meldris
Agropyron glaucum (Desf. ex DC.) Roemer & Schultes
Family: Poaceae or Gramineae

Tribe: Triticeae
Wild Triga, Intermediate Wheatgrass
FactSHEET contributed by Peggy Wagoner
Intermediate Wheatgrass as a Perennial Grain Crop.Peggy Wagoner, and A. Schauer
Perennial Grain: A New Use for Intermediate WheatgrassPeggy Wagoner
Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Intermediate Wheatgrass - Agropyrum intermedium
Pubescent Wheatgrass - Agropyrum intermedium var. trichophorum
General information about Wheatgrasses Agropyron species
Around 150 species of Agropyron or Thinopyrum are known in the temperate regions of the
world, about 30 in North America. The species most important in Agriculture in the United
States follow:
Crested wheatgrass Agropyron desertorum
Western wheatgrass Agropyron smithii
Bluebunch wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum
Beardless bluebunch wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum f. inerme
Slender wheatgrass Agropyron trachycaulum
Thickspike wheatgrass Agropyron dasystachyum
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/T_intermedium_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:54 PM]
Fairway wheatgrass Agropyron cristatum
Quackgrass Agropyron repens
Streambank wheatgrass Agropyron riparuim
Siberian wheatgrass Agropyron sibiricum
Tall wheatgrass Agropyron elongatum
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/T_intermedium_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:27:54 PM]
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron intermedium var. trichophorum (Link)
Halac.
This is a sod-forming grass native to Europe and Asia Minor, closely related to Intermediate
Wheatgrass and having the same range of adaptation. The heads and seeds of pubescent are
covered with short, stiff hairs. A named variety of pubescent, Topar, is better adapted to
low-fertility soils and is more drought resistant than intermediate. In palatability and general
appearance pubescent is very similar to intermediate.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Pubescent_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:55 PM]
Agropyron repens
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.

Gramineae, Poaceae
Quack grass
The Herb Hunters Guide.Sievers, A.F. 1930.
Last update Wednesday, July 08, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Agropyron_repens_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:27:56 PM]
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron
riparium Scribn. & Smith
This grass, native from Alberta and British Columbia in Canada south to Nevada and Colorado,
resembles thickspike wheatgrass except that leaf blades are more narrow. It develops vigorous
rhizomes, resulting in dense sods. It is drought tolerant and especially valuable for erosion control.
Top growth is short and it produces less forage than some other wheatgrasses. Its greatest value is
for sods on airports, roadbanks and irrigation canal banks.
Last update September 22, 1997.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Streambank_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:56 PM]
Siberian wheatgrass
Siberian wheatgrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron
sibiricum (Willd.) Beauv.
This is a drought-resistant bunchgrass introduced from Russia in 1934. It is generally similar to
crested wheatgrass but appears to do better than crested on poor sites or under other adverse
conditions. For this reason it is replacing crested in some areas. The stems are finer and heads
more narrow than in crested. Nutritive value and palatability are similar to those of crested.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Siberian_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:57 PM]
Western wheatgrass
Western wheatgrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron smithii Rydb.
Western wheatgrass is a perennial and sod-forming grass, native to most
parts of the United States except the humid southeast. It is a dominant species in the Central and
Northern Great Plains. Plant growth is vigorous, reaching 2 to 3 feet in height. Leaves are up to 12
inches long, 0.25 inch wide, rather stiff and erect. The whole plant is covered with a grayish
bloom. It thrives best on rather heavy soil, but is adapted to a wide range of soil types, including
alkaline soil. Both as pasturage and when cut for hay while still succulent, it is relished by all
classes of livestock. The plants are usually grown from seed, but spread from underground
rhizomes to form dense sods. This is a very valuable grass, both for feed and for erosion control.
Last update June 27, 1996 bha
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Western_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:57 PM]
Gramineae Agropyron spicatum
(Pursh) Scribn. and Smith

A. spicatum f. inerme (Scribn. & Smith) Beetle
Bluebunch wheatgrass is a drought-resistant bunchgrass native to the dry areas of the western
states. It is a dominant species in the Pacific Northwest and Intermountain States. Both taxa are
very similar, except the beardless lacks the awns, making the plants more palatable in late stages
of growth. Plant growth is vigorous, starting early in spring. Plants may reach a height of 4 feet.
Leaves are up to 10 inches long and 0.5 inch wide, flat and tending to droop. Leaves remain green
throughout the summer and are palatable even when dry. Propagation is by seed.
Last update September, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bluebunch_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:58 PM]
Slender wheatgrass
Slender wheatgrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Maltex H. F. Lewis
This is a native bunchgrass, generally distributed throughout the United
States, except in the southeastern and southcentral regions. It is prevalent in the Northern Great
Plains and the Rocky Mountain States. It grows to 3 feet, in dense leafy clumps or bunches, a foot
or more in diameter. The flowering stems are erect and rather coarse. Most of the leaves are basal.
They are up to a foot long and 0.5 inch wide. This grass furnishes abundant pasture, and a
nutritious hay if harvested early. The forage also matures well on the ground, so furnishes winter
grazing. Stands may easily be overgrazed, and are not as persistent as the sod-forming
wheatgrasses. Propagation is by seeds.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Slender_wheatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:27:59 PM]
Redtop
Redtop
Florin, Fine bentgrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Agrostis alba L.
Redtop is a creeping perennial, related to the bentgrasses. It is now found over much of the
northern United States, although originally from Europe. The stems are slender. Leaves are
narrow, about 0.25 inch. The panicle is loose and pyramidal in shape, and reddish in color, which
accounts for the name. Redtop is used in pasture mixes under humid conditions, also in lawns and
golf greens in the Southeast. It is low in palatability, but grows and forms a sod quickly, and so
protects from erosion until slower-growing grasses become established. It is rarely seeded alone.
Last update July 1, 1996 bha
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Redtop.html [5/16/2004 1:27:59 PM]
Bentgrasses
Bentgrasses
Gramineae Agrostis sp.
Colonial bent. A. tenuis Sibth.
Creeping bent. A. palustris Huds.
Velvet bent. A. canina L.
The bentgrasses are rather fine-leaved, creeping grasses, used mainly in lawns and golf putting
greens over the northern half of the United States. These species were all introduced into this
country from Europe. Colonial bent is most comonly used in lawns. Included here are the varieties
Astoria bent and Highland bent. The creeping bents generally do not produce seed and are
propagated by stolons. Seaside bent and Penncross varieties do produce seed and are propagated in
that way. None of these bentgrasses is used for pasture or hay.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bentgrasses.html [5/16/2004 1:28:00 PM]
Persea species
Persia americana Mill., P.

schiedeana, P. nubigena and
hybrids.
Lauraceae
Avocado, aguacate, abuacatl, alligator pear, avocado pear,
avocat, Bacon, Booth, butter pear, Fuerte, Guatemalan avocado,
Hass, Lulu, Mexican avocado, palta, Waldin, West Indian
avocado, Zuttano
NewCROP has avocado information at:
AvocadoJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Tropical FruitsMary Lamberts and Jonathan H. Crane
and information about Avocado Oil
Outside links:
Avocado Crop Information from University of California Davis
AVOCADO "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Persea_americana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:00 PM]
Ailanthus altissima
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)

Swingle
Syn.: Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
Simaroubaceae
Tree-of-heaven, China sumac
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
A tree that will grow in Brooklyn, Washington, and Peking, this "weed tree" can be a handsome
"tropical-looking" ornamental with its compound leaves sometimes overtopped by reddish to
yellowish clusters of winged fruits. It is used for erosion control, shade, and shelter where few
other trees will thrive. Though little used, except in poorer countries, the wood is suitable for
cabinetry, cellulose manufacture, furniture, lumber, pulp, and woodwork. It is difficult to split but
easy to work and polish. The wood is locally used for charcoal and firewood. Leaves have been
used as adulterants of belladonna and senna. Plant parts steeped in water and said to yield an
insecticidal solution.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Ailanthus_altissima.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:28:01 PM]
Ailanthus altissima
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the tree is used in homeopathic "remedies" for cancer.
Reported to be antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, cardiac, cathartic, deobstruent, depressant,
emetic, protisticidal, taenifuge, and vermifuge, tree-of-heaven is a folk remedy for asthma, cancer,
diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, dysuria, ejaculation (premature), epilepsy, eruption, fever,
gonorrhea, hematochezia, leucorrhea, malaria, metrorrhagia, sores, spasms, spermatorrhea,
stomachic, tumors of the breast (China), and wet dreams (Duke and Wain, 1981). From Manchuria
to the Malay Peninsula, various parts of Ailanthus altissima are considered to be medicinal. The
fruits are used for ophthalmic diseases. In Manchuria, the fruit is a remedy for dysentery. In China,
it is bechic, emmenagogue, and used for hemorrhoids. In Korea, the root bark is used for cough,
gastric and intestinal upsets. The vermifuge properties do not act on round worms or earthworms.
Resin extracted from the roots and leaves is a revulsive or vesicant. The disagreeable odor of the
plant may cause some people to feel sleepy. The leaves, bark of the trunk, and roots are put into a
wash for parasitic ulcers, itch, and eruptions (Perry, 1980)
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 27.527.6 g protein and 55.559.1 g fat (Duke and
Atchley, 1983). The bark contains oleoresin, resin, some mucilage, ceryl alcohol, ailanthin,
"quassiin," calcium oxalate crystals, and isoquercetin (quercitin 3-glycoside), tannin, phlobaphene,
ceryl palmitate, saponin, quassin, and neoquassin (Perry, 1980; List and Horhammer, 19691979).
Hager's Handbook (List and Horhammer (19691979) adds that the leaves contain 12% tannin,
quercetin, as well as isoquercetin, and the alkaloid linuthine. Seeds contain quassiin.
Toxicity
Leaves are toxic to domestic animals (Perry, 1980). Gardeners who fell the tree may suffer rashes.
Mitchell and Rook's observations are more violent than my own to sniffing the leaves, "The odour
of the foliage is intensely disagreeable and can cause headache and nausea...rhinitis and
conjunctivitis...The pollen can cause hay fever." (Mitchell and Rook, 1979).
Description
Deciduous tree, usually dioecious, 610(-30) m tall; trunk 30(-100) cm or more in diameter. Bark
light brown or gray, smoothish, thin, becoming rough with long fissures and dark ridges. Leaves
alternate, pinnately compound 3060 cm long, hairy when young, crushed foliage with
disagreeable odor but suggestive of peanuts. Leaflets 1341, short-stalked, broadly lanceolate,
7.513 cm long, 1.55 cm wide, acuminate, with 25 teeth near Insided base. Panicles large,
1525 cm long; flowers many, 6 mm long, greenish or greenish-yellow, with 5-lobed calyx, 5
narrow petals. Male flowers with 10 stamens and disagreeable odor. Female flowers with 25
nearly separate pistils united at base. Samaras many, 15 from a flower, 35 cm long, 1 cm wide,
with reddish or purplish-brown, flat, slightly twisted wing. Seed 1 in middle, 6 mm long, elliptical,
Ailanthus altissima
flattened (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, tree-of-heaven, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate alkalinity, disease, drought, frost, heat, high pH, hydrogen fluoride, insects, low pH,
pollution, poor soil, SO2 and waterlogging. (2n= 80)
Distribution
Native to China and Taiwan, it is only fitting that missionaries should introduce the
"tree-of-heaven" to Europe in 1751 and to the US in 1784. It is listed as a serious weed in Australia
and is widely spread, weedlike, in all temperate climates.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Cool Temperate Dry to Wet Forest Life
Zones, tree-of-heaven is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm (tolerating a dry
season up to 8 months), annual temperature of 10 to 20C, and pH of 5.5 to 8.0. Growing on the
smallest of city plots and rubbish heaps, this species obviously can tolerate a wide array of soils,
from acid to alkaline, sand to light clay, well-drained to swampy, poor to rich. It is said to do
poorly on chalky soils or compact clay (Little, 1983).
Cultivation
A prolific seeder, spreading also by root suckers and coppicing readily, we might better study how
to get rid of than to cultivate this "weed tree." Planting root cuttings of male trees would eliminate
the seeding problem, however, augmenting the bad odor in the process. Root suckers can be
problematic in fields as well as sidewalks and buildings. Seed stratified over winter should be
spring sown, covered with ca 1215 mm soil, one kg seed yielding 6,500 usable plants (AgHandbook 450).
Harvesting
Perhaps the branches should be lopped for fuel before the seeds mature, stored until winter to dry.
One hundred kg fruits will yield 3090 kg seed. Seeds should be stored in sealed containers, with
low moisture content, at ca 13C. Trees coppice readily.
Ailanthus altissima

I find no yield data, but suspect that it yields as well as Paulownia in our Maryland climate. NAS
(1980a) reports that it can grow 34 m in height during a 5-month growing season. I would
estimate that 20 m3/ha is possible for this light wood.
Energy
Like most of our herbaceous and woody weeds, this too has been suggested as an energy
candidate. The yellow wood, moderately hard and heavy is used for charcoal and firewood in
many countries. I have heard no reports of toxicity from the smoke.
Biotic Factors
Agriculture Handbook 165 lists the following as affecting this species: Armillaria mellea
(mushroom root rot), Botryodiplodia ailanthi var. chromogena, Camarosporium berkeleyanum,
Cercospora glandulosa (leaf spot), Colletotrichum tertium, Coniothyrium insitivum, Cytospora
ailanthi, Daedalea unicolor (butt rot), Diaporthe medusaea, Dimerosporium robiniae (black
mildew), ?Diplodia ailanthi (twig blight), D. natalensis (twig blight), Eutypella glandulosa, E.
microcarpa, Fusarium lateritium (twig blight), Gloeosporium ailanthi (leaf spot), Guignardia
ailanthi, and Haplosporella ailanthi. Tent caterpillars are occasionally a problem in the US,
completely defoliating, but rarely, if ever, killing the trees.
References
Washington.
Duke, J.A. and Atchley, A.A. 1984. Proximate analysis. In: Christie, B.R. (ed.), The
handbook of plant science in agriculture. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. (in press)
List, P.H. and Horhammer, L. 19691979. Hager's handbuch der pharmazeutischen praxis.
vols 26. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Mitchell, J.C. and Rook, A. 1979. Botanical dermatology. Greenglass Ltd., Vancouver.
Ailanthus altissima
Perry, L.M. 1980. Medicinal plants of east and southeast Asia. MIT Press, Cambridge.
Air potato
Air potato
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L.
This relative of the yam is a tall-climbing, twining herb with alternate,
heart-shaped leaves. It forms large tubers of variable size and shape in the axils of the leaves.
These may attain several pounds in weight and are palatable and potato-like in flavor. The plant is
native to South Asia and is cultivated to a limited extent in tropical and subtropical areas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/AirPotato.html [5/16/2004 1:28:02 PM]
Blighia sapida
Blighia sapida K. Konig

syn. Cupania sapida Voigt.
Sapindaceae
Akee
AkeeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Blighia_sapida_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:03 PM]
Albizia falcataria
Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg

Syn.: Albizia falcata (L.) Backer.
Albizia moluccana Riq.
Mimosaceae
Molucca Albizia
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Timber tree, "one of the quickest-growing trees of Malaysia. It is highly regarded as shade tree,
sometimes used for coffee shade. It has also been used to shade tea in Java, but its rapid growth
may damage the tea during drought. It has been suggested as cover for mine spoil. The wood is
described as soft but suitable for tea boxes. In Hawaii during the 1970's, about 1,000,000 board
feet were rotary peeled and processed for core stock. It is used for matches, match boxes, packing
cases, lightweight pallets, shelves and other general uses for certain grades of paper. It can
substitute for pinewood as a pulping source. Pulp: The fiber averages 1.15 mm long with thin
walls, giving it flexibility and good fiber to fiber bonding in paper. The soft, low-density wood is
easy to chip and yields much pulp with relatively low chemical input. Because of its light color,
only minimum bleaching is required to achieve a good white paper. The woods are nonsiliceous,
usually light colored with some open pores, and produce a sawdust that may cause sneezing. The
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Albizia_falcataria.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:03 PM]
Albizia falcataria
wide ranging roots are said to taint the water supply with their peculiar nauseous odor.
Folk Medicine
No data uncovered.
Chemistry
Mitchell and Rook (1979) report respiratory problems in people working with the wood.
Description
Tall deciduous tree to 30 m tall, 1 m in diameter. Leaves alternate, bipinnate, 2330 cm long,
rufose pubescent, the pinnae 2024, 510 cm long, each with 3040 paired leaflets, sessile,
obliquely oblong, 612 mm long, 35 mm broad, shortly acute. Panicles large, 2025 cm long,
lateral, the numerous flowers sessile, white, ca 1012 mm long; the calyx 5-toothed, corolla
5-lobate, ca 6 mm long; stamens filiform, more than 12 mm long; ovary narrow, the style filiform.
Pods 1013 cm long, 2 cm wide, flat, acute, green, turning brown, papyraceous, dehiscent. Seeds
1520 per pod, reniform to oblong, ca 6 mm long, brown (Little, 1983). Seed ca 46,000/kg.
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Molucca albizia, or cvs thereof, is
reported to tolerate poor soils. With a superficial root system, it is subject to windthrow (Duke,
1978).
Distribution
Native to the eastern islands of the Indonesian archipelago (Moluccas) and New Guinea, this
species has been spread to Southeast Asia from Burma to the Philippines, and introduced locally in
tropical Africa and America.
Ecology
Tree seems to thrive on many soils, alluvial soils, laterites, sandy mining soil, and white sands.
Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones,
probably tolerates annual precipitation of 20 to 45 dm annual temperature of 20 to 28C.
Flowering in Dec.Jan. in Sri Lanka. NAS (1979) says it needs at least 15 rainy days during the
driest 4 months.
Albizia falcataria
Cultivation
The hard seeds may require scarification. Trees can be closely spaced at 1,0002,000 trees/ha so
that trunk grows straight and the crown closes quickly, shading out weeds.
Harvesting
Growing fast enough to be considered a cash crop, it is harvested in the Philippines after 7 or 8
years, then every 8 years from the coppice. The wood is soft, light-colored and has a specific
gravity of 0.300.35.

Trees 2 years old may attain 10 m height, 15 cm DBH, while 10-year old trees may attain 30 m
and 60 cm. Young plantations have yielded mean annual increment of 2540 m3/ha is more than
50 m3 wood/yr. However, a mean annual increment of 40 m3/yr is more likely in 812 yr rotations.
Palit reports yield potential of 40 m3/yr at 35 yrs in North Bengal, assuming 50% Survival and
establishment at 2 x 2 m.
Energy
In a 9-year old stand, the above ground biomass was 102 MT/ha, the leaf biomass was 1.6 MT,
leaf litter ca 5.2 MT making up ca 62% of the total litter. Annual net productivity was ca 20
MT/ha, productivity worthy of investigation for energy potential, especially if the tree has a high
rate of N-fixation. These data derive from a Mindanao site with annual precipitation ca 45 dm,
annual temperature ca 27C, elevation 50100 m on reddish brown ratozol over andesite. In a
head-on study, the Albizia biomass compares with 18 MT for Gmelina plantation and 14 MT/ha
for dipterocarp forest (Kawahara et al, 1981). Annual stem increment was maximum in three-year
old plantations, tapering off thereafter. Nodules of N-fixing bacteria occur on the roots. Reported
yields run from 2.655 m3/ha/yr (Webb et al., 1980; Fenton et al., 1977).
Biotic Factors
On the Malayan Peninsula, the black lotong monkey (Semnopithecus) eats the shoot tips,
sometimes to the extent of defoliating and killing the tree. The tree has been known to survive in
the Asian weed, Imperata, but cannot be depended on to grow in thick lalang or kill out that grass.
The tea pest, Helopeltis, can live on it. There have been frequent attacks by caterpillars, deer and
monkey in Indonesian plantations adjacent to rainforests. Browne (1968), lists: Fungi. Armillaria
mellea, Calonectria theae, Corticium salmonicolor, Fomes noxius, Ganoderma lucidum, G.
pseudoferreum, Helicobasidium compactum, Irpex subvinosus, Macrophomina phaseoli, Nectria
pulcherrima, Physalospora rhodina, Pleiochaeta albiziae, Poria hypolateritia, Thanatephorus
cucumeris, Ustulina deusta. Acarina. Tetranychus telarius. Coleoptera. Hypomeces squamosus,
Albizia falcataria
Xyleborus fornicatus, Xylosandrus morigerus, Xystrocera globosa. Hemiptera Ferrisia virgata,

Parthenolecanium persicae. Lepidoptera. Achaea janata, Ericeia inangulata, Hypanartia blanda,
H. hecabe, Indarbela quadrinotata, Rhesala moestalis, Semiothisa emersaria, Zeuzera coffeae.
Nematoda. Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus coffeae. Mammalia. Callosciurus notatus, Tupaia glis.
References
Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 161. In: ASA Special Symposium
32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions. Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI.
Fenton, R., Roper, R.E., and Watt, G.R. 1977. Lowland tropical hardwoods. External Aid
Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Wellington, N.Z.
Kawahara, T., Kanazawa, Y., and Sakura, S. 1981. Biomass and net production of
man-made forests in the Philippines. J. Jap. For. Soc. 63(9):320327.
Washington, DC.
Webb, D.E., Wood, P.J., and Smith, J. 1980. A guide to species selection for tropical and
sub-tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers 15. CFI, Oxford.
Albizia lebbek
Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth.

Mimosaceae
East Indian Walnut, Siris Tree, Kokko
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
A fast growings nitrogen-fixing, heavy shade tree, recommended for reforestation and firewood
plantations. Often planted as an avenue tree or as shade for coffee and tea. The wood is hard and
strong, resembling walnut, and non siliceous. It produces a sawdust that may cause sneezing.
Specific gravity 0.61; Air Dry Weight 39 lb/cu ft (ca 630 kg/cu m). The heartwood calorific value
is 5,166 cals. Strong and elastic, the wood is used for cabinet wood, furniture and veneer, and
serves well as firewood. The burr wood is prized for veneer. Bark has served for tanning. Foliage
can be used as fodder. In the Sudan, goats eat fallen leaves and flowers. Bark containing saponin
can be used in making soap, and containing tannin, can be used for tanning; used e.g. in Madras to
tan fishing nets. It produces a gum which can be sold deceitfully as gum arabic. Host of the lac
insect.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Albizia_lebbek.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:28:04 PM]
Albizia lebbek
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the tree is used in folk remedies for abdominal tumors, in
bolmes, enemas, ghees or powders. Reported to be astringent, pectoral, rejuvenant, and tonic, the
siris tree is a folk remedy for boils, cough, eye ailments, flu, and lung ailments. The seed oil is
used for leprosy, the powdered seed to scrofulous swellings. Indians use the flowers for
spermatorrhea.
Chemistry
According to Roskoski et al (1980), studying Mexican material, the seeds contain 9.47% humidity,
3.57% ash, 33.60% crude protein, 3.13% crude fat, 13.17% crude fiber, 35.30% carbohydrates
with a 78.25% in vitro digestibility. The pods contain 6.99% humidity, 5.47% ash, 17.86% crude
protein, 2.6% crude fat, 45.08% crude fiber, and 22.00% carbohydrates with a 76.56% in vitro
digestibility. The foliage contains 3.57% humidity, 7.06% ash, 28.87% crtide protein, 5.42% crude
fat, 31.75% crude fiber, 23.33% carbohydrates, and 83.55% in vitro digestibility. Prohibitive levels
of toxic compounds were not detected in any of the plant parts analyzed. Gohl (1981) tabulates the
following nutritive data:
Nutritive Data On Albizia lebbek (Gohl, 1981)
Fresh leaves, India

Fresh leaves, Pakistan
Pods, Thailand
Leaves
Animal
Zebu
DM
39.6
31.7
91.5
CP
64.5
CP
18.1
22.0
21.1
CF
26.5
26.5
23.0
As % of dry matter
Ash EE
NFE
8.0
4.7
42.7
7.0
10.0 34.5
4.6
4.6
46.7
Digestibility (%)
CF
EE
62.2
44.6
NFE
37.6
Ca
2.02
1.84
P
0.14
0.20
ME
1.84
Seeds have yielded 5.36.8% fixed oil or fat, the endosperm 11%. The oil contains 9.6% stearic,
10.9% arachidic, 39.3% oleic, and 32.9% linoleic acid (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Bark
contains 515% tannin (leaves contain ca 4%) and saponins. The saponin from the seed yields
oleanolic acid and albizziagenin. Wood workers have reported upper respiratory problems
following involvement with this species (Mitchell and Rook, 1979).
Description
Deciduous tree to 30 m tall, with a dense shade-producing crown. Bark smoothish, light whitish or
greenish gray. Leaves alternate, twice compound, with 24 pairs of pinnate pinnae, each with 410
pairs of leaflets, the ultimate leaflets entire, arcuate, oblong. Flowers white, with greenish stamens,
in clusters resembling a white powder puff. Pods flat, reddish brown, several seeds, often rattling
Albizia lebbek
in the breeze. In Puerto Rico, flowers April to September, fruiting year-round, the fruits more
prominent probably in the dry season.
Germplasm
Siris tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkalinity, some drought, laterite, very light frost,
saltspray, and sand (2n = 26).
Distribution
According to the NAS (1980) this is native to tropical Africa, Asia, and northern Australia, widely
planted and naturalized throughout the tropics.
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Thorn to Tropical Wet through Subtropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life
Zones, siris tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 23.4 dm (mean of 17 cases =
14.6) and annual temperature of 23.3 to 26.6C (mean of 12 cases = 25.5) (EBL computer
printout).
Cultivation
Immerse seed in boiling water, cool; soak for 24 hours, sowing in loam in wrapped pots 10 x 15
mm. Move seedlings to partial shade, watering and spraying as needed. Harden off for 23
months. Outplant at 3 x 3 or 4 x 4 m when at least 30 cm tall, at beginning of rainy season (Fabian,
1981).
Harvesting
Trees coppice well.

Studying Mexican material, Roskoski et al (1980) concluded that there were 8.60 (+/- 3.5) moles
N2 fixed per gram of nodule per hour, about 1/3 the hourly rate of Acacia pennatula, whose N2
fixation rate was pegged at 34 kg/ha/yr.
Albizia lebbek
Energy
Curtis and Duke (1982) report wood yields of 5 m3/ha/yr, but Webb et al. (1980) report yields of
1828 m3. Krishnamurti (1974), suggesting the tree as a new alcohol source, notes that the ripe
fruit has been found to contain 15% moisture, 17% reducing sugar, and 38% total reducing sugar
as glucose. One hundred grams fruit crushed and fermented whole with addition of water and a
pure culture of distillery yeast, gave a net yield of 20.5 cc of absolute alcohol, 82% of the
theoretical yield, corresponding to about 170 liters alcohol per MT. With fruit yields of 10 MT
possible, that suggests a renewable yield of 1,700 liters per hectare, or more than 10 barrels from
the fruits alone.
Biotic Factors
Left standing or as logs, the timber is subject to borer and fungal attack (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Sapwood is liable to borer and termite attack, but is immune to dry rot (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Browne (1968) lists: Viruses. Albizia Mosaic Virus. Fungi. Ascochyta
sacardiana, Camptomeris albizziae, Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes noxius, Fomes robiniae,
Ganoderma lucidum, Helminthosporium albiziicolum, Irpex flavus, Nectria ditissima, Phellinus
gilvus, Ravenelia sessilis, phaerophragmium acaciae, Uredo ngamboensis. Angiospermae.
Cuscuta reflexa, Loranthus sp. (?), Tapinanthus sp. Coleoptera. Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Apate
terebrans, Batocera rufomaculata, Bruchidius uberatus, Bruchus pisorum, Caryedon serratus,
Trachys bali, Xystrocera globosa. Hemiptera. Drosicha stebbingi, Eurybachys tomentosa, Halys
dentatus, Kerria lacca, Oxyrhachis tarandus, Parlatoreopsis chinensis, Parthenolecanium
persicae, Rastrococcus iceryoides. Lepidoptera. Eriboea athamas, Hypanartia blanda, Orgyia
postica, Pandesma quenavadi, Rhesala imparata, Rhesala moestalis, Sataspes infernalis,
Stathmopoda basiplectra. Mammalia. Lepus nigricollis. Nematoda. Meloidogyne javanica, M. sp.,
Radopholus similes.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Curtis, C.R. and Duke, J.A. 1982. An assessment of land biomass and energy potential for
the Republic of Panama. vol. 3. Institute of Energy Conversion. Univ. Delaware.
Fabian, V.I., Jr. 1981. Planting guides. Canopy International 7(8):12.
Gohl, B. 1981. Tropical feeds. Feed information summaries and nutritive values. =FAO
Krishnamurti, B.G. 1974. Rain tree fruita new raw material for alcohol. Current Science
43:700.
Albizia lebbek
N.A.S. 1980b. Proceedings international workshop on energy survey methodologies for
developing countries. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Roskoski, J.P., Gonzalez, G.C., Dias, M.I.F., Tejeda, E.P., and Vargas-Menay Amezcua.
1980. Woody tropical legumes: potential sources of forage, firewood, and soil enrichment.
p. 135155. In: SERI: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. SERI/CP-622-1086.
USGPO. Washington.
Albizia procera
Albizia Procera (Roxb.) Benth

Mimosaceae
Tall Albizia
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Tree cultivated for shade and timber. Wood rather similar to Albizia lebbeck but lighter and softer
(sp. gra. 0.60 air dry weight of sapwood ca 460 kg/m3 of heartwood 640 kg/m3). The heartwood is
durable even in exposed situtations. It can be worked to a good surface that polishes well. Wood is
used chiefly for construction, furniture, carts and carriages, cane crushers, carvings, boats and oars,
rice pounders, and, of course, fuel. In Australia, the tree is reagarded as a good cattle feed and as a
sign of good country for farming sugarcane. Leaves said to be insecticidal (Kirtikar and Basu,
1975). Bark used for fish poison. The tree yields a reddish-brown gum.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Albizia_procera.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:05 PM]
Albizia procera
Folk Medicine
Leaves are poulticed onto ulcers in India. Bark considered useful in pregnancy and stomachache.
Bark given with salt as a medicine for water buffalo.
Chemistry
Bark, leaf, and root contain saponin. Hydrolysis of the saponin yields machaerinic acid. Tree
contains some HCN. Leaf and fruit have given positive tests for haemolysis. A new pentacyclic
triterpenic acid, procera acid, was isolated from the seed (List & Horhammer, 19691979). The
gum contains aldobiuronic acid and the disaccharide 3-0-D-galactopyranosyl-L-arabinose.
Degraded gum from Albizia procera contains D-galactose, D-mannose, D-glucuronic acid, and
4-0-mehtyl-D-glucuronic acid. Complete methylation and subsequent hydrolysis of the product
afford 2,4-di-0-methyl-D-galactose (3 moles), 3,4,6-tri-0-methyl-L-arabinose. Perceragenin
C30H46O4 is reported from the seed (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
Description
An erect, slightly pubescent or nearly glabrous tree, 1025 m high. Leaves about 40 cm long;
pinnae about 412, 1520 cm long; leaflets 1220, oblong-elliptic, rounded or retuse, 25 cm long,
oblique. Panicles terminal or in the upper axils, up to 20 cm long, diffuse; flowers 11.5 across.
Pod long, thin, smooth, flattened, 1015 cm long, 22.4 cm broad, containing 810 seeds (Li,
1963).
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, tall albizia, or cvs
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, and stony, dry, and shallow soils. (2n = 26)
Distribution
Native to tropical Asia and Australia, now widely cultivated in the tropics.
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Very Dry through Tropical Moist Forest Life Zones, tall albizia is reported
to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.8 to 29 dm (mean of 25 cases = 16.8) and annual temperature
of 24.7 to 26.3C (mean of 12 cases 25.3).
Albizia procera
Cultivation
Soak seed a few seconds in boiling water (removed from source of heat) and soak overnight.
Directly sow seed in prepared pots (in 1015 mm polyethylene bags) using 50:50 sandy
loam:potting soil. Spray insecticides twice a month for two months and as often as necessary
thereafter. Place seedlings in shade, watering at least every other day. Harden off after 34 months.
Regulate exposure to sun and water until seedlings are hardened. Space at 3 x 3 m, marking with
Stakes. Set out in early morning and/or late afternoon at beginning of rainy season, when seedlings
are about 47 months old (Canopy, 1981). Trees are easily propagated, using seedlings or stumps
(NAS, 1979).
Harvesting
Tree is cut as needed for fuel, timber, or charcoal.

Should yield about like Albizia lebbeck. In Java, annual wood production of 10 m3/ha is recorded.
Trees may attain 1 m DBH at 12 years, 2 m at 30 years.
Energy
Pods and fallen leaves may be considered as undesirable litter or as potential energy sources. It
seems probable that if Albizia lebbeck fruits can yield 10 barrels of ethanol per hectare, this species
could do as well. The species was increased in Puerto Rico during the 1940's because it seemed "a
promising rapid-growing fuelwood species for the coastal and lower mountain regions."
Biotic Factors
Wood is relatively resistant to attack by dry-wood termites. Most of the Puerto Rican introductions
have suffered severely from a fungus disease which causes disback or death (Little and
Wadsworth, 1964). Browne (1968) lists: Fungi. Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma lucidum,
Nectria haematococca, Phellinus gilvus, Polyporus anebus, Ravenelia clemensiae, Ravenelia
indica, Ravenelia sessiles, Sphaerophragmium acaciae. Coleoptera. Apate terebrans, Bruchidius
uberatus, Sinoxylon anale, Xystrocera globosa. Hemiptera. Arytaina ramakrishni, Kerria lacca,
Oxyrhachis mangiferana. Isoptera. Ancistrotermes amphidon, Coptotermes curvignathus.
Lepidoptera. Archips micaceanus, Ascotis selenaria, Cusiala raptaria, Heliothis zea, Hypanartia
hecabe, Hyposidra successaria, Indarbela quadrinotata, Platypeplus aprobola, Polydesma
umbricola, Rhesala imparata, Rhesala inconcinnalis, Rhesala moestalis, Semiothisa emersaria,
Semiothisa pluviata, triglina scitaria. Orthoptera. Schistocera gregaria.
Albizia procera
References
Canopy (International). 1981. Forest Research Institute Publication (Philippines).
Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu, B.D. 1975. Indian medicinal plants. 4 vols. 2nd ed. Jayyed Press,
New Delhi.
Little, E.L., Jr., and Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands. Ag. Handbook 249, USDA, Washington, DC.
Washington, DC.
Aletris
Aletris
Aletris farinosa L.
Other common names.Stargrass, blazing star, mealy starwort,
starwort unicorn root, true unicorn root, unicornplant, unicorn's-horn,
colicroot, devil's-bit, ague grass, ague root, aloeroot, crow corn,
huskwort. Some of the common names are also used in connection
with Helonias (Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray), which causes
much confusion, although the two plants do not bear any close
resemblance. It is best, therefore, to designate it as Aletris, under
which name it is best known in the drug trade.
Habitat and range.Aletris occurs in dry, generally sandy soil, from
Maine to Minnesota, Florida, and Tennessee.
Description.This plant is an erect slender herb 1 1/2, to 3 foot tall
with leaves only at the base. These are grasslike, of a yellowish green Figure 1.Aletris (Aletris
color, and from 2 to 6 inches long. They surround the base of the stem farinosa)
in the form of a star, in this respect differing distinctly from starwort
(Chamaelirium luteum), with which it is sometimes confused, as stated. The erect, flowering spike
produced from May to July bears white urn-shaped flowers sometimes tinged with yellow.
Other species.Three other species of Aletris, namely, Aletris aurea Walt., A. lutea Small. and
A. obovata Nash, bear much resemblance to A. farinosa and are for this reason no doubt frequently
collected with the latter.
Part used.The rootstock, which should be collected in autumn.
Last update Monday, March 12, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/aletris.html [5/16/2004 1:28:07 PM]
Aleurites fordii
Aleurites fordii Hemsl.

Euphorbiaceae
Tung-Oil Tree
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Tung trees are cultivated for their seeds, the endosperm of which supplies a superior quick-drying
oil, utilized in the manufacture of lacquers, varnishes, paints, linoleum, oilcloth, resins, artificial
leather, felt-base floor coverings, and greases, brake-linings and in clearing and polishing
compounds. Tung oil products are used to coat containers for food, beverages, and medicines; for
insulating wires and other metallic surfaces, as in radios, radar, telephone and telegraph
instruments.
Folk Medicine
No data available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_fordii.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:28:07 PM]
Aleurites fordii
Chemistry
The fruit contains 1420%; the kernel, 5360%; and the nut, 3040% oil. It contains 7580%
-elaeo stearic, 15% oleic-, ca 4% palmitic-, and ca 1% stearic-acids. Tannins, phytosterols, and a
poisonous saponin are also reported (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
Description
Trees up to 12 m tall and wide, bark smooth, wood soft; leaves dark green, up to 15 cm wide,
heart-shaped, sometimes lobed, appearing usually just after, but sometimes just before flowering;
flowers in clusters, whitish, rosethroated, produced in early spring from terminal buds of shoots of
the previous season; monoecious, male and female flowers in same inflorescence, usually with the
pistillate flowers surrounded by several staminate flowers; fruits spherical, pear-shaped or top
shaped, green to purple at maturity, with 45 carpets each with one seed; seeds usually 45, but
may vary from 1 to 15, 23.2 cm long, 1.3 2.5 cm wide, consisting of a hard outer shell and a
kernel from which the oil is obtained. Fl. Feb.Mar.; fr. late Sept. to early Nov.
Germplasm
High-yielding cultivars continue to be developed. Some of the best varieties released by the USDA
for growing in southern, United States are the following:
'Folsom': low-heading, high productivity; fruits large, late maturing, turning purplish when mature,
containing 21% oil; highest resistance to low temperature in fall.
'Cahl': low-heading, productive; fruits large, 20% oil content; matures early, somewhat resistant to
cold in fall.
'Isabel': low-heading, high productive; fruits large, maturing early, 22% oil content.
'La Crosser: High-heading, exceptional productivity; fruits small, late maturing, tending to break
segments if not harvested promptly, 2114% oil content; a very popular variety.
'Lampton': outyields all other varieties; very low-heading; fruits large, early maturing; 22% oil
content.
Several other species of Aleurites are used to produce tung-oil, usually of low quality. Aleurites
cordata, Japanese wood-oil tree; A. moluccana, Candlenut or lumbang tree; A. trisperma, Soft
Lumbang tree; none of which can be grown commercially in the United States. Aleurites montana,
Mu-tree, is the prevailing commercial species in South China and could be grown in Florida. (2n =
22)
Aleurites fordii
Distribution
Native to central and western China, where seedlings have been planted for thousands of years;
planted in southern United States from Florida to eastern Texas.
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Dry Forest Life Zones, this
species is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.417.3 (mean of 8 cases = 12.,3),
temperature of 18.726.2C (mean of 8 cases 22.5), pH of 5.47.1 (mean of 4 cases = 6.4) (Duke,
1978, 1979). Tung trees are very exacting in climatic and soil requirements. They require long, hot
summers with abundant moisture, with usually at least 112 cm of rainfall rather evenly distributed
through the year. Trees require 350400 hours in winter with temperatures 7.2C or lower; without
this cold requirement, trees tend to produce suckers from the main branches. Vigorous but not
succulent growth is most cold resistant; trees are susceptible to cold injury when in active growth.
Production of tung is best where day and night temperatures are uniformly warm. Much variation
reduces tree growth and fruit size. Trees grow best if planted on hilltops or slopes, as good
air-drainage reduces losses from spring frosts. Contour-planting on high rolling land escapes frost
damage. Tung makes its best growth on virgin land. Soils must be well-drained, deep aerated, and
have a high moisture-holding capacity to be easily penetrated by the roots. Green manure crops
and fertilizers may be needed. Dolomitic lime may be used to correct excessive acidity; pH
6.06.5 is best; liming is beneficial to most soils in the Tung Belt, the more acid soils requiring
greater amounts of lime.
Cultivation
Tung trees may be propagated by seed or by budding. Seedlings generally vary considerably from
parent plants in growth and fruiting characters. Seedlings which have been self-pollinated for
several generations give rather uniform plants. Only 1 out of 100 selected 'mother' tung trees will
produce seedlings sufficiently uniform for commercial planting. However, a `mother' tree proven
worthy by progeny testing may be propagated by budding. The budded trees, which are genetically
identical with the original tree, will provide an adequate supply of seed satisfactory for planting.
Seedlings are used for the root system for budded trees. Buds from 'mother' trees are inserted in
stems of 1-year old seedlings, 57.5 cm above surface of the soil. Later, original seedling top is cut
off and a new top grown for p the transplanted bud, making the tops of budded trees parts of the
parent tree. Usually seedling trees outgrow budded trees, but budded trees produce larger crops
and are more uniform in production, oil content and date of fruit maturity. Tung seed are normally
short-lived and must be planted during the season following harvest. Seeds are best hulled before
planting, as hulls retard germination. Hulled seed may be planted dry, but soaking in water for 57
days hastens germination. Stratification, cold treatment or chemical treatment of seeds brings
about more rapid and uniform germination. Dry-stored seed should be planted no later than
February; stratified seed by mid-March; coldtreated and chemical treated seed by early April. Seed
may be planted either by hand or with a modified corn-planter, the seed spaced 1520 cm apart,
about 5 cm, in rows 1.6 m apart, depending on the equipment to be used for cultivation and for
Aleurites fordii
digging the trees. Seeds germinate in 60 days or more, hence weed and grass control may be a
serious problem. As soon as seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5105) with
commercial zinc sulfate should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate of 600 kg/ha, in bands along
each side of row, 20 cm from seedlings and 57.5 cm deep. Other fertilizers may be needed
depending on the soil. Most successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield
method, requiring piece of budstock bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock
bar, a T-shaped cut is made in bark of rootstock at point 57.5 cm above ground level, the flaps of
bark loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps and the flaps tied tightly over the transplanted bud
with rubber budding stripe, 12 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, 0.002 thick. After about 7 days, rubber stripe
is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded over
them for winter. When growth starts in spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut back to within
3.5 cm of the dormant bud. Later, care consists of keeping all suckers removed and the trees
well-cultivated. Trees are transplanted to the orchard late the following winter. Spring budding is
done only as a last resort if necessary trees are not propagated the previous fall. Trees may be
planted 125750 ha. When trees are small, close planting in rows greatly increases the bearing
surface, but at maturity the bearing surface of a crowded row is about the same as that of a row
with trees farther apart. However, it is well to leave enough space between row for orchard
operations. In contourplanting, distances between rows and total number of trees per hectare vary;
rows 1012 m apart, trees spaced 3.34 m apart in rows, 250350 trees/ha. Tops of nursery trees
must be pruned back to 2025 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the
one strongest growing and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below top of stump is
preferred over one closer to top.
Harvesting
Tung trees usually begin bearing fruit the third year after planting, and are usually in commercial
production by the fourth or fifth year, attaining maximum production in 1012 years. Average life
of trees in United States is 30 years. Fruits mature and drop to ground in late September to early
November. At this time they contain about 60% moisture. Fruits must be dried to 15% moisture
before processing. Fruits should be left on ground 34 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the
moisture content has dropped below 30%. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks. Fruits
do not deteriorate on ground until they germinate in spring.

Trees yield 4.55 MT/ha fruits. An average picker can gather 6080 bushels of fruits per day,
depending on conditions of the orchard. Fruits may be gathered all through the winter season when
other crops do not need care. Because all fruits do not fall at the same time, 2 or more harvestings
may be desirable to get the maximum yield. Fruits are usually sacked, placed in crotch of tree and
allowed to dry 23 weeks before delivery to the mill. Additional drying may be done at the mill,
but wet fruits contain less oil percentage-wise and prices will be lower. Prices for tung oil depend
on price supports, domestic production, imports and industrial demands. World production in 1969
was 107,000 MT of tung nuts; in 1970, 143,000; and projected for 1980, 199,000. Wholesale
prices are about $0.276/kg; European import prices, $0.335/kg. Growers receive about $51.10/ton
Aleurites fordii
of fruit of 18.5% oil content to about $63.10/ton for fruits of 22% oil content. Major producing
countries are mainland China and South America (Argentina and Paraguay); United States and
Africa much less than the others. U.S. Bureau of Census figures 1,587,000 pounds of tung oil were
consumed during February of 1982, representing a 1,307,000 pound drop from January. The
largest application for the oil is paint and varnish, which accounted for 566,000 pounds of total
consumption in February (CMR, April 26, 1982).
Energy
During World War II, the Chinese used tung oil for motor fuel. It tended to gum up the engines, so
they processed it to make it compatible with gasoline. The mixture worked fine (Page, 1981).
Biotic Factors
Bees are needed to transfer pollen from anthers to pistil. When staminate and pistillate flowers are
on separate trees, one staminate tree for 20 pistillate trees should be planted in the orchard.
Pollination can occur over several days. Tung trees are relatively free of insects and diseases, only
a few causing losses serious enough to justify control measures: as Botroyosphaeria ribis,
Clitocybe tabescens, Mycosphaerella aleuritidis, Pellicularia koleroga, Physalospora rhodina and
the bacterium, Pseudomonas aleuritidis. Other bacteria and fungi reported on tung trees are:
Armillaria mellea, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cephaleures virescens, Cercospora aleuritidis,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Corticium koleroga, Fomes lamaoensis, F. lignosus, Fusarium
heterosporum forma aleuritidis, F. oxysporum, F. scirpi, F. solani, Ganoderma pseudoferreum,
Cloeosporium aleuriticum, Glomerella clngulata, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspore,
Phytomonas syringas, Phytophthora omnivora, Ph. cinnamomi, Poria hypolateritia, Pythium
aphanidermatum, Rhizoctonia solani, Septobasidium aleuritidis, S. pseudopedicellatum,
Sphaerostilbe repens, Uncinula miyabei, var. aleuritis, Ustilina maxima, U. zonata. Insect pests
are not a serious problem, since fruit and leaves of tung trees are toxic to most animal life.
Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. have been reported (Golden, p.c. , 1984).
References
Duke, J.A. 1979. Ecosystematic data on economic plants. Quart. J. Crude Drug Res.
17(34):91110.
Golden, A.M. 1984. Personal communication regarding nematodes. Beltsville, MD.
Page, J. 1981. Sunflower power. Science 81 July/Aug: 9293.

Aleurites moluccana
Aleurites moluccana (L.)

Willd.
Syn.: Aleurites triloba Forst.
Croton moluccanus L.
Euphorbiaceae
Candlenut oil tree, Candleberry, Varnish tree, Indian or Belgaum walnut
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Seed yields 5780% of inedible, semi-drying oil, liquid at ordinary temperatures, solidifying at
-15C, containing oleostearic acid. Oil, quicker drying than linseed oil, is used as a wood
preservative, for varnishes and paint oil, as an illuminant, for soap making, waterproofing paper,
rubber substitutes and insulating material. Seeds are moderately poisonous and press cake is used
as fertilizer. Kernels when roasted and cooked are considered edible; may be strung as candlenuts.
Oil is painted on bottoms of small crafts to .protect against marine borers. Tung oil, applied to
cotton bolls, stops boil weevils from eating them. Also prevents feeding by striped cucumber
beetle.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_moluccana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:08 PM]
Aleurites moluccana
Folk Medicine
Bark used on tumors in Japan. The oil is purgative and sometimes used like castor oil. Kernels are
laxative stimulant, and sudorific. The irritant oil is rubbed on scalp as a hair stimulant. In Sumatra,
pounded seeds, burned with charcoal,are applied around the navel forcositiveness. In Malaya, the
pulped kernel enters poultices for headache, fevers, ulcers, and swollen joints. In Java, the bark is
used for bloody diarrhea or dysentery. Bark juice with coconut milk is used for sprue. Malayans
apply boiled leaves to the temples for headache and to the pubes for gonnorhea
Chemistry
The oil cake, containing ca 46.2% protein, 4.4% P2O5, and 2.0% K2O, is said to be poisonous. A
toxalbumin and HCN have been suggested. Bark contains ca 46% tannin. Oil also contains
glycerides of linolenic, oleic and various linoleic acids. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain
626 calories, 7.0 g H2O, 19.0 g protein, 63.0 g fat, 8.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, 80 mg Ca,
200 mg P, 2.0 mg Fe, 0 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.
Description
Medium-sized tree, up to 20 m tall, ornamental, with widespreading or pendulous branches; leaves
simple, variable in shape, young leaves large, up to 30 cm long, palmate, with 37 acuminate
lobes, shining, while leaves on mature trees are ovate, entire, and acuminate, long-petioled, whitish
above when young, becoming green with age, with rusty stellate pubescence beneath when young,
and perisiting on veins and petiole; flowers in rusty-pubescent panicled cymes 1015 cm long;
petals 5, dingy white or creamy, oblong, up to 1.3 cm long; ovary 2-celled; fruit an indehiscent
drupe, roundish, 5 cm or more in diameter, with thick rough hard shell making up 6468% of fruit,
difficult to separate from kernels; containing 1 or 2 seeds. Fl. Apr.May (Sri Lanka).
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Aleurites moluccana or cvs thereof is
reported to tolerate high pH, low pH, poor soil, and slope (Duke, 1978) (2n = 44, 22)
Distribution
Native to Malaysia, Polynesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines and South Seas Islands; now widely
distributed in tropics. Naturalized or cultivated in Malagasy, Sri Lanka, southern India,
Bangladesh, Brazil, West Indies, and Gulf Coast of United States.
Aleurites moluccana
Ecology
Candlenut trees thrive in moist tropical regions, up to 1,200 m altitude. Ranging from Subtropical
Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, Aleurites moluccana is reported
to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm (mean of 14 cases = 19.4) annual temperature of
18.7 to 27.4C (mean of 14 cases = 24.6) and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 64).
(Duke,1978, 1979)
Cultivation
Usually propagated from seed, requiring 34 months to germinate. Seedlings planted 300/ha. Once
established, trees require little to no attention.
Harvesting
Bears two heavy crops each year, harvested when mature. Kernels adhere to sides of shell and are
difficult to separate.

In plantations yields are estimated at 520 MT/ha nuts, each tree producing 3080 kg. Oil
production varies from 15 to 20% of nut weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka and other
tropical regions is used locally and does not figure into international trade. In the past, oil has sold
for 1214 pounds per ton in England. According to the Chemical Marketing Reporter (June 8,
1981), tung oil prices (then ca 0.65/lb.) are likely to rise in the near future if demand remains
adequate and Argentinean and Parguayan suppliers pressure the U.S. market by charging high
prices for replacement oil. U.S. imports for the first quarter of 1981 were 58% higher than 1980,
despite the absence of Chinese tung from the market.
Energy
Nut yields at 80 kg/tree, spaced at 200 trees per hectare, would suggest 16 MT/ha/yr, about 20% of
which (3 MT) would be oil, suitable, with modification, for diesel uses, the residues for conversion
to alcohol or pyrolysis. Fruit yields may range from 420 MT/ha/yr. Commercial production of oil
yields 1218% of the weight of the dry unhulled fruits, the fruits being air-dried to ca 1215%
moisture before pressing (Univ. Fla. Bul. 221, 1935). Oil yields as high as 3, 100 kg/ha have been
reported. The pomace contains 4.55% oil. This suggests that the "chaff factor" might be ca 0.8.
As of June 15, tung oil was $0.65/lb, compared to $0.38 for peanut oil, $1.39 for poppyseed oil,
$0.33 for linseed oil, $0.275 for coconut oil, $0.265 for cottonseed oil, $0.232 for corn oil, and
$0.21 for soybean oil (Chemical Marketing Reporter, June 15, 1981). At $2.00 per gallon, gasoline
is roughly $0.25/lb.
Aleurites moluccana
Biotic Factors
Following fungi are known to attack candlenut-oil tree: Cephalosporium sp., Clitocybe tabescens,
Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium aleuriticum, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium
ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronema reinkingii, Trametes corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina
deusta. Nematodes include Meloidogyne sp. (Golden, p.c. 1984).
References
17(34):91110.
Univ. Fla. Bul. 221, 1935
Last update Friday, December 19, 1997
Aleurites montana
Aleurites montana (Lour.)

Wils.
Anacardiaceae
Wood-oil tree, Mu-oil tree
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Kernels yield a valuable drying oil, largely used in paints, varnishes and linoleums. Also used
locally for illumination and lacquer-work. Varnish made from this plant possess a high degree of
water-resistance, gloss and durability. There are only slight differences between the oils of A.
montana and A. fordii.
Folk Medicine
The oil is applied to furuncles and ulcers.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Aleurites_montana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:09 PM]
Aleurites montana
Chemistry
The oil content of the seed is ca 5060%. Oil consists chiefly of glycerides of beta-elaeostearic and
oleic acids, and probably a little linoleic acid. Oil cake residue is poisonous and is only fit for
manuring.
Description
A small tree about 5 m tall, much-branched, partially deciduous, dioecious; leaves simple, ovate or
more or less cordate, apex cuspidate, about 12 cm long, 10 cm broad, sometimes larger and
3-lobed; leaf-blade with 2 large, conspicuous glands at base, petiole up to 24 cm long; flowers
monoecious, petals large, white, up to 3 cm long; fruits egg-shaped, 3-lobed, wrinkled, about 5 cm
in diameter, pointed at summit, flattened at base, generally with 3 or 4 oneseeded segments, the
outer surface with wavy transverse ridges, the pericarp thick, hard and weedy. Fl. and fr. March.
Germplasm
(2n = 22)
Distribution
Native to South China and in some of the S. Shan States (Burma). Introduced and cultivated
successfully in Indochina where it has replaced A. fordii; Malawi, and in cooler parts of Florida,
and other tropical regions.
Ecology
Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist to Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, the mu-oil tree
tolerates annual rainfall of 8.720.2 dm (mean of 7 cases = 14.5), annual temperatures of
14.826.5 (mean of 7 cases = 22.1C), and pH of 5.58.0 (mean of 4 cases = 6.4). Adapted to
subtropical regions and high elevations with moderate rainfall. Mainly a hillside species, but can
thrive ded the area is well-drained. Maximum temperature 35.5C, minimum temperature 6C. It is
frost-tender, and does not require a low temperature (below 3C) as tung-oil trees (A. fordii) do, so
can be grown in warmer regions. In Assam, grown where rainfall is 175275 cm annually; in
Mysore at elevations of 8001,000 m with annual rainfall of 150 cm. Grows well in alluvial soils
and is not very exacting in its soil requirements, but in richer soils the growth is more vigorous. A
slightly acid soil is preferable.
Aleurites montana
Cultivation
Trees are propagated from seeds or by budding. In Malawi, propagation is by budding from high
yielding clones. Seeds are usually planted in nursery and may take from 2 to 3 months to
germinate. When seedlings are about I year old, they are planted out, spaced 6.6 x 6.6 m or more.
Cultural practices are similar to those for A. fordii. As soon as the seedlings emerge, a sidedressing
of fertilizer (5-10-5) of nitrogen and phosphorus along with commercial zinc sulfate should be
applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate of 600 kg/ha, in bands along each side of row, 20 cm from
seedlings and 57.5 cm deep. Other fertilizers may be needed depending on the soil. According to
Spurling and Spurling (1974), N is the most important nutrient for tung in Malawi, irrespective of
climate or soil. Most successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method,
requiring a piece of budstick bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock bark. A
T-shaped cut is made in bark of rootstock at point 57.5 cm above ground level, the flaps of bark
loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps and the flaps tied tightly over the transplanted bud with
rubber budding strip 12 cm long and 0.6 cm wide. After about 7 days, rubber strip is cut to prevent
binding. As newly set buds are susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded over them for winter.
When growth starts in spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut back to within 3.5 cm of the
dormant bud. Later care consists of keeping all suckers removed and the trees well-cultivated.
Trees may be planted 125750/ha. When trees are small, close planting in rows greatly increases
the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing surface of a crowded row is about the same as for a
row with trees further apart. However, it is well to leave enough space between rows for orchard
operations. In contour-planting, distances between rows and total number of trees per hectare vary;
rows 1012 m apart, trees spaced 3.34 m apart in rows, 250350 trees/ha. Tops of trees must be
pruned back to 2025 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one
strongest growing and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below top of stump is preferred
over one closer to top.
Harvesting
Trees begin bearing 25 years after transplanting with maximum production reached in 8 years and
continuing for 40 years. In northern Burma, it has been observed to be more vigorous and
disease-resistant than A. fordii. In Indochina, it has been successfully planted and its oil is now
being produced on commercial scale, replacing that of A. fordii. Fruits mature and drop to ground
in late September to early November. They are gathered and dried to 15% moisture before
processing. Fruits should be left on ground 34 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the
moisture content has dropped below 30%; fresh they are about 60% moisture. Fruits are gathered
by hand into baskets or sacks.

A. montana is reported to give much higher yields of fruits than A. fordii. The percentage of
kernels in the seeds is about 56%, and of oil in the kernels, about 59.3%. Major producers of the
oil from A. montana are Burma, Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos), Malawi, Congo, East
Africa, South Africa, Malagasy Republic, India, and U.S.S.R. It has been considered for
Aleurites montana
introduction in Florida.
Energy
Yields of oil per tree in China is reckoned to be about 3.2 kg; in Florida, 4.59 kg. Trees yield
about 4568 kg nuts/year, these yielding about 3540% oil. In one Malawi trial, N treatments gave
an increase of 519 kg/ha dry seed over a trial mean of 1070 kg/ha. With tung cake and ammonium
sulphate, air dry tung seed yields of 1217 year old trees was 2013 to 2367 kg/ha, of 69 year olds
7661546 kg/ha (Spurling and Spurling, 1974).
Biotic Factors
Fungi reported on A. montana include the following: Armillaria mellea, Botryodiplodia
theobromae, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cephaleuros mycoidea, C. virescens, Cercospora aleuritidis,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides var. aleuritidis, Corticium oleroga, C. solani (Rhizoctonia solani),
Corynespora cassiicola, Diplodia theobromae, Fusarium arthrosporioides, F. lateritium,
Glomerella cingulata, Haplosporella aleurites, Mycosphaerella aleuritidis, Periconia byssoides,
Pestalotiopsis disseminata, P. glandicola, P. japonica, P. versicolor, Pestalotia dichaeta,
Phyllosticta microspora, Pseudocampion fasciculatum, Rhizoctonia lanellifera, Schizophyllum
commune, Thyronectria pseudotrichia, Trametes occidentalis, Ustilin zonata.
References
Spurling, A.T. and Spurling, D. 1974. Effect of various organic and inorganic fertilizers on
the yield of Montana tung (Aleurites montana) in Malawi. Trop. Agr. 51(1):112.
Neglected horticultural crops

Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len (eds.). Plant
Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p. 303-332

The authors of this chapter are F. Nuez (Department of Biotechnology, ETSIA, Valencia, Spain) and J.E.
Hernndez Bermejo (Crdoba Botanical Garden, Crdoba, Spain).
The authors wish to thank S. Zaragoza, V. Castell and P. Cornejo for their bibliographical contribution.
In the chapter on the processes and causes of the marginalization of Iberian crops, more than 20 horticultural
crops are mentioned which could be considered to be in this situation. The authors have selected eight which
will be dealt with in detail. Selection was based on a stricter identification of their marginalized nature and
choosing from various taxonomic groups that would allow a detailed view of the problem.
Rocket (Eruca sativa), garden cress (Lepidium sativum), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), borage (Borago
officinalis), alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum), scorzonera or black salsify (Scorzonera hispanica), spotted
golden thistle (Scolymus maculatus) and Spanish salsify or Spanish oyster plant (Scolymus hispanicus) are
the eight species selected.
Rocket
(Eruca saliva)
Botanical name: Eruca sativa Miller
Family: Brassicaceae = Cruciferae
Common names. English: rocket, salad rocket, garden rocket; Spanish: oruga, oruga comn, eruca, roqueta
comn; Catalan: ruqueta; Basque: bekarki; Portuguese: eruca, rcula, fedorenta, pincho (Brazil); French:
roquette
Origin of the name

The semantic origin of this plant's name alludes to the oldest crops of the Near East. The Persian girgir and
Acadian gingiru gave the Aramaic, Hebrew and Syrian gargira, and from these the Arabic yiryir and Latin
eruca, from which, through Spanish, the words "roqueta" and "oruga" of present-day Spanish appeared.
Properties and uses

This plant is considered to be an excellent stomachic, stimulant and aphrodisiac, and is also used as a
diuretic and antiscorbutic. The leaves have a bitter flavour which is made milder by cooking or frying. The
seeds are hot, although rather less so than mustard seeds. It contains glucosides, such as allyl sulphocyanate,
mineral salts and vitamin C. The oil of the seed contains erucic acid.
Rocket was always considered to be a potent aphrodisiac. In classic antiquity, it was consecrated to Priapus
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/neglected.html (1 of 30) [5/16/2004 1:28:14 PM]
and was planted at the foot of the statue of this deity dedicated to the procreative potential of males.
Dioscorides warns that, eaten raw, it stimulates lust and that the seeds have the same power. Columela also
refers to its sexually stimulating effect, but is also very well acquainted with its cultivation technique:
"...and rocket and basil also remain in the place where they have been sown and require no other care than
manuring and weeding. Moreover, they can be sown not only in autumn, but also in spring...." The
Hispano-Romans also compared the aphrodisiac power of rocket precisely with the anaphrodisiac power of
lettuce. In Hispano-Visigoth culture, Isidoro de Sevilla supports the use and knowledge of this plant's
powers: "... rocket is, so to speak, inflammatory, since it has burning properties and, if consumed frequently
in the diet. arouses the sexual appetite. There are two species. one of which is in habitual use while the other
is wild with a more bitter taste. Both stimulate sexual appetite."
Irrespective of these effects, rocket has been eaten basically as a vegetable (leaves) and as a spice (leaves
and seeds). It is thus an ingredient of misticanza" (mixed salad), a speciality eaten in Rome since the very
foundation of that city. Hispano-Arab agronomists also mention its cultivation. for instance Ibn Hayyay
(eleventh century). Ibn Wafid (eleventh and twelfth century) and. of course, Ibn al-Awwam (twelfth
century). The latter author mentions the plant's use as a flavouring for musts and syrups, the seed being
ground and scattered over the surface of the earthenware jars containing the syrup. He also mentions its
flowers being used in a similar way. In the sixteenth century, Alonso de Herrera's Tratado de agricultura
contains no mention of rocket.
It is used to make sauces in which the leaves are mixed with sugar or honey, vinegar and toasted bread
(rocket sauce). In Italy, it is eaten boiled with spaghetti, and then seasoned with garlic and oil. In Spain, it is
traditionally used in La Roda and Montealegre del Castillo (Al bacete) in the preparation of gazpachos of La
Mancha, an ancestral dish which includes the meat of partridge and rabbit and unleavened bread
(gazpacho), with lightly fried rocket. Some authors relate this tradition to primitive fertility rituals.
Nowadays it still remains very much appreciated in various countries of the Mediterranean area. including
Italy, Greece and Turkey, where it is eaten mainly in salads and as a garnish for meat. It goes very well with
lettuce, chicory, valerian and tomato. Another recipe is potato and rocket salad. In India, it is cultivated to
obtain a semi-drying oil from the seeds. At present, most of the rocket grown is for this purpose, and it is
considered mainly as a potential oilseed product.
This plant's marginalization as a vegetable in Spain may have been very much connected with its
condemnation because of its aphrodisiac properties.
Botanical description
Rocket is an annual herbaceous plant, growing up to 80 cm. The basal leaves occur in a rosette and are
lyrate-pinnatifid (those normally eaten in salads); the caulinar leaves are lobulate or dentate. The flowers
have white or light yellow petals. The siliquae measure up to 40 mm, are erect, attached to the stem, with a
subcylindrical valvar portion and an ensiform face as long as the valves. The seeds measure 1.5 to 2.5 mm
and are brown.
The wild form flowers from February to June and the cultivated form right into mid-summer. It is
allogamous with a complex system of self-incompatibility, mainly gametophytic, but with some alleles
acting sporophytically. The existence of genie male sterility has been verified. The chromosome pattern is
2n = 2x = 22.
Figure 37. Horticultural crops: A) rocket (Eruca saliva), detail of fruit in the silicle; B) garden cress
(Lepidium sativum), detail of fruit in the silicle; C) purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Ecology and phytogeography

Rocket grows spontaneously in places modified by humans: abandoned gardens, waysides, tips and among
rubble. It prefers hot, dry climates.
It is distributed all around the Mediterranean, extending to central Europe in the north and as far as
Afghanistan and northern India in the east. It has reverted to the wild state in North America, South Africa
and Australia. Vavilov described it in central Asia, the Near East and the Mediterranean, the latter being
considered its main centre of origin.
It is cultivated mainly in India, and is grown more rarely in Turkey and Greece. It is also cultivated in Italy.
In countries such as Spain, France and Great Britain, cultivation is rare.
Genetic diversity
The biggest collections of rocket germplasm are to be found at the Institute of Germplasm in Bari, Italy, at
the NBPGR in New Delhi, India, at the Haryana Agricultural University in India and at the VIR in St
Petersburg.
There are also smaller collections in Kabul in Afghanistan, Saskatoon in Canada, Gaersleben and
Braunschweig in Germany, Tapioszele in Hungary, Islamabad in Pakistan, Blonie in Poland and Alnarp in
Sweden. A small collection of species of Eruca, including E. sativa, is to be found at the Universidad
Politcnica de Madrid and there is also germplasm from wild populations of the genus at the Crdoba
Botanical Garden.
Collecting expeditions have continued. In 1985, 25 samples of indigenous germplasm of E. sativa were
collected in the northeastern Sudan.

In an analysis using the D2 statistic of Mahalanobis, out of 99 lines of rocket no correlation was found
between genetic diversity for 12 characters associated with production and geographical origin.
There is wide variability as regards the characters of the siliqua and its stability, and a strong interaction
with the cultivation conditions. Similarly, there is wide genetic variability for seed production per plant and
related characters.
An important group of studies is attempting to use E. sativa as a genetic resource for improving other
crucifers. In this way, intergeneric hybrids have been obtained with Raphanus sativus, Brassica campestris
and B. oleracea. Somatic hybrids have been obtained through the fusion of protoplasts with B. napus and B.
juncea.
There are lines of rocket (T27) known which are resistant to mustard aphid and tolerant of several stress
conditions as well as Fusarium oxysporum. Such lines may also be a source of genes that are transferable to
species of Brassica.
Cultivation practices
Rocket is a very hardy plant which requires little care. It is generally sown direct in late winter or early
spring, in shallow furrows. To encourage emergence, it is advisable to cover with light sieved soil. It
requires little irrigation and manuring. It is usually hoed by hand.
The young leaves are harvested in spring.
Prospects for improvement

The use of rocket as a vegetable, salad or spice has been marginalized, possibly for moral or religious
reasons, and its recovery is limited by local gastronomic tradition, which is not always able to appreciate its
characteristic bitter flavour. This is due to glucosinolates and the high content of mineral salts.
The development of cultivars with a low allyl sulphocyanate content does not appear to be an improvement
objective since, even though the plant would be rendered innocuous, it would lose its individual identity.
In fact, a wide variability has been observed as regards both erucic acid content and glucosinolate content in
128 rocket specimens from Pakistan. Rocket already has a low content of these constituents, and the local
inhabitants clearly distinguish this species from other more bitter crucifers. Its use can be increased only
through the promotion of the traditional dishes in which it appears.
The use of agronomic techniques such as nitrogen fertilization and shading would enable younger, more
juicy rosettes to be obtained which have a milder taste and are more palatable.
The work on genetic improvement for the use of "rocket" as a vegetable is very limited, if we exclude the
development of in vitro cultivation, which has made it possible to regenerate normal diploid plants from
isolated protoplasts of leaf mesophyll.
Garden Cress
(Lepidium sativum)
Botanical name: Lepidium sativum L.
Family: Brassicaceae = Cruciferae
Common names. English: cress, common cress, garden cress, land cress, pepper cress; Spanish: mastuerzo,
mastuerzo hortense, lepidio, berro de jardn (Spain), berro de tierra, berro hortense (Argentina), escobilla
(Costa Rica); Catalan: morritort, morris, Portuguese and Galician: masturco, mastruco, agrio-mouro,
herba do esforzo; Portuguese: mastruco do Sul, agrio (Brazil); Basque: buminka, beatzecrexu
Origin of the name

Cultivation of this species, which is native to Southwest Asia (perhaps Persia) and which spread many
centuries ago to western Europe, is very old, as is shown by the philological trace of its names in different
Indo-European languages. These include the Persian word turehtezuk, the Greek kardamon, the Latin
nasturtium and Arabic tuffa' and hurf. In some languages there is a degree of confusion with watercress. It
seems that the meaning of the word nasturtium (nasum torcere, because its smell causes the nose to turn up)
must have been applied initially to garden cress, as both Pliny and Isidoro de Sevilla explain. The confusion
remains with the terms used by the Hispano-Arabs. The word hurf is applied without distinction to
watercress and garden cress (several species certainly of up to three different genera: Nasturtium, Lepidium
and Cardaria). Thus the medieval agronomists of Andalusia went as far as differentiating between several
hurf, such as hurf abyod, hurf babili, hurf madani....
Properties, uses and cultivation

Xenophon (400 BC) mentions that the Persians used to eat this plant even before bread was known. It was
also familiar to the Egyptians and was very much appreciated by the Greeks and Romans, who were very
fond of banquets rich in spices and spicy salads. Columela (first century) makes direct reference to the
cultivation of garden cress. In Los doce libros de Agricultura, he writes: " ...immediately after the calends of
January, garden cress is sown out... when you have transplanted it before the calends of March, you will be
able to harvest it like chives, but less often... it must not be cut after the calends of November because it dies
from frosts, but can resist for two years if it is hoed and manured carefully... there are also many sites where
it lives for up to ten years" (Book XI). The latter statements seem to indicate that he is also speaking of the
perennial species L. latifolium, as L. sativum is an annual.
Almost all of the Andalusian agronomists of the Middle Ages (Ibn Hayyay, Ibn Wafid, Ibn alBaytar, Ibn
Luyun, Ibn al-Awwam) and many of the doctors, such as Maimonides, mention garden cress. Ibn
al-Awwam also includes references from Abu al-Jair, Abu Abdalah as well as from Nabataean agriculture
and, among other comments, he says: "Garden cress is sown between February and April (in January in
Seville). It has small seeds which are mixed with earth for sowing to prevent the wind carrying them
away.... It is harvested in May and is grown between ridges, in combination/conjunction with flax
cultivation."
Many of the authors of the old oriental and Mediterranean cultures emphasized the medicinal properties of
cress, especially as an antiscorbutic, depurative and stimulant. Columela notes its vermifugal powers. Ibn
al-Awwam refers to certain apparently antihistaminic properties, since it was used against insect bites and
also as an insect repellent, in the form of a fumigant. It was perhaps Ibn al-Baytar, an Andalusian botanist
(eighth century), who collected most information on its properties, summarizing the opinions of other
authors such as El Farcy, who says that it incites coitus and stimulates the appetite; Ibn Massa, according to
whom it dissipates colic and gets rid of tapeworms and other intestinal worms: or Ibn Massouih, who
mentions that it eliminates viscous humours. Ibn al-Baytar also says that it is administered against leprosy,
is useful for renal "cooling" and that, if hair is washed with garden cress water, it is "purified" and any loss
is arrested.
In Iran and Morocco, the seeds are used as an aphrodisiac. In former Abyssinia, an edible oil was obtained
from the seeds. In Eritrea, it was used as a dyestuff plant. Some Arab scholars have attributed garden cress's
reputation among Muslims to the fact that it was directly recommended by the Prophet.
Garden cress's main use was always as an aromatic and slightly pungent plant. Not only in antiquity but also
in the Middle Ages it enjoyed considerable prestige on royal tables. The young leaves were used for salads.
The ancient Spartans ate them with bread. This use still continues and they are also eaten with bread and
butter or with bread to which lemon, vinegar or sugar is added. However. it is mainly used nowadays in the
seedling stage. the succulent hypocotyls being added to salads and as a garnish and decoration for dishes.
The roots, seeds and leaves have been used as a spicy condiment. Columela explains how oxygala, a type of
curd cheese with herbs, was prepared: 'Some people, after collecting cultivated or even wild garden cress,
dry it in the shade and then. after removing the stem, add its leaves to brine. squeezing them and placing
them in milk without any other seasoning, and adding the amount of salt they consider sufficient.... Others
mix fresh leaves of cultivated cress with sweetened milk in a pot ".
L latifolium L. stands out for its horticultural interest; although it grows spontaneously on the edges of rivers
and lakes, it is also occasionally grown in the same way as L. sativum. Its young leaves can be used for
salads; the ancient Greeks and Romans used to grow it for this purpose. Its leaves and seeds were also used
as a spicy condiment. Several sauces are prepared with its leaves, including in particular the bitter sauce of
the paschal lamb of the Jews. The seeds of this species were known in England as the poor people's pepper.
The roots have been used on occasion as a substitute for radish.
In the fifteenth century, we know through Alonso de Herrera that garden cress was one of the vegetables
most widely eaten in Castile. During the sixteenth century, obstinate attempts were made to introduce it into
America. Right up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, its cultivation in Spain continued to be
important, since Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) deal specifically with this crop in their Tratado de la huerta,
commenting on the existence of several cultivars At present, the cultivation of cress is very occasional in
countries such as Spain and France. Water cress, in competition with garden cress, has eclipsed the
cultivation of the latter. However, this is not the case in other central European countries or the United
Kingdom, where its use is normal and the system of cultivation has changed substantially.
Cress is an annual, erect herbaceous plant, growing up to 50 cm. The basal leaves have long petioles and are
lyrate-pinnatipartite; the caulinar leaves are laciniate-pinnate while the upper leaves are entire. The
inflorescences are in dense racemes. The flowers have white or slightly pink petals, measuring 2 mm. The
siliquae measure 5 to 6 x 4 mm, are elliptical, elate from the upper half, and glabrous. Cress flowers in the
wild state between March and June.
It is an allogamous plant with self-compatible and self-incompatible forms and with various degrees of
tolerance to prolonged autogamy. There are diploid forms, 2n = 2x = 16, and tetraploid forms, 2n = 4x = 32.
A degree of variability is noted in the character of the basal leaves which are cleft or split to a greater or
lesser degree. a character which is controlled by a single incompletely dominant gene.

Cress is a plant that is well suited to all soils and climates, although it does not tolerate frosts. In temperate
conditions, it has a very rapid growth rate. It grows subspontaneously in areas transformed by humans, close
to crops or human settlements. It appears in this way on the Iberian peninsula. mainly in the eastern regions.
Wild cress extends from the Sudan to the Himalayas. Most authors consider it to be a native of western
Asia, whence it passed very quickly to Europe and the rest of Asia as a secondary crop, probably associated
with cultivars of flax. Vavilov considers its main centre to be Ethiopia, where he found the widest
variability: the Near East, central Asia and the Mediterranean are considered secondary centres. It is now
naturalized in numerous parts of Europe, including the British Isles.
Genetic diversity
The genus Lepidium is made up of about 150 species, distributed throughout almost all temperate and
subtropical regions of the world. On the Iberian peninsula and the Balearic Islands, at least 20 species or
subspecies exist among the autochthonous and allochthonous taxa, some genetically close to L. sativum.
Seven of them are exclusively endemic to the peninsula or, at the very most, are common with North Africa.
Other close species are L. campestre (L.) R. Br. and L. ruderale L. which also have edible leaves. The
leaves of L. campestre are used to prepare excellent sauces for fish.
Common cress (L. sativum L.), with regard to the anatomy of the leaf, stem and root, has been divided into
three botanical varieties: vulgare, crispum and latifolium. The latter is the most mesomorphic, crispum the
most xeromorphic and vulgare intermediate.
At present, most of the studies on the variability and development of new cultivars are being carried out in
liaison with the VIR of St Petersburg, where there is a good collection of material. Of the 350 forms of
garden cress studied in the Ukraine, Uzkolistnyti 3 was the best, being highly productive and of good
quality. It is being used as the basis of improvement programmes, as it appreciably surpasses the best Soviet
varieties in production and quality. Other cultivars well suited to European Russia are Tuikers Grootbladige
(broad-leaved) and the lines Mestnyi k137, k106 and k115. Of the types most cultivated in Europe, Early
European, Eastern, Dagestan and Entire Leaved stand out, being distinguished by the length and shape of
the leaf, earliness and susceptibility to cold. In Western Europe, one broad-leaved type is especially
appreciated (Broad Leaved French) as are curly types (Curly Leaved), the latter being used extensively to
garnish dishes. In Africa, there are red, white and black varieties.
This crop is also arousing interest in Japan, and collecting expeditions to Nepal have been organized. Some
specimens collected during an expedition to Iraq in 1986 are now stored in Abu Ghraib and in Gratersleben,
Germany. There are also small collections of L. sativum in the PGRC in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), at the
ARARI of Izmir in Turkey and in Bari, Italy. At the Universidad Politcnica de Madrid there are accessions
of 20 species of Lepidium, while the BGV of the Crdoba Botanical Garden keeps germplasm of the
southern Iberian species of the genus.
Cress is an easily grown plant with few requirements. It can be broadcast after the winter frosts or
throughout the year in temperate climates. However, Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) were already
recommending sowing in shallow furrows, which enables surplus plants to be thinned out and facilitates
hoeing. Sowing has to be repeated every 15 to 20 days so that there is no shortage of young shoots and new
leaves for saladsthe leaves of earlier sowings begin to get tough and are no longer usable. The seed
sprouts four or six days after sowing, depending on the season, and the leaves are ready for consumption
after two or three weeks.

The usual form of cultivation continues to be as described, with 15 to 20 cm between rows and the use of
irrigation in the summer, since they are lightly rooted seedlings which can dry up in a few days. Its growth
is very rapid and harvesting can begin in the same month as sowing, with yields reaching 6 tonnes per
hectare.

Most of the genetic improvement work on garden cress is being carried out in the CIS, with little or no work
being done at present in the countries of western Europe. Mainly early cultivars with a prolonged production
period and better cold tolerance are being developed.
Cress can be grown and used like white mustard. It geminates more slowly at low temperatures, the
emergence period being three or four days longer. Shortening this period is an interesting improvement
objective.
However, cress's recovery and its greater presence on markets mainly depends on a modification of
cultivation and marketing techniques. In counties such as the United Kingdom, where this vegetable is
nominally to be found at the markets. cultivation takes place in greenhouses throughout the year. The whole
succulent hypocotyls of the very young seedlings are eaten. The seed is placed on the soil surface on soft,
level beds. It is finely sprinkled with water and then covered with sackcloth which has been steam-sterilized
and moistened. The latter is frequently wetted to maintain moisture and is removed when the seedlings
reach 4 to 5 cm in height (after approximately seven days in spring and autumn and ten days in winter). The
yellowish leaves turn green after two to three days.
The cress is harvested when the first pair of cotyledon leaves have developed and it is marketed in small
bags or trays, sometimes together with seedlings of white mustard.
Garden cress and white pepper are sometimes sown in the plastic trays or bags in which they will be sold,
generally in peat with a nutrient solution.
Purslane
(Portulaca oleracea)
Botanical name: Portulaca oleracea L.
Family: Portulacaceae
Common names. English: purslane, purslave, pursley, pusley; Spanish and Catalan: verdolaga, verdalaga,
buglosa, hierba grasa, porcelana, tarfela, peplide (Spain), colchn de nio (El Salvador), flor de las once
(Colombia), flor de un da, lega (Argentina); Portuguese and Galician: beldroega, bredo-femea, baldroaga;
Basque: ketozki, ketorki, getozca; French: pourpier, portulache
Origin of the name

The diversity of names and meanings already gives an idea of the age and geographical dispersion of
purslane's cultivation or use. On the basis of historical, archaeological and linguistic documentation, De
Candolle thought that this species was cultivated more than 4000 years ago. Its common names come from
different roots: lonica or louina (Sanskrit), koursa (Hindustani), kholza and perpehen (Persian), adrajne
agria (Greek), portulaca (Latin, which means "little door", because of the way its capsule opens). The
Arabs in the Middle Ages called it baqla hamqa', which means "mad" or "crazy vegetable" because of the
fact that its branches spread over the ground without any control. The Hispano-Arabs of Al-Andalus (from
the tenth to fifteenth century) used the name riyla, which means "foot", most certainly because of its
dactyliform leaves, and also furfir, farfan, farfag, farfagin, derived from the Persian perpehen. They also
called it missita, which means "mixed", because it is sometimes found growing in gardens and sometimes
growing wild. In Spanish, names such as verdilacas, yerba aurato and yerba orate are known (which again
mean "crazy herb").

As a medicinal plant, it is considered to have antiscorbutic, diuretic and cooling properties. Being rich in
mineral salts and with a high water content (95 percent) and mucilage content, it has emollient and soothing
properties for irritations of the bladder and urinary tract. It is also used to regulate the bowels. Dioscorides
already recognized its medicinal powers: these were anti-inflammatory (eyes) and analgesic (headache),
emollient and soothing, antifebrifuge (in juice) and anthelmintic. He also says that "it reduces the desire to
fornicate". In the latter sense, other authors also mention its anaphrodisiac powers (1837 Codex of the
Spanish Pharmacopoeia), including this plant among the "four cold seeds", together with chicory, endive
and lettuce. The anaphrodisiac effect is perhaps due to the presence of norepinephrin, a precursor of
adrenalin, which causes a reduction in the blood flow through constriction of the main arteries. It is also
mentioned by Maimonides. In the Middle Ages, the pharmacists of Cairo used to sell purslane seed for
various uses, recommending it in particular as a vermifuge. Laguna and Leclerc also recognized its different
medicinal properties, especially the anti-inflammatory ones, in mixtures prepared with plantain, violets and
gourds. Its magical powers have also been mentioned, as a charm against evil spirits and for dispelling
nightmares if placed in the bed.
However, in addition to its medicinal powers, it is also a vegetable, a weed and a food for pigs.
Columela writes in his poem on the garden: "Already the juicy purslane covers the dry beds"; and in Los
doce libros de agricultura: "Leafy purslane appeases the plot's thirst" (Book X); and in Book XI he gives a
recipe for preserving it in vinegar and salt. Paladio refers to it exclusively because of its mucilaginous,
medicinal and veterinary properties. Similar references are found in Kastos, taking up the Byzantine
tradition. Isidoro de Sevilla mentions it without giving any information on its cultivation. In short, such a
summary reference to the Hispano-Roman and Hispano-Visigoth tradition regarding purslane is surprising.
It is the writers of oriental and Arabic treatises who concerned themselves most with this vegetable. Ibn
Wahsiyya describes its cultivation in the Near East, presenting it as a summer crop. Most of the
Hispano-Arab agronomists deal with this plant. Arib (tenth century) mentions it in his Calendario agrcola.
Al Zahrawi and Ibn Hayyay (eleventh century) also mention it. Ibn Bassal (eleventh century) deals
extensively with its cultivation, already recognizing a certain intraspecific variability (he distinguishes early
and late varieties), setting out its temperature and water requirements (summer cultivation and irrigation or
vegetable garden), drawing up a sowing calendar which extends from March to August and demonstrating
the practice of two basic cultivation periods, depending on whether the aim is to produce seed or to produce
for human consumption. Sowing quantities and manuring and irrigation requirements also appear and are
dealt with in great detail by the author. Ibn Wafid (Hispano-Arab agronomist of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries) mentions it under the names haqla hamqa' and missita. Ibn al-Awwam, in his Kitab al-Filaha,
recalls that it is mentioned by almost all the Arab authors and refers to different varieties. He uses the
adjectives "mild", "vain" and ''blessed".
After the sixteenth century, cultivation of purslane was gradually lost in Spain. Alonso de Herrera (sixteenth
century), for example, makes no reference to it while Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) say that "purslane,
which is not at all appreciated in Spain, is one of the crops which, in England and other countries further
north, need to be cultivated in frames and hotbeds in order to bring forward their vegetation artificially"; and
further on: "on this land, it is not usual to cultivate purslane other than using those that have grown at
random among other plants cultivated with more care". In spite of Spanish disregard for this plant, it is still
valued in many Latin American countries where it was introduced.
Purslane has been eaten as a vegetable, particularly fresh. In England in the seventeenth century. the cooks
of Charles II used to add its leaves to all salads, perhaps to satisfy the king's taste or else for its digestive
properties. In this recipe, the chopped young leaves were mixed with double the amount of leaves of lettuce,
chervil, borage flowers and marigold petals, the mixture being dressed with oil and lemon juice. The recipe
resembles that mentioned by Tirso de Molina: "I will have green coriander, garden cress, purslane, borage
and mint added to it."
Not only the leaves, but also the stems and rootless plantlets can be eaten raw and fresh. Columela mentions
their being eaten pickled with salt and vinegar. Purslane has a pleasant acidic flavour and is very juicy. In
Spain, it is usually eaten at a more advanced stage of growth, after cooking. It is also delicious boiled and in
omelettes. Sauteed in butter or fried, it is used in soups, broths, salads and sauces. Together with sorrel, it
forms part of the French soup bonne femme. Recipes are also known for purslane and pea soups.
To complete the range of its applications, one could mention its use as an insecticide, in which case its juice
is poured on to anthills, and also its ornamental use in Roman and medieval gardens.
At present in Spain, it is basically a volunteer species (weed) among summer irrigated crops, and its
consumption is gradually declining; this is also the case with individuals collected from wild populations.
Purslane is an annual, herbaceous plant, with branched, decumbent or fairly ascending stems of up to 50 cm,
and which are reddish, fleshy and glabrous. The leaves measure 0.5 to 3.3 x 0.2 to 1.5 cm, are obovate,
entire and fairly papillose. The flowers are yellow and solitary or in axillary groups of two or three. The
fruit is in a capsule (pyxidium) of up to 7 mm. The seeds measure 0.6 to 1 mm; they are reniform, black, and
maintain their germinating capacity for eight to ten years. Of orthodox behaviour in germination, their
viability is maintained much more if they are stored dry at a low temperature.

Purslane was one of the most widespread horticultural plants in the Old World since distant times. It was
taken to America where it was naturalized, as in Europe, in gardens, among rubble and at waysides. It
originates from the region extending from the western Himalayas to southern Russia and Greece. In eastern
Asia it does not seem to be spontaneous. In Greece it is spontaneous and cultivated. Vavilov (1951)
categorizes it in the Mediterranean countries of the Near East and central Asia as a weed and vegetable.
Nowadays it is distributed over the hot temperate zones of a great part of the world. Together with other
species of the genus it occurs as a weed in the majority of tropical and subtropical countries.
It is cultivated in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and other European countries. It is a popular winter
vegetable in northern India. In Spain. it very frequently occurs as a volunteer, but it is very rare as a crop.
Genetic diversity
Little work has been done on the management of purslane's extraspecific variability. Apparently, without
any aim at improvement, protoplast fusion of the genera Portulaca and Nicotiana has been attempted, and
heterokaryons and the first division have been observed, but it is not clear whether multiple divisions
occurred.
Nevertheless, there is an enormous intrageneric variability. The genus Portulaca is cosmopolitan and many
species are grown as a vegetable. Thus, P. afra Jacq., P. pilosa L. and P. tuberosa Roxb. in southern Africa
and P. quadrifida L. in tropical Africa; P. retusa Engelm. in North America and P. pilosa L. in South
America; P. napiformis Muell. in Australia; and P. lutea Forst in Polynesia. P. quadrifida L. is cultivated in
many tropical regions.
Within P. oleracea and in its wild populations, Danin and Baker distinguish five subspecies (oleracea,
papillato-stellulata, stellata, granulato-stellulata and nitida), on the basis of the seed size and structure of
the testa. Recognition of these subspecies is somewhat questionable, especially if we take into account their
sympatric character. Generally speaking, the existence of a single P. oleracea complex with several
varieties is accepted; it includes: var. oleracea, which is widespread as a weed; and var. sativa (Haw.)
Celak, which is cultivated as a vegetable and has a bigger and erect habit.
In a chemotaxonomic study comparing proteins and free amino acids, Prabhakar and Ramayya (1988) found
that, within the complex P. oleracea, the var. ophemera is distinct from the var. oleracea and sativa.
In the var. sativa, it is usual to distinguish two types which can be differentiated by their colouring: green
purslane and golden purslane. However, it seems that colour depends basically on exposure to the sun and is
more an environmental than a genetic characteristic. Some markets, such as the French market, appreciate
red in particular.
In the commercial catalogues of seed firms, cultivars of this horticultural plant are not usually offered.
Girenko (1980) has described the intraspecific diversity and composition of cultivars in various climatic
zones of the CIS, along with another set of data of agricultural interest.1
Extensive work also has to be done on the recovery and conservation of purslane germplasm. In 1985, as
part of a joint project with the IBPGR, a mission of the Agricultural Research Corporation collected
indigenous germplasm of P. oleracea in the northeastern region of the Sudan. At ARARI in Izmir, Turkey,
some accessions of P. oleracea are conserved.
1This
article, published in 1988, has not been translated from Russian.
This is a vegetable which develops rapidly in hot environments. Cultivation is very simple, entailing the
necessary hoeing and irrigation on light, rich soils which encourage emergence.
It can be grown in greenhouses and may be broadcast or sown by burying the seeds with light pressure. A
first and second irrigation are essential and must be carried out either by sprinkler or by hand. In order to
ensure moisture during emergence, the plots are sometimes covered with wet sackcloth. The seeds
germinate quickly and have to be raised up to accelerate emergence and development. The plantlets are
harvested when four or five leaves have formed which, with suitable temperatures, is achieved in about 20
days. It is possible to cover a long production period by staggered sowing.
In temperate areas in central Europe around April, when the frosts are over, cultivation also takes place in
the open air with direct broadcasting (10 g per m2). Moisture must be ensured during emergence. Later,
when the seedlings have reached the mid-point in their growth, they tolerate water shortages well. In this
type of cultivation, the plant is normally allowed to develop and the stalks are harvested throughout the
summer. If the plant is not pulled up, it sprouts again.
The crop's biggest enemies are low temperatures and weeds, which require as many hoeings as necessary.
Pests and diseases do not appear to constitute important limitations.

Cultivation does not present any technical difficulty preventing restoration of this vegetable's use. In
experimental tests carried out by the authors on the southeastern coast of Spain, uniform production of
seedlings of between 6 and 8 cm was obtainable after a month or so during the winter and spring in an
unheated polyethylene greenhouse.
This type of cultivation is the one which may be most readily acceptable on western markets, provided clean
rootless seedlings are offered, appropriately packaged in trays covered with plastic film. Under these
conditions, they keep well at low temperatures for a couple of weeks.
This type of product is practically unknown to the consumer and yet it is the most suitable for salads. If
plants or shoots of plants developed under high temperature conditions are used, they may have excessive
mucilage and an unpleasant texture. The plantlets have a milder flavour and texture which make them more
appetizing.
Where plant material is concerned, practically everything remains to be done, since very little improvement
work has been carried out recently.
Borage
(Borago officinalis)
Botanical name: Borago officinalis L.
Family: Boraginaceae
Common names. English: borage, cool tankard; Spanish: borraja, borraja comn, borraga, borracha, bora,
corrago, alcohelo, flores cordiales; Catalan: borratja, borraina, pa-i-pexet; Basque: borrai, borroin, murrum,
assunasa, porraia; Portuguese and Galician: borrage, borragem, erva borragem, borraxa

Borage is attributed with sudorific (flowers), diuretic (leaves and petioles) and emollient properties
(cataplasms of leaves). It contains substantial mucilage, tannin, potassium and magnesium salts and traces
of essence. The seeds contain up to 23 percent linoleic acid.
Pharmacologists in past times used to include borage within the "four pectoral flowers", and it was also
strongly recommended in cases of rheumatism, in which case the fresh leaves were applied as a poultice,
since they lose their properties when dry. The flowers and seeds had a reputation as euphoriants and were
added to wine for this purpose. Some authors think that borage is the plant which the Greeks called
eafrosinon and which, according to Pliny, "made men joyous and happy". One Greek proverb used to say:
"I, borage, always give courage." In sixteenth-century Spain, it was still attributed with this property.
Thus, Alonso de Herrera (1981 [1513]) states that borages "are healthier than any other vegetable and. in
truth, it can be said that in many cases they are not appreciated because these powers, which are many, are
unknown". He also mentions some of these: "When raw, they engender a very singular blood, and more so
when cooked with a good mutton or capons, and for this reason they are very good for old people... and if
their seed is drunk in wine, it cheers the heart greatly...". The question arises as to whether the vegetable's
virtues might not be due to the other ingredient which accompanied it.
In actual fact, its effects cannot be very obvious. since "in many cases they are not appreciated". The
mildness of its action perhaps explains the well-known Spanish expression "it is borage water" to indicate
that something has come to nothing. For example, Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) explained: "In ancient
times it was very often used in medicine, but nowadays it is practically forgotten since it does not produce
the effects for which it was applied in those days."
As a food vegetable, the origin of its cultivation has not been pinpointed. Although it is unclear whether the
Greeks and Romans made medicinal use of this plant, it is more certain that they did not cultivate it, since
none of the writers of treatises such as Columela or Paladio referred to it, although some authors attribute a
Latin etymology to borago (derived from borra = rigid hair, because of the characteristic hairiness of the
whole plant). Other authors support an Arabic etymology, from abu = father and rash = sweat, because of
the sudorific property of its flowers. Some historians even thought that the plant came from Africa during
the Middle Ages. However, there is no doubt that the plant is native to Spain and that, around the twelfth
century, the Andalusian Muslims were not growing it. Indeed, in his Kitab al-Filaha, Ibn al-Awwam makes
a single reference to it, treating it as a wild plant which could be used in times of famine. Other Andalusian
agronomists and doctors such as Ibn Hayyay (tenth century), Ibn Wafid (eleventh to twelfth centuries) and
Maimonides (tenth century) seem to mention it, but there is a degree of confusion regarding its name, lisan
al-lawr (ox tongue), which may refer to both Borago officinalis and Anchusa officinalis or A. italica.
Consequently, borage must not have been cultivated until after the twelfth century. It is known to have been
grown in Castile in the fifteenth century and, in 1539, Alonso de Herrera gave an extensive description of its
cultivation and properties. It was one of the first vegetables taken to America by the Spanish; as early as
1494 it was being grown in the gardens of La Isabela, the first city founded on American soil. In the
seventeenth century, Cobo (1953 [1662]) also stated that borage had adapted to Latin America. In the
eighteenth century, it was frequently grown but had already lost importance.
Borage is grown for its leaves and stalks which are eaten as a vegetable. The young leaves can be eaten raw
in salad dressed with olive oil, giving an aroma and flavour similar to cucumber. They should be chopped,
since they are not very appealing whole because of their hairiness. They are used cooked in soups, as a
garnish for meats and also in olla, a kind of stew. The leaves cooked in batter and served with hot or grated
cheese are delicious. Similarly, borage dumplings can be made, while its finely chopped leaves can be
cooked with almond milk to make an exquisite soup or used to make an excellent borage omelette.
However, nowadays leaf petioles are the part of the plant most used and lend themselves to most of the uses
stated.
The flowers are used to garnish dishes and prepare an exquisite dessert. Genders (1988) suggests a recipe
for borage tart. In some regions, a dessert is also prepared by frying the leaves, to which sugar or honey is
added, in the same way as the paparajotes of Murcia, but using borage instead of lemon leaves. In Majorca,
according to Font Quer (1990) the leaves are used to make fritters by preparing a mixture with beaten eggs
and wheat flour and then frying the leaves thus coated in hot oil and sprinkling them with sugar and
cinnamon.
Borage is also a honey-producing plant, the flowers and roots produce dye, while the active synthesis of
linoleic acidof pharmacological and cosmetic interestoccurs in the ovary, which explains the high
content of linoleic acid in the seeds.
Borage is a sturdy, annual herbaceous plant. Almost all the plant is covered with stiff hairs. It has a taproot
and erect, sturdy stems which reach 20 to 100 cm and are sometimes branched. It has ovate or lanceolate,
petiolate basal leaves in a rosette which grow up to 25 cm. The upper caulinar leaves surrounding the stem
are sessile. The flowers are a bright celestial blue on branched tops. Flowering occurs from spring to
autumn. The fruit contains four oblongo-ovoid nucules measuring 4 x 2.5 mm.
Borage is an allogamous plant, which has hermaphrodite flowers with exserted stamens. It has a
self-incompatibility system controlled by numerous genes. Pollination is predominantly entomophilous
(bees).
The plant is propagated from seed. Seed collection is laborious, since the seeds drop easily. Sixty-five seeds
weigh 1 g; 1 litre of seeds weighs around 430 g. In commercial storage conditions, germination capacity
remains high for eight to ten years. Its behaviour is orthodox in storage.
The seed germinates very quickly, without any dormancy problems. The chromosome pattern is 2n = 2x =
16.
Figure 38. Horticultural crops: A) borage (Borago officinalis); B) alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum); B1)
leaves; B2) inflorescences in the umbel; B) fruit; B4) root; C) scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica); C1)
capitulum; C2) basal rosette of leaves: C3) root

In its spontaneous or subspontaneous form, borage grows on uncultivated land, embankments, fallow land,
wasteland, garden edges, waysides and among ruins.
It is native to the Mediterranean region but has been naturalized in the hot zones of western, central and
eastern Europe, sometimes with unstable escapes northwards. It is also found in Southwest Asia,
Macronesia and North America.
Cultivation of borage as a vegetable is limited to certain regions of the Netherlands, France, Spain and Latin
America, being unknown in the rest of the world.
In Spain, it is grown mainly in the Ebro valley, in the provinces of Zaragoza, Logroo and Navarra. The
total cultivated area in 1987 was 303 ha and production 7818 tonnes.
In recent years, some expansion of cultivation towards Andalusia has been noted, particularly in Almera.
Sheltered cultivation is beginning to be carried out, with excellent results.
Genetic diversity
The genus Borago has only two Mediterranean species. In humid areas of Corsica and Sardinia, B. pygmaea
(DC.) Chater & W. Greuter, a perennial with decumbent stems, is found.
Borago officinalis L. is a very variable species. There are varieties characterized by the flower colour.
Although they are generally bright blue, there are also types with white and pink flowers. However, these
are very heterogeneous populations with a great diversity in habit, vigour and development of the plant,
shape, colour and size of the limb and leaf petiole, flowering, etc.
The cultivar Flor Blanca, which is marketed in Spain, has leaves with petioles of 40 to 50 cm in length and
1.5 cm in width. The plant grows to a height of around 50 to 60 cm.
In the gene bank of the SIA at the Diputacin General de Aragn (Zaragoza), there is a small collection of
accessions of this vegetable.
Borage is a very hardy plant which is suited to all types of soil. although it grows best on clayey-muddy
soils. It prefers land that is rich in organic matter. It tolerates low temperatures, down to -50C, and starts to
sprout again when the temperature rises.
In Spain, direct sowing is used. The ground should be prepared with a basal dressing using about 50 tonnes
of manure per hectare, if it has not been incorporated into the previous crop, and 90 to 120 units per hectare
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The soil must be well broken up with deep ploughing and a couple
of harrowings. In Aragon, staggered sowings are carried out in the open air from mid-August to January, in
rows or individual drill holes with 25 to 30 cm between plants.
Cultivation presents no particular problems; the plants must be irrigated and, in the event of intensive
cultivation, after thinning out top-dressing must be supplemented by 150 units per hectare of easily
assimilated nitrogen.
The vegetative cycle takes between 50 and 120 days and harvesting can begin in mid-October, ending in
May since, when high temperatures come with spring, the plant goes into flower and loses its value.
Harvesting is done by hand. Each plant has two or three rosettes with five to seven leaves each. with a
weight of 500 to 1000 g per plant.

Production levels of around 60 to 100 tonnes per hectare are obtained. According to data in the Spanish
Government's Anuario de Estadstica Agraria, average yields are 25 tonnes per hectare in the case of
open-air irrigation and 36 tonnes per hectare in sheltered cultivation, Navarra being foremost with yields of
40 tonnes per hectare using both methods of cultivation.
Recently, sheltered cultivation under plastic has been gaining in importance. Under these conditions, much
longer and fleshier leaf stalks are obtained and the stalk/plant yield rises to 60 percent, as against the 40
percent obtained with open-air cultivation. Production levels are also usually better.
The crop's main enemies are virus diseases (cucumber mosaic virus), soil fungi (Fusarium sp.), soil grubs,
caterpillars and aphids.
The plant is usually marketed in 15 to 20 kg "bundles", amounting to 15 to 30 clumps, or in 10 to 12 kg
boxes as complete plants, with part of the leaf removed. However, the consumer prefers borage to be
completely stripped and packed in trays protected with plastic film.
Borage is subject to the technical regulations on the control and certification of horticultural plant seeds.
The requirements for seeds of the basic, certified and standard category are 97 percent specific purity, 65
percent germination of pure seeds, with a maximum tolerance of 0.5 percent of seeds of other species.
According to INSPV data, in 1989 2567 kg of borage seed were marketed, 2 489 kg of which were
homegrown. Only the white variety was grown.
Another method of cultivation carried out in the Netherlands uses plantlets. After direct sowing, these are
allowed to grow to a height of 10 to 15 cm and the complete plantlets are harvested. After washing and root
removal, these can be marketed in trays covered with plastic film.

Most improvement work has been carried out using white flower types. Breeding by growers has created
forms with more succulent, longer and wider leaf stalks, with little pigmentation and less hair than the wild
forms.
One of the main problems of cultivation is its ease of bolting, including the formation of flowers, which
lowers the value of production. This process is caused by high temperatures and light intensity and reduced
humidity. Breeding for resistance to bolting is a priority improvement objective, and a very high response to
breeding is observed.
Although this plant has traditionally been cultivated in the open air, excellent results are now being obtained
under plastic, in which case growth improves. A quality product, with long, tender leaf stalks and less hair
can be obtained for a good part of the year in a greenhouse. The plant tolerates low winter temperatures and
high humidity well. In the area around Zaragoza, borage has been converted into the most profitable crop
under plastic.
The expansion of sheltered cultivation may encourage the recovery of this marginalized vegetable. The first
tests in this connection have been carried out in Almera. If they prove positive, they would contribute to the
diversification of production and to improving the supply in this region. which has great agricultural
importance and yet depends on a very small number of crops.
As far as the consumer is concerned, in the case of regions that do not have a tradition of using this plant,
borage must be presented stripped and properly packed, so that the work of culinary preparation is reduced.
The plant's coarse, hairy appearance may cause some degree of rejection, which is avoided with appropriate
cleaning and presentation.

With sights set on possible external markets which are even more demanding than the Spanish market, the
high nitrate content of leaves and leaf stalks will need to be reduced. This can be achieved without great
difficulty, as breeding to obtain a low nitrate content has been effective in other cases. Breeding to obtain
individuals with a low content of lasiocarpine, a pyrrolizidinic alkaloid, would also be advisable, although
its content is not excessively high.
As regards the plant's pharmacological use, in vitro cultivation of embryos is being developed; this is a
technique whereby the active synthesis of linoleic acid takes place. In vitro propagation techniques of
borage have also been developed.
Alexanders
(Smyrnium olusatrum)
Botanical name: Smyrnium olusatrum L.
Family: Apiaceae = Umbelliferae
Common names. English: alexanders, alisander, maceron; Spanish: apio caballar, apio equino, apio
macednico, perejil macednico, esmirnio, olosatro, caarejo; Portuguese and Galician: salsa de cavalo,
cegudes, apio dos cavalos, roses de p de piolho; Catalan: api cavallar, abil de siquia, julivert de moro,
cugul, aleixandri
Origin of the name

This is the hipposelinon of the Greeks, a word which means parsley or "horse celery". In Arabic, during the
Andalusian period, it was called karafs barri, one of the various karafs (celeries) known by Hispano-Arab
agronomists, different from cultivated celery (Apium graveolens), aquatic celery (A. nudiflorum) and
mountain or rock celery (the Greek and Latin petroselinum or oreoselinon). Alexanders has always been
identified as oriental or Macedonian, very possibly as a reference to its geographical origin and its
allochthonous character.

Its use as a medicinal plant is very old. The Greek botanist Theophrastus (fourth century BC) made
reference to the plant. Dioscorides (first century) also included it in his Materia medica, commenting that its
roots and leaves were edible. According to this author, its seed, taken with wine, is an emmenagogue.
However, Galen said that it was less active than celery. In the Cordoba of the caliphs, Maimonides also
spoke of its powers. During the Middle Ages, it was constantly considered as a plant with diuretic,
depurative and aperient properties, particularly through its root. However, its most outstanding quality was
perhaps as an antiscorbutic because of its high vitamin C content. The fruit has carminative and stomachic
properties. In the eighteenth century, it continued to maintain its reputation as a medicinal plant. as the Flore
conomique des plantes qui croissent aux environs de Paris described it in 1799.
The plant, and especially the leaves, have a smell and flavour similar to myrrh. Hence the origin of the word
smyrnion, its generic name. Columela (first century) refers to the plant as "myrrh of Achaea", because it was
grown in Greece. which the Romans called Achaica or Achaea. It is also because of its characteristic flavour
and smell that it is used as a condiment; it is used to season food in a similar way to parsley, giving flavour
to soups and stews, and to prepare sauces accompanying meat and fish. However. its commonest use has
been as a fresh vegetable, with a preference being shown for its leaves, young shoots and leaf stalks, which
impart a pleasant flavour similar to celery, although somewhat sharper. It has also been eaten cooked. The
Latin word olusatrum, which means "black vegetable". reflects these uses. The roots were used preserved in
a sweet-and-sour pickle. The fruit contains an essential oil, cuminal, which is reminiscent of cumin.
The history of its cultivation is surprising. Of all the Umbelliferae used as vegetables, alexanders has been
one of the commonest in gardens for many centuries, although in the nineteenth century it was almost
completely forgotten. It was probably being gathered before the Neolithic period and was already being
grown as early as the Iron Age. It became very popular during the time of Alexander the Great (fourth
century BC) and was widely grown by the Romans, who certainly introduced it into western and central
Europe, including the British Isles. It is now naturalized in these regions and on the Iberian Peninsula.
Columela elaborates on its cultivation and methods of consumption: "Before alexanders puts out stems, pull
up its root in January or February and, after shaking it gently to remove any soil, place it in vinegar and salt;
after 30 days, take it out and peel off its skin; otherwise, place its chopped pith into a new glass container or
jar and add juice to it as described below. Take some mint, raisins and a small dry onion and grind them
together with toasted wheat and a little honey; when all this is well ground, mix with it two parts of syrup
and one of vinegar and put it like this into the aforementioned jar and, after covering it with a lid, place a
skin over it; later, when you wish to use it, remove the pieces of root with their own juice and add oil to
them."
Isidorode Sevilla (sixth century [1982]) seems to attach less importance to alexanders.
In France, it was an important vegetable, and was grown on the estates of the Carolingian kings. Thus, in the
Capitular de Villis, promulgated by Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne (around AD 795), alexanders
appears among the plants which should be cultivated. In the eighteenth century, in Versailles, it was used
blanched to accompany winter salads. In the early nineteenth century, Rozier, in his Dictionnaire universel
d'agriculture pratique, writes: "The leaves of alexanders can appear among cooking condiments, like
parsley. Its roots and young shoots are still eaten in England after blanching in the same way as celery."
There is documentation on its cultivation in Belgium in the fifteenth century and on its abundance in
English gardens in the sixteenth century. The Italians also traditionally used this plant. However, by about
the eighteenth century its cultivation was only very occasional or had fallen into disuse. In Spain, Font Quer
(eighteenth century [1990]) says that its root was eaten in many countries as a salad, raw and cooked, as
were the stems and young leaves. By the nineteenth century, Spanish agronomists were no longer making
any reference to it. Thus, Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) do not mention it, an omission which contrasts with
the 13 pages devoted to celery cultivation.
Alexanders was falling into disuse as from the seventeenth century. in direct competition with the celery of
the Italians", an improved form of wild celery (Apium graveolens). This is a case of marginalization in
which one plant, doubtless widely used since prehistory, is replaced by another one improved later.
Alexanders is a biennial herbaceous plant with a thick elongated root. The stems grow up to 150 cm and
hollow on fruiting. It has large, pinnatisect, basal leaves, with ovate to subrhombic terminal segments; the
caulinar leaves are pinnatisect. The umbels have seven to 22 rays, with black. didymous fruit measuring 5.5
to 7.5 x 4 to 7.5 mm. Alexanders flowers from April to June and propagates well from seed. Its chromosome
structure is 2n = 2x = 22.

Wild populations of alexanders grow abundantly in salt-marshes and uncultivated land near the sea.
normally in lime soils. It is also found in hedges. woods and on waysides.
It is spontaneous throughout southern Europe, North Africa (Algeria) and in the Near East. In former times
it was very abundant in the area around Alexandria. Vavilov (1951) places this crop in the Mediterranean
gene centre.
It also occurs on the Canary Islands and in the rest of the Macronesian region.
Genetic diversity
Perfoliate alexanders (Smyrnium perfoliatum L.) has smaller fruit (3.5 mm long) and is distributed through
central and southern Europe and southwest Asia. The blanched stems and leaves are used in salads. Its
cultivation is documented in the sixteenth century. According to Mathon (1986), this species is of superior
quality.
Nowadays it is very difficult to find cultivars of alexanders. However, several cultivated varieties must have
existed. For example, in England in 1570, Petrus Pena and Mathius Lobel wrote: "...the cultivated form is
far better than the wild plant...". It seems that the plant is still occasionally grown in Great Britain.
Accessions of this species are kept only in the gene bank of the Crdoba Botanical Garden. They are from
wild populations in Andalusia.
According to Columela, "alexanders must be grown from seed in ground dug out with a pastino, particularly
close to walls because it likes shade and thrives on any kind of ground: so once you have sown it, if you do
not uproot it fully but leave its stems for seed instead, it lasts forever and requires only light hoeing. It is
sown from the feast day of Vulcan (August) until the calends of September, but also in January...".
Nowadays, since cultivation has been relegated to a few family gardens, similar practices are frequently
seen. The stem is left to seed, and sowing and spontaneous cultivation takes place. Something like this
usually occurs with chard: weeds are removed and a little fertilizer is applied.
Modernization of this crop will depend on techniques similar to those used for celery, including blanching,
taking into account the fact that alexanders requires less soil and water.

Celery was also known from antiquity but was considered to be an inedible plant of ill omen. The Greeks,
who called it apion, used it in funeral ceremonies. It appears to have been grown early in our era by the
Latins. Columela refers to it: ...after the ides of May, nothing must be put in the earth when summer
approaches, except for celery seed, which must nevertheless be watered, since in this way it does very
well...". Paladio also mentions it, probably basing himself on the earlier source. Likewise, in the Capitular
de Villis (eighth century) reference is made to both apium and olisatum. Throughout this period, cultivation
of alexanders seems to be predominant.
Around the seventeenth century, types of celery appeared which were derived through breeding to obtain a
better size and improved succulence of the leaf stalks (var. dulce (Mill.) Gaud.-Beaup.) or fuller leaf
development (var. secalinum Mill.) and which were clearly differentiated from the wild plant. These types
are actually different vegetables requiring specific cultivation practices. Thus sweet-leaved celery ("celery
of the Italians") is well suited to "blanching", which enables a milder, more tender product to be obtained.
The marginalization or disuse of many vegetables used since ancient times in Europe may be connected
with the changing tastes in the Western world. The trend has been away from dishes rich in spices and hot
ingredients towards milder dishes, which respect the flavour of the food itself or enhance it. This is perhaps
the case with celery vis--vis alexanders. Alexanders is more bitter and pungent and not as tender as sweet
celery.
It is significant in this respect that the last agronomic references to the cultivation of alexanders mention the
introduction of the blanching technique. It appears thus in the reports by Versailles and Abbot Rozier:
"...after they have been blanched in the same way as celery..."; and Barral and Sagnier, in Diccionario de
agricultura (1889), write: "...in Turkey the cultivation of this plant is still an honour. The leaf is eaten after
it has been blanched...". The blanching technique also used to be employed in North America. It is obvious
that the smaller plant, celery, had asserted itself and now served as a reference, making it necessary to adopt
the same cultivation practice for alexanders, evidently with little success.
While cultivation of alexanders is waning, cultivation of celery is by contrast on the increase, as is its
importance in cool subtropical and tropical areas of Latin America and the Far East. Petiolate cultivate with
big leaves are chiefly used.
The recovery of alexanders would be achieved via the derivation of plant materials with a specific typology,
for specific uses, and the development of associated agronomic techniques; this seems very unlikely.
Scorzonera
(Scorzonera hispanica)
Botanical name: Scorzonera hispanica L.
Family: Asteraceae
Common names. English: scorzonera, Spanish salsify, black oyster plant, viper's grass; Spanish:
escorzonera, escorcionera, escurzo, yerba viperina, salsif negro, salsif hispnico, churrimana, tetas de vaca;
Catalan: escuronera; Basque: sendaposei, astobe-harri; Portuguese and Galician: escorcioneira,
escorzoneira

Scorzonera has diuretic and depurative properties. The root has restorative and sudorific properties and is an
ingredient of many infusions. It is very rich in carbohydrates (18 to 20 percent in fresh weight), with a high
proportion of inulin and laevulin, which makes it very suitable for a diabetic diet. It also contains
conopherin (glucoside), asparagine, arginine, histidine and choline.
In upper Aragon, the latex is added to milk as a cure for colds. Its ground, fresh leaves are used against viper
bites to soothe the pain. Its peeled root, fresh or cooked, acts as a tonic for the stomach and fortifies the
body.
It is considered to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous animals, for which reason in Spanish it is called
"escorzonera", i.e. herb against escuerzo [toad]. The Diccionario de la lengua espaola of the Real
Academia Espaola mentions that the name derives from the Latin "black root" because of its external
colour. In Italian, too, scorza means "root" and nera "black". However, as documented in Mattioli's
Epistolarium medicinalium libri quinque, published in 1561, the first interpretation seems correct.
Cultivation of this plant is thought to be recent. No Roman or Arab agronomist mentions it. In Spain, its
cultivation is not dealt with either by Andalusian agronomists (tenth to fourteenth centuries) or Castilian
writers of treatises in the sixteenth century. The same applies in other countries. In France, it is not
mentioned in the Capitular de Villis of the Carolingian kings, nor does Olivier de Serves, Henry IV's
minister, mention it. It was from the sixteenth century onwards that botanists began to concern themselves
with this species, describing it as wild, although sometimes introduced into botanical gardens. It is not
quoted as a cultivated plant until up to one century later. In time, it was to become fashionable in several
countries. Thus Louis XIV of France was very fond of it.
Although scorzonera was perhaps first cultivated in Spain, its cultivation has never been very important in
the country. Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) commented: "Scorzonera is usually sown on the edges of
unoccupied beds, the empty spaces being profitably used by this tasty root", thereby demonstrating a
marginal rather than a main crop.
On the other hand, it is curious that these same authors visualized a greater agricultural importance for white
salsify than scorzonera, contrary to what actually happened. Thus, they thought that "...sometimes the roots
of scorzonera can begin to be used the first year after sowing, but they are so thin that there is no point in
wasting them so young. They require two or sometimes three years for their root to form. Salsify, which has
the same taste and properties and which forms in one year, should be preferred because it requires less time
in the ground and its product is much more plentiful." The main improvement activity on this crop has
enabled some good cultivars to be obtained, with a greater growth rate and better yields than salsify in
annual cultivation.
The part of the plant most used is the tender, fleshy root. It is peeled and then cut into pieces and placed in
water with lemon to prevent it from turning black. It can then be eaten in a wide variety of exquisite dishes:
raw in a salad; dressed with vinaigrette or with other sauces, steamed and served with Barnaise or
Bchamel sauce or with whole milk cream and toast; sauted in butter with parsley or other herbs; boiled as
an accompaniment for meat; grated with cheese; baked with tomato and roast mutton or pork, fried with oil
or butter after being lightly cooked and served with lemon; scrambled with eggs or in omelettes; and
preserved in sugar.
It is recommended that, once cooked, the roots should be peeled so that they do not lose their flavour.
The leaves can also be eaten, especially the young ones after boiling. The "beards"young, fresh and tender
leavescan also be eaten raw. The young shoots are used in the same way as asparagus.
The flowers are added to salads as a flavouring. They have an aroma reminiscent of cocoa. For this purpose,
the flowers of other species such as S. mollis and S. undulata are also used. The flower buds can be used
too. Recipes exist for scorzonera flower omelette.
Scorzonera is a perennial plant with a long, fragile taproot, which is blackish on the outside and white and
milky inside, and which increases in size each year. The stems are solitary or few in number, usually
branched on the upper part and between 30 and 120 cm long. The leaves are broad, long, fleshy and
spatulate. The yellowish flowers are in capitula at the end of the stems. Flowering is in spring and summer
(April-June).
Propagation is from seed. The achenes are 10 to 20 mm long, cylindrical, whitish and rough, with a pappus
that has several rows of hairs. The weight of 75 to 90 seeds is I g, the weight of one litre of them is around
580 g. Under ordinary storage conditions they maintain a high germination capacity for two to three years.
It has a diploid chromosome number: 2n = 14. In the var. crispatula, some polyploids have been detected:
2n = 4x = 28.

Scorzonera grows on dry pasture. rocky areas, in thickets and on limy or marry soils of temperate zones.
It is distributed over central and southern Europe and the south of the CIS, although it is not found in Sicily
or Greece or in northwestern Africa or southwest Asia. It probably originates from the Mediterranean region
and is native to Spain.
The plant is little cultivated outside Europe. Most cultivation takes place in the gardens of amateurs, with
the plant being cultivated in professional gardens on a very small scale. Some estimates put cultivation at
only a few dozen hectares. The countries with the biggest cultivated area of scorzonera are Belgium, Poland
and members of the CIS.
At present, its cultivation is practically unknown in Spain. Although it is subject to the Technical
Regulations on the Control and Certification of Agricultural Seeds and Plants, there is no evidence of the
seed being marketed in Spain in recent years.
Genetic diversity
The modern Scorzonera genus, which is very close to Tragopogon, only includes three sections
(Podospermum, Scorzonera and Lasiospora) with some 28 species in Europe. The majority of them are
perennial diploid plants with 2n = 2x = 14. Cytotypes also exist with 2n = 2x = 12, x = 6 being derived from
the earlier type through translocation.
In Spain, some 13 species are to he found. The majority of them prefer dry soils. This is the case with S.
angustifolia L., S. transtagana Coutinho, S. hirsuta L., S. crispatula (Boiss.) Boiss. and S. brevicaulis Vahl.
S. parviflora Jacq. is found predominantly on saline soils; S. laciniata L. on alkaline soils; S. aristata
Ramond ex DC. is calcicolous and is found only in meadows and other grassy places of the Pyrenees, the
Alps and Apennines; S. fistulosa Brot. del W. in Portugal and southwestern Spain. S. humilis L., dwarf
scorzonera, grows very widely in Europe, while S. baetica (Boiss.) Boiss., S. albicans Cosson and S.
reverchonii Deveaux ex Hervier are found only in southern Spain.
Scorzonera (S. hispanica L.) is extremely variable, especially in its leaf shape. The botanical varieties
recognized are crispatula Boiss. (S. crispatula (Boiss.) Boiss.), which is very widespread, and pinnatifida
(Rouy) Daz de la Guardia & Blanca, which is relatively rare; they are basically distinguishable through
their leaf morphology.
Numerous commercial cultivars already exist, and there are generally populations with open pollination:
Gigante de Rusia, with a regular cylindrical, very long and smooth root and a very black skin.
Various selections derive from it, such as Gigante negra de Rusia, Gigante anual, Annual Giant
Bomba, Russisk Kaempe, etc.
Lange Jan, which is of good quality.
Elite Stamm, which is productive, stable, with a high yield of superior size roots.
Schwarze Pfahl, which is similar to Elite Stamm.
Pronora, which has well-formed roots, a smooth skin and, when canned, a good colour and flavour.
It is especially suitable for industrial processing.
Vulcan, Duplex and Pilotis, which are suitable for the frozen foods industry.
Hoffman 83, Flandria, Nero, Duro and Habil are also good cultivars.
There are collections of local races and old cultivars at the Rijksstation voor Plantenveredling de Merelbeke
(Belgium), at the Nordic Gene Bank in Alnarp (Sweden) and at the Vavilov Institute of Industrial Plants, St
Petersburg.
Scorzonera is a vegetable that resists drought well when the plant has already developed.
It has similar cultivation requirements to white salsify. It is a typically winter vegetable which, although
perennial, is grown as an annual.
It is usually sown direct in early spring, in shallow furrows, with 25 to 35 cm x 12 to 15 cm spacing. Care
must be taken to provide protection from birds, which are very fond of these seeds.
About 12 kg of seed per hectare is required. Deep, fresh, loose soil is needed; it must be rich in decomposed
organic matter and free from stones or gravel, which cause root deformation. The basal dressing
recommended is 30 tonnes per hectare of rotted manure, 50 units of N, 100 units of P2O5 and 200 to 250
units of K2O).
Attention must be paid to the first irrigations and hoeings, which can be controlled chemically, both at
pre-emergence and post-emergence, with CIPC. It prefers sunny soils and the presence of easily assimilable
nitrogen of which an additional 50 units can be applied as a top-dressing.
Harvesting takes place from November to March and requires perhaps more care than the harvesting of
white salsify, since the roots are very fragile. This means furrows of about 40 cm have to be opened parallel
to the rows of roots. Storage is good, both on the actual cultivation land and in cold stores at between 0 and
-1C, possibly for two to three months, or frozen, with light industrial processing to clean, peel, cut and
scald the vegetables to prevent oxidation.
Yields of around 20 to 30 tonnes per hectare have been obtained.
The most important diseases are mycosis, white rust, oidiopsis and strangulation and splitting of the roots,
the aetiology of which is unknown.

Although it is thought that this vegetable is very little cultivated in Spain, because it has not been introduced
into Iberian cooking, it should be recognized that serious cultivation problems still exist.
Although scorzonera is more productive than salsify and its cultivation more frequent, the two crops have
many problems in common:
a prolonged cultivation cycle, with garden space being occupied for an excessively long time;
susceptibility to bolting, even during the first year of cultivationalthough this does not hollow the
root or impair its quality, it does affect yield, making systematic cuts of the flower stems necessary;
poor seed storage;
slow emergence and the need for a constant level of moisture;
very laborious harvesting, since deep trenches have to be opened because the roots are very long and
fragile;
high nitrate content.

Some of these problems have already been tackled or are on the way to being solved. Thus, Schwarze Pfahl
is more resistant to bolting than Elite Stamm.
Einjhrige Riesen is particularly resistant to bolting and produces a low percentage of roots with cavities.
However, it does not attain the yields of the former. Since genetic variability in respect of the character
exists within commercial cultivars, rapid progress in improving this cultivar may be expected.
In Belgium, material is being selected which is especially suited to mechanical sowing and harvesting.
Lange Jan, Hoffman 83 and Flandria were the ones which contributed the best product qualities among the
cultivars tested.
In Poland, work is being done on the development of cultivars suited to industrial processing (both canning
and freezing); some cultivars display a good behaviour in this respect.
Insofar as these improvement objectives are achieved. scorzonera may be expected to begin acquiring
greater economic importance. It should not be forgotten that it is a vegetable with a very delicate flavour; its
glucide composition is rich in inulin, very unlike other tubers and roots rich in carbohydrates, for instance
the potato which has a high starch content. This property may be the reason for the increase in demand and
price.
Spotted Golden Thistle

(Scolymus maculatus)
Botanical name: Scolymus maculatus L.
Family: Asteraceae = Compositae
Common names. English: spotted golden thistle; Spanish: tagarnina, diente de porro; Portuguese:
esclimo-malhado
Origin of the name and properties

The generic name derives from the Greek, skolos, meaning spines, a characteristic shared with many other
Compositae. In ancient Greece, a thistle with an edible root was known by the name skolymos. Diuretic and
antisudorific properties were attributed to these plants.
Spotted golden thistle has occasionally been cultivated, but generally the wild plant has been used, with
harvesting being limited to the leaves only in spring. At present, its cultivation is very restricted and is
tending to disappear.
Cervantes did not seem to set great store by this plant: "...1 do not have a stomach made for spotted golden
thistle, nor for pirutanos, nor for roots of the forests." However, the fleshy parts of the young leaves, like
those of Spanish oyster plant, constitute a delicious vegetable which can be used in soups, stews and
scrambled eggs or as an accompaniment for meat. Baked au gratin, they make an excellent dish.
Spotted golden thistle is an annual, glabrescent plant with latex. The stems are 20 to 130 cm long, broadly
wing-shaped, irregularly dentate and spiny. The leaves, bracts and wings of the stem have a white and
continuous cartilaginous edge. The basal leaves are oblong-lanceolate, smooth and pinnatifid, with few
spines. The pinnatifid caulinar leaves are sinuate, more or less oval and spiny. The bracts are lanceolate,
involucral and are more than five in number. The capitula are golden yellow, solitary or in clusters of two to
four and flower from May to June. The achenes are of 3 to 4 mm and without a pappus. The chromosome
number is 2n = 2x = 20.
The plant is propagated from seed. Its behaviour is orthodox in storage and its germination capacity is
maintained for a long time. Dormancy phenomena are not very pronounced.

Spotted golden thistle is found on uncultivated land, in abandoned fields and ditches and along paths and
waysides. It prefers clayey soils and temperate climates.
It is distributed through southern Europe, Southeast Asia, North Africa and the Macronesian region. It is a
native plant of the Mediterranean region. In Spain, it grows very widely throughout the country, including
the Canary Islands.
It is occasionally cultivated in some areas of the Maghreb, southern Italy and Greece. In Spain. cultivation
has practically disappeared.
Genetic diversity
The genus Scolymus L. includes another two Mediterranean species with a use similar to that of the spotted
golden thistle, the Spanish salsify or Spanish oyster plant (S. hispanicus L.), with a wide Mediterranean
distribution, and S. grandiflorus Desf, with a more restricted distribution in the eastern Mediterranean.
These are very close species which differ in the leaf margin and wings of the stem and in the involucral
bracts. among other characters. Unlike the spotted golden thistle, these Spanish salsify oyster plants are
biennial or perennial.
A great morphological variability is observed, but no collections of material are known.
The spotted golden thistle is a very hardy plant which prefers clayey soils, although it grows spontaneously
in a wide variety of environments. It tolerates cold and drought.
The method of cultivation is similar to that of Spanish salsify, although the latter thrives better on looser
soils. Sowing is direct into the soil ready for cultivation, in late winter, with furrows 30 cm apart. After
thinning, the plants are spaced 30 cm apart. It is preferable to apply organic fertilizer beforehand. The usual
cultivation practices are very simple, being limited to removing weeds.
With hot temperatures, the plant grows very rapidly, with the basal rosette forming quickly, at which time
the leaves have to be harvested.

Spotted golden thistles, like Spanish salsify or oyster plants, are practically unknown vegetables on the
market. However, they are appreciated in many Spanish regions on account of their very pleasant flavour.
As in the case of so many other crops, its revival will have to be accompanied by a marketing system which
creates demand. This means publicity campaigns, utilization standards, recipes for traditional dishes, etc., as
well as a product of sufficient quality being available on the markets. The fleshy leaf parts would have to be
offered peeled and clean and suitably packaged.
From the point of view of improvement, one of the most serious problems of the spotted golden thistle is the
ease with which it goes into flower, encouraged by long-day spring conditions and high temperatures.
Selection for resistance to this process would increase the cultivation period and make it possible to improve
yields of the basal rosette. The plant's general spininess is another problem.
Undoubtedly, the most urgent task is to carry out collecting expeditions in the Mediterranean basin,
including the Maghreb, and to characterize the material collected as a starting point for improvement. At the
present time it is already very difficult to find traditional cultigens.
This problem is not limited to the spotted golden thistle and Spanish salsify, or even to the genus Scolymus,
but affects many other Compositae. For example, the tribe Carduaceae contains 80 genera with over 2650
species, 227 of which are found in Spain and 150 of which are endemic in the country. Many of these plants
have agricultural value and have occasionally been cultivated. In the majority of cases, cultivation is on the
decline, even though it is being maintained. The recovery of these genetic resources, the characterization of
the materials and the initiation of improvement programmes could contribute towards diversification, both
of production and supply, thus helping to make Spanish agriculture more competitive.
Spanish Salsify
(Scolymus hispanicus)
Botanical name: Scolymus hispanicus L.
Family: Asteraceae = Compositae
Common names. English: Spanish salsify, Spanish oyster plant, common golden thistle; Spanish: cardillo,
cardillo de comer, cardillo de olla, cardillo bravo, cardo lechar, cardn lechar, cardn lechal, lechocino,
cardo zafranero; Catalan: cardet, cardelina; Basque: kardaberaiakca; Portuguese: cardo de ouro, cangarinha
Properties and uses

The Spanish salsify plant has been recognized as having antisudorific and diuretic properties. The Greeks
knew it and it is mentioned by Theophrastus. Pliny makes reference to it and considers it an antiperspirant.
However, it is barely mentioned by Andalusian agronomists. The translator of an anonymous Hispano-Arab
document of the eleventh and twelfth century interprets that silyan and adaliq, spiny plants which people
collect among wild vegetables, are indeed Spanish salsify, Scolymus hispanicus.
Although it has been cultivated occasionally, at present it is clearly in recession. Most of the Spanish salsify
that is eaten comes simply from collecting the wild plant.
Several parts of the plant have a fairly delicate flavour. The young basal leaves are eaten as a vegetable in
salads, boiled, in soups, stews, omelettes, etc. The most pleasant part of the leaf is the central rib, a white
fleshy part which is obtained by peeling the leaf, with a scraping movement with one hand from the base to
the apex, while the other hand holds the base. The young stems are used in a similar way. Font Quer (1990)
mentioned that this plant is appreciated in almost all of Spain's provinces and "...is used widely in stew
during the spring". In the sixteenth century in Salamanca, the washed young plants used to be eaten with
their root, either raw or in stews with meat. In soup, its roots are prepared with milk, butter and flour.
Spanish salsify is a biennial or perennial plant, which is erect, contains latex and is very spiny. The stems
are between 5 and 250 cm long, branched at the top, with discontinuous spiny, dentate wings. The basal
leaves are oblong-lanceolate, smooth, pinnatisect, with few spines, and a long petiole. The caulinar leaves
are rigid, coriaceous and spiny. The capitula have one to three golden-yellow, enveloping leaves; they are
about 3 cm long, in a lateral or terminal arrangement and surrounded by an involucre of spiny bracts. The
achenes are 2 to 3 mm with a pappus that has a short corona. It flowers from May to July. The plant is
propagated from seed, which has a very good germination capacity for several years and does not exhibit
any marked dormancy phenomena. It is a diploid plant: 2n = 2x = 20.

Spanish salsify is found on waste ground and uncultivated land, among rubble, in ditches and along paths; it
is most frequently found in sandy places in temperate zones.
Distributed through southern Europe and North Africa, it extends to northwestern France. Vavilov (1951)
pinpoints its origin as the Mediterranean region. In Spain, it grows wild in most of the country but shuns
high mountains; it is less common in the north. It is also found in the Canary Islands.
It is occasionally cultivated in Mediterranean countries such as Spain, Greece and the Maghreb; it is
practically unknown in the United States.
Genetic diversity
There is considerable variability in the morphological characteristics of Spanish salsify such as hainness,
leaf morphology and involucral bracts, receptacular scales, spininess, etc.
No definite cultivars exist; it is still possible to obtain a few cultigens, although there is a serious risk of
losing these materials.
There has been no significant activity in collecting or conserving genetic resources of this species.
Spanish salsify is a very hardy plant, is resistant to cold and thrives on all kinds of soil, although it prefers
light-textured soils that are rich in organic matter. Its cultivation requires very little care.
Sowing is direct and is carried out in late winter or in spring. A light, well-drained, manured soil should be
used. It can be sown in furrows, 30 cm apart with a distance of 30 cm between plants after thinning.
The young white shoots can be pulled up when they reach 20 cm or so in height. The fleshy parts of the
leaves need the basal rosette to be well formed. The roots are usually harvested around the end of October or
during the winter. If the plant is left until the following year, it goes into flower and develops a sturdy stem,
while the basal leaves lose their quality because of toughening. Therefore, although the plant can be kept for
several years, it should be cultivated as an annual.
There are no serious phytopathological problems.

The considerably spiny nature of the Spanish salsify plant, and especially of the caulinar leaves which have
big, tough spines, is a serious drawback to its handling and deters attempts to cultivate it. The breeding of
less spiny forms would facilitate the plant's handling.
As far as the most widely used portion is concernedi.e. the fleshy part of the leavesforms will need to
be bred that have thick, tender and juicy ribs. Wide collections of material must be made, especially of the
old cultigens which can still be recovered, so as to characterize and select them. The areas of greatest
interest are the Maghreb, southern Greece and non-horticultural Spanish regions.
If the intention is to use the roots, harvesting should be carried out until the end of the winter. Resistance to
flowering will enable root yield to be improved by encouraging rapid root growth at the time of hot weather.
Bibliography
Adachi, T. & Osei-Kofi, F. 1984. Intraspecific and intergeneric fusion of protoplasts among some
species of Nicotiana and Portulac. Bull. Fac. Agric. Miyazaki Univ., 31(1): 11-19.
Alonso de Herrera, G. 1513, ed. 1981. Agricultura general. E. Terrn, ed. Madrid, Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Bettencourt, E. & Perret, P.M. 1986. Directory of European institutions holding crop genetic
resources collections, 3rd ed. Rome, UNDP/ TBPGR.
Boutelou, C. & Boutelou, E. 1801. Tratado de la huerta. Madrid, Imprenta Villalpando.
Cobo, B. 1662, ed. 1953. Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Madrid, Editorial Atlas.
Columela, L.J.M. 1824. Los doce libros de agricultura (AD 42). Madrid, Imprenta Miguel de Burgos.
Columela, L.J.M. 1988. De los trabajos de campo (siglo 1). A. Holgado Redondo, ed. Madrid, Siglo
XXI de Espaa Editores, S.A/Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Cotrina, F.1989. Cultivo de la borraja. Informe del SEA de la Diputacin General de Aragon.
(unpubl.)
Crecini, F. 1952. Piante erbacee di grande coltura. 3rd ed. Rome, Ramo Editoriale degli Agricoltori.
Dayal, N. 1987. Towards synthesis of x Raphanoeruca. Cruciferae Newsl., 12: 7.
de Candolle, A. 1883. Origine des plantes cultives. 10th ed. Paris. Baillire.
Daz de la Guardia, C. & Blanca, G. 1987. Karyology of the Scorzonera (Compositae) species from
the Iberian Peninsula. Plant systematic and evolution. 156(1-2): 29-42.
Fahleson, J., Rahlen, L. & Glimelius, K.1988. Analysis of plants regenerated from protoplast fusions
between Brassica napus and Eruca sativa. Theor. Appl. Genet., 76(4): 507512.
FAO. 1983. Development of erucic acid and glucosinolate-free crucifers in Pakistan. In J.C. Holmes
& W.M. Tahir, eds. More food from better technology. Rome.
Faulkner, G.J. & Jackson, J.C. 1984. Experimental seed production. Avonresister parsnip. Annu. Rep.
Natl. Vegetable Res. Sta. Wellesbourne, 1983: 60-61.
Fernndez de Gorostiza, M. 1991. Control y certificacin de semillas de plantas hortcolas. In F. Nuez
& L. Rallo, eds. La horticultura espaola en la Comunidad Europea. Reus, Spain, SECH eds de
Horticultura.
Font Quer, P. 1990. Plantas medicinales, 12th ed. Barcelona, Spain Editorial Labor, S.A.
Glvez, C. & Hernndez Bermejo, J.E. 1986. Fundamentos pare la domesticacin de especies
silvestres ibricas de carduceas con inters potencial agrcola. Actas del II Congreso Nacional de la
SECH, 2: 1173-1182.
Genders, R. 1988. Plantas silvestres comestibles. Barcelona, Spain, Editorial Blume.
Gil, J. & Varela, C.1984. Carta de particulares a Coln y relaciones coetneas. Madrid. Alianza
Editorial.
Girenko, M.M. 1980. Collection of minor species of vegetable crops as breeding material. Byulleten'
Vsesoyuznogo Ordena Lenina i Ordena Druzhby Narodov Institute Rastenievodstva Imeni N.I.
Vavilova, 101: 14-18. (Plant Breeding Abstr., 1982: 7104)
Government of Spain. 1987. Anuario de Estadstica Agraria. Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food.
Gupta, A.K. & Dubey, M.M. 1988. Field reaction of taramira germplasm to Fusarium wilt. Indian .J.
Mycol. Plant Pathol., 17(1): 74.
Hammer, K. & Sabir, A.A. 1987. Collecting in Iraq. Plant Genet. Resour. Newsl., 70:44.
Herrera, A. 1539, ed. 1968. Agricultura general. 2nd ed. Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food.
Ibn al-Awwam. 1988. Libro de agricultura (siglo XII). Translated and annotated by J.A. Banqueri, 2
vols. Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Ibn al-Baytar. 1991. Trait des simples (siglo XIII). Translation by L. Leclerc, 3 vols. Paris, Institut de
Monde Arabe.
Ibn Bassal. 1955. Libro de agricultura (siglo XI). Edited, translated and annotated by J.M. Millas
Vallicrosa & M. Aziman. Ttuouan, Morocco, Instituto Muley El-Hasan.
Ibn Luyun. 1988. Tratado de agricultura (siglo XIV). Translated and annotated by J. Eguaras Ibez.
Granada, Spain, Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife.
Isidoro de Sevilla. 1982. Etimologas (siglo VI). Latin text, Spanish translation and notes by J. Oroz
Reta & M. Marcos Caspuero, 2 vols. Madrid, BAC.
Jackson, W.M., ed. Diccionario enciclopdico hispano-americano, 28 vols. Boston-London,
Simmonds.
Kumar, P.R. & Kumar, P. 1989. Genetic improvement of rapeseed-mustard, achievements, critical
gaps and future priorities. J. Oilseeds Res., 6(2): 211-219.
Kumar, D. & Yadav, I.S. 1986. Genetics of yield and its components in taramira. Indian J. Agric.
Sci., 56(3): 167-170.
Laumonnier, R.1963. Cultures marachres II. 2nd ed. Paris, Baillire.
Lpez & Lpez, A. 1990. Kitab fi tartib Awqat al Girasa Wa-L-Magrusat. Un tratado agrcola
andalus annimo. Granada, Spain, CSIC.
Maroto, V. 1983. Horticultura herbcea especial. Madrid, Pub. Mundi Prensa.
Mathon, C. Ch. 1986. Potagres autrefois rpandues et aujourd'hui disparues. Suggestions pour une
typologie. In Bureau des ressources gntiques. La diversit des plantes legumires (Angers, 17-19
October 1985). Paris, Lavoisier.
Matsuzawa, Y. & Sarashima, M. 1986. Intergenetic hybridization of Eruca, Brassica and Raphanus.
Cruciferae Newsl., 11: 17.
Nikitina, A.Y. 1980. Promising cress varieties for the fagestan ASSR. Byulleten' Vsesoyuznogo
Ordena Lenina i Ordena Druzhby Narodov Institute Rastenievodstva Imeni N.I. Vavilova, 101: 71-75.
(Plant Breeding Abstr., 1982: 7107)
Oguro, H., Hinata, K., Samejina, M., Sugiyama, T. & Tsunoda, S. 1988. Photosynthetic
characteristics of the reciprocal interspecific hybrids and their progenies between Atriplex
triangularis (C3) and A. rosea (C4). Japanese J. Breeding, 38(1): 53-64.
Plucinska, M. 1981. Investigation of black salsify varieties with regard to yield, quality and suitability
for canning and freezing. Biuletyn Warzywniczy, 25: 311-335. (Plant Breeding Abstr., 4009)
Prabhakar, M. & Ramayya, N. 1988. Chemotaxonomy of the genus Portulaca L. protein and
non-protein free amino acids of leaf. Indian J. Bot., 11(1): 51-58.
Quer, J. 1762-1764. Flora espaola o historia de las plantas que se cran en Espaa, 4 vols. Madrid,
Ibarra.
Quinn, J., Simon, J.E. & Janick, J. 1989. Histology of zygotic and somatic embryogenesis in borage.
J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 114(3): 516-520.
Rivera Nez, D. & Obn de Castro, C. 1991. La gua de las plantas tiles y venenosas de la
Pennsula Ibrica y Baleares. Madrid, INCAFO.
Rohilla, H.R., Singh, H., Kalra, V.K. & Kharub, S.S. 1987. Losses caused by mustard aphid, Lipaphis
erysimi (Kalt.), in different Brassica genotipes. In 7th Intl Rapeseed Congr., Poznn.
Seehuber, R. & Dambroth, M. 1984. Die Potentiale zur Erzeugung von Industrie Grundstoffen aus
heimischen lpflanzen und die Perspektiven fr ihre Nutzbarmachung. Landbauforschung
Volkenrode, 34(3).
Sikdar, S.R., Chatterjee, G., Das, S. & Sen, S.K. 1990. "Erussica" the intergeneric fertile somatic
hybrid developed through protoplast fusion between Eruca sativa Lam. and Brassica juncea (L.)
Czern. Theoret. Appl. Genet., 79(4): 561-567.
Simmonds, N.W., ed. 1976. Evolution of crop plants. London-New York, Longman.
Sodani, S.N., Sastry, E.V.D. & Nehra, M.R. 1990. Divergence analysis in taramira (Eruca sativa
Mill.) Indian J. Genet. Plant Breeding, 50(1): 9-12.
Tindall, H.D. & Willams, J.T., eds. 1977. Tropical vegetables and their genetic resources. Rome,
IBPGR.
Toll, J. & van Sloten, D.H. 1982. Directory of germplasm collections. 4. Vegetables. Rome, IBPGR.
Tutin, T.G., ed. 1967. The Flora Europaea Organization. Vol. II. London, Linnaean Society of
London.
Valds, B., Talavera, S. & Fernndez-Galiano, E., eds. 1987. Flora vascular de Andaluca occidental.
Barcelona, Spain, Ketres Editora.
Vavilov, N.I. 1951. The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants. New York,
Ronald Press.
Verma, S.C.1984. Genic male sterility in Eruca sativa Cruciferae, plant cell incompatibility. Newsl.,
19: 74-78.
Volodars'ka, A.T. 1986. Breeding evaluation of a salad cress collection. Ovochivnitsvoi
Bashtannitovo, 31: 43-45. (Plant Breeding Abstr., 1987, 10277)
Yadav, I.S. & Yadava, T.P. 1987. Identification of parents for hybridization through combining
ability analysis in taramira under rainfed conditions. J. Oilseed Res., 4(1): 82-88.
Yamagishi, H., Yui, S. & Yoshikawa, H. 1986. Genetic resources of cruciferous crops collected in
Nepal by IBPGR. Cruciferae Newsl., 11: 7.
Zeven, A.C. & Zhukovsky, P.M. 1975. Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centers of diversity.
Wageningen, the Netherlands, Pudoc.
last update Tuesday, June 16, 1998 by aw

Medicago sativa and other Medicago species
Medicago sativa L., &AMP; other

Medicago species
Fabaceae
Alfalfa, Bur Clover, Lucerne, Medic, Sativa
New Uses for Alfalfa and Other "Old" Forage Legumes Joe H. Bouton
Alfalfa From: J.R. Magness et al., 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Bur-Clovers - Medicago polymorpha and M. arabica. From: J.R. Magness et al., 1971. Food and
Feed Crops of the United States.
See: Annual Medics In: Winter Survival of Austrian Winter Pea and Annual Medic on the Western
High Plains. Krall, J., R.W. Groose, and J. Sobels. 1996.
Annual Medics: An Annual Forage Legume for Indiana. (Article from the New Crops News, 1993)
Special Purpose Forage Legumes Melvin D. Rumbaugh
Alfalfa Stems: Potential Biofuel for WoodstovesA. Gray, C. Anderson, E. Koppelman, B.
Bjornsen, K. Frank, and M. Siedell
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Medicago_species_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:15 PM]
Prosopis pallida
Prosopis pallida H.B.K.

Syn.: Prosopis limensis Benth.
Mimosaceae
Kiawe (Hawaii), Algarroba
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Very valuable for ornament, shelter in arid conditions, and for timber, fuel, and forage (fruits).
Highly esteemed by foresters in Hawaii. Its cultivation might be encouraged in other warm and dry
countries (Burkart, 1976). Leaves and pods, fed to cattle, donkeys, and other livestock, are eaten
by wildlife. Pods sweeter than those of most other Prosopis species. In its native habitat they are
made into a sweet syrup used to prepare various drinks. A potentially important species for
plantations in hot, dry regions, especially where salinity makes the cultivation of other species
difficult (NAS, 1980a).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_pallida.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:16 PM]
Prosopis pallida
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
No data available.
Description
Tree (or shrub on sterile soils) 820 m high, trunk to 60 cm in diameter, unarmed or spiny, with
short axillary, uninodal, geminate, divergent spines less than 4 cm long. Leaves medium to small
in size, pallid grayish-green when dry, (1)24 jugate, pubescent, ciliolate to subglabrous; petiole
short, with the rachis 0.84.5 cm long, pubescent; pinnae 1.56 cm long, with a sessile, cuplike
gland at their junction; leaflets green or gray when dry, 6 to 15 pairs per pinna, approximate
without touching or a little distant, pubescent or at least ciliolate, oblong-elliptic to ovate, obtuse
or mucronate, firm, pinnatinerved below, 2.58.3 mm long x 1.44 mm broad. Racemes spiciform,
much (2 to 3 times) longer than the leaves; rachis and the short peduncle pubescent, together 815
cm long; florets dense (200 to 250 per raceme), short-pedicelled, greenish-yellow; calyx ciliolate,
0.51.5 mm long; petals 2.53 mm long, free, villous within; stamens 57 mm long; ovary
stipitate, villous. Legume straight or subfalcate, very similar to that of P. juliflora (Sw.) DC., but
thicker, straw-yellow when ripe, with parallel margins, fleshy, sweet, edible, subcompressed, long
or short stipitate with rounded base, and acuminate, sometimes nearly subquadrate-rectangular in
transection, (6-)1025 cm long 1.5 cm broad 59 mm thick; endocarp segments to 30, broader than
long; seeds oblong, brown, 6.5 mm long (Burkart, 1976).
Germplasm
Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, kiawe, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate drought, lava, salt, and sand. Shallow-rooted, the species is subject to windthrow. Said to
hybridize with P. juliflora in Ecuador. The tree may become an invader, forming annoying thickets
(Burkart, 1976).
Distribution
Native to Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador in the drier parts and along the Pacific coast. It has been
naturalized in Puerto Rico and the Hawaiian Islands, and perhaps elsewhere (Brazil); introduced
for cultivation in India and Australia (NAS, 1980a; Burkart, 1976).
Prosopis pallida
Ecology
Probably ranging from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist Forest Life
Zones, this species is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 2 to 13 dm and annual
temperatures of 18 to 26C. Ranges in soil adaptation from old lava flows to coastal sands.
Cultivation
Seed sown in new locations may require rhizobial inoculation. Can be irrigated with water half as
salty as sea water. According to Felker et al (1981), P. pallida, P. articulata, and P. tamarugo
grew well on an N-free medium equivalent to 1/2 seawater and grew slightly in full seawater.
Harvesting
No data available.

In the 1940's, nearly 181 MT honey were produced annually from the kiawe, once appraised as
"the most valuable of all the introduced trees in the Hawaiian Islands. Prior to 1948, ca 500,000
bags of pods were collected annually as fodder in Hawaii (Neal, 1948).
Energy
Largely used for charcoal, the wood has a high calorific value.
Biotic Factors
Apparently attractive to termites and wood boring beetles like Clytus cornis. Psyllids feed on the
shoots and leaf tips of this species, apparently more than others. Felker et al (1981) review the pest
infestations of their Prosopis plantings with suggestions for their control.
References
Burkart, A. 1976. A monograph of the genus Prosopis (Leguminosae subfam.

Mimosoideae). J. Arn. Arb. 57(3/4):219249; 450525.
Felker, P., Cannell, G.H., Clark, P.R., Osborn, J.F., and Nash, P. 1981. Screening Prosopis
(mesquite) species for biofuel production on semiarid lands. Final Report to US DOE.
NTIS. Springfield, VA.
Prosopis pallida
Neal, M.C. 1948. In gardens of Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publ. 40.
Honolulu.
Last update Thursday, January 8, 1998 by aw
Prosopis alba
Prosopis alba Grisebach

Mimosaceae
Algarrobo Blanco, Ibope, Igope, Tacu
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
All information, especially early information, on Prosopis spp. is only tentatively assigned to one
or the other species of Prosopis. Taxonomic identities were extremely confused until Burkart's
monograph. Much of the early chemical, ecological, and ethnobotanical data may be masquerading
under the wrong name. Burkart (1943) describes several beverages made from the fruits, including
a coffee substitute made from toasted pods. A very important tree in arid lands, similar in value to
Prosopis chilensis, P. nigra, or P. pallida. In northeastern Argentina, native people frequently call
it "el arbol", the tree, because of its usefulness and abundance. It is cultivated to a limited extent.
In the Chaco it furnishes timber of high value for construction, doors, premanufactured houses,
etc. Trees with straight trunks 8 to 10 m occur, but these are becoming extremely rare, from being
cut in preference to the other shorter ones. Thus a negative, artificial selection is taking place,
which should be counteracted by genetic up-building of the best lines in experimental plots
(Burkart, 1976). According to NAS (1980a) this valuable food tree is also used for fodder,
roadside planting, timber, and windbreaks. Streets of Buenos Aires are lined with these trees in the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_alba.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:28:17 PM]
Prosopis alba
belief that they subdue vehicular noises (Burkart, 1943). The fruit is milled into a baking flour for
human consumption. Though difficult to work, the wood is used for flooring, paving blocks, shoe
lasts, and wine casks. Sawdust, like the fruits is used for tanning.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent, lithontriptic, and tonic, the white algarrobo is a folk remedy for
ophthalmia.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the pericarp only (of P. alba and P. velutina) is reported to contain 4 g H2O, 10 g
protein, 40 g sugar, and 19 g fiber. "Patay" is the sweet floury paste of the pods, ground up and
dried, serving as the basis for many popular Argentine dishes. Patay contains 9.6% water, 6.7%
ash, 43.9% sugar, 10.4% starch, 5.9% cellulose (we need it), 4.3% protein, 1.2% fats, and 3.5%
pentosans. While high in calories, the patay is deficient in certain proteins, vitamin A, C, and D
(Burkart, 1943). Like P. chilensis, this species contains apigenin 8-glucoside, apigenin
6-glucoside, quercitin 3-glucoside, quercitin 3-rhamnoside, quercitin 3-rutinoside, and traces of
myricetin 3-rhamnoside, luteolin, kaempferol-3-OMe quercetin, and quercitin 3-OMe (Simpson,
1977). Pipecolic and 4-hydroxy pipecolic acid also occur in both, but varying concentrations of
pipecolic acid and proline are interpreted as reflecting a plastic response to changing
environmental conditions. The consistent patterns of flavonoid distributions in several species
groups, on the other hand, apparently reflects genetic fixation independent of known
environmental factors (Simpson, 1977). Pods contain ca 711% protein, 2528% sugar (Simpson,
l977; Burkart, 1943).
Description
Tree 515 m tall, in age the short trunk possibly reaching 1 m in diameter; treetop rounded;
branchlets drooping; spines scarce and small, only on strong shoots, 24 cm long, geminate.
Leaves large, uni- to trijugate, glabrous; petiole (including the rachis) 0.58 cm long; pinnae 614
cm long, with 25 to 50 pairs of leaflets, these linear, acute or subacute, in some forms nearly
obtuse, 0.51.7 cm long x 12 mm broad, scarcely nerved below, approximate, 1.56 mm between
pairs. Racemes spikelike as in similar species, 711 cm long; florets greenish-white to yellowish,
small; calyx 1 mm long, puberulous; corolla 33.2 mm; stamens 4.5 mm; pistil 5 mm long.
Legume falcate to ring-shaped (ring ca 7 cm in diameter), linear, compresses with parallel
margins, straw-yellow, stipitate and acuminate, 1225 cm long x 1120 mm broad x 45 mm
thick, with 12 to 30 subquadrate endocarp segments broader than long, ca 0.6 x 1 cm (Burkart,
1976).
Prosopis alba
Germplasm
Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, white algarrobo, or cvs thereof, is reported
to tolerate drought, salt, and sand, but it will withstand only a few hours of mild frost, prolonged
cold (-6C) killing most seedlings. Said to hybridize with P. flexuosa, P. nigra, and P. ruscifolia.
In terms of chromosome number and morphology, there seem to be few genetic or chromosomal
barriers to hybridization between various species of Prosopis. Sympatry, partial overlap of
flowering time, and little specific discrimination by pollinating insects also facilitate hybridization
(2n = 28) (Simpson, 1977).
Distribution
Plains of subtropical Argentina to Uruguay, Parguay, southern Brazil to Peru (Burkart, 1976).
Ecology
Our computer entries for Prosopis spp. are unreliable partly due to past taxonomic confusion. I
estimate that the species ranges from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist
Forest Life Zones. It will probably tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 20 dm, annual temperature
of 18 to 28C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Felker et al. (1981) cite studies suggesting that the annual
minimum temperature isotherm of minus 20.5C defines the northern limit for Prosopis
distribution generically.
Cultivation
Tree can be seeded directly but is best sown in a nursery and outplanted when 23 months old. For
quick germination (34 days), high temperatures (night 26C; day 32C) are best. Running the
pods through a coarse sausage grinder both helps to separate and scarify the seed. Felker et al.
(1981) found that a coffee mill produced fewer broken seed than the other devices they tested.
Felker et al (1981) report water requirements of 478.3 cm /g DM, making this one of the more
water efficient species. Felker et al. (1981) report the first successful rootings of mesquite cuttings.
Seed need to be inoculated with mesquite rhizobia. Competes well with grasses and shrubs.
Harvesting
This species, like P. nigra, has good coppicing qualities. Felker et al (1981) project costs of $23.36
per dry ton (on the stump from tissue cultured seedlings) for the first harvest and only $5.00 per
dry ton for subsequent coppice regrowth harvests. Firewood harvested as needed.
Prosopis alba

The three Prosopis accessions with greatest potential for woody biomass production in semi-arid
southwestern US are P. alba, P. chilensis, and P. articulata. P. alba (#0166) had highest biomass
production of the three selections, had good coppicing characteristics, and low psyllid insect
damage. It has been successfully rooted from cuttings. Thorn free selections have been observed.
One tree survives where a 5 mm salt layer covers the ground and a mature tree survived a -9C
(16F) frost. It may prove more frost hardy than either P. articulata (#0016) or P. chilensis
(#0009). Felker et al (1981) feel that progeny of Prosopis alba accessions used for ornamentals are
most promising for woody biomass production in arid lands despite impressive biomass
production by Leucaena and Parkinsonia. They report yields of 50 MT DM/ha in 3 years or nearly
17 MT/ha/yr, a yield sufficiently high to make effective use of harvesting and transportation
equipment. Felker et al. (1981) give detailed economic projections in their table, Projected Costs
for Mesquite Pod Production. Perhaps even more important, they talk about total use of the pods,
fractionating for mesquite pod gum, protein, and sugar to realize their full economic potential.
Galactomannan gums, estimated to constitute 25% of the seeds of some Prosopis species have
many cosmetic, chemurgic, and food uses. The gum is fairly similar to carob gum, which
commanded $0.621.11/kg in 1970. Way back in the 40's, the mildly intoxicant beverage, aloja,
was made from fruits sold in the market for 30 Argentine centavos/kg. The fermented aloja was
further distilled into aguardiente or ethanol. To produce a liter of absolute alcohol requires 1.7 kg
fermentable sugar, which constitute about 3/4 of the fruit's weight (Burkart, 1943).
Energy
Burkart (1943) suggests that a ton of fruit could yield 27.2 liters of absolute alcohol. Felker et al
(1981) state that the land area required for a small commercial ethanol production plant (1,000
barrels/day) could be contained in a circle with radius of 10.9 km assuming conversion rate of 2.6
gallons ethanol per 55 pounds pods (much higher than Burkart's assumptions) and yields of 4,000
lb/acre. Ca 12% of the land would provide firewood for distillation. Ten year old Argentinean
plantations spaced at 2 x 2 m produced 7 m /ha/yr (NAS, 1980a). Felker et al (1981) report yields
from 9.819.2 MT/ha/yr in the Imperial Valley.
Biotic Factors
Bruchids associated with this species include Rhipibruchus, Pectinibruchus, and Scutobruchus.
Spraying cuttings with dithane suspensions has markedly reduced problems with the fungus
Alternaria (Felker et al., 1981). Felker et al. (1981) review the pest infestations of their Prosopis
plantings with suggestions for their control.
Prosopis alba
References
Burkart, A. 1943. Las leguminosas Argentinas. Acme Agency. Buenos Aires.
Simpson, B.B. (ed.). 1977. Mesquite, its biology in two desert scrub ecosystems. Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. Stroudsburg, PA.
Last update Jaunary 8, 1998 by aw
Sacaton
Alkali sacaton
Gramineae, Poaceae Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr.
Sacaton
S. wrightii Munro ex. Scribn.
Alkali sacaton is a native bunchgrass found from South Dakota west to Washington and south into
Mexico. It is densely-tufted and long-lived, with erect, solid stems about 3 feet tall. Basal foliage
is abundant, the leaves being up to 18 inches long and 0.25 inch wide. Roots are fibrous and
deep-penetrating. The grass will grow on moist, alkaline soils, hence the name, but also occurs on
other soil types. It is palatable while succulent but becomes tough and unpalatable when ripe. Hay
is of fair quality if cut early. Propagation is by seed, which is usually harvested from native stands.
Sacaton is a more robust grower than alkali sacaton and is more southern in its range, being native
from West Texas to Arizona and south into Mexico. The stems reach to 6 feet and are firm and
bard. It is less drought resistant than alkali sacaton. It furnishes useful grazing both while succulent
and in winter, and is useful for hay if cut while young. It is rarely planted but is a useful grass in its
native range.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sacaton.html [5/16/2004 1:28:17 PM]
Allium ameloprasum
Index|Search|Home
Allium ameloprasum L.
Leeks and Great-headed Garlic
Amaryllidaceae
Onions and its Relativesproduction links
Elephant garlic
Leek
Outside Links
Allium spp.FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm No.
18Link to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_ameloprasum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:18 PM]
Allium cepa
Allium cepa L.
Amaryllidaceae
Bermuda onion, California Italian Red onion,
Common onion, Green onion, Italian red onion, Maui onion,
Onion, Pearl onion, Purple onion, Red onion, Salad onion,
Scallion, Spanish onion, Spring onion, Sweet onion, Vidalia
onion, Walla Walla onion, White onion, Wild onion, Yellow onion
Simon, J.E., A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker. 1984. Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography. 19711980.
Midwest Vegetable Production Guide for Commercial Growers 1998
Onions and its Relatives production links
Advances in New AlliumsMichael J. Havey
Onions and Their RelativesHO-67 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
OnionAllium cepa L. (Common onion group)
Onion [cv. Beltsville Bunching]Allium cepa L. x Allium fistulosum L., 4N
Potato OnionAllium cepa L. (Aggregatum group)
ShallotAllium cepa L. (Aggregatum group)
Outside Links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_cepa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:18 PM]
Rakkyo
Rakkyo
Ch'iao t'ou
Amaryllidaceae Allium chinense G. Don
Rakkyo is an onion relative. It is an important vegetable in the Orient and in this country is grown
and used mainly by Orientals. The plants do not produce seeds and are propagated by bulb
division. In mild climates, bulbs are planted in late summer, and the crop is harvested in
midsummer of the following year. Several small bulbs are obtained from each bulb planted.
Rakkyo bulbs are mainly pickled, some are canned. Also, they are used as a cooked vegetable. The
leaves have hollow blades. Culture and exposure of plant parts is similar to that of bulb-set onions.
Season, planting to harvest: About 10 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Grown to limited extent by Oriental gardeners.
Use: Mainly pickles, some canned and some used as fresh cooked vegetable.
Part of plant consumed: Bulbs.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Rakkyo.html [5/16/2004 1:28:19 PM]
Onion, Welsh
Onion, Welsh
Japanese bunching, Negi, Cibal, Spring onion, Nebuka, Cebollin
Amaryllidaceae Allium fistulosum L.
Source: Magness et al. 1971 This is the principal onion of Japan and China,
but of limited importance in the U.S. Leaves are rigid and tubular and inflated or swollen in
appearance. The bulbs become only slightly enlarged. Plants multiply by tillers from a mother
plant, so clusters of plants result from planting a single one. They may also be grown from seed. In
the Orient the leaves and leaf bases are often blanched by covering with soil. There, and in the
U.S., they are also marketed as green onions. The thick, swollen leaves and leaf bases are
harvested.
Season, seed to first harvest: 4 to 5 months for green onions, a year or more for blanched.
Production in U.S.: No separate data. Total green onions 12,071 acres, 1959 census.
Use: As pot herbs, flavoring in culinary cookery, salads.
Part of plant consumed: Thick leaves and leaf bases.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/WelshOnion.html [5/16/2004 1:28:19 PM]
Allium tuberosum
Allium tuberosum Rottler ex

Sprengel
A. odorum
Amaryllidaceae
Chinese chives, Chinese garlic, Chinese leeks, Flowering chives,
Garlic chives, Oriental garlic, Yellow chives
Asian Vegetables: Selected Fruit and Leafy TypesMarita Cantwell, Xunli Nie, Ru Jing Zong,
and Mas Yamaguchi
Greenhouse Production of Garlic Chives and CilantroRobert G. Anderson and Wenwei Jia
MagnessJ.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Outside Links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_tuberosum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:19 PM]
Allium sativum
Allium sativum L.
Amaryllidaceae
Garlic, American field garlic, American wild garlic,
British field garlic, British wild garlic, Elephant garlic, Field
garlic, Rocambole, Sand leek, Wild garlic
Advances in New AlliumsMichael J. Havey
Lowman, M.S. and M. Birdseye. 1946. Savory Herbs: Culture and Use. Farmer's Bulletin No.
1977. USDA, Washington, DC.
Outside Links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_sativum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:20 PM]
Allium schoenoprasum
Allium schoenoprasum L.
Amaryllidaceae
Chives, Chinese garlic, Chinese onion, Oriental
garlic
Outside Links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_schoenoprasum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:21 PM]
Allium tricoccum
Allium tricoccum Ait.

syn: Allium tricoccum var. burdickii
Amaryllidaceae
Ramps, wild leek
Cultivating Ramps: Wild Leeks of AppalachiaJeanine M. Davis and Jacqulyn Greenfield
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Allium_tricoccum.html [5/16/2004 1:28:21 PM]
Allspice
Allspice
Pimento, Jamaica pepper, Pimienta
Myrtaceae Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.
Allspice is the dried, unripe berries of a large evergreen tree, native to the Caribbean area. The
leaves are large and leathery, about 8 inches long by 2 inches wide. The fruits are about 0.33 inch
diameter, near globose, produced in clusters of a dozen or more at or near the terminals of
branches. The fruit is harvested while immature, as it is then most strongly flavored. It is a drupe,
with 1 or 2 seeds. The whole dried fruit is ground to produce the allspice powder of commerce.
Both pulp and seeds are aromatic, and contain an oil with qualities similar to clove oil.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Allspice.html [5/16/2004 1:28:22 PM]
Prunus dulcis
Index| Search| Home
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.

Webb
Rosaceae
Almond
Almond
Almond oil
Outside links:
Almondfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Almond Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Prunus_dulcis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:22 PM]
Sorghum spp.
Sorghum spp.
Poaceae, Gramineae
Broomcorn, grain sorghum, great millet, Guinea
corn, Johnson grass, Kaffir corn, Mississippi chicken corn,
shattercane, sorgo, Sudan grass, sweet sorghum
Sweet Sorghum for a Piedmont Ethanol IndustryGlen C. Rains, John S. Cundiff, and Gregory E.
Welbaum
Alternate Crops for Dryland Production Systems in Northern IdahoKenneth D. Kephart, Glen A.
Murray, and Dick L. Auld
Annual Forages: New Approaches for C-4 ForagesJeffrey F. Pedersen
Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products
Broomcorn
SorghumGrain (Milo)
SorghumSyrup
SorghumForage
Handbook of Energy Crops. James A. Duke. 1983. unpublished.
Sorghum sudanense
Sorghum halepense
Sorghum Xalmum
Sorghum bicolor
Sorghum spp.
Sorgo
Sorgrass
Chicken corn
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:22 PM]
Sorghum spp.
Sudangrass
Johnsongrass
Sorghum almum
Grain sorghum
Forage sorghum
Outside links: Sorghum from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:22 PM]
Alnus glutinosa
Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.

Betulaceae
European alder, Black alder
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The wood, elastic and soft, fairly light and easily worked, is used for cigarboxes, pumps, and
wooden carvings, shoes and slippers. The bark, used for tanning, imparts a hard red appearance to
leather. The wood is also used in making the molds for glass manufacture. The tree provides
habitat and food for wildlife, watershed protection, and is used in environmental forestry (Ag.
Handbook 450). With little ornamental value, it is recommended only for wet sites.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the leaves are decocted in folk remedies for cancer of the
breast, duodenum, esophagus, face, pylorus, pancreas, rectum, throat, tongue, and uterus. The bark
and/or roots are used for cancers and inflammatory tumors of the throat. Reported to be alterative,
astringent, detersive, diuretic, sudorific, tonic, and vermifuge, black alder is a folk remedy for
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Alnus_glutinosa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:23 PM]
Alnus glutinosa
cancer, fever, foot ailments, tumors, and worms (Duke and Wain, 1981). The bark decoction is
taken as a gargle for angina and pharyngitis, as an enema in hematachezia.
Chemistry
The bark contains up to 20% tannin, a flavone glycoside of the hyperoside type, a reddish dye,
emodin (?), alnulin (C30H50O), protoalnulin (C30H48O) phlobaphene, taraxerol, taraxerone, lupeol,
-sitosterol, glutinone (C30H48O), and citrullin. The leaves contain alnusfoliendiolone,
3--hydroxyglutin-5-en, -amyrenone, taraxerol, -sitosterol, wax, and sugars (List and
Horhammer, 19691979). Gibbs (1974) reports l-ornithine in the roots of this species, l-serine in
the genus.
Description
Shrub or small tree to 20 m, the bark initially gray-brown, smooth, lustrous, later dark gray and
rougher. Leaves rotund or broadly ovate to ellipsoid or ovate, 49 cm long, 37 cm wide, basally
rounded the petiole 12 cm long; stipules obtuse, soon deciduous. Male cones purplish brown in
autumn and winter, brown in the spring, 612 cm long, in clusters of 35. Fruits rounded, the
seeds winged. Seeds ca 700,000750,000/kg, but yielding only ca 2025,000 plantable seedlings.
Germplasm
Reported from the Eurosiberian Center of Diversity, black alder, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate frost, poor soil, and waterlogging. Hortus III lists var. barbata, denticulata, and glutinosa,
as well as several cvs 'Aurea', 'Imperialis', 'Incisa', 'Oxycanthifolial, 'Pyramidatis', 'Quercifolia',
'Rubrinervia', and 'Sorbifolia'. Wyman (1974) mentions 'Laciniata'. Alnus glutinosa serves as a
rootstock for grafting of other alder species.
Distribution
Throughout the Caucasus, Europe, Siberia, into Asia Minor, Iran, and North Africa. Naturalized
locally in eastern Canada and Northeastern U.S.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet
Forest Life Zones, black alder is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 4 to 20 dm, annual
temperature of 8 to 14C, and pH of 6 to 8. Ranging north to Wyman's Zone 3.
Alnus glutinosa
Cultivation
Seeds which have remained viable after floating for 12 months, are sown at depths of 36 mm, in
spring or fall. For blanket bogs in England, spot sowings have been recommended ca 15 seeds per
spot fertilized with ca 60 g phosphate. Seeds germinate as well under continuous darkness as with
normal day lengths. Air-dried seeds stored at 12C retained their viability for two years. Seeds
can however be sown immediately as soon as ripe.
Harvesting
Timber and/or firewood harvested as needed, the shrub apparently coppices readily. In the U.S., it
flowers from March to May, the fruits ripening in fall, natural dispersal occurring from late fall to
early spring.

A 1318-year-old stand with ca 30,000 trees ha (ca 20% Alnus glutinosa, the dominant, with
Carpinus and Crataegus et al) in an infertile gley at elevation 265 m had a basal area of 2440
m2/ha. The standing biomass was about 59.3 MT/ha wood, bark, and branches, 2.8 MT leaves, and
4.3 MT estimated roots. Leaf litterfall was ca 2.5 MT/ha/yr. A British stand dominated by A.
glutinosa (ca 1600 trees/ha, 55% Alnus, 44% Betula pendula and Acer pseudoplatanus) had a
basal area of ca 25 m2/ha, a leaf area index of 3.6, and a standing biomass of 109 MT/ha.
Energy
According to the phytomass files, annual productivity is estimated at 6 to 9 MT/ha. The tree has
yielded 11.8 MT/ha/yr on pulverized fuel ash (Dennington, et al, 1983). Kestemont (1975)
estimated annual productivity at 8.66 MT/ha, with 5.87 MT in wood, bark, and branches, 2.79 MT
in foliage. According to Cannell, (1982), Hughes (1971) estimated the aerial productivity at ca 6.7
MT/ha/yr with wood, bark, and branches accounting for 4.26 MT + 0.34 MT litter, 1.78 MT leaf
and leaf litter, 0.34 MT fruit and fruit litter. NAS (1980a) recommends the black alder for
consideration for firewood plantations in Tropical highlands where unseasonal cold might destroy
the red alder. Nitrogen-fixation by trees up to 8 years old has been put at 125 kg/ha/yr, for 20 years
at 56130 kg/ha/yr (NAS, 1979). Related red alder has been estimated to fix as much as 300 kg/ha.
Biotic Factors
Agriculture Handbook 165 lists the following diseases for Alnus glutinosa: Phymatotrichum
omnivorum (root rot), Polyporus versicolor (sapwood rot), Septoria alni (leaf spot), and
Sphaeropsis alnicola (on twigs). Like other alders, the cv 'Laciniata' is susceptible to a canker
which can kill large parts of the plant quickly (Wyman, 1974). Nematodes include Longidorus
maximus, and Pratylenchus penetrans (Golden, pers. commun. 1984).
Alnus glutinosa
References
Cannell, M.G.R. 1982. World forest biomass and primary production data. Academic Press,
New York.
Dennington, V.N., Chadwick, M.J., and Chase, D.S. 1983. Energy cropping on derelict and
waste land. J. Envir. Mgt. 16(3):241260.
Gibbs, R.D. 1974. Chemotaxonomy of flowering plants. 4 vols. McGill-Queens University
Press, London.
Hughes, M.K. 1971. Tree biocontent, net production and litterfall in a deciduous woodland.
Oikos 22:6273.
Kestemont, P. 1975. Biomasse, necromasse et productivites aeriennes ligneuses de quelques
peuplements forestiers en Belguique. Thesis. Faculty of Sciences. Free University of
Brussels as cited in Cannell, 1982.
Washington, DC.
Wyman, D. 1974. Wyman's gardening encyclopedia. MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc., New
York.
Alnus maritima
Alnus maritima Nutt.

Betulaceae
Seaside Alder
"The alder, whose fat shadow nourisheth
Each plant set neere to him long flourisheth."
William Browne, ca 1613.
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Since in its narrower sense; this species has a very limited distribution (including one transplant in
my back yard), there is little economic botany data on this species. Van Steenis has elected to
include Alnus japonica as a synonym of Alnus maritime. He notes that it has been planted for
reafforestation purposes on eroded slopes in the Philippines. Amerindians had a wide array of uses
for alder, for dyestuffs, insect repellant or insecticide, but mostly for folk medicine. Fernald,
Kinsey, and Rollins (1958) relate that "the inner bark is a possible emergency food. The young
bark and winter buds are popular nibbles with country boys, not alone for their tolerable flavor, but
particularly for the beautiful, olive-brown saliva produced." Bees use the pollen to rear their spring
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Alnus_maritima.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:23 PM]
Alnus maritima
broods. None of these uses were specific to Alnus maritime.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671970), the alders are used in folk remedies for cancers, indurations
and/or tumors, especially of the breast, epithelium, duodenum, esophagus, face, lip, pancreas,
pylorus, rectum, throat, tongue, and uterus. Reported to be astringent and depurative, closely
related Alnus serrulata is a folk remedy for bruises, burns, diarrhea, eye, hematuria, malaria,
poison ivy, scalds, sores, syphilis, and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981). Erichsen-Brown (1979)
lists many other uses of the alder; e.g. the Potawatomi Indians made a bark tea for flushing the
vagina or to shrink hemorrhoids via rectal syringe. None of these are specific to Alnus maritima,
just generic.
Chemistry
Alnus serrulata is said to contain a sedoheptulose.
Description
Shrub or small tree to 10 m tall; bark light brown to reddish-brown, occasionally mottled with
gray, with small orange-colored lenticels on younger branches. Twigs reddish-brown and glabrous
in winter; buds ovoid, acute, about 6 mm long, with some pale pubescence. Leaves oblong, ovate,
or obovate, 7.510 cm long, 3.75 cm wide, dark green above, glandular dotted below; margins
remotely serrulate; tips acuminate or rounded; bases cuneate; petioles 1218 mm long. Staminate
aments green at first, becoming dark orange-brown, 3.756.5 cm long, pistillate catkins peduncled,
3 mm long at first, green tinged with red toward tip, enlarging the following spring, becoming
broad-ovoid cones, 1.53 cm long; nutlets ovate to obovate, 34 mm long; wings narrow (Brown
and Brown, 1972).
Germplasm
Reported from the American Center of Diversity, seaside alder, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate frost, poor soil, and some salinity and waterlogging. Alnus maritima "seems to be more
affected by water stress and must be closer to a reliable source of water than Alnus serrulata to
survive" (Stibolt, 1978). 2n = 28.
Distribution
In the narrow sense, Alnus maritima occurs on the Delmarva Peninsula (four counties in Maryland,
one in Delaware), two counties near the Red River in Oklahoma. "Because of its restricted range
and susceptibility of the habitat to alteration by man's activities, Alnus maritima should be
considered as threatened" as proposed in the Report on Endangered and Threatened Plant Species
Alnus maritima
of the United States." (Stibolt, 1978). The peculiar disjunction DelmarvaOklahoma has been
postulated by Reed (pers. commun.) to reflect Indian transplant, perhaps of a medicinal species.
Perhaps they did not distinguish the species from other alders that they used.
Ecology
Probably ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Moist Forest Life Zones, seaside alder is
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.5 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 13. 5 to 18C, and
pH of 6. 1 to 8. 1. Although the Oklahoma site has the higher annual temperature, it is subject to
about the same number of freezes and thaws as the Delmarva sites. Generally restricted to damp or
wet soils in sunny areas, most often at the edges of ponds, rivers, or streams. Perhaps due to their
N-fixing ability, they can survive on N-poor soils. Mg levels ranged from 75150 ppm, P2O5 from
514, K2O from 38 to 51, NO3 from 923, Ca from 5611500, and soluble salts from 89132
ppm. Aspiras (1981) states that it flourishes only in cooler parts of the Philippines, e.g. around
Baguio at ca 15001800 m, annual precipitation ca 40 dm (164 in.) and annual temperature ca
18.5C (64.8F).
Cultivation
No data uncovered.
Harvesting
Can be harvested for fuel as needed.

Since this is proposed as a threatened or endangered species, there is little data on its productivity.
Perhaps it or its hybrids with other alder species could equal the annual productivity of other alders
now being considered for biomass or pulp production.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity of other Alnus spp. ranges
from 5 to 26 MT/ha. Citing literature yields of 58229 kg N/ha, Aspiras noted that Casuarina
equisetifolia fixes 1,742 nmoles C2H4/24 hrs/g dry weight, compared to 4,479 for Casuarina
rumphinia, 4,545 for Casuarina montana, 2,267 for Elaeagnus philippensis, 225 for Alnus
maritima, 626 for Alnus nepalensis, 7,242 for Coriaria intermedia, and only 13 for Myrica
javanica. According to Stibolt, when the nitrate concentration in the soil reaches a certain level,
root nodulation is reduced and no net increase occurs (Stibolt, 1978). "The degree of nitrogen
fixation in alder nodules usually exceeds that in legume nodules on a per weight basis." (Stibolt,
1978). Comparing Alnus serrulata, Stibolt found its nodules had higher nitrogenase activity, while
Alnus maritima
Alnus maritima nodules had higher fixation rates some of the time. Twenty-four hours after
collection, Aluns serrulata activitiy was reduced while that of Alnus maritima was retained longer
or even increased. In spite of this Stibolt concluded that, overall "A. serrulata has some advantage
in the ability to fix nitrogen.
Biotic Factors
No data uncovered.
References
Aspiras, R.B. 1981. Nitrogen fixation in nodulated non-legumes growing in the Philippines.
Canopy International 7(7):35.
Duke, J.A. 1981b. The gene revolution. Paper 1. p. 89150. In: Office of Technology
Aurora, Canada.
Stibolt, V.M. 1978, The ecology and systematics of Alnus maritima Muhl. ex Nutt.
(Betulaceae). MS Thesis. Univ. Md. (under C.R. Broome).
Van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 19551958. Flora Malesiana. P. Noordhoff Ltd.
Alnus nepalensis
Alnus nepalensis D. Don

Betulaceae
Indian Alder, Nepalese Alder
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Nitrogen-fixing firewood species, the wood of fair quality for use in unexposed situations. It is
used to a limited extent in carpentry and house construction and for tea boxes. The timber is rather
durable, easily sawed, and seasons well (sp. grav. 0.320.37). Locally cultivated by West Java
Forest Service to reforest eroded slopes under everwet climate. A fast growing species, suitable for
plantation cultivation in tropical uplands (Ramoran and Panot, 1981). The tanniniferous bark is
used to deepen the color of Rubia cordifolia.
Folk Medicine
The species is cited in the Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine (from which I borrowed the
Illustration) as a useful diuretic to reduce swelling of the leg.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Alnus_nepalensis.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:28:24 PM]
Alnus nepalensis
Chemistry
Bark reported to contain 7% tannin.
Description
Large tree 815 (to 30) m tall, to 1 m DBH with thick silver gray bark. Twigs glabrescent, ribbed,
hardly triangular. Leaves alternate, ovate to oblong, acute or short-acuminate, rounded or cuneate
at the base, 721 x 410 cm; nerves 1216 pairs, puberulous beneath (glabrescent); vein-axils
bearded; midrib and nerves sulcate and glabrous above; petiole strong, 1.52 cm long. Male
catkins to 10 cm by 35 mm, in a terminal panicle to 16 cm. Female inflorescences short, axillary,
bearing 38 oblong, catkins 1017 by 67 mm. peduncles 36 mm long. Nuts obtrapezoid,
emarginate, incl. the wing 2 mm through, crowned by the style base (van Steenis, 19551958).
Germplasm
Reported from the Indonesia-Indochina and Hindustani Center of Diversity, nepalese alder, or cvs'
thereof, is reported to tolerate clay, flooding, fog, gravel, sand, shade, slope, waterlogging, and
weeds. It is not tolerant of high winds. (2n = 28)
Distribution
Native to southeast Asia (Burmese hills, Himalayas, Subtropical China, Indochina). Introduced to
Java, India, Hawaii, and the Philippines. I saw a large tree near Kunming in Yunnan China.
Ecology
In its native habitat it ranges from 3003,000 m, in Hawaii from 3001,800 m, growing well in
areas with more than 500 mm annual precipitation. Van Steenis (19551958) suggests it as an
afforestation species on eroded slopes under everwet climatic conditions, growing well between
7001,800 m. Grows best in deep well-drained loams or loamy soils of alluvial soils, but ranges
from gravel to sand to clay. I believe it ranges from Subtropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
with annual rainfall estimated at 525 dm, annual temperature 1923C, and pH 68.
Cultivation
Seeds may be sown in nurserys for transplants or direct seeded. In Burma, seed are broadcast
during last years of shifting cultivation. It is a fast grower, even capable of outgrowing sugar
ratoon crops. Trees coppice well, but regrowth seems to be season dependent. In Hawaii, in
aseasonal situations, the trees coppice year round.
Alnus nepalensis
Harvesting
In Himachal Pradesh, India, the trees are lopped every other year for fuel (NAS, 1980a).

Diameters may increase at the rate of ca 2 cm/yr. In Hawaii, 26 year old trees were 50 cm in
diameter.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity of other Alnus species ranges
from 5 to 26 MT/ha. Although used for nitrogen fixation, slope stabilization (both of which help
the energy budget of a country), the alder is also used for firewood and might be considered for the
generation of electricity. Heat content of Alnus rubra is about 4,600 kcal/kg atid it, a temperate
species, may yield 1021 m3/ha/yr. The wood dries rapidly and burns evenly (Little, 1983).
Biotic Factors
Leaves are sometimes stripped from the tree by coleopterous larvae. Trunk occasionally attacked
by borers.
References
Ramoran, E.B. and Panot, I.A. 1981. The potentials of Alnus species. Canopy International
7(12):89.
Van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 19551958. Flora Malesiana. P. Noordhoff Ltd.
Hazel Alder
Hazel Alder
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng.
Synonym.Alnus serrulata Willd.
Other common names.Tag alder, common alder, red alder, smooth
alder, green alder, American alder, speckled alder, swamp-alder,
notch-leaved alder.
Habitat and range.Hazel alder is found in swamps and along the
marshy banks of streams from New England south to Florida and
Texas and westward to Ohio and Minnesota.
Description.The hazel alder, although it sometimes attains the
height of a tree, is more frequently a shrub from 5 to 20 feet high with
smooth, brownish-gray bark. It has somewhat leathery, oval leaves
from 2 to 4 1/2 inches long. The flowers, which appear early in the
spring before the leaves develop, are reddish green. The male flowers Figure 60.Hazel alder (Alnus
rugosa)
are borne in drooping and the female in erect catkins. The conelike
fruit usually remains on the shrub throughout the winter. The bark has a strong, rather aromatic
odor and a bitter astringent taste.
Part used.The bark.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/alder.html [5/16/2004 1:28:25 PM]
Yautia
Yautia
Yautia blanca, Yautia amarilla, Coco, Tarrier, Tanier, Eddo, Taya,
Tannia,Cuban dasheen, Malanga
Araceae Xanthosoma spp.
This is a tropical plant related to Taro, which see, extensivelycultivated in the West Indies and
other tropical countries for the edible cormand cormels. On certain varieties the young leaves and
main stems (madre) arealso used as pot herbs. The leaves are large, 1 to 2 feet long, broad-arrow
inshape, borne on long petioles radiating from the "mother" or large corm. Thetop of the corm may
be at or above ground level. In general exposure of thecorm, the Yautia is similar to turnip.
Propagation is by planting small cormelsor the cut off top of the "mother" corm with some of the
petioles stillremaining. Yautia blanca corm is white-fleshed and Yautia amarilla isyellow-fleshed.
Growing Yautias do not require as much soil moisture as doesDasheen, which see. Yautias are
sometimes referred to as Alocasia spp.
Last update Friday, June 12, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Yautia.html [5/16/2004 1:28:26 PM]
Aloe spp.
Index| Search| Home
Aloe spp.
Aloe barbadensis Mill.
Aloe vera (L.) Webb & Berth.
Liliaceae
NewCROP has the following information:
Aloe vera Response to Plastic Mulch and NitrogenLuis Rodolfo Hernndez-Cruz, Ral
Rodrguez-Garca, Diana Jasso de Rodrguez, and Jos Luis Angulo-Snchez
Ghrita kumari or Guar pathaPankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/aloe.html [5/16/2004 1:28:26 PM]
Creeping foxtail
Creeping foxtail
Gramineae Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir.
This is a cool-season, sod-forming grass from Eurasia. It resembles meadow
foxtail but has more vigorous rhizomes and broader leaves. It is used to a limited extent for hay,
pasture and erosion control on moist sites in the Northern Great Plains, Intermountain Area, and
Pacific Northwest. Forage is palatable and nutritious.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Creeping_foxtail.html [5/16/2004 1:28:27 PM]
Alopecurus praetensis
Alopecurus praetensis L.
Poaceae
Meadow foxtail
Article from:
Article from:
Last update July 3, 1996 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Alopecurus_praetensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:28 PM]
LEMON VERBENA
LEMON VERBENA
Family: Verbenaceae, Aloysia triphylla (L'Her.) Britt.
Source: Simon, J.E., A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker. 1984. Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography.
1971-1980. The Scientific Literature on Selected Herbs, and Aromatic and Medicinal Plants of the
Temperate Zone. Archon Books, 770 pp., Hamden, CT.
Lemon verbena, Aloysia triphylla (L'Her.) Britt., is an aromatic shrub native to Argentina and
Chile. Also known as herb Louisa and formerly classified as Aloysia citriodora (Cav.) Ort., Lippia
citriodora (Ort.) HBK, Verbena citriodora Cav., and Verbena triphylla L'Her., the deciduous plant
is commonly cultivated in the tropics and Europe. It is produced commercially in France and
North Reaching heights of 1 to 3 meters, the plants are characterized by fragrant, lemon-smelling,
narrow leaves and small white flowers borne in terminal panicles.
Lemon verbena prefers full sun and a light loam soil. The plant is sensitive to cold and has high
water requirements. Either seeds or vegetative cuttings are used for generating new plants.
Commercial areas are generally harvested in early summer at full bloom and in the autumn just
prior to cold, killing temperatures. Essential oil is extracted by steam distillation as soon as
possible to minimize volatilization, because yields of the oil are very low (14.1-11).
The essential oil, known as oil of verbena, contains -citral, -citral, methyl heptenone, carvone,
l-limonene, dipentene, linalool, -terpineol, borneol, nerol, geraniol, and other constituents
(14.1-11). Because of the its high price, oil of verbena is often adulterated with distillates from
other plant material. Extraction of verbena with petroleum ether and alcohol gives the concrete and
absolute of verbena (14.1-11).
The leaves and flowering tops of lemon verbena are used in teas and to flavor alcoholic beverages.
The plant is also an ingredient in some desserts, fruit salads, and jams. It is used in perfumery,
especially in making toilet water and eau de cologne. The plant is often grown as an ornamental,
but it needs to be kept indoors during winter months in northern regions.
As a medicinal plant, the leaves and flowers of lemon verbena have been used as an
antispasmodic, antipyretic, sedative, and stomachic.
Lemon verbena is generally recognized as safe for human consumption in alcoholic beverages (21
CFR section 172.510 [1982]).
[Note: References listed above in parentheses can be found in full in the original reference].
Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Index | Purdue Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Last modified 6-Dec-1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/LEMON_VERBENA.html [5/16/2004 1:28:28 PM]
Temperate Berry Crops
Finn, C. 1999. Temperate berry crops. p. 324334. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new

Chad Finn
1. MAJOR BERRY CROPS
1. Hybridberries
2. Lingonberry
3. Black Raspberry
4. Gooseberry and Red Currant
2. NEGLECTED BERRIES
1. Elderberry
2. Baby Kiwi, Hardy Kiwi, Tara, Wild Fig, Wee-kee
3. Alpine Strawberry
4. Rubus
5. Aronia, Chokeberry
6. Muscadine Grape
7. Juneberry/Saskatoon
8. Edible Honeysuckle
9. Schisandra
10. Sea Buckthorn
3. POTENTIAL NEW BERRIES
1. Vaccinium "Huckleberries"
2. Mortio
3. Bilberry
4. Bog Bilberry
5. Trailing Blackberry
6. Miscellaneous Rubus
4. POTENTIAL CROPS WITH UNMET POTENTIAL
1. Nanking Cherry/Hansen Bush Cherry

2. Cranberry Bush
3. Buffalo Berry
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
Wherever humans have lived, they have made berries a part of their diet. Most of these have never
been developed beyond local markets but some have become economically important crops. In this
paper, the berry crops have been divided into four groups based on their current international
popularity and potential future value. An overview of the status of development, current
production, and future potential for these crops is presented with an American perspective. The
discussion is limited to temperate "berry" crops that are produced on a shrub, a perennial
herbaceous plant, or a vine, which excludes many of the cherry/plum (Prunus sp., Rosaceae)
relatives; jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Rhamnaceae); Cornus sp. Cornaceae; Sorbus sp.,
Rosaceae; and many other tree fruit.
MAJOR BERRY CROPS

The most economically important and best described berry crops worldwide include strawberry
(Fragaria ananassa Duch., Rosaceae) (Galletta and Bringhurst 1990; Hancock et al. 1996);
blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L., V. angustifolium Ait., V. ashei Reade, Ericaceae) (Eck et al.
1990; Pritts et al. 1992; Galletta and Ballington 1996); cranberry (V. macrocarpon Ait., Ericaceae)
(Dana 1990; Eck 1990; Roper and Vorsa 1997); black currant (Ribes nigrum L., Grossulariaceae)
(Harmat et al. 1990; Brennan 1996); table and wine grapes (Vitis spp., Vitaceae) (Ahmedullah and
Himelrick 1990); raspberry (Rubus idaeus L., Rosaceae) (Jennings 1988; Crandall and Daubeny
1990; Pritts and Handley 1989; Daubeny 1996); and blackberry (Rubus sp., Rosaceae) (Pritts and
Handley 1989; Hall 1990; Moore and Skirvin 1990; Crandall 1995). These need no further
discussion as information is widely available on each.
Other major berry crops have large production areas worldwide but for a variety of reasons have
not reached the stature and importance of the above. These include the hybrid berries such as
'Logan' and 'Boysen' (Rubus sp., Rosaceae); black raspberry (R. occidentalis L., Rosaceae);
lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., Ericacea); gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa L.
Grossulariaceae); and red currant (Ribes rubrum L., Grossulariaceae). These will be discussed in
turn below.
Hybridberries
'Logan' is a result of cross between red raspberry (R. idaeus L.) and a blackberry (R. ursinus Cham.
& Schldl., Rosaceae derivative) (Logan 1909; Brown 1916; Logan 1955; Jennings 1980). 'Logan'
fruit are similar in color and appearance to red raspberry but the torus remains with the fruit like a
blackberry and they have a distinctive flavor. The fruit are excellent for processing and are dried,
juiced, and canned. In the late 1800s to mid 1900s, 'Logan' was planted on thousands of hectares
and accounted for millions of dollars in sales. Today approximately 40 ha remain in commercial
production in Oregon. Many factors have led to 'Logan's' decline in popularity including: the
difficulty of picking the fruit especially with a mechanical harvester, relatively low yields, and a
decline in popularity in a younger generation of consumers.
'Boysen' was discovered on Rudolph Boysen's farm in California. This red raspberry (or 'Logan')
blackberry hybrid was the basis for the initial development of the Knott's Berry Farm fruit and
entertainment empire. 'Boysen' has the growth habit of trailing blackberry and the fruit are similar
in appearance, larger on average, with larger drupelets, and a purple fruit color. 'Boysen' was
widely produced in California, Oregon, and New Zealand into the 1980s. Currently, a few
thousand hectares of 'Boysen' are grown in Oregon and New Zealand but California production has
largely disappeared. The market for 'Boysen' remains strong.
'Logan' and 'Boysen' can be grown wherever trailing blackberries such as 'Marion' can be grown.
Information is available on cultural practices at the Northwest Berry and Grape Infonet
(http://osu.orst.edu/dept/infonet/).
Lingonberry
Stang et al. (1990) specifically addressed lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., Ericaceae) at the
First New Crops Symposium in 1988. Lingonberry continues to be largely a European crop.
However, the Pacific Northwest has seen a substantial increase in plantings the last 3 years.
Lingonberry is harvested from native stands in northeast China and in some localities a substantial
quantity of juice is produced. Lingonberry is found natively on acidic soils in northern temperate
zones and can range to near the Arctic Circle, but in many of these northern areas they are
protected by snow cover. In addition to Stang et al. (1990), St.-Pierre (1996) has published
production information. Since lingonberry is largely a processed crop, either better cultivars or
better machines must be developed that will make mechanical harvest viable.
Black Raspberry
Black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis L., Rosaceae) production is concentrated in Oregon where
400600 ha are harvested for processing into juice and jam. Ohio growers are planning on
doubling their crop area to 250 ha in the next few years (J. Scheerens, pers. commun.). The juice is
valuable as a natural colorant. In other regions, particularly regions of Ohio and Pennsylvania,
black raspberry is harvested fresh as a pick-your-own crop. 'Munger' is the most important cultivar
worldwide. Black raspberries are relatively easy to grow, however, they are short-lived. Plantings
often last only 23 harvest seasons due to virus and disease infestation. Poor pollination from rain
during bloom can limit the crop. The plants are trellised in the eastern US for fresh harvest but in
the western US the plants are "hedged" at about 1 m for mechanical harvesting and processing.
The biggest challenge with large-scale production is the fluctuation in fruit price. In 1997, the fruit
sold for $US 4.18/kg whereas the price in 1995 had only been $US 1.32/kg (USDA-NASS-ERS
1998). Black raspberries can be established relatively quickly and cheaply so growers are
constantly getting into and out of production in response to the fruit price.
Gooseberry and Red Currant

These two members of the Ribes have a long history of cultivation. They are widely adapted to
temperate regions and many soil types. While they are popular in Europe as a fresh market and
processed product, they have had limited success in the US, in part due to white pine blister rust
(Cronartium ribicola Fisher) restrictions. Both are grown throughout the eastern US primarily as a
fresh market crop for local sales. In the Pacific Northwest, they are grown and shipped nationally
on the fresh market and Washington has about 40 ha in production. Both of these crops are
primarily processed into pies or preserves in the case of gooseberries, and juice or jelly in the case
of red currants. Since 1966, when federal legislation was deregulated, 17 states in the US continue
to restrict the production of some or all of the Ribes species because they are a cohost for white
pine blister rust. Some of these states are considering repealing their restrictions so that Ribes can
be grown. Some Ribes genotypes are resistant to this disease and some are immune (Hummer and
Finn 1998b). Gooseberry production in the US is often limited by powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca
mors-uvae [Schwein.] Berk. & Curt), which can regularly cause defoliation in plants. While the
primary cultivars grown in the US have been 'Oregon Champion', 'Poorman', and 'Pixwell' due to
their reliable production, other cultivars are suitable and are mildew resistant (Hummer and Finn
1998a). The main limitation to these crops appears to be consumer education and acceptance. A
number of hybrids between gooseberry and black currant are larger fruited and milder flavored
than black currant; 'Josta' is the best known example (Reich 1991). While not widely planted, there
are some very small commercial plantings and market development seems to be the biggest
drawback to further expansion.
NEGLECTED BERRIES
Neglected berries include those that are regionally important such as elderberry (Sambucus
canadensis L., Caprifoliaceae); aronia (Aronia melanocarpa [Michx.] Elliott, Rosaceae);
cloudberry (R. chamaemorus L., Rosaceae); arctic raspberry (R. arcticus L., R. stellatus Sm., and
their hybrids, Rosaceae); mora (R. glaucus Benth., Rosaceae); alpine strawberry (F. vesca L.,
Rosaceae); muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia Mich., Vitaceae); Juneberry/saskatoon
(Amelanchier sp., Rosaceae); hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta [Siebold & Zucc.] Planch. ex Miq.,
Actinidiaceae); edible honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L., Caprifoliaceae); sea buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae); and schisandra (Schisandra chinensis [Turcz.] Baill.,
Schisandraceae).
Elderberry
The juice and preserves of Sambucus canadensis L., native to eastern North America, and S. nigra
L., native to Europe, have often been mainstays of rural pantries and Native Americans and early
settlers used them as a dried and medicinal crop. Elderberry was seldom cultivated because it was
so common in fence rows and along roadsides. While limited, information is available on
commercial production (Way 1981; Stang 1990). Selections of superior plants from the wild have
traditionally been used locally but high quality cultivars were developed from S. canadensis by
breeding programs in New York, Pennsylvania, and Nova Scotia (Ritter and McKee 1964; Way
1964; Craig 1966; Darrow 1975). Pennsylvania and Oregon have a few fairly large plantings,
Kansas has a small elderberry wine industry and the Austrians have substantial plantings.
'Haschberg', a wild selection of S. nigra from near Vienna, is the main European cultivar (R.
Wrolstad pers. commun.). The fruit is in demand for processing in preserves, as a natural colorant,
and for wine making. In Europe, a company has just released an anthocyanin/flavonoid enriched
extract primarily from elderberry for colorant and nutraceutical use. While the crop would benefit
from further breeding, it is generally adapted to most locations although viruses can be a problem
in the northwestern US. Incorporating the desirable acylated anthocyanin pigments of S.
canadensis into S. nigra and improving pigment stability in processed products (R. Wrolstad pers.
commun.) are improvements desired by processors.
Baby Kiwi, Hardy Kiwi, Tara, Wild Fig, Wee-kee

Actinidia arguta (Siebold & Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq., a smooth-skinned, winter tolerant relative of
the kiwifruit (A. chinensis Planch./ A. deliciosa [A. Chev.] C. F. Liang & A. R. Ferguson,
Actinidiaceae), has many common names. Recently, it has been developed from a novelty into an
economically important crop (Ferguson 1990; Strik and Cahn 1998). The fruit are small, about the
size of a large table grape, and are packaged multiply in "clam shell" containers rather than as
single fruit. Darrow, in 1937, presented this species as a potential crop but it was not until the
1990s that it has become a small scale commercial crop. As the New Zealanders brought the fuzzy
Chinese gooseberry (renamed the kiwifruit) to world attention, homeowner enthusiasts spread the
more winter tolerant A. arguta across North America. It might have remained in the realm of
enthusiasts until Hurst's Berry (Sheridan, Oregon) decided it would fit well in a diverse fresh berry
product line. Their interest and development of this crop demonstrate the impact a single company,
with good marketing savvy, can have on a relatively obscure crop. While the consistent demand
for this crop is undetermined, more than 35 ha of fruit have been planted in Oregon since 1994 and
there are a few growers with substantial plantings in Pennsylvania. Growing Kiwifruit is an
excellent guide to growing A. arguta commercially (Strik and Cahn 1998). The major drawbacks
to this crop are the expense of establishing a planting and the length of time to the first crop.
Actinidia arguta requires a substantial trellis system, irrigation, and takes three years until a small
crop is produced. Once in production, the biggest problems are frosts that kill newly emerged
shoots that would produce the flowers, and abrasion on the fruit surface due to wind. Irrigation and
other forms of frost protection reduce this problem. The fruit is harvested and put into storage
when it is mature but before it begins to soften. When it is ready to ship it is treated with ethylene
to begin the final ripening process. In storage, the pedicels, which do not form an abscission zone
with the fruit, dry out and harden which can be of concern to consumers. This problem has yet to
be solved but mechanical or genetic solutions may be possible.
Alpine Strawberry
Fragaria vesca L. production seems to have reached its peak prior to the development of F.
ananassa as the primary commercial strawberry. There seems to be a constant interest in
producing these small but aromatic fruit (Reich 1991). Bakers like to use these small fruit in
products such as muffins where an entire berry is desirable. Homeowners often write passionately
about them. They are not likely to have a major commercial impact but could be grown and
marketed successfully to niche markets if the labor costs of harvest and low yields can be justified.
While the plants are relatively easy to grow and can be raised from seed, they are short-lived
where virus pressure is high. In breeding programs, F. vesca is often used as in indicator plant for
strawberry viruses.
Rubus
Cloudberry (R. chamaemorus) and arctic raspberry (R. arcticus, R. stellatus and their hybrids) in
northern Europe and mora (R. glaucus) in Andean South America are regionally extremely
important and valuable crops. As a group, their perishable nature lends them to processing as juice,
preserves, and liqueurs. Rapp et al. (1993) addressed the potential of R. chamaemorus at the 1992
New Crops Symposium.
Arctic raspberries are native to the colder regions of the northern hemisphere and are renowned for
the strong aromatic character of their fruit. Breeding programs in Finland and Sweden have
developed cultivars from these species (Jennings 1988). The cultivars are largely self-sterile so
more than a single cultivar must be planted. The cultivars are apparently widely and successfully
grown in Scandinavia. Production at this point in time appears to be limited to Scandinavia.
Rubus glaucus is commonly sold in the Andean countries of South America. This crop is typically
grown in small, up to 0.5 ha plantings for local sale. Large bottles (2 L) of mora carbonated soda
were available in grocery stores suggesting larger scale commercial production is viable. A large
fruit processor seriously considered commercial production of this crop in the US in the 1970s but
pulled out just before the plantings were to be established. This crop may be similar to the 'Marion'
blackberry, which is renowned for its flavor and aroma and excellent processing characteristics.
However, as with 'Marion', R. glaucus fruit are too perishable for the fresh market. This crop
appears to be a developed "land-race;" cultivars have not been developed but the species has
commercial qualities. Plants require irrigation on their native volcanic soils and are often trellised
(Gaitoni ~1970; Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros de Columbia ~1984 [The exact date of these
publications is unknown but they are available upon request]). Because the species is native to
high elevation near the equator (little change in photoperiod and moderate temperatures year
round), widely adapted types must be developed if this crop were to be more widely planted.
Commercial production has been reported in Mexico and Central and South America (Gaitoni
~1970; Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros de Columbia ~1984; Rincon 1987).
Aronia, Chokeberry
Aronia melanocarpa is native to the eastern US, however, this crop was popularized and is
commonly planted in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Prior to World War II, aronia
was primarily used as an ornamental. Seeds were later imported from Germany to the former
Soviet Union where cultivars were developed for fruit production (Kask 1987). By 1971, 5400 ha
were planted in the former Soviet Union, 4000 of which were in Siberia. The original species is
diploid, however, most of the cultivars are tetraploid. The 4x cultivars are sometimes designated as
Aronia mitshurinii Skvorsov et Majjtulina, Rosaceae. The fruit was designated as a "healing plant"
in the former Soviet Union. Experimental plantings of cultivars have been established in
Czechoslovakia, Scandinavia, and Germany. The fruit is valued for its juice which is very high in
anthocyanins, blends well with other fruit juices and is reputed as a source of "phenols,
leucoanthocyanins, catachines, flavonoles, and flavones" that are considered to be bioactive in
humans. The plants have no special cultural or site requirements. In the Pacific Northwest, the
extremely vigorous plants will bear a small crop one year after rooted cuttings are planted. The
plants resemble Amelanchier, Rosaceae in many respects. Yields of up to 17 kg/bush with 10
kg/bush average are reported in Eastern Europe. The fruit is often hand harvested by cutting the
fruit clusters, but they can be mechanically harvested. In Oregon, an unidentified spring rust on the
fruit caused some yield loss but its effect appeared to be minimal. Currently, there is interest in
establishing commercial production of Aronia in the US. (Much of this information is from an
unpublished document of an unknown source but is available upon request.)
Muscadine Grape
Vitis rotundifolia, a southeastern US native, seems to primarily have consumer appeal in that
region. While evolutionarily related to the "bunch grapes" such as V. vinifera L., Vitaceae and V.
labrusca L., Vitaceae, the muscadines differ in many ways including chromosome number, vine
and berry anatomy and morphology, and physical and chemical characteristics of the fruit and
juice (Olien 1990). The fruit with its distinctive musky or fruity aroma is eaten fresh but is even
more commonly made into juice, wines, pies, jellies, and other processed products. While the fruit
has been cultivated by indigenous peoples for more than 400 years, production has been limited to
the South. Most of the 1600 ha in production is concentrated in the coastal states from North
Carolina to Louisiana (Olien and Hegwood 1990). Traditionally, muscadines have been grown
where Pierce's disease has limited the production of American and French-hybrid grapes (Olien
1990). Lack of research on improved cultivars, cultural techniques, and processing methods has
also limited commercial expansion of the industry (Olien 1990). Currently, the price for fruit has
been good. In 1998, muscadines were being sold at 1.6 times the price of 'Thompson Seedless' on
the fresh market (J. Clark, pers. commun.). Although more research is needed, information is
available about production practices (Dearing 1947; Hegwood et al. 1983; Olien 1990; Anderson
1996) and breeding of muscadines has been reviewed (Goldy 1992)
Juneberry/Saskatoon
A number of Amelanchier sp. have been harvested for their fruit and included in breeding
programs (Reich 1991). The Saskatchewan government has developed excellent production guides
for saskatoons (St.-Pierre 1997). While this crop has widespread commercial potential, because the
purple fruit appear somewhat similar to blueberries (Vaccinium sp., Ericaceae), success in the fresh
market will probably be limited to areas where blueberry cannot be grown due to extremely cold
winter temperatures or alkaline soils (Stang 1990). However, there is certainly the potential to
develop processed products that are uniquely different from blueberry. Currently, the industry is
concentrated in the Canadian Provinces of Alberta (500 ha), Saskatchewan (200 ha) and Manitoba
(80 ha) where growers feel they do not have enough production to meet the demand (Mazza and
Davidson 1993; Delidais 1998).
Edible Honeysuckle
Lonicera caerulea (Synonym of Lonicera caerulea var. edulis Turcz. ex Herder, Caprifoliaceae) is
widely harvested in regions of China and northern Eurasia. Superior Russian cultivars have been
developed. The cylindrical, blue fruit ripen extremely early in the season on 12 m tall bushes. As
with Amelanchier, its similar appearance to blueberry will make it difficult to establish a
marketing foothold. However, it is extremely winter hardy and can grow in regions where
blueberry cannot. In trial plantings in the US, it has been extremely susceptible to leaf disease in
the Midwest (M. Widrlechner pers. commun.) and, as with apricot, it flowers very quickly given
warm temperatures and can be severely damaged by frost. However, the flowers are reported to be
able to survive temperatures several degrees below freezing.
Schisandra
A native of northeastern China and the former Soviet Union, Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.
vines produces red fruit that are high in vitamin C. It is harvested from the wild for local
consumption and has received a great deal of attention for its reputed medicinal qualities. While it
is mentioned as a cure for a large number of maladies, most refereed publications seem to focus on
its effects on liver function (Ahumada et al. 1989; Mizoguchi et al. 1991; Ko et al. 1995a,b).
Managed plantings would be most comparable to grape production. Currently, most production is
from wild harvested fruit and commercial viability is unknown. I could find no references that
discussed cultural management. Improved selections from the wild are currently being evaluated in
Jilin Province by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science (Shen Yugie pers. commun.).
Sea Buckthorn
Hippophae rhamnoides, a native of the colder regions of Eurasia, has been harvested on a large
scale in eastern Europe as a vitamin C rich fruit for processing into jellies, juices, and liqueurs.
Cultural management (Li and Schroeder 1986; Bernth and Fldesi 1992; Pietil 1998) and
breeding potential (Anderson and Wahlberg 1994) have recently been reviewed for sea buckthorn.
This crop could be a valuable crop in North America. Plants can tolerate extremely harsh winters
and poor soils. The main limitations are the development of an infrastructure for a processing
market. The "Catch-22" with this crop, and others that are only suitable for processing, is that
processors are not likely to get interested unless there is a market and conversely, there is not
likely to be a market developed unless there are processed products in place.
POTENTIAL NEW BERRIES

Many locally harvested crops from indigenous and introduced fruit could become economically
important crops. For example, several companies in the western and northwestern US are hiring
pickers to harvest wild fruit for regionally, nationally, and internationally distributed fresh and
processed products. In Europe and Asia, native fruit are also commonly harvested to supply a
growing nutraceutical industry. Native Vaccinium and Rubus are the most common examples of
these "wild" harvested crops. Potential new crops often follow a natural progression. Interest is
first generated in the crop from "wild" harvested plants. When the suppliers run into difficulty with
erratic supply, interest in stabilizing the supply of the crop through cultivation follows. If the crop
can be adapted to cultivation economically and the market remains in place the crop can become a
new crop with commercial potential. In this group I include examples of Rubus and Vaccinium that
are currently harvested form the wild.
Vaccinium "Huckleberries"
"Huckleberry" is a confusing common name. Most accurately huckleberries would describe
species in the genus Gaylussacia Kunth., Ericaceae. However, in the commerce, this name is often
used regionally as a name for the local wild Vaccinium species. In late summer and early fall,
pickers fan out over the Northwest from the Cascade Mountains as far east as the mountains of
Montana to primarily pick V. membranaceum Douglas ex Torr. (syn. V. globulare Rydb.),
Ericaceae as well as V. ovalifolium Smith and V. deliciosum Piper. The fruit is sold on roadsides
and to wholesalers. The restaurant trade is a major consumer of fruit and a company in Montana
has become well known nationally for their "chocolate-covered huckleberries." Stark and Baker
(1992) present a great deal of information on the biology of the species and propose how they
could be raised commercially. While their suggested production practices may be valid they are
not practical for large scale production. Recently, our US Dept. of Agriculture laboratory has
begun to evaluate populations of these species at a low elevation location using cultural practices
that are similar to those used for highbush blueberry (V. corymbosum). While the planting is only
three years old, it has begun to fruit, and some genotypes appear to be adapted to low elevation
production. Whether this crop will prove to be commercially viable in cultivated stands has yet to
be determined. In the Northwest, some fruit is also harvested in the Coastal Range from V. ovatum
Pursh which is more commonly cut as an evergreen "green" for floral arrangements or used as an
ornamental plant in the landscape. In the past two years, more than 3 ha have been planted for
commercial fruit production. While V. ovatum has been grown successfully in the landscape for
decades, the fruit are much lower quality, particularly aromatic components to fruit flavor, than the
other species discussed.
Mortio
Vaccinium floribundum Kunth., Ericaceae grows profusely in northern South America (Popenoe
1924). The evergreen nature of this species and its fruit are similar to V. ovatum of North America
and V. confertum Kunth of Mexico and V. consanguineum Klotzch of southern Mexico and
Central America. In Ecuador, baskets of fruit are commonly available in the market. Mortio could
be more widely grown as it is a popular crop and should be amenable to cultivation. However, if
production is expanded it will most likely be successful in a niche market similar to the Vaccinium
huckleberries of North America. Since, commercial highbush blueberries, which are relatives and
produce a somewhat similar fruit, are in such wide production in North America, Chile, and
Argentina, it would be difficult for V. floribundum to displace this market.
Bilberry
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L., Ericaceae) has a long history in European folk medicine
(Morazzoni and Bombardelli 1996) and while the fruit is largely harvested from the wild,
commercial production is not unknown (Dierking and Dierking 1993). Recently attention has been
focused on bilberry as efforts to determine whether cultivated North American blueberries have
similar nutraceutical characteristics to V. myrtillus (Kalt and McDonald 1996; Kalt 1997; Prior et
al. 1998). These preliminary studies indicate that while V. myrtillus has higher levels of
antioxidants than the North American commercial blueberries, the commercial blueberries do
contain high levels. Although there is potential for commercial production of V. myrtillus,
Dierking and Dierking (1993) would not recommend it from a horticultural point of view. From a
nutraceutical point of view, it would appear that the commercial blueberries, produced in such
great abundance and at a relatively low cost, could satisfy this demand.
Bog Bilberry
Millions of hectares of Vaccinium uliginosum L., Ericaceae stretch across circumboreal regions of
the Northern Hemisphere. In China, we saw these fruit harvested and sold locally and the fruit
pressed for juice that was marketed around China and in the Western US. In Scandinavia, the fruit
are sold from wild harvested plants and cultivars have been developed for commercial production
(Hiirsalmi 1989; Hiirsalmi and Lehmushovi 1993). Unfortunately, this crop has the same niche as
North America's commercial blueberry industry. While it would be hard to justify cultivation of
this crop if it is to be marketed in competition with the North American blueberries there would
seem to be ample justification for improved management of the huge expanses of this species for
the processing market.
Trailing Blackberry
Rubus ursinus Cham & Schldl., Rosaceae is an early colonizer of disturbed sites throughout the
Northwest. In this era where timber is clear-cut and agriculture has disturbed many sites, the
northwest trailing blackberry is very common. As with the Vaccinium huckleberries, pickers
harvest these fruit from native stands for the restaurant trade and specialty markets. The species is
dioecious and the fruit are medium sized, soft, and have a very aromatic flavor. 'Marion'
blackberry is remarkable for its flavor and this can be traced to the R. ursinus in its pedigree.
Trailing species can be grown like the commercial trailing cultivars. However, the only
justification for establishing a managed planting of the species as opposed to cultivars is if the
"wild" label is critical to marketing. In general, the species is much more susceptible to foliar
diseases than the cultivars. Our first generation hybrids between cultivars and this species have
yielded disease tolerant, thornless, and early ripening genotypes that retain the species flavor.
Whether these are commercially viable will be determined in the future.
Miscellaneous Rubus
As you move to different regions, there is often a Rubus species that is harvested from the wild for
local sales. These species are very similar in their place in the market to the R. ursinus just
described. Examples worldwide would include the southern dewberries (Rubus trivialis Michaux)
in the US; Rubus parvifolius L. of China and Japan; R. phoenicolasius Maxim. in Japan; R.
crataegifolius Bunge; R. niveus Thunb. and R. coreanus Miq. in China; and the many blackberry
species (Rubus) in Europe (Anon. 1912a,b; Card 1915; Williams and Darrow 1940; Sherman and
Sharpe 1971; Jennings 1988; Finn et al. 1998). Any of these crops could be developed into a major
crop. However, as with mortio, they will be competing against a well established, productive
industry that produces a somewhat similar crop, i.e. red (R. idaeus) and black raspberry (R.
occidentalis), and blackberry (Rubus sp.).
POTENTIAL CROPS WITH UNMET POTENTIAL

Finally, many crops that have previously been mentioned in these sorts of forums have not been
further developed. Usually, market drives the production, either a large market does not exist or
another berry is filling that market niche. A few examples of previously described potential crops
in this class include: Nanking cherry (Prunus tomentosa Thunb., Rosaceae); cranberry bush
(Viburnum opulus L., Caprifoliaceae); and buffalo berry (Shepherdia argentea Nutt.
Elaeagnaceae).
Nanking Cherry/Hansen Bush Cherry

Prunus tomentosa is native throughout temperate regions of eastern Asia and is widely sold in the
local markets. At least a century ago, seed lots were brought to the US and breeding programs
released a few cultivars in the first half of this century (Darrow 1937; Fogle 1975; Kask 1989).
Hansen in South Dakota recognized that the superior cold hardiness of this productive, but small
fruited, cherry might be valuable for the northern Great Plains (Kask 1989). While the species has
not developed into a commercial crop, it is commonly sold through catalogues to homeowners
(Reich 1991). This crop will remain in the realm of homeowners in North America and in local
markets of Asia because the fruit are inferior to the commercially available sour cherries (P.
cerasus L.).
Cranberry Bush
Viburnum opulus (syn. V. trilobum Marsh.) is found in northern temperate regions. While popular
as an ornamental plant in the landscape, the species has never developed into a commercial fruit
crop. The fruit is unpalatable fresh and must be processed into jellies or juice (Card 1915).
Cultivars with superior fruit and processing characteristics have been released (Darrow 1975).
Cranberry bush may have potential for small scale, local production, or for a unique processed
product (Stang 1990) but, in general, the fruit is too similar to cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon)
or red currant (Ribes rubrum) as a processed product (Darrow 1975) to justify large scale
production.
Buffalo Berry
Shepherdia argentea has been stuck in the "potential" class for nearly two centuries. In 1915, Card
wrote, "The buffalo berry has enjoyed the distinction of remaining a new fruit for a very long
time.... Yet we are still talking about buffalo berry as a new fruit which ought to be introduced."
He cites references back to 1841 that state that buffalo berry was widely grown. This species is
native to the Great Plains of the US (Darrow 1975). I think horticulturists continue to return to this
crop because the plants are productive, extremely winter hardy, and drought tolerant, the flowers
are frost tolerant, and the scarlet fruit are very high in Vitamin C. Despite being dioecious and
spiny, it would appear that it might be well adapted for mechanical harvesting and processing as a
juice. Buffalo berry is likely to retain its "potential" label until someone aggressively develops the
market for the fruit.
CONCLUSION
Berries have been an important part of the diet of indigenous people. The world is now a global
market which will have adverse and beneficial effects on crops that have developed from a specific
region. Some crops that formerly had only local interest will develop demand worldwide. Other
crops may be lost as similar crops from other regions will displace them. These crops will remain
regionally important but will not develop worldwide importance.
Blueberry, strawberry, and grape production will continue to expand worldwide. Cranberry
production will likely expand rapidly where the proper soil and water requirements can be found
or where "wetlands regulations" are not as stringent as they are in the US. Red raspberry,
blackberry/hybridberry, lingonberry, and black currant will steadily increase in production. It
becomes more difficult to predict the future of "neglected" berries, as there seems to be serious
problems with each crop except Actinidia arguta. Actinidia arguta shows tremendous promise and
will see increased production worldwide. Elderberry, aronia, and sea buckthorn production will
increase if their unique anthocyanin characteristics are desirable for the colorant and nutraceutical
markets. Alpine strawberry, muscadine grape, juneberry, cloudberry, arctic raspberry, and mora
will continue to play important roles in regional or niche markets but are not likely to join the lists
of major crops worldwide. Similarly, we hope that the "potential new crops" will develop stable
crop areas with consistent production as they solidify their standing as important regional or niche
market crops. I do not see great potential in Nanking cherry, cranberry bush, or buffalo berry
unless someone energetically develops markets for them. The rising interest in the nutraceutical
characteristics of foods has carried over to berries. Schisandra and bilberry are two examples of
crops primarily harvested for their nutraceutical potential. Whether this is a trend or a fad may
impact which new crops will develop a large commercial industry.
Each era has their surprises as to which new crops develop into important crops. In 1915, Card had
blueberries listed in the miscellaneous section of his book. By the second half of this century
blueberries had become an important crop and today they are one of the major berry crops
worldwide. Who would have thought a few years ago that a major chain store in the US would be
promoting "Aronia Berry Juice Cocktail?" George Darrow in 1975, gave equal space to Actinidia
arguta and Viburnum trilobum (syn. V. opulus) in a chapter on minor temperate fruit. Twenty-five
years later, A. arguta is on the verge of becoming an important fruit crop while V. trilobum
remains "only" a beautiful ornamental for the landscape. Let us hope in the future that we continue
to be surprised by the neglected or unknown crops.
REFERENCES
Ahmedullah, M. and D.G. Himelrick. 1990. Grape management. p. 383471. In: G.J.
Galletta and D.G. Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Ahumada F., J. Hermosilla, R. Hola, R. Pena, F. Wittwer, E. Hegmann, J. Hancke, and G.

Wikman. 1989. Studies on the effect of Schizandra chinensis extract on horses submitted to
exercise and maximum effort. Phytotherapy Res. 3:175179.
Anderson, M.M. and K. Wahlberg. 1994. The breeding potential of sea buckthorn
(Hippophae L.). New Plantsman Dec. p. 207217.
Anderson, P.C. 1996. Yield and berry quality of 23 cultivars and selections of muscadine
grapes in North Florida. NFREC-Monticello Research Report 91-6
(http://128.227.103.58/txt/fairs/52408).
Anonymous. 1912a. Chinese brambles; for shrubberies, pergolas, and pleasure ground.
Gardeners' Chron. March 16, 1912. 147149, 165167.
Anonymous. 1912b. New brambles. Am. Florist Oct. 19, 1912.
Bernth J. and D. Fldesi. 1992. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.): A promising
new medicinal and food crop. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 1:2735.
Brennan, R.M. 1996. Currants and gooseberries. p. 191296. In: J. Janick and J.N. Moore
(eds.), Fruit breeding Vol. II. Vine and small fruits. Wiley, New York.
Brown, W.S. 1916. The loganberry. Extension Bul. 165. Oregon Agr. College Ext. Serv.,
Corvallis.
Card, F.W. 1915. Bush fruits: A horticultural monograph of raspberries, blackberries,

dewberries, currants, gooseberries, and other shrub-like fruits. Macmillan Co., London.
Craig, D.L. 1966. Elderberry culture in eastern Canada. Can. Dept. Agr. Publ. 1280.
Crandall, P.C. and H.A. Daubeny. 1990. Raspberry management. p. 157213. In: G.J.
Cliffs, NJ.
Crandall, P.C. 1995. Bramble production: The management and marketing of raspberries
and blackberries. Food Products Press, New York.
Dana, M.N. 1990. Cranberry management. p. 334362. In: G.J. Galletta and D.G. Himelrick
(eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Darrow, G.M. 1937. Some unusual opportunities in plant breeding. p. 545558. 1937 Yearb.
Agr. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
Darrow, G.M. 1975. Minor temperate fruits. p. 269284. In: J. Janick and J.N. Moore (eds.),
Advances in fruit breeding. Purdue Univ. Press, W. Lafayette, IN.
Daubeny, H.A. 1996. Brambles. p. 109190. In: J. Janick and J.N. Moore (eds.). Fruit
breeding Vol. II. Vine and small fruits. Wiley, New York.
Dearing, C. 1947. Muscadine grapes. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1785.
Delidais, A. 1998. The fruit of the nineties: Saskatoons. Joonas Int. News Forum for
Professional Berry Growers, Joensuu, Finland.
Dierking Jr., W. and S. Dierking. 1993. European Vaccinium species. p. 299304. In: K.A.
Clayton-Greene (ed.), Fifth Int. Symp. on Vaccinium Culture. Acta Hort. 346.
Eck, P. 1990. The American cranberry. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Eck, P., R.E. Gough, I.V. Hall, and J.M. Spiers. 1990. p. 273333. In: G.J. Galletta and D.G.
Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Federacin Nacional de Cafeteros de Columbia. ~1984. El cultivo de la mora de castilla.
Ferguson, A.R. 1990. Kiwifruit management. p. 472503. In: G.J. Galletta and D.G.
Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Finn, C.E., K. Wennstrom, and K. Hummer. 1998. Crossability of Eurasian Rubus species
with red raspberry and blackberry. In: G. McGregor and H. Hall (eds.), Seventh Int. Rubus
and Ribes Symp. Acta Hort. (in press).
Fogle, H.W. 1975. Cherries. p. 348366. In: J. Janick and J.N. Moore (eds.), Advances in
fruit breeding. Purdue Univ. Press, W. Lafayette, IN.
Gaitoni, L.A. ~1970. Una mora silvestre cultivada (Rubus glaucus). Horticultura p. 38.
Galletta, G.J. and J.R. Ballington. 1996. Blueberries, cranberries and lingonberries. p.
1108. In: J. Janick and J.N. Moore (eds.), Fruit breeding Vol. II. Vine and small fruits.
Wiley, New York.
Galletta, G.J. and R.S. Bringhurst. 1990. Strawberry management. p. 83156. In: G.J.
Cliffs, NJ.
Goldy, R.G. 1992. Breeding muscadine grapes. Hort. Rev. 14:357405.
Hall, H.K. 1990. Blackberry breeding. Plant Breed. Rev. 8:249312.
Hancock, J.F., D.H. Scott, and F.J. Lawrence. 1996. Strawberries. p. 419470. In: J. Janick
and J.N. Moore (eds.), Fruit breeding Vol. II. Vine and small fruits. Wiley, New York.
Harmat, L., A. Porpaczy, D.G. Himelrick, and G.J. Galletta. 1990. Currant and gooseberry
management. p. 245272. In: G.J. Galletta and D.G. Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop
management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hegwood, C.P., R.H. Mellenaz, R.A. Haygood, T.S. Brook, and J.L. Peeples. 1983.
Establishment and maintenance of muscadine vineyards. Mississippi Coop. Ext. Serv. Bul.
913.
Hiirsalmi, H.M. 1989. Research into Vaccinium cultivation in Finland. p. 175184. In: E.J.
Stang (ed.), Fourth Int. Symp. on Vaccinium Culture. Acta Hort. 241.
Hiirsalmi, H. and A. Lehmushovi. 1993. Occurrence and utilization of wild Vaccinium

species in Finland. p. 315321. In: K.A. Clayton-Greene (ed.), Fifth Int. Symp. on
Vaccinium Culture. Acta Hort. 346.
Hummer, K.E. and C. Finn. 1998a. Recent Rubus and Ribes acquisitions at the USDA ARS
National Clonal Germplasm Repository. In: G. McGregor and H. Hall (eds.), Seventh Int.
Rubus and Ribes Symp. Acta Hort. (in press).
Hummer, K.E. and C. Finn. 1998b. Susceptibility of Ribes genotypes to white pine blister
rust. In: G. McGregor and H. Hall (eds.), Seventh Int. Rubus and Ribes Symp. Acta Hort.
(in press).
Jennings, D.L. 1980. A hundred years of Loganberries. Fruit Var. J. 35:3437.
Jennings, D.L. 1988. Raspberries and blackberries: Their breeding, diseases and growth.
Academic Press, London.
Kalt, W. 1997. Health functionality of blueberries. HortTechnology 7:216221.
Kalt, W. and J.E. McDonald. 1996. Chemical composition of lowbush blueberry cultivars. J.
Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 121:142146.
Kask, K. 1987. Large-fruited black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa). Fruit Var. J. 41:47.
Kask, K. 1989. The Tomentosa cherry, Prunus tomentosa Thunb. Fruit Var. J. 43:5051.
Ko, K.M., S.P. Ip, M.K.T. Poon, C.T. Che, K.H. Ng, and Y.C. Kong. 1995a. Effect of
lignin-enriched Fructus Schisandrae extract on hepatic glutathione status in rats: protection
against carbon tetrachloride toxicity. Planta Med. 61:134137.
Ko, K.M., P.K. Yick, M.K.T. Poon, C.T. Che, K.H. Ng, and Y.C. Kong. 1995b. Schisandra
chinensis-derived antioxidant activities in 'Sheng Mai San', a compound formulation, in vivo
and in vitro. Phytotherapy Res. 9:203206.
Li, T.S.C. and W.R. Schroeder. 1986. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.): a
multipurpose plant. HortTechnology 6:370380.
Logan, J.H. 1909. Loganberry, Logan blackberry and Mammoth blackberry. The Pacific
Rural Press and California Fruit Bul. 78:12.
Logan, M.E. 1955. The Loganberry. Published by Mary E. Logan, Oakland, CA.
Mazza, G. and C.G. Davidson. 1993. Saskatoon berry: A fruit crop for the prairies. p.
516519. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Mizoguchi, Y., N. Kawada, Y. Ichikawa, and H. Tsutsui. 1991. Effect of gomisin A in the
prevention of acute hepatic failure induction. Planta Med. 57:320324.
Moore, J.N. and R. M. Skirvin. 1990. Blackberry management. p. 214244. In: G.J. Galletta
and D.G. Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ.
Morazzoni, P. and E. Bombardelli. 1996. Vaccinium myrtillus L. Fitoterapia 67:329.
Olien, W.C. and C.P. Hegwood. 1990. Muscadine-A classic southeastern fruit. HortScience
25:726, 831.
Olien, W.C. 1990. The muscadine grape: Botany, viticulture, history and current industry.
HortScience 25:732739.
Pietil, M. 1998. Buckthorn, the plant for tomorrow's healthy living. Joonas International
news forum for professional berry growers, Joensuu, Finland.
Popenoe, W. 1924. Hunting new fruits in Ecuador. Nat. History 24:455466.
Prior, R.L., G. Cao, A. Martin, E. Sofic, J. McEwen, C. O'Brian, N. Lischner, M. Ehlenfeldt,

W. Kalt, G. Krewer, and C.M. Mainland. 1998. Antioxidant capacity as influenced by total
phenolic and anthocyanin content, maturity, and variety of Vaccinium species. J. Agr. Food
Chem. 46:26862693.
Pritts, M. and D. Handley. 1989. Bramble production guide. NRAES-35. Northeast Reg.
Agr. Eng. Serv., Ithaca, NY.
Pritts, M.P., J.F. Hancock, and B.C. Strik. 1992. Highbush blueberry production guide.
NRAES-55. Northeast Reg. Agr. Eng. Serv., Ithaca, NY.
Rapp, K., S.K. Nss, and H.J. Swartz. 1993. Commercialization of the cloudberry (Rubus
chamaemorus L.) in Norway. p. 524526. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops.
Wiley, New York.
Reich, L. 1991. Uncommon fruits worthy of attention: A gardener's guide. Addison Wesley
Publ., New York.
Rincon, T.A.R. and M.J.A. Salas. 1987. Influence of the levels of N, P, and K on the yield
of blackberry. Acta Hort. 188: 183185.
Ritter, C.M. and G.W. McKee. 1964. The elderberry. Penn. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 709.
Roper, T.R. and N. Vorsa. 1997. Cranberry: Botany and horticulture. Hort. Rev. 21:
215249.
St.-Pierre, R. 1996. The lingonberry. A versatile wild cranberry. 3rd ed. Univ.
Saskatchewan.
St.-Pierre, R.G. 1997. Growing saskatoons: A manual for orchardists. Agr. Dev. Fund.
Government of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.
Sherman, W.B. and R.H. Sharpe. 1971. Breeding Rubus for warm climates. HortScience
6:147149.
Stang, E.J. 1990. Elderberry, highbush cranberry and juneberry management. p. 363382.
In: G.J. Galletta and D.G. Himelrick (eds.), Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Stang, E.J., G.G. Weis, and J. Klueh. 1990. Lingonberry: Potential new fruit for the northern
United States. p. 321323. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops.
Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Stark, N. and S. Baker. 1992. The ecology and culture of Montana huckleberries: A guide
for growers and researchers. Montana Forest & Conservation Expt. Sta. Misc. Publ. 52.
Missoula.
Strik, B. and H. Cahn. 1998. Growing kiwifruit. PNW 507. Oregon State Univ. Ext. Serv.,
Corvallis.
USDA-NASS-ERS. 1998. USDA Agricultural Prices1997 Summary. Pr1-3(98).

Washington, DC.
Way, R.D. 1964. Elderberry varieties and cultural practices. N.Y. State. Hort. Soc. Proc.
110:233236.
Way, R.D. 1981. Elderberry culture in New York State. Food Life Sci. Bul. 91, N.Y. State
Agr. Expt. Sta., Geneva.
Williams, C.F. and G.M. Darrow. 1940. The trailing raspberry: Rubus parvifolius L.:
Characteristics and breeding. North Carolina Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 65.
Galangal
Galangal
Zingiberaceae Alpinia officiarum Hance, Langras galaga (L.) Stantz.
These two species, respectively known as lesser and greater galangal are
tropical perennials, cultivated mainly for the underground rhizomes. The plants and rhizomes are
similar to ginger. The tuberous rhizomes are the spice used in making vinegar and beer and in
liquors, especially in Russia. The spice is also used in curries.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Galangal.html [5/16/2004 1:28:31 PM]
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium species
Fabaceae
Clover, Peavine, Cowgrass
We have clover information from several sources:
Some 250 species of Trifolium are recognized throughout the world, with about 50 indigenous in
the United States. None of these native species are cultivated although they contribute to grazing
and may be an important part of wild hay crops. They contribute nitrogen and thus promote the
growth of associated grass. The clovers may be annual or perennial. Leaves are mostly trifoliate,
rarely 5 to 7 leaflets. Flower heads are usually short spikes or umbels with numerous small
individual flowers in the head. The important agricultural species are described as follows:
Trifolium pratense Handbook of Energy Crops. James A. Duke. 1983. unpublished.
Red Clover Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed Crops of the United
States.
FactSHEET on T. ambiguum Kura clover contributed by: Norman L. Taylor
T. agrarium, T. campestre, T. dubium - Hop clovers
T. fragiferum - Strawberry clover
T. glomeratum , T. lappaceum - Cluster clover, Lappa clover
T. hirtum - Rose clover
T. hybridum - Alsike clover Swedish clover
T. incarnatum - Crimson clover, Italian or Scarlet clover
T. michelianum - Bigflower clover
T. nigrescens - Ball Clover
T. resupinatum - Persian clover
T. striatum - Striate clover
T. subterraneum - Sub clover
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Trifolium_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:32 PM]
Trifolium pratense
T. variegatum - Whitetip clover

T. willdenovii - Seaside clover
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Trifolium_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:32 PM]
Alyce Clover
Alyce Clover
Leguminosae Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.
This is a summer annual native to tropical Asia. It was introduced into the
United States in 1910 and has proven adapted to areas near the Gulf of Mexico. In thin stands the
stems branch, but in thick stands stems reach 3 feet in height with little branching. Leaves are oval,
unifoliate, and borne on short petioles along the entire stem. Alyce clover is grown mainly for hay
and soil improvement, but also makes good pasturage. The hay appears about equal to other
legume hays in feeding value. The crop is seeded in late spring and matures seed the same season.
If seed matures and shatters, a volunteer crop is produced in succeeding years. Seed was harvested
from about 5000 acres (1954, 1959 censuses), sufficient to plant about 80,000 acres.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Alyce_Clover.html [5/16/2004 1:28:32 PM]
Amaranthus
Amaranthus species
Amaranthaceae
Amaranth, Achis, achita, african spinach,
amarante, bledos, bondue, bush greens, choito, coimi, coyo,
cuime, green leaf, buautli, Indian spinach, Joseph's-coat,
kiwicha, livid amaranth, love-lies-bleeding, millmi, pale-seeded
amaranth, pigweed, princess-feather, purple amaranth, quintonil,
redroot, spinach-grass, Surinam spinach, wild beet, wild blite
Many species are used including:
Amaranthus atropurpureus - Lal-nati
A. caudatus - Pendant amaranth, Love-lies-bleeding, Tassel flower
A. cruentus - Mexican grain amaranth, Purple amaranth, Prince's feather
A. cruentus x A. powellii - Hopi red-dye, Komo
A. dubius - Khada sag, Bayam bhaji
A. graecizans - Prostrate amaranth
A. hybridus - pigweed, wild beet
A. hypochondriacas - Guegui, Bledo, Ramdana
A. lividus - Purple amaranth
A. mantegazzianus - Quinoa de Castilla
A. paniculatus - Reuzen amaranth
A. quitensis - Ataco, Sangorache
A. retroflexus - Redroot pigweed
A. spinosus - Blero Spinach, Calaloo, Calalu, Prickly amaranth
A. tricolor - Tampala, Joseph's coat
A. viridus - Green amaranth, Bayam hedjo
NewCROP has Amaranth information at:
Non-Shattering Grain Amaranth PopulationsD.M. Brenner
Response of Grain Amaranth Production to Density and Fertilization in Tarija, BoliviaV.
Apaza-Gutierrez, A. Romero-Saravia, F.R. Guilln-Portal, and D.D. Baltensperger
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Amaranthus_spp_nex.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:28:33 PM]
Amaranthus
Grain AmaranthCharles S. Kauffman and Leon E. Weber

Amaranth RediscoveredGilbert F. Stallknecht and J.R. Schulz-Schaeffer
Amaranth Production in Mexico and PeruDaniel K. Early
Simply Inherited Genetic Variation in Grain Amaranth (Abstract)P.A. Kulakow
Hybridization of Grain Amaranths: Implications for Long-term Development (Abstract)J.W
Lehmann and R.L. Clark
Amaranth Intercropping Techniques of Andean Quechua Peasants (Abstract)Daniel K. Early
Row Spacing and Population Effects on Yield of Grain Amaranth in North DakotaT.L.
Henderson, A.A. Schneiter, and N. Riveland
Amaranth: New Crop OpportunityRobert L. Myers
Grain Amaranth Harvest Timeliness in Eastern North DakotaS.A. Fitterer, B.L. Johnson, and
A.A. Schneiter
Determining Amaranth and Canola Suitability in Missouri Through Geographic Information
Systems AnalysisRobert L. Myers
Field Evaluation of Grain Amaranth in ChileMarisol Berti, Humberto Serri, Rosemarie
Wilckens, and Ins Figueroa
Variability in 'Plainsman' Grain AmaranthF.R. Guillen-Portal, D.D. Baltensperger, L.A. Nelson,
and N. D'Croz-Mason
Plant Population Influence on Yield and Agronomic Traits in 'Plainsman' Grain AmaranthF.R.
Guillen-Portal, D.D. Baltensperger, and L.A. Nelson
Amaranth: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len
(eds.).
Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus
Amaranthus caudatus
Vegetable amaranth
Vegetable Amaranths: Cultivar Selection for Summer Production in the SouthRamsey L. Sealy,
E.L McWilhams, J. Novak, F. Fong, and C.M. Kenerley
Population Density and Soil pH Effects on Vegetable Amaranth ProductionBharat P. Singh and
Wayne F. Whitehead
Amaranthus
Management Methods for Producing Vegetable AmaranthBharat P. Singh and Wayne F.

Whitehead
Evaluation of Tropical Leaf Vegetables in the Virgin IslandsManuel C. Palada and Stafford
M.A. Crossman
New Crops in the U.S. National Plant Germplasm SystemHenry L. Shands and George A.
White
Chinese Amaranth In: Magness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Blero Spinach In: Magness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Outside links to more Amaranth info:
Kiwicha can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Amaranth Saskatchewan Agriculture and food
Amaranth Grain Production in Nebraska
All about Amaranths (Chinese Spinach) from Texas A & M University.
Amaranthus Germplasm Sources:
(2630 total Amaranthus accessions with 721 available accessions)
David Brenner, Curator
North Central Region Plant Introduction Station
Agronomy Department
Iowa State University
Ames Iowa 50011 USA
Tel: 515-294-6786
FAX: 515-294-4880
Email:nc7db@ars-grin.gov
The Amaranth Institute
c/o Dr. James Lehmann
PO Box 248
Bricelyn, MN 56014 U.S.A.
European Amaranth Association
Professor Ishan Magomedovich Magomedov, President
Saint Petersburg, Russia
email: ishan@toma.usr.pu.ru
fax (7-812) 3497779
Amazon Tree-Grape
Index | Search | Home | Morton

Morton, J. 1987. Amazon Tree-Grape. p. 64. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Amazon Tree-Grape
Moraceae
The Amazon tree-grape, Pourouma cecropiaefolia Mart., of the family Moraceae, is the
best-known of about 50 species of Pourouma in Central America and tropical South America. It is
known in Brazil generally as puruma, cucura, imbauba mansa, imbauba-de-vinho, imbauba de
cheiro; in Bahia as tararanga preta and in Manaus as mapati. In Colombia it is called puruma,
caime, caimaron, caimaron silvestre, uva caimarona, camuirro, cucura, uva, sirpe, hiye or
joyahiye. In Peru, it is simply uvilla.
The tree resembles Cecropia spp., which are called imbauba in Brazil. It reaches 23 to 50 ft (7-15
m) in height. The bark is gray and marked with leaf scars. The alternate leaves, on long petioles,
are nearly circular but deeply cleft into obovate oblong-lanceolate lobes to 1 ft (30 cm) long. They
are green on the upper surface, whitish or bluish-gray and velvety beneath; agreeably aromatic,
like wintergreen, when crushed. The unopened inflorescence is reddish-purple, densely coated
with fine white hairs. The white male and female flowers are borne on separate trees. Borne in
bunches of 20 or more, the fruit is grapelike except for its wintergreen odor. It is round or
round-ovate, usually 3/8 to 3/4 in (0.5-1 cm) wide, occasionally to 1 1/2 in (4 cm). The skin is very
rough to the touch, inedible but easily peeled; purple when ripe. The pulp is white, mucilaginous,
juicy; of subacid, very mild flavor; and encloses 1 conical seed with fibrous, grooved coat.
The tree grows wild in the western part of Amazonas, Brazil, and adjacent areas of Ecuador and
Peru. It is especially abundant in the vicinity of Iquitos. It has been cultivated since pre-Hispanic
times by the Indians of southwestern Colombia and is grown by Indians and non Indians in Brazil.
Patino says that around 1940 propagation was begun at the Estacion Agricola at Palmira,
Colombia, and seeds and plants were given to the Estacion at Calima in 1945. Some trees are
being grown, too, at the Estacion Agricola de Armero. There is today renewed interest in
encouraging cultivation.
The tree grows on high dry land at altitudes below 1,640 ft (500 m). It may be subject to flooding
every 4 or 5 years. It cannot stand prolonged drought. The seeds have short-term viability. If
planted in time, they may show 86% germination. Cuttings are difficult to grow. Seedlings bear in
1 to 3 years after setting out. There may be 2 crops per year. Some trees that have been at least 3
years in the plantation have yielded 110 lbs (50 kg). The fruit is eaten raw or made into wine.
The wood is light, coarse and non-durable. It is used only for making charcoal.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/Amazon-Tree-Grape.html [5/16/2004 1:28:33 PM]
Spondias cytherea
Spondias cytherea Sonn.

Spondias dulcis Forst.
Anacardiaceae
Ambarella, Jobo de la India, Otaheite apple
AmbarellaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Last update Monday, March 1, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Spondias_cytherea_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:34 PM]
Amelanchier species
Amelanchier species
Rosaceae
Juneberry, Saskatoon berry, Saskatoon
serviceberry, Serviceberry, Shadblow, Shadbush, Western
serviceberry
Saskatoon Berry: A Fruit Crop for the PrairiesG. Mazza and C.G. Davidson
Outside links:
Saskatoon Berry Research University of Saskatchewan
Registry Of The Genus Amelanchier
Saskatoon Berries Manitoba Agriculture
Juneberry For Commercial and Home Use on the Northern Great Plains
Juneberryfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Amelanchier_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:34 PM]
American Linden
American Linden
Tilia americana L.
Synonyms.Tilia glabra Vent.; T. canadensis Michx.
Other common names.Basswood, whitewood, bast tree, black
lime tree, American lin tree, American lime tree, beetree, daddynut
tree, monkeynut tree, whistlewood, white lind, red basswood, yellow
basswood, wickup.
Habitat and range.This native forest tree is found in rich woods,
especially along the mountains, from Canada to Georgia and west to
Texas and Nebraska.
Description.The American linden is a large tree attaining a height
of from 60 to 125 feet with a trunk diameter of 2 to 5 feet, with
spreading branches. The somewhat leathery leaves are pointed at the
apex, heart-shaped at the base, with sharply toothed margins and are Figure 6.American linden
borne on stems about 1 or 2 inches long. The flowers are produced in (Tilia americana)
great abundance from May to June in drooping clusters composed of from 6 to 20 yellowish, very
fragrant flowers. At the base of each cluster and grown to its stalk is a leaflike bract 2 to 4 inches
in length. The roundish, grayish-green fruit is dry and woody and contains one or two seeds.
Part used.The flowers, carefully dried in the shade.
Last update Wednesday, March 11, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/linden.html [5/16/2004 1:28:35 PM]
Podophyllum peltatum
Podophyllum peltatum L.
Berberidaceae
American mayapple
The American Mayapple and its Potential for Podophyllotoxin Production Rita M. Moraes,
Hemant Lata, Ebru Bedir, Muhammad Maqbool, and Kent Cushman
Propagule Type and Planting Time for Field-established MayappleMuhammad Maqbool, Kent
E. Cushman, and Rita M. Moraes
Assessment of Genetic Diversity in Podophyllum peltatum by Molecular MarkersHemant Lata,
Rita M. Moraes, Andrew Douglas, and Brian E. Scheffler
Bioprospecting for PodophyllotoxinEbru Bedir, Ikhlas Khan, Rita M. Moraes
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Podophyllum_peltatum.html [5/16/2004 1:28:36 PM]
Sorbus americana Marsh.
Synonym.Pyrus americana DC.
Other common names.Roundwood, round-tree, American rowan
tree American servicetree, mountain sumac, dogberry, quickbeam, wild
ash, winetree, witchwood, life-of-man, Indian mozemize,
missey-moosey, moose-misse.
Habitat and range.The American mountain-ash occurs in swamps,
low woods, or moist ground from Newfoundland south along the
mountains to North Carolina and to Michigan. It is most abundant in the Figure 7.American
northern portion of its range.
mountain-ash (Sorbus
americana)
Description.This smooth-barked tree reaches a height of 30 feet with

a trunk 18 inches in diameter. The leaves resemble those of the sumac, consisting of from 11 to 17
lance-shaped, pointed leaflets about 1 1/4 to 4 inches long. When young they are slightly hairy,
both sides soon becoming smooth. The white flowers are borne from May to June in dense clusters
measuring from 3 to 6 inches across. The flowers are followed later in the season by large, dense,
showy clusters of bright-red berries about the size of peas, which give the tree a brilliant
appearance.
Part used.The bark with the outer layer removed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/mountain-ash.html [5/16/2004 1:28:37 PM]
Mentha pulegium
Hedeoma pulegioides L.
Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
American Pennyroyal
Simon, J.E., A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker. 1984. Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography. 1971-1980.
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide.
Last update Wednesday, July 08, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hedeoma_pulegiodies_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:37 PM]
Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium hirsutum L.
Syn.: Gossypium mexicanum Tod.
Malvaceae
Cotton
Feasibility of Cotton as a Crop for PennsylvaniaPolly S. Leonhard
Handbook of Energy CropsJames A. Duke. 1983.
Web links to other cotton information sources:

Fox Fibre Naturally colored cottons
Cotton Inc.
Cotton Production Guidelines for North Carolina
Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre
National Cotton Council
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Gossypium_hirsutum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:38 PM]
Eustoma
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Euphorbiaceae
Amla, emblic
EmblicJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
FactSheet contributed by Dr. Chiranjit Parmar
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phyllanthus_emblica.html [5/16/2004 1:28:39 PM]
Beachgrasses
Beachgrasses
Gramineae
American beachgrass Ammophila breviligulata Fern.
European beachgrass A. arenaria (L.) Link
These grasses are tough, coarse perennials with extensively creeping rhizomes. They produce good
growth on sands of low fertility, and are used primarily for erosion control in sandy areas. For this
purpose, dividing and transplanting clumps of the grasses is the most effective method of
establishing stands. If planted not more than 3 feet apart, spaces between plants are rapidly filled
in. These grasses are resistant to the cutting effect of blowing sand. They are of little value except
for stabilization of sandy soils.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Beachgrasses.html [5/16/2004 1:28:40 PM]
Cardamom
Cardamom
Zingiberaceae Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton.
Amomum cardamomum L.
Both the above related species of tropical plants produce the cardamom seeds of commerce. Both
are tropical, perennial herbs, the tops growing each year from underground rhizomes. E.
cardamomum reaches 5 to 10 feet, with lanceolate leaves up to 2 feet long. The capsules are
oblong to globular, ribbed and indehiscent. These dried capsules are the principal cardamoms of
commerce. The seeds and plant of A. cardamomum are very similar to "grains of paradise" These
seeds are also sold as cardamom.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cardamom.html [5/16/2004 1:28:40 PM]
Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.

Camus
Syn.: Amphilophis pertusa (L.) Stapf
Andropogon pertusus (L.) Willd.
Holcus pertusus L.
Poaceae
Hurricane grass, Seymour grass, Barbados sourgrass, Pitted bluestem, Comagceyana
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Much valued as a good fodder grass, both for grazing and for stacking. Satisfactory for lawns, as it
sends out numerous creeping shoots which root at the nodes. Although valued by some for pasture,
others consider it a weed. In the Virgin Islands, e.g., some forms are difficult to eradicate and
replace with better pasture grasses (Bogdan, 1977).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Bothriochloa_pertusa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:41 PM]
Folk Medicine
No data uncovered.
Chemistry
On a zero moisture basis the early-bloom grass (34.7% DM) contains 5.7% CP, 34.9% CF, 11.7%
ash, 1.0% EE, 46.7% NFE (Venezuela); the mature grass (India) contains 3.9% CP, 37.9% CF,
10.0% ash, 2.3% EE, 45.9% NFE; the hay (94.3% DM) contains 5.7% CP, 34.9% CF, 11.7% ash,
1.0% EE, 46.7% NFE (India) (Gohl, 1981).
Description
Stoloniferous or tufted perennial grass; culms ascending, branching, sometimes long running,
rooting at the nodes, about 30 cm tall, much taller when cultivated; sheaths rounded; leaf-blades
flat; panicle axis shorter than the lower branches, purplish, emitting an aromatic odor when
crushed; racemes few to several, sparsely villous; first glumes of sessile spikelets always pitted;
awn of sessile spikelet geniculate, 1015 mm long; pedicellate spikelet about as long and broad as
the sessile ones. 2n = 60. Fl. summer-fall.
Germplasm
Reported from the Africa, Mediterranean, and Near East Centers of Diversity, comagueyana or cvs
thereof is reported to tolerate drought, grazing, and slope. Both apomictic and sexual reproduction
have been observed in India, the latter predomina.tly. (2n = 40, 60)
Distribution
Widely distributed in Old World Tropics, from Arabia and Tropical Africa to Southeast Asia,
India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. Considered one of the better pasture grasses in the West Indies,
Uganda and India. Sparingly introduced in southern United States on experimental basis.
Ecology
Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
comagueyana is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 40 dm (mean of 7 cases = 13.9),
annual temperature of 17 to 27C (mean of 7 cases = 23.3), and pH of 5.0 to 7.8 (mean of 7 cases
= 6.9) (Duke, 1978,1979). Bogdan (1977) suggests that it occurs where rainfall is 500900 mm,
mainly on well drained soil. Rather common in disturbed as well as undisturbed areas, along
roadsides, and in rather dry areas. Can withstand moderate periods of drought. Thrives on a wide
range of soils in tropical climates. Does not tolerate frost.
Cultivation
Cultivated mainly in pasture mixtures. Also seeded along roadside embankments in warmer
regions. Germinated quickly and established readily.
Harvesting
Mature plants stand repeated cutting, continuous grazing and trampling. Because of its ability to
withstand being trampled and its habit to send out rooting shoots, it is used for lawns.
Moisture-free grass contains 8.8% protein, 33% fiber, 46.1% N-free extract and 1.7% fat.

Said to be low yielding (Gohl, l981), but yield figures approach 15 MT DM/ha. An excellent
pasture grass in many tropical areas of the world, as West Indies, East Africa, India, in the last
where it is suggested for reseeding degraded grassland. Used to some extent in warmer parts of the
United States along roadsides.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges to 15 MT/ha.
Biotic Factors
Following fungi have been reported on this grass: Balansia sclerotica, Claviceps purpurea,
Physoderma bothriochloae, Puccinia cesatii, P. duthiae, P. erythroaeensis, P. pusilla,
Sphacelotheca tenuis, Ustilago bothriochloae, Uromyces andropogonis-annulati.
References
Bogdan, A.V. 1977. Tropical pasture and fodder plants. Longman, London.
17(34):91110.

Anacardium occidentale
Index| Search| Home
Anacardium
occidentale L.
Anacardiaceae
Cashew, Cashew Apple, Cashew Fruit, Cashew Nut
Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta.)
Cashew AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates.
Cashew Links:
California Rare Fruit Growers - Anacardium
Cashewfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Cashew Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Anacardium_occidentale_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:42 PM]
Ananas comosus
Index| Search| Home
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.

Bromeliaceae
Anana, Ananas, Cayenne pineapple, Hawaiian
pineapple, Nana, Pia, Pineapple
NewCROP has Pineapple information at:
PineappleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta.).
And outside links to more pineapple info:
PINEAPPLE "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Pineapple Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
The Pineapple Page News and information about pineappe (Edited and Maintained by Duane P.
Bartholomew).
Pineapplefrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Pineapple Info from the FAO Tropical Feeds Database
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ananas_comosus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:42 PM]
Ancistrocladus korupensis
Ancistrocladus korupensis D.
Thomas & Gereau
Ancistrocladus: Potential Anti-AIDS Source
Drug Discovery and Development at the National Cancer Institute: Potential for New
Pharmaceutical CropsGordon M. Cragg, James E. Simon, Johnson G. Jato, and Kenneth M.
Snader
last update October 21, 1997 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/A_korupensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:43 PM]
Bhuinimb or Kalmegh (Andrographis

paniculata Nees.)
Contributor: Pankaj Oudhia
Copyright (c) 2002. All Rights Reserved. Quotation from this document should cite and acknowledge the
contributor.
English Name: Creat , Green Chirayta, King of bitters.

Common (Indian) Name:
Hindi: Kalmegh, Kiryat, Mahatit,
Gujrati: Kiriyata, Olikiriyat
Marathi: Olen Kirayat,
Canarese: Nelabevu gida
Sanskrit: Bhuinimb, Kirata, Mahateet
Malyalam: Nilaveppu, Kiriyatta,
Telugu: Nela Vemu
Tamil: Nilavempui
Family: Acanthaceae
Distribution: Kalmegh is an annual herb found through India, specially in dense forests.It is under
cultivation in many states of India.
Botany: It is an erect branched annual, 0.3-0.9 meters high, branches sharply quadrangular winged
in the upper part; leave - lanceolate, acute, undulate, pale beneath; Flowers small, solitary distant,
in axillary or terminal racemes or panicles, bracts lanceolate; Corolla - 2 lipped, upper lip
2-toothed, lower 2 lobed, rose coloured; Flowers - Capsule, linear - oblong, acute at both ends;
Seeds many, rugosely pitted, yellowish brown. Flowering time in India is November - December.
Useful parts: Whole plant.
Medicinal Properties: According to Ayurveda the plant is bitter, acrid, cooling, laxative,
vulnerary, antipyretic, antiperiodic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, depurative, soporific,
anthelmintic, digestive and useful in hyperdispsia, buring sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever,
malarial and intermittent fevers, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, colic,
flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids etc. Kalmegh is also a reputed Homoeopathic drug.
In Bengal (India), household medicine known as "Alui" is prepared from fresh leaves and is given
to children suffering from stomach complaints. Recent experimental finding indicated that
Kalmegh is having antityphoid and antibiotic properties. It has been proved to be hepatopratective
drug.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/andrographis.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:44 PM]
Chemical Constituents: Kalmegh contains bitter principles andrographolide, a bicyclic

diterpenoid lactone and Kalmeghin (upto 2.5%). The leaves contain the maximum active principle
content while in the stem it is in lesser amount.
Cultivation: In India, it is cultivated as rainy season (Kharif) crop. Any soil having fair amount of
organic matter is suitable for commercial cultivation of this crop. About 400 gms. seed are
sufficient for one hectare. The spacing is maintained 30 15 cm. No major insect and disease
infestation has been reported. The plants at flowering stage (90120 days after sowing) is cut at the
base leaving 1015 cm stem for plant regeneration. About 5060 days after first harvest, final
harvest is performed. In Indian condition, the yield varies between 20002500 Kg dry herb per
hectare.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Society for Parthenium Management, (SOPAM)
28-A, College Road, Geeta Nagar
Raipur- 492001 India
E-mail: pankajoudhia@usa.net
Homepage: www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/andrographis.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:44 PM]
Andropogon gayanus
Andropogon gayanus Kunth

Poaceae
Gamba grass
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Considered one of the best grazing grasses in northern Nigeria and northern Ghana. Makes
valuable hay and green fodder grass in central and northeastern Brazil. In Africa, this grass grows
in large tufts up to 2 m tall. Young shoots are preferred, but cattle will eat it up to time of
flowering. Stems, flattened, are used for coarse matting (weaving grass mats and thatching). Plants
are useful for planting on banks for erosion control.
Folk Medicine
No data uncovered.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Andropogon_gayanus.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:45 PM]
Andropogon gayanus
Chemistry
On a zero moisture basis, fresh Ghanan grass (19.9% DM) contains 12.9% CP, 25.6% CF, and
8.5% ash; the same (24 weeks old) (59.4% DM) contains 5.4% CP, 29.9% CF, and 5.5 % ash.
Nigerian hay (88.5% DM) contains 6.1% CP, 35.1% CF, 7.9% ash, 1.7% EE, and 49.2% NFE,
while silage (DM 25.0%) contains 5.8% CP, 37.4% CF, 7.4% ash, 1.9% EE, and 47.5% NFE
(Gohl, 1981).
Description
Tall annual or perennial, tussock grass; culms erect, up to 3 m tall, more or less stout, about 0.6 cm
in diameter, glabrous, many-noded, producing flowering branches from the third node upward;
leaves glabrous or softly pubescent, rarely villous or tomentose; sheath tight, striate; ligule short,
rounded or truncate, glabrous or somewhat hairy on back, rarely exceeding 0.2 cm long; lamina
linear to lanceolate-linear in the lower leaves, usually from a much attenuated base and there often
forming a terete petiole, tapering to a fine point, over 30 cm long, up to 1.6 cm broad, glaucescent
or reddish, margin scabrous; inflorescence in panicles up to 6 or more primary mixed 2 to many
rayed tiers, the inner ray of lower or lowest tiers often up to 30 cm long (sometimes up to 60 cm
long), with 24 secondary few-rayed tiers; spatheoles pale green, herbaceous, lanceolate-oblong,
6.57.5 cm long, at length more or less tightly enrolled and turning red; racemes in pairs, 3.56.5
cm long, one sessile, the other with a bare base about 0.4 cm long, joints stout,
cuneate-clubshaped; sessile spikelets greenish or tipped brown or red, about 0.8 cm long including
the obtuse callus; scantily bearded at base; glumes equal; awn 1.32.2 cm long, twisted well below
middle, column brown, bristle pale; pedicellate spikelets male and glabrous. Fl. AprilJune in
tropical Africa.
Germplasm
Several varieties are recognized: var. gayaunus with pedicelled spikelets glabrous, the joints and
pedicles ciliate on one margin only; var. squamulatus, with pedicelled spikelets scaberulous, the
joints and pedicels ciliate on both margins; var. argyophoeus, with pedicelled spikelets plumosely
villous, basal leaves villous; var. bisquamulatus, with pedicelled spikelets not so hairy, basal
leaves not villous. Squamulatus and bisquamulatus are "dry ground" varieties which grow best on
well-drained sandy clays of medium to high fertility (Bowden, 1963). Reported from the Africa
Center of Diversity, gamba grass or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate drought, fire, frost, high pH,
heavy soil, low pH, poor soil, savanna, slope, and waterlogging. Var. gayanus is more likely to
tolerate waterlogging and frosts than the "dry-land" varieties (Duke, 1978). (2n = 20, 40, 44)
Distribution
Native and widely distributed in tropical Africa, north and south of Equator; introduced to other
tropical areas, as tropical Queensland, Brazil, India, and western Australia.
Andropogon gayanus
Ecology
Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, gamba
grass is reported to tolerate annual, precipitation of 8 to 27 dm (mean of 9 cases = 12.2), annual
temperature of 15 to 32C (mean of 9 cases 21.4), and pH of 4.3 to 8.3 (mean of 5 cases = 6.1). In
grassy places, damp places, low-lying meadows, edge of thickets; often forming large areas. Also
thrives in areas with long dry season up to 7 months long. Adapted to a wide range of soil types,
with different ecotypes adapted to various soils varying from sandy to heavy black cracking clays.
Very drought resistant and not to susceptible to frost.
Cultivation
Propagated by seed. Caryopses germinate better with chaff removed and covered over by soil or
sand. Clean seedbed required, but sowing should not be delayed more than 2 months after
beginning of rains (in India). It is often under-sown in corn, sesame or millet. Seeding rate varies:
in Brazil, 5 kg/ha; in Nigeria, 3570 kg/ha, of uncleaned seed. Seed production is often very low.
Sometimes grown in mixture with Clitoria ternatea in tropical Australia. May also be propagated
by splints, those from mature woody stumps doing best (Bowden, 1963). Highest return of dry
matter per unit N (14.4 kg DM/kg N) occurred at 28 kg N/ha; CP content increased only modestly
as N was increased, reaching a maximum 10.5% with the highest N level. At higher levels of N, A.
gayanus was replaced by less desirable grasses (Haggar, 1974). Bogdan (1977) reports trebling of
yields with 100 kg N/ha and double to treble with 20 MT fym/ha.
Harvesting
Plants persist well under grazing, but are only palatable before flowering. The flowering stems,
which are produced in quantity, are hard and should be removed by mowing or burning. Frequent
burning tends to suppress this grass and allows it to be replaced by less useful species. In one
experiment (Bowden, 1963) over three years, plots were cut only when grass reached 6, 9, 12 and
15 dm, necessitating 12, 9, 8 and 7 cuts respectively. The taller the grass when cut, the higher the
annual DM yield. Plants grown in rows gave more DM, CP and soluble carbohydrate than plants
grown in swards.

Haggar (1974) reported yields of 27 MT in 1964, 1012 in 1965, and 612 in 1966, at 0 to ca 200
kg/N/ha respectively. According to Bogdan (1977), this is one of the high yielding grasses of West
Africa, being outyielded by Melinis minutiflora, Panicum maximum and/or Pennisetum
purpureum. Fresh fodder yield of 57 MT are recorded from India, 76 from Mali. From the
Cameroons, DM yields of 7.17.8 MT/ha, 4 MT/DM from Australia, and 2.48.6 MT elsewhere
(Bogdan, 1977). Seed yields up to 30 kg/ha per cut with 3 cuts per year have been recorded in
Brazil. In pure stands in Ghana, dry matter yields per harvest from March 12 to November 12 (in 5
harvests) averages 7,478 kg/ha, with total harvest being 37,391.35 kg/ha. In
Andropogon gayanus
Andropogon-Desmodium stands 34,334 kg/ha; in Andropogon-Centrosema, 30,397.45 kg/ha

(Tetteh, 1972). Widely cultivated and used grass used in tropical Africa (Nigeria and Ghana),
Brazil, India, and Australia for fodder, grazing, hay and to some extent for erosion control.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges from 4 to 25 MT/ha.
According to Gohl, the ME (metabolizable energy) for cattle ranges from 1.71 megacalories/kg
DM in silage to 1.65 in hay, 2.02 in mature forage and 2.33 in early vegetative forage.
Biotic Factors
Following fungi have been reported on this grass: Fusarium moniliforme (on seed), Phyllachora
assimilis, Puccinia erythraeensis, P. versicolor, Sphacelotheca andropogonis, S. ischaemicola.
Nematodes isolated from this grass include: Criconemella sp., Helicotylenchus cavenessi, R.
pseudorobustus, Memicriconemoides cocophilus, Hemicycliophora oostenbrinki, Scutellonema
clathricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus annulatus, Xiphinema ebriense, and X. nigeriense.
References
Bogdan, A.V. 1969. Rhodes grass. Commonwealth Bureau of Pastures and Field Crops,
Hurley, Berkshire, England, Herbage Abstracts 39(1):113.
Bowden, B.N. 1963., Studies on Andropogon gayanus Kunth. I. The use of Andropogan
gayanus in agriculture. Empire J. Exper. Agric. 31(123):267273.
Hagger, R.J. 1974. The effect of quantity, source, and time of application of nitrogen
fertilizers on the yield and quality of Andropogon gayanus at Shika, Nigeria. J. Agr. Sci.
Cambr. 84:529535.
Tetteh, A. 1972. Comparative dry matter yield patterns of grass/legume mixtures and pure
stands (Andropogon gayanus, Digitaria decumbens, Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium
leiocarpum). Ghana J. Agr. Sci. 5(3):195199.
Big bluestem
Big bluestem
Gramineae Andropogon gerardii Vitm.
This is a vigorous, rather coarse bunchgrass, native over most of the United
States; but of major importance in the Central States and the eastern edge of the Great Plains. The
stems, which may reach to 6 feet, are solid between nodes. The leaves reach 12 inches or more in
length, and are 0.5 inch or less in width and hairy near the base. Growth starts late in the spring
and continues throughout the summer, providing good grazing for all kinds of livestock. Good
quality hay is produced if mowed before seed heads have formed. Roots penetrate deeply; but the
grass thrives best on moist, well drained soils of good quality. Propagation is by seeds.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Big_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:28:46 PM]
Sand bluestem
Sand bluestem
Gramineae, Poaceae Andropogon hallii Hack.
This is a sod-forming grass native from North Dakota and Montana south to
Texas and Arizona. It generally resembles big bluestem but differs in having a hairy panicle (the
seed head) and more vigorous rhizomes, resulting in more rapid and extensive lateral spread.
Stems reach up to 7 feet under the best conditions. It is found mainly on deep, sandy soils and is a
valuable range grass on such soil.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sand_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:28:47 PM]
Broomsedge
Broomsedge
Gramineae Andropogon virginicus L.
Broomsedge is a native bunchgrass, widely distributed over the United
States, closely related to big and little bluestem grasses. The palatability of broomsedge is poor, so
it ranks low as livestock feed. However, it thrives on soils of low fertility and is often the dominant
growth on worn out, unproductive soils, affording protection from erosion and some forage.
Because of its low palatability it is not used in seeded pastures.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Broomsedge.html [5/16/2004 1:28:48 PM]
Anethum graveolens
Anethum graveolens L.
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Dill
Last update Monday, March 2, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Anethum_graveolens_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:49 PM]
Angelica archangelica
Angelica archangelica L.
Angelica
Last update Tuesday, December 30, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Angelica_archangelica_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:49 PM]
Purplestem Angelica
Purplestem Angelica
Angelica atropurpurea L.
Synonym.Archangelica atropurpurea Hoffm.
Other common names.American angelica, great angelica, high
angelica, purple angelica, masterwort.
Habitat and range.Purplestem angelica is a native herb, common
in swamps and damp places from Newfoundland to Delaware and
west to Minnesota.
Description.This strong-scented, tall, stout perennial reaches a
height of from 4 to 6 feet. It has a smooth, dark purple, hollow stem 1
to 2 inches in diameter. The leaves are divided into three parts, each of
which is again divided, with many broad leaflets. The lower leaves are
sometimes 2 feet in width, but the upper ones are smaller, and all have Figure 89.Purplestem
very broad stalks. From June to July the greenish-white flowers are
angelica (Angelica
produced in somewhat roundish heads, which sometimes are 8 to 10 atropurpurea)
inches in diameter. The root is branched, from 3 to 6 inches long, and less than an inch in
diameter. It has an aromatic odor, and the taste at first is sweetish and spicy, afterwards bitter. The
fresh root is said to be poisonous.
Part used.The root, dug in autumn. It must be carefully dried and preserved, because it is very
subject to the attacks of insects.
Last update Friday, April 3, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/angelica.html [5/16/2004 1:28:51 PM]
Luffa acutangula
Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.

Cucurbitaceae
Angled luffa, Chinese okra, smooth loofah, sponge
gourd, vegetable sponge
and Mas Yamaguchi
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Luffa_acutangula_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:51 PM]
Anigozanthos
Anigozanthos species
Haemodoraceae
Kangaroo paw
New Flower CropsAbraham H. Halevy
New Floral Crops in the United StatesMark S. Roh and Roger H. Lawson
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Anigozanthos_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:52 PM]
Pimpinella anisum
Pimpinella anisum L.
Anise, Aniseed, jintan, sweet cumin
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pimpinella_anisum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:53 PM]
Annona cherimola
Annona cherimola Mill.

Annonaceae
Anona, Cherimoya, Chirimolla, Chirimoya, Custard
Apple, Sherbet-fruit
NewCROP has Cherimoya information at:
CherimoyaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
AtemoyaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Commercialization of Carambola, Atemoya, and Other
Tropical Fruits in South FloridaJonathan H. Crane
South American Fruits Deserving Further AttentionRichard J. Campbell
Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States. (also includes information on
Annona diversifolia)
Outside links:
Cherimoya Crop Information from University of California Davis
Cherimoya can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
CHERIMOYA"FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the California Rare
Cherimoya nutritional information provided by Frieda's.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Annona_cherimola_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:55 PM]
Wild Custard Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Wild Custard Apple. p. 8688. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Wild Custard Apple

Annona chrysophylla
Description
Origin and Distribution
Varieties
Climate
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Related Species
A noteworthy, useful African member of the Annonaceae is the wild custard apple, Annona
chrysophylla Boj. (syn. A. senegalensis Auct. non Pers., often cited erroneously as A. senegalensis
Pers.). The tree is so popular in its native land that it has acquired a wealth of vernacular names:
wild soursop, in several localities; mavulu, mugosa, mbokwe, makulo, mlamote, etc., in Kenya;
mtopetope and mchekwa in Zanzibar and Pemba; mabengeya, elipo, obwolo, ovolo, etc., in
Uganda; aboboma, batanz; bangoora, bullimbuga, etc., in Ghana; mposa, muroro and mponjela in
former Nyasaland; dilolo, iolo, and malolo in Angola; sougni; mete, dangan, sounsoun, tangasou,
dougour, ianouri; ndong, anigli in former French West Africa.
Description
This is a sprawling shrub or a tree to 20 ft (6 m) high with smooth, silvery bark. The leaves are
aromatic, deciduous, alternate, blue-green, broad-elliptic or broadovate, 3 to 7 in (7.5-17.5 cm)
long, 1 1/2 to 4 in (4-10 cm) wide, rounded at apex and base, blue-green above, downy,
prominently veined beneath. The flowers, borne singly or in pairs in the leaf axils on stalks 1 to 1
1/2 in (2.5-4 cm) long, are clasped by a 3-parted calyx and have 3 triangular, thick, waxy, velvety,
whitish outer petals, 3 pale-yellow inner petals, and numerous stamens. Typically compound, the
pineapple-scented fruit is smooth but with the carpers distinctly outlined on the surface; yellow or
orange when ripe; rounded oval; 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long; fleshy; seedy.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/wild_custard_apple_ars.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:28:57 PM]
Wild Custard Apple
This species is native and common in savannas throughout tropical Africa from the Cape Verde
Islands and the Nile and Upper Guinea to the Transvaal and Zululand. It is little-known outside its
natural range. It was long ago introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture into
Florida as a potential rootstock for related species, and into Puerto Rico in 1924 and again in 1925
and grown at the Insular Experiment Station, Rio Piedras. According to G.L. Cruz (1979),
verbatim from his 1965 publication (see Bibliography), it has become well established as araticum
da areia in Brazil, especially around Minas Gerais, Bahia and Espirito Santo, but he describes the
fruit as rough-surfaced and 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) in diameter, so he must have it confused with
some other species unless there is great variation among seedlings.
Varieties
The botanical variety, deltoides, with elliptic to oblongelliptic leaves, rounded to broadly deltoid at
the base, is the most common form in Ghana. Eggeling mentions a variety porpetac in Uganda
with oblong-elliptic, ovalelliptic or elliptic leaves, rounded-obtuse or broadly cuneate at the base.
There is reportedly a dwarf form, the fruits of which are borne so low they touch the ground, and
are of better quality than those of taller types.
Climate
The wild custard apple is limited to tropical areas up to an elevation of 5,000 ft (1,500 m) and
thrives best where its roots can reach water. It remains leafless for several months in the dry
season.
Food Uses
The fruit pulp is edible and said to have an apricot-like flavor. Williamson quotes an unidentified
source as saying that it is one of the best of the indigenous fruits in parts of tropical Africa. It is
much appreciated in the wild by shepherds. According to Irvine, the unopened flower buds are
used in soup and to season native dishes; and the leaves are eaten.
Food Value
The dried leaves contain 8.2% protein.
Other Uses
Fruit: The green fruit, because of its high tannin content, is made into ink.
Leaves: Fresh leaves are employed as fodder for domestic animals. Boiled leaves serve as native
perfume, and dried leaves are used as filling for mattresses.
Wood: The soft, grayish wood is fashioned into hoe handles and employed in building huts.
Ashes: The wood ashes are used in making soap and native snuff.
Bark and roots: The bark yields a yellow or brown dye. It is pounded in water and the liquid is
then used as a hair dressing. A poor-quality fiber derived from the bark is made into rope for tying
fences. A combination of the bark and roots serves as an insecticide, and the root has been used for
homicidal purposes. The irritant, gummy sap of the bark is an adhesive for arrow poison. There are
many superstitious uses of the various parts of the plant.
Wild Custard Apple
Medicinal Uses: Fresh fruits in quantity and dried fruits are applied on Guinea worm sores. The
parched green fruits are taken to relieve diarrhea and dysentery. A tea of the young leafy twigs or
of the roots is taken to alleviate pulmonary complaints. An infusion of the leaves is a popular eye
lotion. Dried, powdered leaves are regarded as purgative and as a remedy for mucous diarrhea.
With quantities of water, the pulverized leaves are given to horses to expel worms. Combined with
the roots and bark and other materials, they are said to be effective in treating yaws in horses. The
leaves also enter into a tonic for horses. Venereal diseases and intestinal disorders are treated with
preparations of the roots. The bark is chewed to relieve stomachache. It is an emetic and a
vermifuge and is given to overcome convulsions in children. The bark infusion, held in the mouth,
relieves toothache. In the Upper Volta, an ointment made from the bark is applied on burns. Bark
and roots together will halt dysentery, expel worms, and are part of a remedy for sleeping sickness.
The root infusion is employed as eye drops. Charcoal of the burned roots is applied on twitching
eyelids. The root bark is considered an antidote for snakebite and is used by Nigerian medicine
men as a cancer remedy. Investigations have revealed antitumor activity against sarcoma 180
ascites, and antibiotic activity. The trunk bark contains alkaloids, including 0.02% anonaine, also
tannins and saponins. The leaves contain rutin, quercetin and quercetrin.
Related Species
The mountain soursop, A. montana Macf.
(syns. A. Marcgravii Mart.; A.
sphaerocarpa Splitg.; A. Pisonis Mart.) is
also called wild soursop, guanabana
cimarrona, guanabana de perro,
guanabana de loma, corossol zombi;
corossolier batard, boszuurzak,
araticum-ponhe and araticum de paca. It
grows wild from sea-level to 2, 000 ft (650
m) throughout the West Indies and
southward into Peru and Brazil, and is
cultivated in the Philippines and rarely in
Fig. 25: The scarcely-edible mountain soursop (Annona
Florida.
montana).
The tree somewhat resembles that of the soursop but has a more spreading crown and very glossy
leaves. It is slightly hardier and bears more or less continuously. The fruit is nearly round or
broad-ovoid, to 6 in (15 cm) long. Its dark-green skin is studded with numerous short, fleshy
";spines";. It becomes very soft and falls when ripe. The pulp is yellow, peculiarly aromatic, sour
to subacid and bitter, fibrous, and contains many light-brown, plump seeds. The quality is variable
but generally very poor. The fruit is generally regarded as inedible but is referred to as ";edible but
mediocre"; in Brazil. There, the firm core attached to the base of the peduncle is pulled out and
eaten as a tidbit. In southern Florida, exotic parrots eat the fruits and scatter the seeds, and a few
trees are consequently occurring as escapes. The tree is of minor interest to horticulturists as an
ornamental and rootstock. The wood is soft, fibrous and useful only as fuel.
The pond apple, A. glabra L. (syn. A. palustris L.), is also called alligator apple, monkey apple,
custard apple, corkwood, mamon de perro, cayur, cayuda, and various other colloquial names. It
grows wild in the Florida Everglades and in coastal swamps and marshes of the Bahamas and
Wild Custard Apple
throughout the West Indies, in southern Mexico, Central America, and southward into Peru and
Argentine; also on the coast of West Tropical Africa. It is occasionally planted in southern Florida
and has been introduced into Malaya and the Philippines.
The tree may reach 45 ft (13.5 m), is rather open and spreading; may become very thick at the
base; has glossy, leathery, deciduous leaves. The fruit is oval or heartshaped, to 5 in (12.5 cm)
long with thin, faintly reticulated, glossy yellow skin and salmon-colored, resinous, subacid, dryish
pulp containing many light-brown, flattened-oval, longitudinally-winged seeds that float on water.
When fully ripe and soft, the pulp is edible and some specimens are of fair quality and have been
made into jelly or wine. The pond apple is of value as a ";survival"; food in extremity and of great
importance as fare for wild creatures. Fishermen fashion the light, corklike wood into floats. The
leaf decoction is a common, multipurpose folk remedy in the Netherlands Antilles, Mexico and
South America. Seedlings are useful as rootstock for other Annona species in wet soils.
Annona diversifolia
Annona diversifolia Saff.

Annonaceae
Ilama, Anona blanca
NewCROP has Ilama information at:
IlamaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
(eds.). Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p. 47-62.
Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.(also includes information on
Annona diversifolia)
last update Thursday, January 28, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Annona_diverisfolia_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:58 PM]
Annona muricata
Annona muricata L.
Annonaceae
Soursop, Dutch durian, guanabana
SoursopJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Annona_muricata_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:28:58 PM]
Soncoya

Morton, J. 1987. Soncoya. p. 85. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Soncoya
Annona purpurea
Description
Climate
Season
Food Uses
Toxicity
Medicinal Uses
Among lesser species of the family Annonaceae, the soncoya, Annona purpurea Moc. & Sesse
(syns. A. manirote HBK. A. involucrata Baill., A. prestoli Hemsl.) is called cabeza de negro,
cabeza de ilama, chincua, ilama, or ilama de Tehuantepec in Mexico; anona sincuya, chincuya,
cabeza de muerto, sencuya, suncuyo, soncolla, or matacuy in Guatemala; guanabano torete or
toreta in Panama; gallina gorda, guanabano pun, or matimba in Colombia; castiguire, manire,
manirote, tiragua, or tucuria in Venezuela.
Description
The tree is small to medium, to 20 or even 33 ft (6-10 m) high, with short trunk to 1 1/2 ft (45 cm)
in diameter, and spreading branches, which are rusty woolly when young. The deciduous leaves
are alternate, short-petioled, undulate, oblong-elliptic or oblong-lanceolate to oblongobovate, 8 to
12 in (20-30 cm) long and 4 to 5 1/2 in (1014 cm) wide, acuminate at the apex, brown-hairy on
both surfaces and with prominent veins beneath. Strongscented flowers, which emerge with the
new leaves, are solitary, fleshy, large, conical, usually enclosed at first by a pair of bracts; are held
at the base by a rusty-hairy, 3 parted calyx, and have 3 very thick outer petals, brownhairy outside,
yellowish and purple mottled within, and 3 smaller, thinner inner petals, creamy white outside,
purple inside. The fruit, thick stalked, is ovoid or nearly round, 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) wide, set with
hard, somewhat 4-sided, conical protuberances, each tipped with a curved hook, and is coated
overall with a brown felt. The pulp is agreeably aromatic, suggesting the mango; abundant, yellow
or orange, soft, fibrous, of mild, agreeable flavor. Seeds are numerous, obovate, 1 to 1 3/16 in
(2.5-3 cm) long, dark-brown, and each is enclosed in a thin, closefitting membrane. The fruit
carpers separate easily when ripe.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/soncoya.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:59 PM]
Soncoya

The soncoya is native and common in coastal lowlands from southern Mexico to Panama,
Colombia and Venezuela. It is grown in dooryards and the fruit is sold in local markets, though it
is of mediocre quality and not popular because it is outwardly so hard. The tree was introduced
into the Philippines in the early 1900's, grew well and flowered at Lamao but apparently did not
set fruit for several years. It was planted at the Federal Experiment Station at Mayaguez, Puerto
Rico, in 1918 and in St. Croix in 1930. Several trees have grown well and borne poorly at the
Lancetilla Experimental Garden, Tela, Honduras.
Climate
The soncoya requires a hot, humid climate and it never occurs at an altitude higher than 4,000 ft
(1,200 m).
Season
The fruits ripen in August in Yucatan; generally in the fall in Central America.
Food Uses
In Colombia, the pulp is eaten raw or is strained for juice, drunk as a beverage or folk remedy.
Toxicity
The seed extract destroys fleas. In Guatemala and Costa Rica, rural people believe the fruit to be
unwholesome.
Medicinal Uses
In Mexico, soncoya juice is regarded as a remedy for fever and chills. Elsewhere it is given to
relieve jaundice (probably because of its color). The bark decoction is effective against dysentery
and a tea of the inner bark is administered in cases of edema.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/soncoya.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:28:59 PM]
Annona reticulata
Annona reticulata L.
Annonaceae
Custard Apple
Custard AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Annona reticulata Neglected Crops : 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo
Bermejo and J. Len (eds.). Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p.
85-92.
Last update Thursday, January 28, 1999, by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Annona_reticulata_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:00 PM]
Custard apples

Neglected Crops : 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len
Custard apples
(Annona spp.)
The author of this chapter is H. Mahdeem (Boynton Beach, Florida, USA).
There are an estimated 2200 species of Annonaceae in the world. These include numerous
fruit-trees, especially of the genera Annona and Rollinia; the majority of Annona species and all
the Rollinia species originate from the New World.
Many of these species were carefully cultivated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica, the
inter-Andean valleys, the Amazon region and other areas. Other Annonaceous fruits of the New
World include species of Asimina, Duguetia, Fusaea and Porcelia. These fruit-trees have a
considerable diversity and degree of adaptation to different environments and are valuable material
for hybridization, selection and vegetative propagation studies. The high nutritional value of the
fruit, its very distinct flavours and aromas and its attractive shapes and colours justify these efforts.
There are three species, Annona cherimola, A. muricata and A. squamosa, which are marginal in
several regions of tropical America; in other regions, the technology for producing and handling
the product has been developed to such a degree that they cannot really be included in this
category. The known techniques and selected cultivars can be extended to regions where
cultivation is still underdeveloped. Another three, A. diversifolia, A. reticulata and A. scleroderma,
however, have been marginalized in spite of their intrinsic value and potential as fruit-trees.
The fruit of the Annonaceae must not be seen solely as a luxury item for rich consumers, but also
as part of the diet of indigenous populations. This fruit is not only special because of its good
flavour; it is also highly nutritional. Its food value varies considerably, but most forms have an
abundance of carbohydrates, proteins, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, niacin and riboflavin,
while some are rich in magnesium, ascorbic acid and carotene. If they were plentiful and sold at
reasonable prices, they would considerably improve the nutrition of many people.
Annona cherimola Miller, the cherimoya, is thought to originate from cold but frost-free valleys of
the Andes at an altitude of between 700 and 2400 m.
Excellent cultivars are known, all produced by vegetative propagation, which are planted on a
commercial scale in Spain, Chile, Australia, Israel, the United States (California, Florida) and the
island of Madeira. The fruit is sold in the supermarkets of many countries and is highly regarded.
The commercial cultivars include Bay Ott, Chaffey, Dr White, Libby, Nata, Orton and Spain.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/annonas.html (1 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:29:02 PM]
Custard apples
In the regions where the cherimoya is still a marginal crop, new methods must be applied: artificial
pollination, grafting of superior cultivars either on to stock of the same species or on to stock of A.
squamosa or A. glahra; the control of anthracnosis and seed-boring insects; the control of green
leaflhoppers; and fruit handling and packaging.
A. muricata L. (English. soursop; Spanish: guanbana; Portuguese: graviola) is possibly native to
the Antilles and to the northern part of South America. It grows between 0 and 1000 m altitude. Its
commercial production has been developed in Brazil, Venezuela, Costa Rica and other countries
for local consumption and export. Cultivation practices have been established in the production
areas mentioned; they include the control of insects and diseases and protection of the fruit in
plastic bags. There is a great deal of variation in fruit size and sugar content. Trees of higher
quality or resistance must be grafted on to stocks of the same species of A. purpurea and A.
montana or, with great difficulty, on A. glabra.
A. squamosa L. (English: sugar apple, sweetsop, custard apple; Spanish: sarumuyo, ann;
Portuguese: ata, pinha) seems to be native to southeastern Mexico, in dry areas and between 0 and
1000 m, although it grows well in regions of medium humidity. It has spread throughout the
tropics and displays great variability in India. It is propagated by seed with satisfactory results;
however. commercial cultivars are grafted. Of these. Red Sugar, with a red skin and white flesh, is
recommended. The main problems are seedboring insects, the green leaflhopper, the tendency
towards mummification of the fruit and harvesting and packaging difficulties caused by the fruit's
lack of firmness.
The name "atemoyas", derived from "ata" (in Portuguese) and "cherimoya", is given to hybrids
between these two species. Several cultivars are known which are sown commercially in the
United States (Florida) and Australia. The best atemoyas combine adaptation to low altitudes and
hot climate and the high productivity and good flavour of A. squamosa with the firm skin, low
flesh/seed ratio and the flavour and aroma of A. cherimola so that, from the standpoint of quality
and packaging, the product is comparable to the best cherimoyas, although it has a higher sugar
content. At present, crosses are being made between cultivars of cherimoya and A. squamosa Red
Sugar and M-2, with the aim of obtaining atemoyas with red- or pink-skinned fruit, which is more
attractive than the green fruit of those currently available. The most famous green cultivars are
Gefner in Israel and the United States and African Pride in Australia.
Annona diversifolia
Botanical name: Annona diversifolia Saff.
Family: Annonaceae
Common names. English: llama; Spanish: anona blanca; other: llama, ilamatzapotl, izlama,
papausa
This fruit-tree, which is very highly regarded in its area of origin, has not been developed as it
deserves, since it is virtually planted exclusively by indigenous peoples. Although it is greatly
esteemed and fetches a good price on the markets of Guatemala, its cultivation does not attract
other agricultural owners, nor do the latter obtain bank credit for this tree, whereas they do obtain
Custard apples
it for exotic fruit-trees. Other factors that add to its neglect are: the tree's low productivity; the
difficulty of seed germination (although methods to encourage germination artificially are already
known); and the short shelf-life of the fruit at the markets (two to three days at ambient
temperature). If it is left to ripen on the tree, the fruit splits, but if it is picked in this state and
stored at normal temperature, the splits scar over. In Guatemala, it is customary to pick the fruit
split in this way and to ripen them subsequently in crates or other closed places.
A. diversifolia is distinguished from other species of Annona in that it has two classes of leaf: the
usual obovate, glabrous leaves with a petiole; and leaves in the form of round, deciduous bracts
without a petiole, which grow on the base of the small branches. The undersides of the leaves,
small branches and fruit have a powdery, whitish appearance, which is more noticeable in the
white-fleshed varieties.
The flowers have three outer petals that are 2 to 5 cm long, and three minute inner petals; the
colour is a varietal characteristic and ranges from pink to purplish red.
The fruit, which is about 12 cm long, has white, pink or reddish flesh, with a typical aroma and a
sweet, exquisite flavour which, according to most people, is superior to that of the cherimoya. The
fruit is very resistant and sometimes completely immune to attack from seed-boring insects.
Custard apples
Figure 7. Custard apples: A) Annona scleroderma; B) A. diversifolia; C) A. reticulate; D) A.

cherimola; E) A. muricata; F) A. squamosa

The llama grows between 0 and 1800 m on the Pacific slope from central Mexico to El Salvador,
but it is sown more intensively between 200 and 600 m in southwestern Guatemala. This region
has a pronounced dry season (December to March), with an annual rainfall of between 1000 and
1400 mm and very fertile volcanic soils.
Genetic diversity
A. diversifolia is grown alone in vegetable gardens with few trees, and a wide variability is noted.
This is particularly expressed in the characteristics of its fruit: its colour (see list of cultivars): its
texture, which can range from slightly pasty to juicy, soft or with concentrations of harder grain;
and its sweet taste, with a typical aroma. Following is a list of A. diversifolia cultivars:
Fairchild, Rosendo Prez, Guillermo and Gramajo have a thick-skinned, greyish green
fruit with prominent round areoles and pink flesh. Rosendo Perz and Gramajo have big
fruit. (These cultivars have been bred for Florida.)
Custard apples
Imery (bred in El Salvador) has big fruit that has a thinner skin, low prominences, is pinkish
green (greyish brown when ripe) and has pink flesh with bolder spots.
Pajapita has a soft, pink surface (brown when ripe) and bright-pink flesh.
Nilito has a slightly irregular surface, which is bluish green, and red flesh.
Roman has smaller fruit with a hard skin, which is bluish green with pink spots, and purple
flesh.
Genova white has a smooth, thin, whitish green skin, and white flesh.
Efrain has up to 200 fruits per tree.
Guatemalan markets sell an llama that has bluish green fruit, with swirling marks such as those in
a Van Gogh painting, and delicious bright-red flesh which is easily separated from the seeds. The
trees from which this fruit comes have not yet been studied.
The only region to be evaluated as regards genetic erosion is southwestern Guatemala, where the
problem does not seem to be serious. There are no gene banks, nor are any preservation techniques
known other than live collections. The most promising areas for future exploration are
southwestern Guatemala and the state of Chiapas in Mexico.
The llama is only grown together with other fruit trees, on the patios of houses or on smallholdings
belonging to indigenous peoples. It is always propagated by seed with a long dormancy period
which is difficult to interrupt. The seeds should not be sown without being pretreated to interrupt
dormancy, such as soaking them in a solution of gibberellic acid, exposing them to the sun,
immersing them in hot water or storing them for two to three months.
Prospects for improvement In the case of A. diversifolia, urgent work is needed in the following
areas:
vegetative propagation, by grafting, of the best varieties, using various stocks and grafting
methods;
effective interruption of seed dormancy;
picking and commercial handling of the fruit;
increasing the production period (July-August) by selecting early and late varieties;
the establishment of gene banks, at least in localities of the Pacific area of Central America
and Mexico;
stepping up exploration of the species' production areas in Mexico, Guatemala and El
Salvador;
hybridization with other species of Annona for the production of more adaptable varieties;
research on stock of the related wild species A. macroprophyllata, from Guatemala and El
Salvador;
research into the possibility that the absence of mycorrhizae or other soil factors are
responsible for the growth of this species in other regions of Mesoamerica with favourable
climate and soils, and into the possible use of grafting in these cases.
Custard apples
Annona reticulata
Botanical name: Annona reticulata L.
Family: Annonaceae
Common names. English: bullock's heart, custard apple, sugar apple; Spanish. anona, anona
colorada, anona rosada, corazn; Portuguese: corao de boi; other: cahuex, pox, qualtzapotl,
tzumuy
Althosugh it is said that A. reticulata is a native of the Antilles. the presence in Guatemala and
Belize of a wild variety, A. reticulata var. primigenia, and also of a very wide variability of
cultivars suggests that this zone is the species' area of origin. It has been introduced in other
regions of the American tropics and Southeast Asia, without achieving a level of importance
comparable to that of A. cherimola or A. squamosa.
Of the causes of A. reticulata's current marginalization, two seem to be the most notable:
reproduction by seed, which results in many trees producing much smaller fruit; and the attack of
the seed weevil which lays its eggs in the young fruit. When the adult insect develops, it bores
tunnels through the flesh, causing mycotic infections and a consequent deterioration of the fruit.
The most attractive aspects of this species are: its pleasant-tasting fruit, which is generally sweet
and creamy; the relatively small volume taken up by the skin and seed; and the plant's modest soil
requirements.
A. reticulata is a low tree with an open, irregular crown and slender, glabrous leaves which in
some varieties are long and narrow, 10 to 20 x 2 to 7 cm, straight and pointed at the apex; and in
other varieties wrinkled and up to 10 cm wide. The flowers are generally in groups of three or four,
with three long outer petals and three very small inner ones. The fruit is heart-shaped or spherical
and 8 to 15 cm in diameter; according to the cultivar, the flesh varies from juicy and very aromatic
to hard with a repulsive taste. There is a wide variability in the presence of groups of hard cells
that are similar to grains of sand. Both the outside and inside colour varies according to the
cultivar.

A. reticulata grows between 0 and 1500 m in the areas of Central America that have alternating
seasons, and has spread to South America. However, it is in the former region that the varieties
previously classified as species are to be found: primigenia, already mentioned; and lutescens. the
yellow custard apple which grows from Mexico to Costa Rica.
Custard apples
Genetic diversity
In Florida (United States) superior cultivars have been selected. especially from Belize and
Guatemala. They differ in the characteristics of their fruit and even in their compatibility with
stocks.
Tikal is of excellent quality and medium yield; its flesh is bright-red, except in the white
areas surrounding the seeds.
Canul has a medium fruit with a waxy, shiny dark-red surface and purplish red flesh; it is
very aromatic and deliciously sweet with few concretions of hard cells.
Sartenaya has a medium fruit with a waxy, shiny red surface and pink flesh with a
magnificent taste and texture. Although the fruit is not as attractive in appearance as that of
the previous two cultivars. the tree is sturdier.
San Pablo has a long, large fruit with an opaque, light-red surface. The flesh is dark-pink
with a good aroma and taste. It is a vigorous, productive cultivar.
Benque has a big conical fruit with a dark-red surface and very tasty dark-pink flesh.
Caledonia has a small fruit with a dark surface: it is very attractive to cochineal insects
(Philophaedra sp.), which are not very common in other varieties. The flesh is pink and has
an excellent taste.
Chonox has a medium fruit with a red skin and juicy. very tasty pink flesh; it is very
productive and, for this reason, often has low-quality fruit. It produces abundant flowers in
groups of up to 16.
No selections have been made from yellow custard apple and there are apparently no great risks of
genetic erosion. It is possible that more intensive exploration in Belize, Guatemala and El Salvador
might allow new cultivars to be found.
A. reticulata is generally propagated by seed, the germination rate of which ranges from low to
medium. Grafting is usually done on stock of the same species. The fruit is harvested after its
colour changes patterns although in some cultivars this does not occur and ripeness is determined
by feel. The skin is very thin and the fruit must therefore be handled carefully. Most fruit is
produced for family consumption and it is not commonly found on the markets outside Guatemala.
The commercial future of this species depends on two factors: the establishment of grafted trees of
high-yielding cultivars with fruit of a high quality and good appearance; and the adoption of
control practices such as using protective bags or eradicating seed-boring insects.
Annona scleroderma
Botanical name: Annona scleroderma Saff.
Family: Annonaceae
Common names. English: poshte; Spanish. chirimoya, anona del monte; other: cawesh, cahuex,
posht
Custard apples
A. scleroderma is one of the least-known fruit trees of the genus; it is grown mainly in
southwestern Guatemala and is notable for the structure of its fruit which, unlike the other
cultivated species, has a very tough skin, allowing it to be handled much more easily and making it
resistant to insect attack. The fruit may be cut and the flesh removed with a spoon. Its potential
value is in its high-quality flesh, hard skin and high yield. It could become an export item and a
product for wide local consumption.
However, the height of the tree (which does not facilitate fruit harvesting), the fact that the fruit is
attacked by birds and the defoliation caused by wind are an obstacle to exploitation of this species.
A. scleroderma is a tall tree which reaches 15 to 20 m and has tough, lanceolate leaves measuring
10 to 25 x 5 to 8 cm. They are shiny on the upper side, slightly pubescent on the underside and
have fragile, 3 cm long petioles. The flowers are greenish yellow, the outer petals have a
longitudinal prominence which arises in the small branches or in groups in the old part of the thick
branches. The fruit occurs in compact spherical groups, is 5 to 10 cm in diameter and generally
falls off when ripe, without a noticeable colour change. The cream-coloured flesh has a bittersweet
flavour and a soft texture.

This species apparently grows wild on the Atlantic slope from Campeche to Honduras but is only
grown in southwestern Guatemala between 300 and 1000 m on the Pacific slope. In this area.
which is called the Bocacosta and has very fertile volcanic soils, there is a short dry season and an
annual rainfall of around 4000 mm. The plant fruits between late December and April, with a
maximum yield around the beginning of February.
Genetic diversity
The most visible characteristic of variability is in the fruit's surface. The areoles are generally
marked by raised edges which form a hexagon. In some varieties, the edges are reduced to a
crisscross of brown lines on a smooth, green surface; in other varieties, there is a central
prominence on each areole; in some varieties there are well developed edges and prominences,
while still others have an irregular, corrugated surface. The fruit also seems to vary in the thickness
of its skin, which is on average 3 mm, but slightly thicker and tougher in the smooth-skinned
varieties. The Pacific varieties are green or green with brown spots, while those from the Atlantic
side have a thicker, reddish green skin.
No cultivars are known to be established by vegetative propagation. Genetic erosion is evident,
since it is a crop with a restricted area in a highly populated region where land is required for
building or cultivating coffee. Trees which were sown on coffee plantations have been destroyed
or deformed because they produce too much shade or because they were damaged by children
picking their fruit.
Genetic erosion is very pronounced in A. scleroderma; there are no gene banks and a few plants
have been introduced into Australia and the United States ( Florida). For this reason, material
Custard apples
urgently needs to be collected in southwestern Guatemala (from San Felipe, San Andrs Villa
Seca, San Sebastin, Colomba, El Tumbador, etc.).
Fresh seeds take about a month to germinate. whether they are collected and dried on the same day
or stored in bags for a week or two. They do not need to be soaked or treated in any other way.
Seeds that have been stored for two to three months need about six months to germinate. In
Australia, A. scleroderma grows well when grafted on to stocks of A. muricata and Rollinia
mucosa. When grafted material is planted. it must be borne in mind that the trees should be pruned
so that a wide crown remains to facilitate fruit harvesting. This also reduces exposure to wind and
bird damage.
The shade requirements of young plantsshade seems to promote growthneed to be studied.
However, trees located in sunny positions would have a lower, more compact habit. Trees grown
from seed begin to produce at around tour years when they reach a height of 4 to 6 m.

The advantages of A. scleroderma as a fruit for local consumption and export are its high
productivity and the fact that the flavour and aroma of its flesh are not as strong as in other Annona
species, but are different and pleasant. The abundant, cream-coloured or creamy grey flesh
separates easily from the seeds and it does not have sandy grains or fibres that adhere to the seed
membrane. The thick, leathery skin does not split and is very resistant to insect attack and ordinary
packaging and transport.
Activities that merit close attention regarding A. scleroderma are:
the collection and evaluation of genetic material;
propagation through grafting on to stock of the same species or related species to obtain low
trees with an open crown, which facilitate fruit harvesting;
running small market gardens or interplanted crops;
marketing, since it is a "new" fruit even for Guatemalan markets;
packaging and transport technology to prolong the good condition of the fruit and its
acceptance on the market.
Bibliography
Ahmed, M.S. 1936. Pollination and selection in Annona squamosa and Annona cherimola.
Ministry of Agric. Egypt Bull., 157.
Campbell, C.W. & Popenoe, J. 1968. Effect of gibberellic acid on seed dormancy of Annona
diversifolia Saff. Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., I 1: 31-36.
Caizares, J. 1966. Las frutas anonceas. Havana.
Fairchild Tropical Garden. 1990. Annona issue. Trop. Fruit World, 1(4): 93-131.
Leal, F. 1990. Sugar apple. In S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw & W.F. Wardowsky, eds. Fruits of
Custard apples
tropical and subtropical origin. Lake Alfred, Fla., USA, FSS.

Lizama, L.A. & Reginato, G. l990. Cherimoya. In S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw & W.F. Wardowsky,
eds. Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin. Lake Alfred, Fla., USA, FSS.
Morton, J. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Greensboro, N.C., USA, Media.
Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of tropical and subtropical fruits. New York, Macmillan.
Safford, W.E. 1912. Annona diversifolia, a custard-apple of the Aztecas. J. Wash. Agric.
Sci., 2: 118-125.
Safford, W.E. 1914. Classification of the genus Annona with descriptions of new and
imperfectly known species. Contr. US Natl. Herb., 18(1): 1-68.
Sanewski, G.M. 1988. Growing custard apples. Queensland Department of Primary
Industries and Energy, Australia.
Schwarzenberg, C. 1946. Polinizacin artificial del chirimoyo. Agric. Tec. (Chile), 4:
156-172.
last update Tuesday, May 05, 1998 by aw
Annona squamosa
Annona squamosa L.
Annonaceae
Custard apple, Anona, Bullock's-heart, Corazon,
Nona, Pawpaw, Sugar apple
Sugar AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Custard AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
H. Crane
Food and feed crops of the United States.Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Annona_squamosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:03 PM]
Eragrostis tef
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter

Poaceae
Teff, annual bunch grass, lovegrass, t'ef, toff,
warm-season annual bunch grass
Ethiopian: Tef
Oromigna: Tafi
Tigrigna: Taf
Teff FactSHEETcontributed by Gilbert F. Stallknecht
Teff: Food Crop for Humans and AnimalsG.F.
Stallknecht, K.M. Gilbertson, and J.L. Eckhoff
See: TeffIn: The Western Regional Plant Introduction
Station: A source of germplasm for new crop development.
Bradley, V.L., R.C. Johnson, R.M. Hannan, D.M. Stout, and R.L. Clark. 1993. p. 99-102. In: J.
Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New Crops. Wiley, New York.
Love grassesIn: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
Including the following:
Boer lovegrass, Eragrostis chloromelas
Weeping lovegrass, Eragrostis curvula
Lehmann lovegrass, Eragrostis lehmanniana
Sand lovegrass. Eragrostis trichodes
Outside links:
Teffrom Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
Tefby Beyfu KetemaLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eragrostis_tef_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:04 PM]
Artemesia_annua
Artemisia annua L.
Asteraceae, or Compositae
annual wormwood, sweet annie,
sweet wormwood, qinghao (Chinese)
NewCROP information sources forArtemisia annua L. :
FactSHEET contributed by: Jules Janick
Artemisia annua L.: A Promising Aromatic and MedicinalJames E. Simon, Denys Charles,
Ernst Cebert, Lois Grant, Jules Janick, and Anna Whipkey
Distribution of Artemisinin in Artemisia annuaJorge F.S. Ferreira and Jules Janick
Effect of Water Stress and Post-harvest Handling on Artemisinin Content in the Leaves of
Artemisia annua L.Denys J. Charles, James E. Simon, Clinton C. Shock, Erik B.G. Feibert, and
Robin M. Smith
For a source for large-quantities of commercial of high-quality artemisia leaf extracts:
Grown by:
Burka Coffee Estates LTD.
P.O. Box 90
Arusha, Tanzania
And Marketed by:
Axel Bolte
Susenbergstrasse 158
CH-8044 Zurich Switzerland
tel: +41-1-364-1812
FAX: +41-1-364-2463
moble: : +41-70-404-0818
email: bolte@access.ch
Links to related species:
Artemisia abrotanum
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artemisia_annua_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:05 PM]
Artemesia_annua
last update October 21, 1997 bha
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artemisia_annua_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:05 PM]
Anthriscus cerefolium
Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm.

Chervil, Garden Chervil, Leaf Chervil, Salad
Chervil, Sweet Cicely, Turnip Chervil, Turnip-rooted Chervil
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Anthriscus_cerefolium_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:05 PM]
Bignay

Morton, J. 1987. Bignay. p. 210212. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Bignay
Antidesma bunius Spreng.
Description
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
When Corner referred to this member of the Euphorbiaceae as a "shady, rather gloomy tree", he
could not have been viewing it in fruit, a spectacle that has always aroused enthusiasm. The
colorful bignay, Antidesma bunius Spreng., is called bignai in the Philippines; buni or berunai in
Malaya; wooni or hooni, in Indonesia; ma mao luang in Thailand; kho lien tu in Laos; choi moi in
Vietnam; moi-kin and chunka by the aborigines in Queensland. Among English names are Chinese
laurel, currant tree, nigger's cord, and salamander tree.
Description
The tree may be shrubby, 10 to 26 ft (3-8 m) high, or may reach up to 50 or even 100 ft (15-30 m).
It has wide-spreading branches forming a dense crown. The evergreen, alternate leaves are oblong,
pointed, 4 to 9 in (10-22.5 cm) long, 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) wide, dark-green, glossy, leathery, with
very short petioles. The tiny, odorous, reddish male and female flowers are produced on separate
trees, the male in axillary or terminal spikes, the female in terminal racemes 3 to 8 in (7.5-20 cm)
long. The round or ovoid fruits, up to 1/3 in (8 mm) across, are borne in grapelike, pendent clusters
(often paired) which are extremely showy because the berries ripen unevenly, the pale
yellowish-green, white, bright-red and nearly black stages present at the same time. The skin is
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bignay_ars.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:29:12 PM]
Bignay
thin and tough but yields an abundance of

bright-red juice which leaves a purple stain
on fabrics, while the pulp, only 1/8 in (3
mm) thick is white with colorless juice.
Whole fruits are very acid, much like
cranberries, when unripe; are subacid,
slightly sweet, when fully ripe. Some tasters
detect a bitter principle or "unpleasant
aftertaste" which is unnoticeable to others.
There is a single, straw-colored stone, an
irregular, flattened oval, ridged or fluted,
very hard, 3/8 in (1 cm) long, 1/4 in (6 mm)
wide.
P.J. Wester mentions a "very distinct and
superior variety" as reliably reported from
the Mountain Province, Philippines.
The bignay is native and common in the
Plate XXVI: BIGNAY, Antidesma bunius
wild from the lower Himalayas in India,
Ceylon, and southeast Asia (but not Malaya) to the Philippines and northern Australia. It is an
abundant and invasive species in the Philippines; occasionally cultivated in Malaya; grown in
every village in Indonesia where the fruits are marketed in clusters.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from the Philippines in 1905 (S.P.I.
#18393); twice in 1913 (S.P.I. #36088 and #34691), and again in 1918 (S.P.I. #46704). Quite a
few trees have been planted in southern Florida in the past and the fruits were formerly appreciated
as a source of juice for jelly, commercialized in a limited way, but are rarely so used today. There
are specimens in experimental stations in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Honduras and Hawaii.
Climate
The tree is not strictly tropical for it has proved to be hardy up to central Florida. It thrives in Java
from sea-level to 4,000 ft (1,200 m). It grows well and flowers but does not set fruit in Israel.
Propagation
Many seeds are non-viable in Florida, perhaps because of inadequate pollination. Since seedlings
may turn out to be male, and female seedlings may not bear for a number of years, vegetative
propagation is preferred. The tree is readily multiplied by cuttings, grafting or air-layering. The
air-layers have borne fruit in 3 years after transplanting to the field. Ochse recommends grafting in
the wet season because scions will remain dormant in dry weather. Most female trees will bear
some fruit without the presence of a male because many of the flowers are perfect.
Culture
The trees should be spaced 40 to 45 ft (12-14 m) apart, each way. And one male tree should be
Bignay
planted for every 10 to 12 females to provide cross-pollination. Wind-protection is desirable when

the trees are small. Otherwise they require very little cultural attention.
Yield
Yield varies greatly from tree to tree if they are grown from seed. A mature tree in Florida has
produced 15 bushels of fruit in a season. One very old tree at the home of Dr. David Fairchild
produced 22 bushels yielding 72 gals (273 liters) of juice.
Season
In Indonesia, the trees flower in September and October and the fruits mature in February and
March. The fruiting season is July to September in North Vietnam. In Florida it extends from late
summer through fall and winter because some trees bloom much later than others.
Pests and Diseases
The tree is attacked by termites in Southeast Asia. In Florida, the leaves may be heavily attacked
by mealybugs and by scale insects and sooty mold develops on their excretions. Here, also, the
foliage is subject to green scurf and algal leaf spot caused by Cephaleuros tirescens.
Food Uses
In Malaya, the fruits are eaten mostly by children. Indonesians cook the fruits with fish. Elsewhere
the fruits (unripe and ripe together) are made into jam and jelly though the juice is difficult to jell
and pectin must be added. Some cooks add lemon juice as well. If the extracted bignay juice is
kept under refrigeration for a day or so, there will be a settling of somewhat astringent sediment
which can be discarded, thus improving the flavor. For several years, the richly-colored jelly was
produced on a small commercial scale in southern Florida. The juice makes an excellent sirup and
has been successfully fermented into wine and brandy.
In Indonesia and the Philippines, the leaves are eaten raw or stewed with rice. They are often
combined with other vegetables as flavoring.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*
Moisture
Protein
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Thiamine
91.11-94.80 g
0.75 g
0.57-0.78 g
0.12 mg
0.04 mg
0.001 mg
0.031 mg
Riboflavin
Niacin
0.072 mg
0.53 mg
*According to analyses made in Florida and the Philippines.
Bignay
Toxicity
The bark contains a toxic alkaloid. The heavy fragrance of the flowers, especially the male, is very
obnoxious to some individuals.
Other Uses
Bark: The bark yields a strong fiber for rope and cordage.
Wood: The timber is reddish and hard. If soaked in water, it becomes heavy and, according to
Drury, "black as iron". It has been experimentally pulped for making cardboard.
Medicinal Uses: The leaves are sudorific and employed in treating snakebite, in Asia.
Related Species
The Herbert River cherry, A.
dallachyanum Baill., is a bushy tree, seldom
over 25 ft (7.5 m) in height. The young
shoots are slightly hairy. Mature leaves,
almost hairless, are ovate to
lanceolate-elliptical, 2 to 6 in (5-15 cm)
long; deep-green above, bright-green
beneath; thick and leathery. The odoriferous
male flower spikes are hairy, generally in
panicles in the leaf axils, occasionally
solitary, more or less interrupted. The
greenish female flowers are borne in
racemes. The fruits, single or in clusters of 4
to 30, are round to obovoid, up to 3/4 in (2 Fig. 55: The Herbert River Cherry of Australia (Antidesma
dallachyanum) is less showy than the bignay but the fruits
cm) wide, rich-red when unripe, dark
have more flesh.
purple-red (nearly black) when ripe and
very acid. They ripen fairly evenly in the cluster.
The tree is native to coastal North Queensland, growing on the borders of rain forests and on the
banks of streams and lagoons. Seeds were imported by the University of Florida Agricultural
Research and Education Center, Homestead, Florida, in 1941 and the seedlings grew and bore
well. The seeds germinate readily and seedlings begin to fruit at about 6 years of age when they
may be 8 ft (2.4 m) tall. Multiplication may also be by cuttings, air-layering or grafting. One
nursery in Florida offered grafted plants for sale but they did not become popular and the species is
still rare.
In Australia, the trees bloom from December to February and again in September and the fruits
mature in their fall and winter months. In Florida, blooming takes place from April to June and the
fruit is in season in September and October.
The extracted juice is very dark-red, nearly black, but it yields, with the addition of pectin, a
Bignay
deep-red jelly.
The tree, like that of the bignay, is prone to infestation by mealybugs and scale insects and
associated sooty mold.
The black currant tree, A. ghaesembilla Gaertn. (syn. A. pubescens Roxb.), called dang kiep
kdam in Cambodia, chop moi, choi moi, chua moi or chum moi in Vietnam, is a deciduous shrub or
bushy tree up to 26 or, at most, 40 ft (8-12 m), with short, russet hairs on the young branches, rosy
new foliage and inflorescences. The mature leaves are broad-ovate or nearly circular, 1 1/2 to 3 in
(4-7.5 cm) long, glossy on the upper surface. Male flower spikes, purplish or light-yellow with
pollen, are dense, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) long; the erect female shorter and not as compact. Both
types occur in terminal panicles or rarely solitary. Some trees bear both male and female flowers
but on separate branches. The trees flower off and on during the year but mostly March to May in
Asia.
The fruit is velvety, dark-red or very dark-purple, obliquely ovoid with one seed or occasionally
double with 2 seeds. The seed kernels are sharply angular. When fully ripe the fruit is subacid to
somewhat sweet.
This species has a wide natural range: in tropical Africa, and from the moist tropical lower
Himalayas in northern India through Ceylon, southern China, Southeast Asia and Malaysia to the
Walsh River region of Queensland. Generally the fruits are eaten mainly by children, but they are
appreciated as thirst-quenchers by forest people of Thailand. They were made into jam by early
settlers in Australia. In Malaya and Indonesia, they are made into a kind of relish, and the very
young leaves are added as acid flavoring to various foods.
The wood is red, hard, close-grained, smooth and used for light rafters in huts, but for little else.
Small branches are lopped twice a year for fuel. In India, the leaves are used to treat fever,
headache and swollen abdomens. In Cambodia, various parts of the tree are valued in native
medicine. The bark, combined with tobacco, is applied on wounds of animals. Combined with the
bark of other species, it is boiled and the decoction given to halt diarrhea. The leaves and wood are
similarly employed. A decoction of young branches and papaya roots is considered an effective
emmenagogue. Crushed leaves are applied on the head of a newborn infant.
Tropaeolum tuberosum
Index|Search|Home
Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz

& Pav.
Tropaeolaceae
Mashua, Au
Root Vegetables: New Uses for Old CropsWanda W. Collins
Andean Tuber Crops: Worldwide PotentialCalvin R. Sperling and Steven R. King
(eds.). Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Outside links
Mashua can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Tropaeolum_tuberosum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:13 PM]
Apios americana
Apios americana Medik.

Fabaceae
Bog potato, groundnut, Indian potato, potato bean,
Virginia potato, wild bean, wild potato
FactSHEETcontributed by: Berthal D. Reynolds
Domestication of Apios americanaB.D. Reynolds, W.J. Blackmon, E. Wickremesinhe, M.H.
Wells, and R.J. Constantin
Protein Quality Evaluation of Apios amaericana Tubers (Abstract)Holly E. Johnson, Maren
Hegsted, and William J. Blackmon
Protein Quality in Apios americana Tubers and Seeds (Abstract)P.W Wilson, F.J. Pichardo,
W.J. Blackmon, and B.D. Reynolds
Compositional Changes in Apios americana Tubers During Storage (Abstract)D.H. Picha, W.J.
Blackmon, P.W. Wilson, L.P. Hanson, and B.D. Reynolds
Inoculation, Nitrogen, and Cultivar Effects on Nodulation and Tuber Yield of Apios americana
(Abstract)D.H. Putnam, L. Field, and G.H. Heichel
Evaluations of Preemergence Herbicides for Use in Apios americana (Abstract)D. Wayne Wells
and R.J. Constantin
Evaluating Apios americana as a Wetland Tuber Crop (Abstract)Mary E. Musgrave, Alston G.
Hopkins, Jr., and Wilham J. Blackmon
Outside Links:
LegumeFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Legume
GermplasmLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Apios_americana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:13 PM]
Apium graveolens
Apium graveolens L.
Celery, Celeriac, Cleri Rave, Celery Heart,
Hamburg Celery, Knob Celery, Pascal Celery, True Celery,
Turnip-rooted Celery, Wild Celery
Celery production links
Celery
Celery seed
Celeriac
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Apium_graveolens_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:14 PM]
Hemp Dogbane
Hemp Dogbane
Apocynum cannabinum L.
Other common names.Black hemp, black Indian hemp, Canadian
hemp, American hemp, amy-root, bowmans root, bitterroot,
Indian-physic, rheumatism weed, milkweed, wild cotton,
Choctaw-root.
Habitat and range.Hemp dogbane is a native of this country and
may be found in thickets and along the borders of odd fields
throughout the United States.
Description.Hemp dogbane is from 2 to 4 feet high, with erect
branches and sharp-pointed, short-stalked leaves from 2 to 6 inches
long. The small greenish white flowers which appear from June to
August are borne in dense heads followed later by the slender, pointed
pods which are about 4 inches in length. The plant contains a milky
juice.
Other species.The roots of a closely related species, Apocynum
Figure 62.Hemp dogbane
androsaemifolium L., are also collected. The branches of this plant are (Apocynum cannabinum)
diverging and forked and the flower heads loose and spreading. It also
contains a milky juice. There are several well-recognized forms which formerly were recognized
as varieties of A. cannabinum and A. androsaemifolium, but which are now considered distinct
species. The roots of all these species possess somewhat similar properties, but they are not all
acceptable to the trade.
Part used.The root, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/dogbane.html [5/16/2004 1:29:17 PM]
Malus sp.
Index| Search| Home
Malus sp.
Rosaceae
Apple, cider apple, cooking apple, crab (wild)
apple, dessert apple, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith,
Gravenstein, Jonathan, McIntosh, Northern Spy, pipin,
pome(-fruit), Red Delicious, Rome Beauty, Rome Delicious,
Russet, Stayman, Winesap, Yellow Delicious, York, York Imperial
Exploration and Exploitation of New Fruit and Nut GermplasmMaxine M. Thompson
Apple Cultivars for Indiana HO-165 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
Home Storage of ApplesCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana. PDF version
Training and Pruning Fruit TreesHO-49 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
PRI disease resistant apple breeding program an apple breeding cooperative of Purdue University,
Rutgers, and the University of Illinois.
Outside links:
Apples, Malus domestica from Mark Reiger, Horticulture Dept., University of Georgia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Malus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:18 PM]
Cereus peruvianus
Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill

Cactaceae
Apple cactus
Development of (Cereus peruvianus) Apple Cactus as a New Crop for the Negev Desert of
IsraelJulia Weiss, Avinoam Nerd, and Yosef Mizrah
New Crops as a Possible Solution for the Troubled Israeli Export MarketY. Mizrahi and A.
Nerd
Climbing and Columnar Cacti: New Arid Land Fruit CropsYosef Mizrahi and Avinoam Nerd
New Fruits for Arid ClimatesYosef Mizrahi, Avinoam Nerd, and Yaron Sitrit
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cereus_peruvianus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:18 PM]
Prunus armeniaca
Index| Search| Home
Prunus armeniaca L.
Rosaceae
Apricot, apricock
Outside Links:
Apricot, Prunus armeniaca from Mark Reiger at the University of Gerogia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Prunus_armeniaca_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:19 PM]
Apricot kernel oil
Apricot kernel oil

Rosaceae Prunus armeniaca L.
Fairly large tonnages of apricot seeds are available from fruits dried or
canned. The kernels constitute about 20 percent of the pit weight and contain 40 to 45 percent of a
semi-drying oil. To obtain the oil the pits are cracked, shells and kernels separated by flotation in
brine, and the oil expressed. The oil is used for edible purposes as well as in cosmetics and some
pharmaceuticals.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Apricot_kernel_oil.html [5/16/2004 1:29:20 PM]
Eugenia stipitata
Index|Search|Home
Eugenia stipitata McVaugh

Myrtaceae
Araz, Araa-boi
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different PerspectiveJ.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len (eds.)
Last update Friday, June 12, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eugenia_stipitata_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:20 PM]
Arachis hypogaea
Arachis hypogaea L.
Fabaceae
Earth nut, Goober pea, Groundnut, Mani, Monkey
nut, Peanut, Runner peanut, Spanish peanut, Valencia peanut,
Virginia peanut
Handbook of Energy CropsJames A. Duke. 1983.
unpublished.
Peanut: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of
Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service, University of
Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant &
Animal Products
New Forage, Grain, and Energy Crops for Humid Lower South, USGordon M. Prine and Edwin
C. French
Plant Nutrient Composition Altered With Controlled Environments for Future Space Life-Support
SystemsS. Suzanne Nielsen, Martha A. Belury, Kwangok P. Nickel, and Cary A. Mitchell
Peanut
Peanut oil
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Arachis_hypogaea_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:22 PM]
Udo
Udo
Araliaceae Aralia cordata Thunb.
Udo is a vegetable grown for its tender, etiolated spring shoots, somewhat
like asparagus. It is grown in Japan and to a limited extent by Oriental gardeners in the U.S. The
plant is a strong growing perennial, producing the edible shoots from the roots each spring. The
summer growth reaches 4 to 8 feet in height, with large, compound pinnate leaves. In culture, the
roots are established in beds or rows, like asparagus. As the young shoots start in spring, they are
kept covered woth soil for complete blanching. The shoots harvested are up to 18 inches long and
1.5 inches diameter at the base. Prior to use, shoots are boiled in salt water, or are sliced and held
in cold water, to remove a turpentine like resin. They are then eaten raw as a salad or cooked.
Season, from growth start in spring to harvest: 2 to 4 weeks.
Production in the U.S.: No data, very limited.
Use: As raw salad or cooked vegetable.
Part consumed: Young etiolated stems only.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Udo.html [5/16/2004 1:29:23 PM]
Wild-Sarsaparilla
Wild-Sarsaparilla
Aralia nudicaulis L.
Other common names.False sarsaparilla Virginian sarsaparilla,
American sarsaparilla, small spikenard, rabbitroot, shotbush, wild
licorice.
Habitat and range.Wild-sarsaparilla grows in rich, moist woods
from Newfoundland west to Manitoba and south to North Carolina
and Missouri.
Description.This plant produces a single, long-stalked leaf and
flowering stalk from a very short stem. The leafstalk is about 12
inches long and is divided at the top into three parts each bearing
about five leaflets from 2 to 5 inches long. The flowering stalk
produces in May to June three flower clusters consisting of from 12 to
30 small greenish flowers followed later in the season by round
purplish black berries. The rootstock is rather long, creeping,
Figure 119.Wild-sarsaparilla
somewhat twisted, and possesses a very fragrant, aromatic odor and a (Aralia nudicaulis)
warm, aromatic taste.
Other species.The American spikenard (Aralia racemosa L.), known also as spignet,
spiceberry, Indian root, petty-morrel, life-of-man, and old-man's root, is used for the same purpose
as A. nudicaulis. It is distinguished from this by its taller form, its much-branched stem from 3 to 6
feet high, and very large leaves. The flowers are arranged in numerous clusters instead of only
three, as in A. nudicaulis, and they appear several months later. The range of this species extends
as far south as Georgia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/sarsaparilla.html [5/16/2004 1:29:24 PM]
New Antimicrobials of Plant Origin
Iwu, M.W., A.R. Duncan, and C.O. Okunji. 1999. New antimicrobials of plant origin. p.
457462. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria,
VA.

Maurice M. Iwu, Angela R. Duncan, and Chris O. Okunji
1. INFECTIOUS DISEASE
1. Historic Use of Plants as Antimicrobials
2. The Development of Phytomedicines and the Ethnomedicinal Approach
2. PRESENT USE OF PLANTS AS ANTIMICROBIALS
1. Therapeutic Benefit
2. Economic Benefit
3. PLANTS WITH PROMISING ANTIINFECTIVE ACTIVITY
1. Garcinia kola, bitter kola (Guttiferae)
2. Aframomum melegueta (Zingiberaceae) Grains of Paradise
3. Xylopia aethiopica, Ethiopian Pepper (Abbibacceae)
4. Cryptolepis sanguinolenta Lindl. Schltr. (Periplocaceae)
5. Chasmanthera dependens Hoschst (Menispermaceae)
6. Nauclea latifolia Smith (Rubiaceae)
7. Araliopsis tabouensis (Rutaceae)
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
Infectious diseases account for approximately one-half of all deaths in tropical countries. In
industrialized nations, despite the progress made in the understanding of microbiology and their
control, incidents of epidemics due to drug resistant microorganisms and the emergence of hitherto
unknown disease-causing microbes, pose enormous public health concerns. Historically, plants
have provided a good source of antiinfective agents; emetine, quinine, and berberine remain highly
effective instruments in the fight against microbial infections. Phytomedicines derived from plants
have shown great promise in the treatment of intractable infectious diseases including
opportunistic AIDS infections. Plants containing protoberberines and related alkaloids,
picralima-type indole alkaloids and garcinia biflavonones used in traditional African system of
medicine, have been found to be active against a wide variety of micro-organisms. The profile of
known drugs like Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal), Garcinia kola (bitter kola), Polygonum sp.,
Aframomum melegueta (grains of paradise) will be used to illustrate the enormous potential of
antiinfective agents from higher plants. Newer drugs such as Xylopia aethiopica, Araliopsis
tabouensis, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Chasmanthera dependens and Nauclea species will be
reviewed.
INFECTIOUS DISEASE
World wide, infectious disease is the number one cause of death accounting for approximately
one-half of all deaths in tropical countries. Perhaps it is not surprising to see these statistics in
developing nations, but what may be remarkable is that infectious disease mortality rates are
actually increasing in developed countries, such as the United States. Death from infectious
disease, ranked 5th in 1981, has become the 3rd leading cause of death in 1992, an increase of
58% (Pinner et al. 1996). It is estimated that infectious disease is the underlying cause of death in
8% of the deaths occurring in the US (Pinner et al. 1996). This is alarming given that it was once
believed that we would eliminate infectious disease by the end of the millenium. The increases are
attributed to increases in respiratory tract infections and HIV/AIDS. Other contributing factors are
an increase in antibiotic resistance in nosicomial and community acquired infections. Furthermore,
the most dramatic increases are occurring in the 2544 year old age group (Pinner et al. 1996).
These negative health trends call for a renewed interest in infectious disease in the medical and
public health communities and renewed strategies on treatment and prevention. Proposed solutions
are outlined by the CDC as a multi-pronged approach that includes: prevention, (such as
vaccination); improved monitoring; and the development of new treatments. It is this last solution
that would encompass the development of new antimicrobials (Fauci 1998).
Historic Use of Plants as Antimicrobials

Historically, plants have provided a source of inspiration for novel drug compounds, as plant
derived medicines have made large contributions to human health and well-being. Their role is two
fold in the development of new drugs: (1) they may become the base for the development of a
medicine, a natural blueprint for the development of new drugs, or; (2) a phytomedicine to be used
for the treatment of disease. There are numerous illustrations of plant derived drugs. Some selected
examples, including those classified as antiinfective, are presented below.
The isoquinoline alkaloid emetine obtained from the underground part of Cephaelis ipecacuanha,
and related species, has been used for many years as and amoebicidal drug as well as for the
treatment of abscesses due to the spread of Escherichia histolytica infections. Another important
drug of plant origin with a long history of use, is quinine. This alkaloid occurs naturally in the bark
of Cinchona tree. Apart from its continued usefulness in the treatment of malaria, it can be also
used to relieve nocturnal leg cramps. Currently, the widely prescribed drugs are analogs of quinine
such as chloroquine. Some strains of malarial parasites have become resistant to the quinines,
therefore antimalarial drugs with novel mode of action are required.
Similarly, higher plants have made important contributions in the areas beyond antiinfectives, such
as cancer therapies. Early examples include the antileukaemic alkaloids, vinblatine and vincristine,
which were both obtained from the Madagascan periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus syn. Vinca
roseus) (Nelson 1982). Other cancer therapeutic agents include taxol, homoharringtonine and
several derivatives of camptothein. For example, a well-known benzylisoquinoline alkaliod,
papaverine, has been shown to have a potent inhibitory effect on the replication of several viruses
including cytomegalovirus, measles and HIV (Turano et al. 1989). Most recently, three new
atropisomeric naphthylisoquinoline alkaloid dimers, michellamines A, B, and C were isolated
from a newly described species tropical liana Ancistrocladus korupensis from the rainforest of
Cameroon. The three compounds showed potential anti-HIV with michellamine B being the most
potent and abundant member of the series. These compounds were capable of complete inhibition
of the cytopathic effects of HIV-1 and HIV-2 on human lymphoblastoid target cell in vitro (Boyd
et al. 1994).
The Development of Phytomedicines and the Ethnomedicinal

Approach
The first generation of plant drugs were usually simple botanicals employed in more or less their
crude form. Several effective medicines used in their natural state such as cinchona, opium,
belladonna and aloe were selected as therapeutics agents based on empirical evidence of their
clinical application by traditional societies from different parts of the world. Following the
industrial revolution, a second generation of plant based drugs emerged based on scientific
processing of the plant extracts to isolate "their active constituents." The second-generation
phytopharmaceutical agents were pure molecules and some of the compounds were even more
pharmacologically active than their synthetic counterparts. Notable examples were quinine from
Cinchona, reserpine from Rauvolfia, and more recently taxol from Taxus species. These
compounds differed from the synthetic therapeutic agents only in their origin. They followed the
same method of development and evaluation as other pharmaceutical agents.
The sequence for development of pharmaceuticals usually begins with the identification of active
lead molecules, detailed biological assays, and formulation of dosage forms in that order, and
followed by several phases of clinical studies designed to established safety, efficacy and
pharmacokinetic profile of the new drug. Possible interaction with food and other medications may
be discerned from the clinical trials.
In the development of "Third Generation" phytotherapeutic agents a top-bottom approach is
usually adopted. This consists of first conducting a clinical evaluation of the treatment modalities
and therapy as administered by traditional doctors or as used by the community as folk medicine.
This evaluation is then followed by acute and chronic toxicity studies in animals. Studies should,
when applicable, include cytotoxicity studies. It is only if the substance has an acceptable safety
index would it be necessary to conduct detailed pharmacological/ biochemical studies.
Formulation and trial production of the dosage forms are structured to mimic the traditional use of
the herb. The stability of the finished product is given careful attention during the formulation of
the final dosage form. This is a unique blend of the empiricism of the earlier first generation
botanicals with the experimental research used to prove the efficacy and safety of second
generation isolated pure compounds. Several pharmaceuticals companies are engaged in the
development of natural product drugs through the isolation of the so-called active molecules from
plant extracts.
PRESENT USE OF PLANTS AS

ANTIMICROBIALS
It is estimated that today, plant materials are present in, or have provided the models for 50%
Western drugs (Robbers 1996). Many commercially proven drugs used in modern medicine were
initially used in crude form in traditional or folk healing practices, or for other purposes that
suggested potentially useful biological activity. The primary benefits of using plant derived
medicines are that they are relatively safer than synthetic alternatives, offering profound
therapeutic benefits and more affordable treatment.
Therapeutic Benefit
Much of the exploration and utilization of natural products as antimicrobials arise from microbial
sources. It was the discovery of penicillin that led to later discoveries of antibiotics such as
streptomycin, aureomycin and chloromycetin. (Trease 1972). Though most of the clinically used
antibiotics are produced by soil micro-organisms or fungi, higher plants have also been a source of
antibiotics (Trease 1972). Examples of these are the bacteriostatic and antifugicidal properties of
Lichens, the antibiotic action of allinine in Allium sativum (garlic), or the antimicrobial action
berberines in goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) (Trease 1972). Plant based antimicrobials
represent a vast untapped source for medicines. Continued and further exploration of plant
antimicrobials needs to occur. Plants based antimicrobials have enormous therapeutic potential.
They are effective in the treatment of infectious diseases while simultaneously mitigating many of
the side effects that are often associated with synthetic antimicrobials. They are effective, yet
gentle. Many plants have tropisms to specific organs or systems in the body. Phytomedicines
usually have multiple effects on the body. Their actions often act beyond the symptomatic
treatment of disease. An example of this is Hydrastis canadensis. Hydrastis not only has
antimicrobial activity, but also increases blood supply to the spleen promoting optimal activity of
the spleen to release mediating compounds (Murray 1995).
Economic Benefit
World wide, there has been a renewed interest in natural products. This interest is a result of
factors such as: consumer's belief that natural products are superior; consumer's dissatisfaction
with conventional medicines; changes in laws allowing structure-function claims which results in
more liberal advertising; aging baby boomers; national concerns for health care cost.
Sales of products in this market have increased dramatically in the last decade. Sales of botanical
products in the United States have reached $3.1 billion of the $10.4 billion dollar dietary
supplement industry 1996 (NBJ June 1998). The industry anticipates growth on the order of
1520% into the new millenium (Herbalgram 1996). This growth rate will be maintained in an
industry that is still considered to be in its infancy. Many plants that were previously wildcrafted
will need to be grown domestically to meet the demands of the consumer. This represents many
opportunities for the cultivation of crops for this industry.
A market based illustration of the need for plant based antimicrobials is demonstrated by the
dissection of the herbal products market. In reviewing the top botanicals used as antiinfectives, the
primary botanical used as an antimicrobial is Hydrastis with sales of 4.7% in 1995 (Gruenwald
1997). While antiinfectives agents make up 24 % of the pharmaceutical market (1992 Census of
Manufactures 1994).
A similar, analysis of Hypericum (St. John's wort), demonstrates the value of such an evaluation.
Though Hypericum is an antiviral, it is primarily used for its antidepressant activity. In 1995 it was
not among the top selling herbs (Gruenwald 1997). However, by 1997, it had become an overnight
success, with sales increasing over 20,000% in the mass market sector (Aarts 1998). The meteoric
increase in the sales of Hypericum is multifactorial, but one factor in its in popularity was the
existence of an unexploited market opportunity. In 1994 21% of pharmaceuticals sold were for the
conditions affecting the central nervous system (1992 Census of Manufactures). Most of the drugs
sold in this category are for depression. During this period of time, none of the top selling herbs
sold had a primary indication for depression. This market hole, coupled with the media exposure
produced a market success.
Many market holes exist. When using the same strategy to look at antimicrobial agents there is a
similar gap. If the market dissection for antiinfectives is viewed in the same light as the Hypericum
analogy, then perhaps this market is prime for receiving new plant based antimicrobials.
The potential for developing antimicrobials into medicines appears rewarding, from both the
perspective of drug development and the perspective of phytomedicines. The immediate source of
financial benefit from plants based antimicrobials is from the herbal products market. This market
offers many opportunities for those cultivating new crops, as many of the plants that are
wildcrafted today must be cultivated to match the demands of this market. Again Hydrastis, one of
the top selling antimicrobials in the US herbal market, represents an example of a herb that has
undergone domestication. Originally this plant, native to eastern North America, was wild crafted.
Hydrastis, has been used by Native Americans for many conditions, including as an antimicrobial
for infections. Efforts to cultivate this plant were undertaken in order to supply the demands of the
herbal products market and to battle it's threatened extinction.
It is vital to be in the position to capitalize on the phytomedicine market, providing
environmentally responsible solutions to public health concerns presented by new trends in
infectious disease. In order to be prepared, the industry must be able to sustainably harvest and
supply the herbal market. That means we must be able to anticipate the market needs and develop
products to satisfy this market.
PLANTS WITH PROMISING ANTIINFECTIVE

ACTIVITY
In our organizations, our major emphasis has been on drug discovery from ethnomedicinal
information using the "Third Generation Approach." This method differs in that the clinical
evaluation in humans takes place before the precise active constituents are known but the chemical
composition and safety of the extracts are determined before formulation into dosage forms.
Plants containing protoberberines and related biflavones used in traditional African system of
medicine have been found to be active against a wide variety of micro-organisms. Many medicinal
plants of Africa have been investigated for their chemical components and some of the isolated
compounds have been shown to posses interesting biological activity. Some of these plants are
discussed below.
Garcinia kola, bitter kola (Guttiferae)

Garcinia kola, is found in moist forest and grows as a medium size tree, up to 12 m high. It is
cultivated and distributed throughout west and central Africa. Medicinal uses include, purgative,
antiparasitic, antimicrobial. The seeds are used in the treatment of bronchitis and throat infections.
They are also used to prevent and relieve colic, cure head or chest colds and relieve cough. Also
the plant is used for the treatment of liver disorders and as a chewing stick (Iwu 1993).
The constituents includebiflavonoids, xanthones and benzophenones. The antimicrobial
properties of this plant are attributed to the benzophenone, flavanones. This plant has shown both
anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antiviral properties. Studies show very good antimicrobial
and antiviral properties. In addition, the plant possesses antidiabetic, and antihepatotoxic activities
(Iwu 1993).
Aframomum melegueta (Zingiberaceae) Grains of Paradise

This is a spicy edible fruit that is cultivated and occurs throughout the tropics. It is a perennial
herb. The medicinal uses of Aframomum include aphrodisiac, measles, and leprosy, taken for
excessive lactation and post partem hemorrhage, purgative, galactogogue and anthelmintic, and
hemostatic agent (Iwu 1993). The constituents are essential oilssuch as gingerol, shagaol,
paradol. Studies show antimicrobial and antifungal activity and effective against schistosomes
(Iwu1993).
Xylopia aethiopica, Ethiopian Pepper (Abbibacceae)

An evergreen, aromatic tree growing up to 20 m high with peppery fruit. It is native to the lowland
rainforest and moist fringe forest in the savanna zones of in Africa. Largely located in West,
Central and Southern Africa. Medicinal uses of the plant are, as a carminative, as a cough remedy,
and as a post partum tonic and lactation aid. Other uses are stomachache, bronchitis, biliousness
and dysentery. It is also used externally as a poultice for headache and neuralgia. It is used with
lemon grass for female hygiene. It is high in copper, manganese, and zinc (Smith 1996).
Key constituents are diterpenic and xylopic acid. In studies, the fruit as an extracts has been shown
to be active as an antimicrobial against gram positive and negative bacteria. Though it has not been
shown to be effective against E. coli (Iwu 1993). Xylopic acid has also demonstrated activity
against Candida albicans (Boakye-Yiadom 1977).
Cryptolepis sanguinolenta Lindl. Schltr. (Periplocaceae)

A shrub that grows in the rainforest and the deciduous belt forest, found in the west coast of
Africa. Related species appear in the east and southern regions of the continent. Its main medicinal
use is for the treatment of fevers. It is used for urinary tract infections, especially Candida. Other
uses are inflammatory conditions, malaria, hypertension, microbial infections and inflammatory
conditions, stomach aches colic (Iwu 1993).
Active principals identified are indo quinoline alkaloids. Studies show inhibition against gram
negative bacteria and yeast (Silva 1996). Additionally studies have shown this plant to have
bactericidal activity. Clinical studies have shown extracts of the plant were effective in
parasitemia. Recent in vitro study shows activity against bacteria specifically, enteric pathogens,
most notably E. coli (but also staphylococcus, C. coli, C. jejuni, pseudomonous, salmonella,
shigella, streptococcus, and vibrio) and some activity against candida (Sawer 1995). It has shown
histamine antagonism, hypotensive, and vasodilatory activities (Iwu 1993). In addition it has
demonstrative antihyperglcyemic properties (Brierer 1998).
Chasmanthera dependens Hoschst (Menispermaceae)

A woody climber that grows wild in forest margins and savanna. The plant is cultivated. It is used
medicinally for venereal disease, topically on sprained joints and bruises and as a general tonic for
physical and nervous debilities. The constituents include berberine type alkaloids, palmatine,
colombamine, and jateorhizine. Studies show that the berberine sulfate in the plant inhibits
lieshmania.
Nauclea latifolia Smith (Rubiaceae)

It is a shrub or small spreading tree that is a widely distributed savanna plant. It is found in the
forest and fringe tropical forest. Medicinal uses are as a tonic and fever medicine, chewing stick,
toothaches, dental caries, septic mouth and malaria., diarrhea and dysentery (Lamidi 1995).
Key constituents are indole-quinolizidine alkaloids and glycoalkaloids and sapponins. There are
studies showing the root has antibacterial activity against gram positive and negative bacteria and
antifungal activity (Iwu 1993). It is most effective against Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
Streptobacillis sp., Streptococcus sp., Neisseria sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella sp.
(Deeni 1991).
Araliopsis tabouensis (Rutaceae)

It is a large evergreen tree found throughout west tropical Africa. Its medicinal use is for the
treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. The bark infusion is drunk for gonorrhea in the Ivory
Coast (Irvine 1961). Its major constituents are alkaloids. Seven alkaloids have been isolated from
the root and stem bark (Fish 1976).
CONCLUSION
Thomas Jefferson wrote that "The greatest service which can be rendered any country is to add a
useful plant to it's culture." Plants have forever been a catalyst for our healing. In order to halt the
trend of increased emerging and resistant infectious disease, it will require a multi-pronged
approach that includes the development of new drugs. Using plants as the inspiration for new
drugs provides an infusion of novel compounds or substances for healing disease. Evaluating
plants from the traditional African system of medicine, provides us with clues as to how these
plants can be used in the treatment of disease. Many of the plants presented here show very
promising activity in the area of antimicrobial agents, warranting further investigation.
REFERENCES
1992 Census of Manufactures. 1994. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and

Statistics Administration, Bureau of Census.
Aarts, T. 1998. The dietary supplements industry: A market analysis. Dietary Supplements
Conference, Nutritional Business International.
Bierer, D., D. Fort, C. Mendez, J. Luo, P. Imbach, L. Dubenko, S. Jolad, R. Gerber, J.

Litvak, Q. Lu, P. Zhang, M. Reed, N. Waldeck, R. Bruening, B. Noamesi,, R. Hector,, T.
Carlson, and S. King. 1998. Ethnobotanical-directed discovery of the antihyperglycemic
properties of cryptolepine: Its isolation from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, synthesis, and in
vitro and and in vivo activities. J. Med. Chem. 41:894901
Boakye-Yiadom, K., N. Fiagbe, S. Ayim. 1977. Antimicrobial properties of some West

African medicinal plants IV. Antimicrobial activity of xylopic acid and other constituents of
the fruits of Xylopia aethiopica (Annonaceae). Lloydia 40:6:543545.
Boyd, M., Y. Hallock, J. Cardellina II, K. Manfredi, J. Blunt, J. McMahon, R. Buckheit, G.

Bringmann, M. Schaffer, G. Cragg, D. Thomas, and J. Jato. 1994. Anti-HIV michellamines
from Ancistrocladus korupensis. Med. Chem. 37:17401745.
Deeni, Y. and H. Hussain. 1991. Screening for antimicrobial activity and for alkaloids of
Nauclea latifolia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 35:9196.
Evans, W. 1996. Trease and evans pharmacognosy. W.B Saunders Company Ltd., London.
Fauci, A. 1998. New and reemerging diseases: The importance of biomedical research.
Emerging Infectious Diseases. (www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol4no3/fauci). 4:3.
Fish, F., I. Meshal, and P. Waterman. 1976. Minor alkaloids of Araliopsis tabouensis. Planta
Med. 29:310317.
Gruenwald, J. 1997. The herbal remedies market in the US, market development, consumer,
legislation and organizations. Phytopharm Consulting, Communiqu.
Irvine, F. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana. Oxford Univ. Press., London.
Iwu, M. 1993. Handbook of African medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Johnston, B. 1997. One-third of nation's adults use herbal remedies. HerbalGram 40:49.
Lamidi, M., E. Ollivier, R. Faure, L. Debrauwer, L. Nze-Ekekang, and G. Balansard. 1995.

Quinovic acid glycosides from Nauclea diderichii. Planta Med. 61:280281.
Murray, M. 1995. The healing power of herbs. Prima Publishing. Rocklin, CA. p. 162171.
Nelson, R. 1982. The comparative clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of

vindesine, vincristine and vinblastine in human patients with cancer. Med. Pediatr. Oncol.
10:115127.
Nutrition Business Journal (NBJ). 1998. Industry overview. Sept. 1998.
Pinner, R., S. Teutsch, L. Simonsen, L. Klug, J. Graber, M. Clarke, and R. Berkelman. 1996.
Trends in infectious diseases mortality in the United States. J. Am. Med. Assoc.
275:189193.
Robbers, J., M. Speedie, and V. Tyler. 1996. Pharmacognosy and pharmacobiotechnology.

Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore. p. 114.
Sawer, I., M. Berry, M. Brown, and J. Ford. 1995. The effect of Cryptolepine on the
morphology and survival of Eschericia coli, Candida albicans and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 79:314321.
Silva, O., A. Duarte, J. Cabrita, M. Pimentel, A. Diniz, and E. Gomes. 1996. Antimicrobial
activity of Guinea-Bissau traditional remedies. J. Ethnopharmacol. 50:5559.
Smith, G., M. Clegg, C. Keen, and L. Grivetti. 1996. Mineral values of selected plant foods
common to southern Burkina Faso and to Niamey, Niger, West Africa. International J. Food
Sci. Nutr. 47:4153.
Trease, G. and Evans, W. 1972. Pharmacognosy, Univ. Press, Aberdeen, Great Britain. p.
161-163
Turano, A., G. Scura, A. Caruso, C. Bonfanti, R. Luzzati, D. Basetti, and N. Manca. 1989.
Inhibitory effect of papaverine on HIV replication in vitro. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir.
5:183191.
Thuja occidentalis
Thuja occidentalis L.
Cupressaceae
Arborvitae, Northern white cedar
Last update Monday, April 16, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Thuja_occidentalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:27 PM]
Burdock, Edible
Burdock, Edible
Gobo, Harlock, Clotbur
Compositae Arctium lappa L.
Burdock plants are rather coarse perennials which are weeds in many temperate areas, including
the U.S. Tops die down in winter. New sprouts rising from roots in spring are peeled and eaten raw
or after cooking. Roots are also eaten in Japan. Sparingly grown as a vegetable in Japan and
possibly other countries.
Season, start of growth from old roots to harvest of sprouts: 2 to 4 weeks.
Production in U.S.: 100 acres, 1959 census; 187 tons, 1968 census.
Use: Sprouts as salad or pot herb. Roots cooked.
Part of plant consumed: Tender spring sprouts, roots.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BurdockEdible.html [5/16/2004 1:29:27 PM]
Burdock
Burdock
Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh.
Synonym.Lappa major Gaertn.
Other common names.Cockle button, cuckold dock,
beggar's-buttons, hurr-burr, stick-button, hardock, bardane.
Habitat and range.Burdock, one of our most common weeds, was
introduced from the Old World. It grows along roadsides and in fields,
pastures, and waste places, being very abundant in the Eastern and
Central States and in some scattered localities in the West.
Description.Burdock is a coarse, unsightly weed. During the first
year it produces only a rosette of large leaves from a long tapering
root. In the second year the plant grows to a large size, measuring
from 3 to 7 feet in height. The stem is round, fleshy, and much
Figure 28.Burdock (Arctium
branched and bears very large leaves, the lower ones frequently
measuring 18 inches in length. The flowers are not produced until the minus)
second year, appearing from July until frost. They are purple and are borne in small clustered
heads armed with hooked spines, and the spiny burs thus formed are a great pest, attaching
themselves to clothing and to the wool and hair of animals. The plant has a large fleshy taproot.
When dry this root is much wrinkled lengthwise.
Part used.The roots, collected from plants of the first year's Growth. As they are large and
fleshy they are likely to become moldy, and it is best to slice them lengthwise, so that drying may
proceed more rapidly. The roots of other species of Arctium are also used.
Last update Friday, March 13, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/burdock.html [5/16/2004 1:29:29 PM]
Bearberry
Bearberry
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.
Other common names.Uva-ursi, red bearberry, bear's-grape, bear's
bilberry, bear's whortleberry, foxberry, upland cranberry, mountain
cranberry, crowberry, mealberry, rockberry, mountain box,
kinnikinnic, killikinnic, universe vine, brawling, burren myrtle,
creashak, sagachomi, rapper dandies (fruit).
Habitat and range.Bearberry, also commonly known in the trade
as uva-ursi is a native of this country, growing in dry sandy or rocky
soil from the middle Atlantic States north to Labrador and westward
to California and Alaska.
Description.The bearberry is a low, much-branched shrub trailing
over the ground and having numerous leathery evergreen leaves about
1 inch in length. The waxy flowers, which appear in May, are few and Figure 14.Bearberry
are borne in short, drooping clusters at the ends of the branches. They (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)
are white with a pinkish tinge, 5-lobed, and somewhat bell-shaped in
form. Smooth, red, globular fruits containing five nutlets follow the flowers.
Part used.The leaves, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bearberry.html [5/16/2004 1:29:31 PM]
New Crops as a Possible Solution for the Troubled Israeli Export Market

Mizrahi, Y. and A. Nerd. 1996. New crops as a possible solution for the troubled Israeli export
market. p.37-45. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
New Crops as a Possible Solution for

the Troubled Israeli Export Market
Y. Mizrahi and A. Nerd
1. PRODUCT PROFIT CYCLE
2. NEW CROPS INITIATIVE
1. Crawling Cacti
2. Cactus Apple
3. White Sapote
4. Desert Apple
5. Marula
6. Argan
3. CONCLUSIONS
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Fig. 1
7. Fig. 2
8. Fig. 3
In stimulating articles, Noel Vietmeyer (1986, 1990) pointed out that relatively few plant species,
most of which were domesticated thousands of years ago, serve as food for humans and animals,
as medicinal plants, and as industrial crops. As a result of atmospheric CO2 increase and global
warming, dryer conditions are expected in the future and many existing crop species will unable to
survive. Many undeveloped and neglected species could be the new crops of the future, which will
tolerate these changing climatic conditions. Research and Development on the development of
tolerant crops should be initiated world wide to meet these challenges. New crops should have the
potential to thrive in marginal, infertile, dry lands where common crops fail to provide the
diversification required to enable sustainable agricultural systems in the future and offer viable
commercial opportunities.
Israel is small country (~5 million people and 22,000 km2) that is self sufficient in agricultural
production. The local market is tiny and is subject to dramatic fluctuations in supply and demand.
When extra few tonnes of fresh fruits and/or vegetables are dumped onto the local markets, prices
plummet and farmers cannot make a living. In contrast the export market, mainly Europe, with
hundreds of millions of consumers is unlimited from an Israeli point of view. Thus, Israel is
basically an export oriented producer. At its peak, the export volume of fresh agriculture produce
(mainly fruits, vegetables, and flowers) from Israel was valued around US$1 billion/year. In the
1960s the fruit export industry (mainly citrus, with the famous `Jaffa' orange being the main
product) constituted one of the main sources of foreign currency (out of a total export market of
US$211 million agricultural produce comprised about US$64 million, i.e., 30.3% of the total!).
Today, Israel is an industrial exporting country with total annual export value of US$14 billion
while exports of agricultural fresh produce amount to US$547 million, a mere 3.9% of the total
(Statistical Abstracts 1994). It is obvious that a small country such as Israel has to compete in
world markets in terms of quality rather than quantity. As a result, millions of R&D dollars have
been invested in the past two decades to enable Israel to compete in the world markets with the
best possible products giving the highest possible return to the growers. Despite the huge input of
R&D in the agricultural sector, the production of the citrus is diminishing (Fig. 1) due to lack of
profitability (Fig. 2) and farmers are complaining. Citrus sales have diminished by 30.6% from
1990 to 1993 and profitability in terms of revenue's buying power has declined to 57.3% when
inflation is taken into account (Fig. 2; Statistical Abstracts 1994; BDO 1995). The Israeli tomato
export industry has stagnated at 8,000 t annually for the past few years, despite the enormous R&D
efforts that have produced the world's finest quality (Statistical Abstracts 1994). Israel has
additional cost limitations on its competitiveness. Water is a major limiting factor and its actual
price is very high (US$0.22 per m3) and the alternative price is even higher. Labor is very
expensive, since farmers are in the upper middle class strata. More than 90% of the agricultural
community in Israel is either a kibbutz (community farm) or a moshav (family farm) with
minimum hired labor, where most of the work is performed by the farm owners and their families.
Gross income below US$100 and even 150 US$/day is considered very low. Israel's competitors in
the world markets pay to agricultural workers 10% and less of this sum! Finally, energy is
expensive, since almost all the country's energy is imported.
These problems have led many experts in Israel to raise the possibility of giving up agricultural
production, even for the local markets, and purchasing all the country's agricultural needs abroad,
as do Singapore and Hong Kong. We subscribe to a totally different approach. We believe that
supplying the new crops niche in the world markets will serve as a remedy for the troubled Israeli
agricultural export industry.
PRODUCT PROFIT CYCLE

In a free market every product is following the profit cycle, as described in Fig. 3. When a totally
new crop is first marketed, no profit is expected, since the market has yet to accustom itself to the
product. At this stage, low prices are set to attract consumers. In many cases, the market does not
respond to the new product, and it simply vanishes without being noticed by most consumers. But
if the market likes the new product (perhaps as a result of good marketing strategy), profits will
rise as a result of increasing demand and improved production efficiency (Fletcher et al. 1995).
Maximum profitability will be achieved by the first producer as long as he is the only suplier in the
market. Competition will then start, first with the most efficient and aware producers and from
many others. As a result, profitability will decline, and as with all common crops, it will fall to a
maginal level. At this stage, only the big and efficient producers can survive. It is thus evident that
Israel cannot compete in the market for common crops. A good example of the scenario described
above is the "iceberg lettuce episode." In the late 1970s, Marks and Spencer (from the UK)
approached the Negev R&D Organization to test the feasibility of growing iceberg lettuce in the
Israeli Negev Desert for their chain. Farmers in the Arava valley (Moshav Ein Yahav and Hatzeva)
produced the best iceberg lettuce that Marks and Spencer had ever received. The company, which
was ready to pay these farmes higher prices than those given their American counterparts in
California, was mystified by the refusal of the Israeli farmers to accept the contract. The buyers
from Marks & Spencer simply did not understand that these farmers consisted of very small farms
(4 ha!), expensive water, and very high energy, and labor costs. In no way, could they compete
with the large American producers.
On the other hand, when we start with totally new product, the high profits obtained for small
quantities of exotic fruits and vegetables, creates a natural niche for Israeli farmers. These farmers,
being highly educated, can easily adopt new crops and new technologies. Israel is also blessed
with research institutions and extension services capable of carrying an efficient R&D programs,
which are essential for the introduction of new crops. In addition, Israel has a single efficient
marketing arm of agricultural products (AGREXCO), which can easily adapt to such programs.
Unfortunately, such a strategy has not yet been adopted by the Israeli R&D authorities. The main
objection to such R&D programs is the fact that the market size and the prices of the new products
are unknown. Our feeling is that such a niche does exist, and the only way to confirm its existence
is to test it. Even the return from R&D is expected to be higher when dealing with new crops. We
may ask the question: how much can new R&D increase the profitability of well-established crop
at the edge of their profit cycle? We claim that such an effort can yield much more when new
crops are investigated.
Unfortunately, in Israel as in most other countries, most agricultural R&D is conducted with
money raised as levies from sales. Thus apple growers for example, would like to see their money
invested back into R&D on apples. The bigger the crop and the greater the body of knowledge
about its biological and agricultural aspects, more R&D is applied. As a result, money is allocated
mainly to the "good old crops," while the new crops of the future are neglected. A change in policy
is needed to promote more research in the direction of new crops.
NEW CROPS INITIATIVE

In the light of the dilemma discussed above, we initiated in 1984 an R&D project for the
"Introduction and domestication of rare and wild fruit and nut trees as new crops to the Israeli
Negev Desert" (Nerd et al 1990; 1993). This project includes about 40 different fruit tree species
(Table 1) from all over the world that are considered to be potential new export crops. For the
project, four sites were selected in the Negev Desert and one location in the Judean Desert, each
site differing from the others in terms of climate, soil, and water (Nerd et al. 1990, 1993). The first
stage, which lasted about 10 years, was devoted to assessing the survival, growth, phenology,
yields, and quality of seedlings of the investigated species. For all the species we preferred to start
with seedlings, which provide wide base of genetic backgrounds, rather than to concentrate on a
very narrow base of vegetatively propagated preselected genotypes. Many species did not survive,
and others are still at various stages of R&D, far away from any onsiderations of economic
potential. Four types of fruit have already been moved to the second stage of this program, which
will enable us to provide economic evaluation, such as the cost of various inputs per unit area and
the output during the years up to the time that the orchards will reach the full production stage. In
this second stage of the project, vegetatively propagated specimens are also being tested in a
cultivar trial. The expected small quantities that will be produced at this stage (20-30 t/year/crop)
will also enable us to evaluate the marketing and find solutions to post-harvest problems. The
market figures will enable farmers to take decisions whether or not to enter into the arena of these
new crops.
The species that are currently in the second stage of the project include: (1) climbing trellised cacti
growing in net houses--Selenicereus megalanthus and three species of Hylocereus; (2) the
outdoor-grown cactus Cereus peruvianus, also known as apple cactus; (3) white sapote (Casimiroa
edulis); and (4) Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) also known as "desert apple," a species introduced from
India. Two more species are under consideration for moving to the second R&D stage: (5) marula
(Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra), for which 10 clones are currently being propagated and will be
ready for planting next year, and (6) argan (Argania spinosa), a wild oil tree from Morocco, which
will be promoted to the second stage after the selection of the current fruiting year.
Crawling Cacti
These species which are native to Central and north South America, climb on tree trunks in the
tropics and may be epiphytic (Gibson and Nobel 1986). Their fruits have various sizes, tastes,
shapes, and colors. Some have spines that abscise upon ripening and others have scales of various
shapes and colors. The pulp also varies in color from white to various hues of red and purple,
while the abundant seeds may be soft and edible (Mizrahi et al. 1996). The reproductive biology of
these species is described in a review by Nerd and Mizrahi (1996). Five genotypes are already
growing in an area of 2 ha, mainly in net houses since they require shade (Nerd et al. 1990; Raveh
et al. 1993; Mizrahi et al. 1996). One clone of Selenicereus megalanthus, also known as yellow
pitaya, is being cultivated (Weiss et al. 1995). Yellow pitaya is already an established crop that is
being exported worldwide from Colombia (Arcadio 1986; Cacioppo 1990; Mizrahi et al. 1996).
Other clones include one of Hylocereus polyrhizus, one of H. undatus and two of Hylocereus sp.
(Barbeau 1990), all our selections. These clones have been planted in two plantations, each of 0.5
ha. Each clone was planted in a different row to allow cross pollination from the neighboring rows
(Weiss et al. 1994b). All were planted in the late summer of 1993 as rooted cuttings removed from
the same mother plants, and all started to fruit in 1994. In these plantations two net houses were
planted, one with 50% shade in the Arava valley, having a hot climate and saline water (EC 4
dS/m), and the other with both 30% and 60% shade sections in the Besor area, which is
characterized by good quality water (EC 1 dS/m) and moderate temperatures with only rare frosts
(Nerd et al. 1993). The second hectare was planted in the Yad Mordekhay area, with sub-freezing
temperatures as low as -4deg.C; here, plastic houses were planted to accommodate selected and
non-selected plants. All started to fruit one year after planting.
Cactus Apple
Of many columnar cacti tested by us as potential new crops, one species--Cereus
peruvianus--grew the fastest. It started to flower and fruit four years after seeding (Nerd et al.
1993; Weiss et al. 1993). Rooted cuttings of seven clones of this cactus, selected from over 300
seedlings, were planted in the Arava valley and the Besor, with a total area of 2 ha. All cuttings
were planted as a mixture of clones, since this species demonstrates self-incompatibility (Weiss et
al 1994a). The reproductive biology of this cactus is also described in the review of Nerd and
Mizrahi (1996). All clones started to flower and fruit two years after planting. Over 1,000
seedlings have been planted for further selection.
White Sapote
White sapote (Casimiroa edulis, Rutaceae) is an evergreen medium-size tree native to the
highlands of Mexico and Central America. The fruits are green-yellow, with a thin skin and a
creamy white-yellow sweet flesh (Morton 1987). Selected clones are available, mainly in Southern
California (Chambers 1984; Morton 1987), and some effort has been made to introduce the species
into New Zealand and Australia (Dawes and Martin 1988; George et al. 1988). A small
commercial plantation (16 hectares) with selected cultivars is being grown in Carpenteria near
Santa Barbara, California and the fruits can be found as an exotic item in the United States and
Australia. Early tests in the Israeli Negev Desert demonstrated partial tolerance to salinity (Nerd et
al. 1992). In autumn 1992 and spring of 1993, 21 grafted clones were planted in Qetura and Besor;
16 were introduced as bud-wood from Fallbrook, Southern California (from R.R. Chambers
orchard), while the remaining five were propagated as grafted bud-wood from our own selections.
Nine replications from each clone were planted in three blocks at each location. In 1995 some
clones started to flower and set fruits in these two locations.
Desert Apple
Desert apple (Ziziphus mauritiana, Rahmnaceae), also known as ber or Indian jujube, is an
evergreen, medium-size, thorny tree believed to be of African origin (Alexander, 1979). The fruits
can reach plum size, turning yellow from green as ripening starts, and becomes sweet and sour in
taste, both the flesh texture and taste being reminiscent of apples. The fruit has a unique aroma,
similar to that of carob, which becomes too strong for "Western" tasters when fully ripe, at which
stage the color turns brown. The fruit can be consumed dry, similar to its relative the "Chinese
date" Z. jujube. Ber is grown commercially as a desert crop (hence the name desert apple) in India.
Seedlings and introduced cultivars from India developed and yielded very well (over 100 kg/tree
annually) in all our introduction orchards, including areas with frequent sub-freezing temperatures
and highly saline water (Nerd et al. 1990). Three Indian cultivars were planted at Neot Hakikar,
the lowest point on earth -400 m below sea level with 3,960 mm evaporation/year and saline water
(EC 4 dS/m) with Na and Cl as the major ions (Nerd et al. 1993). Most of our introduced fruit tree
species did not survive under these conditions, but ber has fruited heavily from very early ages. A
semi-commercial plantation was planted by a farmer in 1993, and the first yield was sold in 1995
in the local market, mainly to immigrants from India who are familiar with the fruit.
Marula
Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra, Anacardiaceae) is a large, dioecious, deciduous tree,
which grows wild in southern Africa. Female trees bear plum-sized fruits with a thick yellow peel
and a translucent, white, highly aromatic sweet-sour fruit, which is eaten fresh, like a small mango,
or used to prepare juices, jams, conserves, dry fruit rolls, and alcoholic beverages. The seeds,
which are eaten as a delicate nut, are highly appreciated by the locals and hence the name "the
kings nut." The nut has high nutritive value and a high oil content (56%) with very good dietetic
ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids (Weinert et al. 1990). Trees were established very well
at introduction sites in the Negev Desert and produced abundant fruits from early ages, mainly
when grown in a hot area with saline water (Qetura) (Nerd and Mizrahi 1993). Trees were badly
damaged after a spell of sub-freezing temperatures of -6 and -7C; all recovered but never set
fruits, and thus this species is not recommended for areas with such low temperatures. At Qetura,
some pistillate trees are bearing well, over 400 kg/tree annually, and we have moved the species to
the second stage of our R&D program to test selected clones on a semi-commercial basis. Ten
selected clones are being propagated and will be ready for planting in 1996.
Argan
Argan (Argania spinosa, also known as A. sideroxylon, Sapotaceae) is a medium, thorny,
evergreen tree native to south western Morocco. The tree bears plum-sized fruits, which are eaten
by goats which often climb the trees. The fruits have a bitter pericarp around a stone-like structure,
containing one to three kernels with a high oil content (over 50%). The oil has high dietetic value,
total unsaturated fatty acids/total saturated fatty acids being around 4.5, a ratio similar to that of
olive oil (Morton and Voss 1987; Prendergast and Walker 1992). The oil has a unique aroma and
is considered as the best culinary oil by Moroccans, who are the only people familiar with the oil.
In Israel, where 600,000 immigrants from Morocco reside, imported argan oil is sold for
US$43/liter in comparison with $4/liter for olive oil. Attempts to domesticate this wild tree in
Israel started about 10 years ago. The species demonstrated adaptability to the hot hostile
environment of the Arava valley when irrigated with brackish water; yields of oil per tree at Qetura
were double those at Ramat Negev, which has much milder environmental conditions (Nerd et al.
1994). The oil yield of best specimens was around 1 kg/tree annually. Some seedlings died as a
result of infection with Fusarium oxysporum. Until tolerant rootstocks can be found, we decided to
plant grafted trees from the best yielding ones and to plant additional seedlings from various
habitats in Morocco. Even though this species is not in as advanced stage of introduction as the
marula, we consider it to be a high-priority species because of its rarity and the high demand in
Israel for its oil.
CONCLUSIONS
It is interesting to note that in our earliest publication (Nerd et al. 1990), we mentioned six species
as promising, an evaluation based on their early development and growth. These species included
white sapote and ber, which are still considered promising, and marula, which has been moved to
the second stage of the R&D, but they also include yehib (Cordeauxia edulis), mongongo
(Ricinodendron rautanenii), and pitaya agria (Stenocereus gummosus), which did not meet our
early optimistic expectations. The latter three species proved to be late yielders (pitaya agria); or
exhibited sensitivity to the desert conditions of our introduction sites, such as salinity or
sub-freezing temperatures; or were not as abundant in fruiting as the promising species described
in this presentation. Other promising species emerged, such as C. peruvianus, with its adaptability
to a spectrum of conditions, including slight salinity and sub-freezing temperatures. The species
produces early and heavily, giving good-quality, tasty fruits. The most surprising successes were
the various crawling cacti (Hylocereus species and S. megalanthus), which did not survive the
outdoor Negev Desert conditions (Nerd et al. 1990), but once trellised and protected from high
radiation by net houses, started yielding precociously and early to give some of the most beautiful
fruits on earth.
Of the six promising species from the first R&D stage, three were moved into the second stage
(white sapote, ber, and marula), while others, the apple cactus and the crawling cacti, emerged as
promising and already planted as vegetative clones (moved to second stage). This evaluation was
based on fruiting (both as yields and fruit quality) and early selection of good-performing
specimens.
We anticipate that at least some of these newly introduced species will become export items with
profit levels that will be sufficiently high to revive the fruit export industry and replace the old
"dying-out" export crops. The high profitability of new fruit crops was demonstrated for kiwi fruit
by New Zealand in the world market and for avocado by Israel in the European market. There is
no reason why such new exotic fruits will not be the commodities of the future. We should not
forget that no crop can stay at its peak forever, and low profits always loom in the future. Mr. Dan
Rymon (pers. commun.), found that it took 17 years from the first sales of flower crops in the
European markets until Israel was chased out by its competitors. With fruit trees, it may be much
much longer, as was the case with the kiwi fruit from New Zealand (47 years) and the `Shamuti'
(`Jaffa') orange from Israel (80 years).
We should conclude with an evaluation of the benefits of our program to the world as a whole.
Any species that can produce good yields in the Arava valley--the location of both Qetura and
Neot Hakikar--can serve as a future crop species that can tolerate extremely high temperatures and
salinity. Because of the unique situation in the Negev Desert of short distances between
agriculturally different ecozones, we recommend that this area be used as a global laboratory for
the introduction and acclimation of new desert crops. In 1994 the International Program for Arid
Land Agricultural Crops (IPALAC) was initiated under the auspices of UNESCO. This program is
aimed at R&D similar to that described in this paper, to be executed with all kinds of agricultural
crops in representative desert areas around the globe.
REFERENCES
Alexander, D.McE. 1979. Rhamnaceae. p. 161-163. In: P.E. Page (compiler), Tropical trees
for Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Series Q183018.
Arcadio, L.B. 1986. Cultivo de la pitaya. Federacion de Cafeteros, Bogota, Colombia.
Barbeau, G. 1990. La pitaya rouge, un nouveau fruit exotique. Fruits 45:141-147.
BDO Bavly Millner & Co. 1995. Doing business in Israel 1995. Tel Aviv, Israel.
Cacioppo, O.G. 1990. Pitaya: una de las mejores frutas productivas por Colombia.
Informative Agro Economico de Colombia. Feb., p. 15-19.
Chambers, R.R. 1984. White sapote varieties: progress report. California, Rare Fruit
Growers Yearb. 16:56-64.
Dawes, S.N. and P.J. Martin. 1988. The casimiroa is close to commercial fruit status.
Orchardist of New Zealand 61:72-74.
Fletcher, R.J., G.E.A. Ferguson, G.M. Kregor, and C.H. McConnell. 1995. Choosing new
crops. Sixth Conference of the Australian Council on Tree and Nut Crops (ACONTAC 95), Sept. 11-15, 1995. Lismore, NSW, Australia.
George, A.P., R.J. Nissen, and D.J. Wallace. 1988. The casimiroa. Queensland Agr. J.
114:57-62.
Gibson, A.C. and P.S. Nobel. 1986. The cactus primer. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Mizrahi, Y., A. Nerd, and P.S. Nobel. 1996. Cacti as crops. Hort. Rev. 18:(In press).
Morton, J.F. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. J.F. Morton. Miami, Fl. p 191-196.
Morton, J.F. and G.L. Voss. 1987. The argan tree (Argania sideroxylon, Sapotaceae), a
desert source of edible oil. Econ. Bot. 41:221-233.
Nerd, A. and Y. Mizrahi. 1993. Domestication of marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra)
as a new crop for the Negev Desert of Israel. p. 496-499. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.),
New crops. Wiley, New York.
Nerd, A. and Y. Mizrahi. 1996. Reproductive biology of cactus fruit crops. Hort. Rev. 18:(in
press).
Nerd, A., J.A. Aronson, and Y. Mizrahi. 1990. Introduction and domestication of rare fruits
and nuts trees for desert areas. p. 355-363. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in
new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Nerd, A., M. Lapidot, and Y. Mizrahi., 1992. White sapote (Casimiroa edulis); Performance
under culture and environmental stress conditions in field studies. Scientia Hort.
51:213-222.
Nerd, A., E. Raveh, and Y. Mizrahi. 1993. Adaptation of five columnar cactus species to
various conditions in the Negev Desert of Israel. Econ. Bot. 47:304-311.
Nerd, A., E. Eteshola, N. Borowy, and Y. Mizrahi. 1994. Growth and oil production of
argan in the Negev Desert of Israel. Ind. Crops Prod. 2:89-95.
Prendergast, H.D.V. and C.C. Walker. 1992. The argan, multipurpose tree of Morocco. Kew
Mag. 9:76-85.
Raveh, E., J. Weiss, A. Nerd, and Y. Mizrahi. 1993. Pitayas (genus Hylocereus): a new fruit
crop for the Negev Desert of Israel. p. 491-495. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New
crops. Wiley, New York.
Statistical Abstracts of Israel. 1994. No 45, Central Bureau of Statistics, State of Israel.
Vietmeyer, N. 1986. Lesser known plants of potential use in agriculture and forestry.
Science 232:1379-1381.
Vietmeyer, N.D. 1990. The new crops era. p. xviii-xxii. In: J. Janick, and J.E. Simon (eds.),

Weinert, I.A.G., P.J. van Wyk, and L.C. Holtzhausen. 1990. Marula. p. 88-115. In: S. Nagy,
P.E. Show, and W.F. Nardowsky (eds.), Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin. Florida
Science Source, Lake Alfred.
Weiss, J., A. Nerd, and Y. Mizrahi. 1993. Development of the cactus apple (Cereus
peruvianus) as a new crop to the Negev Desert of Israel. p. 486-491. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Weiss, J., A. Nerd, and Y. Mizrahi. 1994a. Flowering and pollination requirements in
Cereus peruvianus cultivated in Israel. Israel J. Plant Sci. 42:149-158.
Weiss, J., A. Nerd, and Y. Mizrahi. 1994b. Flowering and pollination requirements in
climbing cacti with fruit crop potential. HortScience 29:1487-1492.
Weiss, J., L. Scheinvar, and Y. Mizrahi. 1995. Selenicereus megalanthus (the yellow
pitaya). A climbing cactus from Colombia. Cactus Succulent J. 67:280-283.
Table 1. List of candidate species.

Family
Botanical name
Apocynaceae
Carissa grandiflora A. DC.
Anacardiaceae
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra Sounder
Spondias cytherea (Spondias dulcis) Forst
Bombacaeae
Bombax glabra
Cactaceae
Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Humlk.
Cereus peruvianus (L.) Miller
Escontria chiotilla (Weber) Britt & Rose
Hylocereus costaricensis (Weber) Br. &
R.
Hylocereus paolyrhi (Weber) Br. & R.
Hylocereus polyrhizus (Weber) Br. & R.
Hylocereus purpusii (Weber) Br. & R.
Hylocereus undatus (Weber) Br. & R.
Myrtilloactus geometrizans (Mart.) Cons.
Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller
Opuntia streptacantha Lem.
Common name
Distribution
Carrisa
Southern America
Marula (Morula)
Ambarella
Southern Africa
Polynesia
Malabar nut
Central America
Acanthocereus
Mexico
Apple cactus (Pitaya) North South America
Pitaya (Jiotilla)
Mexico
Pitahaya
Central America
Pitahaya
Pitahaya
Pitahaya
Central America
Central America
Central America
Pitahaya
Pitaya
Nopalito, Nopalea
Prickly pear
Prickly pear
Central America
Mexico
Mexico
Tropical America
Tropical America
Pachycereus pringlei (Berger) Britt &

Rose
Selenicereus megalanthus (Schum.) Br. &
R.
Stenocereus griseus (Haw.) Buxb.
Stenocereus gummosus (Engelm.) Gilbs.
Stenocereus stellatus (Pfeiff.) Riccob.
Stenocereus thurberi (Engelm.) Buxb.
Stenocereus thurberi var. litoralis (E.) B.
Caesalpiniaceae
Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl.
Ebenaceae
Diospyros digyna Jacq.
Diospyros discolor Willd.
Diospyros mespiliformis Hocht.
Euphorbiaceae
Ricinodendron rautanenii Schinz
Guttiferae
Rheedia madruno Triana & Planch.
Flacourtiaceae
Dovyalis caffra Warb.
Leguminosae
Tamarindus indica L.
Loganiaceae
Strychnos cocculoides Backer
Strychnos spinosa Lam.
Strychnos pungens Solereder
Mimosaceae
Inga spp.
Moraceae
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus mauritiana Lank.
Rosaceae
Prunus salicifolia H BK.
Cardon pelon
Sonoran Desert
Pitaya
Columbia
Pitaya
Pitaya agria
Pitaya
Pitaya dulce
Pitaya dulce
Oaxaca Mexico
Sonoran Desert
Mexico
Sonoran Desert
Sonoran Desert
Yehib
Northeast Africa
Black sapote
South America
Mabolo (Velvet apple) Philline Islands

Mmilo namibia
South Africa
Mongongo
Southern Africa
Madrono
Central America
Kei apple
Southern Africa
Tamarind
Tropical Africa
Monkey orange
Monkey orange
Monkey orange
Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Ice cream bean
South America
Jackfruit
Asia
Ber
Old World Tropics
Capulin cherry
Mexico
Rubiaceae
Vangueria infausta Burch.
Rutaceae
Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex.
Santalaceae
Santalum acuminatum (R. Br.) A. DC.
Sapotaceae
Argania spinosa L.
Chrysophyllum cainito L.
Mmilo
Southern Africa
White sapote
Mexico, Central America
Quandong
Australia
Argan
Star apple
Manilkara zapota van Royen
Sapodilla
Mimusops angel Engler
Angel
Morroco
Central America
India, Africa, Central
America
Somalia
Mimusops zeyheri Sond.

Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) Merr.
Mmupudu
Mammey sapote
Southern Africa
Central America
Fig. 1. Changes in annual citrus

production in Israel 1960-1994.
(Statistical Abstracts of Israel
1994).
Fig. 2. Changes in sales volume

and in buying power of citrus
exporters in Israel 1990-1993. Data
are taken from the Statistical
Abstracts of Israel (1994).
Production during this period
decreased and prices increased but
well below the consumer price
index. The inflation rates were
17.6%, 18.6%, 9.4%, and 11.2%
for 1990, 1991, 1992, and 1993,
respectively (BDO Bavly Milner &
Co. 1995). By the time farmers
received their money, its value had
been eroded due to inflation. The
corrected value of their income is
calculated from the actual value
and the inflation rate.
Fig. 3. Hypothetical product life
cycle in a free market. For cut
flowers exported from Israel to
Europe the span is 17 years (D.
Rymon, Agricultural Research
Organisation, pers. commun.).
Last update August 15, 1997 aw
Argemone mexicana
Medicinal weed Satyanashi (Argemone

mexicana Linn)
contributor.
English name: Mexican prickly poppy

Common (Indian) names
Hindi: Shialkanta, Satyanashi
Gujrati: Darudi
Danarese: Balurakkisa, Datturi, Pirangi, datturi
Marathi: Daruri, Firangi-kote-pavola, dhotara.
Sanskrit: Brahmadandi, Pitopushpa, Srigalkanta, Svarnakshiri.
Malyalam: Ponnummattu, Kantankattiri
Tamil: Kutiyotti, Ponnummuttai
Telugu: Brahmadandicettu
Family: Papaveraceae
Habitat: In India it is introducd and naturalised and occur as wasteland weed in almost every part
of India. In many parts it is repoorted as crop weed also.
Related species: It is native of Tropcal America. The genus Argemone includes 12 species. Some
major species are: A. alba Lestib. ( used medicinally in North America ), A. platyceras Link. &
Otto., A. grandiflora Sweet.
Botany: It is a prickly, glabrous, branching herb with yellow juice and showy yellow flowers, The
Sanskrit name svarnakshiri is given because of the yellow juice (Svarna - Gold; Kshiri - Juice ).
The height of this plant varies between 0.3 to 0.12 meters, Leaves are thistlelike. Stem clasping,
Oblong, sinuately pinnatifid, spinous and viens are white. Flowers are terminal, yellow and of
2.55.0 cm diameter. Fruits are capsule. Prickly and oblong ovoid. Seeds numerous, globose,
netted and brownish black. Flowering time is all round the year in Indian conditions. The plants is
toxic to animals and cattle avoid grazing this plant. Harmful allelopathic effects of Argemone
mexicana on germination and seedling vigour of wheat, mustard, fenugreek, sorghum,
fingermillet, tomato, cucumber etc. (important crops in India ) have been reported. The
allelochemicals cinnamic and benzoic acid are identified as harmful chemicals responsible for
inhibition of germination and seedling vigor.
Useful Parts: Roots, leaves, seeds and yellow juice.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/argemone.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:36 PM]
Argemone mexicana
Medicinal Properties and Uses: According to Ayurveda the plant is diuretic. purgative and
destroys worms. It cures lepsory, skin-diseases, inflammations and bilious fevers. Roots are
anthelmintic. Juice is used to cure ophthalmia and opacity of cornea. Seeds are purgative and
sedative. Seeds resemble mustard seeds and in India it is used to adulterate mustard seed. Seed
yield non edible toxic oil and causes lethal dropsy when used with mustard oil for cooking.
In Homoeopathic system of medicine, the drug prepared from this herb is used to treat the problem
caused by tape-worm.
Popular Ayurvedic Formulations: Svarnakshiri churna and tail
Other uses: The plant is found suitable for the reclamation of alkaline soils.
Dried and powdered plants are recommended as green manure as it contain sufficient amount of
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium.
Oilcake is used as manure.
Seed oil, popularly known as Satyanashi oil is used as an illuminant, lubricant, in soapmaking, and
for protection from termites.
Chemical Constituents: The plant contains alkaloids as berberine, protopine, sarguinarine,
optisine, chelerytherine etc. The seed oil contains myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic acids etc.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/argemone.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:36 PM]
Jack-In-The-Pulpit
Jack-In-The-Pulpit
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott.
Synonym.Arum triphyllum L.
Other common names.Wild turnip, arum, three-leaved arum,
Indian-turnip, wakerobin, wild pepper, dragon-turnip, brown dragon,
devil's-ear, marsh turnip, swamp turnip, meadow turnip, pepper turnip,
starchwort, bog onion, priest's-pintle, lords-and-ladies.
Habitat and range.Jack-in-the-pulpit inhabits moist woods from
Canada to Florida and westward to Kansas and Minnesota.
Description.The jack-in-the-pulpit has one or two smooth leaves
consisting of three leaflets from 3 to 6 inches long and from 1 1/2 to 3
1/2 inches wide. The flower, which is either all green or green with
dark purple stripes, is readily recognized on account of the similarity
of its form to that of the calla lily. In autumn the fruit ripens in the
form of a bunch of bright, scarlet, shining berries. The underground Figure 69.Jack-in-the-pulpit
(Arisaema triphyllum)
portion, usually referred to as the root but botanically known as a
corm, is shaped like a turnip. The lower part is flat and wrinkled, while the upper part is
surrounded by coarse wavy rootless. It has an extremely burning taste.
Part used.The dried corm, collected in the summer, is sliced crosswise and dried. Drying and
heat diminish its burning taste, which disappears rapidly with age.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/jack-in-the-pulpit.html [5/16/2004 1:29:37 PM]
Snakeroot
Snakeroot
(1) Aristolochia serpentaria L.; (2) A. reticulata
Nutt.
Other common names.(1) Virginia snakeroot, Virginia serpentaria,
serpentary, snakeweed, pelicanflower, snagrel, sangrol, sangree-root;
(2) Texas snakeroot, Texas serpentaria, Red River snakeroot.
Habitat and range.Virginia snakeroot is found in rich woods from
Connecticut to Michigan and southward, principally among the
Alleghenies, and Texas snakeroot occurs in the Southwestern States,
growing along river banks from Arkansas to Louisiana.
Description of Virginia snakeroot.This plant is nearly erect, the
slender, wavy stem sparingly branched near the base growing usually
to about a foot in height sometimes, however, even reaching 3 feet. It
has thin leaves, heart-shaped at the base and pointed at the apex, about
2 1/2 inches long and from 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide. The dull-brown,
Figure 99.Snakeroot
somewhat leathery flowers are produced individually from near the
(Aristolochia serpentaria)
base of the plant on slender stems. The fruit is round, about half an
inch in diameter, and contains numerous seeds. Serpentaria has a short rootstock with many thin,
branching, fibrous roots. The rootstock has a very agreeable, aromatic, camphorlike odor and a
warm, bitterish, camphoraceous taste.
Description of Texas snakeroot.This plant has a very wavy stem with oval, heart-shaped,
clasping leaves which are rather thick and marked with a network of veins. The entire plant is
hairy, with numerous long, coarse hairs. The small densely hairy, purplish flowers are produced
from the base of the plant. The rootstock of this species is larger and has fewer small roots than
that of the Virginia snakeroot.
Part used.The roots of both species, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/snakeroot.html [5/16/2004 1:29:39 PM]
Terminalia arjuna
Arjun or Koha [Terminalia arjuna

(Roxb.) W. & A.]
contributor.
English Name: White Marudah

Common (Indian) Names
Hindi: Arjun, Arjuna, Koha, Kahu, Arjan
Gujrati: Arjun - Sadada, Sadado
Canarese: Bili-Holo-Nir-Tora Matti, Maddi
Marathi: Arjuna, Arjun Sadada, Sadura
Sanskrit: Arjuna, Dhanvi, Indradruma, Kakubha, Karvirak.
Oriya: Arjuna, Sahajo
Tamil: Vellamatta
Telugu: Yerra maddi
Assam: Orjun
Bengali: Arjhan
Punjabi: Arjuna
Family: Combretaceae
Botany: Tree up to 25 meter hight; bark grey, smooth; leaves sub-opposite, 514 24.5 cm.,
oblong or elliptic oblong, glabrous, often inequilateral, margin often crenulate, apex obtuse or
sub-acute, base rounded or sometimes cordate; petioles 0.51.2cm; glands usually two. Flowers
small, white. Fruit 2.33.5 cm long, fibrous woody, glabrous with 5 hard wings, striated with
numerous curved veins. Flowering time AprilJuly in Indian conditions. Seeds hard germination
5076 days (5060%)
Related Species: The genus Terminalia consist large hard wooded trees. Over 100 species widely
distributed in the tropices (Terminalia originated from Latin ward Terminus, alluding to the leaves
being borne on the tips of the shoots). In India, Terminalia chebula, T. bellrica and T. ciliata are
major related species.
Distribution: Common in almost every part of India. Grows well along bank of streams, rivers,
ravines, dry water courses, reaching very large sizes on fertile alluvial loam.
Useful Parts: Every parts useful medicinal properties Arjun holds a reputed position in both
Ayurvedic and Yunani Systems of medicine. According to Ayurveda it is alexiteric, styptic, tonic,
anthelmintic, and useful in fractures, uclers, heart diseases, biliousness, urinary discharges,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/terminalia.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:40 PM]
Terminalia arjuna
asthma, tumours, leucoderma, anaemia, excessive prespiration etc. According to Yunani system of
medicine, it is used both externally and internally in gleet and urinary discharges. It is used as
expectorant, aphrodisiac, tonic and diuretic.
Ayurvedic Formulations: Arujanarishta, Arjunghrita, Arjunakhsirpak, Arvindasava, Devadarvy arishta etc.
Other Uses: Recommended for reclamation of saline, alkaline soils and deep ravines. Used for
agro and social forestry. Timber is locally used for carts, agricultural implements, water troughs,
traps, boat building, house building, electric poles, tool-handles, jetty-piles and plywood. Fodder is
useful for tassar silkworm. It is one of the major tannin yielding trees. Bark (2224%), leaf
(1011%) and fruit (720%) contains tannins.
Chemical Constituens: A glucoside - arjunetin - has been isolated from bark. Recently new
flavance - arjunone has been isolated from fruits alongs with cerasidin, -sitosterol, friedlin,
methyl oleanolate, gallic, ellagic and arjunic acids.
Artificial Propagation: It can be artificially propagated through seeds, coppicing, pollarding,
root-suckers, stumps and air-layering. It is initially slow-growing but later fast-growing. It attains
23 m height in 3 years. Arjun yields up to 45 kg dry bark chips on a three year cycle without
injury.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/terminalia.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:40 PM]
Armoracia rusticana
Armoracia rusticana P.
Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb.
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Horseradish, Creole mustard, German mustard, Horse-reddish
root (archaic), Red horseradish
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Armoracia_rusticana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:40 PM]
Aronia melanocarpa
Aronia melanocarpa Michx.

Rosaceae
Aronia, Chokeberry
We have information from several
sources:
Outside links:
Aronia melanocarpa from Mallorn
Computing
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Aronia_melanocarpa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:42 PM]
Arracacia xanthorrhiza
Index|Search|Home
Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancr.

Umbelliferae
Apio, arracach, arracacha, arracacia, fecula,
Peruvian carrot, Peruvian parsnip, r'accacha, white carrot
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective.1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len
(eds.). Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Outside links
Arracacha can be found in Lost Crops of the Incasfrom National Academy Press
Andean roots and tubers: Ahipa, arracacha, maca and yaconby M. Hermann, J. Heller (eds.)
from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Arracacia_xanthorrhiza_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:43 PM]
Tall oatgrass
Tall oatgrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Presl
Tall oatgrass, native to Europe, was brought to the United States early in the
last century. It is now grown widely in the central and northern states, and in the Pacific
Northwest. It is a hardy, upright perennial bunchgrass reaching to 5 feet, with many leaves. The
seed head resembles that of oats, hence the name. It tends to grow in bunches and is well adapted
to light textured soils. It is suitable for pastures and yields a palatable hay. It is frequently seeded
in combination with other grasses and legumes as sweet and red clovers. It is shorter lived than
most bunchgrasses.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Tall_oatgrass.html [5/16/2004 1:29:44 PM]
Arugula
Index|Search|Home
Eruca sativa Miller

Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.
Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC.
Brassicaceae = Cruciferae
Arrugula, arugula, garden rocket, jamba oil, Mediterranean
rocket, rocket, rocket salad, roka, roquette, rucola, rugala,
rugela, rugula
See:
Eruca sativa
Diplotaxis tenuifolia
Diplotaxis muralis
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eruca_Diplotaxis.html [5/16/2004 1:29:44 PM]
Artemisia abrotanum
Artemisia abrotanum L.
Southernwood, Old-man, southern wormwood
Last update Monday, January 6, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artemisia_abrotanum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:45 PM]
Artemisia dracunculus L.
Tarragon, French tarragon, Russian tarragon, true
tarragon
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artemisia_dracunculus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:46 PM]
Cynara scolymus
Cynara scolymus L.
Compositae, or Asteraceae
Alcachofa, archiciocco, artichaut, Artichoke,
articiocco, baby artichoke, carciofo, French artichoke, globe
artichoke, Italian Green Globe, karzochy
Artichoke (and Lettuce & Endive) production links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cynara_scolymus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:47 PM]
Artocarpus spp.
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson)

Fosberg
and
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

syn. Artocarpus integrifolia L.
Moraceae
Breadfruit, Fruit pain, Pana de pepita, Sukun, Breadnut,
Panapen, Jack, Jackfruit, Jakfruit, Jack hirsutus Lam, Jaca, Jak,
Nangka, Ramon, Ramn
NewCROP has Breadfruit & Jackfruit information at:
BreadfruitJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
JackfruitJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
MagnessJ.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Outside links to more Breadfruit & Jackfruit info:
BREADFRUIT & JACKFRUIT "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the
the California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including
botanical identification, description and culture notes based on California research, and
characteristics of cultivars).
Germplasm Catalogue of Jackfruit in Bangladeshfrom Fruits for a Future
Breadfruitby Diane Ragone, from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Artocarpus_spp_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:47 PM]
Lakoocha: A Multipurpose Tree of Warm Climate
Joshee, N., D.R. Bastola, V.P. Agrawal, and A.K. Yadav. 2002. Lakoocha: A multipurpose tree of warm climate. p. 405406. In:
J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Nirmal Joshee, D.R. Bastola, V.P. Agrawal, and A.K. Yadav*
INTRODUCTION
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb., Moraceae, is a valuable tropical tree species native to India and used for fruit, furniture, timber, and feed.
The lakoocha fruits are generally eaten fresh. Each fruit contains 2030 seeds that are fleshy with thin seed coat. The edible fruit pulp
is believed to act as a tonic for the liver. Raw fruits and male flower spike (acidic and astringent) are utilized in pickles and chutney
(sauce). The lakoocha tree is also valued for feed and timber. The hardwood sold as lakuch, is comparable to famous teak wood.
Lakuch which is durable outdoors as well as under water, is used for construction, furniture, boat making, and cabinet work. Tree bark
containing 8.5% tannin is chewed like betel nut, and is also used to treat skin ailments. It yields a durable fiber good for cordage. The
wood and roots yield a lavish color dye. Lakoocha seeds and milky latex are purgative. Seeds contain artocarpins (ALA I and ALA
II), the isolectins which exhibit high haemagglutination activity (Wongkham 1995). However, the agglutinin (ALA) from Artocarpus
lakoocha is not organ specific. Moreover, the haemagglutination activity of ALA was demonstrated in various organs of the plant
except fruit flesh. The highest and the lowest activities were found in the seeds (14,400 units/g fwt) and leaves (5 units/g fwt),
respectively.
BOTANY AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus Artocarpus, Moraceae, which consists of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), lakoocha or monkey jack (A. lakoocha),
chempedak (A. integer), breadfruit or breadnut (A. altilis), and marang (A. odoratissima), comprises over 50 distinct species of
monoecious evergreen trees (Drew 1997). Compound fruits are derived from swollen flower heads. Artocarpus species display high
levels of genetic variability, both between and within species. This is evident from the wide range of locally distributed Artocarpus
genotypes. Breadfruit cultivars are triploid and seedless. Lakoocha seedling trees take five years to come into bearing. The
orange-yellow male flowers and reddish female flowers of lakoocha are borne separately on the same trees. Fruits are nearly round or
irregular, from 5 to 12 cm in diameter and have a velvety surface (Fig. 1). The lakoocha fruits are dull-yellow with pink tinge and
sweet-sour pulp. Fruit yield can be up to 80 kg/tree with fruit weight ranging from 200 to 350 g.
Fig. 1. A developing fruit (60%) of Artocarpus lakoocha.

The lakoocha is popularly known as monkey jack or lakuchi in India, badahar in Nepal, tampang in Malaya, and lokhat in
Thailand. A native of the humid sub-Himalayan regions of India, it grows up to 1,200 m altitude. The lakoocha trees grow 6 to 9 m
tall with large, leathery and deciduous leaves (Fig. 2).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-405.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:29:49 PM]
Fig. 2. A mature tree of Artocarpus lakoocha.
PROPAGATION
There are a number of Important problems associated with regeneration and propagation of lakoocha: (1) tree population of lakoocha
is gradually decreasing due to poor seed viability and extensive exploitation for food, timber, and other uses; (2) seeds, once extracted
from the fruit, quickly loose viability within a week, or sometimes even in few days; and (3) vegetative propagation methods such as
rooting of hardwood or softwood stem cuttings have not been successful (Napier and Robbins 1989).
Protocols were developed for micropropagation of lakoocha seedlings. Lakoocha fruits were collected just before maturity and stored
at 4C. Fruits were washed under running tap water for 1 hr, then washed with detergent and rinsed 3 times with sterile distilled water.
Fruits were dipped in 70% ethanol for 1 min, air dried and flamed to evaporate ethanol. Following this, fruits were cut open to remove
seeds. Air dried seeds were germinated on sterile sand and slanted agar in test tubes. Germination medium contained 0.8% agar and
0.5% sucrose with pH adjusted to 5.75.8. Six-week-old seedlings were utilized to prepare leaf disc, nodal segment, and shoot tip
explants.
Aseptic cultures using leaf discs, nodal segments and shoot tip explants were initiated on MS basal medium containing NAA and BA
alone and in combination along with a control without growth regulators. Leaf discs did not show any response in different media.
Nodal and shoot tip explants (Figs. 3A, C) initiated calli at cut ends. Shoot tips were more responsive and highly prolific in initiating
shoot buds. Optimum results for multiple shoot induction were obtained with MS supplemented with 1.0 to 2.0 mg L-1 BA. Rooting
was observed in 2 to 3 weeks in MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg L-1 IBA (Fig. 3D).
Fig. 3. Sequential stages in the complete in vitro
regeneration of lakoocha plantlets. A. Nodal explant. B.
Elongation of axillary bud in nodal explant. C. Shoot tip
producing callus and numerous shoot bud primordia. D.
Elongated shoots initiate rooting in the induction medium,
arrow points to a root. E. Complete plantlet developed with
well defined shoot and root at the end of 45 months in
culture.
CONCLUSIONS
In vitro micropropagation protocol for rapid multiplication of lakoocha is required to maintain an adequate supply of plants to
establish new plantations and to conserve desirable genotypes. It is also considered important to develop somatic embryogenesis
protocols for in vitro regeneration to enhance genetic improvement of desirable lakoocha genotypes.
REFERENCES
Drew, R.A. 1997. The application of biotechnology to the conservation and improvement of tropical and subtropical fruit
species. FAO, Rome p. 177.
Napier, I. and M. Robbins. 1989. Forest seeds and nursery practice in Nepal. p. 9495.
Wongkham, S. 1995. Isolectins from seeds of Artocarpus lakoocha. Phytochemistry 40:13311334.
Bamboo
Index| Search| Home
Bamboo
Bambuseae Arundinaria sp., Phyllostachys sp., Bambusa sp.,
Dendrocalamus sp.
According to Bailey (Stan. Cyclo. Hort.), more than 200 species of bamboo are recognized,
varying in size from a few feet to more than 100 in height. The tender, young shoot growth of
many of these species is used as food, in the United States mainly in Chinese dishes. Sprouts
harvested in the United States are limited to Hawaii and Puerto Rico, but substantial quantities are
imported. Since new sprout growth quickly becomes hard and woody, the maximum period of
exposure of edible parts to direct pesticide application would be approximately a month.
Outside links for bamboo:
American Bamboo Society
Bamboo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bamboo.html [5/16/2004 1:29:49 PM]
Arundo donax
Arundo donax L.
Poaceae
Nalgrass, Giant reed, Spanish cane
Nalgrass: A Nonwood Fiber Source Suitable for Existing US Pulp MillsMark Lewis and
Michael Jackson
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Arundo_donax.html [5/16/2004 1:29:50 PM]
Canada Wildginger
Canada Wildginger
Asarum canadense L.
Other common names.Asarum, Indian ginger, Canada snakeroot,
Vermont snakeroot, heart snakeroot, southern snakeroot, black
snakeroot, coltsfoot snakeroot, black snakeweed, broad-leaved
asarabacca, false coltsfoot, colicroot.
Habitat and range.This inconspicuous little plant frequents rich
woods or rich soil along roadsides from Canada south to North
Carolina and Kansas.
Description.Canada wildginger, better known perhaps as Canada
snakeroot, is a small plant, apparently stemless, and not more than 6 to
12 inches in height. It usually has but two leaves, which are borne on
slender, finely hairy stems. The leaves are kidney-shaped or
heart-shaped, thin, dark green above and paler green on the lower
surface, and from 4 to 7 inches broad. The solitary flower is borne on Figure 32. Canada
wildginger (Asarum canadense)
a short, slender stalk produced between the two leaf stems, and on
account of its closeness to the ground it is not readily noticeable. It is bellshaped and of a
dull-brown or brownish-purple color, the inside being darker than the outside. The plant has a
creeping, yellowish rootstock with thin rootless produced from joints which occur about every
inch. It has a fragrant odor and spicy taste.
Part used.The rootstock, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/wildginger.html [5/16/2004 1:29:52 PM]
Asclepias syriaca
Asclepias syriaca L.
Asclepiadaceae
Milkweed, Silkweed
The Milkweed BusinessHerbert D. Knudsen and Richard D. Zeller
Milkweed Cultivation for Floss ProductionMerle D. Witt and Herbert D. Knudsen
Diversifying U.S. Crop ProductionJules Janick, Melvin G. Blase, Duane L. Johnson, Gary D.
Jolliff, and Robert L. Myers
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Asclepias_syriaca_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:52 PM]
Asclepias tuberosa
Index | Search | Home | Herb Hunters
Asclepias tuberosa L.
Asclepiadaceae
Butterfly weed, Indian posy, Orange milkweed,
Orange root, Pleurisy root, Tuberroot
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Asclepias_tuberosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:53 PM]
Withania somnifera
Asgandh or Ashwagandha (Withania

somnifera)
Pankaj Oudhia
Family: Solanaceae
English Name: Indian Ginseng, Winter cherry, Withania root
Common Indian Names
Gujarati - Asam, Asoda, Ghodasoda
Hindi - Asgandh
Canarese - Amangura, Hirimaddina-gadde, Sogada-bery.
Marathi - Asgundh, Kanchuki, Askandha
Sanskrit - Ashvagandha, Balada, Gandhpatri, Kamrupini, Vajini
Bengali - Ashvagandh
Punjabi-Asgand
Tamil - Asuragandi
Telugu - Asvagandhi, Penneru
Urdu - Asgandanagaori
Botanical Description: Please see Table I
Useful Parts: Root, leaves, Green berries and seeds.
Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, the root is bitter, acrid, heating, aphrodisiac, tonic,
alternative, anthelmintic and useful in treatment of inflammations, psoriasis, bronchitis, asthma,
consumption, ulcers, scabies, marasmus of children, insomnia, senile debility etc. According to
Unani system of medicine, the root is bitter, tonic, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, good in asthma,
inflammations, leucoderma, bronchitis, lumbago, thirst etc.
Major Alkaloids: Somniferine, somnine, somniferinine, withananine, pseudo-withanine, tropino,
pseudotropine, choline, cuscohygrine, isolettetierine, anaferine, anahydrine, 3-alpha-gloyloxy
tropane, etc.
Reference
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay Presidency. Pbl. Scientific Publishers,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/asgandh.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:54 PM]
Withania somnifera
Jodhurpur, India.
Krishnamurthy, T.1993. Minor forest products of India. Pbl. Oxford and IBH publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Lindley, J. 1985. Flora Medica. Pbl. Ajay Book Service, New Delhi, India.
Singh, U; Wadhwani, A.M. and Johri, B.M. 1996. Dictionary of Economical Plants of India. Pbl.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
Verma, D.M. Balakrishnan, N.P. and Dixit, R.D. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Vol. I. Pbl.
Botanical survey of India, Kolkata, India.
Common differences between Withania somnifera and Withania coagulans
Withiania somnifera
Synonyms Physalis somnifera
Local name Asgandh
Withania coagulans
Punneria coagulans
Punir
Plant
A rigid, ashy-grey undershurb
Branches
Leaves
Flowers
Fruits
Seeds
A much branched, erect, perennial

undershrub, from a more or less
tuberous root
Terete, clothed with mealy,
stellate-hoary tomentum, at length
some what glabrous
5-103.6 cm, ovate, obtovate, or
oblong, subacute or rarely obtuse,
entire, rounded or somewhat produced
at base, Pubescent on lower surface and
glabrous on upper surface
in sessile, axillary, 4-6 flowered cymes,
greenish-yellow
Orange-red berry, smooth, more or less
globose
Yellow, somewhat scurfy
Woody, terete, densely clothed with mealy,

stellate tomentum, sulcate when dry
2-71-2.5 cm, elliptic-lanceolate or
oblanceolate, coriaceous, obtuse at apex,
both surfaces uniformly grey-tomentose due
to thick coating of minute, stellate hairs
Unisexual
Globose, smooth
Ear-shaped, glabrous
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/asgandh.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:54 PM]
Rhizophora mucronata Lam.

Rhizophoraceae
Asiatic mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
The wood (sp. grav. 0.81), durable except in the ground, and difficult to saw, is used for
construction, fish traps, house frames, piling, and poles. Thousands of tons of mangrove
woodchips are exported annually from Indonesia, Sabah, and Sarawak for pulp and for rayon
manufacture (NAS, 1980a). Fruits may be eaten, after scraping off the outside and boiling with
wood ashes, according to some skeptical accounts (Burkill, 1966). The Wealth of India describes
the fruit as sweet and edible, the juice made into a light wine. Young shoots are cooked and eaten
as a vegetable (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Bark, used for tanning and dye, may be removed from stems
for sale as firewood. Leaves are the source of a black or chestnut dye (Burkill, 1966). Mangrove
extract is used for maintaining oil-well drilling muds within a desired range of flow (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). Planted along coastal fish ponds to stabilize the banks.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Rhizophora_mucronata.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:29:54 PM]
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent, Asiatic mangrove is a folk remedy for angina, diabetes, diarrhea,
dysentery, hematuria, and hemorrhage (Duke and Wain, 1981). Leaves are poulticed onto armored
fish injuries (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).Indochinese use the roots for angina and
hemorrhage. Malayans use old leaves and/or roots for childbirth. Burmese use the bark for bloody
urine, Chinese and Japanese for diarrhea, Indochinese for angina (Perry, 1980).
Chemistry
Wood contains 4.4% resin, 63.4% cellulose (List and Horhammer, 19691979) and 1.5% ash
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Tannin may vary in dry bark from ca 1350%, leaves contain
9.1%, green fruits 12.0%, and ripe fruits 4.2%. Spent mangrove bark, after tannin extraction, can
be used as a source of furfural (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Spent bark from North Borneo yields an ash
assaying 18% lime (70% CaCO3).
Toxicity
Honey collected from the flowers is said to be poisonous (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Description
Evergreen tree 25(30) m high, 70 cm in diameter, with numerous branching arching stilt roots.
Bark brown or blackish, smoothish, with horizontal fissures. Leaves opposite, elliptical to oblong,
815 cm long, 510 cm wide, acute, entire, without visible veins, thick and leathery, glabrous,
black-dotted beneath. Petiole 35 cm long. Stipules paired, leaving ring scar. Flower clusters
axillary, 23 times forked, with 38 flowers ca 15 mm long. Bell-shaped hypanthium with 4 pale
yellow, pointed leathery sepals and 4 cream-colored petals 9 mm long. Stamens 8, stalkless,
anthers 68 mm long, 4 opposite sepals and 4 opposite petals. Ovary half-inferior, conical,
2-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell, 2-lobed style. Berry ovoid or conical, 57 cm long, brown,
leathery. Seed 1, viviparous, becoming cigar-shaped, to 40 cm long and 2 cm in diameter (Little,
1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Africa, Hindustani, Indonesia-Indochina, and China-Japan Centers of Diversity,
Asiatic mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate diseases, insects, pests, salt, and
waterlogging (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983). (2n = 36)
Distribution
Old World tropics from South and East Africa to Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, southeastern
Africa to southern China, Ryukyu throughout Malaysia to northeastern Australia, Melanesia, and
Micronesia. Not widely introduced in Hawaii (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Rain through Subtropical Moist to Rain Forest Life
Zones, Asiatic mangrove is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 80 dm, annual
temperature of 20 to 26C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Hou (1958) suggests that this is the only Malayan
mangrove which can survive complete daily inundation. Little (1983) describes the habitat as
brackish and saline salts of depositing shores and marshes. Of the Asian species this one is most
likely to be found in deep soft mud.
Cultivation
According to the NAS (1980a), planting is usually not needed because natural regeneration is so
successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding results in ca 90% survival. Drying the
seedlings in the shade a few days before planting seems to make them much less attractive to
crabs, perhaps due to a buildup of tannin.
Harvesting
In Tamil Nadu, natural regeneration is abundant and plantations for fuel are managed on 30-year
rotations. Clear fellings of Rhizophora may be replaced by Avicennia (Hou, 1958). Species of
Rhizophoraceae, growing only from the tips of the branches, are often killed by indiscriminate
lopping of branches(NAS, 1980a).

Virgin mangrove stands are reported from Mindanao, where there were 149 trees/ha over 25 cm
DBH with 130 m3/ha. Planted forests 40 years old are projected to yield 400 m3/ha, an average of
only 10 m/ha/yr (Hou, 1958). Cannell (1982) cites data on a mangrove forest dominated by
Rhizophora, Ceriops, and Sonneratia, averaging 11 m tall, with an LAI (leaf area index) of
3.74.2. The stemwood and bark on a DM basis weighed 74.4 MT/ha, the prop roots 61.2 MT/ha,
the branches 15.8, the foliage 7.4, the fruits 0.3, for a total standing aerial biomass of 157 MT/ha.
The CAI (current annual increment) of stem wood, bark, and branches was 20 MT/ha/yr, foliage
6.7, fruits 0.3. These data, taken from a mangrove on Phuket Island, Thailand, regenerated
following clear felling, Suggest annual productivity may attain 20 MT/ha/yr in Asian mangroves.
Energy
Mangrove was the main fuel in the Philippines until World War II (NAS, 1980a). One great
advantage in the eyes of firewood dealers is the ease with which, the wood is split. With a calorific
value higher than oak, it burns with even heat. Five tons of mangrove firewood is said to equal
three tons of Malayan coal, two tons of Indian or Japanese. It makes an excellent charcoal, rather
high in sulfur (Burkill, 1966). Wood affords good fuel with high calorific value (4,888 cal, 8,799
Btu) and makes high quality charcoal. In Bangkok, mangrove charcoal, which burns steadily,
giving off intense heat without sparking, sells for twice the price of other charcoal (NAS, 1980a).
Biotic Factors
Crabs, great enemies of the seedlings, may damage starting plantations. Browne (1968) lists the
following: Crustacea, Sesarma spp.; Coleoptera, Poecilus fallax; and Mammalia, Macaca irus.
References
Burkill, J.H. 1966. A dictionary of economic products of the Malay peninsula. Art Printing
Works, Kuala Lumpur. 2 vols.
New York.
vols. New Delhi.
Hou, D. 1958. Rhizophoraceae. p. 429493. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (ed.), 19551958,
Flora Malesiana. series 1, vol. 5, P. Nordhoff Ltd., Republic of Indonesia.
Asimina triloba
Index| Search| Home
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal

Annonaceae
Pawpaw
Indiana Banana
Hoosier Banana
Poor Man's Banana
Pages on our server
Outside links
Articles in other publications
Pages on our server

Pawpaw FactSHEET contributed by Desmond R. Layne
Pawpaw (Asimina triloba): a "Tropical Fruit for Temperate Climates" by M. Brett Calloway.
From: New Crops (Janick and Simon eds.) Wiley, New York, 1993.
Pawpaw from: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
Nuts with Commercial Potential for America's Heartland
Pawpaws Provide Potential
Growing PawpawsCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
PDF version
The Pawpaw Regional Variety TrialKirk W. Pomper, Desmond R. Layne, and R. Neal Peterson
Articles on Insecticidal Acetogenins contained in Pawpaw Bark:

Evaluation of Various Parts of the Paw Paw Tree, Asimina triloba (Annonaceae), as a Commercial
Source of the Pesticidal Annonaceous AcetogeninsSunil Ratnayake, J. Kent Rupprecht, William
M. Potter, and Jerry L. McLaughlin
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Asimina_triloba_nex.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:29:55 PM]
Asimina triloba
Monthly Variations in Biological Activity of Asimina trilobaHolly. A. Johnson, J. Gordon, and

Jerry .L. McLaughlin
Outside links
The PawPaw Foundation Devoted to the Advancement of Asimina triloba, North America's
Largest Native Edible Fruit
Kentucky State University Pawpaw Research Project
PAWPAW "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
About Pawpaws in Oregon
From the Northern Nut Growers Association, Articles about Pawpaw
Fruit Explorer's MidFEx Pawpaw page
The GardenWeb's page on Pawpaw
Peterson Pawpaws
Link to information and image of Asimina tetramera (Opossum Pawpaw), a rare and endangered
species from southern Florida.
Articles in other publications

Jones, S.C., R.N. Peterson, T.-A. Turner, K.W. Pomper, and D.R. Layne. 1998. Pawpaw Planting
Guide Cultivars and Nursery Sources. KSU PIB 002.
Layne, D.R. and L.N. Peters. 1997. Early growth and development of pawpaw [Asimina triloba
(L.) Dunal] seedlings in the greenhouse as influenced by shade and root-zone modification.
HortScience 32:532 (PA).
Huang, H., D.R. Layne, and T.L. Kubisiak. 1997. Pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]
germplasm evaluation using RAPD markers. HortScience 32:513 (PA).
Finneseth, C.L.H., D.R. Layne and R.L. Geneve. 1997. Influence of ontological age on
adventitious bud and shoot formation of pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal] nodal explants.
HortScience 32:441 (PA).
Huang, H., D.R. Layne, and R.N. Peterson. 1997. Isozyme polymorphisms for identification and
assessment of genetic variation in cultivated pawpaws [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]. J. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 122(4):504-511. (RJA).
Asimina triloba
Layne, D.R. 1997. The influence of shade and root-zone modification on early growth and
development of pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal] seedlings grown in the greenhouse. Trans.
KY. Acad. Sci. 58(1):37. (PA).
Huang, H. and D.R. Layne. 1997. Geographic differentiation and allozyme variation in pawpaw
[Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]. Trans. KY. Acad. Sci. 58(1):37. (PA).
Finneseth, C.L.H., D.R. Layne and R.L. Geneve. 1997. Pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]
morphological development during seed germination and seedling emergence. Trans. KY. Acad.
Sci. 58(1):37-38. (PA).
Layne, D.R. 1997. Pawpaws, p. 403-404. In: The Brooks and Olmo Register of Fruit and Nut
Varieties, Third Edition, A.S.H.S. Press, Alexandria, VA (BC).
S.C. Jones and D.R. Layne. 1997. Cooking with pawpaws. KSU Pawpaw Ext. Bull.-001. 12 p.
(EA).
Finneseth, C.L.H., D.R. Layne, and R.L. Geneve. 1996. Germination and seedling emergence in
pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]. Proc. So. Nurs. Assoc. Conf. 41:61-64. (NCP).
Layne, D.R. 1996. Development of pawpaw as a new fruit crop: research update from KSU.
Pomona: 29(4):37-47. (NPA).
Layne, D.R. and R.N. Peterson. 1996. The pawpaw regional variety trial (RVT): Background,
rationale and early data. HortScience 31:667 (PA).
Finneseth, C.L.H., D.R. Layne, and R.L. Geneve. 1996. Morphological development of pawpaw
[Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal] during seed germination and seedling emergence. HortScience 31:633
(PA).
Huang, H. and D.R. Layne. 1996. Allozyme variation and geographic differentiation in pawpaw
[Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]. HortScience 31:592 (PA).
Layne, D.R. 1996. The Pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal]: A new fruit crop for Kentucky and
the United States. HortScience 31:777-784 (RCP).
Polomski, R. and D.R. Layne. 1996. Pawpaws: A potential new fruit crop. American Small Farm
Magazine: 5(7):27-28. (NPA).
Layne, D.R. 1996. The pawpaw: promising future for an American tree crop. The Temperate
Agroforester 4(3):4-6. (NPA).
Layne, D.R. 1996. The all-American pawpaw. Part 2: Research, cultivation, and the future. The
Fruit Gardener magazine, July/August Issue p. 6-9, 26. (NPA).
Layne, D.R. 1996. The all-American pawpaw. Part 1: Revival efforts may bear much 'fruit'. The
Fruit Gardener magazine, May/June Issue Cover photo and article on p.12-14. (NPA).
Layne, D.R. 1996. Domestication of the pawpaw or 'Kentucky Banana'. The Green Thumb,
University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service Publication, March-April Issue, p.12-17
(EA).
Asimina triloba
Layne, D.R. 1996. Pawpaw research at Kentucky State University: An update. Trans. KY. Acad.
Sci. 57:49-50 (PA).
Layne, D.R. 1995. NewCrops FactSheet: Pawpaw, 6p. NewCROP New Crop Resource Online
Program, Indiana Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University. WWW url
address: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/pawpaw.html(OLP).
Layne, D.R. and M.G. Kwantes. 1995. Growth enhancement of pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.)
Dunal] seedlings as influenced by root-zone temperature and fertilization regime. Proc. 3rd Nat.
Symp. New Crops: New Opportunities, New Technologies. Oct. 22-25, 1995, Indianapolis, IN,
p.93 (PA).
Layne, D.R. and M.G. Kwantes. 1995. The influence of root-zone temperature and fertilization
regime on early growth and development of pawpaw (Asimina triloba Dunal) seedlings.
HortScience 30(4):870 (PA).
Jones, L., D.R. Layne, and M.G. Kwantes. 1995. Pawpaw (Asimina triloba) seedling growth and
development: Influence of incident light intensity and fertilization regime. HortScience 30:437
(PA).
Jones, L., D.R. Layne, and M.G. Kwantes. 1995. Influence of incident light intensity and
fertilization on growth and development of pawpaw [Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal] seedlings. Trans.
KY. Acad. Sci. 56:81-82 (PA).
Layne, D.R. 1994. The horticulture research program at Kentucky State University: An
introduction. Trans. KY. Acad. Sci. 55:78-79 (PA).
Publication Classification Code:
BC=Book Chapter; RJA=Referreed Journal Article; RCP=Refereed Conference Proceedings;
NCP=Nonrefereed Conference Proceedings; NPA=Nonrefereed Popular Article; EA=Extension
Article; OLP=On-line Publication; PA=Published Abstract.
Popular Press
I. International
"Pawpaw Article". Popular Science Magazine, August 1997 Issue, in press.
"Grow grow pawpaw!". Organic Gardening Magazine, "New Ground" Section, February 1997
Issue, pgs. 19-20.
Pawpaw interview with Charlie Murphy, ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Program
aired Oct. 3, 1996.
"Tropical try-out: The pawpaw adventure starts here - a 'hardy' tropical tree for the temperate
zone." New, Rare and Unusual Plants, October 1996 Issue, Vol. 2(3):97,106.
Radio interview about pawpaws with Noah Adams for "All Things Considered" daily evening
news program on National Public Radio, program aired 5:50 pm Dec. 5, 1995.
Asimina triloba
"Neal Peterson's goal is to domesticate the wild pawpaw", The Wall Street Journal, Cover story,
Nov. 18, 1993.
II. National
"Pawpaw article". Garden Design magazine, "Growing" section, August/September 1997 issue (in
preparation).
"The Return of the Pawpaw", Better Homes and Gardens On-Line, Gardening Section. Located at
WWW url address: http://www.bhglive.com/gardening/index.html
"Book Reviews: Cooking with Pawpaws". Fruit Gardener magazine, May/June 1997 Vol. 29, No.
3 Issue, p.26.
"Pawpaws making a comeback". Agricultural Research magazine, USDA-ARS, March 1997 issue,
p.16.
"Spotlight on pawpaw". National Gardening Magazine, "What's News" Column, p. 19, Oct. 1996
Issue.
"Pawpaw: A tropical tree for the temperate zone", The Cyber-Plantsman (an on-line magazine 'for
the serious gardener'). WWW url address:
http://www.gardenweb.com/cyberplt/plants/pawpaw.html. April 26, 1996.
"Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch", Country America magazine - September 1995 Issue,
p.78.
"The pawpaw paradox", American Horticulturist, February 1995 Issue, pgs. 28-33.
III. Regional
"Exotic fruit: Pawpaw is part of America's past, and perhaps, future", Chicago Tribune, Chicago,
IL, Good Eating Section 7:8; October 9, 1996.
Pawpaw TV interview with Vince Vermeulen, WDRB Channel 41 (FOX), Louisville, KY, 10:00
pm evening news broadcast, Program aired Oct. 6, 1996.
Pawpaw TV interview with Greg Stotelmyer, Part II. WTVQ Channel 36 (ABC), Lexington, KY,
6:00 pm evening news broadcast, Program aired Sept. 16, 1996.
Pawpaw TV interview with Greg Stotelmyer, Part I. WTVQ Channel 36 (ABC), Lexington, KY,
6:00 pm evening news broadcast, Program aired August 5, 1996.
"The Pawpaw Project", Lexington Herald-Leader, Lexington, KY, Front Page story, Section A:1,
October 24, 1995.
"The prince of the pawpaw", Detroit Free Press, Detroit, MI, Section C:1, Oct. 5, 1993.
"Pawpaws are ripe for return to glory", Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, MD, Section B:1, Sept. 21,
1993.
Asimina triloba
IV. Local
"Pawpaw custard is best in the fall of the year", Appalachian News-Express, Pikeville, KY, Images
Section C:1-2; October 16, 1996.
"Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch", Intelligencer Journal, Lancaster, PA, Food Section
C1&3, October 2, 1996.
"Fruit may have potential as crop, cancer fighter". Times-Mail, Bedford, IN, Section A1 & A8,
August 26, 1996.
"Give pawpaws a chance: A handy guide". The Charleston Gazette, Section 1E & 2E, Charleston,
WV, July 21, 1996. Also appearing at WWW url address at http://www.wvgazette.com.
"Pawpaw: The fruit tree of the future". The Floyd County Times, Prestonsburg, KY, Up a Tree
Section, June 5, 1996.
"Pawpaw tree discussed at PCC", The Weekly Progress, Prestonsburg, KY, Section B:7; May 29,
1996.
"Pawpaw tree expert to speak at PCC", The Weekly Progress, Prestonsburg, KY, Section B:6;
April 24, 1996.
"Interest sparks for pawpaws as 'top banana' in landscaping, research", The Sentinel News,
Shelbyville, KY, Section B:3, Apr. 19, 1996.
Feature Scope: Q & A with Dr. Desmond R. Layne, Pawpaw Researcher, The State Journal,
Frankfort, KY, Section E:1,4, Feb. 25, 1996.
"Native fruit brings national attention to KSU researchers", News From KSU (Supplement to The
State Journal, Frankfort, KY), February 20, 1996, p.3.
"KSU's work with paw paws topic of Audubon program", The State Journal, Frankfort, KY,
Section C:3, Nov. 26, 1995.
"KSU receives 16 grants", News From KSU (Supplement to The State Journal, Frankfort, KY),
November 1995, p.2.
"The finer points of pawpaws", The Thorobred News (Kentucky State University newspaper,
November 1, 1995, p.1, 11.
"College to grow, study unusual fruit", Kentucky New Era, Section C:6, October 26, 1995.
"University to grow and study pawpaw plants", Corbin Times Tribune, Corbin, KY, Oct. 25, 1995,
p.3.
"Pickin' Up Pawpaw's", Journal and Courier, Lafayette-West Lafayette, IN. Section B1: March 13,
1995.
"Going bananas: Love it or hate it, pawpaw's one 'sexy species'", The Windsor Star, Windsor, Ont.,
Canada, Section A:3, Oct. 20, 1994.
Asimina triloba
"Pawpaw breeders hope native fruit can be improved", The State Journal, Frankfort, KY, Section
A:10, Oct. 8, 1993.
Asparagus officinalis - Asparagus
Asparagus officinalis L.
Liliaceae, or Asparagaceae
Asparagus, asparagus fern, florist's fern, garden
asparagus, green asparagus, special bean, white asparagus,
wild asparagus
NewCROP has Asparagus information from:
Asparagus production links
Asparagus HO-96 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Asparagus_officinalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:56 PM]
Vigna sesquipedalis
Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Fruw.

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. ssp.
sesquipedalis (L.) Verd.
Fabaceae
Asparagus bean, Yard long bean, Changjiang
dou, cheung kung tau, sitao, zuyu roku sasage
Asian VegetablesMas Yamaguchi
Effect of Southern Root Knot Nematode on Yield Components of Yardlong Beans
(Abstract)E.G. Rhoden, C.K. Bonsi and M.L. Ngoyi
Susceptibility of Yardlong Beans to Root Knot Nematode Infestation (Abstract)E.G. Rhoden,
C.K. Bonsi and M.L. Ngoyi
Article from:
As hay, pasture, and soil improvement crop:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_sesquipedalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:56 PM]
Galium odoratum
Galium odoratum L.
Rubiaceae
Woodruff, sweet woodruff, Waldmeister
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Galium_odoratum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:29:57 PM]
Astragalus species
Astragalus species
(over 1500 species exist)
Fabaceae, or Leguminosae
Tragacanth, Gum Tragacanth
The gum group includes:
Astragalus adscendens Boiss
A. echinaeformis Sirjaev
A. gossypinus
A. gummifer Labill
A. microcephalus Willd.
Milk Vetches used for forage & groundcovers

forages and groundcovers
Astragalus adsurgens Pall
A. cicer
A. falcatus L. Per.
A. meliotoides
Other Astragalus species and their uses:
Astragalus boetica - Swedish Coffee (seeds roasted for a coffee substitute)
A. crassicarpus Nutt.- Buffalo Pea, Ground Plum (unripe seed pods edible)
A. glycyphyllos - (Used for a tea)
A. membranaceus - Milk-vetch root, huang qi (a chinese medicine)
Introduction of Chia and Gum Tragacanth in the U.S.Howard S. Gentry, Marc Mittleman, and
Peter R. McCrohan
See: Astragalus In: Potential New Specialty Crops from Asia: Azuki Bean, Edamame Soybean,
and Astragalus. Lumpkin, T.A., J.C. Konovsky, K.J. Larson, and D.C. McClary. 1993.
See: Astragalus In: Special Purpose Forage Legumes. Rumbaugh, M.D. 1990.
Chinese Medicinal Herbs: Opportunities for Domestic ProductionLyle E. Craker and Jean
Giblette
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Astragalus_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:58 PM]
Astragalus species
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Astragalus_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:29:58 PM]
Garcinia hombrioniana: A Potential Fruit and an Industrial Crop

Serudin, Hj. D.S. and Hj. Tinggal. 1993. Garcinia hombrioniana: A potential fruit and an
industrial crop. p. 472-474. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Garcinia hombrioniana: A Potential

Fruit and an Industrial Crop
Hj. Serudin D.S. Hj. Tinggal*
1. BOTANY
1. Origin
2. Morphology
2. HORTICULTURE
1. Culture
3. UTILIZATION
4. FUTURE PROSPECTS
5. Fig. 1
6. Fig. 2
7. Fig. 3
8. Fig. 4
Southeast Asia is regarded as a major center of origin and evolution of many cultivated crops
particularly tropical fruits. A great variety of fruits, some wild, others cultivated are located in
Brunei. Species of Artocarpus, Durio, Garcinia, Mangifera, Musa, and Nephelium, to mention
only a few, occur as scattered species amidst forest trees or growing alongside homes, in
backyards or mixed orchards. These indigenous species together with introduced cultivars
represent invaluable genetic resources waiting to be collected, identified, and tested for
commercial development.
One of these potential new fruit crops is Garcinia hombrioniana Pierre, locally called Assam Aur
Aur, a close relative of the mangosteen, G. mangostana L. The attractive fruit contains white
segmented luscious pulp, sweet with a pleasing fragrance similar to apricot (Fig. 1). The pulp has
many uses. The dried crimson rind of the fruit for example, is commercially important and used
extensively as sour relish in curries and culinary dishes requiring an acidulous base. Demand for
this condiment is seemingly unsatisfiable and at every fruit season, housewives gather the fruits,
remove the pulp, and sun-dry the rind (Fig. 2). The market price is attractive and keeping quality
for properly dried pulp is good.
BOTANY
Origin
Assam Aur Aur is native to the Brunei Bay region of the states of Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia
and Brunei. The tree probably originated in the rainforests and was cultivated in the coastal and
riverine regions to serve the culinary uses of the early settlers. Currently, the distribution is still
restricted to the riverine and coastal alluvial regions. Some trees are found in the interior
settlements, probably introduced, as coastal and riverine dwellers moved to settle inland. The fruit
has never achieved the importance of mangosteen and early explorers and naturalists have largely
neglected the small fruit for the larger, sweeter mangosteen.
Morphology
Assam Aur Aur is a handsome evergreen closely resembling the mangosteen in shape and canopy
structure, except that Assam Aur Aur has smaller, more elliptical leaves. Mature trees can reach 10
m in height with numerous radially arranged spreading branches. Much of the leaves are held by
tertiary branches. Inflorescence are borne on these branchlets in clusters of not more than five
small flowers. Very little is known about the morphology of the flowers and owing to the
smallness and almost fused structures, the flowers have received very little attention. It is likely
that the flowers are hermaphroditic and the few seeds produced apomictic. Seedlings derived from
seeds are always identical to the mother plant; there is no known genetic variation. Subtle
differences in size (3 to 5 cm in diameter) and shape of fruits could be attributed to environmental
influence. The population is generally homogeneous making selection for superior types difficult.
However, this homogeneous attribute can be advantageous as fruit and fruit products derived from
the fruits are fairly uniform.
HORTICULTURE
Culture
Assam Aur Aur is a tropical species requiring humid conditions of uniform annual rainfall
exceeding 2,000 mm and mean temperature of 27C. The tree shows a wide range of soil
adaptability and will grow on damp alluvial soil as well as free draining upland soils. However, the
preference is for well-drained fertile alluvial soil where water is not limiting.
Seeds, with the pulp removed, germinate within one week and can be shown direct into plastic
bags. Early growth requires protection from full sunlight; 50% shading is recommended and
progressively removed to harden the seedlings for field planing when 6 to 8 months old.
There is no commercial planting of Assam Aur Aur to provide cultural recommendations.
However, based on observations and experiences, trees grow best at 5 m spacing. Nurse shade
between 50 to 60% is essential at planting. Growth is rapid. Prunning of lower branches, weeding,
and fertilization will bring the trees to bear after four years. Recommended fertilizers consist of
NPK (12-5-14) to enhance fruiting. Mulching with dry litter will help to retain soil moisture and
prevent erosion which appears to be essential for healthy growth of the plant.
As long as the trees are healthy, problems of diseases appear minimal. However, ripe fruits are
susceptible to infection by fruit flies (Dacus spp) causing damage to the pulp. The rind is
unaffected and can still be processed into condiments. Fruit fly damage is more prevalent when
few fruits are in season. Spraying with insecticides may reduce the damage, but, generally control
of fruit fly is difficult in the tropics.
UTILIZATION
Bruneians, for centuries, have found many uses for the fruits. The young fruits that drop to the
ground are collected and sliced into thin pieces or chunks and sun-dried. The final product is a fig
brown condiment ready to give the needed tang to Brunei dishes. Currently, there is a limited
amount in the market. The mature fruit has multiple uses with a fragrance reminiscent of apricot.
Early Bruneians fermented the pulp into organic vinegar. The flavor is distinct, fruity, and strong.
In recent years, efforts of the Department of Agriculture have produced suitable cordials and jams
from the pulp (Fig. 3). The quality of the cordial is still questionable but the jams have penetrated
a limited market. Research is still in progress.
The greatest commercial value of the fruit is the crimson rind. Dried in the sun, the shiny rind
turns dull mauve in the process. Packed into small plastic bags, the rind is ready for sale as an
essential ingredient for many Brunei dishes. The best condiment exudes some oil when pressed
between fingers and quality rind, properly dried, will eventually turn black without being moldy
(Fig. 4). Dark colored rind does not affect the culinary quality.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Assam Aur Aur has tremendous opportunity as a specially fruit. Strong promotional support will
strengthen marketing. The research programs of the Department of Agriculture can explore
postharvest and handling technology to establish quality and standards. However, it is the inherent
quality of fruit that will attract connoisseurs. The strategy is to introduce this fruit into specially
markets.
Another area of interest is the acidulous quality of the rind. It is already in great demand.
Opportunity exists for more systematic and scientific approach to rind processing, packaging, and
marketing. Greater efforts will be required to evaluate value-added products such as jams, juices,
and food colors.
*There is no known published data on Assam Aur Aur. The information presented has been
collected by the author during various field trips to the countryside and discussion with farmers
and their families. Officers of the Department of Agriculture provided valuable information on its
culture and food processing.
Fig. 1. Close up of the savory Assam Aur Aur fruit.
Fig. 2. Sun-drying of Assam Aur Aur rind with the pulp removed.
Fig. 3. Assam Aur Aur conserve produced by the Department of Agriculture, Brunei.
Fig. 4. Dried rind of Assam Aur Aur used as sour relish (left: freshly dried; right: after six months
storage).
Last update September 15, 1997 aw
Annona squamosa Annona cherimola
Annona squamosa Annona

cherimola L.
Annonaceae
Atemoya
H. Crane
Last update Wednesday, January 27, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Atemoya.html [5/16/2004 1:30:02 PM]
Atriplex hortensis
Atriplex hortensis L.
Chenopodiaceae
Garden orach, Green orach, Mountain Spinach,
Orach, Orache, Red orach
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Atriplex_hortensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:02 PM]
Solanum melongena - Eggplant, Aubergine
Solanum melongena L.
Solanaceae
Eggplant, Apple-of-love, Asiatic aubergine,
Aubergine, Baby eggplant, Brinjal, Garden egg, Guinea squash,
Gully bean, Italian eggplant, Japanese eggplant, Melanzana,
Melongene, Oriental eggplant, Pea apple, Pea aubergine,
Poor-man's-caviar, Susumber, Terong, White eggplant
We have eggplant or aubergine information from:
Eggplant production links.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Solanum_melongena_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:03 PM]
Specialty Mushrooms

Royse, D.J. 1996. Specialty mushrooms. p. 464-475. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops.
ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.
Specialty Mushrooms*
Daniel J. Royse
1. PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
1. Auricularia spp.
2. Flammulina velutipes
3. Ganoderma lucidum
4. Grifola frondosa
5. Hericium erinaceus
6. Hypsizygus marmoreus
7. Lentinula edodes
8. Morchella esculenta
9. Pleurotus spp.
10. Pholiota nameko
11. Tremella fuciformis
12. Volvariella spp.
2. MARKETING
3. FUTURE OUTLOOK
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Table 2
7. Table 3
8. Fig. 1
9. Fig. 2
10. Fig. 3
11. Fig. 4
12. Fig. 5
13. Fig. 6
Specialty Mushrooms
14. Fig. 7
15. Fig. 8
Total mushroom production world-wide has increased more than 10-fold in the last 25 years from
about 350,000 t in 1965 to about 4,300,000 t in 1991. The bulk of this increase has occurred during
the last 10 years. A considerable shift has occurred in the composite of genera that constitute the
mushroom supply. During the 1979 production year, the button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus,
accounted for over 70% of the world's supply. By 1991, only 37% of world production was A.
bisporus. Mainland China is the major producer (2,200,000 t--or about 50% of the total) of edible
mushrooms. In 1993 to 94, the United States produced 346,188 t (or about 8% of the total world
supply) of mushrooms. Agaricus bisporus accounted for over 90% of total mushroom production
value while Lentinula, Flammulina, Pleurotus, Hypsizygus, Hericium, Morchella, and Grifola
were the main specialty genera cultivated. The value of the 1993 to 94 specialty mushroom crop in
the U.S. amounted to $28.7 million--a 75% increase over the previous season (USDA 1994).
Based on recent and historical trends, it is expected that diversification of the mushroom industry
will continue in the United States and many other western countries. The development of
improved technology to cultivate each species more efficiently, will allow consumer prices to
decline.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
A list of cultivated species and their common English and Japanese names is given in Table 1.
Twelve genera comprise the bulk of cultivated mushrooms as outlined below.
Auricularia spp.
Commonly known as wood ear, Auricularia auricula is the first recorded cultivated mushroom
(Chang 1993). Total production of Auricularia spp. in 1991 exceeded 465,000 t (fresh weight;
Table 2). This value is an increase of 346,000 t or 290% over 1986 levels (Chang 1993).
Auricularia spp. production now represents about 11% of the total cultivated mushroom supply
world-wide.
Auricularia auricula and A. polytricha commonly are produced on a synthetic medium consisting
of sawdust, cotton seed hulls, bran, and other cereal grains or on natural logs of broad-leaf trees
(Quimio 1982; Chang and Quimio 1982; Oei 1991). For cultivation on natural logs, members of
the oak family (Fagaceae) are preferred, but many other species of both hard and softwoods may
be used.
For synthetic medium production of Auricularias, the substrate may be composted for up to 5 days
or used directly after mixing. In either case, the mixed substrate (about 2.5 kg wet wt) is filled into
heat resistant polypropylene bags and sterilized (substrate temperature 121C) for 60 min.
Composted substrate is prepared by mixing and watering ingredients [sawdust (78%) : bran (20%)
: CaCO3 (1%) : sucrose (1%)] in a large pile. The pile then is covered with plastic and turned
(remixed) twice at two-day intervals. For direct use of substrate, a mixture of cotton seed hulls
(93%), wheat bran (5%), sucrose (1%), and CaCO3 (1%) is moistened to about 60% moisture and
Specialty Mushrooms
then filled into polypropylene bags.

After the substrate has cooled, it is inoculated with either grain or sawdust spawn. The spawn then
is mixed into the substrate either mechanically or by hand, and the mycelium is allowed to
colonize the substrate (spawn run). Temperatures for spawn run are maintained at about 25C2C
for about 28 to 30 days. Light intensity of more than 500 lux during the spawn run may result in
premature formation of primordia. Temperature, light intensity and relative humidity all interact to
influence the nature and quality of the basidocarps.
In Fujian, China a system has been worked out to intercrop Auricularia spp. with sugar cane. Bags
containing colonized substrate are suspended in mid air on a rope stretched between rows of sugar
cane. The bags then are covered with a thin layer of plastic to help regulate relative humidity.
Carbon dioxide generated from the growing mycelium apparently stimulates the growth of the
sugar cane (Oei 1991).
Worldwide production of F. velutipes (enokitake) has increased from about 100,000 tonnes in
1986 to about 187,000 t in 1991 (an 87% increase). Japan is the main producer of enokitake
(Furukawa 1987). In 1986, Japan produced 74,387 t; by 1991, production had risen to 95,123 t. In
1993, Japan produced 103,357 t--an increase of about 8%. From these data, it is evident that a
faster growth rate, in terms of total production, is being enjoyed by other countries. In the United
States, for example, enokitake production has increased at an estimated rate of 25% or more per
year for the last four years.
Production of most enokitake in Japan is based on synthetic substrate contained in polypropylene
bottles (Fig. 1). Substrates (primarily sawdust and rice bran; 4 : 1 ratio) are mechanically mixed
and filled into heat resistant bottles with a capacity of 800 to 1,000 ml. Sawdust consisting
primarily of Cryptomeria japonica, Chamaecyparis obtusa or aged (9 to 12 months) Pinus spp.
appears to offer the best yields. In the United States, a bran-supplemented medium, consisting
primarily of corn cobs, serves as the primary medium. After filling into bottles, the substrate is
sterilized (4 h at 95C and 1 h at 120C), mechanically inoculated and incubated at 18 to 20C for
20 to 25 days. When the substrate is fully colonized, the original inoculum is removed
mechanically from the surface of the substrate and the bottles may be placed upside down for a
few days. At the time of original inoculum removal, the air temperature is lowered to 10 to 12C
for 10 to 14 days.
To further improve quality during fruiting, temperatures are lowered to 3 to 8C until harvest. As
the mushrooms begin to elongate above the lip of the bottle, a plastic collar is placed around the
neck and secured with a Velcroreg. strip. This collar serves to hold the mushrooms in place so that
they are long and straight. When the mushrooms are 13 to 14 cm long, the collars are removed and
the mushrooms are pulled as a bunch from the substrate. The mushrooms then are vacuum packed
and placed into boxes for shipment to market.
Specialty Mushrooms
Ganoderma lucidum
Known as reishi or mannentake to the Japanese and Ling Zhi to the Chinese, G. lucidum is renown
for its medicinal properties (for an extensive review see Willard 1990). Reishi often is associated
with health and recuperation, longevity, wisdom, and happiness (Stamets 1990, 1993). It is
believed that certain triterpenes and polysaccharides may account for the multiple activities of
Reshi. Thus, considerable time and effort has gone into the isolation and characterization of these
compounds. About 100 triterpenes have been isolated from either the fruitbodies or mycelium but
only a few have been tested for bio-activity (Mizuno et al. 1995).
Most cultivation of G. lucidum is on supplemented sawdust contained in heat-resistant
polypropylene bottles (Fig. 2) or bags. Sawdust of hardwoods is supplemented with rice bran
(10%) and CaCO3 (3%), moistened with water and filled (700 g) into plastic bags. A plastic collar
then is fitted onto each bag and stoppered with a cotton plug. After heat treatment (95 to 100C
for 5 h) the substrate is allowed to cool overnight and then inoculated with grain or sawdust
spawn. The inoculated substrate is then incubated for 3 to 4 weeks or until the spawn has fully
colonized the substrate.
Mushroom production is initiated by maintaining air temperature at about 28deg.C with relative
humidity in the range of 85% to 90%. Basidiocarps begin to appear in about 1 to 2 weeks after
initiation. Approximately 2 to 3 months after the appearance of primordia, mushrooms are ready to
harvest. A mushroom is considered mature when the whitish margin around the edge of the
basidiocarp has turned red. The substrate may yield another harvest of mushrooms after removal of
the first flush.
Grifola frondosa
Japan is the major producer and consumer of G. frondosa (Maitake). Commercial production of
maitake in Japan (325 t) began in 1981 (Takama et al. 1981). By 1986, production was 2,203 t and,
by 1991, production reached 7,950 t (a 261% increase). Japanese production of maitake reached
9,617 t in 1993 (Table 3) and was produced primarily in the provinces of Niigata, Nagano,
Gunnma, and Shizuoka.
Commercial production of most G. frondosa is on synthetic substrate contained in polypropylene
bottles or bags (Fig. 3). A common substrate used for production is composed of sawdust
supplemented with rice bran or wheat bran in a 5 : 1 ratio, respectively (Takama et al. 1981). For
bottle production, the containers are filled with moistened substrate and sterilized or pasteurized
prior to inoculation. Most growers use automated inoculation equipment thereby saving on labor
costs. For production in bags, the moistened substrate (2.5 kg) is filled into microfiltered
polypropylene bags and sterilized to kill unwanted competitive microorganisms. After cooling (16
to 20 h), the substrate is inoculated and the bags are heat sealed and shaken to uniformly distribute
the spawn throughout the substrate. Spawn run lasts about 30 to 60 days depending on strain and
substrate formulation. Temperatures then are lowered from about 22 to 14C to induce fruiting
and fruitbody maturation.
Most Maitake is marketed as food. However, Maitake has been shown to have both anti-tumor and
Specialty Mushrooms
anti-viral properties (Jong and Birmingham 1990; Jong et al. 1991; Mizuno and Zhuang 1995).
Powdered fruitbodies are used in the production of many health foods such as Maitake tea, whole
powder, granules, drinks, and tablets.
Hericium erinaceus
In the wild, H. erinaceus occurs on old logs and stumps and on wounds of living trees, especially,
maple, beech, oak, and hickory. The fruiting body is formed as a large white mass (5 to 30 cm
across) that is toothed in many small tufts. The Chinese were the first to domesticate the fungus
and, in 1991, production reached 66,000 t (Table 1). In Japan, the mushroom is cultivated on
synthetic substrate in bags and bottles and on logs. It is sold for 1,000 to 1,500 yen per kg ($5.25
to $7.87 per pound).
Polysaccharides in Hericium spp. are believed to inhibit a variety of cancers by enhancing the
hosts' immune functions (Mizuno 1995b). It also has been suggested that the phenol-analogous
compounds hericenone-C, -D, -E, and Y-A-8-c, which induce the synthesis of nerve growth factor,
might be effective in treating patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease (Mizuno 1995b).
Japanese are the main producers and consumers of H. marmoreus. Bunashimeji production has
increased steadily over the last few years although not as fast as some other types of mushrooms
(Royse 1995). In 1986, production of Bunashimeji was 11,439 t in Japan; by 1991 production
reached 36,623 t--an increase of 220% (Table 3). Production of H. marmoreus increased 38% in
the two year period 1991 to 1993.
Bunashimeji usually is produced in polypropylene bottles contained in plastic trays. After the
completion of vegetative mycelial growth, bottle lids are removed and the colonized substrate
subjected to environmental conditions known to stimulate fruiting. When the mushrooms are
mature, the entire cluster of fruiting bodies are removed from the bottles. The mushrooms are
packaged by placing an entire cluster (or multiple clusters) into each over-wrapped package. Only
one flush of mushrooms is harvested prior to mechanical removal of the "spent" substrate from the
bottles. The bottles then are refilled with fresh substrate and the process is repeated.
The antitumor polysaccharide, -(1-3)-D-glucan, isolated from H. marmoreus showed very high
activity (Ikekawa 1995). The water solubility of the polysaccharide was much higher than the
same polysaccharide isolated from other fungi. Dried mushroom powder from this mushroom is
believed to stimulate the radical-trapping activity of blood (Ikekawa 1995). Excessive free radicals
in the blood stream are believed to hasten the aging process.
Lentinula edodes
The cultivation of L. edodes (shiitake) first began in China about AD 1100 (Nakamura 1983; Royse
et al. 1985; Chang and Miles 1987, 1989). It is believed that shiitake cultivation techniques
developed in China were introduced to the Japanese by Chinese growers (Ito 1978).
Cultivation on natural logs. Various species of trees have been used for the cultivation of shiitake
Specialty Mushrooms
(San Antonio 1981). One of the primary species used in one area of Japan in past years was the
shii tree--thus the derivation of the name shii-take (Singer 1961). Most production today, however,
is on various species of oak (Harris 1986; Stamets and Chilton 1982).
Natural logs usually are cut in the fall (after leaf drop) and may be inoculated within 15 to 30 days
of felling. Trees that are cut in the fall also may be left intact through winter and, just before
inoculation, cut into lengths of about one meter. Trees that are cut in the summer tend to have bark
that is more loosely bound and sugar contents usually are lowest during this time. If trees are cut
during the summer, the bark may strip off more easily, increasing the chances of contamination of
the wood by competitive organisms. The most efficient log diameter appears to be in the 7- to
15-cm range (Ito 1978). Logs greater than 25 cm in diameter often are cut in half prior to
inoculation (Royse et al. 1985).
Growers who inoculate the logs with wood-piece spawn drill holes in the logs with high speed
drills to correspond to the diameter and length of the wood-piece spawn. Enough holes are drilled
in the log to provide spacing of about one hole per 500 cm2. The wood spawn then is driven into
the holes with a hammer and then usually covered with hot wax to prevent excessive drying of the
spawn. Sawdust spawn sometimes is used instead of wood-piece spawn.
Spawn run may last from 6 to 9 months, depending on the tree species, log size, spawn cultivar,
moisture, temperature, and other variables (Leatham 1982). After the spawn run period the logs
often are transferred to a "raising" yard. Raising yards usually are cooler and more moist than the
spawn run area. The change in conditions provides an optimum environment for the growth and
development of mushrooms. In the raising yard, the logs are arranged to provide for convenient
harvesting of the mushrooms. Most production occurs in the spring and fall when conditions are
most favorable. However, prices received by the growers usually are lowest during these periods.
Growers may use greenhouses for winter production of mushrooms (Przybylowicz and Donoghue
1988). More overall production is possible, and prices for fresh mushrooms are considerably
higher, in winter than during the rest of the year. In the greenhouse method, logs usually are
soaked in water (usually less than 48 h) and vibrated mechanically for various periods prior to
placement in the greenhouse. After the mushrooms are harvested, the logs are incubated further
(up to three months) and the process is repeated (up to five times).
Synthetic log production. Sawdust (Fig. 4a) is the most popular basal ingredient used in synthetic
formulations of substrate used to produce shiitake (Miller and Jong 1987). Other basal ingredients
that may be used include straw and corn cobs or mixtures thereof. Regardless of the main
ingredient used, starch-based supplements such as wheat bran, rice bran, millet, rye, corn, etc. are
added to the mix in a 10% to 40% ratio (dry wt) to the main ingredient. These supplements serve
as nutrients to provide an optimum growing medium (Royse et al. 1990).
Once the proper ratio of ingredients are selected, they are combined in a mixer and water is added
to raise the moisture content of the mix to around 60%. On large farms, the mix then is augured to
a machine that fills and weighs the substrate so that a uniform amount is filled into each bag (Fig.
4b). The filled bags are stacked on racks, loaded into a industrial-sized autoclave, sterilized for 2 h
at 121C, cooled and inoculated with shiitake spawn.
After a 20- to 25-day spawn run (Fig. 4c) the bags are removed and the substrate blocks are
Specialty Mushrooms
exposed to an environment conducive for browning of the exterior log surfaces. As the browning
process nears completion (4 weeks), primordia begin to form about 2 mm under the surface of the
log indicating that the log is ready to produce mushrooms.
Primordium maturation is stimulated by soaking the substrate in water (12C) for 3 to 4 h. Soaking
allows water rapidly to displace carbon dioxide contained in air spaces, providing enough moisture
for one flush of mushrooms. Approximately 9 to 11 days after soaking, mushrooms are ready to
harvest (Fig. 4d).
The main advantages of using synthetic medium over natural logs is time and efficiency. The cycle
for synthetic medium cultivation lasts approximately 4 months from time of inoculation to
cleanout. Biological efficiencies for this method may average from 75% to 125%. In contrast, the
natural log cultivation cycle usually lasts about 6 years with maximum efficiencies around 33%.
The time required on synthetic substrate, therefore, only is about 1/15th that of the natural system
with about 3 times the yield efficiency. As a result of these developments, shiitake production in
the United States has increased dramatically in the last nine years (Fig. 5).
Shiitake is one of the best known and best characterized mushrooms used for medicinal purposes.
Several medicinal properties have been attributed to shiitake in recent years. These properties
include antitumor polysaccharides activity (Breene 1990; Mizuno 1995a) and glycoproteins,
antiviral nucleic acids, platelet agglutination inhibitive substances, and anti-cholesterol active
substances (Tokuda et al. 1974; Fujii et al. 1978; Suzuki et al. 1979; Tokuda and Kaneda 1978;
Mizuno 1995a).
Morchella esculenta
Morels (Fig. 6) are some of the most highly prized mushrooms found in the wild. Researchers
have long sought to consistently cultivate the morel; until recently this was not possible. In 1982, a
report describing the successful production of ascocarps of Morchella esculenta under laboratory
conditions appeared in the literature (Ower 1982). Since that first report, several patents (Ower et
al. 1986, 1988) have issued describing a process for the commercial cultivation of these fungi.
While patents have revealed some of the processes involved in predictable production of
sporocarps, attempts to practice the invention have met only with limited success.
At present, one company in the United States is producing morels on a commercial scale.
Commercial cultivation involves the production of sclerotia, an early overwintering stage of the
mushroom. "Nutrient primed" sclerotia are produced in soil placed on a layer of sterilized wheat or
rye grain. The production of nutrient primed sclerotia requires about 18 to 21 days under optimum
conditions. The sclerotia are harvested, soaked in clean water for 24 h and distributed into a thin
layer of pasteurized bark/soil mix. The sclerotia germinate via the production of mycelium. After
the mycelium has spread throughout the soil mix, a continuous (12 to 36 h) fine mist of clean
water is provided to stimulate the formation of ascocarps.
Several problems have yet to be solved in the commercial production of morels. Consistent
fruiting, control of competitive weed molds, poor yields, and small mushroom size are just a few
of the problems facing successful cultivation. A better understanding of the many factors
contributing to increased yields and quality should lower the cost of commercially produced
Specialty Mushrooms
morels to consumers.
Pleurotus spp.
Oyster mushroom production has increased at rapid rate world-wide during the last few years
(Table 2). From 1986 to 1991, oyster mushroom production increased from 169,000 t to 917,000 t
(442% increase). China was responsible for most of the production increase. In the United States,
production of oyster mushrooms was 882 t in 1994, up 94% from the previous year (USDA 1994).
Pleurotus spp. (P. ostreatus and P. cornucopiae) production in Japan peaked in 1989 at about
36,000 t. Production was 24,000 t in 1993, a decrease of 33% in four years.
In the United States, the primary ingredients used for Pleurotus spp. production is chopped wheat
straw or cottonseed hulls or mixtures thereof. For production on wheat straw, the material is milled
to a length of about 2- to 6-cm. The pH of the material is adjusted with limestone to about 7.5 or
higher to provide selectivity against Trichoderma green mold (Stolzer and Grabbe 1991).
After completion of pasteurization (60C for 1 to 2 h) the substrate is cooled and spawned with the
desired strain. At time of spawning, a delayed release supplement (rates of 3% to 10% of dry
substrate wt) may be added to increase yield and size of the mushroom (Royse and Schisler 1987;
Royse et al. 1991; Royse and Zaki 1991). Use of supplements, however, may cause overheating of
the substrate if growers are not able to anticipate and control air temperatures to maintain a steady
substrate temperature.
Production of Pleurotus spp. on cotton seed hulls has some advantages over straw-based
production systems in that chopping of the hulls is not required (Royse 1995). The pasteurized,
supplemented hulls are spawned and filled (12 to 15 kg) into clear or black perforated
polyethylene bags and then incubated at 23 to 25C for 12 to 14 days.
In Japan, bottle production of oyster mushrooms is most common (Fig. 7). Substrate is filled into
bottles, sterilized and inoculated with Pleurotus spawn. Upon completion of spawn run, bottle lids
are removed and mushroom emerge from the surface of the substrate. After the mushrooms are
harvested they are weighed and packaged for shipment to market.
Pholiota nameko
Japan produced 21,738 t of P. nameko in 1991--an increase of only 1,700 t (8% increase) from
1986 levels (Table 2). World-wide production increases averaged 60% over the same time period.
In 1991, Japan produced about 54% of the total world production of nameko compared to 80% of
total production in 1986. Thus, production of nameko rapidly is gaining popularity in other Asian
countries.
Nameko (Fig. 8) means "viscid mushroom" in Japanese. This mushroom is prized for its gelatinous
viscosity and for its flavor and is generally used in miso soup, cooked fresh with grated radish, and
steamed in pipkin.
Preparation of the medium for nameko production is similar to that for enokitake except that a
higher moisture content of the substrate is desirable. A substrate of broad leaf tree sawdust is
Specialty Mushrooms
preferred but research has shown that sawdusts from conifers such Pinus spp. and Cryptomeria
japonica are suitable for growth. Rice bran usually is added as a supplement in the ratio of 15% for
conifer sawdust and 10% for broad-leaf sawdust.
Mushrooms are harvested from the substrate by cutting the stems near the base with scissors. The
harvested mushrooms are washed and packed for shipment to market.
Tremella fuciformis
Known as the white jelly fungus or silver ear, T. fuciformis has been used as a delicacy food in
China for many years. This mushroom can be cultivated on natural logs or on synthetic medium
(Quimio et al. 1990). Cultivation techniques used to produce the mushroom on natural logs is
similar to that used for shiitake production. In recent years, most production of T. fuciformis has
been on synthetic substrate using a mixed culture inoculum technique first developed in Fujian,
China (Huang 1982).
The mixed culture technique involves the use of "helper" mycelium of Hypoxylon archeri, an
ascomycete commonly associated in nature with decaying wood. Hypoxylon archeri increases the
ability of T. fuciformis to digest the substrate thereby increasing mushroom yields. Exploitation of
this mycelial association is accomplished through use of dual cultures to make mother spawn
(Quimio et al. 1990).
Substrate used for mushroom production is the same as that used for spawn production. The
supplemented substrate is packed into plastic bags (50 cm long; 9 cm diameter) and ends of the
bags are tied with cotton string. Six holes (1 cm diam) then are punched in the filled bags and
covered with a breathable fabric. The substrate is sterilized for 6 to 8 h, cooled and inoculated with
the mother culture.
After about 30 days of vegetative mycelial growth, the hole covers are removed and the exposed
substrate is exposed to conditions favorable for primordia formation (Huang 1982). If optimum
conditions are maintained in the growing houses, clusters of jelly fungus should be ready for
harvest within 12 to 15 days. Yield for each bag of substrate is in the range of 350 to 500 g fresh
weight (35 to 50 g dry weight).
Volvariella spp.
The straw mushroom derives its name from the substrate on which it originally was grown (San
Antonio and Fordyce 1972). Cultivation of Volvariella was believed to have begun in China as
early as 1822 (Chang 1977). In the 1930s, straw mushroom cultivation began in the Philippines,
Malaysia, and other Southeast Asian countries (Chang 1982). Production of the straw mushroom
increased from 178,000 t in 1986 to about 253,000 t in 1991--a 42% increase. Volvariella accounts
for approximately 6% of the total world-wide production of edible mushrooms (Table 2).
Many agricultural by-products and waste materials have been used to produce the straw
mushroom. These include paddy straw, water hyacinth, oil palm bunch, oil palm pericarp waste,
banana leaves and sawdust, cotton waste, and sugarcane waste (Chang 1982; Ho 1985).
Volvariella is well suited for cultivation in the tropics because of its requirement for higher
Specialty Mushrooms
production temperatures. In addition, the mushroom can be grown on nonpasterized

substrate--more desirable for low input agricultural practices.
In recent years, cotton wastes (discarded after sorting in textile mills) have become popular as
substrates for straw mushroom production (Chang 1982). Cotton waste give higher and more
stable biological efficiencies (30% to 45%), earlier fructification (four days after spawning) and
harvesting (first nine days after spawning) than that obtained using straw as a substratum.
Semi-industrialization of paddy straw cultivation on cotton-wastes has occurred in Hong Kong,
Taiwan, and Indonesia as a result of the introduction of this method (Chang 1979).
MARKETING
Marketing of specialty mushrooms in the United States is a relatively new enterprise. Since 1984,
some farms have seen their production rise as prices have fallen. For example, Donovan (1991)
indicates that production of shiitake on their farm has increased from slightly less than 1 t per
week in 1984 to over 7 t per week in 1990. At the same time, the price has decreased from US
$12.50/kg ($5.50 per pound) to about US $ 8.80/kg ($4.00 per pound). In the 1993 to 94 growing
season, the price growers received for shiitake was about $8.14/kg ($3.70 per pound; USDA
1994). Over the past seven years (1987 to 1994) the price of shiitake has declined an average of
$0.19/kg ($0.09 per pound) per year (USDA 1994).
In recent years, the trend for specialty mushroom sales has been toward the retail market (Gunn
1992; Sorenson 1992). This trend is driven partly by an increased interest in specialty mushrooms
and by the convenience packaged products offer to the consumer. In some retail markets, only
10% of the customers buy 90% of the specialty types (Gunn 1992).
Some merchandisers have projected a steady growth in consumption of specialty mushrooms. As
consumers become more aware of specialty mushrooms, demand is expected to increase.
Aggressive marketing will help to find new markets for these relatively new products. Therefore,
specialty mushroom producers seeking new outlets for their mushrooms may want to check
sources listing reputable produce industry firms (Anon. 1995a, b).
Specialty mushrooms are sold fresh, dried, or processed in Japan and China. Most fresh shiitake is
collected and shipped to central wholesale markets where brokers and other participants buy the
mushrooms through a bidding process in Japan (Hara 1988). Mushrooms then are distributed to
retailers for consumer purchase. Other mushrooms, such as Pleurotus, may be packaged at the
farm and shipped directly to brokers or to retailers.
Dried shiitake is distributed through traders specializing in this mushroom (Hara 1988). These
traders (about 400 in Japan in 1988; data not available for China) buy shiitake at special bidding
markets and then distribute the product to retailers for in country consumption or to trading firms
for overseas export. In recent years, however, exports of shiitake from Japan have declined as the
number of shiitake producers have declined and shiitake production has decreased (Anon. 1992;
Royse 1995). On the other hand, Chinese production of shiitake and exportation of the product to
Japan have increased dramatically in the last five years.
Specialty Mushrooms
FUTURE OUTLOOK
Production and consumption of specialty mushrooms in the United States and other western
countries is expected to increase at an accelerated rate in the years to come (Farr 1983; Royse
1995). As production technology is improved through interdisciplinary efforts, the retail price for
specialty mushrooms should decrease. As economies improve in Latin America, production of
specialty mushrooms could increase at an even faster rate than in the United States. The culinary
advantages offered by specialty mushrooms bode well for the continued growth and development
of the specialty mushroom industry worldwide.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1995a. The red book, Vol. 107. Vance Publishing Corp., Overland Park, KS.
Anon. 1995b. The red book produce industry handbook. Vance Publishing Corp., Overland
Park, KS.
Anon. 1992. Discussion of fresh Shiitake imports (in Japanese), special produce
information. Vol. 13(10):16-27.
Breene, W.M. 1990. Nutritional and medicinal value of specialty mushrooms. J. Food
Protection 53:883-894.
Chang, S.T. 1977. The origin and early development of straw mushroom cultivation. Econ.
Bot. 31:374-76.
Chang, S.T. 1979. Cultivation of Volvariella volvacea from cotton-waste composts.
Mushroom Sci. 10(2):609-618.
Chang, S.T. 1982. Cultivation of Volvariella mushrooms in Southeast Asia. In: S.T. Chang
and T.H. Quimio (eds.), Tropical mushrooms: Biological nature and cultivation methods.
The Chinese Univ. Press, Hong Kong.
Chang, S.T. 1993. Mushroom biology: the impact on mushroom production and mushroom
products. In: S.T. Chang et al. (eds.), Mushroom biology and mushroom products. The
Chinese Univ. of Hong Kong.
Chang, S.T. and P.G. Miles. 1987. Historical record of the early cultivation of Lentinus in
China. Mushroom J. Tropics 7:31-37.
Chang, S.T. and P.G. Miles. 1989. Edible mushrooms and their cultivation. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL.
Chang, S.T. and T.H. Quimio (eds.). 1982. Tropical mushrooms: Biological nature and
cultivation methods. The Chinese Univ. Press, Hong Kong.
Donovan, K. 1991. Marketing specialty mushrooms. Mushroom News 39(8):9-10.
Farr, D.F. 1983. Mushroom industry: Diversification with additional species in the United
States. Mycologia 75:351-360.
Fujii, T., H. Maeda, F. Suzuki, and N. Ishida. 1978. Isolation and characterization of a new
antitumor polysaccharide, KS-2, extracted from culture mycelia of Lentinus edodes. J.
Antibiot. 31:1079-1090.
Specialty Mushrooms
Furukawa, H. 1987. Mushroom production in Japan. Farming Japan 22(6):12-23.

Gunn, J. 1992. From specialty to mainstream. Mushroom News 40(5):18-22.
Hara, Y. 1988. Trends of the mushroom market. Farming Japan 22(6):28-37.
Harris, B. 1986 Growing shiitake commercially. Science Tech Publishers, Madison, WI.
Ho, K.Y. 1985. Indoor cultivation of straw mushroom in Hong Kong. Mushroom Newsl.
Trop. 6(2):4-9.
Huang, N.L. 1982. Cultivation of Tremella fuciformis in Fujian, China. Mushroom Newsl.
Trop. 2(3):2-5.
Ikekawa, T. 1995. Bunashimeji, Hypsizigus marmoreus antitumor activity of extracts and
polysaccharides. Food Rev. Int. 11(1):207-209.
Ito, T. 1978. Cultivation of Lentinus edodes. In: S.T. Chang and W.A. Hayes (eds.), The
biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. Academic Press, NY.
Jong, S.C., J.M. Birmingham, and S.H. Pai. 1991. Immunomodulatory substances of fungal
origin. EOS - J. Immunol. Immunopharmacol. 11:115-122.
Jong, S.C. and J.M. Birmingham. 1990. The medicinal value of the mushroom Grifola.
World J. Microbiol. and Biotech. 6:227-235.
Leatham, G.F. 1982. Cultivation of shiitake, the Japanese forest mushroom, on logs: A
potential industry for the United States. Forest Prod. J. 32:29-35.
Miller, M. and S.C. Jong. 1987. Commercial cultivation of shiitake in sawdust filled plastic
bags. Developments in Crop Science, Cultivating Edible Fungi Vol. 10:421-426.
Mizuno, T. 1995a. Shiitake, Lentinus edodes: functional properties for medicinal and food
purposes. Food Rev. Int. 11(1):111-128.
Mizuno, T. 1995b. Yamabushitake, Hericium erinaceum: bioactive substances and
medicinal utilization. Food Rev. Int. 11(1):173-178.
Mizuno, T. and C. Zhuang. 1995. Maitake, Grifola frondosa: pharmacological effects. Food
Rev. Int. 11(1):135-149.
Mizuno, T., G. Wang, J. Zhang, H. Kawagishi, T. Nishitoba, and J. Li. 1995. Reishi,
Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae: bioactive substances and medicinal effects.
Food Rev. Int. 11(1):151-166.
Nakamura, N. 1983. An historical study in shiitake (mushroom) culture. Tosen Shuppon,
Tokyo.
Oei, P. 1991. Manual on mushroom cultivation: techniques, species and opportunities for
commercial application in developing countries. Tool Publ., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Ower, R. 1982. Notes on the development of the morel ascocarp: Morchella esculenta.
Mycologia 74:142-144.
Ower, R.D., G.L. Mills, and J.A. Malachowski. 1986. Cultivation of Morchella. US Patent
No. 4,594,809.
Ower, R.D., G.L. Mills, and J.A. Malachowski. 1988. Cultivation of Morchella. US Patent
No. 4,757,640.
Przybylowicz, P. and J. Donoghue. 1988. Shiitake growers handbook. Kendall/Hunt Publ.
Specialty Mushrooms
Co., Dubuque, IA.

Quimio, T.H. 1982. Physiological considerations of Auricularia spp. p. 397-408. In: S.T.
Chang and T.H. Quimio (eds.), Tropical mushrooms: Biological nature and cultivation
methods. Chinese Univ. Press, Hong Kong.
Quimio, T.H., S.T. Chang, and D.J. Royse. 1990. Technical guidelines for mushroom
growing in the tropics. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 106. FAO, United
Nations, Rome.
Royse, D.J. 1995. Specialty mushrooms: cultivation on synthetic substrate in the USA and
Japan. Interdisciplin. Sci. Rev. 20:205-214.
Royse, D.J., L.C. Schisler, and D.A. Diehle. 1985. Shiitake mushrooms: consumption,
production and cultivation. Interdisciplin. Sci. Rev. 10:329-335.
Royse, D.J. and L.C. Schisler. 1987. Yield and size of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus
sajor-caju as effected by delayed-release nutrient. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 26:191-194.
Royse, D.J., S.L. Fales, and K. Karunanandaa. 1991. Influence of formaldehyde-treated
soybean and commercial nutrient supplementation on mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju)
yield and in-vitro dry matter digestibility of spent substrate. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
36:425-429.
Royse, D.J. and S.A. Zaki. 1991. Yield stimulation of Pleurotus flabellatus by dual nutrient
supplementation of pasteurized wheat straw. Mushroom Sci. 13(2):545-547.
Royse, D.J., B.D. Bahler, and C.C. Bahler. 1990. Enhanced yield of shiitake by saccharide
amendment of the synthetic substrate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:479-482.
San Antonio, J.P. 1981. Cultivation of the shiitake mushroom [Lentinus edodes (Berk.)
Sing.]. HortScience 16:151-156.
San Antonio, J.P. and C. Fordyce. 1972. Cultivation of the paddy straw mushroom
Volvariella volvacea (Bul. ex. Fr.) Sing. HortScience 7:461-464.
Singer, R. 1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Leonard Hill Ltd., London.
Sorenson, R. 1992. Marketing of specialty mushrooms in California. Mushroom News
40(10):14-15.
Stamets, P. 1990. A discussion on the cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis:Fr.) Kar.
The reishi of ling zhi mushroom of immortality. McIlvainea 9(2):40-50.
Stamets, P. 1993. Growing gourmet and medicinal mushrooms. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley,
CA.
Stamets, P. and J.S. Chilton. 1982. The mushroom cultivator: A practical guide to growing
mushrooms at home. Agarikon Press, Olympia, WA.
Stolzer, S. and K. Grabbe. 1991. Mechanisms of substrate selectivity in the cultivation of
edible fungi. Mushroom Sci. 13(1):141-146.
Suzuki, F., C. Suzuki, E. Shimomura, H. Maeda, T. Fujii, and N. Ishida. 1979. Antiviral and
interferon-inducing activities of a new peptidomannan, KS-2, extracted from culture
mycelia of Lentinus edodes. J. Antibiot. 32:1336-1345.
Takama, F., S. Ninomiya, R. Yoda, H. Ishii, and S. Muraki. 1981. Parenchyma cells,
chemical components of maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa S.F. Gray) cultured
Specialty Mushrooms
artificially, and their changes by storage and boiling. Mushroom Sci. 11(2):767-779.
Tokuda, S. and T. Kaneda. 1978. Effect of shiitake mushroom on plasma cholesterol levels
in rates. Mushroom Sci. 10(2):793-796.
Tokuda, S., A. Tagiri, E. Kano, Y. Sugawara, S. Suzuki, H. Sato, and T. Kaneda. 1974.
Reducing mechanism of plasma cholesterol by shiitake. Mushroom Sci. 9(1):445-462.
United States Department of Agriculture. 1994. Mushrooms. Agricultural Statistics Board.
Washington, DC.
Willard, T. 1990. Reishi mushroom: Herb of spiritual potency and medical wonder. Sylvan
Press, Issaquah, WA.
*Contribution from the Mushroom Research Center, Department of Plant Pathology, 316
Buckhout Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802.
Table 1. Scientific and English and Japanese names for some cultivated specialty mushrooms.
Scientific Name
English name
Japanese name
Agrocybe cylindracea (DC.: Fr.) Maire

Armillaria mellea (Vahl:Far.) Kummer
Auricularia auricula (Hook) Underw.
Auricularia polyticha (Mont.) Sacc.
Coprinus comatus (Mull.:Fr.) S.F.Gray
Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.
Creolophus pergamenus Karsten
Dictyophora indusiata (Vent.:Pers.)
Fisch.
South Popular
Chiodini, Honey
Black ear, Wood ear
Cloud ear, Tree ear, Wood ear
Shaggy ink cap, Lawyer's wig
Chinese catepillar fungus
Bear's head
Yangimatusutake
Naratake
Kikurage
Angekikurage
Bamboo sprouts, Collared stinkhorn
Winter, Velvet stem, Golden, snow

puff
Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss.:Fr.) Karst. Ling-Zhi, Reishi
Grifola frondosa (Dicks.:Fr.) S.F.Gray Hen of the woods
Hericium erinaceus (Bull.:Fr.) Pers.
Monkeyhead, Bear's head
Hypsizygus marmoreus (Peck) Bigelow Shimeji
Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler
Black forest, Black, Oak
Lepista nuda (Bull.:Fr.) Cook
Blewit
Lyophyllum decastes (Fr.:Fr.) Sing
Fried chicken
Morchella esculenta Pers. ex St. Amans Morel
Flammulina velutipes (Curt.:Fr) Karst.
Naematoloma sublateritivum Karsten

Pleurotus abalonus Han et al.
Pleurotus cornucopiae (Paul.) Roll.
Pleurotus cystidiosis O.K. Miller
Banshariake
Bricktop, Chestnut
Abalone
Golden oyster, Horn of plenty
Ohritake
Enokitake
Reishi
Maitake
Bunashimeji
Shiitake
Hatakeshimeji
Kuritake
Kuroawabitake
Tamogitake
Specialty Mushrooms
Pleurotus djmour (Fr.) Boedijn

Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.:Fr.) Kumm
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel.
Panellus serotinus (Fr.) Kuh.
Pholiota nameko (T.Ito) S.Ito et Imai
Pholiota adiposa (Fr.) Quel
Tremella fuciformis Berk.
Tricholoma matsutake (Ito et Iman)
Sing.
Tuber aestivum Vitt.
Tuber magnatum Pico ex Vitt.
Tuber melanosporum Vitt.
Rose, Pink oyster

Oyster, White oyster, Gray oyster
Phoenix-tail
Green oyster, Late fall oyster
Viscid, Nameko
Fat pholiota
Snow fungus, Silver ear, White jelly
Volvariella diplasia (Berk & Br.) Sing.

Volvariella volvacea (Bull.:Fr.) Sing.
Banana, Straw
Straw, Paddy straw
Pine
Hiratake
Mukitake
Nameko
Numerisugtake
Shirokikurage
Matsutake
Summer truffle
Piedmont white truffle
Perigord black truffle
Fukurotake
Table 2. World production of cultivated edible mushrooms in 1986 and 1991 (Chang 1993).
Fresh wt (x 1,000 t)
Species
1986
1991
Increase (%)
Agaricus bisporus
1,215 (55.8%) 1,590 (37.2%)
30.9
Pleurotus spp.
169 (7.8%) 917 (21.5%)
442.6
Lentinula edodes
320 (14.7%) 526 (12.3%)
64.4
Auricularia spp.
119 (5.5%) 465 (10.9%)
290.8
Volvariella volvacea
178 (8.2%) 253 (5.9%)
42.1
100 (4.6%) 187 (4.4%)
87.0
Tremella fuciformis
40 (1.8%) 140 (3.3%)
250.0
Hericium erinaceus
--66 (1.5%)
-Pholiota nameko
25 (1.1%)
40 (0.9%)
60.0
--32 (0.7%)
-Grifola frondosa
--8 (0.2%)
-Others
--49 (1.2%)
-Total
2,176 (100.0%) 2,176 (100.0%)
96.4
Table 3. Japanese production of Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Hypsizygus marmoreus
(Bunashimeji), Flammulina velutipes (Enokitake) and Pholiota nameko (Nameko) from 1981
through 1993 (Ohmasa 1994).
Production (t fresh wt)
Specialty Mushrooms
Year H. marmoreus G. frondosa F. velutipes P. nameko

1981
1,885
325
53,282
16,348
1983
4,666
699
55,769
18,141
1985
9,157
1,501
69,530
19,793
1986
11,439
2,203
74,378
20,079
1987
13,688
3,015
78,129
21,054
1989
22,349
6,167
83,200
21,125
1991
36,623
7,950
95,123
21,738
1993
48,479
9,617
103,357
22,613
Fig. 1. Production of enokitake (Flammulina velutipes) on synthetic substrate contained in

polypropylene bottles; collar removed to show maturing mushrooms.
Specialty Mushrooms
Fig. 2. Production of reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) in bottles.
Fig. 3. Maitake (Grifola frondosa) fruiting on substrate contained in plastic bags.
Specialty Mushrooms
Fig. 4. Shiitake production on synthetic substrate: a) loading sawdust for use as an ingredient,
b) filling polypropylene bags with nutrient supplemented sawdust,
Specialty Mushrooms
c) spawn run in plastic bags, and
d) shiitake fruiting from synthetic logs.
Specialty Mushrooms
Fig. 5. Shiitake and Pleurotus spp. production in the United States from 1987-1994.
Fig. 6. Morchella esculenta (morel) fruiting in the
wild.
Specialty Mushrooms
Fig. 7. Pleurotus spp. production from polypropylene bottles.
Fig. 8. Nameko (Pholiota nameko) production on substrate contained in polypropylene bottles.

Last update Augsut 22, 1997 aw
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. &

G. Forst.
Syn: Casuarina litorea L.
Casuarinaceae
Sheoak, Beefwood, Australian pine, Polynesian ironwood, Horsetail tree
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. Chemical Analysis of Biomass Fuels
14. References
Uses
Extensively cultivated for fuel, erosion control, and as a windbreak. It can be trimmed and used as
a hedge. The bark, used for tanning, penetrates the hide quickly, furnishing a fairly plump, pliant,
soft leather of pale reddish-brown color. With the neutral sulfite semichemical process, wood
yields a good pulp. The wood is used for beams, boatbuilding, electric poles, fences, furniture,
gates, house posts, mine props, oars, pavings, pilings, rafters, roofing shingles, tool handles,
wagon wheels, and yokes. The needles have been employed in preparing active carbon by the zinc
chloride method (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Hill tribes of New Guinea use Casuarina in rotation to
restore nitrogen to the soil. They even use Casuarina oligodon as a cover crop for coffee.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Casuarina_equisetifolia.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:30:16 PM]
Considering its unique ability to grow well, even in highly eroded areas, Aspiras (1981)
recommends it for Philippine barren hills and watersheds. "It is not known to deplete the soil of
important nutrients unlike other fast-growing species now being grown in the countryside. Aside
from its ability to raise the N status of the soil when grown in rotational agriculture or in
stabilizing road embankments, it also produces good quality timber of high energy value. It may
even be raised as a nurse plant to pine, just like Myrica, or planted between coconut trees for its
nitrogen and timber." (Aspiras, 1981). In the Philippines, this is recognized as one of the best trees
for planting in sites covered by Imperata grass (NAS, 1983e). In Thailand it is planted along
coastlines to produce the poles used in building fish traps as well as fuelwood. In the Dominican
Republic, it has been used to reclaim stripmine lands. Egyptians plant the trees along the coast to
Protect houses from the wind and salt spray.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent, diuretic, ecbolic, emmenagogue, laxative, and tonic, beefwood is a
remedy for beri-beri, colic, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, headache, nerves, pimples, sores,
sorethroat, stomachache, swellings, and toothache (Duke and Wain, 1981). In Ternate, the seeds
are used for passing blood in diarrhea (Burkill, 1966).
Chemistry
Asparagine and glutamine accounted for 92% of the total amino acid in the nodules. The bark
contains 10% catchol tannin, the root 15%.
Description
Tall evergreen tree to 30 m, the branches often drooping, sulcate, green, with 68 scalelike leaves.
Internodes 57.5 mm long on the branchlets, only 2.5 mm on main shoots. Main shoots minutely
hairy, with small recurved scales ca 2.5 mm long, usually 8 in a whorl. Male spikes usually
numerous, terminating the branches on which the female "cones" are borne lower down, cylindric
to fusiform 1224 mm long. Female "cones" subglobose to ellipsoid, 1020 mm in diameter.
Seeds ca 660,000990,000/kg.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, beefwood, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
calcareous soils, drought, granitic soils, poor soil, salt and salt spray, sand, waterlogging, and
wind. In Kenya, it grows around cement works, in Hawaii in sterile pumice, in Malaysia on sterile
tin tailings, near Hilo Bay on tidal rocks with its roots in salt water (NAS, 1983e). It is sensitive to
fire, grazing, and, in early stages, weed competition. Older trees are problems in hurricanes. It is
one of the most fire-sensitive of the Casaurina species. Subspecies incana is a small tree possibly
useful for low growing shelter belts (NAS, 1983e) (2n = 18).
Distribution
Said to be indigenous from Indonesia and Malaysia to India and Sri Lanka and to north and
northeast Australia, the Australian Pine is now one of the most common trees on frost-free beaches
anywhere in the world.
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Thorn Woodland to Wet through Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life
Zone, Casuarina is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 43 dm (mean of 49 cases =
16.0) (but 250 possible, NAS, 1983e), annual temperature of 22.1 to 26.9C (mean of 34 cases =
25.2), and pH of 5.0 to 7.7 (mean of 2 cases = 6.4) (Duke, 1978, 1979).
Cultivation
Seeds have been successfully stored for 24 months at ca -7C to 2C with moisture content of
616% (Ag. Handbook 450). In Hawaii seeds are broadcast in spring and covered with less than 1
cm soil. Seedling density should be about 2132/1000 sq cm. Mulching is not required. Normally
seedlings are raised in nurseries to outplant taking advantage of the rainy season, 418 months
after sowing. Irrigation may be needed during dry periods over the first three years. In new areas,
seeds have to be inoculated. They should also be treated to repel ants. Cuttings strike root readily.
Trees are usually spaced 24 m apart. WARNING: Casuarina can exhaust the soil moisture, lower
the water table, and restrict understory growth, leaving the soil exposed. Some species are
agressive weed species. Trees may die young under unfavorable circumstances (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). According to the National Academy of Sciences, this has become an undesirable
weed in Florida (NRC, 1982).
Harvesting
Although other Casuarinas coppice readily, this one does not. Casuarina plantations are worked
under a clear-felling system, with a rotation of 735 years. Some estimates showed a long rotation
(33 years) gave greatest volume, but a shorter rotation (15 years) is preferred. In Madras State, the
plantations are worked with a short rotation of 715 years (usually 10 years), while in North
Kanara a 30-year rotation is followed. From a purely silvicultural consideration, the proper
rotation appears to be 7 years. In parts of the Philippines, this has outgrown Gmelina arborea and
Leucaena (NAS, 1983e).

With plants spaced 2 m apart, on a 710-year rotation, the trees may yield 75200 MT wood/ha,
i.e. 1020 MT/ha/yr. Higher yields have been reported. Citing literature yields of 58229 kg/ha/yr
nitrogen, Aspiras (1981) notes that Casuarina equisetifolia fixes 1,742 nmoles C2H4/24 hrs/g dry
weight, compared to 4,479 for Casuarina rumphiana, 4,545 for Casuarina montana, 2,267 for
Elaeagnus philippensis, 225 for Alnus maritima, 626 for Alnus hepalensis, 7,242 for Coriaria
intermedia, and only 13 for Myrica javanica.
Energy
Litter fall from Casuarina littoralis is said to run 29 MT/ha/yr. However, in China litterfall from
C. equisetifolia is 4 MT/ha/yr with a mean annual wood increment of 45 m3/ha (NRC, 1982).
In India:
5 year-old trees averaging ca 22 cm DBH, 6+ m tall yielded ca 14 m3/ha
30 year-old trees averaging ca 90 cm DBH, 35 m tall yielded ca 190 m3/ha
35 year-old trees averaging ca 96 cm DBH, 36+ m tall yielded ca 210m3/ha
indicating yields of ca 6 cubic meters per year. Casuarina equisetifolia fixes ca 60230 kg N/ha/yr
(Aspiras, 1981). The wood, burning with immense heat, even when green, has been called the best
firewood in the world. In India, it is used to fuel locomotives. It makes a good charcoal. In China
the wood is used for firing brick kilns. With a specific gravity of 0.81.2, the wood has a calorific
value of 4,959 kcal/kg (8,910 Btu). The charcoal has a calorific value of 7,181 kcals/kg, one of the
highest reported values. The yields of 1020 MT/ha/yr are roughly equivalent to 2550 barrels of
oil/ha/yr.
Biotic Factors
In Puerto Rico, natural regeneration is rare because ants consume nearly all the seeds; many trees
are killed by disease. The Puerto Rican dieback of 1940, followed by stemcanker, has been blamed
on Diplodia natalensis. Nursery seedlings in India are attacked by crickets (Brachutripes
achatinus). Other insect pests, e.g., Arbela tetraonis, the bark-eating caterpillar, Celosterna
scabrator, a longicorn, and grubs of the rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros, also cause
considerable damage to plantations. Infection by the root fungus Trichosporium vesiculosum is
among the more serious diseases affecting Casuarina (favored by excessive watering and
congestion). Early thinning checks it to some extent. Trees infected by insects and fungi should be
removed and the stumps grubbed up. Keeping an interval of two years between felling and
replanting, and planting of other trees such as Anacardium occidentale, Azadirachta indica,
Pithecellobium dulce, Pongamia glabra, Sapindus laurifolius, and Syzygium cumini, along with
Casuarina are recommended to segregate the plants, minimizing the spread of infection. It also
helps attract insectivorous birds which are remarkably scarce in Casuarina. A symbiotic fungus
Phomopsis casuarinae F.Tassi has been recorded in all organs of Casuarina (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). Browne (1968) lists quite a few diseases. Bacteria: PseudoNonas solanacearum.
Fungi: Armillaria mellea, Corticium salmonicolor, Fomes badius, Fomes durissimus, Fomes
fastuosus, Fomes senex, Ganoderma lucidum, Macrophomina phaseoli, Phoma casuarinae,
Phytophthora cambivora, Poria hypolateritia, Schizophyllum commune, Sclerotium rolfsii,
Trichosporum versiculosum, Ustulina deusta, Xylaria hypoxylon. Nematodes include
Helicotylenchus cavenessi, Radopholus similes, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchus sp.,
Xiphinema ifacolum. Angiospermae: Cuscuta campestris, Dendrophthoe falcata, Dendrophthoe
lanosa. Coleoptera: Amblyrrhinus poricollis, Anoplophora chinensis, Celosterna scabrator,
Ceresium furtivum, Cratopus punctum, Cryptocephalus sehestedti, Doliopygus chapuisi,
Doliopygus serratus, Hamartus instabilis, Hypomeces squamosus, Hypothenemus birmanus, Lixus
camerunus, Lixus spinimanus, Myllocerus curvicornis, Myllocerus fabricii, Myllocerus sabulosus,
Myllocerus undecimpustulatus, Platypus hintzi, Sthenias grisator. Hemiptera: Anoplocnemis
tristator, Ceroplastes ceriferus, Clastoptera undulata, Delococcus tafoensis, Duplaspidiotus
tesseratus, Ferrisia virgata, Halys dentatus, Icerya aegyptiace, Icerya formicarum, Icerya
nigroareolata, Icerya purchasi, Icerya seychellarum, Naiacoccus serpentinus, Nipaecoccus
vastator, Parthenolecanium persicae. Isoptera: Glyptotermes dilatatus, Neotermes greeni,
Odontotermes obesus, Odontotermes wallonensis, Postelectrotermes militaris. Lepidoptera:
Acanthopsyche reimeri, Ascotis selenaria, Eumenodora tetrachorda, Eumeta crameri, E.
variegata, Indarbela quadrinotata, Indarbela tetraonis, Labdia xylinaula, Maruca testulalis,
Melasina energa, Metarmostis asaphaula, Sahyadrassus malabaricus, Spodoptera litura, S.
mauritia, Zeuzera coffeae. Orthoptera: Brachytrupes portentosus, Gymnogryllus erythrocephalus,
Gymnogryllus humeralis, Schistocerca gregaria.
Chemical Analysis of Biomass Fuels

Analysing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling (1985) reported a spread of
19.44 to 18.26 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits.
On a % DM basis, the wh. plant contained 78.94% volatiles, 1.40% ash, 19.66% fixed carbon,
48.61% C, 5.83% H, 43.36% O, 0.59% N, 0.02% S, 0.16% Cl, and undertermined residue.
References
Aspiras, R.B. 1981. Nitrogen fixation in nodulated non-legumes growing in the Philippines.
Canopy International 7(7):35.
vols. New Delhi.
17(34):91110.
Jenkins, B.M. and Ebeling, J.M 1985. Thermochemical Properties of Biomass Fuels. Calif.
Agric. 39(5/6): 1416.
N.A.S. 1983e. Casuarinas: nitrogen fixing trees for adverse sites. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
N.R.C. 1982. Innovations in tropical reforestation VI: casuarinas. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
Euphorbia tirucalli
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
Euphorbiaceae
Petroleum plant, Aveloz, Milk bush
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Ecology
7. Cultivation
8. Harvesting
10. Energy
11. Biotic Factors
12. References
Uses
Probably most familiar as a subtropical and tropical ornamental, aveloz has recently made popular
headlines as a potential "cancer cure" and more important, as an energy source. Growing in rather
arid zones as well as more mesophytic zones, the species makes a good living fence post. A large
shrub, Euphorbia tirucalli, is used as a hedge in Brazil. According to Calvin, these plants grow
well in dry regions or land that is not suitable for growing food. He estimates that the plants might
be capable of producing between 10 and 50 barrels of oil per acre. Cut near the ground, they would
be run through a mill like a cane crushing mill, while the plants would regrow from the stumps.
Crude obtained from these plants would run $3.00 to $10.00 per barrel. Calvin discussed this
concept with Petrobas, the Brazilian national petroleum company, which is investigating. Calvin's
most exciting statement, if true, would be a boon to Brazil and the United States. "He estimates,
assuming a yield of 40 barrels per acre (100 barrels per hectare) that an area the size of Arizona
would be necessary to meet current requirements for gasoline" (in the U.S.). (Science 194: 46,
1976). The latex is toxic to fish and rats. Africans regard the tree as a mosquito repellent. In
Ganjium, rice boiled with the latex is used as an avicide. Aqueous wood extracts are antibiotic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_tirucalli.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:18 PM]
Euphorbia tirucalli
against Staphylococcus aureus. The wood, weighing 34 pounds per cu. ft., is used for rafters, toys,
and veneer. The charcoal derived therefrom can be used in gun powder. Since the latex contains
rubber, whole plant harvesting seems most advisable from an energy point-of-view (if the tree
coppices well) with rubber, petroleum, alcohol as energy products, and resins, which may find use
in the linoleum, oil skin, and leather industries. In Brazil, Euphorbia gymnoclada, very similar to
tirucalli (both are called aveloz), is much used for firewood. One cu. m. of wood yields 2 kg latex
with the fibrous residue usable for paper pulp.
Folk Medicine
Recently (SPOTLIGHT July 14, 1980) Alec de Montmorency kindled long-sleeping interests in
aveloz (Euphorbia spp. including tirucalli) inferring that it "seems to literally tear cancer tissue
apart." Several Brazilian Euphorbias, E. anomala, E. gymnoclada, E. heterodoxa, E. insulana, E.
tirucalli, known as aveloz, have local notoriety as cancer "cures," and often find their way into the
U.S. press as cancer cures. I fear they are more liable to cause than cure cancer. Still the following
types of cancer are popularly believed in Brazil to be alleviated by aveloz: cancer, cancroids,
epitheliomas, sarcomas, tumors, and warts. Hartwell (1969) mentions E. tirucalli as a "folk
remedy" for cancers, excrescences, tumors, and warts in such diverse places as Brazil, India,
Indonesia, Malabar and Malaya. The rubefacient, vesicant latex is used as an application for
asthma, cough, earache, neuralgia, rheumatism, toothache, and warts in India. In small doses it is
purgative, but in large doses it is an acrid irritant, and emetic. A decoction of the tender branches
as also that of the root is administered in colic and gastralgia. The ashes are applied as caustic to
open abscesses. In Tanganyika, the latex is used for sexual impotence (but users should recall "the
latex produces so intense a reaction ... as to produce temporary blindness lasting for several days."
In Zimbabwe, one African male is said to have died of hemorrhagic gastroenteritis after
swallowing the latex to cure sterility.) The root is used as an emetic for snakebite. In Malabar and
the Moluccas, the latex is used as an emetic and antisyphilitic. In Malaya, the stems are boiled for
fomenting painful places. The pounded stem is applied to scurf and swelling. In the Dutch Indies,
pounded stems are used as a poultice for extracting thorns. The root infusion is used for aching
bones, a poultice of the root or leaves for nose ulcers and hemorrhoids. The wood decoction is
used for leprosy and for paralysis of the hands and feet following childbirth. Javanese use the latex
for skin complaints and rub the latex over the skin for bone fractures.
Chemistry
The latex contains 53.879.9% water and water solubles and 2.83.8% caoutchouc. Fresh latex
contains a terpenic alcohol, isoeuphoral (C30H50O) identical with euphol from Euphorbia
resinifera. Dried latex contains no isoeuphorol but a ketone euphorone (C30H48O). Taraxasterol
(C30H50O.CH3OH) and tirucallol (C30H50O) have also been isolated. Resin, however, is the
principle constituent (75.882.1%) of the dried latex. According to Hager's Handbuch (List and
Horhammer, 19691979), the stem contains hentriacontene, hentriacontanol, the antitumor steroid
-sitosterol, taraxerin, 3,3'-Di-O-methylellagic acid, ellagic acid, and a glycoside fraction which
hydrolyses to give kampferol and glucose, and a ca 0.1% sapogenin acetates. The whole plant
contains 7.4% citric acids with some malonic and some bernstein (succinic) acids.
Euphorbia tirucalli
Description
Dioecious, succulent, cactus-like milky tree, devoid of spines, to 10 m tall, the branches often
arranged in pseudowhorls. Leaves small, early deciduous, alternate, 12.5 cm long, ca 34 mm
broad, oblanceolate, acute at tip, tapered to the sessile base. Flowers in yellow head, stalkless at
the end of twigs.
Germplasm
Reported from the African Center of Diversity, aveloz, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
drought, poor soil, sand, and slope.(2n = 20)
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist Forest Life Zones, the
milkbush is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.5 to 40 dm (mean of 6 cases = 11), and
estimated to tolerate annual temperature of 21 to 28C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Calvin suggests that it
grows well where annual precipitation is 2.5 to 5 dm and where there is no frost. Ive seen it as a
cultivar in almost every tropical site I have visited.
Cultivation
According to Melvin Calvin, Euphorbia tirucalli "will grow in the same soils sugarcane will grow
in, even without irrigation" (Gogerty, 1977). Calvin notes that 5 cm cuttings take readily and
increased one-thousand fold in one growing season, attaining more than 50 cm height in the first
growing season (Calvin, 1980).
Harvesting
Harvested in 1978, the 5 cm cuttings that grew to more than 50 cm, weighed roughly 2 kg and
produced the equivalent of 15 barrels of oil per acre. It could be mowed, or possibly after reaching
full size, tapped (Calvin, 1980). For energy purposes, Calvin suggests they be "cut near the ground
and run through a crushing mill in much the same fashion as if done with sugarcane... The plants
themselves would regrow from the stumps, so replanting might be necessary only once every 20
years or so." (Maugh, 1976).

As early as 1941, French scientists (Steinheil, 1941) reported yields of 3 MT oil per hectare from a
similar Moroccan species, Euphorbia resinifera (10,000 liters latex/ha). In 1976, Calvin
"optimistically estimates that the cost of crude hydrocarbons obtained in this manner would be
Euphorbia tirucalli
somewhere between $13 and $10 per barrel. The oil furthermore, would be practically free of
sulphur and other contaminants." (Maugh, 1976). California associates of Calvin have since
projected $150 to $200 per barrel for Euphorbia oil. Philip Leakey, from Kenya, claims to be
getting 400 MT biomass (fresh weight = 85% moisture) per ha in Kenyan areas with a rainfall of
ca 20 inches per year. I can see 60 MT DM in a several year old stand but do not think Dr. Leakey
meant to imply that these were annual yields. Leakey claims to be getting, now, 20 MT/ha
charcoal from similar plantations, renewably. Such figures, if replicated, should be very
encouraging to arid land inhabitants (Philip Leakey, personal communication, September 28,
1981).
Energy
Back in 1976, Melvin Calvin was quoted as saying the plants might be capable of producing 10
and 50 barrels of oil per acre per year (Maugh, 1976). Back in 1977, Melvin Calvin was quoted as
saying, "A cultivated field would yield the equivalent of 2 to 20 barrels of crude oil per acre per
year, possibly for as little as $3 per barrel. OPEC oil costs three times that much." (Gogerty, 1977).
Back in 1979, Calvin was quoted as saying the growth was 1,000 fold when 5 cm cuttings were
inserted in the field. Calculations by a Japanese firm, based on plantings in Okinawa, showed the
possibility of producing 510 barrels of oil per acre per year. Calvin (1980), however, quotes these
same sources as 1020 barrels per acre.
Biotic Factors
Dehgan and Wang describe the plant as having "no natural enemies". Golden (p.c. 1984) notes that
Meloidogyne may affect the plant.
References
Calvin, M. 1980. Hydrocarbons from plants: Analytical methods and observations.
Naturwissenschaften 67:525533.
Dehgan, B., Assistant Professor, Department of Ornamental Horticulture, IFAS, and Wang,
S., Assistant Research Scientist, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, IFAS,
Hydrocarbons from plant - latex, typescript.
Gogerty, R. 1977. Farmers as fuel suppliers. The Furrow (July/Aug):25.
Maugh, T.H., II. 1976. Perhaps we can grow gasoline. Science 194:46.
Steinheil, P. de. 1941. L'Euphorbe resinifere. Rev. Gen du Caoutchou 18:55.
Avena sativa
Avena sativa L.
Poaceae
Common oats, Rolled oats, Steel-cut
oats
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Avena_sativa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:19 PM]
Averrhoa bilimbi
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Oxalidaceae
Bilimbi
BilimbiJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Last update Tuesday, February 09, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Averrhoa_bilimbi_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:20 PM]
Averrhoa carambola
Index| Search| Home
Averrhoa carambola L.
Oxalidaceae
Starfruit, Carambola, Bilimbi, Belimbing, Chinese
Star Fruit, Five-angled Fruit, Star Apple
NewCROP has starfruit information at:
CarambolaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
H. Crane
And outside links to more starfruit info:
CARAMBOLA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California
Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including botanical
identification, description and culture notes based on California research, and characteristics of
cultivars).
Starfruit Nutritional Facts provided by Friedas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Averrhoa_carambola_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:21 PM]
Avicennia germinans
Avicennia germinans L.
Syn: Avicennia nitida Jacq.
Avicenniaceae
Black mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Information on Avicennia species is confused, due to the difficulty, historically at any rate, of
distinguishing the species. Regarding the timber useage, Burkill quotes Foxworthy, "altogether it a
very unsatisfactory woodthe least useful of the mangrove-swamp woodsand the tree is usually
considered as a weed in the swamps." Little (1983) says it is used for crossties, marine
construction, piers, posts, utility poles, and wharves. Ashes are added to water as a soap substitute.
Bark is used for tanning. Smoke from the wood is said to constitute an effective mosquito smudge
(Duke, 1972). Flowers are a major source of honey.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Avicennia_germinans.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:21 PM]
Avicennia germinans
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the resin is used in folk remedies for tumors in the West
Indies. Reported to be astringent, insect repellent, rubefacient, and tonic, black mangrove is a folk
remedy for diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, swellings, throat ailments,
tumors, and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981; Garcia-Barriga, 1975). Salvadorans use the resin for
chest complaints and sore throat. Bahamans believe it restores lost vitality (Morton, 1981) and use
it in baths for rheumatism. Colombians say gargling with the bark decoction alleviates cancer of
the larynx and malignant ulcers of the throat (Garcia-Barriga, 1975).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 354 calories, 9.8 g H2O, 5.6 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 81.3 g
total carbohydrate, 4.0 g fiber, 2.8 g ash, 207 mg Ca, and 117 mg P. Leaves contain on a
zero-moisture basis, 10.7% protein, 4.0% fat, 69.2% total carbohydrate, 23.9% fiber, and 15.7%
ash (Duke and Atchley, 1983).
Toxicity
Fruits, though edible after processing, are said to be toxic raw (Little, 1983).
Description
Evergreen shrub or small tree 312(-25) m high; trunk 3060 dm in diameter. Masses of small air
roots 1545 cm long sometimes hang from upper part of large trunks. Pneumatophores often rise
510 cm from the long horizontal roots. Bark dark gray or brown and smooth on small trunks,
becoming dark brown, fissured, scaly, and thick. Leaves opposite, lanceolate or narrowly elliptical,
511 cm long, 24 cm wide, acute or blunt at tip, entire, thick, leathery. Fine hairs giving a grayish
hue to foliage; both surfaces often with scattered salt crystals and salty taste. Petiole 315 mm
long. Spikes or panicles headlike, upright at and near ends of twigs. Flowers several, crowded,
sessile, 6 mm long, 10 mm across. Calyx cup-shaped, deeply 5-lobed; corolla tubular, hairy, white
but yellowish at base, with 4 slightly unequal spreading, rounded, or notched lobes, stamens 4, 5
mm long in notches of corolla tube near base; pistil with imperfectly 4-celled ovary, slender style,
and 2-forked stigma. Capsule elliptical, flattened, 2.53 cm long, often splitting into 2 parts. Seed
1, large, flattened, often germinating on tree (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, black mangrove, or cvs
thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, insects, pests, salt, and waterlogging. Seems to tolerate
prolonged flooding.
Avicennia germinans
Distribution
Along coasts of tropical America. Atlantic Coast; Bermuda, Bahamas, West Indies, southeastern
US, northern Florida, southeastern Texas, northern Mexico southward on Atlantic Coast to Brazil
and on Pacific Coast to Ecuador including Galapagos Islands and northwestern Peru. The same or
very closely related species on coasts of western Africa. Not widely planted or introduced
elsewhere (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
black mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7 to 20.6 dm (mean of 4 cases =
14.1) and annual temperature of 25.3 to 26.6C (mean of 4 cases = 25.9). Common in mangrove
swamp forests, mainly on the landward side in brackish water in mud flats of tidal zones of
protected silty shores and at the mouths of rivers.
Cultivation
successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding result in ca 90% survival.
Harvesting
Since this mangrove can regrow rapidly from buds beneath the bark along the trunk and branches,
it is said to suffer little from removal of much of the branchwood (NAS, 1980a).

Good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 1020(-25) MT/ha/yr, but for firewood
purposes, I would reduce that to 1020(-25) m3/ha/yr, figuring that at optimal rather than average.
Litterfall may account for 1/3 1/2 of above ground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the
wood, a cubic meter of mangrove is generally more valuable than other species.
Energy
Generalizing about the genus Avicennia, Burkill (1966) notes that when freshly cut, the heartwood
floats, but the sapwood sinks. "It gives indifferent firewood...not liked because it cannot be split. It
is used, however, when better is not easily procurable. It burns smoulderingly. The fisher-folk like
it for smoking fish, to which it is said to give an agreeable flavor. It is used, also, for smoking
rubber" (Burkill, 1966). Still in Latin America the wood is valued "mainly for fuel, charcoal"
(Morton, 1981). "Wood used for fuel and charcoal, burning with intense heat" (Little, 1983).
Avicennia germinans
Biotic Factors
No data available.
References
Duke, J.A. 1972. Isthmian ethnobotanical dictionary. Publ. by the author. Harrod & Co.,
Baltimore.
handbook of plant science in agriculture. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Garcia-Barriga, H. 1975.Flora medicinal de Colombia. Botanica Medica. Talleres
Editoriales de la Imprenta Nacional. Bogota.
Avicennia marina
Avicennia marina (Forsk.)

Vierh.
Avicenniaceae
Grey mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Heavy even-textured wood used for poles and ribs of boats. Bark yields a brown dye. Leaves are
used for camel fodder around the Red Sea. Branches are lopped and fed to cattle in India and
Australia.
Folk Medicine
According to Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (1977), the tree possesses a bitter aromatic juice, used as an
abortive in tropical Africa and Asia. Root and bark are used as aphrodisiac, the wood for
snakebite, the aqueous extract of the seed for sores. Unripe fruits are poulticed onto wounds and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Avicennia_marina.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:30:22 PM]
Avicennia marina
leaves onto skin ailments (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
Chemistry
Bark and roots contain tannin, the bark with lapachol (C15H14O3) the compound supposedly
responsible for the overblown virtues of "lapacho" (Tabebuia spp. from Brazil).
Toxicity
Lapachol is an allergic sensitizer.
Description
Evergreen shrub or small tree 110 m high, trunk to 40 cm in diameter. Numerous upright
pneumatophores 1015 cm high and 6 mm in diameter. Trunk often with masses of small air roots
but no prop or stilt roots. Bark whitish to grayish or yellow-green, smooth, often powdery with
raised dots, scaly, exposing greenish inner bark. Leaves opposite, ovate, lanceolate to elliptical,
3.512 cm long, 1.55 cm wide, mostly acute at both ends, entire, thick leathery, shiny green and
hairless upper surface, pale whitish-gray and finely hairy underneath. Petiole 510 mm long, hairy.
Heads or cymes ball-like, upright on long stalks at ends and sides of twigs. Flowers few to many,
sessile, 4 mm long, 5 mm across. Calyx 5-lobed, green, hairy, persistent; corolla tubular,
white.turning yellow or orange with 4 nearly equal, short lobes (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the African, Australian, Indonesian-Indochina Centers of Diversity, grey mangrove,
or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease,insects, light frost, pests, salt waterlogging (NAS,
1980a; Little, 1983). Little mentions five varieties, differing in leaf, flower, and geography.
Distribution
Coasts of East and South Africa, southern Asia, Australia, and Oceania. From Egypt and Arabia
along shores of Red Sea and western Indian Ocean, eastward along shores of Arabian Sea, Bay of
Bengal, southeastern and eastern Indian Ocean, South China Sea north to Hong Kong and Taiwan,
and islands of the Philippine Sea, Coral Sea, and South Pacific to Western Australia and New
Zealand. Not widely introduced (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist to Wet Forest Life
Zones, grey mangrove is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 45 dm, annual
temperature of 17 to 26C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Often a pioneer in muddy areas, this species,
Avicennia marina
intolerant of shade, cannot succeed itself. Mostly on saline silts of depositing shores and marshes
(Little, 1983).
Cultivation
successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding results in ca 90% survival.
Harvesting

This small tree could not be quite so productive as other mangroves, though I estimate 10 MT/ha
year is possible.
Energy
Used for firewood and fuel for lime kilns.
Biotic Factors
No data uncovered.
References
Lewis, W.H. and Elvin-Lewis, M.P.F. 1977. Medical botany. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Avicennia officinalis L.
Avicenniaceae
Indian mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The wood, used to construct boats, houses, and wharves has been studied as a pulp source, and the
bark and roots are used for tanning. The bark is used for dying cloth, the ash for washing it in India
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Javanese and others may consume the bitter fruits and seeds
after rather elaborate processing. Branches are lopped and given to cattle for fodder. The wood has
been recommended for creosoted paving blocks. Its wood is attractive enough of grain to be useful
in cabinetry.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the fruits are plastered onto tumors in India. Indian mangrove
is a folk remedy for boils and tumors (Duke and Wain, 1981). Kirtikar and Basu (1975) suggest
that the roots are aphrodisiac. Unripe seeds are poulticed onto abscesses, boils, and smallpox sores.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Avicennia_officinalis.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:22 PM]
Indochinese use the bark for skin afflictions, especially scabies. According to Perry (1980),
quoting other sources, "A resinous substance exuded from the bark acts as a contraceptive, and
apparently can be taken all year long without ill effects. Philippines use the seed for ulcers, the
resin for snakebite."
Chemistry
Tanganyikan wood specimens (zero moisture basis) contained 54.7% cellulose, 2.3% ash
(C.S.I.R., 19481976). The wood ash is said to be rich in alkali. A green, bitter, medicinal resin
oozes from the bark. Bark contains tannin and lapachol (Perry, 1980), but the tannin content may
be only 2.5% (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Description
Evergreen tree, sometimes to 25 m, trunk to 1 m in diameter. Numerous upright pneumatophores
rise above soil from long shallow, horizontal roots. Bark brownish-gray, thin, becoming rough and
blackish, or outer bark yellowish-green and inner bark whitish. Leaves opposite obovate or broadly
oblong, 412 cm long, 26 cm wide, rounded at tip, acute or rounded at base, thick, leathery,
edges slightly rolled under, upper surfaces shiny green and hairless, underneath with fine
gray-green hairs and resin dots. Cymes headlike in panicles, upright near ends of twigs, to 15 cm
long and wide. Flowers many 212 together, sessile, malodorous, 710 mm long, 1215 mm
across. Calyx 5-lobed, hairy on edges, with resin dots; corolla bell-shaped, tubular, yellow or
yellow-brown, turning orange, with 4 unequal spreading lobes, stamens 4, inserted in notches of
corolla tube; ovary conical, hairy, imperfectly 4-celled with 4 ovules, style threadlike; stigma
2-forked. Capsule broadly ovoid, flattened, 2.5 cm long. Seed 1, large, flattened, without seed coat,
germinating in water (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the African, Australian, Hindustani, and Indonesian-Indochina Centers of
Diversity, Indian mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, disease, insects, high pH,
pest, salt, and waterlogging (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983).
Distribution
Coasts of southern Asia to Australia and Oceania. From East Pakistan, Tanasserim, Andaman
Islands, and Sri Lanka through coasts of Vietnam, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia to the
Philippines, Sumatra, Madura, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Sunda Islands, Molucca Islands, and New
Guinea; south in Australia to New South Wales. Near sea level, to 50 m in Papua. Not widely
introduced elsewhere (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist to Wet Forest Life
Zones, Indian mangrove is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 45 dm, annual
temperature of 20 to 26C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Mostly on brackish or saline silts of depositing
shores and marshes.
Cultivation
successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora direct seeding result in ca 90% survival.
Harvesting

Good mangrove stands can show annual productivity of 1020(-25) MT/ha/yr, but for firewood
purposes, I would reduce that to 1020(-25) m3/ha/yr, figuring that at optimal rather than average.
Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic meter of mangrove is generally more valuable than
other species. Litterfall may account for 1/31/2 of aboveground productivity.
Energy
Brittle wood used for firewood.
Biotic Factors
No data uncovered.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the World. Computer index with more
than 85,000 entries. 3 vols. 1654 pp.
Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu, B.B. 1975. Indian Medicinal Plants. 4 vols. text, 4 vols. plates. 2nd
ed., reprint. Jayyed Press. New Delhi 6.

Little, Jr., E.L. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: A handbook for their identification.
McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV. 354 pp.
NAS. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National
Academy of Sciences. Washington.
Perry, L.M. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. MIT Press. Cambridge.
Avocado oil
Avocado oil
Lauraceae Persea americana Mill.
The edible pulp of the avocado, which surrounds the seed, contains from 8 to
30% of a non-drying oil. Oil is separated by dehydrating the pulp, then pressing or extracting with
solvents. The oil is used in cosmetics, and to some extent in salad dressings.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Avocado_oil.html [5/16/2004 1:30:23 PM]
Axonopus affinis
Axonopus affinis Chase

Poaceae
Carpetgrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Axonopus_affinis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:24 PM]
Carica heilbornii var. pentagona
Index|Search|Home
Carica heilbornii var.

pentagona Heilborn
syn. Carica pentagona Heilborn
(natural hybrid between C. pubescens and C. stipulata)
Caricaceae
Babaco
NewCROP has babaco information at:
Regeneration of Carica pentagona (Babaco) (Abstract)Rebecca Vega de Rojas and Sherry Kitto
Outside links:
Babacocan be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
BABACO "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
NewCROP information on the Common Papaya (Carica papaya)
Last update Friday, February 19, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carica_pentagona_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:24 PM]
Ornamentals: Where Diversity is Kingthe Israeli Experience
Halevy, A.H. 1999. Ornamentals: Where diversity is kingthe Israeli experience. p. 404406.
In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Ornamentals: Where Diversity is

Kingthe Israeli Experience
Abraham H. Halevy
1. GYPSOPHILA (BABY'S BREATH)
2. GERALDTON WAX-FLOWER
3. PEONY
4. REFERENCES
In the increasingly competitive international cut flower and pot-plant market, novelty of crops
plays an important role in maintaining and expanding market share. The ornamental industry is
unique among the agricultural industries in that novelty is an important attribute. Customers
always seek "something new." Although the standard major ornamental crops will continue to
constitute an important part of the market, a distinct trend towards increasing the share of "new
crops" is clearly evident in recent years. These new products normally fetch higher prices than the
traditional crops for a certain period, but quite often the prices drop when the market is saturated,
and the attraction novelty lessens. By that time new products should be ready to enter the market.
Research on introduction of new ornamental crops is therefore an endless project.
The floriculture industry in Israel is relatively new. Until about 30 years ago cut flowers and
pot-plants were only produced on low-scale for the limited domestic market. In recent years
ornamental plants became a major agricultural exportable product of over 250 million US$ per
annum. Israel is now second only to Holland in flower export in Europe.
Initially Israel produced and exported mainly the major traditional cut flowers, such as carnations,
roses, and gladiolus. Gradually the share of these crops declined and those of new minor crops
increased, so that the "new crops" now constitute over 60% of the exportable cut flowers (Fig. 1).
None of these "new crops" has become a major crop as roses or carnations, but together they are
and will certainly continue to be the major part of our exportable ornamental products.
Introduction of new crops includes many research stages that begins with the initial search and
screening and is concluded when the product is introduced commercially.
The introduction and adaptation of new exportable crops normally includes the following stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Searching for optional crops.

Selection and improvement.
Developing propagation methods.
Studying the growth and flowering
physiology and developing
practical means for their control.
5. Evaluation of horticultural
practices.
6. Studying postharvest physiology
and developing practical methods
for postharvest handling, transport,
and storage.
7. Semi-commercial export shipments
to markets abroad.
Fig. 1. Relative percentage of "traditional" and

"new" cut flowers exported from Israel from
1989/90 to 1996/67.
Some important cut flowers (in European

markets), which we introduced and
developed in Israel, were "new crops"
about 25 years ago such as Gypsophila and Geraldton wax flower. The development of these and
other crops are described in the following examples of successful introduction projects.
GYPSOPHILA (BABY'S BREATH)

Gypsophila (Gypsophila paniculata L., Caryophyllaceae) is really not a new crop. It has been
cultivated for many years as a minor field crop for harvesting in the natural summer flowering
season. Today, Gypsophila is a major cut flower in Israel, grown in over 200 ha of greenhouses for
the autumn to spring export season. It is now the main flowering shoot used as a "filler" in flower
arrangements, in both Europe and the US.
The introduction and development of this crop involved many aspects (Shillo and Halevy 1982;
Shillo 1985b; Shillo et al. 1985).
1. Selection of superior clones for controlled cultivation.
2. Development of in vitro meristem culture method to obtain disease-free mother plants.
3. Propagation of clean, uniform commercial cuttings in controlled insect-free greenhouses.
4. Study the physiology of flowering and development of practical methods to control
flowering. It was found that Gypsophila is an absolute long day plant, with quantitative
response to vernalization. The methods developed to control flowering include cold storage
of rooted cuttings prior to planting and supplementary night illumination. Spraying with
gibberellic acid is also used to promote flower and shoot breaking and elongation.
5. Development of specific cultivation methods, such as pruning, watering, and feeding.
6. Study the postharvest physiology of the flower and development of methods for postharvest
treatment of the flowers prior to shipment, to ensure their longevity and quality. When 15%
to 30% of the florets are open, flowering shoots are harvested, treated with silver thiosulfate
(STS) to protect them from internal and external ethylene, followed by pulsing the flowers
in sugar (7% to 10%) and germicides until about 2/3 of the florets are open.
The flowers of commercial G. paniculata plants are sterile and do not produce seeds. This
prevented real breeding of this plant. Recently this obstacle was overcome and real new varieties
were introduced by Dan Nursery in Israel. A major success is the cultivar Million Stars that was
introduced last year, and is already grown this year on over 40 ha in Israel and over 100 ha
worldwide.
GERALDTON WAX-FLOWER
Geraldton wax-flower (Chamaelaucium uncinatum Schauer, Myrtaceae) is a native shrub in
Western Australia. It was introduced to southern California and grown outdoors as a minor cut
flower. Most of the initial physiological and horticultural research was carried out in Israel, a fact
that facilitated the rapid development of the plant as an important commercial crop (Shillo 1985a;
Shillo et al. 1985; Halevy 1994). More recently important research is also conducted in its native
country, Australia. In Israel this plant is currently a major commercial ornamental crop, grown on
ca. 300 ha. It is used mainly for cut flower production, but also for cut shoots with flower buds, cut
foliage, and flowering pot plants. Israel became the main exporter of wax flowers to Europe in the
winter.
Plant material of native plants in Australia, as well as breeding, enabled the establishment of a
wide assortment of various plant colors (pink, purple, white, lilac, and bicolors), which bloom
from November to May. The selected plants are propagated by semi-woody vegetative cuttings in
order to form uniform varieties. Recently, virus-free mother plants have been produced by
meristem in vitro culture.
Studies on the physiology of flowering revealed that the wax flower is an absolute short-day plant
under conditions of mild temperatures. At very high and very low temperatures no flowers are
produced. At medium-low temperature some flowers are formed regardless of photoperiod. To
advance flowering in the autumn, plants of several cultivars are covered in the field at the end of
the summer to create artificial short days. An interesting physiological phenomenon, revealed for
the first time in this plant, was that the young flower buds produce a factor that inhibits the
formation of new flowers, even under inductive conditions (Shillo et al. 1984).
For production of flowering pot plants, plants are heavily pruned to promote branching and then
treated with growth retardants (CCC or paclobutrazol). Controlled photoperiod is employed to
extend the flowering period.
Abscission of individual flowers during shipment and handling is a problem of the cut flowering
shoots. This problem can be ameliorated by dipping the cut flowering shoots in auxin (NAA)
solution and hydrating them in cold water.
PEONY
Peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall., Paeoniaceae) has been in cultivation in China for thousands of
years, and have been grown as garden and outdoor cut flower plants in Europe and the US for
many years. Cut flowers were, however, available only for a few weeks a year during the natural
flowering season in late spring. Until recently, however, very little was known on the flowering
physiology of the plant. We have found that flower bud initiation starts after the old leaves
senescence in the summer and continues until late autumn when they become dormant. Release
from dormancy requires a period of low temperatures, and can be accelerated by GA treatment.
After the release from dormancy the plants may start growing and blooming under mild-warm
temperatures (Wilkins and Halevy 1985; Byrne and Halevy 1986). This basic information enabled
the development of a practical method for extending the flowering season and obtaining cut flower
production in the winter, 23 months before the natural flowering season (Halevy et al. 1995).
Plants are grown under ambient natural cold temperatures of the early winter. After sufficient cold
units are accumulated, the structures are covered with polyethylene at mid-winter and the plants
are drenched with GA solution. Sprouting and flowering soon follow.
The introduction and improvement of this "new crop" is actually developing new horticultural
techniques for flowering control of a very old ornamental plant. One of the obstacles of rapid
development of peony as a commercial crop is the slow rate of natural propagation by division of
crowns. We are now developing a tissue culture propagation method that should solve this
problem.
REFERENCES
Byrne, T.G. and A.H. Halevy. 1986. Forcing herbaceous peonies. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci.
111:379383.
Halevy, A.H. 1994. Introduction and development of Geraldton Wax flower as a

commercial cut flower in Israel. Israel Agresearch 7:4554.
Halevy, A.H., D. Weiss, V. Naor, M. Cohen, M. Levi, and D. Skuler. 1995. Introduction of
herbaceous peony as new cut flower in Israel (in Hebrew). Dapei Meida 5:5862.
Shillo, R. 1985a. Chamelaucium uncinatum. p. 185189. In: A.H. Halevy (ed.), Handbook
of flowering, Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Shillo, R. 1985b. Gypsophila paniculata. p. 8387. In: A.H. Halevy (ed.), Handbook of
flowering, Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Shillo, R. and A.H. Halevy. 1982. Interaction of photoperiod and temperature in

flowering-control of Gypsophila paniculata. Scientia Hort. 16:385393.
Shillo, R., A. Weiner, and A.H. Halevy. 1984. Inhibition imposed by developing flowers on
further flower bud initiation in Chamelaucium uncinatum Schauer. Planta 160:508513.
Shillo, R., A. Weiner, and A.H. Halevy. 1985. Environmental and chemical control of
growth and flowering in Chamelaucium uncinatum Schauer. Scient. Hort. 25:287297.
Shlomo, E., R. Shillo, and A.H. Halevy. 1985. Gibberellin substitution for the high night
temperature required for the long-day promotion of flowering in Gypsophila paniculata L.
Scientia. Hort. 26:6976.
Wilkins, H.F. and A.H. Halevy. 1985. Paeonia. p. 24. In: A.H. Halevy (ed.), Handbook of
flowering, Vol. IV. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Rambai

Morton, J. 1987. Rambai. p. 220. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Rambai
Baccaurea motleyana Hook. f.
A fruit somewhat resembling the langsat (q.v.) but belonging to a different family, Euphorbiaceae,
is the rambai, Baccaurea motleyana Hook. f., called rambi in the Philippines, mai-fai-farang in
Thailand.
Description
The slow-growing tree, ordinarily to 30 or 40 ft (9-12 m), occasionally up to 60 ft (18 m), has a
short, thick trunk, broad, dense, rounded crown and silky-hairy new branchlets. The leaves are
evergreen, spiralled, 6 to 13 in (15-33 cm) long, 3 to 6 in (7.5-15 cm) wide; dark-green, glossy,
with conspicuously indented veins on the upper surface; greenish-brown and hairy below. The
small, fragrant male and female flowers are borne on separate trees. They are petalless, with 4 to 6
chartreuse, velvety sepals, the female arranged in racernes 10 to 30 in (25-75 cm) long; the male in
racemes 3 to 6 in (7.5-15 cm) long. The fruits, in showy strands dangling from the older branches
and trunk, are oval, 1 to 1 3/4 in (2.5-4.5 cm) long and 1 in (2.5 cm) thick, with thin,
salmon-colored or brownish-yellow, velvety skin becoming wrinkled after ripening. The
translucent, white, sweet-to-acid pulp is in 3 to 5 segments which separate readily, each segment
containing a brown, flat seed about 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long, adherent to the pulp.
The rambai is native and commonly cultivated in the lowlands of Malaya, grows wild in Bangha
and Borneo and is occasionally cultivated in Java. It is valued for its shade as well as its fruits,
which are eaten raw, stewed or made into jam or wine.
The wood is of low quality but used for posts. The bark serves as a mordant for dyes and is
employed to relieve eye inflammation.
The very similar kapoendoeng, B. racemosa Muell. Arg., native to West, Central and East Java, is
commonly cultivated and is budded onto its own rootstocks or those of B. motleyana.
A lesser-known species, the so-called Burmese grape, B. sapida Muell.-Art., called tempui in
Malaya, lutqua in India, and mai fai in Thailand, grows to 30 or even 70 ft (9-21 m). The leaves
are rarely, and then only slightly, hairy; the fruit, in strands 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) long, is smooth,
nearly round or oval, 1 to 1 1/4 in (2.5-3.2 cm) long. The skin turns from ivory to yellowish or
pinkish-buff or sometimes bright-red. The pulp is not translucent; is whitish, occasionally
deep-pink near the seeds; varies from acid to sweet.
The tree grows wild from southern China, Thailand and Cambodia to Malacca and it is
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/rambai_ars.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:26 PM]
Rambai
occasionally cultivated in northern Malaya and Thailand.

B. dulcis Muell.-Arg., the tjoepa, toepa or ketoepa of southern Sumatra, has relatively large, sweet
fruits which are abundant on local markets. It is sometimes cultivated in West Java.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/rambai_ars.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:26 PM]
Bactris gasipaes
Bactris gasipaes Kunth

syn: Guilielma gasipaes
Arecaceae (Palmae)
Pejibaye, Peach palm
FactSHEET contributed by: Charles R. Clement
Introduction and Evaluation of Pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) for Palm Heart Production in
HawaiiCharles R. Clement, Richard M. Manshardt, Joseph DeFrank, Francis Zee, and Philip Ito
Pejibaye Heart-of-Palm in Hawaii: From Introduction to Market Charles R. Clement, Richard
M. Manshardt, Catherine G. Cavaletto, Joseph DeFrank, John Mood, Jr., Natalie Y. Nagai, Kent
Fleming, and Francis Zee
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different PerspectiveJ.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len (eds.).
PejibayeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Handbook of Energy CropsJames A. Duke (unpublished)
Outside Links
Peach palmby Jorge Mora-Urpi, John C. Weber, Sharles R. ClementLink to the publication
on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Bactris_gasipaes_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:26 PM]
South American Fruits Deserving Further Attention

Campbell, R.J. 1996. South American fruits deserving further attention. p. 431-439. In: J. Janick
(ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.
South American Fruits Deserving

Further Attention
Richard J. Campbell
1. SPECIFIC FRUIT CROPS
1. Anacardiaceae
2. Annonaceae
3. Caricaceae
4. Chrysobalanaceae
5. Guttiferae
6. Malpighiaceae
7. Myrtaceae
8. Sapotaceae
9. Sterculiaceae
2. CONCLUSIONS
3. REFERENCES
Considerable attention has been given in recent years to fruits with potential for further economic
development (Clement 1983; Donadio 1983; Arkcoll 1990; Ferguson and Arpaia 1990; Lamberts
and Crane 1990; Nerd et al. 1990; Campbell 1990; Silva 1991; Crane 1993). South America has
been the focus of many of these previous studies due to the sheer number of edible fruit crops
originating on the continent, which is considered an important center of diversity for fruit crops.
Our study takes another look at South American fruit crops with potential for further economic
development, emphasizing fruit crops not previously discussed in recent studies. Discussions for
each individual fruit are preceded by a general overview of the family to which each fruit belongs,
highlighting the characteristics of the family and some of its commercial members. The fruit crops
discussed include crops presently grown on a limited commercial scale, as well as minor fruit
which at present are of importance only on a subsistence level within their native range.
SPECIFIC FRUIT CROPS

Anacardiaceae
This family consists of 850 species, including fruit crops of great economic importance throughout
the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The mango, Mangifera indica L. (Asia) and the
cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. (South America) are produced in most tropical and subtropical
countries. Another genus, Spondias, consisting of 8 to 10 fruit species of American and Asian
origin (Popenoe 1979) is also prevalent throughout the tropics. Spondias purpurea L. and Spondias
cytherea Sonn. are both commercial fruit crops in the American and Asian tropics. Other Spondias
species native to South America are of great local importance as subsistence crops.
Spondias tuberosa Arruda. Umb. The umb is native to the dry plains of northeastern Brazil. This
fruit has been described as perhaps the best flavored among all of the Spondias species by Popenoe
(1920). The tree can attain a height of 6 m, although it usually forms a low, spreading tree when
left unmanaged (Martin et al. 1987). Fruit are oval, averaging 4 cm in length, with a 2 cm stone.
When fully ripe the flesh is almost liquid, with a sweet, aromatic flavor. The fruit are sour if eaten
before they are fully ripe. In its native region the umb is consumed fresh, used in preserves, made
into juices, or sweetened and mixed with milk to make "imbuzada," a typical drink of the region.
Popenoe (1920) discussed the importance of this fruit to the people of northeastern Brazil, who
consumed vast numbers of umb during the fruiting season. The same can be said in the region
today, as wild umb trees are protected and visited by local residents while the trees are fruiting.
The umb offers potential for arid tropical regions due to its production in the harshest of
conditions. Annual production has been up to 300 kg/tree with good selections (Cavalcanti and
Abilio de Queiroz 1992). There has been limited work on the identification and selection of
superior clones of umb; however, within Brazil clones have been identified which weigh nearly
90 g and have a pulp to seed ratio of 80% (Cavalcanti and Abilio de Queiroz 1992). Popenoe
(1920) questioned why the umb had not yet attained a greater status in the world due to its
superior flavor, and today the same sentiment is commonly expressed. However, due to its short
shelf life and delicate texture when mature, it is doubtful that the umb could be a viable
consideration as a fresh fruit beyond the local level. However, as a flavoring and/or juice crop for
the arid, hot tropics, the potential is much greater.
Little is known about its adaptability to different climates. Young trees have been killed by freezes
in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil (Donadio 1983) and in Florida (Campbell et al. 1977). The growth
of seedling umb trees in the calcareous soils of South Florida has also been poor (Campbell and
Sauls 1980). Umb is graft compatible with other Spondias species (Popenoe 1920), possibly
widening its adaptation to other climates and soil conditions.
Spondias mombin L. Yellow mombin. The yellow mombin is native to Central America and
northern South America (Popenoe 1979) and can be found under semi-wild cultivation in most
lowland areas of the American Tropics. The tree can attain a height of 10 m and is tolerant of most
soil types and rainfall patterns. The fruit are ellipsoid about 2.5 to 4 cm in length and hang singly
on the tree (Martin et al. 1977). There is great variation in quality among fruit from region to
region, some being sweet and pleasant and others quite disagreeable in flavor (Martin et al. 1977;
Popenoe 1920). The fruit can be eaten fresh, used in preserves or as a flavoring. Although common
in most of the lowland tropics, the yellow mombin has not been highly commercialized. It is
generally considered inferior in quality to S. purpurea, which is grown in the same environments.
Yellow mombin has been introduced to most tropical locations and performs well under varied
conditions. Trees are severely damaged by freezing temperatures (Campbell et al. 1977). Trees are
generally grown from vegetative cuttings, but patch budding has been used as well (Coelho
Pedrosa et al. 1991). The fruit are consumed fresh on a local level; however, its potential is more
as a processed fruit. It offers an adaptive advantage over other species of Spondias in some
climates and soil types.
Annonaceae
This family is comprised of 2,050 species, many of which are cultivated for their fruit, both on a
commercial and subsistence level (Leon 1987). The cherimoya (Annona cherimola Miller),
guanabana (A. muricata L.), sugar apple (A. squamosa L.) and atemoya (A. cherimola x A.
squamosa) are the major commercial members of the family in tropical and subtropical regions.
Due to their unique appearance and flavor, many other members of this family from Central and
South America have potential for further commercialization.
Rollinia deliciosa A. DC. Birib. The birib is native to northern South America and the Caribbean
(Leon 1987). The tree is small, usually reaching a height of 6 to 10 m, with a dense,
multiple-branched growth habit. Birib is one of the most common home garden trees in the state
of Para, Brazil (Clement 1983), where there is also limited commercial production (Cavalcante
1974). Birib fruit from this region can sometimes be found in markets as far away as Rio de
Janeiro. The fruit are globose and can weigh up to 1350 g (Cavalcante 1974). The mature fruit is
yellow with multiple protuberances, which turn black as the fruit are handled. The flesh is
translucent, juicy, and sweet with a somewhat mucilaginous consistency, which is objectionable to
many. It is usually consumed fresh, but it is also used as a juice, a preserve, or a flavoring. Within
its native region it is considered to be of the highest quality among the Annonaceae. Outside of
northern Brazil, however, the birib is much less common and not as highly esteemed. It can be
found in germplasm collections throughout the lowland tropics, but the fruit encountered are
generally of inferior-quality seedlings.
Production of birib is limited to the hot, humid lowland tropics. Temperatures of -1 to -2C can
kill young trees (Campbell et al. 1977). The trees grow quickly and bear fruit from seed in 4 to 6
years. There is great variation in fruit quality among seedling trees. Birib trees produce well
without hand pollination, which is an advantage over many other Annonaceae. In order to increase
the commercialization of the birib, superior cultivars would need to be identified and selected.
Research would also be required on storage, shipping, and handling procedures.
Caricaceae
In terms of fruit production, the Caricaceae is a small (31 species), yet important family
throughout both the American and Asian tropics (Badillo 1993). The most widely known member
of the family is the papaya (Carica papaya L.), which is cultivated commercially throughout most
of the lowland tropics. There are, however, other species currently produced on a limited
commercial scale in the South American highlands which have potential for greater exploitation,
both within their present production areas and beyond.
Carica pubescens (A. DC.) Solms-Laub. Chamburo. This fruit is native to northern South America
and is cultivated from Panama to Bolivia at elevations above 1,000 m. The plants often attain a
height of more than 10 m and have a similar appearance to papaya. They can be distinguished by
their variable leaf shape and pubescence, which covers the leaves and flowers. The fruit are from 5
to 20 cm in length, turning yellow or orange at maturity. The flesh is yellow and tart, even when
fully ripe. Trees are grown from seed, and there are no widely recognized superior selections. The
fruit are usually not consumed fresh; instead, they are processed into juices or preserved.
Thinly-sliced chamburo flesh is preserved in sugar solutions and eaten as an accent at meals (e.g.
with cheese) or used in cooking. Lizana et al. (1978) conducted experiments with the production of
dehydrated slices of chamburo as a potential new product in Chile.
Carica xheilbornii var. pentagona Heilborn. Babaco. The babaco is a sterile hybrid between C.
pubescens and C. stipulata. It is cultivated mostly in Ecuador at elevations above 1,000 m. The
fruit range in diameter from 6 to 12 cm and can reach a length of 30 cm. The plants are precocious
in cultivation and usually remain less than 4 m in height. The pulp is white, and like the chamburo
is tart when ripe. Babaco is important locally as a juice or preserve and is extensively used in
cooking. For commercial production, cuttings are used, as no seed are available due to sterility of
the clone. There are only a few recognized cultivars of babaco and these selections are not widely
distributed. Annual production at elevations of 1,500 to 2,000 m is up to 46 t/ha, with production
beginning 10 months after planting (Camacho and Rodriquez 1982).
Throughout the highlands of South America, products made from chamburo and babaco are
readily available in markets. Also, local residents use these fruit in all forms of cooking. Babaco
has been tested as a commercial fresh fruit throughout the American tropics and in New Zealand,
but consumer acceptance has been poor. The preserved products made from both fruit have a mild,
widely acceptable flavor. If these two fruit are to significantly expand in production, these
processed products will need to be successfully marketed; however, some competition can be
expected from similar, readily available products such as green papaya preserves. However, given
the precocity and heavy production of these fruit at elevations above 1,000 m, they remain
candidates for further development in the highland tropics. Also, these two fruit are resistant to the
papaya ringspot virus, a major limiting factor for papaya production in the tropics. The chamburo
has been investigated as a potential source of resistant genes for imparting virus resistance to
papaya (Moore and Litz 1984).
Chrysobalanaceae
This family has over 460 species, but few among them yield edible fruit. The icaco
(Chrysobalanus icaco L.) is perhaps the most widely grown, with subsistence production
throughout the lowland tropics, particularly in coastal regions.
Licania platypus Fritsch. Sunsapote. The sunsapote is native throughout the moist lowlands of
Central America and northern South America. It forms a large tree up to 30 m and is usually found
in secondary forests under semi-wild cultivation, or in small plantings of a few individual trees.
The trees produce 1 to 5 large, oblong fruit per panicle that range from 10 to 15 cm in diameter
and 15 to 20 cm in length, and weigh up to 900 g (Leon 1987; Martin et al. 1977). The fruit has a
fibrous skin that is easily removed. The pulp is dry and sweet. The seed is large in most clones,
often with fibers that protrude into the flesh. The fruit are generally consumed fresh, but can also
be used as a flavoring. The fruit are highly esteemed in localized areas of Central and South
America, but in northern Brazil, they are not preferred (Cavalcante 1974).
Trees are grown from seed and can require up to 10 years to come into production. There have
been only limited trials of this fruit in orchard conditions within the lowland tropics. Trees grew
well in Florida until damaged by freezing temperatures (Campbell et al. 1977). Fruit quality within
the markets of Central and South America is highly variable because the fruit are often collected
from seedling trees maintained in semi-wild cultivation. Martin et al. (1977) considered this fruit
to have little potential for further commercialization. However, the fruit are large and can
withstand handling, making them a candidate as a fresh fruit for the lowland humid and seasonally
dry tropics. In order to improve the commercialization of this fruit, a concerted effort into the
selection of superior cultivars would be needed, as well as research on production, and handling
procedures.
Guttiferae
This is a large family (1350 species) that contains many fine-flavored fruit crops. Popenoe (1920)
went so far as to proclaim one member of this family, the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.),
as perhaps the finest flavored of all of the fruit in the world. Other species in the family from
South America also possess a superior flavor and may actually have greater potential for further
commercialization than the mangosteen due to superiority in adaptation to diverse climates.
Platonia esculenta (Arruda) Rickett and Stafleu. Bacur. The bacur is native to northern South
America and is now grown extensively throughout the Amazonian lowlands. The tree can attain a
height of 25 m under optimal conditions. Fruit production is reported to be quite heavy in
comparison to other Guttiferae (Cavalcante 1974), although specific yield records are not
available. The fruit are yellow, with a leathery shell enclosing a creamy white flesh, which is
usually divided into 6 sections (similar to mangosteen). The flavor is excellent, being sweet and
aromatic and highly appreciated. Care must be taken when eating the fruit because the leathery
shell contains a yellow latex that is quite bitter. The fruit range from 300 to 900 g and are 10 to 12
cm in diameter (Donadio 1983). There can be up to 6 seeds per fruit, weighing about 20 to 40 g
each. Often the seeds abort, and edible flesh fills the space which would otherwise be occupied by
the normal-sized seed. In contrast to mangosteen, the tree is tolerant of many different
environmental conditions, including poor drainage (Martin et al. 1987). Trees are quite sensitive to
temperatures below 0C and to desiccating winds. Propagation is usually by seed, but bacur is
graft compatible with other Garcinia and Rheedia species.
Rheedia macrophylla Planch. et Triana. Bacuripari. The bacuripari is native to the Amazonian
lowlands, where it grows as an understory tree. The tree can grow to 9 m, forming an attractive,
pyramidal canopy (Campbell 1983). Trees are propagated by seed and may require 7 to 10 years to
come into production. Fruit are variable in shape, averaging 4 to 5 cm in diameter and 5 to 6 cm in
length. The fruit have a thick, hard outer wall containing a bitter latex, as in bacur. Inside the hard
shell is a white, creamy flesh surrounding 3 to 4 large seeds. The flesh is scanty in comparison to
mangosteen or bacur. The bacuripari is outstanding because it grows and produces a significant
crop in shaded conditions (Campbell 1983). The trees are also tolerant of full sun and wind
exposure, making them more adaptable to varied climates than the mangosteen. There is
considerable variation in fruit quality among bacuripari from different regions of South America,
and there may be different species involved.
Wherever bacur, bacuripari or other Rheedia sp. are grown, the flavor is considered excellent.
Although not superior to mangosteen in terms of flavor or edible flesh percentage, these other
species have better adaptation to varied climatic and edaphic conditions, allowing for their
production in many regions. The latex in both of these fruit can be a major obstacle to
commercialization, because those unfamiliar with the consumption of these fruit are likely to
ingest it, leading to an unpleasant taste experience. Silva (1991) reports that bacur fruit can be
stored a few days after harvest to reduce the amount of latex in the fruit. There has been little
selection for superior clones among either bacur or bacuripari, although there is considerable
variation present among seedling trees.
Malpighiaceae
This family of 1100 species is best represented in fruit crops by the acerola (Malpighia glabra L.)
which is widely cultivated on a commercial scale throughout the tropics as a fresh fruit, juice, and
natural source of vitamin C. Other members of this family from South America are also
widespread throughout the tropics as food sources on a local scale.
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K. Nance. This fruit is native from the Caribbean through Central
America and throughout most of South America. It has one of the widest native ranges of all fruit
crops in Tropical America. Trees are tolerant of a wide range of environments, from the coastal
Caribbean, the semi-desert regions of northeastern Brazil, the humid tropical lowlands and the
middle elevations (1,000 m) of Central and South America. Throughout their range, nance trees
are left when forests are cleared, and maintained in a state of semi-wild cultivation. The fruit from
these trees are harvested by local residents, consumed, preserved, or sold to local markets.
The tree can attain a height of 10 to 15 m. While in flower the tree is quite ornamental, with showy
orange and yellow inflorescences. The fruit are variable, ranging in size from 2 to 5 cm throughout
its range. The skin is usually yellow, with a yellowish, translucent flesh and a single seed. The
flavor is sweet and aromatic, sometimes with an oily or musky flavor. The nance is consumed
fresh, as a preserved product, a juice or a liquer. In the markets of the lowland tropics, it is
commonplace to find nance packed in water in glass containers.
Propagation is generally by seed, but the trees are easily grafted and in some locations (Yucatan,
MX) superior clones are commercially propagated by veneer or cleft grafting. Fruit of superior
clones may be yellow or red, and up to 6 to 7 cm in diameter. These clones typically have a
superior flavor to the wild types, and are commonly consumed as a fresh fruit. The trees are
sensitive to cold, but have survived repeated freezes in South Florida (Campbell et al. 1977). Due
to the wide-spread familiarity with this fruit there is the potential for the marketing of fresh fruit of
superior cultivars. In addition, with its adaptation to varied climates, the nance could become an
important processed fruit for the lowland tropics if it could be successfully marketed.
Bunchosia armeniaca Rich. The bunchosia is native to South America, and is uncommon in most
other locations. The trees are found from low to middle elevations, producing a small, attractive
tree up to 10 m. The trees are precocious, fruiting within 3 years from seed. The trees flower and
fruit throughout most of the year. Fruit are ellipsoid and borne in clusters. The red or yellow fruit
are from 3 to 4 cm in length with a cream-colored flesh. The flavor is sweet, but often astringent.
Even in areas where the tree is common, the fruit are not highly esteemed for fresh consumption.
They are more commonly used as a flavoring. Bunchosia is a common addition to the home
garden, but only rarely used as a commercial crop. The trees are tolerant of freezes, being slightly
damaged by temperatures of -2C in Florida (Campbell et al. 1977).
Martin et al. (1977) finds the bunchosia to have little potential for further commercialization.
However, it could have potential, given its precocity and adaptive nature if superior cultivars could
be identified. New cultivars not withstanding, the tree has good potential as an ornamental in the
low to middle elevations throughout the tropics (Donadio 1983), where it would be a pleasant
addition to the home garden landscape. With the commercial importance of ornamental
horticulture throughout the world, this aspect of the tree should not be ignored.
Myrtaceae
Of all of the tropical fruit families, the Myrtaceae has attracted perhaps the most attention for
possible increased commercialization (Campbell 1977; Clement 1983; Donadio 1983; Arkcoll
1990). Among the 3,850 species within this family, many produce edible fruit of superior quality.
These same species often possess unusual growth forms, making them good candidates for
ornamentals as well. The guava (Psidium guajava L.) and the jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora
Berg) are two of the best known members of this family in terms of commercial use. There are,
however, many others (particularly from South America) that deserve greater attention.
Eugenia luschnathiana Klotzsch ex. O. Berg. Pitomba. The pitomba is native to Brazil and is
relatively uncommon outside of this region. As with many of the Myrtaceae, its growth rate is
slow, particularly in calcareous soils, where micronutrient deficiencies are often problematic
(Campbell 1977). In acid soils, the growth is much faster, and plants generally have a better
nutritional status. The pitomba forms a bush or a small tree to 8 m. The fruit are yellow or orange,
2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, with orange flesh. The flavor is sweet and aromatic. The fruit can be eaten
fresh, but more commonly are made into preserves or juices. Dorsett et al. (1917) commented that
the tree had value as an ornamental in the correct environment, although Campbell (1977) noted
that in Florida the tree is not as attractive as many other members of this family. Trees are grown
from seed and can require 7 to 10 years to produce fruit. Grafting can be used to reduce the time to
fruiting. The pitomba is not as productive as some Myrtaceae (Dorsett et al. 1917).
Marliera edulis Cambess. Cambuc. The cambuc is native to the coastal rain forests of Sao Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil. It has long been known and consumed locally, but is uncommon
today within its native region, and even lesser known outside of Brazil. The tree is attractive, but
slow growing, eventually reaching heights of 5 to 12 m depending on the environmental
conditions. The bark has the same attractive mottled appearance as a jaboticaba tree. The fruit,
from 50 to 70 g in weight, are born on the trunk and larger limbs of the tree. They are yellow, with
longitudinal ridges. The skin is leathery with a translucent and juicy flesh and 1 to 2 large seeds,
leaving little flesh to eat. The flavor is excellent. In recent years this fruit has been described by
many as superior to jaboticaba in flavor, but Dorsett (1917), describing the diversity of fruit
available at that time in Brazil, considered the taste inferior to jaboticaba. There has been,
however, little work done on selection due to the slow growth of the tree and the narrow genetic
base.
The pitomba and the cambuc are both good examples of fruit which have truly excellent flavors,
but are not likely to be developed in the future as fresh fruit. Instead, development will depend on
some form of a niche market, taking advantage of their excellent flavor for ice creams, or juices.
As with most of the Myrtaceae, the fruit of these two species are small and easily damaged by
handling. Even if their excellent flavor can be exploited, their commercial future will depend on
the selection of better clones and improvements in propagation and production techniques,
allowing for feasible economic production.
Sapotaceae
The Sapotaceae, with 1,000 species, is a prevalent fruit crop family, particularly in the Caribbean.
The sapodilla [Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen] and the mamey sapote [Pouteria sapota (Jacg.) H.
Moore and Stearn] are commercial fruit crops throughout the Caribbean and Central America. In
South America there are also representatives of this family which have potential for much wider
cultivation than at present.
Pouteria caimito Radlk. Abiu. The abiu is native to the warm, moist lowlands of South America.
Trees have been introduced to many other locations, but they are still relatively uncommon. The
trees attain a height of 12 m under optimal conditions. The fruit are ellipsoid to spherical and can
range from 4 to 10 cm in length. The skin color is yellow when ripe, with a translucent flesh
surrounding 1 to 5 seeds. The skin is leathery, containing a sticky white latex. The abiu is common
in local markets throughout South America, where fruit quality is highly variable, with round,
oblong, pointed, and dorso-ventrally flattened fruit types.
The abiu has good potential for commercial development in warm, moist tropical climates due to
its precocity and heavy production. Yet, propagation of this crop is still predominantly by seed. In
order to further develop this crop there will need to be selection of superior clones. Clement (1983)
discussed clones in the eastern Amazon of up to 1,000 g, but these are not widely available. In
Australia several named varieties have recently been selected which are precocious and
productive, and have good fruit quality. These new selections have been accepted in the Southeast
Asian marketplace, and should also have potential in the American Tropics. As with the
Guttiferae, the latex of the abiu could be a hindrance to the development of this fruit.
Pouteria obovata Baehni. Lucuma. The lucuma is native to the cool highlands of South American,
above 1,000 m. Lucuma grows best in cool climates, and is difficult to cultivate in the lowlands.
The trees attain a height of 12 m and yield an ovoid to ovate fruit 4 to 8 cm long. The fruit are
yellow at maturity with a dry, yellow flesh. While the fruit are immature, it contains a bitter white
latex. The fruit can be eaten fresh when ripe, but is generally consumed as a drink or a flavoring.
In Chile and Peru the lucuma is a significant commercial crop (Lizana et al. 1986), and specialized
grafting techniques to improve precocity are practiced by some nurseries. Within Chile and Peru,
the lucuma fruit are usually dehydrated and ground into a fine powder and used as an additive to
milk.
This fruit does have some potential for fresh consumption, and there has been research conducted
on the harvest indices and storage characteristics (Lizana et al. 1986). The lucuma could fill the
same niche in the tropical highlands as the canistel [Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni] does
in the lowlands. However, canistel has not been successful as a fresh fruit in the U.S. market to
date. There is little reason to assume that the lucuma would succeed as a fresh fruit when the
canistel has failed. The greater potential for lucuma is probably as a processed product, such as the
powder used as an additive to milk.
Sterculiaceae
This family with over 1500 species is best known for cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), used for
chocolate and the cola nuts (Cola sp.) used for caffeine production. Within South America there
are several other members of this family with potential. One of these species, the cupuau
(Theobroma grandiflorum Schumann) was previously discussed in detail by Arkcoll (1990) and
Cabral Velho et al. (1990).
Theobroma bicolor Bonpl. Mocambo. This fruit is commonly used as a beverage fruit within its
native range of Central and South America, but is uncommon outside of this area. The trees are
propagated by seed and can attain a height of 12 m, although they are usually found as smaller
understory plants. The fruit are ellipsoid from 15 to 20 cm long and 10 to 15 cm wide, with a felty
brown exterior. The pulp is sweet and pleasant and the seeds can be roasted for consumption. The
odor of the fruit can be disagreeable to many. In Central America it is traditionally mixed with
achiote (Bixa orellana L.) and sugar to make a sweet desert. As with cupuau, the mocambo will
never have potential as a fresh fruit, but the flesh could be marketed as an additive for beverages as
proposed for cupuau (Cabral Velho et al. 1990).
CONCLUSIONS
The commercial status of many of the fruit described in this paper has not changed dramatically
from when they were described over 75 years ago by Dorsett et al. (1917) and Popenoe (1920). A
narrow range of environmental adaptations, the lack of superior selections, difficulties in
propagation, exotic looks and tastes, and ignorance about the proper use of the fruit may have
doomed these fruit to obscurity to date. They were then, and remain today as "under-exploited"
fruit crops.
Regardless of the reason for their continued obscurity, it is clear that a superior taste and an exotic
appearance alone was not enough to insure greater economic development of these crops. There
was not sufficient economic incentive for their development. It may require innovative methods of
marketing and promotion to introduce the new tastes and sights, and gain greater acceptance of
these products. Perhaps the time is right to market these fruit crops and their products as the "fruits
of the rainforest," taking advantage of the present sentiment that they are the salvation of these
endangered ecosystems (Schemo 1995).
The greatest challenge lies in the promotion of fruit that are not consumed "out-of-hand," but are
better used as a juice or flavoring. A change is needed in the consumption habits of consumers to
further develop these markets. Fresh or frozen juices will have to at least partially replace soft
drinks and juices which include only small percentages of fruit juice. Prices of fresh fruit or frozen
pulp will have to be affordable to allow the economical use of the fruit within the home. The
promotion of these products as "all-natural" could also be a plus for their marketing.
The potential value of fruit crops in the home landscape should also not be ignored, providing both
beauty and a nutritious product for the home. Campbell (1973) discussed the use of fruit trees in
the home garden within metropolitan areas. South Florida is an excellent model of how fruit crops
can be used profitably in this manner (Crane 1993; Lamberts and Crane 1990). With the
continuing economic development of Latin America, the use of fruit crops as ornamentals and
home landscape components will become more important.
Increased demand through the promotion of these fruits must be accompanied by the selection of
clones that meet the needs of the market. Whether it is size, color, self-fruitfulness, or precocity, a
concerted effort into the genetic improvement of these crops is vital. Finally, there must also be an
effort put forth for trials in other locations and research into propagation and production for the
fruit crop. Regardless of the fruit crop considered, further development will depend on sound
economic principals (Campbell 1990). If the production of the fruit is not profitable within a
particular region, its development will not proceed.
REFERENCES
Arkcoll, D. 1990. New crops from Brazil. p. 367-371. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.),
Badillo, V. 1993. Caricaceae: segundo esquema. Universidad Central de Venezuela.
Maracay, Venezuela.
Cabral Velho, C., A. Whipkey, and J. Janick. 1990. Cupuassu: A new beverage crop for
Brazil. p. 372-375. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber
Camacho, S. and V. Rodriguez. 1982. El cultivo comercial del babaco (Carica pentagona
Heilb.) en Ecuador. Proc. Trop. Region Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 26:17-20.
Campbell, C.W. 1973. The potential for tropical fruits in metropolitan areas. Proc. Florida
State Hort. Soc. 86:357.
Campbell, C.W. 1977. Cultivation of tropical fruit of the Myrtaceae in Southern Florida.
Proc. Trop. Region Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 21:3-7.
Campbell, C.W. 1983. The bacuripari: A shade-tolerant tropical fruit for Southern Florida.
Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 96:219-220.
Campbell, C.W. 1990. Techniques for producing export quality tropical horticultural crops.
Campbell, C.W. and J.W. Sauls. 1980. Spondias in Florida. Florida Coop. Ext. Serv., Fruit
Crops Fact Sheet FC-63.
Campbell, C.W., R.J. Knight, and N.L. Zareski. 1977. Freeze damage to tropical fruits in
Southern Florida in 1977. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 90:254-257.
Cavalcante, P.B. 1974. Frutas comestiveis da Amazonia. Publicacoes Avulsas 17. Museu
Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, Para, Brasil.

Cavalcanti, J. and M. Abilio de Queiroz. 1992. Umb gigante. Informativo, Sociedade
Brasileira de Fruticultura.
Clement, C.R. 1983. Underexploited Amazonian fruits. Proc. Trop. Region Am. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 27A:117-141.
Coelho Pedrosa, A., I.E. Lederman, J.E. Fernandes Bezerra, A. Pinheiro Dantas, and L.G.
Neto. 1991. Metodos de enxertia do umbuzeiro (Spondias tuberosa Arr. Cam.) em viveiro.
Rev. Brasileira Fruticultura 13:59-62.
Crane, J.C. 1993. Commercialization of carambola, atemoya and other tropical fruit in South
Florida, p. 448-460. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Donadio, L.C. 1983. Review of South American Fruits. Proc. Trop. Region Am. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 27A:21-42.
Dorsett, P.H., A.D. Shamel, and W. Popenoe. 1917. The navel orange of Bahia: with notes
on some little known Brazilian fruits. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 445.
Ferguson, L. and M. Arpaia. 1990. New subtropical tree crops in California. p. 331-337. In:
J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Lamberts, M.L. and J.H. Crane. 1990. Tropical fruits. p. 337-355. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Leon, J. 1987. Botanica de los cultivos tropicales. IICA, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Lizana, A., F. Kiger, and R. Cruz. 1978. Influencia del estado de madurez y temperaturas en
la deshidatacion de papayas (C. candamarcensis Hook F.). Proc. Trop. Region Am. Soc.
Hort. Sci 22:48-61.
Lizana, L.A., G. Reginato, and J.C. Lavanderos. 1986. Caracterizacion de la maduracion de
Lucuma (Lucuma bifera Mol., L. obovata HBK). Proc. Int. Soc. Trop. Hort. 30:105-120.
Martin, F.W., C.W. Campbell, and R.M. Ruberte. 1987. Perennial edible fruits of the
tropics. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 642.
Moore, G.A. and R.E. Litz. 1984. Biochemical markers for Carica papaya, C. cauliflora
and plants from somatic embryos of their hybrids. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109:213-218.
Nerd, A., J.A. Aronson, and J. Mizrahi. 1990. Introduction and domestication of rare and
wild fruit trees for desert areas. p. 355-363. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in
Popenoe, J. 1979. The genus Spondias in Florida. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 92:277-279.
Popenoe, W. 1920. Manual of tropical and subtropical fruits. MacMillan, New York.
Schemo, D.J. 1995. Hope for the Amazon rainforest: New fruit. New York Times, Sept. 24,
1995.
Silva, S.P. 1991. Frutas-Brasil. Empresa das Artes. Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Last update June 23, 1997 aw
Paspalum notatum
Paspalum notatum Flugge

Poaceae
Bahiagrass, Common bahai,
Pensacola bahai
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Paspalum_notatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:28 PM]
Bakupari

Morton, J. 1987. Bakupari. p. 309310. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Bakupari
Rheedia brasiliensis Planch. & Triana
Of the approximately 45 species of Rheedia (family Guttiferae), several have edible fruits. Perhaps
the best-known is the bakupari, R. brasiliensis Planch. & Triana, which is also known as bacupary
or bacoropary in Brazil; as guapomo in Bolivia.
The very attractive tree is pyramidal like that of the bakuri but smaller; is equally rich in yellow
latex. The leaves are short-petioled, ovate, oblong-ovate or lanceolate, narrowed at the base, blunt
or slightly pointed at the apex, and leathery. The flowers, profuse in axillary clusters, are
polygamous. The fruit, ovate, pointed at the apex, may be 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 in (3.2-4 cm) long, with
orange-yellow, pliable, leathery, tough skin, 1/8 in (3 mm) thick and easily removed. The aril-like
pulp is white, translucent, soft, subacid, of excellent flavor, and encloses 2 rounded seeds.
The tree grows wild in the state of Rio de Janeiro in southeastern Brazil and adjacent Paraguay; is
rarely cultivated. It blooms in December and matures its fruit in January and February. The ripe
fruit is mostly used in making sweetmeats or jam.
The seeds contain 8 to 9% oil (by weight) which is used in Brazil in poultices on wounds,
whitlows, tumors and, externally, over an enlarged liver. An infusion of the pulp has a narcotic
action with an effect like that of nicotine. The root bark extract contains rheediaxanthone and a
polyprenylated benzophenone, other lesser constituents, and 3 new prenylated xanthones.
Related Species
The mameyito, R. edulis Triana & Planch.
(syn. Calophyllum edule Seem.), is also
known as arrayan and palo de frutilla in
Guatemala; waiki plum in Belize;
chaparrn in El Salvador; caimito or
caimito de montaa in Honduras; jorco in
Costa Rica; sastra in Panama; berba in the
Philippines.
The elegant, erect tree, ranging up to 100 ft
(30 m), has copious gummy, yellow latex
and opposite, short-petioled, thick, leathery,
elliptic-oblong or elliptic-lanceolate leaves,
3 3/16 to 6 in (8-15 cm) long, 3/4 to 2 in
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bakupari_ars.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:30:29 PM]
Bakupari
(2-5 cm) wide, or much larger, with

Fig. 83-b: Peeled mangosteens, in light sirup, canned
numerous lateral veins conspicuous on both in Thailand, are appearing in Asiatic food outlets in
surfaces; dark-green above, pale or
the United States.1According to the Wall Street
brownish on the underside. Young foliage is Journal, April 7, 1987, fresh fruits, cut open,
reddish. The small, greenish-white or ivory inspected, sealed with tape, and quick-frozen, are
flowers, densely clustered below the leaves, exported from Malaysia to Japan where they sell
are 4-petalled, the male with 25 to 30
readily at nearly $4 each. They are defrosted in
stamens, the perfect with 10 to 12. The fruit boiling water for 2 minutes before eating.
is oval or oblong, 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm)
long, smooth, orange or yellow, the thin, soft skin easily peeled. There is a little flesh, sweet or
acid, adhering to the 1 or 2 seeds.
The tree is native and common in humid forests on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central
America, from southern Mexico to Panama, up to an elevation of 4,000 ft (1,200 m). It is often
planted in Central America as a shade or ornamental tree. It has been grown in the Philippines,
Puerto Rico and California. The fruits mature from late January to March in Costa Rica.
The heartwood is rose-yellow, hard, medium-heavy, coarse-textured, with numerous gum ducts,
but tough, strong, easy to work, fairly durable, and valued for construction because it is nearly
immune to insects. It is also used for tool handles, fenceposts, and temporary railroad ties. The
bark is rich in tannin.
The bacuripari, R. macrophylla Planch. & Triana, is also called bacury-pary in Brazil;
charichuela in Peru.
It is a pyramidal tree, 26 to 40 ft (8-12 m) tall, with stiff, leathery, lanceolate-oblong or
broad-lanceolate leaves, 12 to 18 in (30-45 cm) long and 3 to 7 in (8-18 cm) wide, pointed at both
ends, with numerous lateral, nearly horizontal veins. New foliage is maroon. The 4-petalled, male
and female flowers are home in small axillary clusters on separate trees, the male on delicate stalks
to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long and having numerous stamens, the female on thick, short stalks and
sometimes having a few stamens with sterile anthers.
The fruit is rounded-conical, pointed at one or both ends, about 3 3/16 in (8 cm) wide, with thick
yellow rind, usually smooth, sometimes rough, containing gummy yellow latex. The white,
aril-like pulp, agreeably subacid, encloses 3 to 4 oblong seeds.
The tree is native to humid forests of Surinam and Brazil to northern Peru. The fruit is not much
esteemed but widely eaten and sold in native markets. The bacuripari was introduced into Florida
in 1962 and planted at the Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead, at Fairchild
Tropical Garden and in several private gardens. One tree fruited in 1970, another in 1972, and the
latter has continued to bear. Young specimens have been killed by drops in temperature to 29 to
30 F (-1.67--1.11 C). Older trees have been little harmed by 27 to 28 F (-2.78--2.22 C). The
tree is accustomed to light-to moderate-shade. Seeds have remained viable for 2 to 3 weeks but
require several weeks to germinate.
In Brazil, the tree blooms from August to November and the fruits mature from December to May.
In Florida, flowers appear in April and May and a second time in August and September, and the
fruits are in season from May to August and again in October and November. Some 15-to
Bakupari
20-year-old trees have produced 100 to 200 fruits when there have been no adverse weather
conditions.
The madroo, R. madruno Planch. & Triana, may be called machari or fruta de mono in Panama;
cerillo in Costa Rica; cozoiba in Venezuela; kamururu in Bolivia.
The tree is erect, lush, compact, with pyramidal or nearly round crown, 20 to 65 ft (6-20 in) high,
and has much gummy yellow latex. The opposite leaves are elliptic to oblong, wedge-shaped at the
base, rounded or pointed at the apex, 2 3/8 to 8 in (6-20 cm) long, 3/4 to 3 in (2-7.5 cm) wide; dark
green above, paler beneath, with numerous veins conspicuous on both surfaces and merging into a
thick marginal vein. The fragrant male and female flowers are borne on separate trees in clusters of
up to 14 in the leaf axils; have 4 reflexed, pale-yellow petals; the male, 25 to 30 light-yellow
stamens. The fruit is round or ellipsoidal, sometimes with a prominent nipple at each end; 2 to 3 in
(5-7.5 cm) long, with thick, leathery, warty, greenish-yellow rind containing a deep-yellow,
resinous latex. The white, translucent, juicy, sweet-acid, aromatic pulp adheres tightly to the 1 to 3
ovate or oblong seeds which are about 3/4 in (2 cm) long.
The tree is native to the Golfo Dulce region of Costa Rica, the Atlantic slope of Panama, and
northern South AmericaColombia and Ecuador through Venezuela to Guyana and Bolivia. It is
particularly common in the Cauca Valley of Colombia where the fruits are marketed in quantity. It
is limited to elevations below 4,000 ft (1,200 in). Dr. Wilson Popenoe collected seeds for the
United States Department of Agriculture near Palmira, Colombia, in 1921 (S.P.I. #52301). The
tree was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1923 and into the Philippines at about the same time. A
few old trees have been fruiting more or less in southern Florida for many years, in midsummer. In
Costa Rica, flowers are borne from December to February and fruits from May to August.
The yellow latex of the tree is used in Panama to treat ulcers and other sores. The wood is pinkish
and hard but not commonly used.
Fig. 83-b: Peeled mangosteens, in light sirup, canned in Thailand, are appearing in Asiatic food
outlets in the United States.1 According to the Wall Street Journal, April 7, 1987, fresh fruits, cut
open, inspected, sealed with tape, and quick-frozen, are exported from Malaysia to Japan where
they sell readily at nearly $4 each. They are defrosted in boiling water for 2 minutes before eating.
Bakuri

Morton, J. 1987. Bakuri. p. 308. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Bakuri
Platonia insignis Mart.
Aristoclesia esculenta Stuntz
Description
Climate
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
A relatively obscure member of the Guttiferae, the bakuri, Platonia insignis Mart. (syn.
Aristoclesia esculenta Stuntz), is also called bacur, bacur assu, bacur do Par, bacury, pacuri or
pacoury-uva in Brazil; pakuri, pakouri or maniballi in Guyana; pacouri in French Guiana;
packoeri, pakoeri or geelhart in Surinam; goherica or ko by the Indians in Amazonian Colombia.
It is, unfortunately, sometimes referred to as bakupari, a name better limited to Rheedia
brasiliensis, q.v. In Brazil the tree is called bacurizeiro.
Description
The tree is erect, to 80 ft (25 m) high, with pyramidal crown and copious yellow latex in the bark.
The leaves are deciduous, opposite, oblong or elliptic, to 6 in (15 cm) long, dark-green and glossy
above; leathery, with wavy margins. Borne singly or in 3's, the flowers are 2 3/4 in (7 cm) long,
rose-colored, 5-petalled, with many stamens. The fruit is nearly round or ovoid, 3 to 5 in (7.5-12.5
cm) wide, weighing up to 32 oz (900 g); yellow when ripe. The rind is yellow, hard, fleshy on the
inside, 3/8 to 3/4 in (1-2 cm) thick, and contains gummy, yellow, resinous latex. The white, pithy
pulp, of pleasant odor and agreeable, subacid flavor, contains 1 to 4, rarely 5, oblong, angular
seeds, dark-brown and 2 to 2 3/8 in (5-6 cm) long. The infertile seed compartments are filled with
pulp called 'filho "which is the part preferred.
The bakuri was first reported in European literature in 1614. The tree is common, wild, in the
Amazon region of northern Brazil from Maranhao, Goias to Paraguay. It is abundant in the State
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bakuri.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:30:30 PM]
Bakuri
of Para, especially around Marajo and Salgado. Its native territory extends across the border into
Colombia and northeast to the humid forests of Guyana. It is seldom cultivated but when the
Indians clear the land for planting or pastures, they always leave this tree standing for the sake of
its fruits. In Marajo, it is viewed as a weed because it proliferates from fallen seeds and, if felled,
produces abundant suckers from the roots. In the district of Marapanim, there is a hamlet called
Bacurteua because of its many bakuri trees.
Climate
The bakuri requires a moist, lowland, tropical habitat.
Season
In Brazil, the tree flowers in June and July, after the shedding of the leaves. The first fruits mature
in early December and the season extends to the following May, the peak of the crop ripening in
February and March.
Food Uses
The pulp is much eaten raw but is mainly used to make sherbet, ice cream, marmalade or jelly.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Lipids
Glycerides
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin B,
Vitamin B,
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids (mg per g of nitrogen [N = 6.25])
Lysine
Methionine
Threonine
Tryptophan
105
72.3 g
1.9 g
2.0 g
22.8 g
7.4 g
1.0 g
20.0 mg
36.0 mg
2.2 mg
0.04 mg
0.04 mg
0.50 mg
33.0 mg
316 mg
178 mg
219 mg
57 mg
Bakuri
*Analyses made in Brazil.

Other Uses
The sapwood is yellowish-white; the heartwood dull-yellow to orange-brown with many fine,
dark, often black streaks. It is hard but easy to work and fairly durable. It is valued for
construction, furniture, flooring, ship-building and general carpentry.
Medicinal Uses: The latex derived from the bark is used in veterinary practice in Guyana. The
seeds contain 6 to 11% of an oil that is mixed with sweet almond oil and used to treat eczema and
herpes.
Sida cordifolia
Khareti or Bala (Sida cordifolia Linn.)

Pankaj Oudhia
Copyright 2004. All Rights Reserved. Quotation from this document should cite and acknowledge the
contributor.
Khareti or Bala (Sida cordifolia Linn.)
Scientific Name: Sida cordifolia Linn.
Family: Malvaceae
English Name: Country Mallow
Hindi Name: Khareti, Bala, Barial, Kumghi.
Botanical differences among the major species of Sida in India.
Plant
Stem
Leaves
S. acuta
syn.
S.
S. cordifolia
carpinifolia
An erect,
A much
perennial
branched
undershrub, upto undershrub,
1m. Tall
1-2 m tall
Glabrous or
minutely
stellately
hairy,
usually
woody at
the base
Ovate or
Lanceolate
ovate-oblong,
or elliptic
obtuse or
lanceolate,
subacute at apex base obtuse
or
roundish,
apex acute
S. alba syn.
S. spinosa
An erect
undershrub,
densely
stellately
pubescent
all over
Ascending, terete
or sulcate, softly
villious and
densely
stellate-pubescent
all over
Elliptic
oblong,
lanceolate
or ovate,
obtuse or
rounded at
apex
S. ovata syn.
S. grewioides
An erect shrub
or undershrub,
S.
rhommbifolia S. tiagii
An erect
A low, much
undershurb branched, perennial
undershrub, densely
stellately-tomentose
all over
grey,
tomentose,
with stellate
hairs
Stellately
Terete or sulcate,
hairy, sulcate woody at base
Elliptic-oblong
or
oblong-ovate,
obtuse at apex
Oblong to
lanceolate,
rhomboid,
cunneate,
obtuse or
rarely acute
at apex
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/bala.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:30:31 PM]
Ovate-oblong to
obovate, roudned,
entire, rounded or
truncate at apex
Sida cordifolia
Flowers
Fruits
Seeds
Yellow,
peduncles,
axillary, jointed
much above the
panicles, upper
flowers nearly
sessile and
fasciculate
towards the tip of
the branches
forming
subspicate
inflorescence
Subdiscoid, 6-8
mm across,
mericarps 10, 3
sided
Petals pale Fascicled

yellow,
in the axil
ciliate
of leaves,
rarely
solitary,
Corolla
white
Mericarps
5-6, 4 mm
long,
reticulately
serrate
Trigonous,
Smooth
glabours,
glabrous,
tufted-pubescent but
near the hilum
pubscent
around
hilum
Petals yellow
Petals yellow Pale yellow
Mericarps Mericarps 7-8, mericarps

5, more or nearly
8-12,
less finely glabrous
pubescent
reticulate
Smooth,
dark
brown,
rounded at
back,
trigonous,
glabous
Flowering Sept.-Dec. in
Sept-Oct. Sept.-Jan.
&
Indian conditions in Indian
in Indian
Fruiting
conditions conditions
Time
Brown,
smooth, with
stellate hairs
near the hilum
Oct.-Jan. in
Indian
conditions
Smooth,
glabrous,
except for
the
pubescent
area near the
hilum
Aug.-Oct. in
Indian
conditions
Pentagular ovoid,
Mericarps 7-8
Black, glabrous
with tufts of stellate
hairs at hilum
Aug.-Dec. in Indian
conditions
General Description: It grows as wasteland weed. It is in use as folk medicine in India since time
immemorial.
Useful Parts: Root, bark, leaves, flowers and seeds.
Traditional Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, the plant is tonic, astringent, emollient, aphrodisiac
and useful in treatment of respiratory system related troubles. Bark is considered as cooling. It is useful in
blood, throat, urinary system related troubles, piles, phthisis, insanity etc.
Ayurvedic Preparations: Maha baladi Kvatha, Bala Taila etc.
Internet Resources
Traditional medicinal knowledge about common herbs and insects: Interactions with the natives of village
Khudmudi, Chhattisgarh, India http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/24_interactions_natives.html
Interactions with the traditional healers of Dashapal and Mudpar villages of Chhattisgarh, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/228_dashapal.html
Traditional Medicinal knowledge about excreta of different animals used to treat many common diseases
in Chhattisgarh, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/40_animal_excreta.html
Sida cordifolia
Herbal dishes of Chhattisgarh, India VI. Paushtic Laddu

http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/346_hd_paushtic_laddu.html
References
Agharkar, S.P. (1991). Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. Pbl. Scientific publishers, Jodhpur, India :
194-195.
Bhandari, M.M. (1990). Flora of Indian desert. Pbl. MPS Repros, Jodhpur, India : 66-69.
Resource Person
Pankaj Oudhia
Melissa officinalis
Melissa officinalis L.
Balm, Balm mint, Bee herb, Harden balm, Gentle
balm, Lemon balm, Melissa, Sweet balm
Herbs Affecting the Central Nervous SystemVarro E. Tyler
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Melissa_officinalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:31 PM]
Balm-Of-Gilead Poplar
Balm-Of-Gilead Poplar
Populus candicans Ait.
Other common names.Balsam poplar, balm buds.
Habitat and range.The balm-of-Gilead tree, which has mostly
escaped from cultivation, is found along roadsides or streams from
Newfoundland to Minnesota and Georgia.
Description.This is a large tree reaching a height of 100 feet with a
maximum trunk diameter of about 6 1/2 feet with spreading branches,
the young twigs slightly hairy, and with very resinous, fragrant buds.
The broad, pointed leaves, 2 1/2 to 6 inches long, are somewhat
heart-shaped at the base, fine toothed, dark green above, pale beneath,
and hairy when young. The male and female flowers are borne in
separate catkins 6 inches or less in length, which appear before the
leaves.
Figure 11.Balm-of-Gilead
poplar (Populus candicans)
Part used.The leaf buds.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/balm-gilead.html [5/16/2004 1:30:33 PM]
Balsam pear, Balsam apple
Balsam pear
Bitter melon, Cundeamor, La-kwa
Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L.
Balsam apple
M. balsamina L.
The balsam pear plant is an annual running vine, to 10 feet or more, with near round, lobed leaves.
The fruit is 4 to 6 inches long, oblong, pointed and furrowed lengthwise. When full ripe it splits
into 3 divisions. The immature fruit is boiled as a vegetable. A pulpy aril surrounds the seeds,
which is esteemed by Orientals. In culture, similar to cucumber. The related balsam apple has a
smaller, egg-shaped fruit, and is used in a similar manner.
Season, seed to harvest: 3 to 4 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Mainly oriental gardeners.
Use: As boiled vegetable. Seed arils eaten out of hand.
Part of plant consumed: Whole immature fruits. Seed arils.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BalsamPearApple.html [5/16/2004 1:30:33 PM]
Momordica sp.
Momordica Species
Cucurbitaceae
Momordica balsamina L.
Balsan apple
Momordica charantia L.
Bitter melon, Balsam pear, Bitter cucumber, Bitter gourd, kerela
Momordica grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey ex Lu & Zhang
syn. Siraitia grosvenorii Swingle
syn. Thladiantha grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey
Lo Han Guo, Lo Han Kuo, Monk Fruit
and Mas Yamaguchi
Lo Han GuoCroom, E.M.
Momordica grosvenoriiSwingle, W.T.
Karela (Momordiaca charantia Linn.)Pankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Momordica_charantia_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:34 PM]
Vigna subterranea
Index| Search| Home
Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.

syn: Voandzeia subterranea (L.)
Thouars
Leguminosae
Bambara groundnut, bambarra, bambarra nut, Congo goober,
ground pea, voandzou
Outside Links:
Bambara groundnutVigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.
Proceedings of the Workshop on Conservation and Improvement of Bambara groundnut 1416
November 1995, Harare. ZimbabweLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute web site
International Bambara Groundnut Database
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_subterranea_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:34 PM]
Bamboo Greenbrier
Bamboo Greenbrier
Smilax pseudo-china L.
Other common names.Bamboo brier, long-stalked greenbrier,
American chinaroot, false chinaroot, bullbrier.
Habitat and range.This plant occurs in dry, sandy thickets from
New Jersey to Florida and west to Texas and Nebraska.
Description.Bamboo greenbrier is a smooth vine with a tuberous
rootstock and with the lower part of the stem smooth or sometimes beset
with straight, needle-shaped prickles. The leaves, 2 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches
long and 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 inches wide, are egg-shaped or sometimes
narrowed at the middle, usually rough on the margin, and somewhat
leathery when old. The greenish flowers, 12 to 40 in number, are borne
in round clusters on flattened stalks 1 to 3 inches long. These are
followed in autumn by one to three seeded black berries up to
Figure 12.Bamboo
one-quarter inch in diameter.
greenbrier (Smilax
Part used.The root.
pseudo-china)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bamboogreenbrier.html [5/16/2004 1:30:35 PM]
Bambusa arundinacea
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.)

Willd.
Poaceae
Spiny bamboo, Thorny bamboo, Tziu chu, Kalak, Bans
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Very young shoots are consumed as food in some parts of India and China. In raw state, shoots (ca
8 cm in diameter and 37.5 cm long) are very acrid, but with two changes of water in cooking and
with addition of salt and butter, they make a pleasant vegetable. Young shoots pickled or made
into curries. Wood used by Chinese in household carpentry, furniture, boxes, ornamental vases,
scaffolding, etc. Leaves used as fodder. Stems in great demand for manufacture of paper pulp of
good quality. Seeds edible and used in times of scarcity of food. Other species of Bambusa, found
in various parts of the tropics, are used for similar purposes: those used for the young shoots or
buds as a vegetable include B. cornuta Munro, B. multiplex Raeusch, B. oldhami Munro, B.
spinosa Roxb., B. tulda Roxb., and B. vulgaris Schrad.; species used for construction and other
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Bambusa_arundinacea.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:30:36 PM]
Bambusa arundinacea
such purposes include B. balcooa Robx. (one of the best and strongest bamboos for building
purposes), B. multiplex Raeusch (culms used for paper), B. nana Roxb. (fishing poles), B.
pervariabilis McClure (heavy construction), B. polymorphs Munro (roofs of houses, floors and
walls), B. sinospinosa McClure (sheaths made into sandals), B. spinosa Roxb. (timber bamboo), B.
texilis McClure, B. tulda Roxb., and B. tuldoides Munro (weaving mats, hats, baskets and ropes),
B. vulgaris Schrad. (paper pulp), B. beecheyana Munro [Sinocalamus beecheyanus
(Munro)McClure] is an important source of commercial edible bamboo shoots.
Folk Medicine
An ointment from the root is said to be a folk remedy for cirrhosis and hard tumors, especially
tumors of the abdomen, liver, spleen and stomach (Hartwell, 19671971). Tabasheer, a siliceous
secretion (up to 97% SiO2), considered aphrodisiac, cooling, and tonic, is used in asthma, cough
and debilitating diseases (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Leaves given to horses suffering coughs and
colds.
Chemistry
The stem consists almost entirely of cellulose and hemicellulose (xylans, arabans, polyuronides,
etc.) and lignins, with a small amount of resins. Oven-dried stems contain 3.3% ash, 1.8% silica,
6.0% hot water solubles (see above), 19.6% pentosans, 30.1% lignin, and 57.6% cellulose.
Analyses from paper pulping showed 8.5% water extract, 1.2% fat, wax, etc., 24.4% pectose,
15.6% lignin, 50.3% cellulose, and 1.6% ash. Per 100 g, the seeds are reported to contain 11.0%
H2O, 11.8 g protein, 0.6 g fat, 75.4 g total carbohydrate, 1.7 g fiber, and 1.2 g ash (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). On a zero moisture basis the fresh leaves (57.1% DM) contain 18.6% CP, 24.1% CF,
11.8% ash, 4.1% EE, 41.4% NFE. With sheep the CP exhibits 72.4% digestibility, CF 49.1%, EE
10.8%, and NFE 48.8% (Gohl, 1981). Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 29 calories, 90.7
gH2 0, 2.3 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 6.6 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.7 g ash, 33 mg Ca, 41 mg P,
0.4 mg Fe, 20 meg -carotene equivalent, 0.15 mg thiamine, 0.7 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and
4 mg ascorbic acid (Food Comp. Table Latin America).
Toxicity
Eight grams of raw shoots or slightly more improperly cooked shoots can cause death. Young
shoots contain 0.03% HCN (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Hairs on various bamboos, and fungi which
live thereon, may cause dermatitis (Mitchell and Rook, 1979). Benzoic acid and traces of
cyanogenic glucoside present in shoots have lethal effect on mosquito larvae (has antiseptic and
larval properties).
Bambusa arundinacea
Description
Tall woody bamboo, stems thorny, numerous, tufted, up to 40 m tall, curving at top; branches
numerous, internodes 3045 cm long, prominent, bearing in lower parts of stems dense half whorls
of stiff, naked, horizontal branches, armed with 23 recurved, stout spines; lowest nodes rooting;
stem-sheaths leathery, orange-yellow when young, hairy outside, shining and ribbed inside, 3045
cm long; blade triangular, glabrous, covered with a brown felt of bristly hairs inside; leaves thin,
linear, up to 20 cm long, glabrous above, hair beneath; leaf-sheaths hairy, small; inflorescence an
enormous panicle, often occupying the entire stem; branchlets loose clusters of pale, glabrous
spikes.
Germplasm
Reported from Asian Centers of Diversity, bamboos are reported to tolerate insects, laterites, low
pH, slope, and weeds (2n = 72, 70) (Duke, 1978).
Distribution
Wild in most parts of tropical India and Pakistan, growing up to 1000 m altitudes in the Nilgiris
and hills of southern India; north into China.
Ecology
Probably ranging from Subtropical to Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, spiny bamboo
probably tolerates annual precipitation of ca 6 to 40 dm, annual temperature of ca 18 to 29C, and
pH of 4.3 to 7.3. Thrives in tropical to subtropical climates, growing in warm humid temperate
areas as well, but thriving best under frost-free conditions, in rich to medium fertile soils with
good water supply.
Cultivation
Bamboos may be produced by means of seeds, vegetative portions or by layering the stems and
letting them root at the nodes. Seeds are sown in soil about 0.6 cm deep and about 2.5 cm apart in
rows 7.510 cm apart. Germination occurs in about a week and seedlings grow rapidly. When
plants are 1520 cm tall, they are transplanted to individual containers. Transplanting to the field is
done when plants are about 1 m tall. Growing plants from seed is the most economical and
convenient method of propagating large numbers of plants. Clump division is the traditional and
most generally prevalent method of propagating bamboos vegetatively. Active growth of young
shoots from buds on the rhizome in this group of bamboos is initiated during the summer. The
commonly recommended practice is to process vegetative propagules just before the initiation of
growth of these buds. A clump is divided into two equal parts, retaining the root system, branches
and leaves of each part as fully intact as possible. Properly set out, these propagules usually give
Bambusa arundinacea
the highest degree of success. Clump divisions taken from the edge of the clump are apt to give
superior results. The rhizome should be severed at one point only, at the neck of the oldest rhizome
axis in the propagule. Cut should be made at the slender neck where the minimum damage to the
rhizome is done. Roots are best preserved and protected keeping them in a ball of earth when the
propagule is taken from the parent plant. Some species, as B. tulda, has been successfully
propagated by rhizomes planted in situ, with 95% survival not uncommon. Culm segments, with
one or more nodes, bearing buds or branches, are used widely as a means of propagation in both
the Old and New World. Branches are usually pruned to 30 cm or less, with no foliage retained.
Such cuttings are set upright or at an angle, with at least one node well covered. B. vulgaris is
often propagated this way.
Harvesting
Bamboos are harvested for food when the young shoots are 3075 cm tall. Other parts of the plant
are harvested whenever needed, as the leaves, branches and woody stems.

Finding no published data, I estimate the yields in excess of 10 MT DM/ha/yr. One of the most
useful group of plants in the tropics, bamboos are used as food for man and fodder for livestock,
for building materials, for weaving and cordage, for paper pulp and for making all types of
utensils. Bamboos are very important in the economy of Oriental peoples; millions are occupied in
growing and producing raw bamboo, and manufacturing of bamboo products.
Energy
New culms start growing slowly, growth soon approaching 30 cm/day with 75 cm having been
recorded in one day in Sri Lanka. In Trinidad, Bambusa vulgaris produced more than 10 MT pure
dry cellulose pulp per hectare per year on a three-year cutting cycle. The culms of B. arundinacea
are said to be considerably more durable than those of B. vulgaris. With sheep, the ME of the
leaves is 1.77 megacalories per kg dry weight.
Biotic Factors
Few serious diseases or pests of bamboos are reported. Bamboo borers can be problematical
References
vols. New Delhi.
Bambusa arundinacea
Musa spp.
Index| Search| Home
Musa x paridasiaca , Musa

acuminata
L.
Colla.
Musaceae
Apple banana, banana, Bluefield, Brazilian banana, Cavendish,
dwarf banana, finger banana, Gros Michel, Jamaica, manzano,
Martinique, pisong jacki, plantain, red banana, Saba, Silk Fig
NewCROP has Banana information at:
BananaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
And outside links to more banana info:
BANANA "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Banana Crop Informationfrom University of California Davis
Banana, Plantain (Musa spp.)from Mark Reiger of University of Georgia.
Publications on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Web Site
Cytogenetics of the genus Musaby K. Sheperd
Evaluation of Musa Germplasm resistance to Sigatoka diseases and Fusarium wilt.by B. Orjeda
Routine Post-harvest Screening of Banana/Plantain Hybrids: Criteria and Methodsby D.K.
Dadzie, J.E. Orchard
Screening of Musa Germplasm for Resistance and Tolerance to Nematodesby P.R. Speijer, D.
De Waele
Musa spp. (2nd edition)by M. Diekmann, C.A.J. Putter (eds.)
Descriptors for Banana (Musa spp.)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Musa_spp_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:36 PM]
Banana Passionfruit

Morton, J. 1987. Banana Passionfruit. p. 332333. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Banana Passionfruit
Passiflora mollissima Bailey
Passiflora tomentosa var. mollissima Tr.& Planch
Tacsonia mollissima HBK.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Season
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
A distinctive and much admired passionfruit relative, Passiflora mollissima Bailey (syns. P.
tomentosa var. mollissima Tr. & Planch.; Tacsonia mollissima HBK.), was given this appealing
and appropriate English name in New Zealand. In Hawaii, it is called banana poka. In its Latin
American homeland, it is known as curuba, curuba de Castilla, or curuba sabanera blanco
(Colombia); tacso, tagso, tauso (Ecuador); parcha (Venezuela), tumbo or curuba (Bolivia); tacso,
tumbo, tumbo del norte, trompos, or tintin (Peru).
Description
The vine is a vigorous climber to 20 or 23 ft (6-7 m), its nearly cylindrical stems densely coated
with yellow hairs. Its deeply 3-lobed leaves, 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) long and 2 3/8 to 4 3/4 in (6-12
cm) wide, are finely toothed and downy above, grayish-or yellowish-velvety beneath. The stipules
are short, slender and curved. The attractive blossom has a tube 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) long,
gray-green, frequently blushed with red, rarely downy; corolla with 5 oblong sepals and deep-pink
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana_passion_fruit.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:37 PM]
Banana Passionfruit
petals flaring to a width of 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm); and a rippled, tuberculated, purple corona. The
fruit is oblong or oblong-ovoid, 2 to 4 3/4 in (5-12 cm) long, 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 in (3.2-4 cm) wide. The
rind is thick, leathery, whitish-yellow or, in one form, dark-green, and minutely downy. Very
aromatic pulp (arils), salmon-colored, subacid to acid and rich in flavor, surrounds the small,
black, flat, elliptic, reticulated seeds.
The banana passionfruit is native and commonly found in the wild in Andean valleys from
Venezuela and eastern Colombia to Bolivia and Peru. It is believed to have been domesticated
only shortly before the Spanish Conquest. Today it is commonly cultivated and the fruits, which
are highly favored, are regularly sold in local markets. In 1920, the United States Department of
Agriculture received seeds from Guayaquil, Ecuador (S.P.I. No. 51205), and from Bogot,
Colombia (S.P.I. No. 54399). The vine is grown in California as an ornamental under the name
"softleaf passionflower". It has never succeeded in Florida; is grown to some extent in Hawaii and
the State of Madras, India. The climate of New Zealand seems highly suitable for it and it has been
grown there, more or less commercially, for several decades.
Varieties
In general, the fruit is smaller in Peru than in Colombia and Ecuador. There are said to be several
varieties. A form called curuba quitea in Colombia is dark-green externally even when fully ripe,
the apex is abruptly pointed and furrowed; the pulp is dark-orange or orange-brown.
Climate
This species is at home at elevations between 6,000 and 7,200 ft (1,800-3,200 m) in the Andes,
and has adapted well to altitudes of 4,000 to 6,000 ft (1,200-1,800 m) in Hawaii and New Zealand.
It can tolerate brief drops in temperature to 28.4 F (-2 C).
Propagation
The vine can be propagated from cuttings but is usually grown from seeds which normally
germinate in 10 weeks. The time can be shortened to 5 weeks by preliminary soaking in lukewarm
water.
Culture
The seedlings can be transplanted when 3 months old and need to be trained onto a horizontal
trellis 6 1/2 ft (2 m) high with crosswires 16 in (40 cm) apart. At a vine spacing of 6.5 ft (2 m)
each way, there will be 607 plants per acre (1,500 plants/ha). Less dense planting, allowing 10 ft (3
m) each way between vines, and 20 in (50 cm) between crosswires, will result in 445 vines per
acre (1,100/ha). The first crop will be produced in 2 years. At dense spacing, and with good weed
control and adequate fertilization, the annual harvest in Colombia will be 200 to 300 fruits per
vine, amounting to 200,000 to 303,000 fruits per acre (500,000-750,000 fruits per ha), or about
31,000 to 47,000 lbs per acre (roughly the same number of kg per ha). The individual fruits range
from 2 to 5 1/2 oz each (approximately 50-150 g). Some growers have practiced pruning, which
improves air-flow, reducing disease, and facilitates weeding, irrigation, spraying and harvesting. It
produces larger fruits but fewer and therefore is generally viewed as not practical as size is not
Banana Passionfruit
important to the consumer. In India, the average yield is said to be 40 to 50 fruits per vine
beginning with the 6th year from planting.
Season
There is more or less continuous fruiting the year around in Colombia. In New Zealand, the crop
ripens from late March or early April to September or October.
Keeping Quality
The fruit stands shipment well and will keep in good condition in a dry and not too cold
atmosphere for a reasonable length of time.
Pests and Diseases
In humid and poorly drained situations, some plantations suffer from nematodes (Meloidogyne
sp.). Leaves and shoots may be attacked by leafhoppers (Empoasca sp.) and by Dione or Agraulis,
vanillae; leaves and fruits may be plagued by mites (Tetranychus sp.); larvae of Hepialus sp.
invade the flowerbud; stems may be bored and tunneled by Heteractes sp. and Nyssodrys sp.
Occasionally the fruits are attacked by fruit flies. Young shoots are prone to powdery mildew
(Asterinia sp.) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum sp.) may affect the vine and fruits. Boron
deficiency causes cracking of fruits. Sometimes, for physiological reasons not yet fully
understood, 50 to 60% of the fruits may drop prematurely.
Food Uses
The pulp is eaten out-of-hand or is strained for its juice which is not consumed alone but employed
in refreshing mixed cold beverages. In Bolivia, the juice, combined with aguardiente and sugar, is
served as a pre-dinner cocktail. Colombians strain out the seeds and serve the pulp with milk and
sugar, or use it in gelatin desserts. In Ecuador, the pulp is made into ice cream.
The New Zealand Department of Agriculture has developed enticing recipes to encourage the
growing and utilization of the seeded pulp as pie filling, and also for making meringue pie, sauce,
spiced relish, jelly, jam and other preserves. It is also advocated as an ingredient in fruit salad,
especially with pineapple, and for blending with whipped cream as a pudding, and for cooking and
preserving as an ice-cream topping.
Canning the juice with benzoate of soda as a preservative loses much of the quality and, therefore,
there is as yet no commercial processing.
Calories
25
Moisture
92.0 g
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
0.6 g
0.1 g
6.3 g
0.3 g
0.7 g
Banana Passionfruit
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
4 mg
20 mg
0.4 mg
0.03 mg
2.5 mg
70 mg
*Analyses made in Colombia.
Proteaceae Floral Crops: Cultivar Development and Underexploited Uses
Leonhardt, K.W. and Richard A. Criley. 1999. Proteaceae floral crops: Cultivar development
and underexploited uses. p. 410430. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses.
ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Proteaceae Floral Crops: Cultivar

Development and Underexploited
Uses*
Kenneth W. Leonhardt and Richard A. Criley
1. HISTORICAL
2. PROTEA
3. LEUCOSPERMUM
4. LEUCADENDRON
5. BANKSIA
6. GREVILLEA
7. ISOPOGON
8. DRYANDRA
9. TELOPEA
10. SERRURIA
11. MIMETES
12. REFERENCES
The Proteaceae apparently originated on the southern supercontinent Gondwana long before it
divided and began drifting apart during the Mesozoic era, accounting for the presence of the
Proteaceae on all of the southern continents (Brits 1984a). The Protea family comprises about
1400 species in over 60 genera, of which over 800 species in 45 genera are from Australia. Africa
claims about 400 species, including 330 species in 14 genera from the western Cape. About 90
species occur in Central and South America, 80 on islands east of New Guinea, and 45 in New
Caledonia. Madagascar, New Guinea, New Zealand, and Southeast Asia host small numbers of
species (Rebelo 1995).
Proteas are neither herbaceous nor annual, and they are always woody. Their structural habit is
variable from groundcover forms with creeping stems, and those with underground stems, to
vertical to spreading shrubs, to tree forms. The leaves are generally large, lignified, hard, and
leathery. A mature leaf will generally snap rather than fold when bent. The leaf anatomy is
specially adapted for water conservation and drought resistance. These characteristics and the high
leaf carbon to nitrogen ratio render the leaves indigestible to most insect pests (Rebelo 1995),
accounting for the relatively pest-free status of most commercial protea plantings.
The distribution of the family is linked to the occurrence of soils that are extremely deficient in
plant nutrients (Brits 1984a). An accommodating characteristic of the family is the presence of
proteoid roots. These are dense clusters of hairy rootlets that form a 25 cm thick mat at the soil
surface which enhances nutrient uptake from the nutrient-sparse soils on which the Proteaceae
evolved. All species examined so far, in at least ten genera, possess proteoid roots (Lamont 1986).
The capitulum, in which the flowers are borne on a flat or pointed receptacle, is the most common
type of flowerhead. Involucral bracts surround the receptacle and may be prominent, as in Protea,
or inconspicuous, as in Leucospermum. Involucral bracts in Leucadendron are also inconspicuous,
but the floral bracts of female plants are large and develop into woody cones. An important
taxonomic feature of the family is that its flowers do not have separate sepals and petals. The
perianth is made up of a single set of four segments called tepals. As a bud opens, the perianth
segments curl back to expose the style which extends from the superior ovary to the stigma. In
some species, small floral nectaries at the base of the ovary secrete nectar to attract pollinators
(Rebelo 1995). Another adaptation of evolution that has become important in the utilization of
Leucospermum and Protea as cutflowers is bird pollination. The large, usually solitary, terminal
flowers of these genera, and their predominant colors of creamy white, and blends of yellow,
orange, and red, colors birds are attracted to, are probably adaptations to pollination by the Cape
Sugarbird, Promerops cafer, and other nectar eating native birds. This is thought to be the prime
reason why the South African species, and perhaps particularly Leucospermum and Protea, are the
most attractive of the family and have excellent potential as cutflowers (Brits 1984a).
The floral biology of proteas is protandrous, with anthesis occurring prior to the stigma becoming
receptive; a mechanism to help insure cross pollination. Most Protea seem incapable of
self-pollination, although certain Leucospermum and Serruria species will produce seed when self
pollinated. There are four types of pollinators, or pollen delivery; rodents, birds, insects, and wind.
The flowerheads of certain Leucospermum and Protea species are visited by several species of
gerbils, mice, rats, and shrews. Many Leucospermum, Mimetes, and Protea species are pollinated
by birds. Since birds do not rely on smell, bird-pollinated species have little if any scent. The small
species of Leucospermum and Protea are pollinated by bees and wasps and a few other insects;
Leucadendron are pollinated by several beetle species, and most small-flowered genera are visited
by a number of beetle, fly, and wasp species. Ten Leucadendron species are the only
wind-pollinated proteas in southern Africa (Rebelo 1995).
The hermaphrodite species of protea are extremely low seed producers, with only one to 30% of
flowers resulting in seed. It is surmised that a large percentage of hermaphrodite flowers function
only as males. Another reason for low seed production may be the plant's need to produce nutrient
rich seeds to reduce seedling mortality in a nutrient-poor environment. However, dioecious species
generally have a high seed set, possibly because all flowers on a female plant are reproductively
functional (Rebelo 1995).
HISTORICAL
In 1771, the great Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus wrote a colleague in Amsterdam, "Inexhaustum
credo Cap. B. spei esse plantarum speciebus; certe nulla Flora ditior erit." Freely translated this
reads, "I believe the Cape of Good Hope is by no means exhausted of plant species; surely no other
flora could be richer..." The Australian Proteaceae contain more genera, but it is the South African
ones that have attracted the interest of the world, commencing with the attempts by Joseph Knight
to cultivate them under artificial conditions in the late 1700s. They proved to be difficult subjects,
but the first flowers produced outside of South Africa were shown at the Royal Botanical Gardens
at Kew in 1774 and 21 species had bloomed there by 1810. In the 18th and 19th centuries they
became a "patrician indulgence" as collections were found in the royal conservatories from St.
Petersburg to Paris (Parvin 1984).
Although there has been much exploration of the Cape Floral Kingdom over the past 400 years,
new species are still being found, many of them in the Proteaceae. The interest in this family began
with the 1605 description by botanist Carolus Clusius of the flowerhead of Protea neriifolia as
thistle-like, graceful, and unique. The Proteaceae are often the most prominent elements of the
Cape fynbos with large, stiffly erect flowerheads. A cut flower industry developed around flowers
harvested from the fynbos (Brits 1984b). A far-sighted Stellenbosch farmer, Mr. Frank Batchelor
pioneered the development of the commercial protea industry in South Africa as he retired from
deciduous fruit production. From wild-collected materials, he moved into selection, hybridization,
and vegetative propagation, recognizing that superior quality was required for the marketplace
(Soutter 1984).
Contemporaneously, Marie Vogts took up the challenge to learn more about the habits and
production of proteas. Wild plants in their natural habitat were her reference books as she
established cultivated plantings which could be studied and compared. By the late 1950s, she had
acquired enough knowledge to conclude that proteas could be cultivated, and her book "Proteas:
Know them and grow them" (1958) was published. The book focused attention on the economic
possibilities of proteas. Continuing her work, she sought out the natural variants that occurred in
the mountains and brought them into cultivation. Seeing horticultural potential as well as
marketability in these variants, she recognized the variations in flowering times at different sites as
important to extending the marketing season (Vogts 1984). She was instrumental in founding the
Protea Research Unit of the South African Department of Agriculture and focusing its attention on
the genetic variability of wild populations and interspecific hybrids, and initiating a research
program to improve their adaptability to cultivation (Brits 1984b). Her four decades of research
and investigation laid a foundation for an industry that benefits not only South Africa's landed
establishment, but also their rural peoples, and that has reached beyond the Cape Floral Kingdom
to Australia, New Zealand, Israel, California and Hawaii, Zimbabwe, El Salvador, Chile, the
Canary Islands, France, and other distant lands. Thus, this "alternative crop/new crop" has a long
and honorable history predating the 1990s interest.
The University of Hawaii became involved in 1964 when a visiting professor of Horticulture, Dr.
Sam McFadden, imported seed of various Proteaceae for trial in Honolulu. The next year
additional seed were planted at the Maui Agricultural Research Center, 1000 m up the slope of
Haleakala crater, where they flourished. Evaluations were made in 1969 separating 34 species into
those suitable for cutflowers, for landscaping, and those unsuitable for either purpose. In 1970, 63
species of nine genera were imported, and a research program with emphasis on propagation and
nutrition began to take form (Parvin et al. 1973). It was soon recognized that Leucospermum
flowered on Maui as much as two months earlier than in California, suggesting the potential for a
competitive advantage for a Hawaii export industry (Parvin 1984) if early flowering cultivars of
horticultural merit could be obtained or created. The first pollinations in a new breeding program
were made in 1972. The current research program emphasizes breeding for improved cultivars for
cutflower production, the physiology of flowering, disease management, and postharvest handling
and storage for Leucospermum and Protea.
The results from protea research programs in South Africa and Hawaii, and to an extent, Israel,
have helped to stimulate protea cultivation in those and several other countries around the world,
primarily for the international cutflower trade. Europe has been the traditional market for protea,
but the United States and Japan have significantly expanded floral consumption and increased
purchases of protea in recent years. Israeli market research recently reported that the world-wide
cutflower markets can still absorb large quantities of proteas without lowering prices, but that the
market is in need of new cultivars to refresh existing selections (Danziger 1997).
The emphasis on cultivar development is put into perspective by Soutter (1984); "It is generally
said that a horticultural industry is only as good as its cultivars, and certainly in the case of
floriculture, one can add the rate at which new cultivars are placed on the market." Numerous
cultivars have been introduced by scientists and commercial breeders, hobbyists, and plant and
flower collectors gathering from the native fynbos. The International Protea Register,
Stellenbosch, South Africa, now in its fourth edition, keeps track of named cultivars along with
their origin and brief descriptions to the extent it can obtain the information. This valuable
resource allows researchers and producers to exchange plant materials and communications about
known cultivars and their adaptability and performance in cultivated situations around the world.
Table 1 summarizes the registered cultivars, and cultivars recognized but not yet registered, of four
protea genera.
Table 1. Summary of cultivars in The International Protea Register (the number of interspecific
hybrids is in parentheses).
Named cultivars
Genus
Registered Recognized but not registered
Leucadendron
12
(5)
101
(18)
113 (23)
Leucospermum
30
(19)
58
(15)
88
Protea
42
(24)
139
(29)
181 (53)
Serruria
(2)
(1)
Total (4 genera) 86
(50)
302
(63)
Total
(34)
(3)
388 (113)
The register also lists cultivars of unknown origin, including 14 Leucadendron, 14 Leucospermum,
and 24 Protea. It lists only one intergeneric hybrid, (Mimetes Leucospermum) 'Splendidus'. The
86 registered cultivars are authored by 20 registrants from five countries; Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa, United States, and Zimbabwe (Sadie 1997).
The International Protea Association (IPA) supports the promotion and commercial production of
protea as well as scientific research and conservation of native germplasm (Mathews 1984). The
IPA held its 9th biennial conference in Cape Town, South Africa, in August 1998 with
representatives from 12 nations participating. Regional production and marketing reports were
made by industry leaders, while academics and graduate students gave oral and poster
presentations on research progress in areas of conservation, pest and disease management, cultivar
development, propagation, pruning, irrigation, nutrition, and postharvest physiology.
Economically, the most important protea species is Macadamia integrifolia, the only native food
plant in Australia to achieve international status as a commercial nut crop. Macadamia breeding
and selection work was initiated in 1934 by the University of Hawaii, and over the next 50 years
13 cultivars were introduced from 120,000 seedlings evaluated. Commercial development of this
crop began in Hawaii in the 1940s (Hamilton and Ito 1984). Hawaii was the world's leading
producer until Australia recently claimed that spot. Today, this gourmet dessert nut is cultivated
commercially in Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Hawaii, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa,
and Zimbabwe. Recently, China established commercial plantings on Hainan island.
Selected Proteaceae floral crops were analyzed for their potential profitability, on a hypothetical 4
ha farm, and determined to be profitable, given adequate farm management and marketing. A
computerized spreadsheet model of protea production in Hawaii enables one to estimate
profitability over a wide range of conditions (Fleming et al. 1991, 1994). The computerized
program is available free by contacting fleming@hawaii.edu.
A variety of protea species have uses within or near their habitat. The seeds of Brabeium
stellatifolium of South Africa are roasted and eaten or used as a coffee substitute. The seeds of
Finschia chloraxantha from New Guinea and Gevuina avellana from South America are eaten by
natives. The timbers of the Australian silky oaks Cardwellia sublimis, Orites excelsa, and
Grevillea robusta are used in furniture and panelling. The Australian Oreocallis wickhami and
Banksia serrata are used for yokes and boat knees, and the wood of B. verticillata for railway
carriages and furniture. Hakea leucopteris and H. vittata wood is used for smoking pipes. The
barks of Faurea saligna and Leucospermum conocarpum are used for tanning leather in South
Africa. Species reported to have medicinal uses are Faurea speciosa for ear drops (root and leaf
extract), and F. saligna to treat dysentery and diarrhea (root extract). Most protea flowers are of
value to apiarists for their abundant nectar production (Rao 1971).
PROTEA
Protea is a large genus with 136 species of which 70 are distributed in the southern hemisphere
temperate zones and the balance distributed in southern hemisphere sub-tropical to tropical zones,
with 3 extending above the equator into the northern tropics (Rao 1971). Of the 117 species native
to the African continent, 82 are from South Africa (Vogts 1982). A recent account of Protea
species in Southern Africa lists 90 species and numerous subspecies (Robelo 1995). Linnaeus
named the genus Protea in 1735 after the Greek god Proteus, who, according to legend, was able
to transform his shape and appearance into numerous animate and inanimate forms at will (Robelo
1995). It was from the name Protea that the family name Proteaceae was assigned by the French
botanist Jussieu (Rousseau 1970).
The natural habitat of Protea ranges in elevation from sea level to over 2000 m. In South Africa a
rich diversity of species inhabit the well-drained, moderately-acid, low fertility, granite soils from
Cape Town to the Table Mountain areas up to 1300 m (Parvin et al. 1973).
The genus is characterized by large bracts, often brightly colored, surrounding a composite type
flower. The bracts are smooth or pubescent, with many species having bracts fringed with a dark
"fur" lending a tactile as well as visual appeal. The range of colors includes red, pink, yellow,
white, and occasionally green (Watson and Parvin 1973). The most widely recognized species in
the genus is Protea cynaroides, the King Protea, the national flower of South Africa. It has flower
heads up to 30 cm across, with widely spaced bracts arranged around a peak of flowers that vary in
color from near white to soft silvery-pink to deep rose pink to crimson, in a few selected cultivars.
Many natural variants of P. cynaroides can be placed into three South African ecotypes. Those
from the eastern cape and southern coastal plain have long leaves on long stems that terminate
with relatively small but wide-open flower heads. They are very attractive but difficult to pack.
The plants are vigorous and bear 10 to 20 heads per plant. Variants from the Outeniqua mountains
region bear large bowl-shaped rose colored flower heads on thick stems. The heads are more easily
packed because the bracts do not flare out. Average flower head yield is five to eight per plant. The
variants from the Western Cape region are slow growing and average only about four heads per
plant, but are described by Vogts (1980) as beautifully goblet-shaped. A miniature form of P.
cynaroides, with flower heads the size of a typical pincushion protea, offers much promise for
expanded florist use of this species. Protea cynaroides generally show good resistance to
Phytophthora root rot (von Broembsen and Brits 1986).
Several clonal selections of P. neriifolia are grown commercially for their prolific production of
fall and winter blooms. The plant becomes a large shrub with foliage resembling that of oleander.
Flower heads range in color from light pink to rose to dark red, with some white selections known.
Some selections have silvery hairs subtending tufts of black hairs at the bract tips. Plants of 20
years age have been reported to bear commercial quality flowers (Vogts 1980). This species also
shows good resistance to Phytophthora root rot (von Broembsen and Brits 1986).
The grey-leaf sugarbush, P. laurifolia (formerly P. marginata), is similar to P. neriifolia for many
characteristics, although their natural distributions do not overlap and natural hybrids between the
two do not occur. To the non-taxonomist, foliage characteristics may be the most distinguishing
feature between the two species. The leaves of P. laurifolia are grey-green to blue-green, elliptic
and broader than the bright green leaves of P. neriifolia (Vogts 1982). If left unmanaged, P.
neriifolia will grow to become an erect shrub 3 m tall while P. laurifolia will become an 8 m tall
tree (Robelo 1995).
Protea magnifica, the Queen protea, is somewhat susceptible to Phytophthora (von Broembsen
and Brits 1986) but is still grown for its large 15 to 20 cm flower heads of white to rose pink to
salmon colors. Many cultivars have black-and-blond tufts of hair on the bract margins (Vogts
1980) and are sometimes referred to as woolly-beard protea.
The rose-spoon protea, P. eximia, gets its common name from the long spathulate inner bracts that
are widely splayed and easily distinguish this large flowered species from others (Vogts 1982).
These bracts range in color from pink to orange-brown. Awns extending from the perianth have
purple-black velvety hairs. Plants generally range in height from 2 to 5 m, are sparsely branched,
and flower from early winter through late spring (Robelo 1995). A tall tree-like variant reaches
peak flowering in summer (Vogts 1982).
Long, narrow leaves, and flower heads with pointed bracts characterize P. longifolia. Bract color is
variable from white to pink and green. Plant stature and growth habit are also variable in its native
stands, where many natural hybrids with other Protea species overlapping its range have been
found.
Protea grandiceps, also somewhat susceptible to Phytophthora (von Broembsen and Brits 1986)
comes from high elevation mountainous regions that are snow-covered in winter. It is a slow
growing long-lived plant that bears up to 40 salmon-colored flower heads of 10 to 15 cm. Plants
can be cultivated for more than 20 years (Vogts 1980).
The sugar bush, P. repens, is widely grown commercially for its white to pink to deep red colors
and long flowering season (Vogts 1980). It is another species with good resistance to
Phytophthora root rot and can be used to replant Phytophthora infested fields (von Broembsen and
Brits 1986).
Protea compacta has lanky flower stems on a stiffly upright, sparsely branched shrub that grows to
3.5 m tall. The rich pink bracts, with their light-reflecting fine-hair-fringed margins are longer than
the cup-shaped flower heads. The prominent flower heads, unobscured by foliage, make fine
winter cutflowers (Vogts 1982).
Numerous selections of these and other species, and of naturally occurring hybrids that have been
identified from the South African fynbos, are cultivated by commercial growers. Cuttings of 22
named selections of Protea of South African origin were imported by the University of Hawaii in
1988, propagated, field planted, and evaluated for adaptability and plant growth characteristics at
its Kula Agricultural Research Center on Maui. Yield, seasonality of bloom, and keeping quality
were recorded from 1989 to 1993. The yield and seasonality over a 12 month period (August 1992
through July 1993) of the seven cultivars that produced 30 flowers or more are reported in Table 2.
By careful evaluation of seasonality in localized climates, it is possible to select cultivars to cover
a large portion of the year, although some months may not be well represented (Criley et al. 1996).
Table 2. Yields and seasonality on Maui for selected South African Protea accessions.
Cultivar
Months of flowering
Yield
(12 mo) Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul.
Annette
37
Brenda
210
Cardinal
31
Guerna
86
Heibrech
45
Red Baron
86
Sylvia
66
Protea can be propagated from seed, with the resulting variation expected of cross-pollinated
heterozygous materials. Given the availability of clonal selections, the method of choice among
progressive commercial growers is to propagate from cuttings. Terminal and sub-terminal cuttings
are made from the current season's mature growth. Robust cuttings of 20 to 25 cm in length root
readily, for most cultivars. Longer cuttings may be taken if the grower desires to have lower
branches well above ground level. Removing half of each leaf of long leaf cultivars is a common
practice. An IBA auxin treatment of 4000 to 8000 ppm is beneficial. The rooting medium should
be very well aerated but not allowed to dry. Mixtures of 25% to 50% peat with the balance being
polystyrene or perlite has given good results. Rooting is generally done under standard mistbed
conditions. An approved fungicide sprayed over the cuttings following planting can prevent
infections. Rooting time is variable among species, with P. cynaroides rooting quickly and P.
neriifolia often taking many weeks (Mathews 1981).
When selecting a production site, good soil drainage is the most important requirement for protea
production. Deep soils that allow expanded root development and can store a good supply of water
and nutrients are preferred, but shallow soils can be suitable if drainage is rapid and frequent
irrigation can be provided (Claassens 1981).
Relatively low concentrations of nutrients are required for normal growth of proteas. Most species
react favorably to nitrogen, particularly in the ammonium form, while most are intolerant of
amounts of phosphorus that would be considered moderate for non-proteaceous plants. Protea
plants seem to have a very effective mechanism to scavenge phosphorous from soils with low
phosphorus status (Claassens 1981, 1986).
Cresswell (1991) produced a tissue analysis standard for assessing the appropriate phosphorus
status for two Protea cultivars. Only the desirable ranges are reported in Table 3. Values lower or
higher than those reported here were considered low to deficient or high to toxic, respectively.
Table 3. Desirable ranges of phosphorus in tissues of two Protea cultivars.
Desirable phosphorus (ppm)
Cultivar
Stems
Recently matured leaves Old leaves
Satin Pink 0.190.35
0.190.29
0.210.44
Pink Ice
0.060.27
0.160.46
0.060.29
The recommended developmental stage for harvesting most Protea, to insure market quality and
acceptable postharvest life, is the so-called soft-tip stage when bracts have lost their firmness and
begin to loosen but still cohere (Meynhardt 1976). At this stage, few insects are present because
anthesis has not yet occurred, so there is little to attract them. However, flowers picked too early
will not open (Coetzee and Wright 1991). A serious problem with marketing several species of
Protea is the undesirable discoloration of leaves soon after harvesting. The problem is most
pronounced in P. eximia and P. neriifolia, and their hybrids, and to a lesser extent with P.
compacta and its hybrids (Ferreira 1986; Paull 1988).

Leaf blackening, or browning as it is sometimes called, in Protea is caused by carbohydrate
depletion due primarily to the sugar demand by the inflorescence for nectar production (Dai and
Paull 1995). Low availability of mobile carbohydrates in the leaves, combined with the high
respiratory demand of the inflorescence, resulted in a 70% decline in mobile leaf carbohydrate
levels in P. neriifolia within 24 hours of harvest (Jones et al. 1995). Warm temperatures and low
light in postharvest storage have been correlated with increased rates of leaf blackening (Ferreira
1986). Refrigeration, especially during postharvest storage, packaging, and shipping periods, has a
most significant effect on delaying the onset of leaf blackening (Paull 1988). Refrigeration will
slow respiration, reduce water stress, and slow nectar production by the inflorescence, thereby
conserving carbohydrate reserves in the stem and foliage. A storage and transport temperature of
2 to 5C will help ensure bloom quality and postharvest life (Coetzee and Wright 1991). Pulsing
cut Protea stems in a 1% sucrose solution, or a floral preservative solution, before packing and
especially post-unpacking is an effective treatment to delay the onset of leaf blackening (Brink and
de Swardt 1986; Paull 1988). Another form of leaf browning results from fumigation with methyl
bromide (Coetzee and Wright 1991), which imported shipments are often subjected to if insects
are present. Growers should practice good field sanitation and appropriate postharvest
disinfestation practices prior to packing, so that agriculture inspectors at the receiving end will not
fumigate the shipment.
Natural hybrids within the genus Protea are not an uncommon occurrence where the geographic
ranges of two or more species overlap. Scientists at the Fynbos Research Unit, Elsenburg, South
Africa, have made a collection of such natural hybrids and in most cases have been able to
determine their parentage (Table 4). Some of these meet standards of commercial horticulturists
and have been released to South Africa's protea industry. Dr. Littlejohn, the protea breeder at
Elsenburg, recently initiated a program to produce controlled hybrids in the genus Protea to
further benefit the protea industry.
Table 4. Recent Protea hybrids of South African origin.
Sheila
(P. magnifica P. burchelli)
Venetia
(P. magnifica P. neriifolia)
Pink Duke
(P. compacta P. susannae)
Candida
(P. magnifica P. obtusifolia)
Valentine
(P. cynaroides P. compacta)
King Grand
(P. cynaroides P. grandiceps)
Venus
(P. repens P. aristata)
Liebencherry ( P. repens P. longifoli)

unnamed
(P. cynaroides P. nitida)
unnamed
(P. cynaroides P. repens)
LEUCOSPERMUM
Leucospermum species are evergreen woody perennials with growth habits that range from small
trees to spreading shrubs to prostrate ground covers. The most widely grown species are
floriferous, spreading shrubs on which relatively short-stemmed inflorescences are borne in the
spring. Horticulturists have had to develop management practices to improve stem length and
straightness for their use as cut flowers.
Rourke (1972) and Jacobs (1985) describe the inflorescence as a capitulum that develops from an
axillary rather than a terminal bud, but that appears to arise distally. Inflorescences may be
solitary, as in L. cordifolium, L. lineare, and L. vestitum, or in clusters (conflorescences), as in L.
oleifolium, L. tottum, and L. mundii. The individual florets consist of a perianth formed by four
fused perianth segments, one of which separates from the other three as the flower opens. The
perianth curls back to display a prominent style; the striking appearance of the whole inflorescence
of open flowers resembles a pincushionthus one of the common names is pincushion protea. The
styles, perianth, and involucral bracts may be white, yellow, pink, orange, or red and the
combinations are responsible for the popularity of the pincushion proteas as cutflowers.
Although most of the Leucospermums are indigenous to nutrient-poor, coarse, acidic,
sandstone-derived soils, they seem adaptable to a variety of soil types within a narrow range of pH
and fertility levels. This is evidenced by their culture in several regions of southern Africa,
southern California, Israel, Australia, and in the volcanic soils of Hawaii and the Canary Islands
(Criley 1998).
Propagation of the commercial cultivars of Leucospermum is by cuttings, of which most root
readily. While cuttings can be rooted at almost any physiological stage of development, a preferred
cutting is the recently matured new growth, known as a semi-hardwood cutting (Malan 1992). This
type of material is gathered in autumn after shoot growth terminates.
A tissue culture protocol for Leucospermum was developed using axillary bud explants induced to
proliferate on a basal medium of half-strength Murashige and Skoog inorganic salts supplemented
with sucrose and benzyl adenine (Kunisaki 1989, 1990). Leucospermum Hawaii Gold, propagated
from tissue cultures, is flowering at the Kula Agriculture Research Center and appear identical to
the type cultivar from which the explants were taken.
Grafting is often viewed as a solution to problems of root system adaptation to low or high pH
soils, or soil-borne diseases. The selection of rootstock plays a significant role in improving
adaptability and yield of Leucospermum (Van der Merwe 1985). Grafting onto lime-tolerant
rootstocks, such as L. patersonii, has been recommended as an approach to problems of protea
production on soils of neutral to slightly basic pH (Brits 1984b). The standard grafting technique is
wedge-grafting of leafy semi-hardwood scions onto selected rootstocks (Rousseau 1966; Vogts et
al. 1976). Cutting grafts, where the graft union develops while the cutting roots, is also
recommended (Brits 1990b). Brits (1990c), in screening 19 species and several hybrids for their
potential as rootstocks, determined that L. 'Spider' (a primary hybrid of L. formosum L. tottum)
has a degree of tolerance to Phytophthora cinnamomi. Leucospermum 'Spider' is presently being
used as a rootstock by several commercial producers in South Africa. Leucospermum saxosum has
also been determined to have low susceptibility to Phytophthora (Moffat and Turnbull 1994), and
a selection of L. patersonii, designated 'Nemastrong', has tolerance to nematodes (Ackerman et al.

1995). Such rootstocks may have the potential to expand and increase yields of plantings where
Phytophthora and nematodes are a problem.
The production period for Leucospermum is late winter to late spring. Parvin (1974) reported that
65% to 75% of the total crop of L. cordifolium 'Hawaiian Sunburst' was harvested from Dec.
through Feb. in Hawaii. They are also high yielding. During a three-year study, beginning with
6-year-old plants, the per plant yields averaged 600 to 650 flowers.
Research on postharvest handling practices has shown that the pincushion protea will tolerate cool,
dry, long-term storage and still provide a useful vaselife. L. cordifolium flowers that were cooled
and hydrated at 1C in water, wrapped in newsprint and bagged in plastic film withstood periods
of three and four weeks at 1C storage, and after rehydration, possessed an average vaselife of 8
days (Jones and Faragher 1990). Downs and Reihana (1986) found significant varietal differences
in vaselife following a period of simulated transport, with the New Zealand cultivar 'Harry
Chittick' at 35.5 days, a Hawaii hybrid of L. lineare L. cordifolium at 29.7 days, and 'Veldfire', a
South African hybrid at 16.9 days.
Parvin (1978) improved vaselife with 2% to 4% sucrose plus 200 to 600 ppm hydroxyquinoline
citrate solutions. Silver nitrate at 1000 ppm did not benefit cultivars of L. cordifolium but
improved vaselife for the hybrid L. 'Hawaii Gold' (Parvin and Leonhardt 1982). Criley investigated
revival of wilted flowers with extruded styles, in order to increase packing densities for export
shipments. Flowers pulsed with a preservative prior to partial dehydration (20% loss of FW) and
storage (24 h at 13C) could be revived, although vaselife was not as long as with fresh cut flowers
(Criley et al. 1978a,b). Flowers cut in bud (7 cm diam.) offered better promise, with full
development and less loss of vaselife than flowers cut at a younger stage (Criley et al. 1978a;
Parvin and Leonhardt 1982).
While a number of Proteaceae may be grown as potted plants, the Leucospermums, with their
relative ease of rooting and attractive floral display, have the greatest potential (Sacks and
Resendiz 1996). Criley (1998) reported that budded cuttings flowered soon after rooting, adding
confirmation to their potential as potted plants, and proposed that stock plants be manipulated to
achieve stronger branches for this use.
Research on photoperiod responsiveness of Leucospermum (Wallerstein 1989; Malan and Jacobs
1990) indicates that daylength manipulation may have implications for potted flowering plant
production. High light intensity was shown to be necessary for flowering (Jacobs and Minnaar
1980; Napier and Jacobs 1989; Ackerman et al. 1995) and to promote rapid rooting of cuttings.
Leucospermum species suitable for potted plants are of two types: those having a single large
inflorescence, such as L. cordifolium, L. lineare, and L. tottum; and those with small multiple
inflorescences (conflorescences) such as L. oleifolium, L. muirii, and L. mundii (Brits et al. 1992;
Ackerman et al. 1995; Brits 1995a). It is important to select material that will root rapidly and
support flower initiation and development on a young root system (Ackermen and Brits 1991;
Brits et al. 1992).
Although the genus Leucospermum consists of 48 species (Rourke 1972), little genetic
improvement through hybridization has taken place until relatively recently. Jacobs (1985)
reported that only a few species were utilized as cut flowers (L. cordifolium, L. patersonii, L.
lineare, L. conocarpodendron, L. vestitum), but that natural and man-made interspecific hybrids
exist as clonal selections. Collection and introduction of natural interspecific hybrids has occurred
(Brits and van den Berg 1991), and controlled crosses were made between species in efforts to
produce later flowering, improve color and shape, and to introduce tolerance to Phytophthora
cinniamomi (Brits 1992a). Today, active breeding programs are being conducted at the Fynbos
Research Station, Elsenburg, South Africa (Brits 1992a,b; Littlejohn et al. 1995) and at the Maui
Agricultural Research Station of the University of Hawaii (Ito et al. 1978, 1979, 1990; Leonhardt
et al. 1995), and in Israel (Shchori et al. 1995).
As of the fourth edition of the International Protea Register (International Registration Authority:
Proteas 1997), 30 cultivar names have been registered and another 58 have been noted but not
registered for selections and interspecific hybrids (Criley 1998). Among the hybrids registered,
only three are advanced hybrids (having more than two species in their genealogy). These hybrids,
developed and registered by the University of Hawaii, are:
L. 'Rachel', with parentage (L. lineare L. vestitum) L. glabrum
L. 'Hawaii Moon', with parentage (L. lineare L. cordifolium) L. conocarpodendron
L. 'Kathryn', with parentage (L. lineare L. cordifolium) L. conocarpodendron
The criteria for developing new Leucospermum cultivars must consider the needs of growers,
handlers, retailers, and consumers. The criteria developed for the Hawaii breeding program
includes disease resistance, earliness to flower, an extended flowering season, long slender and
straight stems, slender leaves, reduced leaf pubescence, ease of propagation, high yields, good
postharvest characteristics, new and improved colors, and market acceptance (Leonhardt et al.
1995). Leaf and stem characteristics, and disease resistance are given emphasis.
Many commercial Leucospermum cultivars are bulky, heavy, and cumbersome to pack due to large
stem diameters and large heavy-textured leaves. These are undesirable characteristics, particularly
to exporters, because freight charges are based on a formula that considers cubic dimensions and
weight of the box. A densely packed, light-weight box reduces the per-bloom freight charge and
allows exporters to compete more favorably in overseas markets. The species L. lineare, and
particularly the selection L. lineare 'Starlight', has slender, light-weight yet strong stems with
narrow, nearly needle-like foliage. Breeding has demonstrated that these characteristics are
heritable and that L. lineare hybrids have improved leaf and stem characteristics. Leucospermum
lineare is also free of foliar pubescence. Foliar pubescence attracts and retains moisture, which
provides an environment for fungal spore germination and infection (Leonhardt et al. 1995).
The most important diseases occurring on protea in Hawaii are root and collar rots caused by
Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. nicotianae, and Cylindrocladium sp., stem and leaf scab caused by
Sphaceloma (Elsinoe) sp., leaf spots and blights caused by Drechslera biseptata and D.
dematioidea, leaf spec caused by Alternaria alternata, and root knot galls caused by Meloidogyne
incognita, the root-knot nematode (Nagata and Ferreira 1993). Root-knot nematodes can severely
limit growth and productivity of Leucospermum. Heavily infected plants show stunting and
chlorosis, followed by death of the plant (Cho et al. 1976; Cho and Apt 1977). Wu reported that
this nematode can reduce cut flower yields by at least 25% in infected fields compared to
fumigated fields (Wu et al. 1978).

The Hawaii breeding program has utilized ten species and numerous F1, F2, and F3 hybrids to
produce seedling populations that are evaluated for disease resistance and other horticultural
characteristics (Leonhardt et al. 1995). Some of the parental materials are used for very specific
purposes. A selection of L. saxosum for example, was determined to be immune to Sphaceloma
(Elsinoe scab disease) (Nagata et al. 1995) and has been used to impart resistance into commercial
hybrids. Among hybrids, L. 'Rachel' has demonstrated a good level of resistance to Sphaceloma,
and has also shown a good level of resistance to two isolates causing Botrytis blight and moderate
resistance to two isolates causing Drechslera blight. The hybrid L. 'Ka Hoku Hawaii' (Hawaii
Star), L. cordifolium (L. lineare L. vestitum), and the unnamed hybrids No. 36, L. lineare [L.
conocarpodendron (L. lineare L. cordifolium)], and No. 49, [L. conocarpodendron (L.
lineare L. cordifolium)] L. cordifolium 'Sweet Lemon', have shown a good level of resistance
to both Drechslera isolates. The hybrids L. 'Pohaka La Hawaii' (Hawaii Sunbeam), (L. lineare L.
glabrum), and No. 36 have shown a good level of resistance to Botrytis isolates (Nagata et al.
1995; Leonhardt et al. 1995).
Commercial producers in Hawaii compete in North American markets with California producers.
The flowering season for Leucospermum begins several weeks earlier in Hawaii than in California.
Producers in Hawaii could enjoy this advantage for a longer period if earlier flowering cultivars
could be developed. The species L. patersonii and L. pluridens are among the earliest-flowering,
and are being used in breeding for that quality. Two accessions of L. pluridens (L. lineare L.
cordifolium) flower earlier at the Maui Agriculture Research Station than the hybrid parent
(Leonhardt et al. 1995).
LEUCADENDRON
The South African genus Leucadendron contains about 60 species, collectively referred to as the
conebushes. They are easily identified since they are dioecious, having plants of separate male and
female sexes. Both sexes have terminal flowerheads. Female plants produce woody cones
containing fruits and seeds while male plants do not produce cones. The cones on female plants
consist of spirally arranged floral bracts which partially cover the cone. Male plants are often
larger and more heavily branched and may have smaller leaves than female plants (Robelo 1995).
As with most Proteaceae, the Leucadendrons grow best in areas with light, well-drained soils with
low concentrations of dissolved salts, an adequate supply of fresh water, temperatures in the range
of 7C to 27C, and frequent if not regular light winds. Leucadendrons require an acid soil with a
pH not exceeding 5.0. Sandy soils with some humus provide the best growing medium (Vogts
1980).
Several species are cultivated commercially for their decorative foliage, including L. argenteum, L.
discolor, L. galpinii, L. laureolum, L. salicifolium, L. salignum, L. tinctum, and L. uliginosum.
Leucadendron argenteum, the 'Silver Tree', can grow to a 8 m tall tree if left unmanaged. Its leaves
are grey-green with abundant fine satiny silver hairs that glisten in sunlight. It is grown for its
long-lasting cut foliage, and also makes an attractive landscape plant. Its natural habitat is arid, and
in cultivation it will succumb to overwatering, soil fungi, and nematodes. Leucadendron discolor,
harvested in winter and spring, ranges in color from light to dark green to yellow to red, and is a
spreading bush up to 1.5 m high. Leucadendron laureolum is chartreuse to bright yellow when
flowering in winter and spring while L. salignum (formerly L. adscendens) is bright red, becoming
more intensely colored as temperatures decrease. A particularly outstanding cultivar is the female
selection L. salignum 'Safari Sunset'. Leucadendron uliginosum has elegant, slender shoots
covered with numerous shiny, silvery leaves (Vogts 1980, Kepler 1988).
The genetic variation in Leucadendron is vast and largely untapped for breeding purposes
(Littlejohn et al. 1995), although a few hybrids have been introduced to the commercial trade,
mostly from South Africa. Hybrids cultivated by commercial growers include L. 'Silvan Red' and
L. 'Inca Gold', both (L. laureolum L. salignum), L. 'Kam-ee-lion' (L. salignum L.
eucalyptifolium), and the recent South African introduction L. 'Rosette' (L. laureolum L.
elimense ssp. salterii), which can be harvested as a green, yellow, or red-brown product,
depending on the season (Littlejohn et al. 1998).
In addition to their highly colorful, easily packaged, long and long-lasting cut stems, a
characteristic of many Leucadendrons that makes them commercially important is their potential
for very high yields. Pruned and managed L. 'Silvan Red', in a 3 year study at 3 locations averaged
265 marketable stems per plant per year (Barth et al. 1996). This cultivar can be harvested in the
fall as a red-foliaged stem, and in the winter as a tricolor stem with yellow, red, and green foliar
bracts. Leucadendron 'Safari Sunset', a selection of New Zealand origin, is probably the most
widely grown commercial cultivar, with extensive plantings in Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, and Israel. The erect bushy plant is vigorous and fast growing. Its deep wine-colored bracts
have excellent keeping quality, lasting up to 60 days (Tija 1986). Dr. Ben-Jaacov, in his
presentation at the International Protea Association Conference in Cape Town in 1998 reported
that 'Safari Sunset', under intensive management in Israel, has given yields in excess of 600,000
marketable stems per hectare per year. Recent research in South Africa compared L. 'Rosette' with
L. 'Safari Sunset' for yield and stem length. In the third harvest year L. 'Rosette' yielded 44.5 stems
per plant with 20 stems 80 cm or longer while L. 'Safari Sunset' yielded 37.0 stems per plant with
10 stems 80 cm or longer (Littlejohn et al. 1998). Both cultivars are exceptional commercial
materials.
Although more widely known as commercial cut foliages and landscape plants, Leucadendrons
can be grown as colorful potted "flowering" plants. The male L. discolor 'Sunset' naturally flowers
profusely in early spring with colorful flower-heads. Israeli research has demonstrated that
flowering potted plants of 'Sunset' can be produced in 35 months by rooting large branched
cuttings with initiated flowers. The basal stems of branched 15 cm long cuttings were dipped in a
4,000 ppm IBA solution prior to sticking in a styrofoam/peat medium under intermittent mist and
25% reduced natural light. Rooting began in 4 weeks. The stage of development of the
flower-head at rooting was critical for the cutting's further development into a flowering potted
plant. If not fully initiated as floral buds, the meristem aborted or reverted to the vegetative state.
However, when cuttings were taken at the right stage of floral initiation, colorful flowering potted
plants were produced in 35 months. Conventional technology for producing potted flowering
plants of L. discolor by rooting small unbranched vegetative cuttings, growing them to the
appropriate size, retarding them chemically, and bringing them to flower, would take 2 years or
longer (Ben-Jaacov et al., 1986). The potential for using this technology to produce attractive
Leucadendron flowering potted plants for the commercial nursery trade is significant.
BANKSIA
The fourth largest export wildflower crop of Australia (Sedgley 1996), the genus Banksia is named
for the famous botanist, Sir Joseph Banks. Seventy-six taxa have been described under 2
sub-genera, 3 sections, and 13 series (Sedgley 1998). Banksia are evergreen, woody perennials
with growth habits that range from prostrate ground-huggers to trees. Most of the species are
found in the south-west with the remainder along the southern and eastern coasts and tablelands.
Nearly all have ornamental features that confer horticultural potential, whether as fresh or dried cut
flowers, cut foliages, or in the landscape (Elliott and Jones 1982; Joyce 1998; Parvin et al. 1973;
Sedgley 1998; Wrigley and Fagg 1996).
Species widely grown for cut flowers and foliages are shown in Table 5. The most popular cut
flower types bear their cylindrical flower spikes terminally, but a few terminal-flowering
selections have been made of axillary bearers (Sedgely 1998). Some species produce attractive
flowerheads upright on horizontal branches and would need considerable management to be
suitable for the commercial markets. Although many commercial plantings are produced from seed
and show considerable variability, progress has been made in cultivar development (Fuss and
Sedgley 1991; Sedgley et al. 1991; Sedgley 1991, 1995a,b,c,d).
Table 5. Some Banksia species suitable for cut flower or cut foliage production. Sources: Parvin et
al. 1973; Elliot and Jones 1982; Salinger 1985; Sedgley 1998.
Banksia species Cut flower Cut foliage
ashbyi
baxteri
burdettii
coccinea
ericifolia
grandis
hookeriana
integrifolia
menziesii
occidentalis
prionotes
speciosa
victoriae
Concurrent with these developments is a need to improve the vegetative propagation systems, as
cutting propagation often results in development of a large knob of callus (Hocking 1976). Cutting
propagation yields variable results, but the use of intermittent mist (allowing some drying between
cycles) and auxin stimulates better root development on semi-hardwood terminal cuttings (Bennell
and Barth 1986; Sedgley 1995c). Grafting onto various disease resistant species such as B. robur
and B. spinulosa offers some promise, but additional research is needed to establish successful
techniques and timing and to determine compatibility relationships and tolerance to stresses. It is
necessary to avoid rootstocks that form lignotubers as these may sucker and compete with the
scion (Elliott and Jones 1982). Cutting grafts have been successful with a few species (Elliot and
Jones 1982).
Seed germination is reliable, but not for the hybrids, and seed supplies are limited. Banksia seed is
produced in a hard follicle that often requires heat or heat followed by immersion in water to cause
it to open. Seedlings are susceptible to damping off and should be germinated in a sterile
well-drained medium. Germination requires 21 to 90 days at 2025C (Elliot and Jones 1982).
The optimum medium temperature can range from a constant 10 to 25C or fluctuate by 10 to
15C (Bennell and Barth 1986). Transplanting is done as soon as the seedling is large enough to
handle.
All species grow best in light, sandy soils of acid pH. They are adapted to soils of low fertility, but
benefit from a supply of calcium and application of nitrogen, potassium and iron (Sedgley 1996,
1998). Like other Proteaceae banksias tend to be intolerant to high levels of phosphorus which
interfere with iron uptake (Handreck 1991). In cultivation, pruning is necessary to remove shoots
that will not flower and to encourage development of shoots with sufficient diameter to initiate the
inflorescence (Fuss et al. 1992; Sedgley and Fuss 1992; Rohl et al. 1994; Sedgely 1996).
Sedgley (1996, 1998) notes that there has been little published research on postharvest care of cut
Banksia. Sucrose pulses did not improve the 15 days vase life of B. coccinea (Delaporte et al.
1997), and anti-bacterials such as 0.01% chlorine, acidifiers such as 0.01% citric acid, and 0.02%
aluminum sulfate have been recommended as a matter of course, but without verified results
(Sedgely 1996).
GREVILLEA
A large genus (more than 340 species) of shrubs and trees from dry sclerophyll forests and heaths
in Australia (5 species are found in New Caledonia, Sulewesi, and Papua New Guinea), grevilleas
have many ornamental uses, especially in landscapes. Growth habits of the most popular species
range from prostrate ground covers to mounded shrubs. Some have unusual, asymmetric, or
layered habits. A tree form, Grevillea robusta, flourishes in sub-tropic climates and has potential
as an invasive species because of its abundant seed production.
Grevillea have been in cultivation outside of Australia for over 200 years, with the earliest record
of introduction of 3 species to England in 1791 and another 15 species in the 1820s (Elliot and
Jones 1990). Nurseries in New Zealand and California also grow a wide range of species for
landscape uses. As these locations and their native habitats suggest, many grevillea are frost and
cold tolerant to 4C (Elliot and Jones 1990). Drought tolerance is another quality to recommend
many species in areas with dry summers.
Grevillea inflorescences are mostly toothbrush-like clusters, about 5 to 12 cm in length, and
running the color gamut from white and greenish through yellow, orange, purplish, and red, and
include some multi-colored forms. Other inflorescence categories include upright spider-like,
pendant, or terminal cylindrical clusters. Some have very strong aromas while others are pleasant
and sweet. Flowering tends to be seasonal, depending upon moisture, temperature, and daylength.
Flowering is strongest in sunny locations and diminished in shade (Wrigley and Fagg 1996). There
are also reports of skin irritation and rash from handling some prickly as well as non-prickly
species.
While a number of hybrid grevilleas and more tropical species have been selected for large
colorful inflorescences (Tully 1977), they are not widely marketed as cut flowers because of short
vaselife and a tendency for floret abscission. Although the best can achieve a vase life of 7 to 10
days following cutting, production is said to be low (Olde and Marriott 1995). They are also
alleged to be difficult to pack. The potential for their use is good if the problems can be overcome
through the use of postharvest treatments, improved packaging, and breeding and selection (Joyce
et al. 1996). A sugar, 2% citric acid, and bleach mixture has been recommended for home use,
together with maintaining turgor by placing the cut stems in water.
Grevillea foliage displays a wide range of textures, colors, and shapes. The textures and shapes
range from deeply divided, fern-like and fishbone-like leaves to entire or broadly-lobed shapes and
pinnately-divided and regularly toothed and holly-like foliage. Colors range from silver-grey to
dark glossy green. Many species have attractive undersurface of silver or bronze indumentum.
These elements contribute to their value as landscape plantings, but also to their use as cut
foliages. Cut as a growth flush matures, the foliage may last 30 days in water or commercial floral
preservatives (Parvin 1991; Criley and Parvin 1993). It is this use that has potential in the
floriculture trade. Management practices for cut foliage production need to be developed.
Potted grevillea plants have wide acceptance for patio and garden use both because of their foliage
and flowers. They are easily rooted and managed, both by pruning and with growth regulators
(Ben-Jaacov et al. 1989). The development of tissue culture techniques enables greater availability
of attractive, but difficult-to-root cultivars such as 'Robyn Gordon' (Gorst et al. 1978, Watad et al.
1992). Several potted grevilleas have been introduced into the trade by Israel producers
(Ben-Jaacov et al. 1989).
Grevillea may be propagated by seed, cuttings, layers, grafting, and tissue culture. Propagation by
cuttings is said to be easy with mid to late summer matured growth (Wrigley and Fagg 1996). A
Hawaii study indicated that quick dips in liquid auxin formulations (2000 to 4000 ppm) applied to
terminal or immediately sub-terminal growth gave satisfactory results in 5 to 6 weeks (Groesbeck
and Rauch 1985). Commercial liquid and powder auxin formulations provided good rooting for a
number of species. Bottom heat of 29C with no auxin stimulated 90% take on older wood of G.
'Robyn Gordon' (Dupee and Clemens 1981). Interesting landscape forms have been produced by
approach-grafting weeping or prostrate forms onto rootstocks of G. robusta (Crossen 1990) or G.
banksii or G. 'Poorinda Royal Mantle'(Wrigley and Fagg 1996). The cleft graft was reported
successful as well (Dupee and Clemens 1981). However, it is recommended that a healthy top bud
be left near the cut to prevent dieback below the graft (Elliot and Jones 1990). Air layering is
reported as regularly successful (Tully 1977). Seed germination is enhanced by a presoak in 0.2%
potassium nitrate for 1224 hours, sowing in a sandy medium, and subjecting the seed to
alternating warm (2533C) temperatures (Heslehurst 1977). Germination required 4 to 5 weeks.
Scarification or seedcoat removal also improves germination (Dupee and Clemens 1981).
More than one-half of the species have been tried in horticulture because of their wide adaptability
to a range of soil conditions (Molyneux 1978). Many of the Western Australia species are found
on infertile, non-calcareous soils, sands, and leached lateritic soils. Many of the eastern species can
be found in clay or clay-loam soils. A few inhabit deserts or rainforests, and some tolerate slightly
saline or alkaline soils (Elliot and Jones 1990; Olde and Marriott 1995). Many of the Western
Australian species are not demanding of substrate as long as it is well-drained, although there are a
few that will even tolerate poor drainage (Olde and Marriott 1995). While they respond to good
fertility, high nutrient levels, especially phosphorus, are not required. Controlled release
fertilization with careful attention to the form provided is recommended (Bowden 1987).
Longevity under well-fertilized conditions appears to be a problem, especially where the plants are
also well-watered (Specht 1978). However healthy 10 to 15 year old plants can be found. These
have generally benefited from regular pruning (Elliot and Jones 1990). Phytophthora cinnamomi is
very devastating to grevilleas (Molyneux 1978).
ISOPOGON
Isopogon is native to temperate Australian regions, with the main distribution in southwestern
Australia. Many are coastal or near-coastal in habitat and grow in well-drained, highly-leached
sandy or lateritic soils and gravels or clay loams. They range from sea level to moderate altitudes
and cope with a wide temperature range down to 7C, where damage occurs. Full sun is the
preferred light environment, but some tolerate semi-shade (Elliot and Jones 1990).
They offer some interesting, hardy plant materials for the landscape, and possibly for the cutflower
trade. Most of the 35 described species are temperate zone shrubs of 1 to 2.5 m tall, but a few can
grow into small trees (Foreman 1997). Most species are small to medium-sized shrubs while others
are dwarf, spreading undershrubs. A number of species are adapted to container culture.
Cone- or drumstick-shaped flower clusters, of white to yellow to pink to mauve, are borne
terminally or in the upper leaf axils. Flowering is chiefly in the spring months. A few species have
good vase life and are grown commercially in Australia. Among species with cutflower potential
are the winter-flowering I. cuneatus, and spring-flowering I. latifolius and I. formosus (Salinger
1985; Elliot and Jones 1990; Foreman 1997). While their cones are decorative, the scales are often
shed with the seed.
Seed is not plentiful because it is often lost when the scales dehisce from the cone. Fresh seed,
sown shallowly in a moist medium, germinates in 20 to 90 days. One pregermination
recommendation is to lightly singe the seed with a flame (Elliot and Jones 1990). Cutting
propagation is usually successful when aided by hormone rooting powders.
In culture, controlled release fertilizers with a low phosphorus content are recommended.
Established plants are fairly drought tolerant, and over-watering contributes to loss of plants
because the wet conditions favor Phytophthora cinnamomi infection. Tip pruning following
flowering stimulates bushy growth. Species with lignotubers tolerate severe pruning.
DRYANDRA
These Australian natives (120 species) have a variable growth habit, ranging from prostrate shrubs
to small trees. Foliage characteristics range from soft and needlelike to tough and prickly. The
flowerhead resembles a shaving brush surrounded by basal bracts. Flower colors are mainly in the
yellow to orange to bronze shades. Their potential as cutflowers needs further evaluation, but some
species, such as D. formosa, dry nicely and could be added to this niche market (Joyce 1998).
Among the recommended cut flower species are D. formosa, D. praemorsa, and D. quercifolia
(Elliot and Jones 1984). Many species have foliage so spiny that they are not suitable for floral
purposes (Salinger 1985).
Propagation is generally by sowing fresh or stored seed into a well-drained, loose medium;
however, seed-feeding insects often render viable seed scarce (Elliot and Jones 1984).
Pregermination treatments do not seem necessary (Cavanaugh 1994). Germination times range
from 3 weeks to 3 months with an average of 5 to 8 weeks. Transplanting can be done fairly early,
when seedlings have attained 5075 mm in height. Cutting and grafting propagation successes
have been reported for some species (Cavanaugh 1994), but neither practice is widely used.
Softwood cuttings taken during winter and treated with rooting hormones have yielded some
success (Elliot and Jones 1984).
Their native habitats include lateritic gravel, sandy, or granitic soils, always well-drained (Elliot
and Jones 1984). Once established, they are said to be more drought tolerant than Banksia species
(Elliot and Jones, 1984). Many species are fairly cold tolerant, tolerating light frosts or short-lived
snowfalls. Cultural conditions for success include full sun, good drainage, and good air circulation.
As with other Proteaceae, low fertility is adequate and high phosphorus levels are to be avoided.
Chlorosis is a problem on some soils and may be countered with weak iron chelate drenches. A
few species are recommended as container plants: D. ferruginea, D. polycephala, and D. speciosa
(Elliot and Jones 1984).
TELOPEA
Five species of Telopea have been described, and a number of hybrids have been released (Dennis
1991; Nixon and Payne 1996; Wrigley and Fagg 1996). They are native to acid, infertile,
well-drained soils in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. As small trees or managed
shrubs, they have both landscape value and commercial cutflower use. All species produce
terminal, brilliant to rose red (occasional pink, white or yellow) inflorescences up to 15 cm in
diameter on stems of up to 1 m length. The florets are arranged spirally on elongated cones
subtended by an involucre of similarly colored bracts. Telopea speciosissima and T. oreades are
the principal species for commercial flower production. Unlike other proteas, there is little by-pass
by lower shoots. Plants tend to be upright and vigorous.
The most important species, T. speciosissima is known as the waratah and is the floral emblem of
New South Wales, Australia. Although blooms were originally wild-collected, commercial
production has increased in Australia as well as in New Zealand, US (Hawaii), Israel, and South
Africa (Offord 1996). Australian production has been reported at 20,000 to 50,000 stems/ha five
years after establishment in high density plantings (Worrall 1994), with annual production
estimated at 0.6 to 1.7 million stems (Worrall, cited in Offord 1996). The plants are long-lived and
capable of production for many years with good management.
While telopeas occur in woodland situations, they flower best in full sun or light shade. Flowering
occurs in spring to early summer, but the bloom period is only 4 to 5 weeks duration. Choice of
location can influence flowering time as can selection of hybrids (Matthews 1993; Offord 1996).
Floral display life is about 7 to 13 days (Dennis 1991) and browning of the bracts can be a
problem. The inflorescence is usually harvested before all florets have matured, and is discarded
when one-third have turned blue-red (Faragher 1986). Vase life could be extended 3 to 5 days by
harvesting when only the first cycle of flowers has matured, by the use of 5% sucrose and a
germicidal compound in the water, and by refrigerating the cut flowers at 2C after hydration (Lill
and Dennis 1986). Ethylene does not appear to be a critical factor in senescence (Faragher 1986).
Selection for lack of bract browning and low nectar production is a consideration in developing
commercial types (Salinger 1981).
Telopea are readily propagated from fresh seed with germination occurring in 2.54 weeks at 25C
(Worrall 1994; Wrigley and Fagg 1996). Seed can be stored at room temperature for 6 months and
for at least 2 years at 5C (Worrall 1994; Offord 1996).
Semi-hardwood terminal cuttings (20 cm length with 56 leaves) of T. speciosissima, treated with
2000 to 4000 ppm IBA as a quick basal dip rooted with success rates of 50 to 75% after 8 weeks
(Worrall 1976). A talc dust of 0.3% IBA is also satisfactory. Bottom heat of 24C enhances
rooting as does intermittent mist (Worrall 1994). Response varied with season, and cuttings from
actively growing mother plants responded better to the low levels of IBA than to cuttings taken in
winter from dormant plants. Leaf bud cuttings have been used to increase selected plants when
propagative material is limited (Ellyard and Butler 1985). Tissue culture has been successful as
well (Seelye et al. 1986; Offord and Campbell 1992; Offord et al. 1992).
Telopea culture requires well-drained soils, full sun, and freedom from frost. While their native
soils are deep sands, they also thrive on well-drained basaltic clays (Offord 1996). Water
requirements are high during summer flower bud initiation. Established plants tolerate a
temperature range from 3 to 24C. Plants are spaced at 1.5 to 3 m in rows with 3 m between rows
(Dennis 1991). Pruning at or soon after harvest is practiced to encourage new stems of suitable
length for cutflowers in the next season. Rejuvenation pruning is practiced periodically to reduce
plant height and encourage production of longer stems (Worral 1994). Pot culture is also possible,
but the lignotuber produced by the plants requires a fairly large container (Offord 1996). Potting
media need to be well-drained with a pH of 5.5 and low phosphorus content.
SERRURIA
Like many other South African proteas, the genus Serruria (50 species) occur in well-drained
nutrient-poor soils of the winter-rainfall area (1000 mm) of the Cape Floral Kingdom of South
Africa. Their distribution is limited to small, specific localities within this region (Rebelo 1995),
and many are endangered because of loss of habitat (Worth and van Wilgen 1988).
The serrurias are small shrubs (prostrate habit to 2 m tall) with fine, feathery foliage and
prominent, white to pink bracts subtending the individual flowers borne multiply on one to 11
capitula. Commonly called spiderheads in their native South Africa, serruria inflorescences may be
solitary or consist of clusters of small flowerheads. The principal species in commercial culture are
S. florida (Blushing Bride) and S. rosea and their hybrids.
The cutflower serrurias tend to be upright growers. The globose flowerheads range from 3 to 5.5
cm in diameter but appear larger because of the bracts. Flowering occurs in the late winter to early
spring, and is known to be stimulated by the long days of the preceding summer and fall (Malan
and Brits 1990). Initiation and early development required about 6 weeks and another 10 weeks
was required to reach anthesis. Little work has been reported on improving vase life, which is
about 7 to 10 days following cutting. The flowers also dry well (Matthews and Carter 1993).
Serruria potted plants have good floral display qualities and can be produced in less than one year
(Malan and Brits 1990). Cuttings should be taken during the high light, long days of early spring
and summer as induced cuttings taken in the fall had low rooting percentages (Ackerman et al.
1995). The flowering period ranges from 30 to 55 days under outdoor conditions. Short durations
of darkness as in shipping are not damaging to the post-harvest life of potted plants. Growth
retardants such as paclobutrazol inhibit shoot elongation, while ethephon increases branching and
branch angle (Brits 1995).
Propagation of serrurias to establish desirable clones is by mainly by cuttings. Ten weeks is
required for acceptable rooting, but up to 20 weeks may be required if cuttings are taken during
late fall or winter. Cutting bases are dipped for 10 seconds into a potassium salt formulation of
IBA at the rate of 4000 mg/L (Ackerman et al. 1995). Techniques to establish and proliferate
Serruria in vitro have been reported, but the rooting of plantlets from such cultures was not
described (Ben-Jaacov and Jacobs 1995). Seed is reportedly long-lived and germinates in response
to soil temperature fluctuations following clearing of the understory by fire (Brits 1986a; Worth
and Wilgen 1988), but soaking in 1% hydrogen peroxide has been shown to stimulate germination
in the laboratory (Brits 1986b).
MIMETES
Known as the Pagoda flowers in their native South Africa, Mimetes species bear large terminal
flowerheads containing smaller headlets (capitula) bearing few to many flowers. Leaves and bracts
subtending these headlets are often brightly colored and may curl around to clasp the flowers.
Some species in the Silver Pagoda group bear silvery hairs, making them attractive for this
character rather than for colored bracts.
Most of the 13 species of Mimetes are rare and found in isolated habitats of the south and
southwestern Cape (Rourke 1984), frequently at high elevations in low to moderate rainfall areas.
Most are found on sandstone-derived soils, but a few are found in moist peaty soils along marshes
and swamps (Rebelo 1995). Coastal species such as M. cucullatus also withstand salt winds.
Repeated burning maintains the shrub in a rounded form with numerous upright unbranched stems
arising from a woody, persistent lignotuber (Rourke 1984). Flowering is most profuse on the
vigorous young growth, suggesting that commercial flower production will be dependent upon
efficient pruning.
Mimetes cucullatus is one of the more widely distributed species. It flowers year around but most
heavily during the fall and winter months and offers potential as a cutflower as it produces 30 cm
stems tipped with scarlet red and yellow bracts. It is said to have good vase life as a cutflower
(Matthews and Carter 1993). It is a long-lived shrub once established and tolerates heavy pruning.
Other Mimetes species with attractive flowerheads are reportedly short-lived although the seed
remains viable for many years, ready to germinate when the natural habitat is cleared by fire
(Rebelo 1995).
Cultivation of Mimetes requires well-drained, acid soils with some organic matter. Studies of plant
management are still needed. Propagation is by seed or semi-hardwood cuttings taken in the fall
(Matthews and Carter 1993).
REFERENCES
Ackerman, A., J. Ben-Jaacov, G.J. Brits, D.G. Malan, J.H. Coetzee, and E. Tal. 1995. The
development of Leucospermum and Serruria as flowering pot plants. Acta Hort. 387:3346.
Ackerman, A. and G.J. Brits. 1991. Research and development of protea pot plants for
export under South African and Israeli conditions. Protea News 11:912.
Ackerman, A., Y. Shchori, S. Gilad, B. Mitchnik, K. Pinta, and J. Ben-Jaacov. 1995.

Development of Leucospermum tolerant to calcareous soils for the protea industry. J. Int.
Protea Assoc. 29:2429.
Barth, G.E., N.A. Maier, J.S. Cecil, W.L. Chyvl, and M.N. Bartetzko. 1996. Yield and
seasonal growth flushing of Protea 'Pink Ice' and Leucadendron 'Silvan Red' in South
Australia. Austral. J. Expt. Agr. 36:869875.
Ben-Jaacov, J., A. Ackerman, and E. Tal. 1989. Development of new woody flowering pot
plants: A comprehensive approach. Acta Hort. 252:5158.
Ben-Jaacov, J. and G. Jacobs. 1986. Establishing Protea, Leucospermum and Serruria in

vitro. Acta Hort. 185:3952.
Ben-Jaacov, J., R. Shillo, and M. Avishai. 1986. Technology for rapid production of
flowering pot-plants of Leucadendron discolor E. Phillips, S. Hutch. Elsevier Sci. Publ.
B.V.
Bennell M. and G. Barth. 1986. Propagation of Banksia coccinea by cuttings and seed. Proc.
Int. Plant Prop. Soc. 36:148152.
Blomerus, L.M., G.J. Brits, and G.M. Littlejohn. 1998. 'High Gold', a yellow, vigorous
Leucospermum. HortScience 33:10941095.
Bowden, A. 1987. Application of phosphorus to proteaceous plants. Proc. Int. Plant Prop.
Soc. 37:138141.
Brink, J.A. and G.H. de Swardt. 1986. The effect of sucrose in a vase solution on leaf
browning of Protea. Acta Hort. 185:111119.
Brits, G.J. 1984a. Historical review of the South African protea cut-flower industry.
Roodeplaat Bul. (5):1819.
Brits, G.J. 1984b. Production research on South African proteas: Current trends. Veld &
Flora 70(4):103105.
Brits, G.J. 1984c. Protea production in the United States of America. Protea News 1:1011.
Brits, G.J. 1986a. Influence of fluctuating temperatures and H2O2 treatment on germination
of Leucospermum cordifolium and Serruria florida (Proteaceae) seeds. S. Afr. J. Bot.
52:286290.
Brits, G.J. 1986b. The effect of hydrogen peroxide treatment on germination in Proteaceae
species with serotinus and nut-like achenes. S. Afr. J. Bot. 52:291293.
Brits, G.J. 1990b. Rootstock production research in Leucospermum and Protea: I.

Techniques. Acta Hort. 264:925
Brits, G.J. 1990c. Rootstock production research in Leucospermum and Protea: II. Gene
sources. Acta Hort. 264:2740.
Brits, G.J. 1992a. Breeding programmes for Proteaceae cultivar development. Acta Hort.
316:918.
Brits, G.J. 1992b. The VOPI diversifies its protea cultivar releases. J. Int. Protea Assoc.
24:1925.
Brits, G. J., E. Tal, J. Ben-Jaacov, and A. Ackerman. 1992. Cooperative production of

protea flowering pot plants selected for rapid production. Acta Hort. 316:107118.
Brits, G.J. and G.C. van den Berg. 1991. Interspecific hybridization in Protea,
Leucospermum, and Leucadendron (Proteaceae). Protea News 10:1213.
Brits, G.J. 1995. Selection criteria for protea flowering pot plants. Acta Hort. 387:4754.
Cavanaugh, T. 1994. Dryandra, a growing guide for beginners. Austral. Plants 18:1117.
Cho, J.J. and W.J. Apt. 1977. Susceptibility of proteas to Meloidogyne incognita. Plant Dis.
Rptr. 61:489492.
Cho, J.J., W.J. Apt, and O.V. Holtzmann. 1976. The occurrence of Meloidogyne incognita
on members of the Proteaceae family in Hawaii. Plant Dis. Rptr. 60:814817.
Claassens, A.S. 1986. Some aspects of the nutrition of Proteas. Acta Hort. 185:171179.
Claassens, A.S. 1981. Soil preparation and fertilisation of proteas. Farming in South Africa
Ser.: Flowers and Ornamental Shrubs, B14. Dept. Soil Sci. and Plant Nutrition, Univ. of
Pretoria, S. Afr.
Coetzee, J.H. and M.G. Wright. 1991. Post-harvest treatment and disinsectation of protea
cut flowers. Proc. Int. Protea Assn. 6th Biennial Conf. Perth, Western Australia.
Cresswell, G.C. 1991. Assessing the phosphorus status of proteas using plant analysis. Proc.
Int. Protea Assoc. Sixth Biennial Conf., Perth, West. Australia. p. 303310.
Criley, R.A., P.E. Parvin, and P. Shingaki. 1996. Evaluation of Protea accessions from
South Africa for time of flowering on Maui. Hort. Digest 110:12. Col. of Trop. Agr. and
Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii.
Criley, R.A. 1998. Leucospermum: Botany and horticulture. Hort. Rev. 22:2790.
Criley, R.A. and P.E. Parvin. 1993. New cut foliages from Australia, New Zealand, and
South Africa. Acta Hort. 337:9598.
Criley, R. A., P.E. Parvin, and C. Williamson. 1978. Keeping quality of Leucospermum
cordifolium. First Ann. Orn. Sem. Proc. Univ. Hawaii, CES Misc. Publ. 172:3436.
Criley, R.A., C. Williamson, and R. Masutani. 1978. Vaselife determination for

Leucospermum cordifolium. Flor. Rev. 163(4228):3738, 8081.
Crossen, T. 1990. Approach grafting grevilleas. Proc. Int. Plant Prop. Soc. 40:6972.
Dai, J. and R.E. Paull. 1995. Source-sink relationship and Protea postharvest leaf
blackening. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 120(3):475480.
Danziger, D. 1997. Producing Israel's unique protea. Grower Talks 61(10):51.
Delaporte, K.L., A. Klieber, and M. Sedgely. 1997. To pulse or not to pulse? Improving the
vase life of Banksia coccinea by postharvest treatments. Austral. Hort. 95(8):7984.
Downs, C. and M. Reihana. 1986. The quality of Leucospermum cultivars after simulated
transport. J. Int. Protea Assoc. 10:58.
Dupee, S.A. and J. Clemens. 1981. Propagation of ornamental grevillea. Proc. Int. Plant
Prop. Soc. 31:198208.
Elliot, W.R. and D.L. Jones. 1982. p. 281286. In: Encyclopedia of Australian Plants
Suitable for Cultivation. Vol. 2. Lothian Publ. Co. Pty. Ltd., Sydney, Australia.
Elliot, W.R. and D.L. Jones. 1984. p. 349353. In: Encyclopedia of Australian Plants
Suitable for Cultivation. Vol. 3. Lothian Publ. Co. Pty, Ltd., Melbourne, Australia.
Elliot, W.R. and D. L. Jones. 1990. P. 716. In: Encyclopedia of Australian Plants Suitable
for Cultivation. Vol 5. Lothian Publ. Co. Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, Australia.
Ellyard R.K. and G. Butler. 1985. Breakthrough in waratah propagation. Austral. Hort.
83(3):2728.
Faragher, J.D. 1986. Post-harvest physiology of waratah inflorescences (Telopea

speciosissima, Proteaceae). Scientia Hort. 28:271279.
Ferreira, D.I. 1986. The influence of temperature on the respiration rate and browning of
Protea neriifolia R Br inflorescences. Acta Hort. 185: 121125.
Fleming, K.D., K.W. Leonhardt, and J.M. Halloran. 1991. The economics of protea
production in Hawaii. Proc. Sixth Biennial Conf., Int. Protea Assoc. Perth, Aust.
Fleming, K.D., K.W. Leonhardt, and J.M. Halloran. 1994. An economic model of protea
production in Hawaii. Proc. Hawaii Trop. Cutflower and Ornamental Plant Industry Conf.
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii.
Foreman, D.B. 1997. Isopogon, drumsticks: the genus. Austral. Plants 19(150):6378, 80,
96.
Fuss, A.M. and M. Sedgley. 1991. The development of hybridisation techniques for Banksia
menziesii for cut flower production. J. Hort. Sci. 66:357365.
Fuss, A.M., S.J. Pattison, D. Aspinall, and M. Sedgley. 1992. Shoot growth in relation to cut
flower production of Banksia coccinea and Banksia menziesii (Proteaceae). Scientia Hort.
49:323334.
Gorst, J.R., R.A. Bourne, S.E. Hardaker, A.E. Richards, S. Dircks, and R. A. de Fossard.
1978. Tissue culture propagation of two Grevillea hybrids. Proc. Int. Plant Prop. Soc.
28:435446.
Groesbeck, S.J. and F.D. Rauch. 1985. Grevilleas: propagation and potential use in Hawaii.
p. 7790. In: Proc. 2nd Fert. and Orn. Short Course, March 1984. Univ. Hawaii, CTAHR,
HITAHR 01.04.85.
Hamilton, R.A. and P.J. Ito. 1984. Macadamia nut cultivars for Hawaii. Info. Text Series
023. College Trop. Agr. Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii, Manoa.
Handreck, K.A. 1991. Interactions between iron and phosphorus in the nutrition of Banksia
integrifolia L.f. var. ericifolia (Proteaceae) in soil-less potting media. Austral. J. Bot.
39:373384.
Heslehurst, M.R. 1977. Germination of Grevillea banksii (R.Br.). Austral. Plants 9:206208.
Hocking, F.D. 1976. Banksias: propagation and culture. Austral. Plants 9:95103.
Ito, P.J., K.W. Leonhardt, P.E. Parvin, T. Murakami, and D.W. Oka. 1991. New hybrid
Leucospermum (Proteaceae) introductions. The Hawaii Tropical Cut Flower Industry
Conference March 2931, 1990. Coll. Trop. Agr. & Human Resources, Univ. Hawaii,
Res.-Ext. Ser. 124:164165.
Ito, P.J., T. Murakami, D. Oka, and P.E. Parvin. 1990. New protea hybrids developed by
breeding. p. 9192. Proc. Third Fert. and Orn. Short Course. Coop. Ext. Serv. Coll. Trop.
Agr. Human Resources, Univ. Hawaii. HITAHR 01.01.90.
Ito, P.J., T. Murakami, and P.E. Parvin. 1978. Protea improvement by breeding. First Ann.
Orn. Sem. Proc. Coop. Ext. Serv. Coll. Trop. Agr. Human Resources, Univ. Hawaii. Misc.
Pub. 172:14.
Ito, P.J., T. Murakami, and P.E. Parvin. 1979. New Leucospermum hybrids. Seventh Ann.
Protea Workshop Proc. Coop. Ext. Serv. Coll. Trop. Agr. Human Resources, Univ. Hawaii.
Misc. Pub. 176:14.
Jacobs, G. 1985. Leucospermum. p. 283286. In: A.H. Halevy (ed.), Handbook of

flowering. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Jacobs, G. and H.R. Minnaar. 1980. Light intensity and flower development of
Leucospermum cordifolium. HortScience 15:644645.
Jones, R. and J. Faragher. 1990. The viability of transporting selected cutflower species by
seafreight. J. Int. Protea Assoc. 19:4344.
Jones, B.J., R. McConchie, W.G. van Doorn, and M.S. Reid 1995. Leaf blackening in cut
Protea flowers. Hort. Rev. 17: 173201.
Joyce, D.C. 1998. Dried and preserved ornamental plant material: not new but often
overlooked and underrated. Acta Hort. 454:133145.
Joyce, D.C., P. Beal, and A.J. Shorter. 1996. Vase life characteristics of selected Grevillea.
Austral. J. Exp. Agr. 36:379382.
Kepler, A.K. 1988. Proteas in Hawaii. Mutual Publishing. Honolulu, Hawaii.
Kunisaki, J.T. 1989. In vitro propagation of Leucospermum hybrid, 'Hawaii Gold'.

HortScience 24:686687.
Kunisaki, J.T. 1990. Micropropagation of Leucospermum. Acta Hort. 264: 4548.
Lamont, B.B. 1986. The significance of proteoid roots in proteas. Acta Hort. 185:163170.
Leonhardt, K., S. Ferreira, N. Nagata, D. Oka, J. Kunisaki, P. Ito, and P. Shingaki. 1995.
Hybridizing Leucospermum (Proteaceae) for disease resistance and improved horticultural
characteristics. p. 7677. Proc. Third Multicommodity Cutflower Industry Conf. College
Trop. Agr. Human Resources, HITAHR 03.04.95
Lill, R.E. and D.J. Dennis. 1986. Post-harvest studies with NSW waratah. Acta Hort.
185:267271.
Littlejohn, G.M., G.C. van den Berg, and G.J. Brits. 1998. A yellow, single-stem
Leucadendron, 'Rosette'. Hort. Sci. 33(6):10921093.
Littlejohn, G.M., I.D. van der Walt, G.C. van den Berg, W.G. de Waal, and G. Brits. 1995.
'Marketable product' approach to breeding Proteaceae in South Africa. Acta Hort.
387:171175.
Malan, D.G. 1992. Propagation of Proteaceae. Acta Hort. 316:2734.
Malan, D.G. and G.J. Brits. 1990. Flower structure and the influence of daylength on flower
initiation of Serruria Florida Knight (Proteaceae). Acta Hort. 185:8792.
Malan, D.G. and G. Jacobs. 1990. Effect of photoperiod and shoot decapitation on flowering
of Leucospermum 'Red Sunset'. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 115:131135.
Matthews, L. 1993. The protea growers handbook. Tradewinds Press (Pty) Ltd., Durban
North, S. Africa.
Matthews, L.J. and Z. Carter. 1993 Proteas of the world. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Mathews, P. 1984. The history of IPA. Veld & Flora 70(4):115116.
Mathews, P. 1981. The growing and marketing of proteas. Report of the First Int. Conf. of
Protea growers. Proteaflora Enterprises Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, Australia.
Meynhardt, J.T. 1976. Proteas, picking and handling. Farming in South Africa Ser.:
Flowers, Ornamental Shrubs and Trees, B5. Hort. Res. Inst., Pretoria, South Africa.
Moffat, J. and L. Turnbull. 1994. Production of Phytophthora tolerant rootstocks: II.

Grafting compatibility studies and field testing of grafted proteas. J. Int. Protea Assoc.
27:1422.
Molyneux, W. 1978. Grevillea in horticulture. Austral. Plants 9:287298.
Nagata, N. and S. Ferreira. 1993. The protea disease letter, 2. College of Trop. Agr. and
Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii, Manoa.
Nagata, N., S. Ferreira, and K. Leonhardt. 1995. The protea disease letter, 3. College of
Trop. Agr. and Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii, Manoa.
Napier, D.R. and G. Jacobs. 1989. Growth regulators and shading reduce flowering of
Leucospermum cv. Red Sunset. HortScience 24:966968.
Nixon, P. and W.H. Payne. 1996. Waratahs: The new breed to the year 2000. Austral.
Plants. 18:303311.
Offord, C.A. 1996. Telopea (Waratah), Family Proteaceae. p. 6881. In: K.A. Johnson and
M. Burchett (eds.), Native Australian plants: Horticulture and uses. Univ. S. Wales Press,
Sydney, Australia.
Offord, C.A. and L.C. Campbell. 1992. Micropropagation of Telopea speciosissima R.Br.
(Proteaceae). 2: Rhizogenesis and acclimatisation in ex vitro conditions. Plant Cell Tissue
Organ Cult. 29:223230.
Offord, C.A. and L.C. Campbell. 1992. Micropropagation of Telopea speciosissima R.Br.
(Proteaceae). 1: Explant establishment and proliferation. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult.
29:215221.
Olde, P. and N. Marriott. 1995. The grevillea book. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Parvin, P.E. 1974. Project: ProteasHawaii. Proc. Int. Plant Prop. Soc. 24:4142.
Parvin, P.E. 1978. The influence of preservative solutions on bud opening and vase life of
selected Proteaceae. Proc. 1st Ann. Orn. Sem. UHCES Misc. Publ. 173: 2933.
Parvin, P.E. 1984. Proteasfrom 'curiosity' to 'commodity'. Veld Flora 70(4):109111.
Parvin, P.E. 1991. Potential cut flower, cut foliage production of Australian and South
African flora in Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 104:296298.
Parvin, P.E., R.A. Criley, and R.M. Bullock. 1973. Proteas: developmental research for a
new cut flower crop. HortScience 8:299303.
Parvin, P.E. and K.W. Leonhardt. 1982. Care and handling of cut protea flowers. Proc. 8th
and 9th Ann. Protea Workshop. Univ. Hawaii, HITAHR Res.-Ext. Ser 018:2023.
Paull, R.E. 1988. Protea postharvest black leaf. Hort. Digest. 88:34. Col. of Trop. Agr. and
Human Resources, Univ. of Hawaii, Manoa.
Rao, C.V. 1971. Proteaceae, botanical monograph No. 6. Sree Saraswaty Press Lt., Calcutta,
India.
Rebelo, T. 1995. SASOL Proteas: A field guide to the proteas of Southern Africa. Fernwood
Press, Vlaeberg, S. Africa.
Rohl, L.J., A.M. Fuss, J.A. Dhalwal, M.B. Webb, and B.B. Lamont. 1994. Investigation of
flowering in Banksia baxteri and B. hookeriana Meissner for improving pruning practices.
Austral. J. Expt. Agr. 34:12091216.
Rourke, J.P. 1972. Taxonomic studies on Leucospermum R. Br. S. Afr. J. Bot. (Suppl.)
8:1194.
Rourke, J.P. 1984. A revision of the genus Mimetes Salisb. (Proteaceae). J. S. Afr. Bot.
50:171236.
Rousseau, F. 1970. The Proteaceae of South Africa. Purnell and Sons, Cape Town, S.
Africa.
Rousseau, G.G. 1966. Proteas can be grafted. Farming S. Afr. 42(6):5355.
Sacks, P.V. and I. Resendiz. 1996. Protea pot plants: production, distribution and sales in
Southern California. J. Int. Protea Assoc. 31:34.
Sadie, J. 1997. The international protea register. Stellenbosch, S. Africa.
Salinger, J.P. 1985. Commercial flower growing. Butterworths of New Zealand, Wellington,
NZ.
Sedgley, M. 1991. Banksia (Banksia hookeriana hybrid). Plant Var. J. 4(2):911.
Sedgley, M. 1995a. Banksia coccinea 'Waite Crimson'. Plant Var. J. 8(2):89, 18.
Sedgley, M. 1995b. Banksia coccinea 'Waite Flame'. Plant Var. J. 8(2):9, 1819.
Sedgley, M. 1995c. Cultivar development of ornamental members of the Proteaceae. Acta

Hort. 387:163169.
Sedgley, M. 1995d. Breeding biology of Banksia species for floriculture. Acta Hort.
397:155162.
Sedgely, M. 1996. Banksia, family Proteaceae. p. 1835. In: K. Johnson and M. Burchett
(eds.), Native Australian plants horticulture and uses. Univ. South Wales Press, Sydney,
Australia.
Sedgley, M. 1998. Banksia: New proteaceous cut flower crop. Hort. Rev. 22:125.
Sedgley, M. and A.M. Fuss. 1992. Correct pruning lifts banksia yields. Austral. Hort.
90:5053.
Sedgley, M., M. Wirthensohn, and A.M. Fuss. 1991. Selection and breeding of banksias. p.
193200. In: Proc. Sixth Biennial Conf. Int. Protea Assoc., Monbulk, Australia.
Seelye, J.F., S.M. Butcher, and D.J. Dennis. 1986. Micropropagation of Telopea
speciosissima. Acta Hort. 185:281285.
Shchori, Y., J. Ben-Jaacov, A. Ackerman, S. Gilad, and B. Metchnik. 1995. Horticultural

characters of intraspecific hybrids of Leucospermum patersonii L. conocarpodendron. J.
Int. Protea Assoc. 30:1012.
Soutter, R. 1984. Protea heightscultivation for conservation. Veld & Flora 70(4):99101.
Specht, R.L. 1978. Conditions for cultivation of Australian plants. Austral. Plants
9:312313.
Tija, B.O. 1986. New Zealand, a new source of unusual cut flowers. Florist's Rev. Design
Portfolio 177(6):1214.
Tully, P. 1977. The Poorinda grevilleas. Austral. Plants 9:213215.
Van der Merwe, P. 1985. The genetic relationship between the South African Proteacea
[sic]. Protea News 3:35.
Vogts, M. 1982. South Africa's Proteaceae, know them and grow them. Struik Publishers,
Cape Town, South Africa.
Vogts, M.M. 1980. Species and variants of protea. Farming in South Africa Ser.: Flowers
and Ornamental Shrubs B.1. Dept. Agr. Water Supply.
Vogts, M.M., G.G. Rousseau, and K.L.J. Blommart. 1976. Propagation of proteas. Farming
in South Africa Ser.: Flowers, Ornamental Shrubs, and Trees, B.2. Dept. Agr. Water Supply.
Vogts, M. 1958. Proteasknow them and grow them. Afrikaamse pers-Boeklandel BPK,
Johannesburg.
Vogts, M. 1984. Research into the South African Proteaceae. Veld Flora 70(4):101102.
von Broembsen, S.L. and G.J. Brits. 1986. Control of Phytophthora root rot of proteas in
South Africa. Acta Hort. 185: 201207.
Wallerstein, I. 1989. Sequential photoperiodic requirement for flower initiation and

development of Leucospermum patersonii (Proteaceae). Israel J. Bot. 38:2434.
Watad, A.A., J. Ben-Jaacov, E. Tal, and H. Solomon. 1992. In vitro propagation of

Grevillea species. Acta Hort. 316:5153.
Watson, D.P. and P.E. Parvin. 1973. Ornamental proteas, new cut flower crop. Hort. Sci.
8(4):290.
Worrall, R.J. 1976. Effects of time of collection, growing conditions of mother plants and
growth regulators on rooting of cuttings of Telopea speciosissima (Proteaceae). Scientia
Hort 5:153160.
Worrall, R.J. 1994. Growing waratahs. Austral. Plants 18:1721.
Worth, S.W. and B.W. van Wilgen. 1988. The Blushing Bride: Status of an endangered
species. Veld Flora 74(4):122123.
Wrigley, J.W. and M. Fagg. 1996. Australian native plants: propagation, cultivation and use
in landscaping. Reed Books, Australia.
Wu, I.-P., J.J. Cho, and P.E. Parvin. 1978. Response of Sunburst protea to irrigation inputs
and root knot nematode infections. First Ann. Orn. Sem. Proc. Coop. Ext. Serv. Coll. Trop.
Agr. Human Resources, Univ. Hawaii. Misc. Pub. 172:1620.
*College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Journal Series No. 4431
back
Yellow Wild-Indigo
Yellow Wild-Indigo
Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br.
Other common names.Baptisia, indigo weed, yellow indigo,
American indigo, yellow broom, indigo broom, clover broom, horsefly
weed, shoofly, rattlebush.
Habitat and range.This native herb grows on dry, poor land and is
found from Maine to Minnesota and south to Florida and Louisiana.
Description.Yellow wild-indigo is an erect, much-branched, very
leafy plant about 2 to 3 feet in height with cloverlike leaves. The
flowers are bright yellow, one-half inch in length, and are produced in
numerous clusters from June to September. The root, which is round
and fleshy, sending out branches and rootless almost 2 feet in length,
has a white interior and a thick, dark-brown bark. The bark root has a
bitter, nauseous taste.
Other species.A related species, said to possess similar properties, Figure 127.Yellow
wild-indigo (Baptisia tinctoria)
is Baptisia alba R. Br., called the white wild-indigo. This plant has
white flowers and is found in the Southern States and on the western Plains.
Part used.The herb and the root, the latter collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/indigo.html [5/16/2004 1:30:41 PM]
Ficus benghalensis
Bar or Bargad Ficus benghalensis L.

Pankaj Oudhia
Scientific name: Ficus benghalensis L.
Synonyms: Ficus indica L
Family: Moraceae.
English name: Banyan tree
Indian names
Bengali - Bar
Gujarati - Vad
Hindi - Bargad
Kanarese - Ala
Malyalam - Ala, Vatam
Marathi - Vada
Sanskrit - Bahupada
Tamil - Al
Telugu - Peddamarri
Habitat: Monsoon and rain forests. Often planted throughout the forest tract of India. Hardy,
drought resistance and withstands mild frost.
Botanical Description: Very large, fast growing, evergreen tree up to 3.0 meters, with spreading
branches and many aerial roots. Leaves stalked, ovate-cordate, 3-nerved, entire, when young
downy on both sides; petiole with a broad smooth greasy gland at the apex, compressed, downy;
Fruit in axillary pairs, the size of a cherry, round and downy.
Propagation: Through seed, transplanting and stem-cutting.
Useful Parts: Bark, root-fibers, leaves, seeds, milky juice (i.e. latex).
Medicinal Uses and Properties: According to Ayurveda, it is astringent to bowels; useful in
treatment of biliousness, ulcers, erysipelas, vomiting, vaginal complains, fever, inflammations,
leprosy. According to Unani system of medicine, its latex is aphrodisiac, tonic, vulernary,
maturant, lessens inflammations; useful in piles, nose-diseases, gonorrhea etc. The aerial root is
styptic, useful in syphilis, biliousness, dysentery, inflammation of liver etc.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/ficus.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:42 PM]
Ficus benghalensis
Other Uses
It is planted for soil conservation
Timber is used for well-curbs, furniture etc.
Suitable for paper pulp.
Leaf (Crude protein 9.63%) lopped for fodder
Fruits are used to prepare Shurbut traditionally.
Other Links
Doomar or Gular (Ficus glomerata) as medicinal herb in Chhattisgarh, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/127_doomar.html
Interactions with the traditional healers of Chhattisgarh Plains, India specialized in use of Bar
(Ficus benghalensis, family: Moraceae) as medicinal herb
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/141_bar.html
Interactions with the traditional healers of Chhattisgarh Plains, India, specialized in use of Pipal
(Ficus religiosa) as medicine
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/142_pipal.html
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Table 1. Major species of Ficus in India.
Species
Ficus auriculata
Ficus benghalensis
Synonyms
F. roxburghii; F.
macrophylla
F. indica
Ficus benjamina var. comosa

Ficus carica
F. comosa
Ficus glomerata
F. goolereea; Covellia
glomerata
Ficus hispida
Ficus krishnae
Ficus lucescens
F. lacor; F. infectoria
Common names
English - Eve's Apron
Hindi - Timla, Tirmal
English - Banyan
Hindi - Barh, Bargad
English - Fig
Hindi - Anjeer
English - Cluster fig
Hindi Gular
Chhattisgarh - Doomar
Hindi - Kathumbar, Konea dumbar.
English - Krishna's Fig, Krishna's
butter cup
Hindi - Makhan Katori
Hindi-Pilkhan, Plaksha.
Ficus benghalensis
Ficus microcarpa
Ficus palmata
Ficus religiosa
F. retusa; F. benjamina
F. virgata; F. caricoides
Urostigma religiosum
Ficus rumphii
F. cordifolia; Urostigma
cordifolium
F. cunia
F. venosa
F. Saxophila var.
sublanceolata
F. infectoria var.
lambertiana
Ficus semicordata
Ficus tsjakela
Ficus virens var.
sublannceolata
Ficus virens
Hindi - Chilkan
Hindi - Anjiri, Khat Guleri
English-Bo-tree
Hindi - Pipal, Asvattha
Hindi - Gagjaira, Pakar
Hindi - Khewanua
Hindi - Pilkhan
Hindi - Pilkhan
Ficus altissima
Table 2. Major differences in three major species of Ficus
Ficus benghalensis
Common Indian names
Gujrati
Vad, Vadlo
Hindi
Bar, Bargad, Bargat
Kanarese
Ala, Alada, Goli, Vata,
Nyagrodha
Marathi
Vad
Sanskrit
Avaroha, Bahupada,
Bhringi, Jatalo, Vat
Botanical Differences
General Plant Large evergreen tree with
spreading branches,
sending down to the ground
many aerial roots, which
afterwords develop into
separate trunks.
Leaves
Coriaceous, 10-20x5-12.5
cm, ovate to elliptic,
cordate or rounded base,
shining above.
Ficus religiosa
Ficus carica
Jari, Pipers, Pipal

Pipal, Pipali
Arani, Ashwatha mara,
Pippala, Ragi
Pimpal
Ashvatha, Bodhidruma,
Pippala, Shuchidruma,
Vrikshraj, yajnika
Anjir
Anjir
Anjura, Simeyam
Anjir
Kakodomar, Anjir
A medium sized, glabrous A small tree or large

tree
bush. Branches round,
green or resset, covered
with a coarse shortdown
10-15x10-12 cm,
ovate-round, entire,
coriaceous, shining, apex
long tailed.
Rough on the upper side

coarsely downy beneath,
cordate, 3-5 lobed or
almost entire, coarsely
sirrated
Ficus benghalensis
Fruit
Globose, with male, female Receptacles sessile,

and gall flowers.
paired, smooth, depressed,
globose, dark purple when
ripe.
Medicinal Uses and Properties
Ayurveda
Astringent to bowels;
All parts cooling and
useful in treatment of
useful in diseases of
biliousness, ulcers,
blood, vagina, uterus,
erysipelas, vomiting,
leucorrhoea, burning
vaginal complaints, fever, sensation, biliousness,
inflammations, leprosy etc. ulcers Ripe fruits are
alexipharmic, good for
foul taste, thirst, heart
disease, Root good for
sout whereas rooot bark
good in stomatitis.
Unani
Its milky juice is
Root bark aphrodisiac,
aphrodisiac, tonic,
good for lumbago; bark
vulnerary, maturant, lessens useful in inflammations
inflammations, useful in
and glandular swellings of
piles, nose-diseases,
neck; Fruits purgative,
gonorrhoea.
aphrodisiac, checks
vomiting.
Solitary, axillary, more or

less pear shaped or almost
round, sweet, succulent
and pleasant to the taste.
Fruit cooling, useful in
diseases of head and
blood, leprosy, nose bleed
etc.
Roos tonic and useful in

leucoderma, ringworm;
Fruit antipyretic,
purgative, alexiteric,
aphrodisiac, lithotriptic,
useful in inflammation,
weakness, paralysis,
thirst, liver and spleen
diseases, pain in chest etc.
Milky juice expectorant,
iuretic, etc.
Cynodon dactylon
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Poaceae
Bermudagrass, Common stargrass,
Baramagrass, Dhubgrass, Devilgrass
Doob (Cynodon dactylon): Traditional Medicinal Uses in IndiaPankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cynodon_dactylon_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:43 PM]
Barbados Gooseberry

Morton, J. 1987. Barbados Gooseberry. p. 349351. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Barbados Gooseberry
Pereskia aculeata Mill.
Pereskia pereskia Karst.
Cactus pereskia L.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
A climbing, leafy cactus, the Barbados gooseberry, Pereskia aculeata Mill., (syn. P. pereskia
Karst.; Cactus pereskia L.), has various English names: West Indian gooseberry, Spanish
gooseberry, lemon vine, sweet Mary, leaf cactus, blade apple, and gooseberry shrubthe latter in
Barbados. It is known as grosellero or ramo de novia in Cuba; buganvilla blanca in Chiapas,
Mexico; guamacho in Venezuela; ora-pro-nobis (pray for us) in Brazil; bladappel in Surinam. The
generic name is sometimes spelled Peireskia, especially in Europe, for it was adopted in honor of
Nicholas Peiresk, a senator of Aix in Provence, France, and a patron of botany.
Description
The plant is an erect woody shrub when young, becoming, with age, scrambling or climbing and
vinelike, with branches up to 33 ft (10 m) long that may shroud a large tree. Spines on the trunk
are long, slender, in groups; those on the branches are short, recurved, usually in pairs, rarely
solitary or in 3's, in the leaf axils. The deciduous, alternate, short-petioled, waxy leaves are elliptic,
oblong or ovate, with a short point at the apex; 1 1/4 to 4 in (3.2-10 cm) long, sometimes fleshy.
To some people, the flowers are lemon-scented; others say sweet and pungent in odor; still others,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/barbados_gooseberry.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:30:49 PM]
Barbados Gooseberry
of unpleasant or repulsive odor. They are

borne profusely in panicles or corymbs; are
white, yellowish or pink-tinted; 1 to 1 3/4 in
(2.5-4.5 cm) across and the calyx tube is
prickly. The fruit is round, oval or pyriform,
lemon- or orange-yellow or reddish; 3/8 to
3/4 in (1-2 cm) wide, with thin, smooth,
somewhat leathery skin. It is beset with the
curling, leafy sepals of the calyx and often a
few spines, until fully ripe, when it is juicy
and subacid to tart. There are only a few
flat, thin, brown or black, soft seeds about
1/6 in (4 mm) long.
Fig. 97: A leafy, spiny, climbing shrub, the Barbados

gooseberry (Pereskia aculeata) is an atypical cactus.
The Barbados gooseberry is believed to be

indigenous to the West Indies, coastal
northern South America and Panama. It is
seldom found truly wild but is frequently
grown as an ornamental or occasionally for
its fruits in the American tropics, Bermuda,
California, Hawaii, Israel, the Philippines,
India and Australia. In many areas it has
escaped from cultivation and become
thoroughly naturalized. It was growing at
the Agricultural Research and Education
Center in Homestead in the early 1940's and
Fig. 98: The pecular yellow or reddish fruits of the Barbados
running wild to some extent in the
gooseberry bear recurved, leafy sepals until fully ripe.
Redlands, but has since disappeared,
possibly destroyed by winter cold or excessive rainfall. At least one nursery in Winter Haven,
Florida, is now growing the plant in quantity. Gardeners had to give up the plant in South Africa in
1979 when it was banned as an illegal weed because it had been invading and overwhelming
natural vegetation. It is frequently grown in greenhouses and as a house plant in temperate regions
of both hemispheres. Horticulturists often use this species as a rootstock on which to graft other
less vigorous cacti.
Varieties
There are 2 cultivars in the ornamental-plant trade:
'Godseffiana'bushy, with broad leaves basically yellow-green variegated with scarlet and copper
on the upper surface, purplish or rosy-red on the underside.
'Rubescens'the leaves variegated with red.
Climate
The Barbados gooseberry is tropical and suited only to low elevations. In greenhouses, the
Barbados Gooseberry
favorable temperature range is from 68 F (20 C) at night to 99 F (37.22 C) in daytime. Chilling

causes the leaves to fall.
Propagation
The plant is easily grown from seeds or cuttings of half-ripe wood.
Culture
Flourishing with little or no care, the plant is drought-tolerant and suffers from over-watering. In
greenhouse experiments, it has been found highly responsive to light. Under high light intensity, it
can be kept erect and compact; under low light, it grows higher, with ascending stems and the
leaves are larger and thinner.
Season
In Jamaica, the plant blooms in June and again in October and November; fruits mature in March
and October.
Food Uses
The fruits are generally stewed or preserved with sugar, or made into jam. Young shoots and
leaves are cooked and eaten as greens. In rural Brazil, they are important as food for humans and
livestock.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Fruit
91.4 g
1.0 g
0.7 g
6.3 g
0.7 g
0.6 g
174 mg
26 mg
Trace
3,215 I.U.
0.03 mg
0.03 mg
Niacin
0.9 mg
Ascorbic Acid
2 mg
Magnesium
Amino acid per 100 g Protein:
Leaves
6.8-11.7 g
9.1-9.6 g
20.1-21.7 g
2.8-3.4 mg
1.8-2.0 mg
1.2-1.5 mg
Barbados Gooseberry
Arginine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylanine
Threonine
Valine
5.00-5.36 g
2.49-2.54 g
3.78-4.23 g
6.99-8.03 g
5.32-5.43 g
1.72-2.03 g
5.06-5.08 g
3.09-3.60 g
4.78-5.52 g
Studies of the leaves in Brazil show a protein content of 17.4-25.5% and a mean digestibility of
85.0%.
Protein, lysine, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium levels are higher than in cabbage, lettuce and
spinach.
Other Uses
In Israel, the flowers are said to be of great value in apiculture.
Medicinal Uses: In Brazil, the leaves are valued for their emollient nature and are applied on
inflammations and tumors.
Cress, Upland
Cress, Upland
Winter cress, Scurvy grass, Belle Isle cress, Spring cress, Yellow rocket,
Toi
Cruciferae Barbarea vulgaris R. Br., B. verna (Mill.) Aschers.
These cresses, related to water cress and horse-radish, are cultivated sparingly for winter salads
and pot herbs. Plants are naturalized in many parts of the U.S. Plants are hardy biennials. Leaves
are generally entire but notched, and smooth. As grown under cultivation, leaf exposure and
general culture are similar to those of spinach and turnips for greens. Portion of the plant
consumed is the leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CressUpland.html [5/16/2004 1:30:50 PM]
Hordeum vulgare
Hordeum vulgare L.
Poaceae
Barley, barleycorn, barley flakes, barley grits, malt,
naked barley, pearl barley, pot barley, Scotch barley, six-row
barley, two-row barley
Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta.)
Barley and malting barley in New Crops for Canadian AgricultureErnest Small
Outside links
Barley from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hordeum_vulgare_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:50 PM]
Echinochloa crusgalli
Echinochloa crusgalli (L.)

Beauv.
Poaceae
Barnyardgrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Echinochloa_crusgalli_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:51 PM]
Basella rubra - Malabar Spinach
Basella rubra L.
Basellaceae
Ceylon spinach, Indian spinach, Malabar Spinach,
Red vine spinach, Vine spinach
We have information from several sources: Evaluation of Tropical Leaf Vegetables in the
Virgin IslandsManuel C. Palada and Stafford M.A. Crossman
Food and feed crops of the United States Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Basella_rubra_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:51 PM]
Ocimum basilicum
Ocimum basilicum L.
Lamiaceae
Basil, basilic common, basilico, bush basil, sweet
basil, wild basil
FactSheet contributed by James Simon
Antioxidant Activity of BasilH.R. Juliani and J.E. Simon
Basil Seed OilsPaul Angers, Mario R. Morales, and James E. Simon
Basil: A Source of Essential OilsJames E. Simon, James Quinn, and Renee G. Murray
Essential Oils and Culinary HerbsJames E. Simon
New Aromatic Lemon Basil GermplasmMario R. Morales, Denys J. Charles, and James E.
Simon
New Basil Selections with Compact Inflorescences for the Ornamental MarketMario R. Morales
and James E. Simon
Basil: A Source of Aroma Compounds and a Popular Culinary and Ornamental HerbJames E.
Simon, Mario R. Morales, Winthrop B. Phippen, Roberto Fontes Vieira, and Zhigang Hao
Basil: Promising New Essential Oil CropJames E. Simon
New Ornamental Basils
New Basils
Savory Herbs: Culture and Use. Lowman, M.S. and M. Birdseye. 1946.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ocimum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:52 PM]
Ocimum basilicum
Sweet Basil: A Production GuideCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana. PDF version
Outside links to other Ocimum information:
Images of glandular trichomes of basil - essential oil glands
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ocimum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:52 PM]
Basin wild-rye
Basin wild-rye
Gramineae Elymus cinereus Scribn. and Merr.
This is a cool season, slightly spreading grass found throughout the Western
States--particularly on alkaline soils. It is a tall, coarse grower, sometimes reaching to 10 feet. It is
relatively low in palatability and is not planted commercially but affords emergency summer or
winter pasturage where present.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Basin_wild-rye.html [5/16/2004 1:30:52 PM]
Bayberry
Bayberry
Myrica cerifera L.; M. carolinensis Mill.
Other common names.(1) Southern waxmyrtle, waxberry, tallow
berry, candleberry, tallow shrub, candleberry myrtle; (2) northern
bayberry, small waxberry.
Habitat and range.The bayberry is native in sandy swamps or wet
woods from New Brunswick south to Florida. Myrica cerifera is found
as far west as Texas and Arkansas while M. carolinensis is common in
bogs in northern New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
Description.The southern waxmyrtle is a shrub or slender tree up to
40 feet high. The leaves are from 1 to 4 inches long, narrow,
wedge-shaped, entire or with a few teeth, and have a fragrant odor
when crushed. The flowers appear from March to May, according to
locality, generally before the leaves are fully expanded. Male and
Figure 13.Northern
female flowers are borne on separate trees, the male flowers in
bayberry (Myrica carolinensis)
cylindrical yellow clusters and the female flowers in green somewhat
shorter clusters. The fruit, which remains on the tree for several years, consists of clusters of
round, 1-seeded, somewhat berrylike nuts covered with a whitish wax. Northern bayberry is a
shrub 8 feet high or less, with broader and blunter leaves.
Part used.The bark of the root, collected in late autumn. After thorough cleansing and while
still fresh the bark is loosened and removed by heating the root. The wax obtained from the
berries, used for making bayberry candles, is also an article of commerce.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bayberry.html [5/16/2004 1:30:53 PM]
Monarda
Monarda sp.
Bergamot, American horsemint, bee balm,
bergamot herb, gergamot orange, horsemint, mellarosa, wild
bergamot
Monarda: A Source of Geraniol, Thymol, Linalool, and Carvacrol-rich Essential OilsG. Mazza,
F.A. Kiehn, and H.H. Marshall
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Monarda_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:54 PM]
Bean
Bean
Leguminosae Phaseolus sp., Vigna sp., Vicia sp., Dolichos sp., Glycine sp.
Beans of several genera and species, and numerous varieties, are important
food crops and are of some importance as feed crops in many countries. All are annuals, grown
from seeds. The fruits are pods in which the seeds are contained. In green or snap beans, also
termed 'string', pods are harvested before ripening, and both pods and the immature seeds are
consumed, mainly as pot vegetables. In some kinds, the seeds when near full grown, but while still
immature, are threshed from the pods and frozen or canned. In dry or field beans pods and seeds
are allowed to ripen, then threshed and seeds only are consumed. Plants may be "bush,"
non-climbing and reaching a height of 15 to 30 inches; or "vine" or "pole," vining types reaching
10 or more feet in length.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bean.html [5/16/2004 1:30:55 PM]
Bean, Broad, or Fava Bean
Bean, Broad, Favabean or

Fava
Fava bean,Faba bean, Horse bean, English bean, Windsor bean, Haba,
Tick bean, Cold bean, Silkworm bean
Leguminosae Vicia faba L.
This type of bean is very important
as a cool-season crop in
Mediterranean areas and in cool
regions of Europe, but is grown to
only a limited extent in the U.S.
Plants are erect annuals reaching 2 to
4 feet and very leafy. Pods are large
and thick, 2 inches up to a foot or
more in length. Seeds are large and flat. They are used as green-shell, the
seeds removed from the pod before maturity, or as dry beans. They are
also used as feed for livestock.
Season, planting to harvest: 4 to 5 months. Pod set to harvest,
30 to 60 days.
Production in U.S.: No data; very limited.
Use: Cooked vegetables and stock feed.
Part of plant consumed: Seeds for food; immature pods as
snap-beans and whole plant for feed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BeanBroad.html [5/16/2004 1:30:56 PM]
Phaseolus vulgaris
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Fabaceae
Bean, Common bean, Caraota, Feijao,
French bean, Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Field
bean, Poroto, Snap bean, String bean, Frijol,
Wax bean
Dry Edible Beans: A New Crops Opportunity for the East North Central RegionGlenn H.
Sullivan and Lonni R. Davenport
FieldbeanAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Dry Edible BeansAlternative Crop Guide
Growing Beans In The Home Vegetable GardenHO-175 Purdue University Cooperative
Extension Service
Phaseolus spp.
Field Bean
Food and feed crops of the United States. Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
Common dry bean
Common bean
Outside links
Phaseolus Beansproduction links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phaseolus_vulgaris_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:57 PM]
Phaseolus vulgaris
Nuas (Popping beans) can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phaseolus_vulgaris_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:30:57 PM]
Index| Search| Home
(L.) D.C.
Leguminosae
Winged bean, asparagus bean, asparagus pea, four-angled
bean, Goa bean, long bean, long-podded cowpea, Manila bean,
princess pea, snake bean, vegetable cowpea, winged pea
The Winged Bean: A Potential Protein Crop (Abstract)S. Venketeswaran, M.A.D.L. Dias, and
Ursula V Weyers
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/P_tetragonolobus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:58 PM]
Dolichos lablab
Dolichos lablab L.
Leguminoseae
Hyacinth bean, Lablab
Hyacinth Bean: Stems for the Cut Flower MarketRobert G. Anderson, Sharon Bale, and
Wenwei Jia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dolichos_lablab_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:58 PM]
Bean, Jack
Bean, Jack
Chickasaw lima bean, Brazilian broad bean, Coffee bean, Ensiform
bean, Horse bean, Mole bean, Go-Ta-Ki, Overlook bean, Pearson bean,
Watanka
Leguminosae Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.
This bean is grown in Southern U.S. mainly for stock feed, but young pods can be used as snap
beans. The plant is vining. Pods reach 10 to 14 inches in length, but are harvested at half that size
for eating. Seeds are large, 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, and nearly as broad, and are sometimes used as
coffee substitute. jack beans are not grown as a commercial food crop in this country.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BeanJack.html [5/16/2004 1:30:59 PM]
Phaseolus lunatus
Phaseolus lunatus L.
Fabaceae
Lima bean, Butter, Haba, Burma bean,
Guffin bean, Hibbert bean, Java bean, Sieva
bean, Rangood bean, Madagascar bean, Paiga,
Paigya, Prolificbean, Civet bean, Sugar bean
Dry Edible Beans: A New Crops Opportunity for the East North Central RegionGlenn H.
Sullivan and Lonni R. Davenport
Phaseolus Beansproduction links
Extension Service
Neglected Crops1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len
Outside Links:
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phaseolus_lunatus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:30:59 PM]
Bean, Moth
Bean, Moth
Mat, Dew gram
Leguminosae Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.
This bean is, a trailing plant, with stems up to 2 feet, covered with stiff hairs. Pods are small, about
2 inches long, nearly round and glabrous. Seeds are small. Moth bean is cultivated for food in
South Asia and for forage, but is rarely grown in the U.S. Seeds are used as dry beans.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BeanMoth.html [5/16/2004 1:31:00 PM]
Vigna radiata
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilcz.

syn: Phaseolus aureus Roxb.
Leguminosae
Mung bean, Black dhal, Black gram, Black mung, Golden gram,
Gram bean, Green gram, Red mung bean, Urd
MungbeanAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Chickpea, Faba Bean, Lupin, Mungbean, and Pigeonpea: Potential New Crops for the
Mid-Atlantic Region of the United StatesHarbans L. Bhardwaj, Muddappa Rangappa, and
Anwar A. Hamama
Outside Links:
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_radiata_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:00 PM]
Bean, Pea, Navy
Bean
Common, Kidney, Pea, Navy, Habichuela as dry or field beans.
Leguminosae Phaseolus vulgaris L. Tepary bean. P. acutifolius A. Gray.
These are beans that ripen prior to harvest and are threshed dry from the pods. Only the ripe seeds
are marketed. Four main types are grown as follows: (1) Medium type includes Pinto, Great
Northern, Sutter, Pink Bayo, and Small Red or Mexican Red; (2) Pea or Navy; (3) Kidney; and (4)
Marrow. Seeds vary in size from about 1/3 inch long in the pea or navy bean to 3/4 inch in the
Kidney. All plants are of bush type. They are usually cut or pulled when most pods are ripe, then
vines and pods are allowed to dry before threshing.
The Tepary bean P. acutifolius, is native to southwestern U.S. and Mexico and long grown by the
Indians there. It is highly heat and drought resistant, but eating quality is less desirable than P.
vulgaris. Culture is similar to that of other dry or field beans.
Season, bloom to harvest: 3 to 3.5 months.
Production in the U. S.: 900,000 tons.
Use: Commercially canned, soup, cooked in homes.
Part of plant consumed: Seed only.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BeanPeaNavy.html [5/16/2004 1:31:01 PM]
Phaseolus coccineus
Index|Search|Home
Phaseolus coccineus L.
Fabaceae
Scarlet runner bean
Article from:
Last update Wednesday, April 29, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phaseolus_coccineus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:01 PM]
Bean, Urd
Bean, Urd
Urud bean, Black gram
Leguminosae Phaseolus mungo L.
This bean is similar to Mung bean except plants are more prostrate, pods are long and hairy, and
seeds are oblong and black. Use is similar to that of Mung bean.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BeanUrd.html [5/16/2004 1:31:02 PM]
Mucuna deeringiana
Mucuna deeringiana (Bort.)

Merr.
Leguminosae
Velvet bean
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Mucuna_deeringiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:03 PM]
Beech nuts
Beech nuts
Fagaceae: Fagus sp.
American beech: F. grandifolia Ehrh
European beech: F. sylvatica L.
The seeds of these beech species are sometimes gathered from native trees, or from trees planted
for other purposes, and used as food. The seeds are formed in prickly burrs, about 0.75 to 1 inch in
diameter, which remain closed until ripe, then partially open. The angular seeds or nuts are up to
0.75 inch long. The seed coat must be removed from the kernel before eating. In general, beech
nuts are similar to small chestnuts. The trees are not cultivated for the purpose of nut production.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Beech_nuts.html [5/16/2004 1:31:03 PM]
Perilla frutescens
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton

Lamiaceae or Labiatae
Perilla, Shiso, Beefsteak plant
NewCROP has perilla information from:
Perilla FactSHEET contributed by David Brenner
Perilla: Botany, Uses and Genetic Resources. Brenner, D.M. 1993. p. 322-328. In: J. Janick and
J.E. Simon (eds.), New Crops. Wiley, New York.
And outside links to Perilla information:
Perilla - an Asian Culinary Herb . By John Burgmans and John Scheffer at the Ruakura
Agricultural Research Centre, New Zealand
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Perilla_frutescens_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:04 PM]
Beta vulgaris
Beta vulgaris L.
Chenopodiaceae
Beetroot, chad, chard, European sugar beet,
garden beet, Harvard beet, mangel, mangelwurzel, red beet,
red-beet leaf, red garden beet, spinach beet, sugar beet, Swiss
chard, white-rooted beet, wild beet, yellow beet
Potential of Sugar Beet Nematode-Resistant Radishes and Mustard for Use in Sugar Beet
RotationsJames M. Krall, David W. Koch, Fred A. Gray, and Li Mei Yun
Sugarbeets: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Beet and Swiss Chard (with Spinach) production links
Chard
Garden beet
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Beta_vulgaris_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:04 PM]
New Bedding Plants

Ewart, L.C. 1993. New bedding plants. p. 604-608. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops.
Wiley, New York.
New Bedding Plants

Lowell C. Ewart
1. NEW CROPS FOR CONSIDERATION
1. Begonia
2. Canna
3. Catharanthus
4. Craspedia
5. Gomphrena
6. Hosta
7. Iris
8. Kalanchoe
9. Rhodohypoxis
10. Salvia
11. Steirodiscus
12. Trillium
13. Viola
14. Zinnia
2. CONCLUSION
3. REFERENCES
4. Table 1
5. Fig. 1
6. Fig. 2
7. Fig. 3
8. Fig. 4
9. Fig. 5
10. Fig. 6
New Bedding Plants
New floricultural crops have been defined by Roh and Lawson (1990) as "a newly discovered
genera or species; newly introduced cultivars of plants grown in earlier years, but forgotten or
without complete cultural information; plants that are cultivated in foreign countries but have not
been introduced in the United States; or crops that can be produced with new production
technologies that can enhance crop quality and shorten the total production time." If this
classification is followed, new bedding plants fit the definition of new crops very well.
There has been a renewed interest to bring new bedding crops to market in the last five years. The
trend is to introduce new perennial, bulb, and wildflower plants in addition to annuals for the
bedding plant and landscape industries. This trend will likely continue well into the next century,
especially with bedding plants and garden plants leading all other floriculture crops with a
wholesale value of $971 million in 1990 (Agr. Stat. Board 1991). This represents an 8% gain over
1989, and reflects a yearly increase that has remained unbroken for over 10 years.
NEW CROPS FOR CONSIDERATION

The following taxa selections are either under evaluation or have recently been released for
bedding plant sales. Additional new bedding plants are listed in Table 1.
Begonia
Begonia MSB-1 is a hybrid derived from inbreds developed from crossing Begonia x
semperflorens-cultorum Hort. with Begonia schmidtiana Regel. The purpose was to develop
material suitable for hanging basket production from seed rather than from cuttings. The plants
grow fast, have a nice spreading, branched habit, and the flower color is a bright red. Evaluations
have been excellent.
Canna
Canna x 'Tropical Rose' is an All-America Selections Flower Award Winner for 1992, the first
canna ever to receive this award. 'Tropical Rose' is an improved dwarf canna that can be sold as
young potted plants from seed sown 6 to 8 weeks prior to selling and which reaches heights of 76
cm (Sutherland 1991). Usually, cannas are grown from rhizomes rather than from seed. The soft
rose-colored blooms appear the first of July and continue the rest of the summer in the Midwest.
Catharanthus
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don still commonly known as vinca, has had several new additions
due, in great part, to the work of R.D. Parker of the University of Connecticut. The cultivars
'Parasol' and 'Pretty In Rose' are both 1991 All-America Selections Bedding Plant Award Winners,
and 'Pretty in White' is a 1992 All-American Selections Award Winner in this category.
'Parasol' improves on the cultivar 'Little Bright Eye' for flower size and flower quality. The large 4
to 5 cm blooms are pure white with a red center. The blooms have overlapping petals creating a
full round flower. 'Parasol' exhibits heat and drought tolerance, and is an excellent landscape
subject.
New Bedding Plants
'Pretty in Rose' is a new deep rose, almost purple, color now available for the first time in vinca;
whereas, 'Pretty in White' is a beautiful white with a small cream-colored eye. Both of these
cultivars bloom all summer long and perform best in full sun. In combination with other annuals,
they are perfectly suited to hanging baskets, planters, or patio urns.
These cultivars were derived from species and escaped 'wild' accessions (R.D. Parker pers.
commun.). The collection, which began in 1978, contains material principally from Madagascar
and Mauritius, but also contains material collected in Brazil, India, Mexico, Portugal, and South
Africa.
Craspedia
Craspedia x 'Drumstick' is new to horticultural cultivation. This native from Australia is easily
grown from seed. It is a green pack item and blooms approximately 170 days from seeding. The 3
cm globular flowering heads of golden yellow are held atop long, wiry stems about 60 cm tall. The
excellent cutting stems rise from compact rosettes of ground level foliage. The flowers have very
good durability either fresh or dried.
Gomphrena
Gomphrena x 'Strawberry Field' is the first true strawberry-red red gomphrena and is a beautiful,
continuous blooming annual. The 3.5 cm blooms are borne in profusion on 60 cm stems, and they
are delightful in bouquets either fresh or dried. It is a green pack item and starts to bloom
approximately 90 days from seeding and will bloom all summer.
Hosta
Hosta selection MSH-1 (Fig. 1) was found growing among what appeared to be a variable group of
seedlings in an old abandoned garden. The plants are very dwarf, early flowering with 26 cm
flower stalks with light purple flowers. The plant silhouette is on the order of Hosta lancifolia
Engl., but much smaller. The plants, in regular perennial fashion, bloom the second year from seed
in early June in the Midwest and are excellent as a rock garden subject.
Iris
Dwarf bearded iris (Iris pumila L.) (Fig. 2) are beautiful in the spring and are usually purchased as
rhizomes in late summer. They can now be produced as a spring sales, pot plant item (E.J.
Holcomb pers. commun.) by storing potted rhizomes at 7C for 8 weeks. There are many cultivars
with various colors that bloom in about 25 days after storage and produce more flowering stalks
per pot if the plants are grown under high pressure sodium lighting. These dwarf iris are excellent
for rock garden or edging use, blooming in late April to early May. They are best grown in full sun
in a well drained location.
New Bedding Plants
Kalanchoe
Kalanchoe MSK-20, a selection developed for hanging basket production, was derived from
crossing Kalanchoe x 'Jingle Bells' with Kalanchoe manginii Hamet. & Perr. B, and can be
produced from cuttings or from seed. The plants need 5 weeks of short days to induce flowering.
The critical photoperiod is 12 h, but the optimum is 9 h. The habit of the plant is more like K.
Manginii, only larger. The 2.5 cm long, trumpet shaped, red flowers are borne in profusion on the
ends of the branches. The natural flowering time is December through March in the United States.
Kalanchoe MSK-1 (Fig. 3), 2, and 4, selections from crosses within Kalanchoe blossfeldiana
Poelln., are produced from seed and are intended for mass market sales. The plants require short
days for flower induction. The colors of MSK-1, 2, and 4 are orange scarlet, hot pink, and
apricot-yellow, respectively. The individual flowers have a spread of 17 mm, and the natural
flowering time is December through April in the United States.
Rhodohypoxis
Rhodohypoxis bourii (Bak.) Nel., known as the Starlet Flower, is native to South Africa and hardy
only into zone 8. Grown from rhizomes, it has been used as a rock garden plant. It is suitable as an
attractive spring pot plant, ready for sale 5 to 6 weeks from potting. The flower colors range from
white, pale pink to red, and the flowers, each comprising 6 petals, meet at the center with no eye.
The slender stems produce a succession of 2 cm flowers. The plants can be enjoyed as a patio
subject or planted out in the garden, but should be removed before freezing temperatures are
experienced. The rhizomes can reflower after 8 to 10 weeks of storage at 4C (Bay City Flower
Co. pers. commun.). Production of this crop is still somewhat hampered by the limited number of
rhizomes available each year.
Salvia
'Lady in Red' salvia, an All-America Selections Flower Award Winner for 1992, is derived from
Salvia coccinea Juss. ex J. Murr., sometimes called Texas sage. The bright red flowers, which
attract humming birds and butterflies, are borne in loose whorls along a spike above the foliage.
Mature plant height is 60 cm. 'Lady in Red' can be produced as a flowering bedding plant, using
the same culture as for Salvia splendens F. Sellow ex Roem. & Schult (Sutherland 1991). Crop
time from sowing to initial bloom is about 10 to 12 weeks, and the plants will flower all summer
long.
Steirodiscus
Steirodiscus x 'Gold Rush' has a beautiful yellow, daisy-like flower about 2.5 cm in diameter. In
full bloom, the flowers cover the entire plant which grows to 12 to 18 cm in height (Hamrick
1989). It is produced from seed and will grow well at 15 to 21C. The plants, however, require a
cool night temperature of 2 to 5C and 15C days to flower. Temperatures over 26C will result
in poor growth and shorten the bloom period. In general, the crop time is 12 weeks (American
Takii Inc. pers. commun.).
New Bedding Plants
Trillium
A double flowered form of Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. ('Flore Pleno') (Fig. 4) is quite
rare as a commercial item. The single flowered type at one time was forced as a pot plant, but went
out of style. Now, with the renewed interest in wildflowers in the landscape, such items have
become popular again. The plants, however, are now protected in some states and cannot be dug
from the wild. The double flowering form can be propagated vegetatively, but at a premium price.
Potted up during the summer previous to spring sales and stored overwinter, this plant sells itself
when in bloom at a garden center outlet. The double flowers have a good 2 to 3 weeks duration
time which adds to their value for spring sales. The plants can be enjoyed best, however, if planted
as soon as possible into the landscape.
Viola
Violet MSV-1 (Fig. 5) is of hybrid derivation from within the wild Viola stemless, blue, cut-leaved
group. In the spring, the plants are covered with blue flowers that are held above the foliage
forming a beautiful blue carpet. Propagation is by seed or division. Violets are photoperiodic
(Mastalerz 1977), producing conspicuous clasmogamous flowers under short day, and
inconspicuous clestogamous flowers under long day conditions. It should be possible to keep the
plants flowering year-round by manipulating photoperiod and temperature. This should allow sales
of flowering plants for landscape use from spring through most of the summer.
Zinnia
The most economic important garden zinnia (Zinnia elegans Jacq.) is very susceptible to several
leaf diseases. Zinnia angustifolia HBK, however, is virtually disease free. Until now only the
orange flowered cultivar 'Classic' was available. A new white flowered cultivar 'Star White' (Fig.
6) has been introduced. The single, daisy-like flowers measure about 2.5 cm and appear in mass on
plants reaching 35 cm. The plants thrive in hot, dry conditions and carry the same disease
resistance found in Z. angustifolia (Burpee pers. commun.). The plants bloom all summer and are
propagated from seed.
CONCLUSION
The plants highlighted represent an interesting and colorful group of new plants that should find a
home in the garden for years to come. They are an example of what new crops can do for
increasing the interest of color and diversity in the landscape.
REFERENCES
Agricultural Statistical Board. 1991. Floriculture crops, 1990 Summary. Washington, DC.,
USDA, NASS. Arp. Sp Cr 6-1 (91).
Hamrick, D. 1989. 1989 International pack trials report. Grower Talks 53(3):32-67.
New Bedding Plants
Mastalerz, J.W. 1977. The greenhouse environment. Wiley, New York.

Roh, M.S. and R.H. Lawson. 1990. New floriculture crops, p. 448-453. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Simon (eds.). Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Sutherland, L. 1991. AAS winners span the spectrum in fresh, bright colors. Grower Talks
55(2):73-79.
Table 1. Examples of other new cultivars and species that show potential for bedding plant sales.
Taxa
Annuals
Calandrinia x 'Bogota'
Centaurea x 'Blue Midget'
Gaillardia x 'Red Plume'
Gaillardia x 'Yellow Sun'
Comments
Impatiens x 'Spectra'
Lisianthus x 'Blue Lisa'
Nasturtium x 'Tip Top'
Sanvitalia x 'Double Sprite Yellow'
Perennials
Claytonia verginica L.
Dicentra Cucullaria (L.) Bernh.
Lychnis x 'Molten Lava'
Platycodon x 'Sentimental Blue'
Dwarf New Guinea-type from seed

Dwarf, deep blue
Dwarf, in single colors or as a mix
Double flowers, heat tolerant
Very dwarf, heat tolerant, violet rose color

Dwarf, free flowering
Dwarf, heat tolerant, excellent flower production
Dwarf, heat tolerant
Wildflower
Wildflower
Dwarf, deep red
Dwarf, large flowered
Fig. 1. Three-year-old plant of hosta selection

MSH-1 in bloom.
Fig. 2. May flowering selection of Iris pumila.
New Bedding Plants
Fig. 3. Kalanchoe selection MSK-1 in bloom

from seed
Fig. 4. Double flowering form of Trillium

grandiflorum.
Fig. 5. Violet selection MSV-1 in bloom in

early May.
Fig. 6. Zinnia angustifolia cultivar 'White Star'

in full bloom.
Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera Lam.

Moringaceae
Horseradish-tree, Ben-oil tree,
Drumstick-tree
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Moringa_oleifera_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:08 PM]
Benincasa hispida
Index| Search| Home
Benincasa hispida (Thunb.)

Cogn.
Cucurbitaceae
Fuzzy melon, Hairy melon, Chinese Preserving
Melon, Chinese squash, Chinese vegetable
marrow, Chinese winter melon, Moqua, Wax
gourd, White gourd, Zit-Kwa
and Mas Yamaguchi
Growing Cucumbers, Melons, Squash, Pumpkins, and GourdsCooperative Extension Service,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. PDF version
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Benincasa_hispida_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:09 PM]
Sesamum indicum
Index| Search| Home
Sesamum indicum L.
Pedaliaceae
Sesame
Other common names are: benne seed, benniseed, gingelly, sim sim, and til.
NewCROP has Sesame information at:
Food, Industrial, Nutraceutical, and Pharmaceutical Uses of Sesame Genetic ResourcesJ.
Bradley Morris
Progress in Mechanizing Sesame in the US Through BreedingD. Ray Langham and Terry
Wiemers
Sesame: New Approaches for Crop ImprovementRaghav Ram, David Cathn, Juan Romero, and
Craig Cowley
Preliminary Agronomic Evaluation of New Crops for North DakotaMarisol T. Berti and A.A.
Schneiter
Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Sesame
Sesame Oil
Sesame: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
And outside links to more Sesame info:
SESACO.net
Sesame Seeds Consumer Information from McCormick, Inc.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sesamum_indicum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:09 PM]
Oregon Hollygrape
Oregon Hollygrape
Berberis aquifolium Prursh.
Other common names.Oregon grape, Rocky Mountain grape,
hollyleaved barberry, California barberry, trailing mahonia.
Habitat and range.This shrub is native in woods in rich soil among
rocks from Nebraska to the Pacific Ocean, but it is especially abundant
in Oregon and northern California.
Description.Oregon hollygrape is a low-growing shrub from 2 to 5
feet in height, resembling the holly of the Eastern States. The leaves
are divided like those of an ash; the five to nine leaflets from 2 to 3
inches long and about 1 inch wide are evergreen, thick, leathery,
smooth, and shining on the upper surface with marginal spines. The
numerous small yellow flowers appear in April and May and are borne
in erect clusters. The fruit consists of a cluster of blue berries. The
rootstock and roots are more or less knotty, about an inch or less in
Figure 81.Oregon
diameter, with tough yellow wood and brownish bark.
hollygrape (Berberis
aquifolium)
Other species.The roots of Berberis nervosa Pursh, which is found

in the same region, are sometimes collected with that of Oregon hollygrape.
Part used.The bark, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/hollygrape.html [5/16/2004 1:31:10 PM]
Brazil nut
Brazil nut
Butter nut, Cream nut, Para nut
Myrtaceac Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl.
The tree is very large, up to over 100 feet. It is a tropical evergreen, native to northern Brazil, with
large leathery leaves, 2 feet long and 6 inches wide. The tree forms forests along the Amazon and
Rio Nigro Rivers. Large quantities of nuts are gathered from such trees, but they are little
cultivated. The fruits are round, about 6 inches in diameter, with a hard shell near 0.5 inch thick,
which contains 18 to 24 of the 3-sided angular nuts. The shell of the individual nut is woody,
rather thin, and completely filled with the white, creamy kernel. Brazil nuts are not produced
commercially in the U.S., but large quantities are imported.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Brazil_nut.html [5/16/2004 1:31:11 PM]
Betula lenta
Index|Search|Home | Aromatic, Spice and Medicinal Plants
Betula lenta L.
Betulaceae
Sweet birch, black birch, cherry birch, spice birch
The Herb Hunters Guide.Sievers, A.F. 1930.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Betula_lenta_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:11 PM]
Phyllanthus niuri
Phyllanthus niuri L. Ann

Phyllanthus fraternus Webster
Euphorbiaceae
bhuiaonla (Hindi) kiranelligida (Canarese), bhuiavli (Marathi),
ajata, amala, bbumyamalaki, sukshmadala, vituntika (Sanskrit)
Bhuiaonla (Phyllanthus niruri): A Useful Medicinal Weed P. Oudhia
Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in BrazilR.F. Vieira
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phyllanthus_niruri.html [5/16/2004 1:31:12 PM]
Big bluegrass
Big bluegrass
Gramineae Poa ampla Merr.
This is a strong-growing perennial bunchgrass native in Western United
States. Plants are up to 4 feet tall, with numerous basal leaves 8 to 16 inches long by 0.375 inch
wide and a deep, fibrous root system. Stands are generally not dense, but the high production of
palatable forage make this a very valuable range grass. It starts growth early in the spring and
continues into fall. It is very useful for regrassing farm and depleted range lands. Mixed plantings
of big bluegrass and legumes as alfalfa have produced high yields of excellent forage. It is easily
injured by overgrazing. Seed is large in size and produced readily. Propagation is by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Big_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:13 PM]
Big trefoil
Big trefoil
Leguminosae Lotus pedunculatus Cav.
In general appearance big trefoil resembles birdsfoot trefoil, but its range of
adaptation is quite different. It is much less winter hardy so is adapted only to humid areas with
mild winters. It is grown mostly in western Oregon but also is promising for the Southeastern
States. It tolerates submergence and grows well on wet, poorly drained soil. It spreads by
underground stems. The root system is shallow. It can be grown in combination with sod-forming
grasses, competing well with them. It is high in palatability, both as pasturage and as hay. Seed
inoculation is important in establishing plantings. While less important nationally than birdsfoot
trefoil, it is a valuable crop for special areas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Big_trefoil.html [5/16/2004 1:31:13 PM]
Hibiscus cannabinus
Index| Search| Home
Hibiscus cannabinus L.
Malvaceae
Kenaf, Bimli, Bimlipatum, Jute,
Deccan hemp
FactSHEET contributed by: Charles S. Taylor
Non-wood Fiber Crops: Commercialization of Kenaf for NewsprintDaniel E. Kugler
Kenaf Commercialization: 1986-1995Daniel E. Kugler
Kenaf: An Emerging New Crop IndustryCharles S. Taylor
Kenaf: Production, Harvesting, Processing, and ProductsCharles L.
Webber III and Robert E. Bledsoe
Economics of Kenaf Production in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of
TexasAndrew W. Scott, Jr, and Charles S. Taylor
The Rise and Fall of Kenaf as a Fiber Crop in North
CarolinaWilham T. Fike
Kenaf: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
New Industrial Crops: Northwestern Argentina Regional ProjectRicardo Ayerza (h) and Wayne
Coates
Underexploited Temperate Industrial and Fiber CropsRichard J. Roseberg
Salt Tolerance of KenafL.E. Francois, T.J. Donovan, and E.V. Mass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hibiscus_cannabinus_nex.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:31:15 PM]
Hibiscus cannabinus
Response of Kenaf to Multiple CuttingFrank E. Robinson

Kenaf in Irrigated Central WashingtonDavid W. Evans and An N. Hang
Utilization of Methanol Stress for Evaluating Kenaf QualityCharles G. Cook and Andrew W.
Scott, Jr.
The Effects of Metolachlor and Trifluralin on Kenaf Yield ComponentsCharles L. Webber III
Adaptation of Kenaf to Temperate Climatic ZonesBrian S. Baldwin
Response of Kenaf to Nitrogen FertilizationCharles L. Webber III
Potential for Kenaf Improvement via Somaclonal VariationNancy A. Reichert and Brian S.
Baldwin
Growth of Bedding Plants in a Kenaf-Based Potting MediumNancy A. Reichert and Brian S.
Baldwin
Kenaf: An Alternative Crop for Delaware (Abstract)Hames Don Tilmon, Richard Taylor, and
George Malone
Cultivar Evaluations and Fertility Requirements of Kenaf in Southeast Texas (Abstract)John W.
Sij
Feasibility of Adopting Kenaf on the Eastern Shore of VirginiaAltin Kalo, Susan B. Sterrett,
Paul H. Hoepner, Fred Diem, and Daniel B. Taylor
Kenaf Production: Fiber, Feed, and SeedCharles L. Webber III, Harbans L. Bhardwaj, and
Venita K. Bledsoe
Kenaf Harvesting and ProcessingCharles L. Webber III, Venita K. Bledsoe, and Robert E.
Bledsoe
Kenaf Yield Components and Plant CompositionCharles L. Webber III and Venita K. Bledsoe
Effect of Kenaf and Soybean Rotations on Yield ComponentsCharles L. Webber III
New Crops Research and Development: A Federal PerspectiveL.H. Princen
Commercializing Promising TechnologiesPaul F. O'Connell
White
Outside links:
American kenaf Society
Hibiscus cannabinus
ReThink Paper
Commercial products:
Kenaf paper The Evanescent Press
Kenaf seed photograph by University of Minnesota Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products.
Betula lenta L.
Betula lenta L.
Betulaceae
Cherry birch, Sweet birch, Black birch
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
A beer is made from birch bark. Fernald et al., (1958) quote an old English recipe for the beer:
"To every Gallon of Birch-water put a quart of Honey, well stirr'd together; then boil it almost an
hour with a few Cloves, and a little Limon-peel, keeping it well scumm'd. When it is sufficiently
boil'd, and become cold, add to it three or four Spoonfuls of good Ale to make it work...and when
the Test begins to settle, bottle it up . . . it is gentle, and very harmless in operation within the
body, and exceedingly sharpens the Appetite, being drunk ante pastum."
According to Grieve (1931), Kamschatka natives drink the sap without previous fermentation. In
Spring, the inner bark can be cut up into noodle-sized strips and cooked as birch "noodles." Like
maple sap, the sap can be used for honey, syrup, or sugar after boiling down. Wood used by
cabinet makers. The oil distilled from the wood is insectifugal and can be used to preserve furs.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Betula_lenta.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:31:15 PM]
Betula lenta L.
Sweet Birch oil is used as a counter irritant for arthralgia and neuralgia, usually in balms,
liniments, and ointments. It is used to impart a wintergreen flavor in such things as baked goods,
candies, chewing gums, dairy desserts, gelatins, puddings, and root beer, rarely constituting as
much as 0.1% of candy (Leung, 1980). Used in cosmetic shampoos (List and Horhammer,
19691979), and in the sugar industry for flavoring and in perfumery. Birch tar oil, distilled from
the wood and bark of Betula pendula Roth is used for eczema, psoriasis, and other skin diseases.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the birch species are used in folk remedies for abdominal and
mammary cancers and carcinomas and warts. Reported to be alterative, anodyne, antiseptic,
counterirritant, deobstruent, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, parasiticide, pectoral, stomachic, and
vulnerary, sweet birch is a folk remedy for burns, chafing, cold, cough, dandruff, dysentery,
dysmenorrhea, gout, gravel, lumbago, rheumatism, scalds, sciatica, and sores (Duke and
Wain,1981; List and Horhammer, 19691979; Erichsen-Brown, 1979). The bark has been used as
an astringent, antiseptic, antipyretic, and antirheumatic. Cherokee chewed the leaves for dysentery
and used the bark tea for colds, dysentery, milky urine, and stomach ailments. Delaware used the
bark decoction as cathartic or emetic. Iroquois used it for colds, fever, soreness, and venereal
diseases. Ojibwa used bark as diuretic. In the days of Milspaugh, much of the so-called oil in
wintergreen was made instead from young birch, there being little variance between oil of
wintergreen and oil of birch (Duke,1983c).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the leaves are reported to contain, on a zero-moisture basis, 28.1 g protein, 8.6 g fat,
55.6 g total carbohydrate, 16.9 g fiber, and 7.7 g ash (Miller, 1958). Hager's Handbuch lists 3%
monotropitoside (Salicylic-acid primvercoside, gaultherin, C19H26O12) and 0.230.6% essential
oil, 99.8% of which is methysaliclate. Buds contain 46% essential oil containing betulol.
According to Morton (1977), the distilled oil contains 9799% methyl salicylate (List and
Horhammer, 19691979).
Toxicity
Very toxic orally, methyl salicylate can be absorbed through the skin, resulting in human fatalities.
As little as 4, 700 mg can be fatal in children (Leung, 1980).
Description
Aromatic tree with brown, exfoliating bark on young stems, twigs glabrous. Leaves ovate or
elliptic, 2.710 cm long, 1.56 cm wide, pubescent on the veins beneath, apically acute or
acuminate; sharply serrate, base cordate, rounded or cuneate; petioles usually pubescent, 0.81.9
cm long. Pistillate catkins cylindric or oblong, 1.23.4 cm long, 0.61.2 cm broad; bracts glabrous;
samaras obovoid, 2.53.5 mm broad, apically winged, glabrous (Radford et al, 1968).
Betula lenta L.
Germplasm
Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, cherry birch, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate heath balds, frost, shade, and slope. (2n = 28).
Distribution
Southern Maine to southern Ontario, southern to eastern Ohio and Delaware, along the mountains
to Alabama and Georgia.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Boreal Moist to Wet Forest Life
Zones, and to tolerate annual precipitation of ca 6 to 15 dm, annual temperature of 5 to 12C, and
pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Farther south in rich woods and heath balds.
Cultivation
For the oil, birch is usually harvested from the wild. Birch seeds do best if stratified, or can be
sown after collection in late summer or fall. Seed is broadcast and covered very lightly (25 mm)
keeping the seedbed moist if possible. Epigeal germination is usually complete 46 weeks after
spring sowing. Seedlings require light shade during their first summer.
Harvesting
Midrange this flowers from April to May, fruits ripening from August to September, the seeds
dispersing from September to November (Agriculture Handbook 450). Birch seed is collected by
picking or stripping the cones while they are still green (to prevent shattering). Ripe cones, on the
other hand, are placed in, bags to prevent loss of seed. Seedling densities of 250475 m2 are
suggested.

Most sources indicate that birch oil, which replaced wintergreen oil, has been largely replaced by
synthetic methyl salicylate. Salicylic acid is now synthesized and selling at ca $2.50 to $3.00 per
kilo. Salicylic acid in technical form is used as a coupling agent dye intermediates, in the foundry
industry as a curing agent in the production of shell moulding compounds, as an agent for
retarding the vulcanization process in rubber, as a preservative for glues and leather goods, and in
alkyl/alkyd resins and latex paints (CMR, Dec. 13, 1982).
Betula lenta L.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges from 3 to 12 MT/ha in
various species of birch, standing biomass 2220 MT/ha. Rather lower productivity and standing
biomass are reported by Cannell (1982). If there were a decent market for the oil of the bark and
wood, then most of the aerial biomass could be an energetic byproduct.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists the fungi Melampsoridium betulinum and Nectria galligena and hymenoptera
Heterarthrus nemoratus affecting cherry birch. Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following
as affecting this species: Comandra umbellata (seed plant parasitic on roots), Cryptospora betulae
(on dead branches), Cryptospora humeralis, Dermea molliuscula (on dead twigs), Diatrypella
betulina (on dead branches), Fomes applanatus (white-mottled heart rot), F. connatus (white
spongy heart rot), F. pinicola (brown crumbly heart rot), F. robustus (white sapwood and heart
rot),.Gloeosporium betularum (leaf spot), Hymenochaete agglutinans (trunk canker), Melanconis
acrocystis, M. stilbostoma, Microsphaera alni (powdery mildew), Nectria coccinea (on branches),
Phyllactinia corylea (powdery mildew), Poria laevigata (white spongy rot, trunk canker), Poria
obliqua (white spongy rot, trunk canker), Septoria betulicola (leaf spot), S. microsperms,
Steganosporium piriforme (on twigs), Taphrina sp. (leaf blister), and Torula ligniperda (red stain
of heartwood).
References
Washington.
New York.
Aurora, Canada.
Betula lenta L.
Grieve, M. 1931. A modern herbal. Reprint 1974. Hafner Press, New York.
Miller, D.F. 1958. Composition of cereal grains and forages. National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, Washington, DC. Publ. 585.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
Radford, A.E., Ahles, H.E., and Bell, C.R. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Carolinas. UNC Press, Chapel Hill.
Birdsfoot trefoil
Birdsfoot trefoil
Leguminosae Lotus corniculatus L.
Birdsfoot trefoil is a perennial,
fine-stemmed, leafy legume that has become of increased importance in American agriculture in
recent years. Introduced by chance from Europe, strains selected in this country are now of major
importance as pasture and hay crops. It is hardy and adapted to areas of ample moisture supply
from the Ohio and Potomac Rivers north into Canada and west to the edge of the Great Plains, also
in humid parts of the Pacific States. The leaves are sessile along the stems, each with 5 linear to
oval leaflets. Stems are decumbent unless in fairly dense stands, reaching 20 to 40 or more inches
in length. The plant has a deep, branched root system and tolerates both wet and moderately dry
conditions. It is unusual among legumes in that it does not cause bloat in cattle. Both as pasture
and as hay it is highly palatable and nutritious. Harvested seed increased 6-fold from 1949 to 1959,
and in the latter year was sufflcient to plant about 300,000 acres, according to census data.
Photographs from University of Minnesota Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Birdsfoot_trefoil.html [5/16/2004 1:31:17 PM]
Biriba
Rollinia mucosa Baill.

Annonaceae
Biriba
BiribaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
South American fruits deserving further attention.Campbell, R.J. 1996. p. 431-439. In: J. Janick
Last update Thursday, January 28, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Rollinia_mucosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:17 PM]
Citrullus colocynthis
Citrullus colocynthis (L.)

Schrad.
Cucurbitaceae
Colocynth, Egusi, Bitter apple
Colocynth: Potential Arid Land Oilseed from an Ancient CucurbitZohara Yaniv, Ella
Shabelsky, and Dan Schafferman
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrullus_colocynthis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:18 PM]
Bitter Nightshade
Bitter Nightshade
Solanum dulcamara L.
Other common names.Bittersweet, dulcamara, nightshade,
climbing nightshade, woody nightshade, amara dulcis, fevertwig,
violet-bloom, blue bindweed, felonwort, poisonberry, poisonflower,
pushion-berry, morel, snakeberry, wolfgrape, scarlet berry,
tether-devil, dwale, skawcoo.
Habitat and range.This plant occurs in low damp grounds and
moist banks of rivers from New Brunswick to Minnesota and south to
New Jersey and Kansas.
Description.Bitter nightshade has a climbing, somewhat woody,
branched stem about 2 to 8 feet long. The leaves are from 2 to 4 inches
long, some entire and others having one to three lobes at the base. The
purplish flowers, which resemble those of the potato, are produced
Figure 15.Bitter nightshade
from about May to September in compound clusters. The berries,
(Solanum dulcamara)
which ripen in autumn, are oval, red, juicy, and contain numerous
seeds. The plant has a handsome appearance in autumn with its colored berries, and is often
planted as an ornamental.
Part used.The young branches from plants only 1 or 2 years old, collected after the leaves have
fallen.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/nightshade.html [5/16/2004 1:31:19 PM]
Andean tubers

Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len (eds.).
Plant Production and Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p. 149163.
Andean tubers
The authors of this chapter are C. Arbizu and M. Tapia (CIP. Lima, Peru).
Oca
(Oxalis tuberosa)
Botanical name: Oxalis tuberosa Molina
Family: Oxalidaceae
Common names. English: oca, oxalis; Quechua: oqa, ok'a; Aymara: apilla; Spanish: oca (Peru, Ecuador),
oca, ibia (Colombia), ruba, timbo, quiba (Venezuela), papa roja, papa colorada, papa extranjera (Mexico)
Oxalis tuberosa is a crop native to the Andes. Together with the potato. the domestication of this and other
Andean tubers in the central region of Peru (lat. 10S) and northern Bolivia (lat. 20S), where the greatest
diversity both of cultivated and wild forms is found, is thought to have given rise to agricultural activity in
the higher agro-ecological areas of the Andes. The migrations of pre-Columbian communities extended its
cultivation to lat. 8N in Venezuela and lat. 25S in northern Argentina and Chile. Its cultivation was
introduced into Mexico about 200 or 300 years ago and, nowadays, it is grown relatively extensively in the
region of the Transverse Neovolcanic Axis. Oca was introduced into Europe in the last century and, even
though it was produced as a new vegetable, it did not become established as a permanent crop. It is known
to have existed in New Zealand since 1860 and its cultivation seems to have gained popularity in the last
20 years.
The oca is sown together with the ullucu, mashwa and native potatoes on plots from 30 to approximately
1000 m2. It is therefore difficult to tell what its cultivated area and production is. However, it is estimated
that 20000 ha are sown annually in Peru, with an average production of 3 to 12 tonnes per hectare,
although some experimental selections and treatments have produced as much as 97 tonnes per hectare.
Uses and nutritional value

Oca is first sun-dried to make it sweeter and then parboiled, roasted or prepared as pachamanca (meat
roasted in a hole in the ground).
The dried, frozen tuber is called khaya. If it is washed after freezing, a whiter product called okhaya is
obtained which is considered to be of superior quality. The flour of the latter is used to make porridges and
desserts. Oca is first and foremost a good source of energy; its protein and fat content is low.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/tubers.html (1 of 15) [5/16/2004 1:31:24 PM]
Andean tubers
O. tuberosa is an annual, herbaceous plant that is erect in the first stages of its development, and
decumbent or prostrate towards maturity. The tubers are claviform-ellipsoid and cylindrical, with buds on
the whole surface, and variegated in colour: white, yellow, red and purple.
The leaves are trifoliate, with petioles of varying length (2 to 9 cm). The inflorescences consist of four or
five flowers. The calyx is formed by five pointed, green sepals. The corolla has five purple-striped, yellow
petals; ten stamens in two groups of five; and a pistil that is shorter or longer than the stamens.
Propagation is almost exclusively by the tubers. The flower structure has an efficient mechanism which
facilitates cross-pollination.
Figure 15. Andean tubers: A) oca (Oxalis tuberosa); A1) tuber; B) mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum); B1)
tuber

Oca is grown from 3000 to 4000 m, from Colombia to Chile. However, the greatest concentration is found
between 3500 and 3800 m, in the suni agro-ecological zone (mountain slopes).
Wild species of the genus Oxalis are found on the low ridges of the Peruvian coast, or growing
sympatrically with cultivated oca in the Andes and on the edges of forests.
Genetic diversity
The basic number of chromosomes has been established as x = 11. There are reports of ocas that are close
to pentaploid (2n = 2x = 58) and hexaploid (2n = 2x = 66) and also of hexaploid cultivated ocas. The
frequency of diploids, triploids, tetraploids, pentaploids and hexaploids as well as those that are not
exactly euploid should be clarified. The role of the 2n gametes in the formation of the polyploid complex
and the nature of the F1 and F2 material needs to be studied.
The pattern of variability in the oca seems to be fairly complex. In fact, cultivated forms have hitherto
been grouped together into a single species which includes several shapes and colours of tuber.
Andean tubers
The self-incompatibility system present in the oca and consequent cross-pollination, together with the
aesthetic selection made by Andean farmers, must have had an influence on the existence of the wide
variety of tuber colours and shapes. as well as the number and depth of "eyes" or "buds".
The wide variability found in the colour of the tubers suggests a continual variation, since colours range
from white to black, with various hues of yellow. pink and red in between. Flesh colour also seems to
undergo continual variation, although less than skin colour does. Ocas have been seen with ivory-yellow
and violet-purple flesh in several hues. There are a great many shapes in the vascular ring pigmented with
the same colouring as the skin, followed in colour intensity by the medulla.
Oca collections in South America

Over the past ten years, expeditions have been made to Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia to collect cultivated oca.
Field collections in Peru are being maintained and evaluated at the Universities of Cuzco, Huancayo,
Ayacucho, Cajamarca and Puno, and at INIAA, where there are over 1000 accessions with sufficient
duplications. Most of this material is kept in vitro at the Biotechnological Laboratory of the Universidad
Nacional Mayor San Marcos in Lima. The collection of Ecuadorian oca is kept as a field collection at the
Santa Catalina station in Quito.
The three Andean tubers (oca, mashwa and ullucu) are grown in the same agro-ecological zone and their
soil requirements and cultivation practices are very similar to those of the potato: for this reason they are
dealt with together.
In the northern area of the Peruvian sierra. the traditional form of cultivation is on melgas: after cultivation
of the potato, the land is divided into three to five plots, each of which is sown with one of the Andean
tubers.
On the high plateau of Puno and in the agro-ecological zone of the semi-humid puna, a mixture of tubers is
sown. By contrast, in the quechua agro-ecological zone, the oca and ullucu are planted together with
maize. These crops show a high response to agricultural work such as fertilization, earthing up, hoeing
and, above all, the control of pests and diseases; their production increases to levels of 40 to 50 tonnes per
hectare, which are comparable to the highest potato yields.

The prospects for this crop lie in the possibility of increasing its yield and in its use as an alternative
source of flour to wheat.
The following aspects should be taken into account:
The oca has to compete for ground (cultivation areas) with potatoes; as a result, its expansion could
be limited; research carried out in southern Peru seems to confirm this.
Attacks by pests, such as weevils, may cause the loss of an entire crop; studies on the integrated
control of these pests, through cultivation practices, biological control using the fungus
Beauveriabrogniartii, postharvest management and the use of resistant varieties would need to be
carried out; bitter ocas show a degree of resistance to the various weevils.
Presence of viral diseases: Although just one virus has been identified in the oca, it seems that
others exist which damage the crop: the purity of commercial varieties and genetic materials must
be established as standard practice, as virus-free varieties would give higher yields.
Andean tubers
The extensive growing period of seven to eight months exposes the crop for a longer time to attack
from biotic and abiotic factors. and oca cultivation is consequently being gradually replaced by
early varieties of potato (with a growing period of four to five months), the short duration of the
tuber also affects its propagation.
The high yields in dry matter obtained from this crop and the possibilities of attaining up to 6 or 7 tonnes
of flour per hectare are factors that ought to be dealt with in an agro-industrial research programme.
Mashwa
(Tropaeolum tuberosum)
Botanical name: Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruz & Pavn
Family: Tropeolaceae
Common names. English: mashwa; Spanish: mashwa, mashua (Peru, Ecuador), isao, au (Peru,
Bolivia), maswallo, mazuko, mascho (Peru) and cubio (Colombia)
Tropaeolum tuberosum apparently originates from the central Andes (lat. 10 to 20S). Its cultivation is
thought to have been spread by pre-Columbian migrations to Colombia (lat. 8N) and northern Argentina
and Chile (lat. 25S). In spite of its hardiness, there are no references to its introduction into other
countries, possibly because the tuber's flavour is not very pleasant when eaten for the first time.
Grown together with ullucu, oca and native potatoes on plots from approximately 30 to 1000 m2, it is
difficult to ascertain its cultivated area and production. However, it is estimated that around 6000 ha are
sown annually in Peru, with an average yield of 4 to 12 tonnes per hectare. Under experimental conditions,
up to 70 tonnes per hectare have been obtained.
From an agronomic point of view, mashwa is very hardy because it grows on poor soil, without the use of
fertilizers and pesticides. Even under these conditions, its yield can be double that of the potato. Its
cultivation together with ullucu, oca and native potatoes could be accounted for by the nematicide and
insecticide control properties that the plant has.
Since the time of the Incas, who included them in their soldiers' rations, the tubers have had anaphrodisiac
properties attributed to them. Today, it is known that testosterone levels are significantly reduced in male
rats that are fed mashwa.

Mashwa is important for meeting the food requirements of resource-poor people in marginal rural areas of
the high Andes. It is prepared in the form of a stew, as a roast or in the form of thayacha. For the latter
preparation, the tubers are exposed overnight to frost and are eaten the following day accompanied by
sugar-cane syrup.
T. tuberosum is an annual herbaceous plant of erect growth when it is young and it has prostrate stems
with compact foliage when mature. This enables it to compete advantageously with weeds. At first sight,
the tubers may be confused with oca tubers, but they can be distinguished by their conical shape, dark
markings and a greater concentration of buds on the distal part, as well as by their sour taste.
Andean tubers
The growing cycle of this species varies between 220 and 245 days. Unlike oca and ullucu, mashwa
produces a great quantity of viable seeds.

Mashwa is cultivated from Colombia to Bolivia, from 3000 to 4000 m, with a greater concentration
between 3500 and 3800 m. In spite of the poor-quality soils, extreme temperatures, radiation. variation in
precipitation and the winds of the Andes, the plant grows quickly, managing to repel insects and
nematodes, suppress weeds and maximize photosynthesis. The proportion of dry matter transferred to the
tubers can be as high as 75 percent.
Genetic diversity
The genus Tropaeolum has a wide geographical distribution and seems to be very variable. There are an
estimated 50 species in Mexico and Central and South America. Wild species of mashwa in Peru can be
found on the low ridges of the Peruvian coast, on the edges of forests or growing sympatrically with
cultivated mashwa in the Andes.
Ornamental Tropaeolum can be found in gardens on the coast and in the Andes. Weed forms of mashwa,
called kite au, are sporadic in the maize or tuber fields of the sierra. T. edule, T. polyphyllum and T.
patagonicum have also been described as producers of tubers in the Andes of Chile and Argentina, but
they apparently have no economic use.
As in the case of the oca, the crossability groups are not known, in other words the situation of the
mashwa's gene stock is unknown.
Chromosome calculations have established the basic number as x = 13. Cultivated forms are clearly
tetraploids (2n = 4x = 52). The frequency of diploids, triploids and tetraploids is not known and nor is the
possible gene flow.
Cross-pollination and the tendency towards self-fertilization, together with aesthetic selection, must have
influenced the appearance of various morphotypes. It can be said that the diversity of the mashwa is less
than that of the oca, and slightly less than that of the ullucu. However, variation has been found in tuber
colour, shapes, bud characteristics and flesh colour. The tuber's skin colour varies from ivory to very
dark-purplish violet, with several hues of yellow, orange and purplish violet in between. Pink or purple
speckles or stripes may occur on the skin at the apex and under the buds. Tuberization in the buds is more
frequent in clones of shortened conical tubers than elongated and ellipsoid conical tubers. The greatest
variation in tuber colours and shapes is found in the region between central Peru and northern Bolivia.
Mashwa collections in South America

Cultivated mashwa, just like ullucu and oca, has been collected extensively in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia
during the last ten years. The field collections of Peru. stored and evaluated in the gene banks of
Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Huancayo, Cuzco and Puno, exceed 300 accessions. Many of the accessions are
kept in vitro in the biotechnological laboratory of the Universidad Nacional Mayor San Marcos in Lima.
The field collection of Ecuadorian mashwa is stored and evaluated at the Santa Catalina experimental
station in Quito.
Andean tubers
Mashwa cultivation practices are the same as those described for the oca.

Because of its flavour, the mashwa could have a better chance of more extensive use in animal feeding. In
this connection. certain clones with a protein content of up to 11 percent show good prospects.
An investigation into the factors limiting mashwa production. carried out by the CIP in the Peruvian
Department of Cuzco (1989). elicited the following answers from the peasants: scarcity of suitable land
(28 percent): low crop yields (17 percent): and scarcity of seed (17 percent).
The rise in population and consequent pressure on the land would seem to be a limiting factor not only in
Cuzco but also in other parts of the Andes. Low crop yields would not be a serious limiting factor. since
the mashwa responds well to good soil management. Seed scarcity is a problem that can be solved.
The main lines of research are as follows:
the function of undesirable substances:
the long cultivation period:
tuber storage:
the selection of varieties for the various agro-ecological conditions:
consumption patterns in rural and urban populations.
Bitter Potatoes
(Solanum x juzepczukii), (Solanum x curtilobum)
Botanical names: Solanum x juzepczukii, Solanum x curtilobum
Family: Solanaceae
Common names. English: bitter potato; Aymara: luki; Quechua: ruku; Spanish: choquepito, ococuri
It seems that the domestication of bitter potatoes began some 8000 years ago and that, as cultivated
domesticated species, they have been used extensively for at least 3000 years.
Acosta, one of the first Spanish chroniclers to describe the agricultural resources of the Andes, mentions
that bitter potatoes that had been exposed to the cold overnight and then pressed and dried were
transformed into what was known as chuo and were used as bread is in Europe. A century later, the priest
Bernab Cobo reported that. on the high plateau, there were wild potatoes and bitter potatoes which the
Aymaras called aphus and which could only be eaten when processed as chuo: this food constituted the
main staple in the high plateau region between Peru and Bolivia.
In spite of their importance for the agro-ecological zones of the puna. where frosts during the growth
period limit food production, these crops were not studied during the time of the settlement, nor at the start
of the Republic. During the 1920s, the Russian expedition organized by Vavilov and undertaken with his
students Juzepczuki and Bukasov made a detailed description of these species on the basis of collections
gathered on the high plateau around Lake Titicaca.
Andean tubers
Several studies have been carried out on bitter potatoes during the past 50 years, including their origin,
description and an evaluation of their nutritional capacity.
The area cultivated at present varies greatly from one year to the next, depending on whether an adequate
amount of seed is available. However, there are an estimated 15000 ha in Peru and around 10000 ha on the
high plateau of Bolivia, on peasants' plots ranging from 300 to 500 m2 and over more extensive areas on
land under sectoral rotation. There are further potential areas for cultivation, the inclusion of which could
easily double the current production.

If bitter potatoes are to be eaten, they must first undergo processing to remove the glycoalkaloids.
Traditional processes in the upper Andean area. described in various works, consist of exposing the tubers
to several night frosts and drying them in strong sunlight at altitudes of 4 000 m to obtain black chuo.
Larger bitter potatoes are preferably used to prepare white chuo, also called tunta (Aymara) or moraya
(Quechua). Freezing is followed by the peeling, hydrating for up to 30 days and drying.
Black chuo is produced up to the edge of the forest where it keeps very well because of its characteristics
as a dehydrated product. White chuo is preferably eaten on feast days. It fetches a high price at town
markets where it is an ingredient of various regional dishes. Both white chuo and black chuo are very
rich in energy.
The potential of bitter potatoes lies precisely in their ability to withstand low temperatures and yield a
surplus. thus constituting an important food reserve. It has been calculated that, between August and
March, black chuo can account for 70 percent of the food of rural populations of the Peruvian and
Bolivian high plateau.
Solanum x juzepczukii measures 30 to 50 cm and has a semi-rosette growth habit, long, straight leaves.
short petioles and a small, blue corolla.
S. x curtilobum is distinguished by its more coriaceous leaves and its corolla, which is bigger and purple
with very short lobules and a pointed end.
The tubers vary in size and shape, ranging from rounded (Piaza) to elliptical, oblong or elongated-oblong
(Luki), and in colour. Clones of Ococuri have purple and white tubers.
The growing cycle varies greatly between five and eight months. The clone Piaza is one of the earliest,
taking 150 days; Ruki clones are the latest, taking up to 195 days.
Andean tubers
Figure 16. Andean tubers: A) bitter potatoes; A1) tubers; A2) flower; B) ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus); B1)
tubers

Bitter potatoes are cultivated at altitudes between 3000 and 4300 m, in the agro-ecological zones of the
humid puna and suni, which are characterized by mean growth period temperatures of between 6 and
14C, with precipitations which vary according to the region and year between 400 and 1400 mm, are
spread over five to six months and which coincide with the summer period in the Southern Hemisphere
(October-May).
Frosts may occur during the growth stage, with the temperature dropping to -5C in some years. A greater
incidence of low temperatures is observed in the dry period and these affect production heavily, with
damage varying according to the species. Recently, in an area of Peru with frosts and temperatures of
-5C, the reduction in the harvest was 5 percent in the case of S. x juzepczukii, 30 percent in the case of S.
x curtilobum and 40 percent in the case of the common potato.
The cultivation of bitter potatoes requires soils which have sufficient organic matter (3 to 5 percent) and
which have had a period of fallow or adequate rotation. The best yields are obtained on soils which have
lain tallow for three to four years and have had 2 to 3 tonnes of manure applied.
Bitter potatoes predominate on land where the main production is livestock and where there is natural
pasture and thus little pressure on the land. Because of this, land can be put under a rotational system of
crops with canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) or fodder plants such as barley or oats. including a
prolonged period (up to six years) of fallow during which the natural vegetation covers the soil again. In
areas which have a very broken topography and where the puna zone is very close to the suni or quechua
(valley) zones, rotation includes other crops suited to these conditions, with tubers such as oca (Oxalis
tuberosa) and ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus) or mixtures of these species.
Andean tubers
Figure 17. Diagram of chuo processing
Genetic diversity
In the southern region of Peru and on the Bolivian high plateau, there are a great number of varieties
which have been bred by the peasants over centuries and which are suited to various ecological conditions
in the highest region of the Andes.
Bitter potatoes belong to two species: S. x juzepczukii triploids and S. x curtilobum pentaploids. Because
of their ploidy. which is caused by a high degree of sterility. it is difficult to use the characteristics of bitter
potatoes in improvement programmes. The origin of bitter potatoes would seem to be due to various
crossings derived from wild species such as S. acaule.
There is greater variability in the species S. x juzepczukii, the main cultivated varieties being Ruki, Luki,
Piaza, Parina, Locka, Parko, Keta and Kaisallu, with white or purple tubers.
In the species S. x curtilobum, we may distinguish those of the Choquepito group and the so-called
Ococuri, which are characterized by a lower glycoalkaloid content than S. x juzepczukii.
There is an extensive collection of bitter potatoes in Cuzco and Puno in southern Peru, while a collection
from the Bolivian high plateau is maintained at the experimental station of Patacamaya.
Andean tubers
Figure 18. The origin of bitter potatoes
The soil is generally prepared with local implements, such as the chakitaklla or foot-plough, with the
entire peasant family taking part in the operation. since it involves plots located in isolated places.
The sowing period of bitter potatoes is very much conditioned by the presence of rain, since the cap is
grown under rain-fed conditions. The period extends from September to November, depending on whether
the rains begin early or late. the tradition being to stagger sowing on two or three dates as a means of
reducing the climatic risk. The crop needs to be earthed up once or twice when the plants reach a height of
30 to 30 cm. The start of tuberization coincides with the start of flowering, approximately seven to nine
weeks after emergence, and lasts for about four weeks, during which time the absence of humidity and
severe frosts is vitally important. In this respect there is a differentiation between early, intermediate and
late ecotypes, which may mature between four to six months, hence a wide range is available for
improvement programmes.
Fertilization is limited to sheep manure. However, there have been positive responses to the addition of
chemical fertilizers in intermediate doses. The var. Piaza responds better to fertilization than the var.
Ruki, but the latter has a higher dry matter content.
The varieties of S. x juzepczukii are better suited to shallow soils than S. x curtilobum, which has deeper
roots.
On account of their prostrate habit, bitter potatoes are susceptible to nematodes (Naccobus aberrans), to
the Andean weevil (Premnotrypes spp.) and also to wart fungus (Synchytrium endobioticum).
Andean tubers

The tolerance of bitter potatoes to low temperatures is considered to be their main advantage and there is
considerable scope for making selections from current populations. The existence of several varieties also
enables cultivation to be extended to the different soil conditions in the highest area of the Andes. Bitter
potato genes have been used more for the improvement of so-called sweet varieties than for their own
improvement.
The main limitation is their glycoalkaloid content which gives them a bitter taste. In addition to solanine
and chaconine, this includes tomatine, mysine and solamargine. However, since there is wide variability in
this characteristic. varieties with a low content of this chemical substance can be selected. Although the
current process to remove the bitter taste is fairly suited to local conditions and utilizes the climatic
characteristics of the puna effectively, with its severe night frosts and intense daytime solar radiation, it is
very labour-intensive (working conditions are very hard): it takes between 14 and 28 days to produce
white chuo.
Ullucu
(Ullucus tuberosus)
Botanical name: Ullucus tuberosus Loz.
Family: Basellaceae
Common names. English: ullucu, oca quina; Quechua: ulluku, ullus; Aymara: ulluma, illako; Spanish:
michurui, michuri, miguri, micuche, ruba, rubia, timbo, tiquio (Venezuela), chigua, chugua, rubas, hubas,
camarones de tierra (Colombia), melloco (Ecuador), olluco, ulluco, lisa, papalisa (Peru), lisa, papalisa
(Bolivia) and olloco, ulluca, ulluma (Argentina)
The ullucu is a plant native to the Andes. Ancient in origin, it is likely that its cultivation extended from
the Andes of Venezuela (lat. 10N) to northwestern Argentina and northeastern Chile (lat. 25S) in
pre-Hispanic times. However, the exact region of its domestication is not known. Ceremonial vessels of
the Robles Moqo style of the Wari culture (the centre of which was Ayacucho between AD 400 and 700)
are decorated with multicoloured representations of Andean plants, including the ullucu. It also appears on
qero ceremonial vessels of the post-Incan era. The oldest vestige is the presence of starch among
4000-year-old plant remains from Ancon and Chilca on the Peruvian coast.
The ullucu's wide distribution in the Andes and its age are also revealed in the profusion of regional
names.

Of the three Andean tubers, the ullucu is the most popular and has become established on the tables of
both the rural and urban population in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Traditional preparations include
mellocos soup (Ecuador); olluquito con charqui (ullucu with meatPeru); chupe (potato, meat, egg and
cheese stew) and aj de papalisas (ullucu pepperBolivia and Peru). It is also suitable for use in
contemporary dishes such as salads. Some varieties contain a greater quantity of mucilage and need to be
preboiled before preparation to remove it. The Andean tubers perish easily, which explains why ancient
Andean peoples attempted to store surpluses by freezing and drying, processes used also for the ullucu.
The product obtained is called lingli in Peru; its average protein content is 1.7 percent in the edible tuber,
Andean tubers
while the carbohydrate and energy content is slightly less than that of most tubers.
The ullucu is an erect, compact plant which reaches a height of 20 to 50 cm. At the end of its growth it is
prostrate. Tuber shapes vary from spherical to cylindrical and colours range from white, yellow, light
green, pink and orange to purple. On very rare occasions, it forms fruit; the seed then has the form of an
inverted pyramid, with very prominent angles and a corrugated surface.

The origin and development of the ullucu in the cold climates of the Andes suggest that it is one of the
crops most suited to the complex agro-ecology of areas between 3000 and 4000 m. Although the precise
role of hybridization, introgression and mutation in the ullucu is not known, these must have actedalong
with natural and human selection pressureto favour the plant's distribution and adaptation to the various
types of Andean climate and soils.
Genetic diversity
The wild ullucu would seem to indicate a sympatric distribution with the cultivated ullucu, since up to now
it has been found from the Andes of La Libertad in Peru (lat. 8S) to northwestern Argentina (lat. 25S).
This would appear to indicate a smaller geographical range of habitats than that of the cultivated ullucu.
However, collecting expeditions have been orientated towards cultivated material, which is harvested in
dry periods when there is no opportunity to collect wild material. It is probable that in the geographical
distribution area of the wild ullucuwhich seems to be wideullucus may be found with interesting
characteristics that will help to extend our knowledge of its domestication.
Cultivated ullucus are diploid and triploid, with a basic number of 12. The presence of polyploids in the
wild ullucu has also been demonstrated. Nevertheless, the frequency of diploids, triploids and probably
tetraploids needs to be determined. In the wild, triploids are generally formed by hybridization between
diploids and tetraploids, or by the fusion of a normal gamete and another that has not been reduced
between diploid parents. Triploids are generally sterile and the only way of propagating them is
vegetatively. Their great vigour allows them to prosper and occur in profusion over a wide distribution
area.
The study of meiosis in the cultivated diploid ullucu shows a regular meiotic pairing with the formation of
12 bivalents. Meiosis of the triploids is within expectations, i.e. defective and with the presence of
univalents and trivalents. Meiotic pairing of artificial diploid hybrids would need to be researched,
provided the combinations are possible.
Ullucu collections in South America

Cultivated and wild ullucus did not arouse much interest among plant explorers in the past. In spite of the
fact that the collections of Bukasov and Juzepczuki in South America between 1925 and 1928 were
followed by several expeditions to gather cultivated and wild plants, ullucu does not seem to have been
collected, even within the same South American countries. Three stages could be distinguished in the
collection of ullucu and the formation of gene banks. The first occurred in the 1920s with the work of
Bukasov and Juzepczuki; the second covers the work of Len through the establishment of the then greater
collection of ullucu germplasm at the IICA, with material from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
Later, collections of wild ullucus were made in northeastern Argentina and Bolivia by Brucher. The third
Andean tubers
stage began in the 1970s with small local collections at the Universities of Cuzco, Huancayo and
Ayacucho, and likewise in the 1980s. Thanks to very positive help from the IBPGR. FAO, CIID and
IICA/OAS they were continued more intensively with national programmes such as those of the IBTA in
Bolivia, INIAP in Ecuador and INIAA and the Universities of Puno, Cuzco and Ayacucho in Peru. Under
these programmes, gene banks are produced annually. These banks suffer from the following shortages
which limit the knowledge and promotion of the ullucu:
Scant geographical representation: While the Andes of Ecuador and Peru were explored. few or
no collections were made in the Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, the eastern area of Peru, southern
Bolivia and northwestern Argentina.
Duplication of accessions: In clonal propagation crops such as the ullucu, there is a high
probability of repeatedly collecting one and the same clone in different localities: also. the exchange
of germplasm between national programmes without identifying data has meant that one and the
same clone can be recorded under different numbers in various banks.
Incomplete documentation: No standardized. internationally accepted descriptors exist for the
characterization of the ullucu; there is a lack of specimens from herbaria such information would be
very useful in the event of living collections being lost.
A lack of wild plant collections: There is an almost total absence of wild material, such material
would help to understand the variation patterns of the cultivated forms and could provide valuable
characteristics for improvement.
Ullucu cultivation practices are the same as those described for the oca.

Although the ullucu is a hardy plant that is suited to the difficult conditions of the Andes, viral diseases
seem to constitute one of its most serious problems. Viral infections in gene banks affect up to 80 percent
of samples. This is a particularly serious problem, not only for gene banks, but also for the crop's
management.
Viruses may form viral complexes of up to four different particles in a single plant, causing loss of vigour,
deformation and leaf mottling. Moreover, they are far more difficult to eliminate than bacterial or fungal
pathogens. Eradication in commercial varieties and selected genetic material is an urgent requirement,
although the number of viruses which affect the ullucu is not known. Studies at the CIP have revealed at
least four viruses, but the number may be higher.
Another limiting factor is the prolonged cultivation period. While modem commercial varieties of potato
are harvested after four or five months in the Andes, the ullucu takes seven or eight months to mature. In
other words, ullucu plants are exposed longer to drought, frost, pests, diseases and other adverse factors
which are frequent in the Andes. Productivity in terms of time and space is consequently low. It seems to
be one of the causes of marginalization, so that ullucu cultivation is gradually being replaced by varieties
of early high-yielding potatoes.
The biggest advantage of the ullucu is that it is firmly established among rural and urban people in areas
where its supply is almost continuous throughout the year.
Andean tubers
Bibliography
Arbizu, C. & Robles, E. 1986. La coleccin de los cultivos de raices y tubrculos andinos de la
Universidad de Huamanga. In Anales del V Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agropecuarios
Andinos. Puno, Peru.
Bateman, J. 1961. Una prueba exploratoria de la alimentacin usando Tropaeolum tuberosum.
Turrialba., 11(3): 98-100.
Bukasov, S.M. 1931. The cultivated plants of Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia. Bull. Appl. Bot.
Genet. Plant Breed., 47: 1-533.
Brcher, H. 1967. Ullucus aborigineus spec. nov. Die Wildform einer andinen Kulturpflanze. Ber.
Dtsch. Bot. Ges.. 80: 376-381.
Crdenas, M. & Hawkes, J.G. Nmero de cromosomas de algunas plantas cultivadas por los indios
en los Andes. Revista de Agricultura, 5: 30-32.
Castillo, R.O. 1990. Andean crops in Ecuador: collecting, conservation and characterization.
FAO/IBPGR Plant Genet. Resour. Newsl., 77.
CIP. 1989. Annual Report. Lima, CIP.
Corts, H. 1977. Avances en la investigacin de la oca. In Anales del I Congreso Internacional de
Cultivos Andinos. Ayacucho, Peru.
Corts, H. 1981. Alcances de la investigacin en tres tubrculos andinos, oca, olluco y mashwa,
isao o au. In Curso sobre manejo de la produccin agraria en Laderas, Huaraz. Serie Estudios
Tcnicos No.235, Lima, Ministry of Agriculture/IICA.
Del Ro, A. & Hermann, M. 1991. Polimorfismo isoenzimtico en oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina) In
Avances de los trabjos colaborativos del CIP en races y tuberosas andinas. Presentado al VII
Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos. La Paz.
FAO. 1990. Los cultivos andinos subexplotados y su aporte a la alimentacin Santiago, FAO.
Gibbs, P.E., Marshall, D. & Brunton, D. 1978. Studies on the cytology of Oxalis tuberosa and
Tropaeolum tuberosum. Notes R. Bot. Gard. (Edinb.), 37: 215-220.
Government of Bolivia. 1984. Tabla de composicin de alimentos. La Paz, Lab. Bioqumica
Nutricional, Ministry of Public Health and Social Security.
Government of Peru. 1984. Anuario estadstico agrcola. 1980-84. Lima, Oficina Sectorial de
Estadstica, Ministry of Agriculture.
Hermann, M., Arbizu, C. & Castillo, R. 1991. Perspectivas de un banco de germoplasma
internacional de tuberosas y races andinas en el Centro Intemacional de la Papa (CIP). In Vll
Congreso /nternacional de Cultivos Andinos. La Paz, ORSTOM/CIIO/IBTA.
Johns, T. et al. 1982. Anti-reproductive and other medical effects of Tropaeolum tuberosum. J.
Ethnopharmacol., 5: 149-161.
Jones, A.C. & Kenton, R.H. 1985. A strain of arracacha virus B infecting oca (Oxalis taherosa,
Oxalidaceae) in the Peruvian Andes. Phytopathol. Z, 1 OO: 88-95.
King, S.R. 1988. Economic botany of the Andean tuber crop complex: Lepidium meyenii, Oxalis
tuberosa, Tropaeolum tuberosum and Ullucus tuberosus. New York, Fac. of Biology, City
University. (thesis)
King, S.R. & Basten, H.C. 1988. Oxalis tuberosa en Mexico. In Anales del Vl Congreso
Internacional de Cultivos Andinos. Quito.
Len, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas. IICA Boletin Tecnico, 6.
Andean tubers
Lescano, J.L. 1985. Investigaciones en tubrculos andinos en la Universidad Nacional del Altiplano,
Puno. In M. Tapia, ed. Avances en las investigaciones sobre tubrculos alimenticios de los Andes.
Lima, PISCA, INIPA/CIID/ACDI.
Martins-Farias, R. 1976. New archaeological techniques for the study of ancient root crops in Peru.
UK, University of Binningham. (thesis)
McBride, J.F. 1949. Flora of Peru. Vol. XI11, Part III, No 2. Field Museum of Natural History.
National Research Council. 1989. Lost crops of the Incas Little known plants of the Andes with
promise for worldwide cultivation. Washington, DC, National Academy Press.
Rousi, A., Salo, J., Kalliola, R., Jokela, P., Pietila, L. & Yli-Rekola, M. 1986. Variation pattern in
ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus, Basellaceae), a supposedly asexual Andean tuber crop. Act. Hort., 182:
145-152.
Stone, O.M. 1982. The elimination of four viruses from Ullucus tuberosus by meristem-tip culture
and chemotherapy. Ann. Appl. Biol., 101: 79-83.
Tapia, M. 1991. Los sistemas de rotacin de los cultivos andinos subexplotados en los Andes del
Per. In Vll Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Anclinos. La Paz, ORSTOM, CIID, IBTA.
last update Wednesday, May 13, 1998 by aw
American Bittersweet
American Bittersweet
Celastrus scandens L.
Other common names.False bittersweet, climbing
bittersweet, shrubby bittersweet, fevertwig, fever-twitch, staff
tree, climbing staff tree, staff vine, waxwork, Roxbury waxwork,
yellowroot, climbing orange-root, Jacob's-ladder.
Habitat and range.This woody vine or climbing shrub is
found in woods and thickets, growing in rich damp soil from
Ontario to Manitoba and south to North Carolina and New
Mexico.
Description.American bittersweet is a woody and shrubby
climber, growing over trees or fences. It has smooth thin leaves
2 to 4 inches long and about half as wide. The small
greenish-white or greenish-yellow flowers are produced in June Figure 2.American Bittersweet
in short clusters. The fruit is a roundish, orange-yellow capsule (Celastrus scandens
which opens in autumn, disclosing the scarlet-colored seed. The
seed capsules remain on the plant well into the cold season.
Part used.The bark of the plant and root, but especially that of the root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bittersweet.html [5/16/2004 1:31:25 PM]
Rubus spp.
Index| Search|Home
Rubus spp.
Rosaceae
R. idaeus, Raspberry - Synonyms: American red raspberry, Black-cap, Black raspberry, Purple
raspberry, Thimbleberry
RaspberriesHO-44 Purdue University cooperative Extension Service
R. occidentalis, Black raspberry
R. idaeus, Blackberry - Synonyms: Boysenberry, Brambles, Dewberry, Loganberry, Olallieberry
R. glaucus, Mora de Castilla
Hybrid berries
Outside links:
Blackberries (Rubus ursinus and related species, hybrids) from the University of Georgia.
Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Mora de Castilla (Rubus glaucus)
Giant Columbian Blackberry (Rubus macrocarpus)
Mora de Rocota (Rubus roseus)
Mora Comn (Rubus adenotrichus)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Rubus_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:26 PM]
Rubus spp.
Small FruitFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Small Fruit
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Rubus_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:26 PM]
Black Cherry
Black Cherry
Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Synonym.Prunus virginiana Mill., not of Linnaeus.
Other common names.Wild cherry, wild black cherry,
cabinet-cherry, black choke, rum cherry, whisky-cherry, Virginian
prune-bark.
Habitat and range.The black cherry occurs in woods or open
places and is most abundant in the Southeastern States, but its range
extends from Nova Scotia to Florida, westward to Texas, and north
through Oklahoma, the eastern portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and
South Dakota.
Description.This tree sometimes reaches a height of 90 feet and a
maximum trunk diameter of 4 feet. The trunk is straight and covered
with rough black bark, but the young branches are smooth and reddish. Figure 16.Black cherry
(Prunus serotina)
The smooth shining leaves are about 2 to 5 inches long. The long
drooping clusters of small white flowers are borne at the ends of the branches, usually during May.
The cherries, which ripen about August or September, are round, black, or very dark purple, about
the size of a pea, and have a sweet, slightly astringent taste.
Part used.The bark, collected in autumn. The outer layer is removed, and the bark is then
carefully dried and preserved. Young thin bark is preferred and that from very young or very old
branches should not be used. Black cherry bark should not be kept longer than one year, because it
deteriorates with age.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/blackcherry.html [5/16/2004 1:31:27 PM]
Cimicifuga racemosa
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt.

Ranunculaceae
Cohosh Bugbane, Black Cohosh
Phytomedicines as a New Crop OpportunityLoren D. Israelsen
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cimicifuga_racemosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:28 PM]
Black grama
Black grama
Gramineae Bouteloua eriopoda (Torr.) Torr.
Black grama is a major native grass of the semiarid to arid areas from West
Texas westward to California. The stems, when in contact with soil, form roots at the nodes to
form other nearby plants. Stems are slender and wiry, up to 2 feet. Plants are leafy and highly
palatable with good feeding value both summer and winter. They are highly drought resistant.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Black_grama.html [5/16/2004 1:31:29 PM]
Blackhaw
Blackhaw
Viburnum prunifolium L.
Other common names.Sloe, sloe-leaved viburnum, stagbush,
shonny.
Habitat and range.The blackhaw occurs in dry woods and thickets
and on rocky hillsides from Connecticut to Florida and west to
Michigan and Texas, but is found in greatest abundance in the South.
Description.This shrub or small tree, from 10 to about 20 feet in
height, has rather stout, spreading branches. The smooth bright-green,
finely toothed, broadly or roundish oval leaves are 1 to 3 inches long.
The numerous stemless flower clusters are from 2 to 4 inches broad,
composed of numerous white flowers appearing from April to June.
The fruit, which is sweet and edible, is about half an inch long, bluish
black, covered with a bloom, and ripens in early autumn. It contains a
Figure 17.Blackhaw
somewhat flattened stone.
(Viburnum prunifolium)
Another species.The sweet viburnum (Viburnum lentago L.), known also as nannyberry and
sheepberry, is collected with V. prunifolium. It grows in rich soil from Canada south to Georgia
and Kansas. Its fruit matures in October, becoming sweet and edible, and sometimes remaining on
the shrub until the following spring.
Part used.The bark of both species, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/blackhaw.html [5/16/2004 1:31:30 PM]
Robinia pseudoacacia
Robinia pseudoacacia L.
Fagaceae
Black Locust
Black Locust: A Multi-purpose Tree Species for Temperate ClimatesRobert P. Barrett, Tesfai
Mebrahtu, and James W. Hanover
Black Locust: An Excellent Fiber CropJames W. Hanover
New Crops Research: Northeastern Regional and National Federal EffortsGeorge A.White
Article from:
Last update October 2, 1997 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Robinia_pseudoacacia_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:31 PM]
Morus species
Morus alba White Mulberry

Morus nigra Black Mulberry
Morus rubra Red Mulberry
Moraceae
NewCROP has Mulberry information at:
Morus alba In: Handbook of Energy Crops. James A. Duke. 1983. unpublished.
And outside links to more Mulberry info:
MULBERRY "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
last update June 12, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Morus_spp_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:32 PM]
Brassica nigra
Brassica nigra L.
Brassicaceae, or Cruciferae
Black Mustard
NewCROP has Black Mustard information at:
See: Black Mustard In: Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds as Novel Industrial Oilseed
CropsPatrick M. Carr
Black Mustard From: Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_nigra_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:32 PM]
Solanum nigrum
Index| Search| Home
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanaceae
Black nightshade, garden huckleberry, morella,
sunberry, wonderberry
Outside links
Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 15.
Black nightshades: Solanum nigrum L. and related species
Jennifer M. Edmonds and James A. Chweya 1997. 112 pages. 17x24 Softcover. ISBN
92-9043-321-3
Black nightshadeIndiana Toxic Plant Indices, Purdue University
Nightshade, BlackGrieve's Herbal
Black nightshadesby Jennifer M. Edmonds, James A. Chweya from the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Solanum_nigrum_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:33 PM]
Black Sapote

Morton, J. 1987. Black Sapote. p. 416418. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Black Sapote
Diospyros digyna Jacq.
Diospyros obtusifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The black sapote is not, as might be assumed, allied to either the sapote (Pouteria sapota H.E.
Moore & Stearn) or the white sapote (Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex.). Instead, it is closely related
to the persimmon in the family Ebenaceae. For many years it has been widely misidentified as
Diospyros ebenaster Retz., a name confusingly applied also to a strictly wild species of the West
Indies now distinguished as D. revoluta Poir. The presently accepted binomial for the black sapote
is D. digyna Jacq. (syn. D. obtusifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.).
In Spanish, it is known variously as sapote, sapote negro, zapote, zapote negro, zapote prieto,
zapote de mico, matasano (or matazano) de mico, or ebano. It has been called black persimmon in
Hawaii.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/black_sapote.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:31:35 PM]
Black Sapote
Description
The tree is handsome, broad-topped,
slow-growing, to 80 ft (25 m) in height,
with furrowed trunk to 30 in (75 cm) in
diameter, and black bark. The evergreen,
alternate leaves, elliptic-oblong to
oblong-lanceolate, tapered at both ends or
rounded at the base and bluntly acute at the
apex, are leathery, glossy, 4 to 12 in (10-30
cm) long. The flowers, borne singly or in
groups of 3 to 7 in the leaf axils, are tubular,
lobed, white, 3/8 to 5/8 in (1-1.6 cm) wide,
with persistent green calyx. Some have both
male and female organs, large calyx lobes
and are faintly fragrant; others are solely
male and have a pronounced gardenia-like
scent and a few black specks in the throat of
the corolla. The fruit is bright-green and
shiny at first; oblate or nearly round; 2 to 5
in (5-12.5 cm) wide; with a prominent,
Plate LXI: BLACK SAPOTE, Diospyros digyna
4-lobed, undulate calyx, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5
cm) across, clasping the base. On ripening, the smooth, thin skin becomes olive-green and then
rather muddy-green. Within is a mass of glossy, brown to very dark-brown, almost black,
somewhat jelly-like pulp, soft, sweet and mild in flavor. In the center, there may be 1 to 10 flat,
smooth, brown seeds, 3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) long, but the fruits are often seedless.
The black sapote is native along both coasts of Mexico from Jalisco to Chiapas, Veracruz and
Yucatan and in the forested lowlands of Central America, and it is frequently cultivated throughout
this range. It was apparently carried by the Spaniards to Amboina before 1692, and to the
Philippines long before 1776, and eventually reached Malacca, Mauritius, Hawaii, Brazil, Cuba,
Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. In 1919, seeds from Guadalajara, Mexico, were sent to
the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture; cuttings and seeds
were received from the Isle of Pines, Cuba, in 1915; seeds arrived from Hawaii in 1916 and 1917;
others from Oaxaca, Mexico, in 1920. Numerous seedlings have been grown in southern
California but all have been killed by low temperatures. The tree does very well in southern
Florida, though it has been grown mainly as a curiosity. Outside of its homeland, the fruit has not
achieved any great popularity. In Mexico, the fruits are regularly marketed.
Varieties
Certain trees tend to bear very large, seedless or nearly seedless fruits maturing in summer instead
of winter as most do, but no varietal names have been attached to them in Florida.
Climate
Black Sapote
The black sapote is not strictly tropical inasmuch as it is hardy as far north as Palm Beach County,
Florida, if protected from frost during the first few years. Trees that have become well established
have withstood occasional brief exposures to 28 or 30 F (-2.22 or-1.11 C). In Mexico, the tree is
cultivated up to elevations of 5,000 or even 6,000 ft (1,500-1,800 m).
Soil
The tree has a broad adaptability as to terrain. In Mexico it grows naturally in dry forests or on
alluvial clay near streams or lagoons where it is frequently subject to flooding. Nevertheless, it
thrives on moist sandy loam, on well-drained sand or oolitic limestone with very little top-soil in
southern Florida. It is said to flourish on all the soils of Cuba.
Propagation
The black sapote is usually grown from seeds, which remain viable for several months in dry
storage and germinate in about 30 days after planting in flats. Vegetative propagation is not
commonly practiced but the tree has been successfully air-layered and also shield-budded using
mature scions.
Culture
Seedlings are best transplanted to pots when about 3 in (7.5 cm) high and they are set in the field
when 1 to 2 years old, at which time they are 1 to 2 ft (30-60 cm) in height. They should be spaced
at least 40 ft (12 m) apart. Most begin to bear in 5 to 6 years but some trees may take somewhat
longer. The tree is naturally vigorous and receives little or no cultural attention in Florida though it
has been noted that it benefits from fertilization.
Season
In Mexico, the fruits are common in the markets from August to January. Most black sapotes in
Florida ripen in December, January or February. Certain trees, especially the large-fruited types,
regularly come into season in June, others in July and August.
Harvesting
It is difficult to detect the slight color change of mature fruits amid the dense foliage of the black
sapote tree. Many black sapotes ripen, fall and smash on the ground before one has the chance to
pick them, and this is one reason why .the tree is not favored for landscaping in urban areas. An
experienced picker can harvest the fruits at the green-mature or olive-green stage with a cutting
pole equipped with a cloth sack.
Yield
No yield figures are available but the tree is noted for bearing well. In 1899, the annual crop in
Mexico was valued at $27,000, a considerable sum at that time.
Keeping Quality
Fruits picked when full-grown but unripe (bright-green) have ripened in 10 days at room
temperature. Therefore it is at this stage that they must be picked for marketing and shipping.
Firm, olive-green fruits will ripen in 2 to 6 days. Fruits displayed on markets in Mexico are
Black Sapote
somewhat shriveled and wrinkled. The black sapote is very soft when fully ripe. Though it may
remain fit for eating if held for a few days in cold storage, it is too soft to stand handling.
Food Uses
Unkind writers have employed unflattering phrases in describing the flesh of the black sapote and
have probably hindered its acceptance. This seems quite unreasonable because the color and
texture of the pulp closely match stewed prunes, to which there seems to be no aesthetic objection.
In the Philippines, the seeded pulp is served as dessert with a little milk or orange juice poured
over it. The addition of lemon or lime juice makes the pulp desirable as a filling for pies and other
pastry. It is also made into ice cream. In Mexico, the pulp may be mashed, beaten or passed
through a colander and mixed with orange juice or brandy, and then served with or without
whipped cream. Also, they sometimes mix the pulp with wine, cinnamon and sugar and serve as
dessert. Some Floridians use an eggbeater to blend the pulp with milk and ground nutmeg. A
foamy, delicious beverage is made by mixing the pulp with canned pineapple juice in an electric
blender. In Central America, the fermented fruits are made into a liqueur somewhat like brandy.
Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fat
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid**
79.46-83.1 g
0.62-0.69 g
12.85-15.11 g
0.01 g
0.37-0.6 g
22.0 mg
23.0 mg
0.36 mg
0.19 mg
0.03 mg
0.20 mg
191.7 mg
*According to analyses in Mexico and Guatemala.

**The ascorbic acid content is said to be about twice that of the average orange.
Toxicity
Unripe black sapotes are very astringent, irritant, caustic and bitter, and have been used as fish
poison in the Philippines.
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is yellowish to deep-yellow with black markings near the heart of old trunks;
compact and suitable for cabinetwork but little used. Reports of dark wood utilized for furniture
Black Sapote
are probably the result of confusion with other species of Diospyros.

Medicinal Uses: The crushed bark and leaves are applied as a blistering poultice in the
Philippines. In Yucatan, the leaf decoction is employed as an astringent and is taken internally as a
febrifuge. Various preparations are used against leprosy, ringworm and itching skin conditions.
Note: The rare, wild relative D. revoluta Poir., mentioned at the beginning, has not only been
included with the black sapote under the erroneous D. ebanaster, but has also been dealt with as D.
nigra Perr. and under at least 8 other binomials. In Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic,
Montserrat, Dominica and Guadeloupe it is variously called black apple, barbara, bambarat,
barbequois, bois noir, bois negresse, ebene, guayabota, plaqueminier, and zapote negro. It has
smaller, thicker leaves and smaller fruits than the black sapote and the calyx is square. Little,
Woodbury and Wadsworth say the fruits are poisonous and, with the bark, used as fish poison.
Juglans nigra
Index| Search| Home
Juglans nigra L.
Juglandaceae
Eastern black walnut
Eastern Black Walnut: Potential for Commercial Nut Producing CultivarsWilliam Reid
Black Walnut Toxicity Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Outside links:
Walnuts, Juglans spp.
Black walnutlist of publications from Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana.
Intercropping Black Walnut in Oregon's Willamette Valley
Walnut on the Web!
Walnut Crop Information University of California Davis
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Juglans_nigra_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:35 PM]
Black Willow
Black Willow
Salix nigra Marsh.
Other common names.Swamp willow.
Habitat and range.This tree is found in low ground and along
streams from New Brunswick to western Ontario and in North Dakota,
Florida, and Texas.
Description.This willow is a tree attaining a height of 120 feet and
a trunk diameter of 3 feet, with narrow lance-shaped leaves 2 1/2 to 5
inches long and up to three-quarters of an inch wide, finely toothed
and hairy when young. Male and female flowers are borne in separate
catkins which expand with the leaves the male catkins l to 2 inches
and the female catkins 1 1/2 to 3 inches long.
Part used.The bark and buds.
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77.
USDA, Washington DC.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/blackwillow.html [5/16/2004 1:31:36 PM]
Figure 19.Black willow

(Salix nigra)
Vigna unguiculata
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.

ssp. unguiculata
Syn: Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi ex
Hassk.
Fabaceae
Cowpea, Asparagus bean, Crowder pea, Black-eyed bean,
Black-eyed pea, China bean, Crowder pea, Field pea, Long bean,
Red pea, Southern pea, Yard-long bean
Legume Species as Leaf VegetablesRobert P. Barrett
Utility of Cowpea Foliage in a Crop Production System for SpaceDavid L. Bubenheim, Cary A.
Mitchell and Suzanne S. Nielsen
CowpeaAlternative Crop Guide
CowpeaAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Extension Service
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_unguiculata_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:37 PM]
Vigna unguiculata
As hay, pasture, and soil improvement crop:
Outside Links:
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vigna_unguiculata_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:37 PM]
Lesquerella fendleri (A.Gray)

S.Wats.
Brassicaceae
Bladder-pod, Yellow-top
FactSHEET contributed by: David A. Dierig
Vernonia and Lesquerella Potential for CommercializationDavid A. Dierig and Anson E.
Thompson
Lesquerella and Vernonia: Oilseeds for Arid LandsDavid A. Dierig, Terry A. Coffelt, Francis S.
Nakayama, and Anson E. Thompson
Development of a Cosmetic Grade Oil from Lesquerella fendleri SeedJames G. Arquette and
James H. Brown
An Ovule Culture Technique for Producing Interspecific Lesquerella HybridsPernell Tomasi,
David Dierig, and Gail Dahlquist
Chemistry of New Oilseed Industrial CropsRobert Kleiman
Arid-land Industrial CropsAnson E. Thompson
Germplasm Use in Arid Lands Industrial CropsDennis T. Ray and David A. Dierig
New Crops or New Uses for Old Crops: Where Should the Emphasis Be?Shelby F. Thames and
Thomas P. Schuman
Coates
The Western Regional Plant Introduction Station: A Source of Germplasm for New Crop
DevelopmentV.L. Bradley, R.C. Johnson, R.M. Hannan, D.M. Stout, and R.L. Clark
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lesquerella_fendleri_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:37 PM]

Salinity Effects on Growth, Shoot-ion Relations, and Seed Production of Lesquerella
fendleriCatherine M. Grieve, Michael C. Shannon, and David A. Dierig
Growth Analysis of Lesquerella in Response to Moisture StressNaveen Puppala and James L.
Fowler
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lesquerella_fendleri_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:37 PM]
Blessed Thistle
Blessed Thistle
Cnicus benedictus L.
Synonyms.Carduus benedictus Steud., Carbenia benedicta Adans.
Other common names.Holy thistle, St.-Benedict's-thistle, Our
Lady's thistle, bitter thistle, spotted thistle, cursed thistle, blessed
cardus, spotted cardus.
Habitat and range.The blessed thistle is a weed which is found
sparingly in waste places and stony, uncultivated localities from Nova
Scotia to Maryland and the Southern States, also on the Pacific coast.
Description.This plant, which scarcely exceeds 2 feet in height, has
a coarse, erect, branched, and rather woolly stem. The leaves are 3 to 6
inches long, more or less hairy, with margins lobed and spiny. The
yellow flower heads which appear from about May to August are
borne at the ends of the branches, almost hidden by the upper leaves,
Figure 20.Blessed thistle
and are about 1 1/2 inches long. Surrounding the flower heads are
(Cnicus benedictus)
leathery scales, tipped with long, branching, yellowish-red spines. The
herb has a rather disagreeable odor which is lost in drying.
Part used.The leaves and leafy flowering tops, gathered preferably just before or during the
flowering period.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/thistle.html [5/16/2004 1:31:38 PM]
Carambola
Carambola or Star Fruit

Jalea
Oxalidaceae Averrhoa carambola L.
Blimbe
Grosella china, Cucumber tree, Bilimbe
A. bilimbi L.
The carambola tree attains a height of 35 feet. Its fruits are
star-shaped when cut across, ovoid to ellipsoid, yellow, 4 to 5
inches in length and are acutely 5-angled. The fruit is crisp,
juicy, and aromatic. The ripe fruits are used for preserves, jams
and jellies. The half ripe fruit is used as pickles.
The blimbe tree attains a height from 20 to 60 feet. The mature
fruit resembles small cucumbers and range from 2 to 3 inches
in length. They are smooth, thin, green, rind sometimes faintly
5-angled. Fruits of blimbe are candied as a preserve. The pulp also is used to make a refreshing
drink.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/carambola.html [5/16/2004 1:31:39 PM]
Sanguinaria canadensis
Sanguinaria canadensis L.
Papaveraceae
Bloodroot
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sanguinaria_canadensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:40 PM]
Blue Cohosh
Blue Cohosh
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx.
Other common names.Caulophyllum, papoose root, squawroot,
blueberry root, blue ginseng, yellow ginseng.
Habitat and range.Blue cohosh is found in the deep rich loam of
shady woods from New Brunswick to South Carolina and westward to
Nebraska, being abundant especially throughout the Allegheny
Mountain region.
Description.Blue cohosh is from 1 to 3 feet in height and hears at
the top one large almost stemless leaf which is divided into three
divisions, each of which is again divided into three divisions
consisting of three leaflets each. The latter have from three to five
lobes. During its early growth the plant is covered with a bluish-green
bloom which gradually disappears. The small greenish-yellow flowers
Figure 22.Blue cohosh
are borne in small heads during April and May. The small round
(Caulophyllum thalictroides)
seeds, which ripen in August, are borne on stout stalks and resemble
dark-blue berries. The thick, crooked rootstock is covered with a mass of matted roots.
Part used.The rootstock with roots, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bluecohosh.html [5/16/2004 1:31:41 PM]
Blueflag Iris
Blueflag Iris
Iris versicolor L.
Other common names.Iris, flag lily, liver lily, snake lily, poison
flag, water flag, American fleur-de-lis or flower-de-luce.
Habitat and range.Blueflag iris delights in wet, swampy localities,
making its home in marshes, thickets, and wet meadows from
Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Florida and Arkansas.
Description.This well-known plant is from 2 to 3 feet hl height
With an erect stem, sometimes branched near the top, and
sword-shaped leaves, shorter than the stem, from one-half to 1 inch in
width and showing a slight grayish bloom. The flowers, which appear
from May to July, are large and handsome, each stem bearing from
two to six or more. They have a peculiar form, consisting of six
segments, the three outer ones turned back and the three inner ones
erect and much smaller. They are purplish blue, the narrow base of the Figure 23.Blueflag iris (Iris
segments variegated with yellow, green, or white and marked with
versicolor)
purple veins. Blueflag has a thick, fleshy, horizontal, branched
rootstock producing many long, fibrous roots. It is poisonous and has caused poisonous effects in
persons who mistook the plant for sweetflag which it resembles greatly when not in flower.
Part used.The rootstock, collected in autumn. demand.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/iris.html [5/16/2004 1:31:43 PM]
Blue grama
Blue grama
Gramineae Bouteloua gracilis (HBK) Lag. ex Steud.
Blue grama is a long-lived native perennial grass that grows throughout the
Great Plains. It is low growing, up to 18 inches, with small leaves, not over 6 inches long and
0.125 inch or less in width. It is found on all soil types, but thrives best on upland, rather beavy
soils. It is drought resistant. Growth is late starting in spring. It is relished as pasture by all classes
of livestock. It is one of the more important range grass species, standing heavy grazing well. It is
readily established by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Blue_grama.html [5/16/2004 1:31:43 PM]
Gramineae Panicum sp.
Three species ofPanicum, one introduced from India and two from Africa,
are of some importance in parts of the United States.
Blue panicgrass, P. antidotale Retz., native to India, was introduced via Australia in 1912. It has a
coarse, vigorous root system and is sodforming. Forage yields are high on fertile, well drained
soils. It is important in parts of southwestern United States, both for dry-land and irrigated
pastures. It is not winter hardy in northern locations.
Kleingrass, P. coloratum L., is a complex of grasses which includes both bunch and sod-forming
types. It was introduced from Africa. Adapted to moist, heavy soil, it is used for pasture, hay and
silage - mainly in South Texas. Plants have slender stems up to 4 feet, with abundant dark green
leaves.
Guineagrass, P. maximum Jacq., is a warm-season, spreading grass from Africa used to a limited
extent for pastures and silage in Florida and other southern areas. It is a tall, coarse grower with
high nutritive value when leafy and green. It is not cold hardy. Propagation is by sod pieces.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Introduced_Panicgrasses.html [5/16/2004 1:31:44 PM]
Blue Vervain
Blue Vervain
Verbena hastata L.
Other common names.Verbain, false verbain, wild hyssop,
simpler's-joy, ironweed.
Habitat and range.Vervain is found in moist fields, meadows, and
waste places from Nova Scotia to British Columbia and Florida,
Nebraska, and Arizona.
Description.This rather rough, finely haired herb has an erect,
straight 4-sided stem, 4 to 7 feet high, usually branched above with
broadly lance-shaped sharply toothed leaves. The small, usually blue,
flowers are densely clustered in numerous slender panicled spikes 2 to
6 inches long.
Part used.The herb.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/vervain.html [5/16/2004 1:31:45 PM]
Figure 24.Blue vervain

(Verbena hastata)
Blue wild-rye
Blue wild-rye
Gramineae Elymus glaucus Buckl.
This wild-rye is a perennial bunchgrass native throughout the Western States.
It grows in small tufts, reaching up to 5 feet. Leaves are broad and flat, up to 12 inches long. It is
abundant on moist soils but will tolerate drought. The coarse leaves are relished by cattle,
particularly while succulent. It is shade tolerant and gives high yields of pasturage or of good hay
if cut early. It is propagated by seeds but has not been widely planted.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Blue_wild-rye.html [5/16/2004 1:31:45 PM]
Blueberry
Blueberry
Huckleberry
Ericaceae Vaccinium sp.
Highbush blueberry V. corymbosum L.
Lowbush blueberry V. angustifolium Ait.
Rabbiteye blueberry V. ashei Reade
Several species of blueberries are native in the U.S., and fruits of many are gathered from the wild.
The three species listed are the ones in commercial culture. The lowbush is not commercially
planted, but thousands of acres of natural stands are pruned, sprayed and harvested. The highbush
varieties, produced by breeding during the past half century, are now widely grown. The rabbiteye
is increasing in importance in the Southeast.
Plants of all are woody shrubs, varying from 2 to 3 feet in the lowbush to 10 or more feet in the
highbush and rabbiteye, but in cultivation held to 5 to 6 feet by pruning. Fruit is smooth skinned
with a waxy coating or bloom. Individual berries are borne in clusters, are round to oblate in
shape. Size up to 0.75 inch diameter in cultivated varieties; 0.25 to 0.5 inch in natives.
Season, bloom to harvest: 2 to 4 months.
Production in U.S.: About 27,000 tons.
Use: Fresh, frozen, canned, jam, culinary.
Part of fruit consumed: All.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Blueberry.html [5/16/2004 1:31:46 PM]
Bluegrasses
Bluegrasses
Gramineae Poa sp.
Some 200 species of Poa are distributed throughout the cool, temperate
regions of the world, with 65 species recognized in the United States. They are valuable for
pasturage, hay and lawns. They are considered the most palatable of range and pasture grasses.
The more important agricultural species follow.
Big bluegrass
Texas bluegrass
Bulbous bluegrass
Canada bluegrass
Mutton bluegrass
Kentucky bluegrass
Sandberg bluegrass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bluegrasses.html [5/16/2004 1:31:47 PM]
Bulbous bluegrass
Bulbous bluegrass
Gramineae Poa bulbosa L.
This is a cool-season bunchgrass believed native to Southern Asia and the
Mediterranean Area. It is now found in nearly all temperate and subtropical regions. In this
country it is grown mainly in the Pacific Area, especially Southern Oregon and Northern
California. Its distinctive feature is that it forms small, true bulbs at the base and small bulblets in
the panicle. It rarely forms true seeds but is propagated by planting the bulblets, which can be
handled in harvesting and planting much as though they were seed. The stems reach to 18 inches
high. Growth starts in the fall and continues through winter and spring in mild climates. It ceases
when the bulblets form about mid-May.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Bulbous_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:48 PM]
Canada bluegrass
Canada bluegrass
Gramineae Poa compressa L.
This grass, like Kentucky bluegrass, is native to Europe but is extensively
naturalized in Northern States. The foliage is a distinctive bluegreen in color. It spreads by
underground rhizomes. It is adapted to open, rather poor, dry soils and under these conditions may
be better than Kentucky blue for pastures or lawns. Forage is highly palatable and nutritions. Seed
production is good, and propagation is by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Canada_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:49 PM]
Poa pratensis
Poa pratensis L.
Syn: Phalaris japonica Steud.
Gramineae
Kentucky bluegrass
Cool-Season Grass Seed Production: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative
Plant & Animal Products
Food and feed crops of the United States Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Poa_pratense_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:31:50 PM]
Mutton bluegrass
Mutton bluegrass
Gramineae Poa fendleriana (Steud.) Vasey
This grass is native from the Great Lakes westward to the Cascade
Mountains and south into Mexico. It is a perennial bunchgrass with erect stems up to 24 inches
tall. It develops tillers at the base and rarely produces short rhizomes. Leaves are mainly basal, are
rather firm and stiff. They are folded or inrolled, rarely flat. The species grows under a wide range
of conditions including elevations to near the top of the Rocky Mountains. It is also found among
sagebrush and in open timber stands. It is well adapted to dry slopes and is found on clay loam as
well as sandy or gravelly soils. It is drought resistant, palatable and nutritious, and starts growth
very early. Even the dry growth is grazed well. These characteristics make it a valuable range
crrass. The name reflects the value sheepmen place on the grass for sheep feed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Mutton_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:50 PM]
Gramineae, Poaceae Poa trivialis L.
This bluegrass generally resembles Kentucky blue but differs in that it does
not have rhizomes. It is native to Europe and is more important there as a pasture grass than in this
country. It is used in this country for pasture on wet soils and for lawns in shaded areas. It is not
adapted to droughty conditions. Although highly palatable, its restricted areas of adaptation Iimit
its general agricultural importance.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Roughstalk_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:51 PM]
Sandberg bluegrass
Sandberg bluegrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Poa secunda Presl
This is a native bluegrass occurring generally throughout the Northern Plains
and Western States. It is a bunchgrass reaching to 24 inches under optimum conditions. Leaves are
rather sparse. The grass starts growth early in spring and matures and dries in midsummer. While
green, and even after drying, the foliage is quite palatable, so it is a valuable range grass. Seed
germination is usually low. Sandberg is usually seeded in combination with later growing grasses
to obtain maximum pasturage over a long season.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sandberg_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:51 PM]
Texas bluegrass
Texas bluegrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Poa arachnifera Torr.
This is a vigorous sod-forming perennial native in the Southeastern and
Southern Plains States. Plants grow up to 3 feet on strong soil, with numerous leaves 6 to 12
inches long and 0.25 inch wide. The grass grows throughout the winter producing abundant,
nutritious pasture which is highly palatable. This is a valuable species where native, but seeding is
difficult. The species is dioecious, with male and female plants. It produces only limited quantities
of seed which is covered with woolly hairs that are difficult to remove. Consequently,
establishment of stands for agricultural use is limited.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Texas_bluegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:52 PM]
Caucasian bluestem
Caucasian bluestem
Gramineae Bothriochloa caucasica (Trin.) C.E. Hubb.
This bunchgrass bluestem from Russia shows promise as a pasture and hay
grass for the Central and Southern Great Plains. The plant is leafy with fine stems and reseeds
readily. It is palatable while succulent but ripens early so is less useful for late pasture than the
native bluestems. It is especially useful for erosion control and is also used for pasture and hay. It
thrives best on medium- to fine-textured soils but will also grow on sandy soil.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Caucasian_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:31:53 PM]
Diaz bluestem
Diaz bluestem
Gramineae Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf in Prain
This is a warm season bunchgrass from South Africa, useful for pasture in
South Texas. Stems are slender, erect to semi-decumbent, up to 5 feet in height. In one variety
stems are leafy and have stiff leaves at the nodes. Plants reseed aggressively. The grass is palatable
both as pasture and hay. Plants are drought tolerant, somewhat alkali tolerant, and well adapted to
range seeding on heavy soils.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Diaz_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:31:54 PM]
Little bluestem
Little bluestem
Gramineae Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash
This is a vigorous, long-lived native bunchgrass, widely distributed over the
United States; but most prevalent in the Central and Southern Great Plains. It is usually found
associated with big bluestem grass. It is more drought resistant that big bluestem, and a smaller
plant - reaching not over 3 feet. Leaves are up to 8 inches long, and not over 0.25 inch wide. It
furnishes dependable grazing and cured hay, but is not highly palatable. It is especially valuable
for erosion control.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Little_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:31:55 PM]
Yellow bluestem
Yellow bluestem
Gramineae Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng.
Dichanthium aristatum (Poir) C.E. Hubb.
These bluestems are both native to Central or Southern Asia. Yellow bluestem is used for pasture
through the Southern Great Plains. D. aristatum appears not to have a common name, but varieties
are known as Angleton and Gordo. They are used as pasture and hay in the humid Gulf Coastal
Plain in Texas. Both of these species are warm season, semiprostrate bunchgrasses, leafy or
medium leafy. In palatability D. aristatum appears superior to yellow bluestem but both furnish
good pasturage and good hay if cut early.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Yellow_bluestem.html [5/16/2004 1:31:55 PM]
Blumea lacera
Blumea lacera: Useful Plant

Pankaj Oudhia
Blumea lacera L., Compositae, is one of the common rabi weeds of India (Oudhia and Tripathi
1999a). It is an annual herb, with a strong odor of turpentine. Stem is erect, ash colored, densely
glandular, pubescent. Leaves are often incised or lyrate. There are many flower heads in single
plant, arranged in axillary cymes or terminal panicle. Pappus is white. Fruits is an achene, oblong
and not ribbed. Flowering time January to April (Agharkar 1991).
The plant occurs throughout the plains of India from the north-west ascending to 2,000 ft in the
Himalayas. It is a common roadside weed in Ceylon and Malaya. It is distributed to the Malay
Islands, Australia, China and Tropical Africa. Blumea consists of about 80 species (Caius 1986).
Blumea lacera competes with rabi crops such as linseed, chickpea, and wheat for light, food and
moisture (Oudhia, 1997) and harbors diseases and insects such as Euplexia dolorosa, Eublemma
trifasiciata (Lefroy, 1909). Blumea lacera is described as a valuable medicinal plant in many
popular systems of medicine including Ayurveda, homoeopathy, and unani. Stimulatory
allelopathy of different parts of B. lacera on many agricultural crops has also been reported
(Oudhia 1996). Not much work has been done on various utility aspects of B. lacera. In many
parts of India, Blumea is cultivated for its green leaves and roots. Blumea is late kharif crop in
these parts (Oudhia and Tripathi 1999b)
Reported Uses
Blumea is described in Ayurveda as bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, errhine,
anti-inflammatory, styptic, opthalmic, digestive, anthelmintic, liver tonic, expectorant, febrifuge,
antipyretic, diuretic, deobstruant, and stimulant (Warner et al. 1996). The root kept in the mouth is
said to cure disease of the mouth. In the Konkan region of India, the plant is used to drive away
fleas and other insects. It is prescribed as an antiscorbutic in West Africa (Caius 1986). Essential
oil from Blumea has been shown analgesic, hypothermic, and tranquilizing activities (Anonymous
1972). Campestrol has been isolated from aerial parts and 5-hydroxy-3, 6, 7, 3',4'- pentamethoxy
flavone, 5,3',4' trihydroxy flavone and an unidentified flavone have been isolated from leaves
(Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991). Blumea lacera is considered a valuable homoeopathic drug (Oudhia
et al. 1998a) useful in case of enuresis, neuralgia, headache, cold borne cough. A tincture is useful
in case of bleeding piles (Ghosh 1988). Natives of Chhattisgarh use this weed for treating health
problems (Oudhia et al. 1998b). There is a heavy demand of different parts (fresh and dry both) of
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/blumea.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:31:56 PM]
Blumea lacera
this weed in national and international drug markets (Oudhia and Tripathi 1999c). Farmers can
earn extra income after selling various parts of Blumea with the help of co-operatives (Oudhia and
Traipathi 1999d). Fresh leaves of Blumea are the most valuable part.
Stimulatory allelopathy of B. lacera on many agricultural crops such as rice has been reported
(Oudhia et al. 1997b, 1998c,d) including rabi and kharif obnoxious weeds such as Echinocloa
colonum, Ageratum conyzoides (Oudhia et al., 1998c), Chenopodium album, Melilotus indica,
Phalaris minor, Cirsium arvense, and Spilanthes (Oudhia et al. 1997a)
Cultivation
Blumea is a late kharif crop. Standard agrotechniques have not been developed. Seeds are
generally sown in late August on prepared land with good tilth; fertilizers are not used. Leaves are
harvested at time of 50% flowering. Blumea leaf beetle (Chrysolina madrasae Jackoby) is the
main insect pest (Oudhia 1989, 1997, 1999a,b,c,d; Oudhia & Thakur 1996).
References
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. India
Anonymous, 1972, Phytochemistry 11:1855.
Caius. J.F. 1986. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of India. Scientific Publ. Jodhpur, India. p.
323-325.
Ghosh, N.C. 1988. Comparative Materia Medica. Hannemann Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta, India.
p. 855.
Lefroy, H.H. 1909. Indian Insect Life: Today's and Tomorrow's. Printers and Publ. New Delhi.
Oudhia, P. 1996. Allelopathic effects of selected weeds on crops. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis, IGAU,
Raipur.
Oudhia, P. 1997. Evaluation of host specificity of Blumea leaf beetle (Chrysolina sp. Nr.
Madrasae Jackoby), Insect Environment 3(3) :80.
Oudhia, P. 1999a. Medicinal weeds in wheat fields of Chhattisgarh (India). Rachis (ICARDA).
18(1):40-41.
Oudhia, P. 1999b. Studies on allelopathy and medicinal weeds in chickpea fields. International
Chickpea and Pigeonpea Newsletter (ICRISAT) 6:29-33.
Oudhia, P. 1999c. Effect of some botanicals on hatchability of Blumea leaf beetle eggs. Insect
Environment 4(4):154.
Oudhia, P. 1999d. Possibilities of providing on additional income to Lathyrus farmers of
Chhattisgarh through medicinal weeds. FABIS Newsletter 42:39-42.
Oudhia, P. and B.S. Thakur. 1996. New record of the leaf beetle on a weed. Current Research
25:218.
Oudhia, P. and R. Tripathi. 1999a. Medicinal weeds of Raipur and Durg (Madhya Pradesh) region
Blumea lacera
Proc. National Conference on Health Care and Development of Herbal Medicines, IGAU, Raipur.
p. 71-78.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1999b. Auseful weed Blumea lacera L. : A review. Indian J Weed
Sci. 31 (1 & 2):108-109.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1999c. Medicinal weeds : A boon for the farmers of Chhattisgarh
Abstract. Eighth Biennial Conference of Indian Society of Weed Science, BHU, Varanasi 5-7 Feb.
p. 152.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1999d. Scope of cultivation of important medicinal plants in
Chhattisgarh plains. Proc. National Conference on Health Care and Development of Herbal
Medicines, IGAU, Raipur. p. 215-222.
Oudhia, P., B.S. Joshi, and V.K. Koshta. 1998a. Chhattisgarh ke kleshkarak kharptwaron se
homoeopathic dava nirman kisambhavnayain (The possibilites of preparing homoeopathic drugs
from obnoxious weeds of Chhattisgarh. Abstract : V National Science Conference, Bhartiya Krishi
Anusandhan Samittee, JNKVV, Gwalior.
Oudhia. P., R.S. Tripathi, and N. Pandey. (1998b). The possibilities of utilization of medicinal
weeds to increase the income of the farmers. Abstract. National Seminar on Medicinal Plant
Resources Development. Gujarat Ayurved University and Govt. of Gujarat, Gandhi Labour
Institute, Ahmedabad, 4-5 Oct. p. 3.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi. 1997a. Allelopathic effect of Blumea lacera L. on
chickpea and rabi weeds. Agr. Sci. Dig. 17:275-278.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi 1998b. Allelopathic effect of Blumea lacera L. on wheat.
Indian J. Weed Sci. 29: 4-7.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi. 1998c. Allelopathic effect of Blumea lacera L. on rice
and common kharif weeds. Oryza 35: 175-177.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi. 1998d. Germination and seedling vigour of mustard as
affected by allelopahy of Blumea lacera L. Agr. Sci. Dig. 18 183-186.
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants, Vol. II. CDRI,
Lucknow and P & I Directorate, New Delhi.
Warrier, P.K., V.R.K. Nambiar, and C. Ramakutty. 1996. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. I. Orient
Longman, Chennai (India) :278-280.
Boer lovegrass
Boer lovegrass
Gramineae Eragrostis chloromelas Steud.
This is a warm-season bunchgrass, introduced from South Africa in 1932. It
is adapted to semidesert areas of the Southwestern States. The grass is palatable, drought resistant,
and fairly long lived. It lacks hardiness for more northern areas. Seed of improved varieties is
available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Boer_lovegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:31:57 PM]
Boerhaavia diffusa
Punanrnava or Santhi (Boerhaavia

diffusa Linn.)
Pankaj Oudhia
Punanrnava or Santhi (Boerhaavia diffusa)
Scientific Name: Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Syn. B. repens; B. repens var. diffusa
Family: Nyctaginaceae
Family Name: Hog weed, Horse Purslane
Common Indian Names
Gujarati: Dholia-saturdo, Moto-satoda.
Hindi: Snathikari
Canarese: Kommegida
Marathi: Tambadivasu
Sanskrit: Punarnava, Raktakanda, Shothaghni, Varshabhu
Bengali: Punurnava
Tamil: Mukaratee-Kirei
Telugu: Punernava
Habitat: Grows as common weed.
Botanical Description: Please see Table 1
Useful Parts: Root, leaves and seeds.
Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, Punarnava is bitter, cooling, astringent to bowels, useful
in biliousness, blood impurities, leucorrhoea, anaemia, inflammations, heart diseases, asthma,
alternatives etc. The leaves are useful in dyspepsia, tumours, spleen enlargement, abdominal pains.
According to Unani system of medicine, the leaves are appetizer, alexiteric, useful in opthalmia, in
joint pains. Seeds are tonic expectorant, carminative, useful in lumbago, scabies. The seeds are
considered as promising blood purifier.
Traditional Medicinal Uses: In many parts of India, different parts of Punarnava are used as folk
medicine.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/punanrnava.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:57 PM]
Boerhaavia diffusa
Ayurveda Properties: Punarnavastaka, Punaravataila, Punarnavaleha etc.

Chemical Constituents: Punarnava contains b-Sitosterol, a-2-sitosterol, palmitic acid, ester of
b-sitosterol, tetracosanoic, hexacosonoic, stearic, arachidic acid, urosilic acid, Hentriacontane,
b-Ecdysone, triacontanol etc.
Internet Resources:
Traditional medicinal knowledge about useful herb Punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa, family
Nyctaginaceae) in Chhattisgarh Plains, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/138_punarnava.html
Effect of different Homoeopathic drugs prepared from common weeds on radial growth of Oyster
mushroom (Pleurotus membranaceus) under in vitro conditions
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/99_mushroom.html
Table 1. Major differences between B. diffusa and Boerhaavia elegans
Characters
Plant
Boerhaavia diffusa
A perennial herb from a
fusiform root
Stem
Prostrate, decumbent or
ascending, 4-10 dm long,
rather slender, divaricately
branched
Leaves
Opposite or sub-opposite, two
of a node unequal, broadly
ovate or suborbicular, obtuse
to rounded or subcordate at the
base.
Flowers
In pendunculate, glomerulate
clusters arranged in slender,
long stalkcked, axillary or
terminal corymbs
Fruit
Obovoid or sub-ellipsoid,
rounded above, slightly
cuneate, below, broadly and
bluntly 5-ribbed, very
glandular throughout
Flowering and Fruiting Throughout the year in Indian
conditions
Boerhaavia elegans
An erect glabrous shrub
Annual, woody below, glabrous above,
thinly pubescent near the base, terete
Linear-oblong or oblong-lanceolate,
obtuse and often mucronulate at the apex
In large, lax, much branched, leafless,

glabrous compound cymes above the
leaves
September to December in Indian

conditions
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/punanrnava.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:31:57 PM]
Bogbean
Bogbean
Menyantheas trifoliata L.
Other common names.Buck bean, bog myrtle, bog hop, bog nut,
brook bean, bean trefoil, marsh trefoil, water trefoil, bitter trefoil,
water shamrock, marsh clover, moonflower, bitterworm.
Habitat and range.The bogbean is a northern marsh herb occurring
in North America as far south as Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and
California.
Description.This herb arises from a long, black, creeping, scaly
rootstock, the leaves being produced from the end of the same on erect
stems measuring about 2 to 10 inches in height. The leaves consist of
three somewhat fleshy, smooth leaflets 1 1/2 to 3 inches long. The
flower cluster is produced from May to July on a long, thick, naked
stalk arising from the rootstock. It bears from 10 to 20 flowers each,
Figure 25.Bogbean
with a funnel-shaped tube terminating in five segments which are
pinkish purple or whitish on the outside and whitish and bearded on (Menyanthes trifoliata)
the inside.
Part used.The leaves, collected in the spring.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bogbean.html [5/16/2004 1:31:59 PM]
Erythrina fusca
Erythrina fusca Lour.

Syn.: Erythrina glauca Willd.
Fabaceae
Gallito, Coral bean, Bois immortelle
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Occasionally planted as a hedge and as a support for the betel vine in Assam and Bengal. Young
leaves are eaten, raw or boiled, as a vegetable in Java. In Puerto Rico, trees have been planted in
pastures and along fences and roads as ornamental shade trees. Elsewhere, they are used for cacao
and coffee shade and living fence posts. Heartwood is light yellow to yellowish-brown and
moderately soft. The lightweight wood is weak, not durable, and scarcely suitable for lumber.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971) seeds are used in folk remedies for cancer in Annam.
Reported to have the same medicinal attributes as Erythrina indica, whose bark is used for fever,
hepatosis, malaria, rheumatism, toothache, also for boils and fractures. Perry (1980) cites many
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Erythrina_fusca.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:31:59 PM]
Erythrina fusca
more uses for Erythrina indica. The bark is used for poulticing fresh wounds in Malasia. Boiled
roots are taken internally or externally for beri-beri. Grated wood used for hematuria (Perry, 1980).
The root is used for rheumatism. Bark and leaves serve as a vermifuge (List and Horhammer,
19691979).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the leaves are reported to contain 60 calories, 81.5 g H2O, 4.6 g protein, 0.8 g fat, 11.7 g
total carbohydrate, 4.1 g fiber, 1.4 g ash, 57 mg Ca, 40 mg P, 1.8 mg Fe, 2,300 g -carotene
equivalent, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.17 mg riboflavin, 4.7 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid (Leung et
al, 1972). Leaves contain (ZMB): 325 calories, 24.9 g protein, 4.3 g fat, 63.3 g total carbohydrate,
22.2 g fiber, 7.6 g ash, 308 mg Ca, 222 mg P, 5.2 mg Fe, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.52 mg riboflavin,
6.54 mg niacin, and 78 mg ascorbic acid (Duke, 1981b). Seeds contain the alkaloid erythraline.
Erysodine, erysonine, erysopine, erysothiopine, erysothiovine, crysovine, erythraline,
erythramine, erythratine, and hypaphorine are also reported (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
The similarity in alkaloid and amino acid patterns in E. fusca and E. glauca were considered by
Krukoff (1972) in rendering these species synonymous.
Description
Deciduous armed tree, 1020 m tall; to 1 m dbh; outer bark grayish, coarse, branches glabrous,
sparsely armed with short prickles. Leaves trifoliolate; stipules caducous; petioles 818 cm long;
rachis 48 cm long; petiole and rachis with 2 apical glands; leaflets ovate, rounded or acute at
apex, glabrous above, with white appressed trichomes below; terminal leaflet 814 cm long, 712
cm wide; lateral leaflets smaller. Flowers thick, mostly 3 per node, in large, terminal, somewhat
pendent racemes; pedicels stout, turned away from apex, ca 2 cm long; flowers showy, pale
orange; stamens diadelphous, green, gradually arched, about halfway exserted. Legumes 1520 cm
long, 2 cm wide, densely brown-tomentose, pointed at apex, weakly ribbed on margins; seeds
several, ellipsoid, dark brown, ca 12 mm long (Croat, 1978).
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesian and Central American Centers of Diversity (Croat, 1978),
bois immortelle, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging. Apparently it will not tolerate
shade. (2n = 42)
Distribution
Mascarene Islands, from Northeastern India to Java, Polynesia and Sri Lanka. Near sea coasts,
along rivers, and in places where soil conditions exclude the true "high evergreen forest" (Burkill,
1966). According to Croat, the species (as E. fusca) is widespread in the Old World tropics, while
in the Americas (as E. glauca), it ranges from Guatemala throughout the Amazon Basin. In
Panama, it is known only from Tropical Moist Forest, often forming pure stands in freshwater
Erythrina fusca
marshes, in the Canal Zone, Bocas del Toro, Cocle, Darien, and Panama (Croat, 1978). This is the
most widespread species in the genus, and the only one occurring (on three continents,
undoubtedly dispersed by marine currents (Krukoff, 1972).
Ecology
this coral bean is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 40 dm, annual temperature of
20 to 28C, and pH of 6 to 8. According to Krukoff (1972) the species thrives in variety of
conditions, seeming to prefer lowlands (seashores, swamps with outlets, low overflow lands, river
banks, shores of lakes, etc.).
Cultivation
According to Martin and Ruberte (1975), this is one of the easiest species of Erythrina to grow.
Like most Erythrinas, this probably roots readily from large fence-post sized cuttings. Seeds
germinate rather rapidly.
Harvesting
For those risking them as vegetables, the young buds and leaves are probably at their tenderest
when leafing out, often in tandem with the commencement of the rainy season.

No data available.
Energy
With no hard data available to me, I have no reason to suspect that this species would be any less
productive than E. poeppigiana, which probably returns ca 25 MT/ha/yr in monoculture, 10 MT/ha
in intercropping scenarios. Nitrogen fixing nodules are reported in Hawaii (Allen and Allen,
1981).
Biotic Factors
Croat suggests that hummingbirds pollinate the species, said to produce a copious nectar.
Erythrina fusca
References
812 p.
Croat, T.B. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press., Stanford, CA.
Krukoff, B.A. 1972. Notes on Asiatic-Polynesian-Australian species of Erythrina. II. J. Arn.
Arb. 53:128139.
Leung W., Woot-Tsuen, Butrum, R.R., and Chang, F.H. 1972. Part I. Proximate
composition mineral and vitamin contents of east Asian foods. In: Food composition table
for use in east Asia. FAO & U.S. Dept. HEW.
Martin, F.W. and Ruberte, R.M. 1975. Edible leaves of the tropics. Antillian College Press,
Mayaguez.
Boneset
Boneset
Eupatorium perfoliatum L.
Synonym.Eupatorium connatum Michx.
Other common names.Thoroughwort, thorough-stem,
thoroughwax, wood boneset, teasel, agueweed, feverwort, sweating
plant, crosswort, vegetable antimony Indian sage, wild sage, tearal,
wild isaac.
Habitat and range.Boneset is a common weed in low, wet ground,
along streams, on the edges of swamps, and in thickets from Canada to
Florida and west to Texas and Nebraska.
Description.This plant is easily recognized by the peculiar
arrangement of the leaves, which are opposite each other and joined at
the base, making it appear as though they were one with the stem
passing through the center. It is erect, growing rather tall, from 1 to 5
26.Boneset
feet in height, with rough, hairy, stout stems. The crowded, flat-topped Figure
(Eupatorium perfoliatum)
clusters of flowers are produced from about July to September and
consist of small heads of tubular white flowers.
Part used.The leaves and flowering tops, collected when the plants are in flower, and stripped
from the stalk.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/boneset.html [5/16/2004 1:32:00 PM]
Borago officinalis
Borago officinalis L.
Boraginaceae
Borgae
Borage Culture on the Black Soil Zone of Alberta, CanadaR. El Hafid, S.F. Blade, and Y.
Hoyano
Borage: A New Crop for Southern ChileM. Berti, R. Wilckens, S. Fischer, and R. Araos
Borage: A Source of Gamma Linolenic Acid (Abstract)James E. Simon, Nancy Beaubaire,
Stephen C. Weller, and Jules Janick
Drawing by Mary Lou Overley
New Crops In The UK: From Concept to Bottom Line ProfitsFrancis H. Nicholls
Schneiter
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Borago_officinalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:01 PM]
Selection of Boronia for Essential Oils and Cut Flowers

Plummer, J.A., J.M. Wann, J.A. Considine, and Z.E. Spadek. 1996. Selection of Boronia for
essential oils and cut flowers. p. 602-609. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press,
Arlington, VA.
Selection of Boronia for Essential Oils

and Cut Flowers*
Julie A. Plummer, Joanne M. Wann, John A. Considine, and Z.E.
(Ted) Spadek
1. METHODOLOGY
1. Boronia megastigma
2. Boronia heterophylla
2. RESULTS
1. Boronia megastigma
2. Boronia heterophylla
3. DISCUSSION
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Table 2
7. Table 3
8. Table 4
9. Table 5
10. Fig. 1
11. Fig. 2
Several species of Boronia (Rutaceae) are endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. They
grow in wet or seasonally wet low-lying areas and are usually associated with jarrah (Eucalyptus
marginata Sm.) forests, paperbark (Melaleuca parviflora Lindl.) flats, and creeks. Two species are
commercially exploited; B. megastigma Nees. (brown boronia) for its essential oils and B.
heterophylla F. Muell. (red boronia, kalgan) for cut flowering stems (Plummer 1995). In the past
total production was from plant material harvested from natural stands. With increasing demand
and the need to improve quality these industries have shifted to harvesting cultivated plants.
B. megastigma plants bear a profusion of strongly scented bell-like flowers (Fig. 1). Petals are
yellow on the inside, while outer petal color varies from yellow (cv Lutea) through red to dark
brown. Outer petal color may be solid or in vertical red (cv Harlequin) or brown stripes (Plummer
1995). Essential oils are extracted from the flowers with hexane to yield about 0.4%-0.8%
concrete. Concrete is washed with alcohol or distilled to yield 60% boronia absolute (Guenther
1949; Penfold and Willis 1954). Boronia absolute is valued at between US$4,000 to $10,000/kg,
depending on quality and purity. It can be used in perfumes, cosmetics, and as a food flavoring
where it enhances most fruit essences (Davies and Menary 1984; Weyerstahl et al. 1994). There
are over 150 compounds in boronia concrete. -Ionone is by far the most important, but other
compounds such as dodecyl acetate enhance the perfume. The monoterpene hydrocarbons,
-pinene, -pinene, and limonene detract from the aroma. Three cultivated genotypes have been
shown to have a high degree of variability in their essential oil components (Davies and Menary
1984) but the diversity within the species has not been examined.
Cut flowering stems of B. heterophylla have been exported from Australia to Japan for 7 years and
markets are growing in southeast Asia, Europe, and Canada. B. heterophylla is an upright shrub
which produces a spectacular display of vibrant pink bell-shaped flowers each about 1 cm long in
early spring. Cultivated plants can yield 8-12 stems 12-15 months from planting, 20-30 stems in
the third year, and 30-60 stems in the fourth year with a commercial life of 5-6 years. Stems are
usually 60 cm long and are picked with >50% of the flowers open (Plummer 1995). Although
demand currently exceeds supply, the limited flowering season (1-2 weeks) and lack of flower
color options are obstacles to future expansion.
Demand for both boronia absolute from B. megastigma and cut flowering stems of B. heterophylla
is increasing. The export market potential is substantial and is likely to continue its rapid growth.
Exports from Western Australia alone are expected to increase by 20% per annum. Boronia
exports from Western Australia were valued at US$46,000 FOB (freight on board) in 1992/93
while the total value of boronia exports from Australia was US$180,000 FOB in the same year
(Anon. 1994). Current wholesale prices for B. heterophylla range from US$2.00 to $3.50 per
bunch, depending on supply. Wholesale prices for B. megastigma blossom for essential oil
production range from US$10 to $15/kg.
Commercial production of both species is dependent on a few cultivars and selection of superior
genotypes would be beneficial. The aim of this study was to investigate variation in the content of
essential oil components of B. megastigma within and between populations, and over different
seasons, and to extend the color range and production period of B. heterophylla.
METHODOLOGY
Boronia megastigma
For plant sampling in Aug. to Sept. 1993 B. megastigma flowers were collected from plants in 13
natural populations and from a yellow flowering selection growing in cultivation. In Aug. to Sept.
1994 flowers were collected from 16 natural populations. Flowers from 25 randomly selected
plants were collected from the majority of populations, but where numbers of flowering plants
were limited, fewer plants were sampled (n = 24 for the Walpole-2 and Palgarup-1 populations; n
= 20 for the Yallingup population; n = 22 for the Barlee population).

Details of flower color, plant age, and plant vigor were collected for all plants. Plant age was
determined using the number of years since the last fire or major soil disturbance as an
approximate age. Seedlings were determined as less than 1 year old, young plants 1-2 years,
mature plants 2 to 6 years and old plants greater than 6 years. Plant vigor was determined by the
density of leaves and flowers on each plant. Weak plants had few flowers and little foliage,
average plants had moderate amounts of foliage and flowers, and vigorous plants had abundant
flowers and lush green foliage. Oil component contents within each category were compared using
analysis of variance and means were separated using Fisher's PLSD. The amount of shading by
surrounding vegetation was determined for 273 of the plants sampled in 1993 using a Model-A
forest densiometer (Lemmon 1957).
Seven to 10 plants from 12 natural populations initially sampled in 1993 were re-sampled in 1994
in order to investigate the quantity of oil components produced by individual plants over
successive years. Comparisons were made using paired 2-tailed t-test.
For oil analysis 12 flowers collected from each plant were extracted with absolute ethanol (10 ml).
Collection vials were weighed before and after flower collection and the difference used to
determine flower fresh weight. Flowers were extracted for at least 24 h before oil analysis. An
aliquot (4 ml) of the extract was analysed without further purification or concentration using a gas
liquid chromatograph (Hewlett Packard 5890A) fitted with dual columns (50 m length, 0.25 mm
internal diameter BPX70 from SGE International and 50 m length, 0.2 mm internal diameter
ULTRA1 from Hewlett Packard) connected to a single injection port and twin ionization detectors.
The injector and detector temperatures were set at 275C. An initial oven temperature of 60C was
held for 5 minutes and then increased at a rate of 8C min-1 to a final temperature of 260C which
was held for 10 min. Ethyl un-decanoate (1 g ml-1) was used as an internal standard. The quantity
(g g-1 fresh weight of flowers) of -pinene, -pinene, limonene, -ionone, -ionone, and dodecyl
acetate was determined using the areas produced by the ULTRA 1 column. The BPX70 column
was used to confirm the presence or absence of -ionone, -ionone and dodecyl acetate. -Pinene,
-pinene, and limonene co-eluted with the solvent peak on this column.
Principal components analyses were performed on the oil data. The first analysis used the oil data
from all individuals sampled to plot the orthogonal factor scores and determine the relationship
between the different oil components. The second analysis used the mean data for each oil
component from each population to determine the relationship between different populations in
terms of the 5 oil components.
Boronia heterophylla
New populations of B. heterophylla were sought in 1994. Plants were tagged and their flowering
period, flower density, flower color, and plant vigor were determined. Cutting material was taken
from plants to assess their ease of propagation and subsequent growth and flowering in cultivation.
RESULTS
Boronia megastigma
The 29 B. megastigma populations identified cover most of the remaining natural range of the
species however, much of this region is now agricultural land (Fig. 2). Flowers from all plants
contained -ionone. -Ionone was either absent or present in undetectable amounts and was
therefore excluded from further analysis. -Pinene was absent from half of the plants, -pinene
from about a quarter of plants and limonene and dodecyl acetate were absent from only a few
plants. Oil contents were used to rank each oil component (Table 1). Ranking was determined by a
fixed percentage of plants whose oil component quantity fell within the stated range. The
extremely high -ionone producers (those in the top 5%) contained 803 to 1787 g g-1 of -ionone.
-Ionone was the major essential oil component, followed by dodecyl acetate. -Pinene and
limonene were often present in similar quantities, and -pinene was usually the least abundant of
the oil components examined.
The mean quantity of oil components varied considerably between populations. -pinene, -pinene
and limonene were commonly absent from individual plants, but each of these compounds was
present in at least one plant in each population. Location had some influence on the content of the
monoterpene hydrocarbons. Southeastern populations had quite high concentrations of -pinene,
-pinene, and limonene, while northern populations all had low concentrations. Location was not
always a good indicator of the content of oil components. In the Jarrahwood area, Jarrahwood-3
produced more than twice the amount of -pinene and -pinene as Jarrahwood-2 and
Jarrahwood-4, even though the three populations are only a short distance apart. Location did not
influence -ionone and dodecyl acetate. The highest mean -ionone content for a population was
736 g g-1 at Albany-1 and the lowest was 227 g g-1 at Porongurup-1.
The quantity of oil components from plants within populations varied considerably. The
Walpole-1 population sampled in 1993 was typical of the variation in -ionone content within
populations. -Ionone concentration ranged from very low (175 g g-1) to extremely high (1342 g
g-1).
The relationship between oil components based on their quantitative presence in plants was
investigated using principal components analysis. Results indicated that -ionone and dodecyl
acetate were closely related and quite distinct from the monoterpene hydrocarbons. The was also a
close relationship among the monoterpene hydrocarbons. -Pinene and -pinene, and to a lesser
extent, limonene were closely related.
Principal components analysis was also used to investigate the relationship between B.
megastigma populations based on the mean content of oil components at each site. Results failed
to show any distinct relationships between populations. However, among the populations sampled
in each year there were certain populations which were closely related in terms of the mean
content of the 5 oil components. Some populations in close proximity to each other were similar in
oil composition, but others were distinct. Boyup Brook, Palgarup-1 and Palgarup-2 were within 33
km of each other and were closely related (1993 data). Jarrahwood-2 and Jarrahwood-4 were
closely related, but Jarrahwood-3 was quite distinct (1994 data).

Canopy cover above B. megastigma plants affected concentrations of the monoterpene
hydrocarbons but not -ionone (y = 0.6x + 365; r2 = 0.005) and dodecyl acetate (y = 0.8x + 273; r2
= 0.009). Plants shaded by higher densities of canopy cover produced lower concentrations of
-pinene (y = -3x + 267; r2 = 0.09), -pinene (y = -2.2x + 156; r2 = 0.09), and limonene (y = -2.1x +
160; r2 = 0.09).
Plant age, plant vigor, and flower color each affected the concentration of at least one of the five
essential oil components investigated. Similar trends occurred in both years but only 1993 data is
presented. Age affected four essential oil components (Table 2). Young plants contained less
alpha-pinene and limonene than mature plants and less -pinene than seedlings, mature and old
plants. Old plants had the most dodecyl acetate. Seedlings had more -pinene and limonene, and
less -ionone and dodecyl acetate than older plants but, due to the low sample size of seedlings,
the differences were not significant. Vigorous plants tended to produce more -pinene and
limonene than weak plants (Table 3). Red flowers contained the lowest concentrations of -ionone
and dodecyl acetate (Table 4). There was a tendency for red/brown flowers to have less -ionone
and dodecyl acetate than brown flowers. Yellow flowers contained no -pinene.
In plants sampled in both years -ionone and dodecyl acetate content differed between the 1993
and 1994 sampling. The mean quantity of -ionone and dodecyl acetate was higher in 1994 than
1993, while -pinene, -pinene and limonene content did not differ (Table 5). The mean quantity
of the majority of oil components for each population sampled in 1994 was the same as for 1993.
Where differences did occur, they could be attributed to either large differences in an individual
plant, or numerous small differences in several plants within the population.
Twenty six plants were found to have no -pinene in at least 1 of the years sampled. Of the plants
found to have no -pinene present in either the 1993 or 1994 analysis, 69% were found to have no
-pinene in both years. No -pinene was found in 53 plants in at least 1 of the years sampled. Of
these plants, 85% had no -pinene in both years. Of the plants lacking limonene, only 21% had no
limonene in both years. Many plants consistently had two or more of the hydrocarbon
monoterpenes absent, and several were lacking all three.
Boronia heterophylla
Seven populations of B. heterophylla were located. A number of known sites no longer contained
boronias or they had been recently burnt out by fires. Plants bearing flowers with a wide range of
pink tones were identified but white flowers proved elusive. Most petals had solid color but some
presented either vertical or horizontal bands of deeper color. Some populations had uniform plants
with consistent pink colored flowers whilst others showed considerable variation in both plant
form and petal color. Flowering period was very uniform with nearly all plants flowering in early
Sept. (early spring, southern hemisphere). The exceptions were one plant which flowered two
weeks earlier and others which flowered up to several weeks later than the general population.
Some plants proved easier than others to propagate from cuttings. The resulting plants will be
assessed in cultivation during their first flowering season in Sept. 1996.
DISCUSSION
Considerable diversity was identified both within and between populations of B. megastigma and
B. heterophylla. In B. megastigma flowers, -ionone was the major oil component followed by
dodecyl acetate. These two compounds impart much of the desirable perfume of boronia absolute
and their close association following principle components analysis is promising for the selection
of genotypes with very high yields of both compounds. The monoterpene hydrocarbons, -pinene,
-pinene, and limonene are undesirable in boronia absolute. These components were also linked
but were quite distinct from -ionone and dodecyl acetate. These relationships indicate that
selection of genotypes which produce very high quality oil with abundant -ionone and dodecyl
acetate and little or no monoterpenes is possible.
The relationships between -ionone and dodecyl acetate and -pinene, -pinene, and limonene is
supported by the work of Bussell et al. (1995) on volatile oil ontogeny in B. megastigma. The
stigma, stamen, and staminode tissue contained dodecanol, -ionone, dodecyl acetate, and
heptadecene among the principal components. -Ionone and dodecyl acetate concentrations were
highest in the stigma extracts. Extracts of the combined ovary, nectary, and receptacle tissue
contained primarily -pinene, -pinene, and limonene. The petal tissue contained relatively low
concentrations of all of the above-mentioned volatile compounds.
The recorded characteristics of B. megastigma and B. heterophylla varied considerably between
populations. Although current populations were quite isolated from one another, this is likely to be
a recent event due to a number of factors, such as over-picking, frequent fires, and land clearing
for agriculture. Boronia flowers are pollinated by an unidentified small moth (Bussell et al. 1995).
It is possible that as populations have become more isolated, the movement of pollinators could be
restricted to individual populations or a few close populations. This would result in distant
populations becoming more genetically isolated over time. For example B. megastigma
populations in the southeastern area of their range had quite high concentrations of -pinene,
-pinene, and limonene while northern populations all had low concentrations.
Populations in close proximity may remain genetically similar not only due to pollen transfer but
also water flow which could wash seeds down river from one population to another. Populations
within the same water catchment area, e.g. (B. megastigma) Jarrahwood-2 and Jarrahwood-4,
appeared closely related, while nearby populations located within different catchment areas e.g.
Jarrahwood-3 were occasionally quite distinct. However, location did not always explain the
differences between populations. There are many environmental factors which may affect flower
color, oil content, and plant vigor.
Canopy cover was used as a crude measure of shading levels. In open conditions with little canopy
cover and shade, B. megastigma produced high amounts of -pinene, -pinene, and limonene. In
dense forest where canopy cover and shade levels were high, monoterpene hydrocarbons were
produced in lower quantities. A number of essential oil species have decreased yields when they
are grown under shade. In peppermint (Mentha piperita) high oil yield, including the production of
limonene, results from high light intensity (Clark and Menary 1980). Reduced oil production
occurs under low radiation in Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) (Duriyaprapan and Britten 1982).
In contrast to our results, experiments by Bussell (1996) showed that 70% shade cloth (30% of
ambient light) had no effect on -pinene and limonene concentrations (-pinene was not tested) in
three clones of B. megastigma and -ionone and dodecyl acetate concentrations increased.
Although the genetic material used by Bussel (1996) was different, the shade levels much higher
and the plants grown under cultivation, these differences highlight the need to further investigate
the influence of shading. Light may also affect flower color in B. heterophylla. Anthocyanins
contribute to red flower color and anthocyanin production in many species is modified by light
quality and intensity. Flowers of B. heterophylla are known to fade during senescence (Plummer
1995) but the influence of light on pigment intensity remains unknown.
Plant age, vigor, and flower color affected the concentration of oil components in B. megastigma.
Unfortunately concentrations of oil components produced by seedlings was not a good indication
of production in the adult plant. This reduces the possibility of screening seedling material for high
quality oil in a breeding program. Red-flowering plants are unlikely to be used in commercial
production of oil as they produced low amounts of the favorable compounds, -ionone and
dodecyl acetate. Plants with yellow flowers produced very little limonene and no -pinene but
relatively high levels of -ionone and dodecyl acetate. Bussell (1996) also found -pinene to be
absent from yellow flowering B. megastigma. Apart from these trends flower color does not appear
to be a useful tool in selecting plants with high oil quality.
Some differences in oil content were detected between 1993 and 1994. The concentrations of the
undesirable oil components, -pinene, -pinene, and limonene were fairly consistent which
permits genetic selection for low or no production. The change in -ionone and dodecyl acetate
content was only marginal but offers the possibility of environmental manipulation, such as site
selection, to increase yield.
Boronia heterophylla plants with a range of solid and striped flower colors, and plants which
flower outside the usual two-week flowering period were identified. Most of these plants could be
propagated successfully. Plants will need to be examined in cultivation to determine if these
characteristics are genetically controlled. Plants will also need to be assessed for their ability to
produce numerous high quality stems and withstand the substantial pruning at harvest. Selected
plants with these attributes will increase the colour range and harvest period.
Although many of the original populations of B. megastigma and B. heterophylla no longer exist
much variation exists in the remaining plants. Natural pollination of boronias requires the presence
of a pollinator moth and her movements tend to ensure out-crossing. Thus the remaining plants
probably contain most of the original genetic diversity. Boronias can be manually self and cross
pollinated (Plummer and Considine 1995) and a breeding program has commenced. B.
megastigma plants with high yields of -ionone and dodecyl acetate and low or no monoterpene
production were identified. Collection from natural stands is inadequate to meet demand and
expansion of cultivation is underway. Currently boronia absolute is only used in the food flavoring
sector and development of new uses will require expanded production. B. heterophylla plants with
a range of pink flower tones and different flowering periods were identified. Although these
characteristics will need to be confirmed under conditions of commercial cultivation they show
promise for the improvement of product quality and the expansion of production of these new
crops.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1994. The Australian wildflower industry: A review. Paper 94/9. Rural Industries
Research and Development Corportation Research Papers. Australian Publ. Service,
Canberra.
Bussell, B.M., J.A. Considine, and Z.E. Spadek. 1995. Flower and volatile oil ontogeny in
Boronia megastigma. Ann. Bot. 76:457-463.
Bussell, B.M. 1996. Studies on the ecology and biology of Boronia megastigma Nees. M.
Hort. Sci. Thesis, Univ. Western Australia, Nedlands.
Clark, R.J. and R.C. Menary. 1980. Environmental effects on peppermint (Mentha piperita
L.) I. Effect of daylength, photon flux density, night temperature and day temperature on the
yield and composition of peppermint oil. Austral. J. Plant Physiol. 7:685-692.
Davies, N.W. and R.C. Menary. 1984. Volatile constituents of Boronia megastigma flowers.
Perfumer Flavorist 8:3-8.
Duriyaprapan, S. and Britten, E.J. 1982. The effects of solar radiation on plant growth, oil
yield and oil quality of Japanese mint. J. Expt. Bot. 33:1319-1324.
Guenther, E. 1949. Oil of Boronia megastigma (boronia flower oil). p. 368-367. In: The
essential oils. Van Nostrand, New York.
Lemmon, P.E. 1957. A new instrument for measuring forest overstory density. J. Forestry.
55:667-668.
Penfold, A.R. and J.L. Willis. 1954. The essential oil industry of Australia. Econ. Bot.
8:316.
Plummer, J.A. 1996. Boronia. p. 191-214. In: M. Burchett and K.A. Johnson (eds.),
Australian native plants--Horticulture and uses. Univ. New South Wales Press, Sydney,
Australia.
Plummer, J.A. and J.A. Considine. 1995. New boronias, more colours, better oils. Austral.
Hort. 93 (5):35-36.
Weyerstahl, P., H. Marschall, W.-R. Bork, and R. Rilk. 1994. Megastigmanes and other
constituents of the absolute from Boronia megastigma from Tasmania. Liegigs Ann. Chem.
1994:1043-1047.
*Joint contribution of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, WA 6907 and the Agricultural Chemistry Laboratory, Chemistry Centre of Western
Australia, 125 Hay Street, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia. Research supported in part by the
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Sunglow Flowers Pty. Ltd. and Plantex
Australia Pty. Ltd.
Table 1. Ranking of the 5 oil components determined using the gas liquid chromatography results
from the 718 plants sampled in 1993 and 1994.
Oil content (g g-1 FW)
% of total plants -Pinene -Pinene Limonene -Ionone Dodecyl acetate
Extremely high
5
420-1001 298-940 264-893 803-1787
577-1291
Rank
Very high
High
Medium
Low
Very low
Extremely low
5
10
60
10
5
5
303-419 207-297 184-263 646-802

193-302 140-206 118-183 548-645
0-192
0-139
33-117 260-547
0
0
25-32 199-259
0
0
15-24 162-198
0
0
0-14
70-161
518-576
427-517
178-426
115-177
84-114
0-83
Table 2. The influence of plant age on concentration (g g-1 fresh flower weight) of oil
components of Boronia megastigma. Mean separation in columns by Fisher's PLSD, 5% level.
Component (g g-1 FW)
Plant age -Pinene -Pinene Limonene -Ionone Dodecyl acetate
Seedling 156ab
231b
125ab
234a
169ab
Young
90a
29a
44a
395a
274a
Mature
159b
93b
99b
382a
297a
Old
144ab
87b
60ab
391a
364b
Table 3. The influence of plant vigour on concentration (g g-1 fresh flower weight) of oil
Plant vigor -Pinene -Pinene Limonene -Ionone Dodecyl acetate
Weak
120a
76ab
48a
411a
347a
Average
145a
80a
84a
383a
303a
Vigorous
207a
161b
157b
379a
265a
Table 4. The influence of flower colour on concentration (g g-1 fresh flower weight) of oil
Flower color -Pinene -Pinene Limonene -Ionone Dodecyl acetate
Yellow
287a
0
27a
380ab
273abc
Red
121a
100a
86a
263a
172a
Red/brown
140a
79a
84a
378b
280b
Brown
157a
88a
90a
407b
338c
Table 5. Mean SE quantity of oil components from flowers of Boronia megastigma sampled in
1993 and 1994 (n = 109).
Year -Pinene -Pinene Limonene -Ionone Dodecyl acetate

1993 15717 8611
807
41516
32316
1994 14215 8110
847
45216
39817
Fig. 1. Young (2-year-old) Boronia megastigma
plant in cultivation in Nannup, Western
Australia.
Fig. 2. Boronia megastigma populations in the south west of Western Australia. l denotes
populations sampled in 1993, and u denotes populations sampled in 1994.
Lagenaria siceraria
Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.)

Cucurbitaceae
Cucuzzi, Spaghetti squash, Bottle gourd, Doodhi,
Hue, Kampyo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lagenaria_siceraria_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:04 PM]
Side-oats grama
Side-oats grama
Gramineae, Poaceae Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.
This is a long-lived native grass, widely distributed, but most abundant in the
Central and Southern Great Plains. It produces short rhizomes and tends to a bunch-type growth.
The leaves are about 6 inches long and under 0.25 inch wide. Flower stems may reach to 3 feet. It
produces an abundance of leafy forage well liked by all classes of livestock. Hay of good quality is
produced if mowed sufficiently early. It is adapted to wide ranges of soil and climate. Seedling
vigor is good, and stands are readily established by seeding. Generally, side-oats grama is seeded
in mixtures with other grasses. Several varieties of superior local adaptation are in the trade.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Side_oats_grama.html [5/16/2004 1:32:04 PM]
Grama grasses
Grama grasses
Gramineae Bouteloua sp.
Some 18 species of Bouteloua, the grama grasses, are native in the United
States, mainly throughout the Great Plains and Western States. They are summer growers, and the
amount of growth produced is dependent on available moisture. Most species cure naturally, so
growth from a previous season is palatable for livestock. They are prized as forage producers on
range and pasture land. The three most valuable species are side-oats grama, black grama, and blue
grama.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Grama_grasses.html [5/16/2004 1:32:05 PM]
Mimosa scabrella
Mimosa scabrella Benth.

Syn.: Mimosa bracatinga
Mimosaceae
Bracatinga
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Regarded as a useful living fence post or ornamental avenue tree. Useful for reforestation. It sheds
copious leaves forming a good humus. Makes an excellent fuel wood. Though its pulp is inferior
to Eucalyptus saligna it is promising for printing and writing papers (fibers average 1.11.2 mm
long). Used for coffee shade in Guatemala, where Standley and Steyermark (1946) say, "The
coffee plantations shaded by bracatinga are very handsome, for the trees are uniform in height,
their crowns far above the coffee bushes... The bracatinga has been much advertised in tropical
America in recent years as a tree suitable for reforestation...until better trees could take its place."
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Mimosa_scabrella.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:32:05 PM]
Mimosa scabrella
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
I find no data on this species. Mimosa hostilis reportedly contains the hallucinogen
N,N-dimethyltryptamine, and is used in making a beverage which translates "Wine of Jurema."
Interestingly, this species is called catinga instead of bracatinga.
Description
Unarmed tree to 15 m tall, 40 cm in diameter, with sparse broad crown, the trunk branching
shortly above the base; bark whitish, young branchlets lepidote. Leaves bipinnate; the pinnae
mostly 57 pairs; leaflets 2535 pairs, oblong-linear, obtuse, stellate, subterminal peduncles ca 1.5
cm long, the heads about 7.5 mm in diameter. Sepals glabrous, ca 1.2 mm long. Corolla 4-lobed,
stellate tomentose, ca 3.5 mm long. Stamens 4. Pods sessile, oblong-linear, obtuse,
verrucose-tomentose 2025 x 56 mm 24-jointed. Seeds castaneous, 34 mm long.
Germplasm
Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, bracatinga, or cvs thereof, is reported not
to tolerate wet soils which tend to stunt its growth.
Distribution
Native to the cool subtropical Parana plains of Southeastern Brazil although Standley and
Steyermark (1946) have reported its introduction into Guatemala. Small plots have been
established in Argentina, Colombia, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, Portugal, El Salvador,
Senegal, Spain, Venezuela, and Zaire.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical to Subtropical Moist Forest Life Zones. Grows in many types of
well-drained soils. Grows at 2,400 m in Guatemala.
Cultivation
Easily planted by seed, 34 seed sown in depressions 34 cm deep. Spaced at 23 m. Readily
cultivates in plantations, even at exceptionally close spacings (NAS, 1979).
Mimosa scabrella
Harvesting
Some plantations have been harvested on rotations of only 3 years.

May attain 15 m tall in 3 years, 89 m in 2 years, and 5 m in 14 months.
Energy
Before the advent of the diesel, bracatinga was grown to fuel Brazilian railroads. Although the
plant is reported to fix nitrogen, Allen and Allen (1981) do not cite it as a nodulated species.
Biotic Factors
Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following diseases for Mimosa spp.: Cylindrosporium sp.
(leaf spot), Lipocystis caesalpiniae (rust), Meliola bicornis and Meliola denticulata (black
mildew), Phymatotrichum omni-vorum (root rot), Ramularia mimosae (leaf spot), Ravenelia
dysocarpae (rust), and Ravenelia fragrans (rust). Golden (p.c. 1984) reports the nematode
Meloidogyne incognita acrita.
References
Washington.
812 p.
Washington, DC.
Standley, P.C. and Steyermark, J.A. 1946. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany 24(V):502
pp.
Last update Wednesday, January 7, 1998 by aw
Brachiaria mutica
Bracheri mutica (Forsk.)

Stapf.
Syn.: Panicum barbinode Trin.
Panicum purpurascens Raddi
Panicum muticum Forsk.
Poaceae
Paragrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brachiaria_mutica_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:06 PM]
Proso millet
Proso millet
Broomcorn millet, Hog millet, Hershey millet
Gramineae, (Poaceae)
Panicum miliaceum L.
Proso millet is the only millet grown as a grain crop in the
United States. Other millets as foxtail, Japanese or barnyard,
and pearlmillet or cattail are grown mainly for forage or
pasture and are listed under Grass Forage and Pasture Crops.
Proso millet is probably grown on not more than 150,000
acres in the United States, though actual data are unavailable.
Most production is in the Northern Plains and other
short-growing season areas. In Asia, Africa and Russia, grain
millet is an important food crop, but is less important than formerly as other adapted grains are
more desirable. Since proso millet will mature a grain crop in from 60 to 75 days after seeding,
and is low in moisture requirement, it will produce some food or feed where other grain crops
would fail.
Millets have been grown in Asia and North Africa since prehistoric times, and little is known of
their origin. They probably came originally from Eastern or Central Asia. They were important in
Europe during the middle ages before corn and potatoes were known there. Today they are of
minor importance in Western Europe.
Proso millet grows up to four feet with stout, erect stems which may spread at the base. Stems and
leaves are hairy. The panicle or flower head is rather open, like oats, and drooping. In different
varieties it may be spreading, one-sided, or erect. The branches in the panicle bear spikelets only
toward the tips. Each spikelet has two unequal glumes and a single flower. The flower consists of
the lemma and palea, enclosing the stamens and pistil. As in oats, the lemma and palea adhere to
and are a part of the threshed grain. The ripened seed is small (about 2 mm. wide and 2.5 mm.
long), ovate and rounded on the dorsal side. Seeds range in color from white or cream to yellow,
brown or nearly black. The seeds do not mature uniformly and shattering of those first ripe often
occurs before others are mature. For this reason the crop is usually mowed and cured in the swath
or windrow prior to combining.
As food in Old World countries, millet is used as a meal for making baked foods, as a paste from
pounded wet seeds or as boiled gruel. As feed the grain is eaten readily by livestock, and is equal
to or superior to oats in feed value. It should be ground for livestock feed. It is also used in poultry
and bird seed mixes.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Proso_millet.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:07 PM]
Proso millet
A related species is brown top millet, P. ramosum L.,-Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf., which is
sometimes seeded for game bird pasturage in the Southeastern States.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Proso_millet.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:07 PM]
Mustard
Mustards
Mustard: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Black Mustard In: Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds as Novel Industrial Oilseed
CropsPatrick M. Carr
Handbook of Energy Crops. 1983. James A. Duke. unpublished
Brassica juncea
Brassica nigra
Sinapis alba
The Herb Hunters GuideA.F. Sievers. 1930.
Potential of Sugar Beet Nematode-Resistant Radishes and Mustard for Use in Sugar Beet
RotationsJames M. Krall, David W. Koch, Fred A. Gray, and Li Mei Yun
M.A. Crossman
Magness, et al., 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Black mustard and Condiment mustards
White mustard
Tuberous rooted Chinese mustard
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Mustard_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:08 PM]
Brassica rapa
Brassica rapa L.
Syn.: Brassica campestris L.
Brassicaceae or Cruciferae
Turnip, chinese cabbage, field mustard, seven top, shogun,
turnip greens, turnip rape
and Mas Yamaguchi
Comparison of Somatic and Sexual Interspecific Hybridization for the Development of New
Brassica Vegetable Crops.R.H. Ozminkowski Jr. and P.S. Jourdan
Growing and Marketing Chinese Vegetables in Central Kentucky Wenwei Jia, Mary Witt, and
John Strang
Evaluating Chinese Cabbage Cultivars for High Temperature ToleranceI-Mo Fu, Carol
Shennan, and Gregory E. Welbaum
M.A. Crossman
Turnip: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Cole Crops production links
Brassica food crops. In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops
of the United States.
Chinese group
Pekinensis group
Rapifera group
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_rapa_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:08 PM]
Brassica rapa
Ruvo group
White mustard
Tyfon or Holland Greens
Rapeseed and Canola
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_rapa_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:08 PM]
Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds as Novel Industrial Oilseed Crops

Carr, P.M. 1993. Potential of fanweed and other weeds as novel industrial oilseed crops. p.
384-388. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds

as Novel Industrial Oilseed Crops*
Patrick M. Carr
1. METHODOLOGY
1. 1990
2. 1991
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Fanweed
2. Black Mustard
3. Wild Mustard
4. Hare's Ear Mustard
5. Euphorbia lagascae
6. Weed Control
3. SUMMARY
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Table 2
7. Fig. 1
Diversification has been suggested as a possible strategy for improving the financial condition of
United States crop producers (Jolliff and Snapp 1988; Jolliff 1989). Agricultural production of
industrial feedstocks, for example, would open additional markets to farmers who typically grow
only food and feed crops. In some instances, farm production of industrial feedstocks could be
quite profitable since high-value specialty chemicals are contained in the seeds of some plants
(Hinman 1986).
While crambe, (Crambe abyssinica Hochst.), ironweed [Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less.], and
several other plant species have been identified as promising industrial crops (Princen 1983), few
studies have evaluated the potential of present weed species as sources of high-value specialty
chemicals and industrial feedstocks (Clopton and Triebold 1944; Shultz et al. 1983). There are
several weeds that are well adapted to growing conditions in different regions of the United States
and could be grown as sources of industrial chemicals if domesticated. While a plant may contain
desirable chemicals or have valuable properties, it is unknown if these plant species could be
developed for field production. The objective of this research was to evaluate the agronomic
potential of four weeds occurring in the Northern Great Plains: fanweed [Thlaspi arvense (L.)],
black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch], wild mustard [Brassica kaber (DC.) Wheeler], and
hare's ear mustard [Conringia orientalis (L.) Dumort]. These four weeds were studied since
previous work indicated that each contained valuable specialty chemicals (Appelqvist 1971), or
were related to other plant species which were sources of valuable chemicals. The potential of
Euphorbia lagascae Spreng., as a field crop was also considered since past research indicates it
may have potential as an industrial crop (Krewson and Scott 1966), even though this plant species
is neither native to, nor naturalized in, the United States.
METHODOLOGY
1990
A field evaluation was conducted under dryland management at the Carrington
Research/Extension Center (4730' N, 997' W) in central North Dakota. Seed samples of a single
accession of black mustard, hare's ear mustard, and Euphorbia lagascae were obtained from the
USDA/ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research in Peoria, Illinois, while seed of
wild mustard and fanweed were collected from wild stands. Seed of each species along with
crambe, an industrial crop which is grown in North Dakota, was planted in nonreplicated 1.4 m2
plots on May 17. The agronomic potential of each species was rated on the basis of its ease of
establishment, rate of growth, initiation and duration of flowering, susceptibility to lodging and
pests, seed development (determinate or indeterminate), susceptibility of seeds to shatter, and other
factors. Height of 10 plants of each species was measured prior to harvest. A 0.7 m2 area was
harvested by hand for determination of dry matter, grain yield, and seed weight.
1991
The six plant species included in the 1990 field experiment were each planted in 8.2 m2 plots in a
randomized complete block design with four replicates. The agronomic potential of each plant
species was evaluated as described. A sunfleck ceptometer (Decagon Devices, Inc., Pullman, WA)
was used to quantify the amount of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) that was intercepted
by the plant canopy in plots of two replicates on selected dates during the growing season. Plants
in a 1.9 m2 area from the central portion of each plot were harvested for determination of dry
matter, grain yield, and seed weight. Seed oil content and fatty acid distribution of the oil were
determined for a representative sample of each species by mass spectroscopy at the Food and
Cereal Science Laboratory at North Dakota State University, in a manner previously described
(Riveland 1991).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fanweed
Fanweed (syn. stinkweed, field pennycress, pennycress) was rated as having excellent potential as
a new crop if established in the fall (Table 1). Poor germination of spring-sown fanweed seed was
a problem. As a result, yield of fanweed was low when planted in the spring. Metzger (1990)
reported that exposure to temperatures of 0 to 10C for 3 to 6 weeks can break the dormancy of
fanweed seed. Dormancy can be broken if seed is scarified by scratching the seedcoat (Best and
McIntyre 1975), although this was not true for spring-sown seed in this study. Broadcast planting
rather than seed drilling is desirable, since exposure to light seems to enhance seed germination.
Overwintering fanweed plants were in full-flower by mid-May, while other plant species were still
seedlings. Hence, seed production by most fanweed plants was completed prior to the relatively
hot, dry conditions which developed by mid-July during 1990 and 1991.
Seeds, contained in pods, tended to shatter as plant moisture levels declined; however, plants could
be swathed to minimize harvest loss from shattering and to promote uniform seed maturation. If
swathed, fanweed could be harvested in mid-June in the Northern Great Plains, possibly enabling a
second crop to be planted in the field during the same growing season. Double cropping would
likely be possible in more southern portions of its range in North America.
Individual fanweed plants established in the fall produced an average of 1,600 seeds, translating
into an estimated yield of about 1,500 kg/ha for both years. This yield is similar to that reported in
Montana during the 1940s when fanweed was experimentally grown under irrigated management
(Clopton and Triebold 1944), and to seed production estimates of wild stands in Canada (Best and
McIntyre 1975). Seed yields in excess of 1,300 kg/ha are not unusual when seed from wild
fanweed stands is grown in the northern United States.
Fanweed demonstrated potential as an industrial crop on the basis of seed oil content and
composition (Table 2). Fanweed seed contained about 26% oil by weight; the oil, in turn, was
close to 40% erucic acid (22:1). Erucic acid is an unusual fatty acid with several industrial
applications (Van Dyne et al. 1990). While the level of erucic acid in the seed produced by crambe
was greater than that produced by fanweed, consideration of pests, crop rotations, and other factors
could make fanweed a promising candidate for new crop development.
Black Mustard
Black mustard was rated as having very good to excellent agronomic potential. Plants were easy to
mechanically sow and manage. Growth was vigorous and large plants developed (Table 1). Seed
production was underway by early July; the seeds which developed were contained in pods from
1.3 to 1.9 cm long which tended to shatter as plant moisture levels declined. Plants would probably
need to be swathed prior to harvesting. Black mustard may fit as a short season crop in some crop
rotations in the Northern Great Plains.
Black mustard produced relatively large amounts of seed (>1,200 kg/ha) during 1990 and 1991
(Table 1). In 1991, close to 1,900 kg/ha of seed was produced, making black mustard the highest
yielding species evaluated. By comparison, yield of crambe averaged 1,820 kg/ha in 1991. Unlike
fanweed, seed dormancy was not a serious problem with black mustard, so relatively good plant
stands were fairly easy to establish in the spring.
Black mustard produced seed that was 32% oil (Table 2). Of this, roughly 40% was erucic acid. As
with fanweed, black mustard demonstrated potential as an industrial crop, even though crambe
seed contained greater amounts of erucic acid.
Wild Mustard
Wild mustard (charlock, kaber mustard) was considered to have very good to excellent agronomic
potential. Plants were easy to mechanically sow and manage, and seeds appeared to lend
themselves to mechanical harvesting methods. As with fanweed and black mustard, seeds of wild
mustard were susceptible to shattering so plants would probably be swathed prior to harvesting the
seed if grown on a field-scale.
Wild mustard produced roughly 2,000 kg/ha of seed during 1990 and 1991 (Table 1). Individual
plants produced an average of 2,076 seeds which were contained in pods approximately 2.5 cm in
length. The seed contained about 26% oil but failed to be comprised of a high percentage of highly
valued fatty acids (Table 2). For this reason, wild mustard was considered to have low potential as
an industrial crop.
Hare's Ear Mustard

Hare's ear mustard (syn. hare's mustard) was considered to have moderate agronomic potential.
Plants were generally easy to mechanically sow and manage. However, about 15% of the stand
was destroyed by an unknown pathogen in 1991. Plants were short (<40 cm) and some seed pods
were less than 10 cm above the soil surface (Table 1). This could present difficulties in the
mechanical harvesting process. Seed could be harvested without first swathing the plants since
seed pods were not susceptible to shattering.
Hare's ear mustard produced relatively low quantities of seed in 1990 and 1991 field evaluations;
yields averaged 901 kg/ha in 1990 and only 549 kg/ha in 1991 (Table 1). Individual plants
produced an average of 590 seeds which were contained in seed pods about 5 cm in length.
Hare's ear mustard produced seed containing about 30% oil, with close to 30% of the oil being
comprised of erucic acid (Table 2). Other research indicates that the oil contains additional fatty
acids with industrial applications (Appelqvist, 1971). It seems that further consideration of hare's
ear mustard as an industrial crop is warranted.
Euphorbia lagascae
Euphorbia lagascae was considered to have the lowest agronomic potential of all plant species.
Seed development was indeterminate and fruits containing the seed burst violently as the seed
approached maturity. Still, this plant species was agronomically attractive in several respects. The
seed was large and easy to mechanically sow. Seedlings grew rapidly and were easy to manage.
Grasshoppers and other insect pests did not appear to feed on Euphorbia lagascae. Improvements
in seed retention are needed.
Euphorbia lagascae produced an abundance of seed in 1990 and 1991 field evaluations, but much
of the seed could not be collected due to seed shattering. Hence, harvested seed only amounted to
about 200 kg/ha during 1990 and 150 kg/ha during 1991 (Table 1). Further studies are needed to
assess seed yields when plants are swathed prior to harvesting.
Euphorbia lagascae produced seed which contained over 50% oil by weight. Past research
determined that the oil contained over 50% vernolic acid (K. Carlson 1991 pers. commun.),
making it a promising candidate for new crop development if genetic improvements and/or
management practices could enhance the mechanical harvestability of seed.
Weed Control
Weeds were a problem and had to be removed by hand throughout the growing season. Effective
weed control strategies must be developed for each plant species. The plant canopy produced by
crambe intercepted more than 90% of the incident PAR after June 13 in the 1991 field evaluation
(Fig. 1). Only small amounts of PAR could penetrate the canopy after this date and reach weed
seedlings which were developing underneath. This may explain why weed pressure was much
greater in hare's ear mustard than in crambe plots, since more than 50% of the incident PAR
reached weed seedlings developing under a canopy of hare's ear mustard through most of the
growing season.
SUMMARY
Fanweed, black mustard, hare's ear mustard, and Euphorbia lagascae contain fatty acids with
important industrial applications. These plants have varying degrees of potential as novel industrial
crops. Fanweed is adapted to growing conditions in the Great Plains and seems suited to field
production methods. Approximately 1,500 kg/ha of seed was produced in 1990-91 field
evaluations in North Dakota. This seed contained about 180 kg/ha of erucic acid, an unusual fatty
acid with several industrial uses. Black mustard and hare's ear mustard also produced seed
containing erucic acid, but these weed species appeared to have less potential than fanweed as
industrial crops when agronomic factors were considered. Seed harvesting difficulties with
Euphorbia lagascae and failure of wild mustard seed oil to contain high-value fatty acids presently
limit their potential as industrial crops.
REFERENCES
Appelqvist, R.K. 1971. Lipids in cruciferae VIII. The fatty acid composition of some wild
and partially domesticated species. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 47:740-744.
Best, K.F. and G.I. McIntyre. 1975. The biology of Canadian weeds. 9. Thlaspi arvense L.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 55:279-292.
Clopton, J.R. and H.O. Triebold. 1944. Fanweed seed oil: potential substitute for rapeseed
oil. Ind. Eng. Chem. 36:218-219.

Hinman, C.M. 1986. Potential new crops. Sci. Amer. 255:33-37.
Jolliff, G.D. 1989. Strategic planning for new-crop development. J. Prod. Agr. 2:6-13.
Jolliff, G.D. and S.S. Snapp. 1988. New crop development: opportunity and challenges. J.
Prod. Agr. 1:83-89.
Krewson, C.F. and W.E. Scott. 1966. Euphorbia lagascae Spreng., an abundant source of
epoxyoleic acid: seed extraction and oil composition. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 43:171-174.
Metzger, J. 1990. Stories on the control of flowering in field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense
L.), p. 3. In: Proc. North Dakota Acad. Sci. 44:3. 82nd Annual Meeting. April 19-20, Fargo,
ND.
Princen, L.H. 1983. New oilseed crops on the horizon. Econ. Bot. 36:478-491.
Riveland, N. 1991. Oil quality and quantity of alternative oil seeds, p. 8-15. In: Alternative
crop and alternative crop production research: a progress report. North Dakota State Univ.,
Fargo, ND.
Shultz, E.B., Jr., W.P. Darby, H.M. Draper III, and R.P. Morgan. 1984. Novel marginal-land
oilseeds: potential benefits and risks, p. 13-42. In: E.B
Shultz, Jr. and R.P. Morgan (eds.). Fuels and chemicals from oilseeds: technology and
policy options. AAAS Selected Symposia Ser. 91. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Van Dyne, D.L., M.G. Blase, and K.D. Carlson. 1990. Industrial feedstocks and products
from high erucic acid oil: crambe and industrial rapeseed. Univ. Missouri-Columbia,
Columbia., MO.
*Sincere appreciation is extended to R. Kleiman, research leader for new crops and K. Carlson, a
research chemist, both at the USDA/ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research,
for providing seed, seed oil composition data, and helpful advice, and to N. Hettiarachchy,
Associate Professor of Cereal Science and Food Technology at North Dakota State University, for
determining the seed oil content and composition of the plant species included in this
investigation.
Table 1. Selected agronomic characteristics of weed species evaluated during 1990 and 1991 in
central North Dakota.
Plant
Fanweed
Date
established
1990 1991
June
19
May
13
Sept 1
Aug
25
Duration of
Seed yield Seed weight
Lodgingz Plant ht (cm)
flowering
(kg/ha)
(g/100 seed)
1990 1991 1990 1991 1990 1991 1990 1991 1990 1991
July
June
150.5 0.5
43
27 200 119 0.09 0.07
7Aug
July 1
13
May May
20130.5 0.5
28
67 1628 1414 0.08 0.08
June June
15
15
Black
mustard
May
27
May
10
Wild
mustard
May
27
Apr
29
Hare's ear
mustard
June
11
May
26
Euphorbia
lagascae
May
29
May
15
Crambe
May
24
Apr
26
z0
June
June
1329Aug
Aug 8
20
June June
85July Aug
26
14
July June
93July July
29
21
July June
612Sept Sept
20
28
June June
261July July
31
29
1.0
1.0
176
126 1243 1875
0.17
0.16
1.0
1.0
67
83 2005 1849
0.24
0.25
1.0
1.0
37
27
901
549
0.16
0.19
1.0
1.0
72
42
201
147
0.91
1.18
1.0
1.0
89
61 1997
1820
0.64
0.62
= none, 1 = severe.
Table 2. Fatty acid acid composition of the seed oil.

Fatty acid composition (% of total seed oil)
Plant
16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 20:0 22:1
Black mustard
4.8
0.0
14.3
17.9
14.0
37.6
Wild mustard
3.9
2.2
35.7
22.7
17.6
6.4
Crambe
1.4
0.8
14.0
6.2
1.0
62.9
Fanweed
2.7
0.0
13.8
20.2
9.0
37.8
Hare's ear mustard
2.5
0.0
5.8
27.5
2.2
26.9
Fig. 1. Percent of photosynthetically active

radiation intercepted by the plant canopy.
Brassica napus
Brassica napus L.
Canadian turnip, Kale, Rutabaga, Rape, Swede,
Swedish turnip, Yellow turnip
Rutabaga: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Salad Rape, Colza
Rutabaga, Swede, Swedish Turnip (Napobrassica group)
Hanover Salad(Pabularia group)
Siberian Kale(Pabularia group)
Rapeseed, Rapeseed Oil, Canola
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_napus_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:11 PM]
Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea L.
Asian Vegetables: Selected Fruit and Leafy Types - Chinese Broccoli and Choy Sum Marita
Cantwell, Xunli Nie, Ru Jing Zong, and Mas Yamaguchi
Comparison of Somatic and Sexual Interspecific Hybridization for the Development of New
Brassica Vegetable CropsRichard H. Ozminkowski, Jr. and Pablo S. Jourdan
Brussels Sprouts as an Alternative Crop for Southwest VirginiaGregory E. Welbaum
Broccoli, Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Brussels Sprouts
Collards and Kale
Cole Crops production links
Brassica food crops In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops
of the United States.
Collards
Common kale
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Brussels Sprouts
Kohlrabi
Broccoli
Chinese Broccoli
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_oleracea_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:11 PM]

Cruciferae Brassica parachinensis Bailey
This oriental vegetable is very similar in growth habit and culture to Chinese
cabbage, which see. However, it is grown for the flowering stalk. The entire plant with the
flowering stalk may be harvested and marketed. In exposure of edible parts daring growth the plant
is comparable to sprouting broccoli.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/ChoySum.html [5/16/2004 1:32:12 PM]
Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Brazil
Vieira, R.F. 1999. Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Brazil. p. 152159. In: J.
Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic

Plants in Brazil
Roberto F. Vieira*
1. THE BRAZILIAN VEGETATION
2. GERMPLASM CONSERVATION
3. PRIORITY SPECIES
1. Maytenus ilicifolia Martius ex Reiss., Celastraceae (Espinheira Santa)
2. Pfaffia paniculata Martius, Amaranthaceae (Brazilian Ginseng)
3. Phyllanthus niruri L., Euphorbiaceae (Quebra Pedra)
4. Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf., Rutaceae (Jaborandi)
5. Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, Rubiaceae (Ipecac)
6. Solanum mauritianum Scop., Solanaceae (Cuvitinga)
7. Exotic Species
4. REFERENCES
THE BRAZILIAN VEGETATION

Approximately two thirds of the biological diversity of the world is found in tropical zones, mainly in
developing countries. Brazil is considered the country with the greatest biodiversity on the planet, with
nearly 55,000 native species distributed over six major biomes (Fig 1): Amazon (30,000); Cerrado
(10,000); Caatinga (4,000); Atlantic rainforest (10,000), Pantanal (10,000) and the subtropical forest
(3,000).
The Brazilian Amazon Forest (tropical rainforest) covers nearly 40% of all national territory, with
about 20% legally preserved. This ecosystem is rather fragile, and its productivity and stability depend
on the recycling of nutrients, whose efficiency is directly related to the biological diversity and the
structural complexity of the forest (Anon. 1995). Giacometti (1990) estimated that there are about 800
plant species of economic or social value in the Amazon. Of these, 190 are fruit-bearing plants, 20 are
oil plants, and there are hundreds of medicinal plants (Berg 1982).
The "Cerrado" is the second largest

ecological dominion of Brazil, where a
continuous herbaceous stratum is joined
to an arboreal stratum, with variable
density of woody species. The cerrados
cover a surface area of approximately
25% of Brazilian territory and around 220
species from cerrado are reported as used
in the traditional medicine (Vieira and
Martins 1998).
The "Caatinga" extends over areas of the
states of the Brazilian Northeast and is
characterized by the xerophitic vegetation
typical of a semi-arid climate. The soils
that are fertile, due to the nature of their
original materials and the low level of
rainfall, experience minor runoff (Anon.
1995). Various fruit species and medicinal
plants have their centers of genetic
diversity in this region, and the use of
Fig. 1. Major biomes of Brazil, source: Embrapa,
local folk medicines is common. Several
Cenargen.
important aromatic species are reported
for this region (Craveiro et al. 1994), such
as Lippia spp. and Vanillosmopsis arborea.
The Atlantic Forest extends over nearly the whole Brazilian coastline, and is one of the most
endangered ecosystems of the world, with less than 10% of the original vegetation remaining. The
climate is predominantly hot and tropical, and precipitation ranges from 1,000 to 1,750 mm. The land
is composed of hills and coastal plains, accompanied by a mountain range (Anon. 1995). Several
important medicinal species are found in this region, such as Mikania glomerata, Bauhinia forficata,
Psychotria ipecacuanha, and Ocotea odorifera.
The territory of the Meridional Forests and Grasslands includes the mesophytic tropical forests, the
subtropical forests, and the meridional grasslands of the states of southern Brazil. The climate is
tropical and subtropical, humid, with some areas of temperate climate. The naturally fertile soils,
associated with the mild climate, allowed a rapid colonization during the last century, mainly by
European and, more recently, by Japanese immigrants (Anon. 1995). Several medicinal plants, such as
chamomile (Matricaria recutita), calendula (Calendula officinalis), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis),
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), basil (Ocimum basilicum), and oregano (Origanum vulgare), were
introduced and adapted by immigrants.
The Pantanal is a geologically lowered area filled with sediments which have settled in the basin of the
Paraguay River. Pantanal flora is formed by species from both Cerrado and Amazon vegetation. More
than 200 species useful for human and animal consumption as well as for industrial use have been
recorded in this region (Anon. 1995).
GERMPLASM CONSERVATION
In the last decade, serious efforts to collect and preserve the genetic variability of medicinal plants
have been initiated in Brazil. The National Center for Genetic Resources and
BiotechnologyCenargen, in collaboration with other research centers of Embrapa (Brazilian
Agricultural Research Corporation), and several universities, has a program to establish germplasm
banks for medicinal and aromatic species (Table 1).
Table 1. List of institutions, germplasm collections of medicinal and aromatic plants,
accessions, curator, and contact.
Major
germplasm
collections
No.
accessions Curator
Agronomic Institute
of Paran
Pfaffia
Unknown
P.
www.pr.gov.br/iapar
Guilherme
Braslia Botanical
Garden
Medicinal
plants from
cerrado
165
A. Lucia
Jardim Botanico de Brasilia,

Lago Sul, Brasilia, DF
EmbrapaGenetic
Resources and
Biotechnology
Phyllanthus,
Pilocarpus,
Stevia,
Solanum,
plants from
cerrado
335
T. Dias,
R. Vieira
www.cenargen.embrapa.br
EmbrapaOcidental
Amazon
Croton
Unknown
cajucara,
general
collection of
medicinal and
aromatic
plants
A. Franco
www.embrapa.br/cpaa,
Rodovia Am - 010, km 24,
CP 319, 69048-660, Manaus
EmbrapaOriental
Amazon
Psychotria,
Pilocarpus
109
I.
Rodrigues
Trav. Dr. Enas Pinheiro s/n,

Marco, CP 48 66095-100,
Belm, PA
Maranho State Univ. Pilocarpus
27
G. Silva
Campus Universitrio Paulo

VI, CP 09, So Luis-MA
So Paulo State
Univ., Botucatu
Unknown
L. Ming
Unesp, Faculdade de
Ciencias Agrarias,
Departamento de
Agronomia, Botucatu, SP
Institution
Lippia,
Ocimum
Contact
Univ. of Brasilia
Pfaffia,
Mentha spp.,
Labiatae,
Phitolacca
dodecandra
Univ. of Campinas,
Cpqba
Unknown
J. Kleber
Universidade de Braslia,
Departamento de
Agronomia, CP 04364,
70000, Braslia, DF
Maytenus,
330
Artemisia,
Phyllanthus,
Pfaffia,
Cordia, Stevia
P. Melillo
Unicamp, Cpqba, C.P. 6171,

Campinas, SP
Univ. of Cear
Aromatic
224
plants: Lippia,
Croton,
Cymbopogon
F. Mattos
Lab. de Produtos
Naturais/UFC, Campus do
Pici, 60021-970,
Fortaleza,CE
Univ. of North
Fluminense
Psychotria
10
E. Martins Universidade Estadual do

Norte Fluminense, Lab. de
Melhoramento Genetico
Vegetal, Av. Alberto
Lamego, 2000, Horto,
28015-620, Campos dos
Goytacazes, RJ
Univ. of Paran
Maytenus
78
M.
Scheffer
Universidade Federal do
Parana, Escola de Florestas,
Departamento de Silvicultura
e Manejo, Rua Bom Jesus,
650, Juveve, 80035-010,
Curitiba, PR
The first step is to establish criteria to define a species priority, based on economic and social
importance, markets, and potential genetic erosion. Vieira and Skorupa (1993) proposed the following
criteria to define priority, as follows: (1) species with proven medicinal value including those
containing known active substance(s) or precursor(s) used in the chemicalpharmaceutical industry
with proven pharmacological action, or at least demonstrating pre-clinical and toxicological results;
(2) species with ethnopharmacological information widely used in traditional medicine; and which are
threatened or vulnerable to extinction; (3) species with chemotaxonomical affinity to botanical groups
which produce specific natural products.
Conservation of threatened germplasm includes seed banks, field preservation, tissue culture, and
cryopreservation. Seed storage is considered the ideal method; seeds considered orthodox can be dried
and are able to be preserved at sub-zero temperatures (20C), while recalcitrant seeds, including most
tropical species, lose their seed viability when subjected to the same conditions. Maintenance of the
germplasm in field collections is costly, requires large areas, and can be affected by adverse
environmental conditions. Tissue culture or cryopreservation techniques can be also considered in
some cases.
The next step is to decide which germplasm conservation method will be applied: ex situ or in situ. In
an ex situ procedure, the germplasm is collected from fields, markets, small farms, and other sites, in
form of seeds, cuttings, underground systems, and sprouts. The collected samples should represent the
original population with passport data and herbarium vouchers. In a long term, mutation can take place
over the years in a cold chamber or in vitro conservation. In contrast, in situ conservation maintains
population in its preserved natural area, allowing the evolutionary process to continue, although
genetic reserves are subject to anthropogenic action and environmental effects. Most in situ
conservation has focused in forest species, with some medicinal species included, such as Pilocarpus
microphyllus and Aniba roseodora. The establishment of genetic reserves in Brazil has relied on
National Parks and conservation areas established by the environmental protection agency of Brazil,
Ibama.
There are now five forest genetic reserves in Brazil: one in the Amazon Tropical Rainforest, state of
Para; one in the Caatinga, state of Minas Gerais; two in the Cerrado in the Federal District, and one in
the Meridional Forest (Subtropical) in the state of Santa Catarina. Four other genetic reserves are
being created; two in the Atlantic Forest in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espirito Santo, one in the
Caatinga in the state of Piaui, and another in the Tropical Humid Forest in transition with Cerrado in
the state of Minas Gerais (Anon. 1995). These reserves aim to conserve the most endangered species
and those of greatest economic interest, including medicinal and aromatic plants.
The Brazilian program on medicinal germplasm conservation has three foci: (1) ethnobotanical
studies; (2) germplasm collection and characterization; and (3) in situ conservation. Ethnobotanic and
phytogeographic studies on the medicinal flora of Cerrado have been able to identify and collect
genetic material for conservation. About 110 species used in traditional medicine were reported in the
Cerrado region (Vieira et al. 1998). Bibliography review and a herbaria search were carried out
allowing an estimation of the medicinal potential of each species studied, their geographic distribution,
and period of fruit maturation.
In 1994, a cooperative project between the Braslia Botanical Garden and Embrapa/Cenargen was
established. An in vivo collection of medicinal plants from Cerrado, now contains 161 accessions
(Dias et al. 1995). The collection has facilited phytochemical and pharmacological studies of this plant
materials, and an anti-inflamatory agent has been identified on Lychnophora salicifolia (Miguel et al.
1997).
PRIORITY SPECIES
A few germplasm collections of medicinal and aromatic plants have been established in Brazil (Table
2). The following species, listed alphabetically, have been recognized as priority for germplasm
conservation.
Table 2. List of medicinal and aromatic species with high priority for germplasm collection and
conservation in Brazil.
Species
Achyrocline
satureioides L.
Common
name
Active
substance/pharmacological
Habit action
Region
Macela
Herb Hypotensive, spasmolytic Cerrado
Conservation
form
Field
collection
Ageratum
conyzoides L.
Mentrasto
Herb Anti-inflammatory
Ruderal
Field
collection
Aniba roseodora
Ducke
Pau rosa
Tree
Linalool
Amazon
forest
In situ
Astronium
urundeuva (Fr.
All.) Engl.
Aroeira
Tree
Anti-inflammatory,
anti-ulceric
Cerrado
In situ, cold
chamber
Baccharis trimera Carqueja

DC.
Herb Hepatic disturbs
Ruderal
Field
collection
Bauhinia forficata Pata de

L.
Vaca
Tree
Diabetes
Atlantic
forest
Cold
chamber
Caryocar
Pequi
brasiliensis Camb.
Tree
Anti-inflamatory
Cerrado
In situ
Copaifera
langsdorffi Desf.
Copaiba
Tree
Oil, anti-inflamatory
Cerrado
In situ, cold
chamber
Croton cajucara
Benth.
Sacaca
Herb Linalool
Amazon
Field
collection
Croton zehntneri
Pax et Hoff.
Cunha
Shrub Anetol, eugenol
Caatinga
Field
collection
Datura insignis B. Toe

Rodr.
Shrub Escopolamina
Amazon
forest
Cold
chamber
Dimorphandra
mollis Benth.
Faveiro
Tree
Cerrado
Cold
chamber
Echinodorus
macrophyllus
(Kunth.) Mich
Chapeu de Herb Diuretic

Couro
Cerrado
Field
collection,
cold
chamber
Jatropha elliptica
(Pohl) Baill.
Batat de
Tiu
Shrub Jatrophone
Cerrado
In situ, field
collection
Lippia spp.
Alecrim
pimenta
Shrub Source of volatile oils,

anti-microbial
Caatinga
Field
collection
Lychnophora
Arnica do
ericoides Mart.; L. Cerrado
salicifolia Mart.
Shrub Volatile oils
Cerrado
Field
collection, in
situ
Mandevilla
vellutina Mart.
Shrub Anti-inflamatory,
bradykynin antagonist
Cerrado
In situ, field
collection
Maytenus ilicifolia Espinheira Tree

Mart. ex. Reiss; M. Santa
aquifolium Mart.
Rutin, anti-hemorragic
Anti-ulceric
Meridional Cold
forest
chamber, in
situ
Mikania glomerata Guaco

Spreng.
Herb Bronchitis, coughs
Atlantic
forest
Field
collection
Ocotea odorifera
(Vell.) Rohwer
Canela
Sassafraz
Tree
Atlantic
forest
In situ
Operculina
macrocarpa (L.)
Farwel
Batata de
Purga
Herb Purgative
Caatinga
Cold
chamber
Piper
Pimenta
hispidinervum DC. longa
Herb Safrol
Amazon
Cold
chamber,
field
collection
Pfaffia paniculata
(Martius) Kuntze
Herb Antitumor compounds
Margins of Cold
Parana
chamber,
river
field
collection
Ginseng
brasileiro
Safrol, metileugenol
Phyllanthus niruri Quebra

L.
pedra
Herb Hepatitis B, renal calculus Ruderal
Cold
chamber
Pilocarpus
microphyllus
Stapf.
Shrub Pilocarpine
Amazon
forest
Cold
chamber, in
situ
Psychotria
Ipecac
ipecacuanha(Brot.)
Stokes
Herb Emetin, cefaline
Amazon
and
Atlantic
forest
Cold
chamber, in
situ
Pterodon
Sucupira
emarginatus Vogel
Tree
Cerrado
In situ, cold
chamber
Solanum
mauritianum
Scopoli
Shrub Solasodine
Ruderal,
southeast
and
southern
Brazil
Cold
chamber
Jaborandi
Cuvitinga
Analgesic, antinoceptive,
cercaricide
Stryphnodendron Barbatimao Tree

adstringens (Mart.)
Coville
Tannin, anti-inflamatory
Cerrado
In situ, cold
chamber
Tabebuia
Ipe roxo
avellanedae (Lor.)
ex. Griseb.
Tree
Lapachol
Cerrado
In situ
Vanillosmopsis
arborea (Aguiar)
Ducke
Shrub Bisabolol
Caatinga
In situ, field
collection
Candeia
Maytenus ilicifolia Martius ex Reiss., Celastraceae (Espinheira

Santa)
Espinheira santa is a small shrub evergreen tree reaching up to 5 m height. It is native to many parts of
southern Brazil, mainly in Paran and Santa Catarina states.
Leaves of Maytenus species are used in the popular medicine of Brazil for their reported antiacid and
antiulcerogenic activity. The effects of a boiling water extract of equal parts of M. aquifolium and M.
ilicifolia leaves have been tested in rats and mice. Attempts to detect general depressant, hypnotic,
anticonvulsant, and analgesic effects were reported by Oliveira et al. (1991). The potent
antiulcerogenic effect of espinheira santa leaves was demonstrated effective compared to two leading
anti-ulcer drugs, Ranitidine and Cimetidine (Souza-Formigoni et al., 1991). Toxicological studies
demonstrated the plant's safety.
Seeds of Maytenus ilicifolia can be classified as orthodox and stored at 20C in long-term cold
chambers (Eira et al. 1995). The Forestry Department of the University of Paran began a project in
1995 to study the genetic variability of natural populations of Maytenus ilicifolia and 78 accession
were collected in the states of Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Field collections are
maintained at the university campus (Scheffer et al. 1998). Although cultivation of M. ilicifolia is the
object of several studies in Brazil, a research focus on in situ conservation and sustainable systems of
harvesting are required.
Pfaffia paniculata Martius, Amaranthaceae (Brazilian Ginseng)

Pfaffia is a large, shrubby ground vine, which has a deep root system. Pfaffia is well known in Central
and South America with over 50 species growing in the warmer tropical regions of the area and has
been exploited for more than 15 years. The species grow in the borders of Paran river, but predatory
collection has greatly reduced the natural populations.
In Brazil, Pfaffia is known as para tudo, which means "for all things" and also as Brazilian ginseng,
since it is widely used like American and Asian ginseng (Panax spp.). The active substances are found
in the roots.
This action is attributed to the anabolic agent, beta-ecdysterone as well as three novel ecdysteroid
glycosides which are found in high amounts in Pfaffia. This species is such a rich source of
beta-ecdysterone. The extraction methods employed to obtain it from this root is protected by a
Japanese patent (Nishimoto et al. 1988).
The root of Pfaffia contains about 11% saponins. These saponins include a group of novel chemicals
called pfaffosides as well as pfaffic acids, glycosides, and nortriperpenes. These saponins have
clinically demonstrated the ability to inhibit cultured tumor cell melanomas and help to regulate blood
sugar levels (Takumoto et al. 1983; Nishimoto 1984). The pfaffosides and pfaffic acid derivatives in
Pfaffia have been patented as antitumor compounds in two Japanese patents (Japanese Patent
84184198, Oct. 19, 1984 by Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.).
Few accessions of Pfaffia are available in any of the present field collections. This species requires an
immediate recollection to preserve the plant. Due to its economic importance a germplasm collection
and characterization of its chemical constituents, is fully warranted.
Phyllanthus niruri L., Euphorbiaceae (Quebra Pedra)

Quebra pedra is a small erect annual herb growing up to 30 to 40 cm. height. Although several species
are recognized by this common name, P. niruri and P. sellovianus are the most scientifically studied.
The antispasmodic activity of alkaloids in Phyllanthus sellovianus explained the popular use of the
plant for kidney and bladder stones. The alkaloid extract demonstrated smooth muscle relaxation
specific to the urinary and biliary tract which facilitates the expulsion of kidney or bladder calculi
(Calixto 1984; Santos 1994, 1995)
Quebra pedra has gained world-wide attention due to its effects against Hepatitis B (Thyagarajan
1982; Mehrotra 1990; Yeh, et al. 1993; Wang 1995). Recent research on quebra pedra reveals that its
antiviral activity extends to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase inhibition properties of P. niruri can be obtained with a simple water extract of the plant
(Qian-Cutrone 1996). There have been no side effects or toxicity reported in any of the clinical studies
or in its many years of reported use in herbal medicine.
Several species, called quebra pedra, contain the same or similar active compounds. A germplasm
collection to study the genetic and chemical variation, as well as the seed physiology of this species is
necessary and warranted.
Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf., Rutaceae (Jaborandi)

Jaborandi is an indigenous name (ia-mbor-end) of this species. Pilocarpus microphyllus contain the
highest pilocarpine content in the leaves. The plant is an understory species, 6 to 8 m in height, of the
pre-Amazonian rain forest in the states of Par, Maranho, and Piau.
Pilocarpine is an imidazolic alkaloid that stimulates the secretions of the respiratory tract, the salivary,
lachrymal, gastric and other glands, weakens the heart action, accelerates the pulse rate, increases
intestinal peristalsis and promotes uterine contractions (Morton 1977). In the treatment of glaucoma,
the alkaloid pilocarpine acts directly on cholinergic receptor sites, thus mimicing the action of
acetylcholine. Intraocular pressure is thereby reduced, and despite its short-term action, pilocarpine is
the standard drug used for initial and maintenance therapy in certain types of primary glaucoma
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977). Recently, the US Food and Drug Administration approved pilocarpine
for use to treat post-irradiation xerostomia (dry mouth) in patients with head and neck cancer (Pinheiro
1997).
The exploration of this product, due to its high economic value, has led to great scientific interest in
research and development effects for domestication and conservation. Pinheiro (1997) reports that the
price of jaborandi leaves has reached US$4.00/kg. The wild harvest or collection of leaves from wild
P. microphyllus has been carrying out to such an extent that it has significantly reduced the natural
populations, and this species is included in the official list of endangered plants from Brazilian flora
(Anon. 1992).
In 1991, the Cenargen initiated a project for recollecting and conservation of the genetic variability of
Pilocarpus microphyllus and related species. From 1991 to 1993, two collection expeditions were
undertaken, covering the states of Par and Maranho. A total of 27 accessions were collected in form
of seeds and seedlings (Vieira, 1993). A germplasm bank of Jaborandi was established at Maranho
State University, So Luis, and at EmbrapaOcidental Amazon, Belm, Par State.
Studies on the methodology of P. microphyllus conservation led to the conclusion that seeds of this
species are considered orthodox. Seeds can be dried down to 68% moisture content and be conserved
for a long period at 18C and 5% relative humidity (Eira et al. 1993). A seed sample of all collected
accessions is being maintained at Embrapa, Cenargen.
Native populations of P. microphyllus have suffered from anthropogenic activity, with plants of
shorter size than normal due to intensive harvesting of leaves. It will be challenge to stimulate the
management and cultivation of this species in its native habitat. Although seeds can be preserved for
long periods, in situ conservation must be initiated and natural reserves established. This species can
be only found in indigenous areas, and some private lands.
Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, Rubiaceae (Ipecac)

Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.)Stokes [= Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A.Rich.] is a shrub, whose
medicinal value relates to the production of emetine in the roots. Ipecac is found in the humid forests
of Central America, Colombia, southern part of the Amazon Forest in the States of Rondnia, Mato
Grosso, and Atlantic forest, in the States of Bahia, Esprito Santo, Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro
(Skorupa and Assis 1998).
Ipecac as a powerful emetic, is used in gastrointestinal diseases, diarrhea, and intermitent fevers. It is
employed as an expectorant, in bronchitis, broncopneumonia, asthma and mumps, and also as a
vasoconstrictor. In 1959, dihydroxi-emetine, an emetine analogue, was presented as an amoebicide
due to its reduced toxic effect on cardiac muscle (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1977).
The global production of ipecac averages 100 t a year, originated mainly from Nicargua, Brazil and
India (Husain 1991). Considering the economic and medicinal values of ipecac, the deforestation of
the areas of occurrence and the extrativist nature of its production, in 1988, Cenargen has began a
program for the recollecting and conservation of the genetic variability of this species. From 1988 to
1991, five collecting expeditions were undertaken, covering the States of Rondonia, Mato Grosso,
Pernambuco, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais, and a total of 86 accessions
were collected (Skorupa and Assis 1998) and now maintained in field germplasm banks at
EmbrapaOcidental Amazon, Belm, Para, and at Florestas Rio doce, Linhares, Espirito Santo.
Recently, other germplasm collections was established at the University of North Fluminense, which
contains 10 accessions originated from the Atlantic Forest area (states of Rio de Janeiro and So
Paulo).
Solanum mauritianum Scop., Solanaceae (Cuvitinga)

The steroidal alkaloids of the Solanaceae are compounds of considerable pharmaceutical interest as
starting materials for the synthesis of steroid compounds such as anticontraceptive steroids and
corticosteroids. The world demand for steroid precursors continues to increase while some of the
traditional sources of steroidal raw material, such as yams (Dioscorea spp.) of Mexico and Central
America, are becoming rapidly depleted (Roddick 1986). Solasodine is a chemical analog of
diosgenin, and may be a substitute for this drug.
There are around 1,100 species of Solanum in South America, and S. mauritianum is among the
species with the highest solasodine content (Vieira and Carvalho 1993). Solanum mauritianum is a
subtropical shrub which grow all over southern Brazil. The solasodine content of S. mauritianum was
evaluated in green fruits of natural populations growing on two different soils. High contents of
solasodine were found in both population of S. mauritianum (from 2% to 3.5% of total dry weight)
(Vieira 1989). Germplasm collections are needed to continue the study of genetic and environmental
variation of solasodine, and to provide foundation study for future development programs.
Exotic Species
Although the major focus of germplasm conservation is on native species, several exotic, introduced
and adapted species have been widely used and cultivated in Brazil. Many of them, such as
lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf.] and aloe (Aloe spp.), are cultivated in backyard
gardens. Others, such as pico-preto (Bidens pilosum L.), mastruo (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.),
and mentrasto (Ageratum conyzoides L.), whose adaptation through the years, has allowed a
spontaneous wide distribution throughout the country, have had their use well disseminated (Dias
1995). In southern Brazil, due to favorable cultural and environmental conditions, several exotic
species are cultivated in large areas. These include chamomile (Matricaria recutita), calendula
(Calendula officinalis), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Duboisia sp., and Japanese mint (Mentha
arvensis), all of which are deserving of collection and preservation due to the use of their natural
products and the agricultural-based industries that produce these crops. The germplasm collection of
exotic species also needs to be expanded to provide genetic resource for species adapted in Brazil.
Although Brazil is not their genetic center of origin, different chemotypes have been naturalized
(Mattos, pers. commun. 1994) and need to be conserved. One example is Coleus barbatus, which was
introduced from Africa, and is clonally propagated in Brazil. However, several volatile oils
chemotypes are found in Brazil for this species, probably due to different introductions from Africa in
the past.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1992. Instituto Brasileiro do Meio ambiente e dos recursos naturais renovveis. Portaria
no. 06N, de 15.01.1992. Dirio Oficial, Braslia, 23, Jan., 1992. p. 870872.
Anon. 1995. International Conference and Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ICPPGR).
Country Report. http://www.cenargen.embrapa.br/rec_gen/country/country.
Berg, M.E. van den. 1982. Plantas medicinais na Amaznia: Contribuio ao seu estudo
sistemtico. Belm, CNPq/PTU.
Calixto, J.B. 1984. Antispasmodic effects of an alkaloid extracted from Phyllanthus

sellowianus: Comparative study with papaverine. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 17(34):313321.
Craveiro, A.A.; M.I.L. Machado, J.W. Alencar, and F.J.A. Matos. 1994. Natural product
chemistry in north-eastern Brazil. p. 95102. In: G.T. Prance, D.J Chadwick, and J. March
(eds.), Symposium on ethnobotany and search for new drugs. Ciba Foundation Symposium 185.
Fortaleza, Brasil.
Dias, T.A.B., R.F. Vieira, M.V.M. Martins, C.M.C. Mello, M.C. Boaventura, A.E. Ramos, M.C.
Assis, F.A. Ramos, P.P. Monteiro, and G.M.C.L. Reis. 1995. Conservacao ex-situ de recursos
geneticos do cerrado: plantas medicinais, ornamentais e meliponideos. In: Proc. Int. Savanna
Simposium, Brasilia, DF, Embrapa/CPAC. p. 195197.
Eira, M.T.S., T.A.B. Dias, and C.M.C. Mello. 1995. Physiological behaviour of Maytenus
ilicifolia seeds during storage. Hort. Bras. 13(1):3234.
Eira, M.T.S.; R.F. Vieira, C.M.C. Mello, and R.W.A. Freitas. 1992. Conservao de sementes
de Jaborandi (Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf.). Rev. Brasileira de Sementes 14(1):3739.
Giacometti, D.C. 1990 Estrategias de coleta e conservacao de germoplasma horticola da

America tropical. In: Proc. Simposio Latinoamericano sobre recursos geneticos de especies
horticolas, 1. Campinas/SP. Fundacao Cargill. p. 91110.
Husain, A. 1991. Economic Aspects of Exploitation of Medicinal Plants. In: O. Akerele, V.

Heywood, and H. Synge (eds.), Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
Lewis, W.H. and P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical botany. Wiley, New York.
Mehrotra, R. 1990. In vitro studies on the effect of certain natural products against hepatitis B
virus. Indian J. Med. Res. 92:133138.
Miguel, O.G., E.O. Lima, V.M.F. Morais, S.T.A. Gomes, F.D. Monache, A.B. Cruz, R.C.B.
Cruz, and V. Cechinel Filho. 1996. Antimicrobial activity of constituents isolated from
Lychnophora salicifolia (Asteraceae). Phytotherapy Res. 10:694696.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. Charles C. Thomas, Illinois. p. 187189.
Nishimoto, N., S. Nakai, N. Takagi, S. Hayashi, T. Takemoto, S. Odashima, H. Kizu, and Y.

Wada. 1984. Pfaffosides and nortriterpenoid saponins from Pfaffia paniculata. Phytochemistry
23:13942.
Nishimoto, N, Y. Shiobara, S.S. Inoue, M. Fujino, T. Takemoto, C.L. Yeoh, F.D. Oliveira, G.
Akisue, M.K. Akisue, and G. Hashimoto. 1988. Three ecdysteroid glycosides from Pfaffia
iresinoides. Phytochemistry 27:16651668.
Oliveira, M.G.M., M.G. Monteiro, C. Macaubas, V.P. Barbosa, and E.A. Carlini. 1991.
Pharmacologic and toxicologic effects of two Maytenus species in laboratory animals. J.
Ethno-Pharmacology 34:2941.
Pinheiro, C.U.B. 1997. Jaborandi (Pilocarpus sp., Rutaceae): a wild species and its rapid
transformation into a crop. Econ. Bot. 51:4958.
Qian-Cutrone, J. 1996. Niruriside, a new HIV REV/RRE binding inhibitor from Phyllanthus
niruri. J. Nat. Prod. 59:196199.
Roddick, J.G. 1986. Solanaceae: Biology and systematics. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
Santos, A.R. 1994. Analgesic effects of callus culture extracts from selected species of
Phyllanthus in mice. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 46:755759.
Santos, A.R. 1995. Analysis of the mechanisms underlying the antinociceptive effect of the
extracts of plants from the genus Phyllanthus. Gen. Pharmacol. 26:14991506.
Scheffer, M.C., L.C. Ming, and A.J. Araujo. 1998. Conservacao de recursos geneticos de
plantas medicinais. In: Simposio sobre Recursos Geneticos do Semi-Arido. Embrapa -SemiArido, Petrolina, PE (in press).
Skorupa, L.A. and M.C. Assis. 1998. Collecting and conserving Ipecac (Psychotria
ipecacuanha, Rubiaceae) germplasm in Brazil. Econ. Bot. 52:209210.
Souza-Formigoni, M.L.O., M.G.M. Oliveira, M.G. Monteiro, N.G. Silveira-Filho, S. Braz, and
E.A. Carlini. 1991. Antiulcerogenic effects of two Maytenus species in laboratory animals. J.
Ethno-Pharmacology 34 (1):21-27.
Takemoto, T., N. Nishimoto, S. Nakai, N. Takagi, S. Hayashi, S. Odashima, and Y. Wada.

1983. Pfaffic acid, a novel nortriterpene from Pfaffia paniculata Kuntze. Tetrahedron Lett. 24,
10571060.
Thyagarajan, S.P. 1982. In vitro inactivation of HBsAg by Eclipta alba Hassk and Phyllanthus
niruri Linn. Indian J. Med. Res. 76:124130.
Vieira, R.F. 1989. Avaliao do teor de solasodina em frutos verdes de Solanum mauritianum
Scop. sob dois solos no estado do Paran, Brasil. MS theses. Curitiba, Universidade Federal do
Paran.
Vieira, R.F. 1993. Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf. G15 Gene Bank Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants Newslett. 34:45.
Vieira, R.F. and L.A. Skorupa. 1993. Brazilian medicinal plants gene bank. Acta Hort.
330:5158.
Vieira, R.F. and L.D.A. de Carvalho. 1993. Espcies medicinais do gnero Solanum produtoras
de alcalides esteroidais. Rev. Brasileira Farmcia 74:97111.
Vieira, R.F. and M.V.M. Martins. 1998. Estudos etnobotanicos de especies medicinais de uso
popular no Cerrado. In: Proc. Int. Savanna Simposium, Brasilia, DF, Embrapa/CPAC.
p.169171.
Wang, M. 1995. Herbs of the genus Phyllanthus in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B:
observations with three preparations from different geographic sites. J. Lab. Clin. Med.
126:350352.
Yeh, S.F. et al. 1993. Effect of an extract from Phyllanthus amarus on hepatitis B surface
antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells. Antiviral Res. 20:18592.
*I thank Sergio Eustaquio and all germplasm curators for their suggestions and collaboration and Dr.
Jules Janick and James Simon for their review.
back
Brazilian Guava

Morton, J. 1987. Brazilian Guava. p. 365367. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Brazilian Guava
Psidium guineense Sw.
Psidium molle Bertol
Psidium schiedeanum Berg.
Psidium arac Raddi
Description
Distribution
Cultivars
Soil
Food Uses
Other Uses
Related Species
This guava relative has been the subject of much confusion, beginning with its scientific name,
Psidium guineense Sw., based on the botanist Swartz' belief that it originated on the Guinea Coast
of Africa. For a long time it was considered distinct from the guisaro, P. molle Bertol (syn. P.
schiedeanum Berg.), but now these names as well as P. arac Raddi, are treated as synonyms of P.
guineense, and all the corresponding colloquial names should be applied to this one confirmed
species.
In Brazil the popular names are arac, arac do campo, or aracahy; in the Guianas it is called
wild guava or wilde guave. Among other regional names are: guabillo, huayava, guayaba brava
and sacha guayaba (Peru); allpa guayaba (Ecuador); guayaba de sabana, guayaba sabanera and
guayaba agria (Venezuela); guayaba, or guayaba acida, guayaba hedionda, chamach, chamacch,
pataj and pichippul (Guatemala); guisaro, or cas extranjero (Costa Rica); guayabita, guayaba
arraijan, and guayabita de sabana (Panama); guayabillo (El Salvador). The name, guayaba agria,
seems to be the only one employed in Mexico. In California it is called either Brazilian or
Castilian guava.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/brazilian_guava_ars.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:32:14 PM]
Brazilian Guava
Description
The Brazilian guava is a relatively slow-growing shrub 3 to 10 ft (1-3 m) tall; sometimes a tree to
23 ft (7 m); with grayish bark, hairy young shoots and cylindrical or slightly flattened branchlets.
The evergreen, grayish leaves, 1 1/3 to 5 1/2 in (3.5-14 cm) long and 1 to 3 1/8 (2.5-8 cm wide),
are stiff, oblong, elliptic, ovate or obovate, sometimes finely toothed; scantily hairy on the
upperside but coated beneath with pale or rusty hairs and distinctly dotted with glands. Flowers,
borne singly or in clusters of 3 in the leaf axils, are white and have 150 to 200 prominent stamens.
The fruit, round or pear-shaped, is from 1/8 to 1 in (1-2.5 cm) wide, with yellow skin, thick,
pale-yellowish flesh surrounding the white central pulp, and of acid, resinous, slightly
strawberry-like flavor. It contains numerous small, hard seeds and is quite firm even when fully
ripe.
Distribution
The most wide-ranging guava relative, P. guineense occurs naturally from northern Argentina and
Peru to southern Mexico, and in Trinidad, Martinique, Jamaica and Cuba, at medium elevations. It
is cultivated to a limited extent in Martinique, Guadeloupe, the Dominican Republic and southern
California. Trials in Florida have not been encouraging. At Agartala in Tripura, northeast India,
this plant has become thoroughly naturalized and runs wild.
Cultivars
While no named cultivars have been reported, this species has been crossed with the common
guava and the hybrids are dwarf, hardy and bear heavy crops.
Soil
The plant will not develop satisfactorily on light sandy soil.
Food Uses
This guava is suitable for baking and preserving. It makes a distinctive jelly which some consider
superior to common guava jelly.
Other Uses
The wood is strong and used for tool handles, beams, planks and agricultural instruments. The
bark, rich in tannin, is used for curing hides.
Medicinal Uses: In the interior of Brazil, a decoction of the bark or of the roots is employed to
treat urinary diseases, diarrhea and dysentery. In Costa Rica, it is said to reduce varicose veins and
ulcers on the legs. A leaf decoction is taken to relieve colds and bronchitis.
Brazilian Guava
Related Species
The Par guava has been known as Britoa acida Berg. Calvacante now shows this binomial as a
synonym of Psidium acutangulum DC. and gives the Brazilian vernacular name as arac-pera.
Cruz (1965) calls it araca piranga, aracandiva, aracanduba and goiabarana. Le Cointe shows it
as araca comum do Par and he describes P. arac Raddi as a separate species. In Bolivia, P.
acutangulum is known as guabira; in Peru, as ampi yacu, puca yacu, guayava del agua.
The shrub or tree ranges in height from 26 to 40 ft (8-12 m). Its branchlets are quadrangular and
winged near the leaf base. New growth is finely hairy. The leaves, with very short petioles, are
elliptical, 4 to 5 1/2 in (10-14 cm) long, 1 1/2 to 2 3/8 in (4-6 cm) wide, rounded at the base,
pointed at the apex. The long-stalked, white, 5-petalled flowers, with more than 300 stamens, are
borne singly or in 2's or 3's in the leaf axils. The fruit is round, pear-shaped or ellipsoid, 1 1/4 to 3
3/16 in (3-8 cm) wide, pale-yellow, with yellowish-white, very acid but well-flavored pulp
containing a few hard, triangular seeds. The crop ripens in the spring.
The tree occurs wild and cultivated at low and medium elevations throughout Amazonia and from
Peru to Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela and the Guianas. Some specimens have been grown in
southern Florida in the past under the name P. arac. The fruit is eaten mixed with honey or made
into acid drinks or preserves.
Of recent interest as a possible new crop is Eugenia stipitata McVaugh, treated by Calvacante as a
variable species, but separated by McVaugh (Flora of Peru, Vol. XIII, Pt. 4, No. 2, 1958) into 2
subspecies, as follows:
E. stipitata subsp. stipitata McVaugh, called pichi in Peru, araca-boi in Brazil, is a tree to 40 or 50
ft (12-15 m) tall, with short-petioled, opposite, broad-elliptic leaves, pointed at the apex, 3 to 7 in
(7.5-18 cm) long and 1 1/3 to 3 1/4 in (3.4-8.25 cm) wide, with indented veins on the upper
surface, densely hairy on the underside, faintly dotted with oil glands on both sides. The flowers,
in compound, axillary racemes, are white, hairy, 3/4 in (2 cm) wide, with numerous prominent
stamens.
According to horticulturists and Calvacante, the fruit is somewhat like a small guava; very
aromatic, round to oblate, less than 2 oz (56 g) in the wild, up to 4 3/4 in (12 cm) wide under
cultivation and weighing as much as 14 1/2 oz (420 g) or even 28 oz (800 g). The skin is thin and
delicate; the pulp soft, juicy, very acid, containing 8 to 10 irregular-oblong or kidney-shaped seeds
to 1 in (2.5 cm) long and 5/8 in (1.5 cm) wide. Ascorbic acid content has been reported as 38 to 40
mg per 100 g of edible portion. The fruiting season is February to May around Belem, Brazil.
There may be 4 crops a year in Peru and Ecuador. The tree is native and abundant in the wild in
Amazonian regions of Peru, Ecuador and Brazil. The fruit is eaten by the Indians and the tree is
being cultivated experimentally in Peru and Ecuador and a collection of 360 seedlings has been
established at Manaus. Seeds germinate in 4-12 months.
Seedlings grow slowly at first, are transplanted in about 6 months. They begin to fruit 18 months
later. Yields of 12.7 tons per acre (28 T/ha) have been obtained in Peru. The tree is subject to
leafspot and the fruit is prone to attack by fruit flies. The fruit loses flavor when cooked; is
quick-boiled for jam. A Peruvian grower is exporting the frozen pulp to Europe.
Brazilian Guava
Subspecies sororia, called rupina caspi in Peru, is a shrub or small tree to 10 ft (3 m) high with
elliptic leaves 3 1/2 to 5 in (9-12.5 cm) long, 1 to 1 3/4 in (2.5-4.5 cm) wide with barely visible
veins; minutely hairy beneath or hairless when fully mature; and having a few dark dots. The
flowers are 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide with 75 stamens. The fruit is oblate, 5/8 in (1.6 cm) wide,
velvety, acid, with numerous kidney-shaped seeds, 1/8 to a little over 1/4 in (3-7 mm) long.
McVaugh shows as native to Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Colombia.
Triticum aestivum
Triticum aestivum L.
Poaceae
Common wheat, Bread wheat
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Common wheat, best known and most widely cultivated of the wheats, is cultivated for the grain,
used whole or ground. Fine ground, it is the source of flour for the world's breadmaking. Main use
is for flour and bread-stuffs known by various names throughout the world. Grain also is the
source of alcoholic beverages, beer, industrial alcohol made into synthetic rubber and explosives.
Bran from flour milling also an important livestock feed; germ is valuable addition to feed
concentrate. Grain fed to livestock whole or coarsely ground. Starch is used for pastes and sizing
textiles. Straw made into mats, carpets, baskets, and used for packing material, cattle bedding, and
paper manufacturing. Some wheat is cut for hay. Wheat grown for grain crop is also used for
pasture before the stems elongate and as a temporary pasturage; it is nutritious and palatable.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Triticum_aestivum.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:32:15 PM]
Triticum aestivum
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the seeds are used in folk remedies for cancers, corns, tumors,
warts, and whitlow. Reported to be antivinous, bilious, demulcent, discutient, diuretic, emollient,
excipient, intoxicant, laxative, useful as a poultice, restorative, sedative, used as a shampoo and
vulnerary, common wheat is a folk remedy for burns, cancer, diarrhea, dysentery, ecchymosis,
epistaxis, fertility, fever, flux, gravel, hematuria, hemoptysis, hemorrhage, incontinence, leprosy,
leucorrhea, menorrhagia, neurasthenia, nightsweat, perspiration, scald, tumor, warts, whitlow, and
wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the grain is reported to contain 326335 calories, 11.5714.0 g H2O, 9.414.0 g protein,
1.82.5 g fat, 69.175.4 g total carbohydrate, 1.82.3 g fiber, 1.7 g ash, 3646 mg Ca, 354400 mg
P, 3.04.3 mg Fe, 370435 mg K, 0.430.66 mg thiamine, 0.110.12 mg riboflavin, and 4.35.3
mg niacin. The grain contains allantoin plus uricase; sinapic acid has been isolated from wheat
germ. The grain is said to cause poisoning in stock, though no toxic principle has been found.
Wheat can absorb toxic concentrations of selenium but "selenium" wheat rarely causes poisoning
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). One kg of grain contains 0.03 mg As2O3; grain also contains
Mg, Mn, Zn, Fe, and Cu. Amino acid composition is shown in the Table from the Wealth of India.
Essential amino acids in wheat proteins (after Wealth of India)
Inner
endosperm
(%)
Arginine
2.92
Histidine
1.65
Isoleucine
7.02
Leucine
9.14
Lysine
1.92
Methionine 1.12
Phenylalanine 3.95
Threonine
2.56
Tryptophan 0.93
Valine
3.65
Outer
endosperm
(%)
4.50
1.74
6.56
7.98
2.60
1.40
3.43
2.72
1.12
4.02
Whole
Bran (%) Germ (%) wheat
(%)
7.53
6.20
3.81
1.68
3.03
1.65
4.50
5.23
6.97
6.52
7.33
8.27
3.87
5.44
2.80
1.09
1.28
1.32
2.45
2.47
3.68
2.85
6.28
2.78
1.83
0.90
1.03
4.10
4.20
4.00
Wheat germ oil is rich in tocopherols (vit. E) and essential fatty acids. Sitosterol, ergosterol, and
campesterol, phospatidic and glyceroinositophosphatidic acids, phytoglycolipid, serine, etc., are
also reported. Wheat contains ca 1% pectin. Wheat bran oil is also high in tocopherols, 68% of
which is epsilon-tocopherol. Alpha-tocopherol, which has the highest vit. E activity of the
tocopherols, constitutes only 11% of the tocopherols in the bran oil. Much more detail on wheat
Triticum aestivum
chemistry can be found in the Wealth of India (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Fresh forage contains
3035% DM, of which (ZMB) 8.623.3% is CP, 15.121.5% CF, 6.111.6% ash, 1.83.7% EE,
and 40.166.0 NFE. Straw, on the other hand, contains 92.0% DM, of which 3.1% is CP, 45.4%
CF, 10.2% ash, 1.1% EE, and 40.2% NFE. Indian hay (ZMB) contained 5.1% CP, 35.1% CF,
7.2% ash, 1.3% EE, and 51.3% NFE; Indian silage 3.5% Cp, 39.4% CF, 14.6% ash, 0.5% EE, and
42.0% NFE (Gohl, 1981). Leaf protein isolate contains (g/16g N): methionine, 2.39; tryptophane,
1.41; histidine, 1.97; arginine, 9.16; and total lysine.
Description
Annual grass; culms simple, erect, hollow or pithy, glabrous, up to 1.2 m tall; leaves flat, narrow,
2038 cm long, about 1.3 cm broad; spikes long, slender, dorsally compressed, somewhat
flattened; rachis tough, not separating from spikelet at maturity; spikelets 25-flowered, relatively
far apart on stem, slightly overlapping, nearly erect, pressed close to rachis; glumes keeled in
upper half, firm, glabrous, shorter than the lemmas; lemmas awned or awnless, less than 1.3 cm
long; palea as long as the lemma, remaining entire at maturity; caryopsis free-threshing, soft or
hard, red or white. Hexaploid.
Germplasm
Reported from the China-Japan, Hindustani, and Central Asia Centers of Diversity, wheat, or cvs
thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, bunt, disease, drought, herbicide, hydrogen flouride, high pH,
laterite, low pH, mildew, salt, nematodes, phage, rust, smog, smut, and virus (Duke, 1978). This
species is the source of most US wheat cvs, there being >200 named cvs cultivated in the United
States. Many other cvs exist elsewhere. Since so many cvs are available, one should consult the
agricultural agent of a particular region to ascertain which ones are best for, that particular area.
No attempt will be made here to describe these cvs, except to indicate they are classified in the
following manner: Hard red spring wheats yielding high quality bread flour; Hard red winter
wheats producing superior bread flours; Soft red winter wheats yielding flour for cakes and
biscuits; Durum wheat hybrids yielding hard kernels made into semolina for macaroni products;
red durum hybrids used in mixed wheat flours; white wheats yielding grain for breakfast foods,
flour for cakes, pastries, and crackers, and various mixed wheats used mostly for feeds for
livestock. The spring and winter types constitute about 95% of the wheat grown in the United
States. (2n = 42.)
Distribution
T. aestivum known only under cultivation; its nativity has been lost. Briggle (1981) states, "The
precise origin of the wheat plant as we know it today is not known. Wheat evolved from wild
grasses, probably somewhere in the Near East. A very likely place of origin is the area known in
early historical times as the Fertile Crescenta region with rich soils in the upper reaches of the
Tigris-Euphrates drainage basin.
Triticum aestivum
Ecology
Ranging from Boreal Moist to Rain through Tropical Very Dry to Dry Forest Life Zones, wheat is
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.9 to 25.0 dm (mean of 162 cases = 7.9), annual
temperature of 4.9 to 27.8C (mean of 162 cases = 13.4), and pH of 4.5 to 8.3 (mean of 141 cases
= 6.5) (Duke, 1978). Adapted to a wide variety of climatic conditions. Principal wheat-growing
areas of the world have similar growing conditions: the Russian prairies, the fertile pampas of
Argentina, the Wheat belt of United States, all have fertile dark soils rich in nitrogen; rather hot,
cloudless summers; rainfall which, although low, is well-distributed. A good wheat soil has
physical structure which holds together, making good water retention and favorable conditions for
nitrate formation. Hot, humid conditions are unfavorable for wheat-growing.
Cultivation
Propagation by seeds. Use minimum number of tillage operations to help prevent soil compaction
and restriction of root and water penetration. The two principal purposes for preparing a seedbed
are the development of nitrates and the conservation of moisture. In areas where rainfall is limited,
as in western Kansas, summer fallowing is the most successful method for storing and conserving
soil moisture. Good summer fallow is one in which the soil is kept free of plant growth and the soil
surface is kept open to permit rapid penetration of moisture, and cloddy to prevent wind and water
erosion. Avoid excessive turning up of new soil because such tillage dries out the soil. Start first
tillage in spring as soon as weeds begin to grow, usually about May 1. After the first tillage,
cultivate soil only enough to prevent weed growth and to maintain a rough surface. In some areas
stubble mulch tillage method of fallowing is practiced, by which enough residue is anchored to
soil surface to protect the crop and soil from wind and water erosion. Contour and stripe planting
may be used. Cultivation of soil well in advance of seeding hastens the decay of organic matter,
thus liberating nitrogen and making it available to plants as nitrates. Early seedbed preparation is
necessary for highest yields. Crop rotation of fallow, wheat, and sorghum is an excellent practice
in some areas. Date of planting wheat seed depends on the locality, type of wheat, and the hessian
fly problem. Rates of seeding differ with the type of wheat, size of seed, and locality, varying from
22100 kg/ha, generally 33 kg/ha is recommended. Local agents should be consulted about weed
control. Irrigated wheat averages 86.25 bu/ha instead of 65.5 bu/ha. Wheat uses about 60 cm of
water throughout the growing season. The type of fertilizer used should be determined by a soil
test. The three main types being nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. However, moisture, rather than
plant food nutrients, is the limiting factor in production in most seasons under dryland farming.
Yield response to nitrogen fertilizer is determined by moisture, soil, type of seedbed, and crop
stand. Nitrogen may be supplied with anhydrous ammonia, nitrogen solution, or in dry forms as
ammonium nitrate, urea or in mixed fertilizers. Phosphate is best supplied with superphosphate or
in a mixed fertilizer. Potassium is best supplied with muriate of potash or in a mixed fertilizer.
Nitrogen fertilizer and potash may be broadcast and worked into the seedbed before seeding or
applied at time of seeding by using a combination fertilizer-grain drill, or applied as a top-dressing
during the winter just prior to spring growth. Superphosphates are usually placed in the row with
the seed (Reed, 1976).
Triticum aestivum
Harvesting
Winter wheat is most widely used for temporary pasture crop. It can be grazed without apparent
injury to the grain crop, provided it is not grazed severely over an extended period of time, or too
late in the spring. Pasturing should not begin in fall until plants have become firmly rooted.
Grazing should be discontinued just before plants begin to grow erect in preparation for jointing.
Harvesting the grain should be delayed until the wheat is sufficiently mature to store well, with
moisture content of 13.5% or less under ordinary conditions. Wheat is harvested with combine
properly adjusted to minimize grain losses. Storage bins should be cleaned and treated before grain
is placed in them. Seed storage to 3 years in dry storage bins.

In general, yields of wheat vary from 40.4 to 65.1 bu/ha, with higher yields up to 85 bu/ha
obtained with irrigation. Yields depend on climatic conditions, variety or cultivar of wheat planted,
size of kernel, and number of kernels per head. Production figures presented by Briggle (1981)
showed Iran rather low with 1,100 kg/ha ranging to West Germany with 4,110 kg/ha, cf the US
with 2,040 kg/ha. In the US, Ohio was high with 3,162 kg/ha compared with South Dakota at
1,608 kg/ha. In 1979 the world low production yield figure was 160 kg/ha in Jordan, the
international production was 1,782 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was 7,000 in U.A.E.
(FAO, 1980a). Dibb (1983) compares US yields of 2,100 kg/ha to 1,300 kg/ha in the developing
countries and a world reported record of 14,500 kg/ha. Wheat is one of the most important food
plants of man. It enters into international trade more than any other food. World production in
1971 was 303 million metric tons. Major producers are, in order, United States, USSR, China,
Canada, France, Italy, Indian Union, Argentina, Australia, and Pakistan. The economic stability of
many nations is affected by the exchange in wheat and other commodities (Reed, 1976).
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges from 4 to 18 MT/ha.
Chaff is estimated to constitute 25% of the grain. Wheat straw is calculated at 1/22 times grain
yield, more frequently, 1 1/2 times. However, in some countries, wheat biomass averages more
than 6 MT/ha, double this if double cropped. The highest phytomass figure to date in our files is
18 MT/ha/yr. Australians figure that methanol produced from wheat stubble is about 7 times as
expensive per GJ as Kuwaite oil, but half as expensive as ethanol from wheat grain ($A 1.25 per
GJ for oil, 8.8 for methanol from stubble, 14.115.4 for ethanol from grain) (Boardman, 1980).
Research reiterated by Palz and Chartier (1980) indicated that straw from winter wheat, summer
wheat, winter barley, summer barley, winter rye, and oats all gave calorific values based on
moisture-free dry matter of 17.04 ( 5%) MJ/kg, or based on air dry matter 15.06 ( 3.5%) MJ/kg.
High N fertilization raised calorific values by ca 425 KJ/kg. Increasing moisture content from 14
to 20% reduced calorific value by 9%. Since straw available as feedstock is normally air-dry, a
calorific value of 15 MJ/kg is assumed by Palz and Chartier (1980) for all cereal varieties and
species. The assumed grain straw ratio for:
wheat is 1.23
Triticum aestivum
barley is 1.45
oats is 1.16
rye is 0.70
other cereals are 1.10
Elsewhere Palz and Chartier assume 17.5 MJ/kg as the typical energy value for the dry matter of
herbaceous materials. Reducing Kvech's (1979) numbers by 10% to convert approximately to DM
yields for residues, we have the following figures for Kourim, Czechoslovakia, rounded to the
nearest MT: Medicago sativa, 7; Trifolium pratense, 4; Vicia faba, 4; Avena sativa, 3; Lolium
perenne, 3; Secale cereale, 3; Trifolium repens, 3; Triticum aestivum, 3; Brassica Tapa, 2;
Hordeum vulgare, 2; Phacelia tanacelifolia, 2; Beta vulgaris, 1; Sinapis alba, 1; Solanum
tuberosum, 1. The harvest index of cereals in general is ca 0.36, meaning that 64% of total above
ground crop production is residue, at least 1/3 of which should be left in the field. 'Prior' barley has
the HI ranging from 0.48 to 0.41 with increasing N fertilizer levels. Wheat usually runs about 0.30
to 0.35 HI. Rice often has a high HI, while grain sorghum generally has a low HI. The 'Green
Revolution' cereals with short straw and high grain yields have relatively high HI. Biomass
engineers might prefer a low HI. The estimated cost of ethanol and methanol from cereal grains is
$0.35 per liter, and $0.16 per liter; the overall energy efficiency, i.e. the ratio of the energy value
of the gross liquid fuel output to the total energy inputs including feedstocks is 0.34 for ethanol
and 0.40 for methanol. For each ton of ethanol produced from cereal grains, there is another ton of
dry distiller's residue, valued in the U.S. as animal feed (Stewart et al. 1979). Briggle's figures
show that fertilizer constitutes the biggest energy input for spring wheat, 2,102,000 Btu/ha out of a
total energy input of 5,646,000 Btu/ha, compared with 3,401,000 out of 7,478 for winterwheat.
Preplanting required 1,025,000 Btu/ha for spring wheat, 994,000 for winterwheat; planting takes
268,000235,000, fertilizer application 10,00057,000, pesticide application 18,00044,000,
pesticides 14,00060,000, irrigation 146,000953,000, harvesting 257,000398,000, truck
271,000368,000, grain handling 7,00015,000, farm pickup 763,000800,000, farm auto
220,000233,000, electricity and overhead, 42,000, miscellaneous 54,000 to 326,000 Btu/ha
(Briggle, 1981). Briggle's earlier work (1980) showed wide variation in output/input ratios, the
highest ratio (4.64) representing hard red spring wheat yields of ca 4.7 MT/ha (equiv. 15,500,000
kcal/ha) from energy inputs of only 3,350,000 kcal/ha in Idaho, the lowest ratio being 0.43,
representing Texan winter wheat yields of ca 2.4 MT/ha. Energy inputs ranged from 218 million
kcal/ha and yields from ca 1,000 to 5,000 kg. Briggle (1980) adds that wheat is an energy frugal
crop, produced with the energy equivalent of less than 5 barrels oil/ha compared to corn at closer
to 10 barrels and potatoes at nearly 25.
Biotic Factors
Wheats are attacked by many fungi and other organisms. Some cvs are resistant to the various
rusts, smuts, and virus diseases. The most important fungal diseases of wheats are the following.
Extension agents should be consulted concerning diseases in an area before growing wheat. Also
cvs should be selected for growing which are resistant to such diseases. Fungal diseases of wheat:
Rusts (Stem or Black rust, Puccinia graiminis f. sp. tritici; Leaf or Brown rust, P. recondita; Stripe
or Yellow rust, P. glumarum); Smuts (Bunt or Covered smut, Tilletia caries and T. foetida; Dwarf
Loose smut, Ustilago tritici); Mildews (Downy mildew, Sclerospora macrospora; Powdery
mildew, Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici); Root rots (Common root rot, Helminthosporium spp. and
Triticum aestivum
Fusarium spp.; Take-all root rot, Ophiobolus graminis; Browning root rot, Pythium spp.); Foot
rots (Eye spot, Cercosporella herpotrichoides; Snow mold, Fusarium spp.); Blights and Scabs
(Head blight or scab, Fusarium spp.; Rhizoctonia blight, Rhizoctonia spp.; Typhula blight,
Typhula spp.; Anthracose, Colletotrichum graminicola; Kernel smudge, Helminthosporium spp.,
Alternaria spp.); Blotches (Glume blotch, Septoria nodorum; Leaf blotch, S. tritici; Speckled leaf
disease, Leptosphaeria avenaria f. sp. triticea; Ergot, Claviceps purpurea. Diseases caused by
bacteria include the following: Pseudomonas atrofaciens (Basal glume rot or bacterial black-tip)
and Xanthomonas transluscens f. sp. undulosa (Black shaff). Diseases caused by viruses include
the following: Wheat mosaic, Wheat streak mosaic, Wheat striate mosaic, and Yellow dwarf.
Insect pests encountered in various areas include: English grain aphid is the most common aphid
affecting wheat, attacking the heads and being very damaging when populations become high prior
to the late-dough stage. Other insects and cutworms, darkling beetles, hessian fly, and salt marsh
caterpillars, may cause damage during the seedling stage. A great number of species of nematodes
have been isolated from wheats in various parts of the world. Where nematodes are a problem, the
agricultural agent should be consulted.

On a % DM basis, the straw contained 71.30% volatiles, 8.90% ash, 19.80% fixed carbon, 43.20%
C, 5.00% H, 39.40% O, 0.61% N, 0.11% S, 0.28% Cl, and undetermined residue.
On a % DM basis, the dust contained 69.85% volatiles, 13.68% ash, 16.47% fixed carbon, 41.38%
C, 5.10% H, 35.19% O, 3.04% N, 0.19% S, and undetermined residue.
References
Boardman, N.K. 1980. Energy from the biological conversion of solar energy. Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. London A 295:477489.
Briggle, L.W. 1980. Introduction to energy use in wheat production. p. 109116. In:
Pimenter, D. (ed.), Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture. CRC Press, Inc. Boca
Raton, FL.
Briggle, L.W. 1981. Wheat. Triticum aestivum. p. 6770. In: McClure, T.A. and Lipinsky,
E.S. (eds.), CRC handbook of biosolar resources. Vol. 11. Resource materials. CRC Press,
Inc. Boca Raton, FL.
vols. New Delhi.
FAO. 1980a. 1979. Production yearbook. vol. 33. FAO, Rome.
Dibb, D.W. 1983. Agronomic systems to feed the next generation. Crops and Soils Mag.
(Nov):56.
Triticum aestivum
Jenkins, B.M. and Ebeling, J.M. 1985. Thermochemical properties of biomass fuels. Calif.
Agric. 39(5/6):1416.
Kvech, O. 1979. The importance of crop residues in rotations of an intense farming system.
Rostlinna Vyroba 25(10):10131022. (abstract only)
Palz, W. and Chartier, P. (eds.). 1980. Energy from biomass in Europe. Applied Science
Publishers Ltd., London.
Reed, C.F. 1976. Information summaries on 1000 economic plants. Typescripts submitted to
the USDA.
Stewart, G.A., Gartside, G., Gifford, R.M., Nix, H.A., Rawlins, W.H.M., and Siemon, J.R.
1979. The potential for liquid fuels from agriculture and forestry in Australia. CSIRO.
Alexander Bros., Mentone, Victoria, Australia.
Broccoli Raab
Broccoli Raab
Rapa, Rapini, Taitcat, Italian turnip, Broccoli turnip
Cruciferae Brassica campestris L. (Ruvo group)
This plant is grown for its tender leaves and flowers shoots which are used as greens or pot herbs.
Plants develop rather rapidly and are harvested before the flower buds open. General growth habit
and exposure of edible parts are similar to spinach.
Season, seeding to harvest: About 60 days.
Production in U.S.: No data, very limited.
Use: As pot herb.
Part of plant consumed: Entire top, leaves, stems and flower buds.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/BroccoliRaab.html [5/16/2004 1:32:16 PM]
Brome grasses
Brome grasses
Gramineae Bromus sp.
Some 43 species of Bromus are native in the United States. Some of these are
important forage sources, others are troublesome weeds. Most bromes are highly palatable during
succulent growth, even the ones classed as weeds. The leaf blades are flat, and the seed heads are
open, spreading panicles. Species of major value in agriculture are field bromegrass, California
brome, rescuegrass, smooth brome, mountain brome, cheatgrass, downy brome, Japanese chess,
and hairy chess.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Brome_grasses.html [5/16/2004 1:32:16 PM]
California brome
California brome
Gramineae Bromus carinatus Hock. and Arn.
This is a bunchgrass native in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions.
The plant grows up to 4 feet. Leaf blades are up to 8 inches long, about 0.5 inch wide. It produces
large quantities of leafy forage, relished by all kinds of livestock while immature. The mature
foliage is less palatable, but the seed heads are palatable and nutritious. The plant is relatively
short lived.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/California_brome.html [5/16/2004 1:32:17 PM]
Mountain brome
Mountain brome
Gramineae Bromus marginatus Nees
Mountain brome is a bunchgrass native to the Rocky Mountain and Pacific
Coast regions. Plants grow to 4 feet, with leaves up to 12 inches long and about 0.25 inch wide.
Leaf blades are flat, and haily underneath. Growth starts early in the spring, producing much leafy
forage relished by livestock. Because of rapid seedling growth and a well-branched, deep root
system, mountain brome is excellent where a rapid cover development is needed. This grass is
frequently seeded with alfalfa or sweet clover in the Pacific Northwest. The mixture is ideal both
for prevention of erosion and as a well balanced animal diet. Stands of mountain brome grass are
readily established by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Mountain_brome.html [5/16/2004 1:32:18 PM]
Bromus inermis
Bromus inermis Leyss.

Syn.: Zerna inermis (Leyss.) Lindm.
Bromus glabrescens Honda
Bromus tatewakii Honda
Poaceae
Smooth bromegrass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Bromus_inermis_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:19 PM]
Field bromegrass
Field bromegrass
Gramineae Bromus arvensis L.
This is a winter annual grass introduced from Europe in the late 1920's and
now grown in the Cornbelt and eastward. When seeded in late summer it develops an extensive
fibrous root system, making it excellent for erosion control. It is winter hardy and grows rapidly
the following spring. The seeds ripen in midsummer and the plants die. Although most used for
erosion control and soil improvement, it furnishes palatable pastilrage during the spring.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Field_bromegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:32:19 PM]

Gramineae Bromus sp.
Cheatgrass (Chess) B. secalinus L.
Downy brome (Bronco grass) B. tectorum L.
Japanese chess B. japonicus Thunb.
Hairy chess B. commutatus Schrad.
These are all winter annual grasses that are widely distributed in pasture and range lands and may
be troublesome weeds in grain fields. They are prolific seed producers and may become dominant
in overgrazed perennial pastures. For a short period in spring they furnish good pasturage. None of
these is seeded commercially.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Minor_annual_brome_grasses.html [5/16/2004 1:32:20 PM]
Rescuegrass
Rescuegrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Bromus willdenowii Kunth.
This bunch grass is native in Argentina, but was introduced into the Southern
States around 1850. It is now naturalized there in many areas. It is a short-lived perennial, adapted
to humid areas with mild winters. Plants reach up to 3 feet, with leaves up to a foot long and about
0.25 inch wide. Young plants are pubescent, but mature plants are sparingly so. Growth occurs
throughout the winter, the plants becoming mature in early summer. On strong soils, a good
amount of forage palatable to livestock is produced. Seed is produced in quantity, and stands are
readily obtained by seeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Rescuegrass.html [5/16/2004 1:32:21 PM]
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.)

Savigny
Syn.: Bruguiera conjugata Auct.
Rhizophoraceae
Burma mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.871.08) is durable but hard to saw and work. It is used for
construction, furniture, houseposts, and pilings (Little, 1983). Thousands of tons of Bruguiera
wood chips are exported annually from Indonesia, Sabah, and Sarawak for pulp and for rayon
manufacture (NAS, 1980a). Fruits are eaten, but not when anything better is available. More often,
they are chewed as astringent with the betel quid. Chinese in Java make a sweetmeat therefrom.
Dutch Indians use the bark to flavor raw fish. The leaves and peeled hypocotyls are eaten in the
Moluccas after soaking and boiling (Hou, 1958). The phlobaphene coloring matter is used in
China and Malaya for black dye (Burkill, 1966). In South Africa, the tree has been planted to
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Bruguiera_gymnorrhiza.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:32:21 PM]
stabilize dunes and in freshwater swamps.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent (Duke and Wain, 1981), the bark is used for diarrhea and fever in
Indonesia (Perry, 1980). Cambodians use the astringent bark for malaria (Burkill, 1966).
Chemistry
In Burma, leaves may contain 18.3% H2O, 13.5% tannin; outer cortex (small trees) 14.6 and 7.9,
outer cortex (large trees) 14.2 and 10.8; twig bark 13.1 and 14.8, bole bark (small trees) 16.3 and
31.7, while the bole bark of large trees contains 12.5% H2O, 42.3% tannin. Bark contains from ca
432% tannin, 12.7753.12% according to Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) and the Wealth of
India (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Toxicity
Eating too much (bark) is dangerous (Burkill, 1966).
Description
Evergreen tree 825(-35) m high, with straight trunk 4090 cm in diameter, buttressed at base, and
with many upright pneumatophores rising to 45 cm from long horizontal roots. Bark gray to
blackish, smooth to roughly fissured, thick; inner bark reddish. Leaves opposite, elliptical, 920
cm long, 57 cm wide, acute at both ends, entire, without visible veins, thick, leathery, glabrous.
Petiole 24.5 cm long. Flowers single in leaf axile 34 cm long, usually drooping on stalk of 12.5
cm, red to yellowish or cream-colored, with red to pink-red bell-shaped hypanthium. Calyx with
1014 very narrow, leathery lobes. Petals 1014, 1315 mm long, white turning brown, each with
2 narrow lobes ending in 34 bristles. Stamens 2, nearly hidden, at base of each petal. Pistil with
inferior 34-celled ovary, each cell with 2 ovules, style slender; stigma with 34 short forks. Berry
drooping, ovoid or turbinate, 22.5 cm long. Seed 1, viviparous, finally 1.52 cm in diameter
(Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani, Africa, Australian, and Indonesian-Indochina Centers of Diversity,
Burma mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, disease, high pH, insects, pest, salt,
shade, waterlogging (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983). (2n = 18)
Distribution
Tropical South and East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, southeastern Asia, Ryukyu;
throughout Malaysia to Philippines, Australia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Introduced into Hawaii
(Little, 1983).
Ecology
Zones, Burma mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 80 dm, annual
temperature of 20 to 26C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. One of the largest trees in the Malayan
mangroves, usually on drier well-aerated soils toward the landward side, often dominating, with
occasional stems >35 m tall. It is probably the longest lived of the mangroves. It can stand "any
amount of shade" (Hou, 1958). Mostly on brackish or saline silts of depositing shores and marshes.
Cultivation
Harvesting
Mostly harvested from natural stands. Species of Rhizophoraceae, growing only from the tips of
the branches, are often killed by indiscriminate lopping of branches (NAS, 1980a). After felling,
its regeneration is often very scant and there is danger of overgrowth by Acrostichum (but once
seedlings have established themselves, the "fern acts rather as a nurse, forcing the seedling up.")
(Hou, 1958).

Good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of (-25) MT/ha/yr, but for firewood purposes,
I would reduce that to 1020(-25) m3 /ha/yr, figuring that at optimal rather than average. Litterfall
may account for 1/31/2 of aboveground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the wood,
mangrove is generally more valuable than other species.
Energy
Wood widely used for charcoal and fuel (Little, 1983). For charcoal, the tree seems to rank with
Rhizophora, with an even higher calorific value. According to WOI, the calorific value of
moisture-free sapwood is 5,169 cals, heartwood 5,079.
Biotic Factors
No data uncovered.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Buffalograss
Buffalograss
Gramineae Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm
Buffalograss, a native species, is the dominant grass in parts of the Great
Plains. It is a fine-leaved, sod-forming perennial, generally only 6 to 8 inches high, with leaves 3
to 6 inches long and less than 0.125 inch wide. It spreads by surface runners to form a dense sod,
Growth starts in late spring and continues through the summer. It is very palatable and stands
grazing well. It is readily established either by seeding or by sod pieces, and is valuable both as
pasture and for erosion control. The species is unisexual, about half the plants being female and
producing seed; and half male, the flowers of which produce only pollen.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Buffalograss.html [5/16/2004 1:32:22 PM]
Fagopyrum species
Index| Search| Home
Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (syn.

F. sagittatum Gilib.) Common
Buckwheat
Fagopyrum tataricum Geartn. Tartary
Buckwheat
Fagopyrum cymosum L. Perennial Buckwheat
Polygonaceae
Buckwheat, beech wheat, bochweit, boechweite, buckwheat
grits, buckwheat groats, Japanese buckwheat, kasha, Silverhull,
Tartary
NewCROP has buckwheat information at:
Buckwheat: Pseudocereal and NutraceuticalSteven Edwardson
Storage, Processing, and Quality Aspects of Buckwheat Seed.Giuseppe (Joe) Mazza
Structure and Chemical Composition of Developing Buckwheat Seed. Obendorf, R.L., M.
Horbowicz, and D.P. Taylor
Buckwheat:Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Buckwheat from Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Buckwheat Leaves Eaten as a Famine Food
And outside links to more buckwheat info:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Fagopyrum_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:23 PM]
Fagopyrum species
Minn-Dak Growers, Ltd.

Buckwheat Genetic Resources in the Himalayas: Their Diversity, Conservation and Use
Buckwheat: A Multi-Purpose, Short-Season AlternativeUniversity of Missouri Agricultural
publication G4290
Buckwheatby Clayton G. Campbell from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Fagopyrum_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:23 PM]
Cucurbita foetidissima
Cucurbita foetidissima HBK

Cucurbitaceae
Buffalo gourd, Calabazilla, Missouri
gourd
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucurbita_foetidissima_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:23 PM]
Bugleweed
Bugleweed
Lycopus virginicus L.
Other common names.Buglewort, sweet bugleweed, American
water hoarhound, carpenter's herb, green archangel, gypsyweed, Paul's
betony, woodbetony, wolf foot, purple archangel, water bugle,
gypsywort, gypsy herb, Virginia hoarhound.
Habitat and range.Bugleweed is a native herb frequenting wet,
shady places from Canada to Florida, Missouri, and Nebraska.
Description.This herb has long, threadlike runners and a bluntly
4-angled, smooth, slender, erect stem from 6 inches to 2 feet in height.
The leaves are about 2 inches in length, pointed, rather narrow, and
dark green or of a purplish tinge. The whitish flowers, which appear
from about July to September, are small, tubular, and bell-shaped, and
are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. They are
Figure 27.Bugleweed
followed by four nutlets. The plant has a rather pleasant, mintlike
(Lycopus virginicus)
odor, but a disagreeable bitter taste.
Part used.The entire herb, gathered during the flowering period.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/bugleweed.html [5/16/2004 1:32:24 PM]
Love grasses
Love grasses
Teff
Gramineae, (Poaceae) Eragrostis sp.
Some 250 species of Eragrostis, the love grasses, are known
- with about 40 native in the United States. Only a few have
agricultural value. Some species produce abundant growth
on soils of low fertility and are valuable for protection of
eroding sites. The species of most value in the United States
are Boer lovegrass, Weeping lovegrass, Lehmann lovegrass,
and Sand lovegrass.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Love_grasses.html [5/16/2004 1:32:25 PM]
Burnet
Burnet
Rosaceae Sanguisorba minor Scop,
The plant is a hardy perennial 1 to 2.5 feet in height, with long compound
leaves, each with 6 to 10 pairs of small leaflets. It is sometimes grown in gardens for the fresh
young Ieaves which are used in salads. While it has long been listed in gardening manuals, it is not
grown commercially in U.S., and so far as known not in other countries.
Last update June 26, 1996 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Burnet.html [5/16/2004 1:32:26 PM]
Juglans cinerea
Juglans cinerea L.
Juglandaceae
Butternut
Outside links:
Butternut accessions from the National Germplasm Repository, Corvallis, Oregon
Walnuts, Juglans spp.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Juglans_cinerea_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:26 PM]
Conocarpus erectus
Conocarpus erectus L.
Combretaceae
Button mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The heavy wood (sp. grav. 1-0) is durable and takes a fine polish. Durable in water, it is used for
barges, boats, and maritime construction. Though suceptible to dry-wood termites, it is also used
for crossties, fences, and turnery. Describing it as keeping well underground and in salt water,
Irvine (1961) notes it is used for piling and firewood. Bark has been used for tanning leather.
Sometimes introduced as an ornamental evergreen.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent, styptic, and tonic, button mangrove is a folk remedy for anemia, catarrh,
conjunctivitis, diabetes, diarrhea, fever, gonorrhea, headache, hemorrhage, orchitis, pricklyheat,
swellings, and syphilis (Duke and Wain, 1981; Irvine, 1961; Morton, 1981). The leaves are eaten,
or their decoction drunk, for fever (Irvine, 1961).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Conocarpus_erectus.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:32:27 PM]
Conocarpus erectus
Chemistry
Bark contains 16-18% tannin.
Description
Evergreen tree to 6 m tall, 20 cm in diameter, with spreading crown. Bark gray or brown,
becoming rough, furrowed, thick; inner bark light brown. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, or
ellipticaL, 3-8 cm long, 1.5-3 cm broad, leathery and slightly fleshy, long-pointed at both ends, not
entire, yellow-green on both surfaces, usually with several gland-dots near vein angles on lower
surface. Petiole 3-10 mm long, slightly broad and winged with 2 gland-dots. Flower clusters
mostly 3-8 cm long at end of twigs and in leaf axils, of several small heads, about 5 mm in
diameter on slender stalks. Flowers many in each ball, 2 mm long, mostly bisexual. Bisexual
flowers have hairy, grayish, 2-winged tubular base, cuplike green calyx with 5 lobes, 5-10
protruding stamens, and inferior ovary with slender style. Male flowers lack tubular base and pistil
but have longer stamens. Multiple fruits rounded, 10-12 mm in diameter, purplish-brown. Drupes
many, scalelike, dry, 3 mm long, 2-winged (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the African and Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, button
mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate diseases, insects light frosts, pests, salt, and
waterlogging (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983).(2n = 24)
Distribution
Bermuda and Bahamas through West Indies to central Florida. From northern Mexico southward
on Atlantic Coast to Brazil and on Pacific Coast to Ecuador including Galapagos and northwestern
Peru. Western tropical Africa from Senegal to Zaire. Not widely introduced (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Rain through Subtropical Dry to Rain Forest Life Zones,
button mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7 to 21.5 dm (mean of 2 cases =
15.1), annual temperature of 25.8 to 26.0C (mean of 2 cases = 25.9), and estimated pH of 6 to 8.5.
It can surely tolerate much higher annual precipitation and annual temperature down to 17deg.C
(without heavy frost). Usually in brackish or saline silts of depositing shores, marshes, and stream
banks.
Conocarpus erectus
Cultivation
successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora direct seeding results in ca 90% survival. The plants can
be grown on dry land away from seashores. They can be propagated from cuttings as living
fenceposts (Little, 1983).
Harvesting
No data available.

Good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 10-20(-25) MT/ha/yr, but for firewood
purposes, I would reduce that to 10-20 (-25) m3 /ha/yr, figuring that at optimal, rather than
average. Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic meter of mangrove is generally more
valuable than other species. Litterfall may account for 1/3-1/2 of aboveground productivity.
Energy
The wood "has high calorific value as fuel but is most widely used for high-grade charcoal
(Morton, 1981). Little (1983) says it makes a good slow-burning fuel and charcoal.
Biotic Factors
Suceptible to attack by dry-wood termites (Little, 1983).
References
Irvine, F.R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana. Oxford University Press, London.
last update July 8, 1996

Button-snakeroot
Button-Snakeroot
Eryngium aquaticum L.
Synonym.Eryngium yuccifolium Michx.
Other common names.Eryngium, eryngo, water eryngo, corn
snakeroot, rattlesnake master, rattlesnake-weed, rattlesnake flag.
Habitat and range.Although sometimes occurring on dry land,
button-snakeroot usually inhabits swamps and low, wet ground from
Connecticut and the pine barrens of New Jersey to Illinois and South
Dakota and south to Texas and Florida.
Description.This plant has grasslike, rigid, parallel-veined leaves 1
to 2 feet in length and about one-half inch in width. The stout
furrowed stem reaches a height of from 2 to 6 feet and is generally
unbranched except near the top. . The insignificant whitish flowers are
Figure 31.Button-snakeroot
borne in dense, stout-stemmed heads from June to September. The
(Eryngium aquaticum)
stout rootstock is very knotty, with numerous short branches, and
produces many thick, rather straight roots.
Part used.The rootstock, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/buttonsnakeroot.html [5/16/2004 1:32:28 PM]
Shea butter
Shea butter
Bambuk butter
Sapotaceae Butyrospermum parkii (Don) Kotschy
This fat is obtained from nuts of the above species, which is a large tree native to West Africa. The
dried fruit consists of a thin shell, enclosing an egg shaped seed. The seeds are about 3 grams in
weight. The kernels contain about 50 percent of a non-drying fat. Both nuts and the fat are
exported to Europe as well as used locally. In Europe, the fat is used as a cooking fat, in the
manufacture of margarine, and as a substitute for cacao butter. The press cake or extracted meal is
fed to cattle.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Shea_butter.html [5/16/2004 1:32:28 PM]
Byrsonima crassifolia
Byrsonima crassifolia HBK.

Byrsonima cubensis Juss.
Malpighia crassifolia L.
Malpighiaceae
Nance
South American fruits deserving further attentionCampbell, R.J. 1996. p. 431-439. In: J. Janick
NanceJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Byrsonima_crassifolia_nex.html [5/16/2004 1:32:29 PM]
Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture, Purdue University
Welcome
Alumni & Friends
Directory
Announcements
Calendar
Academic Programs
Courses
Research
Extension &
Outreach
Facilities
Downloads
Search
Site Map
Related Links
Home
HLA Google Search
Google it!
==========================
==========================
==========================
==========================
Submit
Contact Us!
QuickNews
625 Agriculture Mall Dr.

West Lafayette, IN
47907-2010
(765) 494-1300
Contact HLA Webmaster
more contact information
HLA Faculty Position Announcements
Purdue Home | Purdue Search | Maps | Purdue Directory

Copyright Purdue University, all rights reserved.
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907 USA, (765)-494-4600
An equal access/ equal opportunity University
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/hort/ [5/16/2004 1:32:32 PM]
Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
The scripts in this site are used for visual cues, they are not necessary for viewing or navigating the content of the site. If your
browser does not support JavaScript or you have disabled JavaScript. Please enable JavaScript, or upgrade your browser (NS, IE
[Win], [Mac])
Purdue Calendars
This section uses javascript
includes, the content can be found
at - Purdue Calendars
More Events, Arts &
Entertainment
This section uses javascript includes, the same

content can be found at - Purdue University News
Service
For a complete list of our statewide

locations and scheduling a visit,
please go to our visit purdue page.
More Purdue News

Looking for speakers for an event or news story?
Visit Our Speakers Bureau
Purdue Extension
92 offices statewide
Visit Purdue
Search Purdue
Go
Directories and Searches

Administrative Services " Contact Purdue " Life at Purdue " Maps " Policies " Purdue Calendars " Purdue Pride Multimedia "
Wellness Services
Copyright 2004, Purdue University, all rights reserved.

An equal access/equal opportunity university.
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA, (765) 494-4600
http://www.purdue.edu/ [5/16/2004 1:32:36 PM]
NewCROP Personnel and Projects
Personnel and Projects
Current Personnel
Dr. Jules Janick Director
Anna Whipkey Webmaster
Former Personnel
Carla Hoskins
Ben Alkire
Dr. James E. Simon
Dr. Mario R. Morales

Roberto Fontes Vieira
Winthrop Phippen
Dr. Paul Angers
Dr. Denys J. Charles
Dr. Amots Hetzroni
Marjo Keskitalo
Nissim Ozer
Liangli Yu
Current Projects
Classes
History of Horticulture
Tropical Horticulture
Presentations
Caravaggio's Fruit (paper)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newCrops.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:36 PM]
NewCROP Personnel and Projects
The Fruits of Caravaggio (slide presentation)
Origin of Fruits and Fruit Breeding
Horticulture, Horticultural Science & 100 Years of ASHS
Introducing Adagio: A Slow-bolting Arugula
Websites
Hoosier BotanicalsTM
Hoosier FreshTM
PRI Apple Disease Resistant Apple Breeding Program
Midwest Apple Improvement Association
Center for New Crops and Plant Products

Purdue University
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
625 Agriculture Mall Drive
West Lafayette IN 47907-2010
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newCrops.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:36 PM]
NOW AVAILABLE from ASHS Press!!!

All pre-publication orders have been shipped. Additional copies may be purchased from ASHS
Press
Download this SUPPLEMENT which was not included in the original volume.

Proceedings of the fifth National Symposium New Crops and
New Uses: Strength in Diversity
Jules Janick and Anna Whipkey (eds.). 2002. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA
The issue of crop diversity has never
been more urgent. Present day agriculture
is faced with an erosion of crop
variability as the trend toward
monoculture persists throughout the
world. As a result farmers face increased
risks, both biologic and economic, due to
a combination of market forces and
subsidies that leads inexorably away
from rather than toward diversity. An
expected doubling of world population
continues to be a looming specter upon
the horizon, while at the same time,
ironically, over-production in the
developed world leads to a collapse of
small farmers and rural communities. The
issue of agricultural sustainability is ever
present, especially on fragile soils. In
addition, there are new geopolitical
pressures brought about by the increasing
demands of an oil-based economy. There
have been many solutions proposed but
the balance still eludes us. Genetic and
management solutions to increase
production is necessary for the
developing world but aggravate
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/default.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:32:38 PM]
overproduction in the developed world.

New industrial uses for crops could
increase demand and farmer income.
Many suggest that a move to a bio-based
economy could solve two problems:
reduce our dependence on imported
petroleum while providing new
opportunities to farmers. New crop
alternatives could lead to new options for
both consumers and farmers. The
strategies above are not mutually
exclusive.
This book, the fifth of a series, is based
on the symposium entitled New Crops
and New Uses: Strength in Diversity held
Nov. 8 to 11, 2001 in Atlanta, Georgia
and organized by the Association for the
Advancement of Industrial crops (AAIC),
the Purdue University Center for New
Crops and Plant Products, the Thomas
Jefferson Agricultural Institute, and the
New Uses Council, Inc. It supplements
four other proceedings: Progress in New
Crops (1990, Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon); New Crops (1993, Wiley Press,
New York), Advances in New Crops,
(1996, ASHS Press, Alexandria,
Virginia), and Perspectives on New
Crops and New Uses (1999, ASHS Press,
Alexandria, Virginia). These volumes
represent an encyclopedic compendium
of new crop information useful to
growers, marketers, and researchers.
Hardback, 599 pages
ISBN 0-970756-5-5
Available from:
ASHS Press
113 South West Street, Suite 200
Alexandria, VA 22314-2851 USA
tel: 703-836-4606
Fax: 703-836-2024
email: ashspress@ashs.org
Table of Contents
There are four other volumes in the New Crops series:
Advances in New Crops1990
New Crops1993
Progress in New Crops1996
Perspectives on New Crops and New Uses1999
Order the New Crop Compendium
The New Crop Compendium CD-ROM was produced by the Purdue

University Center for New Crops and Plant Products in cooperation with the Crop
and Grassland Service of the Crop Production and Protection Division of the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
The New Crop Compendium CD-ROM, a
searchable resource of new crop information,
was edited by Jules Janick and Anna
Whipkey and contains the entire text and
figures from the proceedings of the three
National New Crop Symposia:
J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). 1990.
Advances in New Crops. Timber
Press, Portland, Oregon.
J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). 1993.
New Crops. Wiley, New York.
J. Janick (ed.). 1996. Progress in New
Crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria,
Virginia.
The New Crop Compendium provides a
valuable source of information on new,
specialty, neglected, and underutilized crops
for scientists, growers, marketers,
processors, and extension personnel. It
employs an intuitive, easy to use interface.
There are several ways you can access the
information contained on this CD-ROM.
Table of Contents has links to each article grouped by subject.
Policy
International Development
Regional & State Development
Research & Development
Germplasm & Breeding
New Crop Centers
Information Systems
Economics, Marketing, &
Commercialization
Cereals & Pseudocereals
Grain Legumes
Forages, Fodder, & Cover Crops
Oilseeds
Industrial Crops
Fiber Crops
Fruits & Nuts
Vegetable Crops
Floral & Landscape Crops
Aromatic Crops
Herb & Spice Crops
Medicinal Crops
Bioactive Crops & Others
Crops in Space
Crop and Plant Products Index is a comprehensive list of the indexed words from the original
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/compendium/order.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:32:40 PM]
three volumes of the proceedings. Although the index is not linked, it can be used to copy and paste
words into the key word field of the search engine.
Author Index is sorted alphabetically by last name with links to each article by that author.
Key Word Search enables you to search all files for key words using natural language or boolean
logic. Features include a dictionary, related word search, use of concept operators, and on-line help.
Technical Support is available by phone or e-mail.
Copyright 1998 Purdue Research Foundation & FAO

ISBN 0-931682-70-3
System Requirements
The html files are accessible on any platform with a web browser. In order to use the search engine the
following system requirements must be met:
Windows
Windows 3.1 or Win95
Minimum 486 processor, 33 MHz
RAM 16 Mb, if using Win95 then 32 Mb is preferred
CD-ROM drive, double speed, 150 Kb transfer rate
Web browser such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer
Must have "winsock.dll" installed in the Windows directory
Mouse or other pointing device
Minimum 10 Mb free on hard drive
Macintosh
Mac OS 7.1 or higher with Quicktime extensions
68020 processor
16 Mb RAM, 32 Mb preferred with OS 8
CD-ROM drive, double speed, 150 Kb transfer rate
Web browser such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer that supports the "open a URL"
AppleEvent
Mouse or other pointing device
Minimum 10 Mb free on hard drive
The New Crop Compendium is now available from the office of Distance Education
Services at Purdue University.
Payment may be made by check or purchase order (payable to Purdue University in US funds), or by
charge (Visa, Mastercard, Discover)
Telephone orders to: (800) 830-0269 or (765) 494-2748
Print the Order Form and Fax (using a credit card or purchase order) to: (765) 496-2484
Print the Order Form and Mail to:

Continuing Education Business Office
Purdue University
1586 Stewart Center, Room 110
West Lafayette, IN 47907-1586
USA
Pricing
New Crop Compendium $75.00
Author price*
shipping within the US
$65.00
$5.00
shipping outside the US $10.00

*any New Crop Proceeding author
shipping charges are per order, not per disk
How to use NewCROP
Index |Search |Home
HELP
How to use the
NewCROP site
To access crop information:
1. Use CropINDEX if you already know the name of the crop or species, or just want to
browse.
CropINDEX, is an extensive alphabetical list of all common and scientific crop names held
on this site, but does not include Famine Foods entries which are indexed separately.
2. Or use CropSEARCH, for keyword subject searching.
The CropSEARCH locates crops by name, topic, uses, geography, commodity, author
citations, etc; and locates any terms entered.
To access special topics:

There are a number of specialized subject areas that are embedded in new crops:
1. Famine Foods - These are unconventional food sources used in times of desperation.
2. Aromatic, Herbal and Medical Plants
3. The following publications can be found on the NewCROP website:
Trends in New Crops and New Uses. 2002. Proceedings of the Fourth National
Symposium New Crops and New Uses: Strength in Diversity. Jules Janick and Anna
Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 599 pages.
Perspectives on New Crops and New Uses. 1999. Proceedings of the Fourth National
Symposium New Crops and New Uses: Biodiversity and Agricultural Sustainability.
Jules Janick (ed.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 528 pages.
Progress in New Crops. 1996. Proceedings of the Third National Symposium NEW
CROPS: New Opportunities, New Technologies. Jules Janick (ed.). ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA. 660 pages.
New Crops. 1993. Proceedings of the Second National Symposium NEW CROPS:
Exploration, Research, Commercialization Jules Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). Wiley
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/help.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:40 PM]
How to use NewCROP
and Sons, Inc., New York. 710 pages.

Advances in New Crops. 1990. Proceedings of the First National Symposium NEW
CROPS: Research, Development, Economics. Jules Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.).
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 560 pages.
Fruits of Warm Climates. 1987. Julia F. Morton. J.F. Morton, Pub. 20534 SW 92 Ct.,
Miami Fl 33189. 505 pages.
Handbook of Energy Crops. 1983. James A. Duke.
The Alternative Field Crops Manual. 1992. University of Minnesota.
Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. FAO. Rome.
Famine Foods. 1995. Robert (Bob) L. Freedman Orinda, CA 94563. Unpublished.

500+ pages.
Food and Feed Crops of the United States 1971. J.R. Magness, G.M. Markle, C.C.
Compton. Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr.
Expt. Sta.).
Savory Herbs: Culture and Use. 1946. M.S. Lowman, and M. Birdseye. Farmer's
Bulletin No. 1977. USDA, Washington, DC.
The Herb Hunters Guide. 1930. A.F. Sievers, Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington
DC.
To email queries to the New Crop discussion group:

Enroll in the NewCROP discussion group - you can post specific crop questions to the
approximately 400 members of this group.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/help.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:40 PM]
CropMAP
CropMAP
A New Crop Information System
About CropMAP
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New
Hampshire
New Jersey
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropmap/default.html [5/16/2004 1:32:42 PM]
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
CropREFERENCE
CropREFERENCE
Policy Papers
New Crop Monographs 19801995 Jane Gates' compilation of National Agricultural

Library New Crop References.
New Crop References from Noel Vietmeyer of the National Academy of Sciences. A
compilation of BOSTID New Crop resources.
Reference Books
General
The Alternative Field Crops Manual. (University of Minnesota) CAPAP, 352 Alderman
Hall, 1970 Folwel Ave., St. Paul MN 55108. US$ 45.
Bailey, L.H. 1953. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. McMillan Co., New York.
Duke, J.A. 1992. Handbook of Edible Weeds. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Duke, J.A. 1993. CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Duke, J.A. 1987. CRC Handbook of Agricultural Energy Potential of Developing
Countries. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Facciola, Stephen. 1990. Cornucopia: A source Book of Edible Plants, 2nd ed. Kampong
Publications, Vista, California.
Hernandez Bermejo, J.E. and J. Leon (eds.). 1994. Neglected Crops1492 from a
Different Perspective. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Plant
Production and Protection Series No. 26. ISBN 92-5-103217-3.
Janick, Jules and Anna Whipkey (eds.). 1998. New Crop Compendium CD-ROM. Purdue
Research Foundation, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Janick, Jules and J.E. Simon (eds.). 1990. Advances in New Crops. Timber Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Janick, Jules and J.E. Simon (eds.). 1993. New Crops. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropReference/crop_reference.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:32:43 PM]
CropREFERENCE
Janick, Jules (ed.). 1996. Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, Virginia.
Janick, Jules (ed.). 1999. Perspectives on New Crops and New Uses. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, Virginia.
Janick, Jules and Anna Whipkey (eds.). 2002. Trends in New Crops and New Uses. ASHS
Press, Alexandria, Virginia.
Kays, S.J. and J.C. Silva Dias. 1996. Cultivated Vegetables of the World. Exon Press,
Athens GA. ISBN 1-888186-51-8.
Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed crops of the United
States. Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1 (Bul. 828 New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta.).
Subtropical & Tropical Foods
Davies, F.S. and L.G. Albrigo. 1994. Citrus. CABI Publishing. ISBN 0851988679.
Litz, R.E. (ed.). 1997. The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI Publishing.
ISBN: 0851991270.
Martin, F.W., C.W. Campbell, and R.M. Ruberte. 1987. Perennial Edible Fruits of the
Tropics. An Inventory. U.S.D.A. Agric. Handbook 642. Washington D.C.
Morton, J.F. 1987. Fruits of Warm Climates. Julia Morton 20534 SW 92 Ct., Miami Fl
33189.
Nakasone, H.Y. and R.E. Paull. 1998. Tropical Fruits. CABI Publishing. ISBN:
0851992544.
National Academy of Sciences. 1975. Underexploited Tropical Plants with Economical
Value. Washington, D.C.
National Academy of Sciences. 1996. Lost Crops of Africa Volume 1, Grains. BOSTID,
National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. ISBN
0-309-04990-3.
National Research Council. 1989. Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes
with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. National Academy Press. Washington D.C. ISBN
0-309-04264-X.
Parmar, C. and M.K. Kaushal. 1982. Wild Fruits. Parmar, C. and M.K. Kaushal. Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Robinson, J.C. 1995. Bananas and Plantains. CABI Publishing. ISBN 0851989853.
Subhadrabandhu, S. and S Ketsa. 2000. Durian: King of Tropical Fruit. CABI Publishing.
ISBN: 0851994962.
Temperate Fruits
Jackson, D.I. and N.E. Looney(eds.). 1999. Temperate and Subtropical Fruit Production,
2nd Edition. CABI Publishing. ISBN: 0851992714.
CropREFERENCE
Hancock, J.F. 1999. Strawberries. CABI Publishing. ISBN: 0851993397.

Ryugo, K. 1988. Fruit Culture-its Science and Art. Wiley, New York.
Webster, A.D. and N.E. Looney(eds.). 1995. Cherries: Crop Physiology, Production and
Uses. CABI Publishing. ISBN: 0851989365.
Nuts
Duke, J.A. 1989. CRC Handbook of Nuts. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Jaynes, R.A. 1979. Nut Tree Culture in North America. The Northern Nut Growers
Association, Inc.
Vegetables
Bosland, P. and E. Votava. 1999. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. CABI
Publishing. ISBN: 0851993354.
Brewster, J.L. 1994. Onions and other Vegetables Alliums. CABI Publishing. ISBN:
0851987532.
George, R.A.T. 1999. Vegetable Seed Production, 2nd Edition. CABI Publishing. ISBN:
0851993362.
Robinson, R.W. and Deena Decker-Walters. 1997. Cucurbits. CABI Publishing. ISBN:
0851991335.
Rubatzky, V.E. and C.F. Quiros. 1999. Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae. CABI
Publishing. ISBN: 0851991297.
Ryder, E.J. 1999. Lettuce, Endive and Chicory. CABI Publishing. ISBN: 0851992854.
Smartt, J. 1994. Groundnut CropA scientific basis for improvement. Chapman & Hall,
London. ISBN 0-412-40820-1.
Beverage Crops
Willson, K.C. 1999. Coffee, Cocoa and Tea. CABI Publishing. ISBN: 0851989195.
Medicinal, Aromatic, Spices & Herbs
Duke, J.A. 1983. Medicinal Plants of the Bible. Trado-Medic Books, Owerri, NY.
Duke, J.A. 1985. Medicinal Plants of China. Reference Publications, Algonac, MI.
Duke, J.A. 1989. Ginseng: A Concise Handbook. Reference Publications, Algonac, MI.
Duke, J.A. 1987. Living Liqueurs. Quarterman Publications, Lincoln, MA.
Duke, J.A. 1986. Handbook of Northeastern Indian Medicinal Plants. Quarterman
Publications, Lincoln, MA.
CropREFERENCE
Duke, J.A. 1973. Annotated Bibliography on Opium and Oriental Poppies and Related
Species. USDA, Beltsville, MD.
Duke, J.A. and R Vasquez Martinez (eds.). 1994. Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1992. CRC Handbook of Biologically Active Phytochemicals and Their
Activities. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1986. CRC Handbook of Proximate Analysis Tables of Higher Plants. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1985. CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1992. CRC Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and
Other Economic Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1978. Isthmian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. 2nd ed. Paperback. 96 pp. Available
at $8. from J.L. Hudson, Seedsman, Star Rte 2, Box 337, La Honda, CA 94020 (Uses and
names of Central American economic plants.).
Farnsworth, N.R. and Nuntavan Bunyapraphatsara. Thai Medicinal
PlantsRecommended for Primary Health Care Systems. Published by: Medicinal
Plant Information Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Sri-ayuthaya Road,
Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Available from the American Botanical Council (tel.
800-373-7105).
Foster, S. 1990. A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants: Eastern and Central North
America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Ghazanfar, S.A. 1994. Handbook of Arabian Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL
Hlv, Seija, and Lyle E. Craker. 1996. Manual for Northern Herb Growers. HSMP
Books, Amherst MA. ISBN 0-9629868-1-X.
Huang, Kee Chiang. 1993. The Pharmacology of Chinese Herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL.
Iwu, M.W. 1994. CRC Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL.
Lowman, M.S. and M. Birdseye. 1946. Savory Herbs: Culture and Use. Farmer's Bulletin
No. 1977. USDA, Washington, DC.
Potmesil, M. and H.M. Pinedo. 1994. Camptothecins: New Anticancer Agents. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington
DC.
Torkelson, A.R. 1996. The Cross Name Index to Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL.
Tyler, V.E. 1994. Herbs of Choice. The Hawthorne Press Inc. Binghamton, NY.
Tyler, V.E. 1994. The Honest Herbal. The Hawthorne Press Inc. Binghamton, NY.
Wijesekera, R.O.B. 1991. The Medicinal Plant Industry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
CropREFERENCE
Weiss, E.A. 1996. Essential Oil Crops. CAB International, Oxon, UK. 608 pages. ISBN 0
85199 1378. US$ 135.00.
Legumes
Duke, J.A. 1981. Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Plenum Press,
NY.
Lupine Production and Utilization Guide. 1993. $10. CAPAP, 340 Alderman Hall, 1970
Folwell Ave. St. Paul MN 55108. tel: 612-624-4217.
National Research Council 1979. Tropical Legumes: Resources for the Future. National
Acadamy of Sciences, Washington D.C.
Energy Crops
Duke, J.A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops.
Trees for FuelwoodA Step Toward Energy Diversity. The National Arbor Day
Foundation, 211 N. 12th St. Lincoln, NE 68508 USA.
Forages
Heath, M.E., D.S. Metcalfe, and R.E. Barnes (eds.). 1973. Forages. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, Iowa.
Floral Ornamentals
Commercial Field Grown Cut and Dried Flower Production/Marketing

96 pages. Free information booklet.
ATTRA
P.O. Box 3657
Fayetteville AR 72702
tel: 800-346-9140
Professional Guide to Herbaceous Perennials
Professional Plant Growers Association (PPGA)
P.O. Box 27517
Lansing MI 48909-0517 USA
tel: 800-647-7742
Landscape Ornamentals
Dirr, Michael.A and Charles Heiser Jr. 1987. The Reference Manual of Woody Plant
Propagation, from Seed to Tissue Culture. Varsity Press, Inc., Athens,Georgia.
CropREFERENCE
Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. Stipes Publishing Co. Champaign,
Illinois.
Flint, H.L.. 1997. Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, Exclusive of Florida and
the Immediate Gulf Coast. 2nd ed. 752 pages, over 1,800 photographs, line drawings and
graphs with 1,500 species and 2,500 cultivars listed. Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, New York.
US$ 74.95.
Young, J.A. and C.G. Young. 1992. Seeds of Woody Plants in North America.
Timberpress Press Inc., Portland, Oregon.
PeriodicalsJournals
"Devoted to Past, Present and Future Uses of Plants by People"Published quarterly for the
Society for Economic Botany by the New York Botanical Garden.
Diversity"A News Journal for the International Genetic Resources Community" Published
quarterly.
4905 Del Ray Avenue, Suite 401
Bethesda MD 20814, USA
310-907-9350
310-907-9328 FAX
BioOptions
Newsletter of the Center for Alternative Plant and Animal Products
University of Minnesota.
352 Alderman Hall
1970 Folwell Ave.
St. Paul MN 55108 USA
tel: 612-625-5747
fax: 612-625-4237
US$12 annual subscription rate (1997)
CropEXPERT
CropEXPERT
Directory of Crop Experts
General
Legumes
Cereals & Pseudocereals
Medicinal, Aromatic, Spices & Herbs
Fiber Crops
Mushrooms
Floral Ornamentals
Nuts
Forages
Oilseeds
Fruit Vegetables
Oriental Vegetables
Industrial Crops
Subtropical & Tropical Fruits
Landscape Ornamentals
Temperate Fruits
Leafy Vegetables
Root Vegetables
Last update Tuesday, March 09, 1999 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/experts/experts.html [5/16/2004 1:32:43 PM]
NewCrop Announcements
Announcements
Calendar of Upcoming Events
An International Training Program on Essential

Oils, Medicinal
& Aromatic Plants: From Sourcing / Production
to Product Development And from Quality to
Health Properties
A Week Long Intensive Course Covering: Essential Oils and Medicinal/Aromatic Plants and
Science Driven Marketing
July 26August 03, 2004
Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ, USA
New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program
James E. Simon: jesimon@aesop.rutgers.edu
Regisration: http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~ocpe/courses/current/lf0802ca05.html
Brochure
New Crops 2004

Second Australian New Crops Conference
in association with ACOTANC-2004 (Australasian Conference on Tree and Nut Crops)
September 20-25, 2004
University of Queensland Gatton
80km west of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/nc2004/index.html
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/announce/announce.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:44 PM]
NewCrop Announcements
www.uq.edu.au/gatton/
archive.dstc.edu.au/brisbane/
Agriculture Network Information Center
New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Ltd.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/announce/announce.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:44 PM]
NewCROP DISCUSSION GROUP
NewCROP DISCUSSION
GROUP
Jules Janick Coordinator
To Subscribe
Follow this link to the Majorcool E-mail List Manager site.
Fill in Your email address and Find newcrops. Click Go.
Overview
WELCOME to our NewCROP DISCUSSION GROUP. To facilitate communication between
newcrops researchers, Purdue launched this NewCROP email list in April of 1995. We hope that
this system will continue to act as a stimulus for real interactionwhich is the purpose of all
electronic communication groups.
For those new to such an electronic mail system, the main purpose of an e-mail list is to create a
vehicle for rapid and easy communication over the Internet. An e-mail list permits all subscribers
to communicate regularly with each otherand for free. This electronically based mail system
functions very simply: subscribers can write in and ask questions, make announcements, and raise
other issues for discussion to the group. Every subscriber receives this information. Any or all
subscribers receiving this new mail item can file it for their own information, or opt to respond and
reply. The reply is automatically sent to the entire group, unless noted otherwise, and this often
leads to more responses and a lively electronic debate. The art of writing remains alive and well
via electronic mail! Such a system is highly effective if it is used by the subscribers. Basic
information such as sourcing new germplasm, identifying those researching a particular area all
can be quickly handled via this system. This type of electronic mail is known as "mailing list", and
is not an electronic bulletin board, but a mail system.
Policies
From the past years experience, we must ask that subscribers refrain from using the mailing list as
a vehicle for political action and polemics of any kind, and refrain from profanity.
Do not send attachments.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/maillist/default.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:45 PM]
NewCROP DISCUSSION GROUP
Please do not post announcements about papers unless it is in response to an inquiry.

This list is not a place to post classified ads. Although inquiries about marketing and markets may
be appropriate for this list please do not treat it as a commercial marketing site.
Using the New CROP DISCUSSION GROUP

To send a message to the group send E-mail to: newcrops@purdue.edu
Please administrative questions to: owner-newcrops@purdue.edu, not the list.
This discussion group is managed by an automated mailing list management program called
Majordomo. You can get detailed explanations of "documented" commands which Majordomo
understands by asking for "help" from Majordomo (send a message containing just the word
"help" as the message text to majordomo@purdue.edu).
NewCrop mailing list Archives

A searchable archive of the NewCrop DISCUSSION GROUP is now available. The archive
contains messages from 4/25/95 to 12/2/1999.
*At the discretion of the archive maintainer, off-topic posts, "spam", etc. will be removed from the
archive.
We welcome news, inquiries, announcements and all other discussion.
Jules Janick
NewCROP Home Page
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/maillist/default.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:32:45 PM]
A Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
A Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Welcome to the Medicinal and Aromatic Plant home page, sponsored by the Center for New Crops and
Plant Products. The Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants has several main components:
Plant/Crop Descriptors
The plant/crop descriptors are general monographs

providing background information about each herb plant.
Plants are listed in alphabetical order by common and Latin
names.
Guide to Herb Varieties
The Guide to Herb Varieties provides a listing of herb

varieties available from commercial sources.
Sources of Herb Seeds and Plants
The herb seed and plants directory provides a guide to public

and commercial sources of these plants.
Botanical Companies Database
Searchable database of companies in the botanical products

industry. This project was funded in part by ASNAPP
Flavor, Fragrance and Essential Oils

Companies Database
Searchable database of companies in the flavor, fragrance

and essential oils industries. This project was funded in part
by ASNAPP
Links to Other Web Sites
Links provides a direct bridge and listing to other related

web sites.
You can also find:

Aromatic, Spice, and Medicinal
Plants
General information about this site, instruction for use,

acknowledgments, a comment/suggestion form, and information on
contacting our personnel.
NewCROP
This will bring you into our main new crop server (NewCROP) of
which this site can be considered a subset built to highlight
information on these commodities of plants. NewCROP offers the
most comprehensive library and compilation of new and alternative
crop information available on the world-wide web.
We hope that this web site will provide technical assistance to you in your search for sound scientific
information about medicinal, spice and aromatic plants, and in particular be of benefit in the introduction
and production of these unique and fascinating specialty crops and natural plant products.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/default.html [5/16/2004 1:32:45 PM]
Import and Export - World Phytosanitation Contacts
Crop Index|Search Engine|New Crop Home Page
Phytosanitation Agencies
Listed by Country
Addresses and Links to
Regulatory Bureaus
FAO's Global Plant Quarantine Program
USDA Foreign Agriculture Service (FAS) Field Office

Directory for any country
Table of Countries
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Antigua & Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
British Virgin Islands
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burma (Myanmar)
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Channel Islands
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ImportExport/ie_index.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:32:46 PM]
Czech Republic
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji
Finland
France
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guam
Guatemala
Guernsey
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Japan
Jersey
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kuwait
Kyrghyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Micronesia
Moldova
Mongolia
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Nepal
Netherlands
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
North Korea
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Pitcairn
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Romania
Russia
Rwanda
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome & Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
South Korea
Spain
Sri Lanka
St. Kitts-Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent & Grenadines
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Tokelau
Tonga
Trinidad & Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Turks & Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States APHIS
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Wallis & Fortuna Islands
Yemen
Yugoslavia
Zaire
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Other Territories, Regions or Special Zones Having Plant Quarantine

Regulations
American Samoa
Hawaii
Norfolk Island
Puerto Rico
New additions and useful information to this web site may be directed to Ben Alkire
Tel: 765-494-6968, Fax: 765-494-0391
Last update, June, 2000 by bha
Famine Food Homepage
Famine Foods:
by Robert (Bob) L. Freedman
Orinda CA 94563
email: namdeerf@ispwest.com
The Famine Foods Database:
Plants that are not normally considered as crops are
consumed in times of famine. This botanical-humanistic
subject has had little academic exposure, and provides
insight to potential new food sources that ordinarily would
not be considered.
Search the Famine Foods Database

Plant family index
Famine Foods listed by Genus and species
List of references
Other Famine Foods websites
Ethiopia: Famine Food Field Guide
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/faminefoods/ff_home.html [5/16/2004 1:32:47 PM]
Related Web Sites
Index| Search| Home
New Crop Links

Related Web Sites
Agriculture
Arboreta, Botanical Gardens, Museums
Botanical Information
Horticulture and Gardening
Genetic Resources
Landscape & Ornamental
Libraries
Mailing lists & Newsgroups
Marketing
Organizations & Societies
New Crops & New Uses Organizations
Newsletters
Universities including extension services
Miscellaneous
Agriculture
AgNIC (Agriculture Network Information Center) is a distributed network that provides

access to agriculture-related information, subject area experts, and other resources.
E-Answers is a searchable Web site that provides reliable, research-based information on a
wide range of Extension or Outreach-oriented subjects.
Web-agri The Premier Agricultural Search Engine
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
Aggie Horticulture Crop Production and Gardening Information
OSU WebGarden includes a Factsheet Database of over 9,400 links to agronomic and
horticultural factsheets from the United States and Canada. Covers all aspects of growing
plants from both the homeowner's perspective and the commercial producer.
ProCrop - COLD CLIMATE CROPS ProCrop was designed by an Extension
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/related_web_sites.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:32:48 PM]
Related Web Sites
Specialist/Crop Production at Devils Lake, North Dakota. It contains over 700 short articles
concerning production of small grains and row crops in North Dakota.
DLO-NL the Netherlands organization for agricultural research
Indiana Toxic Plant IndicesThis is a database of Indiana Plants Poisonous to Livestock and
Pets. It is maintained by the Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana
Tropical grasses and legumes Database from the FAO
Tropical Feeds Database from the FAO
National Seed Storage Laboratory
InfoMine: Biological, Agricultural and Medical Resources
Cover Crops for Sustainable AgricultureResearch on cover crops for sustainable agriculture
developed or published by the Exploration of Cover Crops for Sustainable Agriculture by
the International Development Research Centre in Ottawa, Canada.
Agro-Tech Communications from Memphis, Tennessee. The company specializes in the
dissemination of technologies concerning the industrial utilization of agricultural fiber and
developing marketing strategies to enhance the potential of agri-business and industrial
clients.
The Dogwood Alliance Our Mission is to preserve and restore native forest ecosystems in
the southeastern United States while sustaining the human communities that depend on
these ecosystems.
ILDIS International Legume Database & Information Service
Leguminosen zur Kornnutzung
CLIMA is the Cooperative Research Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture.
New Agriculturist On-line Reporting agriculture for the 21st century.
UDSA Agricultural Research Service
Minnesota Institute for Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable Farming Association of Minnesota The SFA is a farmer-run, nonprofit

organization based in Minnesota.
Carolina Farm Stewardship Association
ILABIB A Growing Bibliography for Lupin Researchers
Association for Temperate Agroforestry seeks to catalyze technical innovation and adoption
of agroforestry in the temperate zone through a variety of research and educational
activities.
New Agriculturist Reporting Agriculture for the 21st Century
CDMS, Inc. has an ag-chemical database of labels and MSDS.
Urban Agriculture Notes by City Farmer Canada's Office of Urban Agriculture
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
Related Web Sites
Northern Territory Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Australia
ASNAPP agribusiness in sustainable natural African plant products
Value-Enhanced Grains (VEG) encourages the growing opportunity to provide new

solutions to the farm, feed and food sectors--both economically and environmentally
Oilcrop.com CNAP and Springdale Crop Synergies in the UK. It provides information on 12
UK oil crops; including seed oil characteristics, uses, pathway of synthesis and agronomy
issues.
Arboreta, Botanical Gardens, Museums
National Botanic Gardens Biodiversity Server (Australia)
The Finish Museum of Natural History An extensive collection of plant related internet
sites.
The New York Botanical Garden
Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew
Botanical Information
An Extensive Collection of Botanically Related URLs This is the site to visit when looking
for governmental and institutional organizations world-wide.
National Genetic Resources ProgramThe Germplasm Resources Information Network
(GRIN) web server provides germplasm information about plants, animals, microbes and
invertebrates within the National Genetic Resources Program of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service (ARS).
American Indian Ethnobotany DatabaseThis is an electronic database containing food, drug,
dye, fiber and other plants used by Native North American Peoples (a total of over 47,000
items). 291 Native American groups and 3,895 species from 243 different plant families are
represented.
Indiana Toxic Plant Indices This is a database of Indiana Plants Poisonous to Livestock and
Pets. It is maintained by the Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana
Cornell University's Poisonous Plants Information Database.
International Organization for Plant Information
A bibliographic database for the genus Lathyrus
Invasive Species Related Links from USGS
Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research and Australian National Herbarium
Cyber Flora This site concerns itself with plants of the northeast, meaning Georgia to the
Mississippi River, north to Canada.
The Gymnosperm Database provides basic information (sometimes only a name) for all
Related Web Sites
species and higher-ranked taxa of the gymnosperms, i.e., conifers, cycads, and their allies.
Genetic Resources
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
Horticulture and Gardening
Exotic Fruits Vegetables Produce Products from Frieda's Inc.
California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. The CRFG has a general interest in all aspects of fruit
growing with a primary focus on semitropical fruits and uncommon fruits and vegetables.
Tropical Fruits (from Hawaii) Here you will find tropical fruit information: How to choose,
use, and store tropical fruits, as well as descriptions.
Asian Vegetable Website of the Plant Sciences Group, Primary Industries Research Centre,
Central Queensland University. This site addresses issues related to Asian vegetable
production including: Quality assessment; Seed companies; Markets for Asian vegetables;
Description of growing locations
Aggie Horticulture Crop Production and Gardening Information
OSU WebGarden includes a Factsheet Database of over 9,400 links to agronomic and
horticultural factsheets from the United States and Canada. Covers all aspects of growing
plants from both the homeowner's perspective and the commercial producer.
Horticulture Solutions Series University of Illinois, College of Agricultural, Consumer and
Environmental Sciences, Cooperative Extension Service.
University of Minnesota Horticultural Science
A Modern Herbal by Mrs M. Grieve The hyper-text version of A Modern Herbal, first
published in 1931, by Mrs. M. Grieve, contains Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and
Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-Lore of Herbs.
MidFEx MidFEx, short for Midwest Fruit Explorers, is a non-profit organization of amateur
backyard fruit growing enthusiasts.
NewCROPs Medicinal-AromaticPLANTS links
Fungi Perfecti specializes in the distribution of cultures, tools and technologies for the
cultivation of gourmet and medicinal mushrooms
Cornell Center for Fungal Biology
Herbs Australia The gateway to the herb industry in Australia.
Tropical Fruit News Magazine Online
Fruits for the Future is a 3 year project which aims to facilitate technology transfer to
farmers through media, by distributing extension manuals emphasising products, marketing
and processing as well as production.
International Study Programs in Horticultural, Landscape, Environmental and Food
Related Web Sites
Sciences for foreign students at The University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest
(Hungary).
SBE's Exotic Plant and Garden Seed Catalog
Seedsaving and Seedsavers Resources
SeedSwappers.com
What Tree is That?National Arbor Day Foundation.
Leaf and Twig Keys, Virginia Tech
The Fruit Pages: everything you want to know about fruit!
the Mississippi State University Organic Fruit and Vegetable Web Page
International Potato Center (CIP)
Northern Nut Growers Association
Indiana Nut Growers Association
Landscape & Ornamental
PLANT the Purdue Landscape and Nursery Thesaurus
I PLANT, the Illinois Plant, Landscape and Nursery Technology web site
Landscape Plants: Images, Identification, and Information Oregon State University
Horticopia a CD-ROM product that offers an extensive collection of images and

comprehensive coverage of North American ornamental plants, complete with plant
information, and searching
Libraries
National Agricultural Library of the United States. One great place to begin a New Crops
search!
Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation (Hunt Botanical Library)
Massachusetts Horticulture Society Library
Mailing lists and Newsgroups
NewCROP Mailing List on-going discussions between new crops researchers and
enthusiasts
Internet Directory for Botany - ListServers and Newsgroups
Mycology news group news://bionet.mycology
Rare Fruit News Online http://www.rarefruit.com/
Related Web Sites
Marketing
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service
Openair-Market Net: The World Wide Guide to Farmers' Markets, Street Markets, Flea
Markets and Street Vendors
emarketfarm Resources for farmers' markets and market farmers
Market Information System from the Food and Resource Economics Department, University
of Florida.
Today's Market Prices is a commercial site devoted to agricultural information from around
the world.
Global Agribusiness Information Network The Web's Most Comprehensive Source of FREE
Ag Market Information
Farms.com online markets for agriculture
agfibertechnology.com, to provide farmers, processors and manufacturers timely
information about agricultural fibers and their role in emerging biobased industries
Organic Trade Association growers, shippers, processors, brokers, distributors and retailers
working to promote organic products in the marketplace
STATpub.com Market Intelligence for the World's Agriculture Industry Since 1988
Value-Enhanced Grains (VEG) encourages the growing opportunity to provide new
solutions to the farm, feed and food sectors--both economically and environmentally
Southern African Natural Products Trade Association
Organizations & Societies
CropORGANIZATIONS - NewCROP's Directory of crop organizations by botanical

family, country, and discipline
The Association for the Advancement of Industrial Crops
Society for Economic Botany
American Society for Horticultural Science
International Society for Horticultural Science Acta Horticulturae
Crop Science Society of America
FAO Plant Production and Protection Division
Links to worldwide germplasm organizations
The Cucurbit Network Dedicated to promoting conservation and understanding of the

Cucurbitaceae through education and research.
Natural Resources Institute - University of Greenwich, UK
Related Web Sites
New Crops and New Uses Organizations
Thomas Jefferson Agricultural Institute
The Association for the Advancement of Industrial Crops
ATTRA - Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas

from Fayetteville, Arkansas.
The Australian New Crops Project
California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. The CRFG has a general interest in all aspects of fruit
growing with a primaryfocus on semitropical fruits and uncommon fruits and vegetables.
New Uses Council ("New Industrial Uses for Agricultural Materials")
MidFEx MidFEx, short for Midwest Fruit Explorers, is a non-profit organization of amateur
backyard fruit growing enthusiasts.
National Genetic Resources ProgramThe Germplasm Resources Information Network
(GRIN) web server provides germplasm information about plants, animals, microbes and
invertebrates within the National Genetic Resources Program of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service (ARS).
Germplasm sources
Missouri Alternatives Center
National Non-Food Crops Centre provides a single, independent and authoritative source of
information on the use and implementation of non-food crop products and technologies in
the United Kingdom.
Plants for a Future is a project based in Devon and Cornwall which seeks to gather together
and disseminate information on the many useful properties of plants, particularly those
plants which are less common in today's society. Search their database of over 7000 plant
species.
Southern African New Crop Research Association
Canadian Agricultural New Uses Council
Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products University of Minnesota
The Institute for Local Self-Reliance (ILSR) is a nonprofit research and educational
organization that provides technical assistance and information on environmentally sound
economic development strategies.
New Crop Opportunities Center at the University of Kentucky
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
Newsletters
NewCropNEWS Newsletter of the Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plant
Products
Related Web Sites
the Australian New Crops Newsletter
The Carbohydrate Economy
Universities including extension services
Cornell Cooperative Extension
CES Illinois Horticulture Solutions Series
University of Florida extension
North Carolina Horticulture Information Leaflets
University of Nebraska Horticulture Department
Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service
Miscellaneous
Food and Nutrition Internet Index FNII is a searchable Web site describing and indexing
food and nutrition resources available on the Internet
Monthly
requests
Fig. 1. NewCROP web server statistics, July 1996September 2003
1,600,000
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Number of
requests
92,509
1,137,253
1,834,316
2,595,200
4,613,288
6,395,149
10,538,565
Number of
pages
107,885
220,724
706,878
1,429,483
2,750,287
3,719,957
5,340,101
Number of requests
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
Number of pages
00,000
Jul-96
Jan-97
Jul-97
Jan-98
Jul-98
Jan-99
Jul-99
Jan-00
Jul-00
Jan-01
Jul-01
Jan-02
Jul-02
Jan-03
Jul-03
Julia Morton
About The Author

JULIA F. MORTON is Research Professor
of Biology and Director of the Morton
Collectanea, University of Miami, a
research and information center devoted to
economic botany. She received her D.Sc.
from Florida State University in 1973 and
was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society
of London in 1974. She has conducted
extensive field studies for the U.S. National
Institutes of Health and the Department of
Defense, has served as horticultural
development consultant in Florida and
tropical America, and, since 1954, has been
consultant for the Poison Control Centers in
Florida. In 1978, she was selected as the
First Distinguished Economic Botanist by
the international Society for Economic
Botany. She served as President of the
Florida State Horticultural Society in 1979.
She is a member of the Board of Trustees of
Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, and of
the Board of Directors of the Florida
National Parks and Monuments
Association. She is the author of 10 books
and co-author of or contributor to 12 others;
Photo by Frank D. Venning
has written 94 scientific papers and
co-authored 27 others; has produced 2 full-color wall charts of poisonous plants; a set of Survival
Cards for Southeast Asia and a 157-page report on the Survival-related Flora and Fauna of the
Mekong for the U.S. Department of Defense. She is well known as a lecturer on toxic, edible and
otherwise useful plants.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/author.html [5/16/2004 1:33:15 PM]
Date

Morton, J. 1987. Date. p. 511. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Date
Phoenix dactylifera
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Harvesting and Ripening
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Most of the dozen or more species of the genus Phoenix (family Palmae) are grown as ornamental
palms indoors or out. Only the common date, P. dactylifera L., is cultivated for its fruit. Often
called the edible date, it has few alternate names except in regional dialects. To the French, it is
dattier; in German, it is dattel; in Italian, datteri; or dattero; in Spanish, datil; and, in Dutch,
dadel. The Portuguese word is tamara.
Description
The date is an erect palm to 100 or 120 ft (30.5-36.5 m), the trunk clothed from the ground up with
upward-pointing, overlapping, persistent, woody leaf bases. After the first 6 to 16 years, numerous
suckers will arise around its base. The feather-like leaves, up to 20 ft (6 m) long, are composed of
a spiny petiole, a stout midrib, and slender, gray-green or bluish-green pinnae 8 to 16 in (20-40
cm) long, and folded in half lengthwise. Each leaf emerges from a sheath that splits into a network
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/Date.html (1 of 12) [5/16/2004 1:33:19 PM]
Date
of fibers remaining at the leaf base. Small fragrant flowers (the female whitish, the male waxy and
cream colored), are borne on a branched spadix divided into 25 to 150 strands 12 to 30 in (30-75
cm) long on female plants, only 6 to 9 in (15-22.5 cm) long on male plants. One large
inflorescence may embrace 6,000 to 10,000 flowers. Some date palms have strands bearing both
male and female flowers; others may have perfect flowers. As the fruits develop, the stalk holding
the cluster may elongate 6 ft (1.8 m) while it bends over because of the weight. The fruit is oblong,
1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5 cm) long, dark-brown, reddish, or yellowish-brown when ripe with thin or
thickish skin, thick, sweet flesh (astringent until fully ripe) and a single, cylindrical, slender, very
hard stone grooved down one side.
The date palm is believed to have originated in the lands around the Persian Gulf and in ancient
times was especially abundant between the Nile and Euphrates rivers. Alphonse de Candolle
claimed that it ranged in prehistoric times from Senegal to the basin of the Indus River in northern
India, especially between latitudes 15 and 30. There is archeological evidence of cultivation in
eastern Arabia in 4,000 B.C. It was much revered and regarded as a symbol of fertility, and
depicted in bas relief and on coins. Literature devoted to its history and romance is voluminous.
Nomads planted the date at oases in the deserts and Arabs introduced it into Spain. It has long been
grown on the French Riviera, in southern Italy, Sicily and Greece, though the fruit does not reach
perfection in these areas. Possibly it fares better in the Cape Verde Islands, for a program of date
improvement was launched there in the late 1950's. Iraq has always led the world in date
production. Presently, there are 22 million date palms in that country producing nearly 600,000
tons of dates annually. The Basra area is renowned for its cultivars of outstanding quality. The date
has been traditionally a staple food in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, the Sudan, Arabia and
Iran. Blatter quotes the writer, Vogel, as stating: "When Abdel-Gelil besieged Suckna in 1824, he
cut down no fewer than 43,000 trees, to compel the town to surrender; nevertheless, there are still
at least 70,000 left."
In 1980, production in Saudi Arabia was brought to nearly a half-million tons from 11 million
palms because of government subsidies, improved technology, and a royal decree that dates be
included in meals in govern ment and civic institutions and that hygienically-packed dates be
regularly available in the markets. Farmers receive financial rewards for each offshoot of a
high-quality date planted at a prescribed spacing. The Ministry of Agriculture has established
training courses throughout the country to teach modern agricultural methods, including
mechanization of all possible operations in date culture, and recognition and special roles of the
many local cultivars. In West Africa, near the Sahara, only dry, sugary types can be grown.
Bonavia introduced seeds of 26 kinds of dates from the Near East into northern India and Pakistan
in 1869; and, in 1909, D. Milne, the Economic Botanist for the Punjab, introduced offshoots and
established the date as a cultivated crop in Pakistan. The fruits ripen well in northwestern India and
at the Fruit Research Center in Saharanpur. In southern India, the climate is unfavorable for date
production. A few trees around Bohol in the Philippines are said to bear an abundance of fruits of
good quality. The date palm has been introduced into Australia, and into northeastern Argentina
and Brazil where it may prosper in dry zones. Some dates are supplying fruits for the market on
the small island of Margarita off the coast from northern Venezuela. Seed-propagated dates are
found in many tropical and sub-tropical regions where they are valued as ornamentals but where
Date
the climate is unsuitable for fruit production.

In November 1899, 75 plants were sent from Algiers to Jamaica. They were kept in a nursery until
February 1901 and then 69 were planted at Hope Gardens. The female palms ultimately bore large
bunches of fruits but they were ready to mature in October during the rainy season and,
accordingly, the fruits rotted and fell. Only occasionally have date palms borne normal fruits in the
Bahamas and South Florida.
Spanish explorers introduced the date into Mexico, around Sonora and Sinaloa, and Baja
California. The palms were only seedlings. Still, the fruits had great appeal and were being
exported from Baja California in 1837. The first date palms in California were seedlings planted
by Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries in 1769. Potted offshoots from Egypt reached California in
1890 and numerous other introductions have been made into that state and into the drier parts of
southern Arizona around Tempe and Phoenix. In 1912, Paul and Wilson Popenoe purchased a total
of 16,000 offshoots of selected cultivars in Algeria, eastern Arabia and Iraq and transported them
to California for distribution by their father, F.O. Popenoe who was a leader in encouraging date
culture in California. It became a profitable crop, especially in the Coachella Valley. There are
now about a quarter of a million bearing trees in California and Arizona.
Varieties
It would be impractical to deal in depth with date cultivars here. Paul Popenoe listed 1,500 and
provided descriptions of the fruit and palm, as well as the history and significance, of the most
important, country by country, in 90 pages of his book, The Date Palm, written in 1924 but
published in 1973 and readily available. In Iraq, there are presently 450 female cultivars, the most
important of which are: 'Zahdi' (43% of the crop; low in price); 'Sayer' 23% of the crop and
high-priced); 'Halawi' (13% of the crop and high-priced); 'Khadrawi (6% of the crop and
high-priced); also 'Khastawi, 'Brem', and 'Chipchap'. Sawaya and colleagues (1983) have reported
on the sugars, tannins and vitamins in 55 major date cultivars of Saudi Arabia.
The following, with brief comments, are the dates most commonly grown:
'Barhi' introduced into California in 1913 from Basra, Iraq; nearly cylindrical, light amber to
dark brown when ripe; soft, with thick flesh and rich flavor; of superb quality. For shipment needs
refrigeration as soon as picked, then curing and special packing.
'Dayri' (the "Monastery Date")introduced into California from convent grounds in Dayri, Iraq,
in 1913; long, slender, nearly black, soft. Palm requires special care. Not grown extensively in
California.
'Deglet Noor'a leading date in Algeria and Tunisia; and in the latter country it is grown in
inland oases and is the chief export cultivar. It was introduced into California in 1900 and now
constitutes 75% of the California crop. It is semi-dry, not very sweet; keeps well; is hydrated
before shipping. Much used for cooking. The palm is high yielding but not very tolerant of rain
and atmospheric humidity.
'Halawy' ('Halawi')introduced into California from Iraq; soft, extremely sweet, small to
medium; may shrivel during ripening unless the palm is well-watered. It is especially tolerant of
humidity.
Date
'Hayany' ('Hayani')the cultivar most

extensively planted in Egypt; but not
exported. Introduced into California in
1901, and is sold fresh; is not easy to cure.
The fruit is dark-red to nearly black; soft.
The palm is one of the most cold-tolerant.
'Khadrawy' ('Khadrawi')important in
Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and is grown to
some extent in California and Arizona. It is
the cultivar most favored by Arabs but too
dark in color to be popular on the American
market, though it is a soft date of the highest
quality. It is early-ripening; does not keep Fig. 1: An 8-year old-'Deglet Noor' date palm in a private
too well. This cultivar is the smallest edible garden near Indio, California Photo'd by Avery Edwin Field,
date palm grown in the United States and it Oct. 1924. In: W.T. Swingle, Date Growing: a new industry
for Southwest States U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Yearbook
is fairly tolerant of rain and humidity.
1926.
'Khastawi' ('Khustawi'; 'Kustawy')the

leading soft date in Iraq; sirupy, small in
size; prized for dessert; keeps well. The
palm is large and vigorous and produces its
offshoots high on the trunk in California.
The fruit is resistant to humidity.
'Maktoom'introduced into California
from Iraq in 1902; large, red-brown;
thick-skinned, soft, mealy, medium sweet;
resistant to humidity.
'Medjool'formerly exported from
Morocco; 11 off-shoots imported into
California from Bou Denib oases in French
Morocco in 1927; is now marketed as a
deluxe date in California; is large, soft, and
luscious but ships well.
'Saidy' ('Saidi')highly prized in Libya;
soft, very sweet; palm is a heavy bearer;
needs a very hot climate.
'Sayer' ('Sayir')the most widely grown
cultivar in the Old World and much
exported to Europe and the Orient; dark
orange-brown, of medium size, soft, sirupy,
and sometimes some of the sirup is drained
out and sold separately; not of high quality
but the palm is one of the most tolerant of
'Deglet Noor'
Date
salt and other adverse factors.
'Halawi'
'Thoory'('Thuri')popular in Algeria; does

well in California. Fruit is dry; when cured
is brown-red with bluish bloom with very
wrinkled skin and the flesh is sometimes
hard and brittle but the flavor is good, sweet
and nutty. Keeps well; often carried on
journeys. The palm is stout with short, stiff
leaves; bears heavily, and clusters are very
large; somewhat tolerant of humidity.
'Zahdi'('Zahidi')the oldest-known
cultivar, consumed in great quantity in the
Middle East; introduced into California
about 1900. Of medium size, cylindrical,
'Zahdi'
light golden-brown; semi-dry but harvested
Fig. 2: 'Deglet Noor', (top) a semi soft date. 'Halawi', (center)
and sold in 3 stages: soft, medium-hard, and a leading export date of Iraq. 'Zahdi', (bottom) a small date
hard: very sugary; keeps well for months; from northern Iraq. In: D.W. Albert and R H. Hilgeman, Date
much used for culinary purposes. The palm growing in Arizona. Bull. 149, U. Arizona, Agr. Exper. Sta.,
Tucson, Ariz. May 1935.
is stout, fast growing, heavy bearing;
drought resistant; has little tolerance of high humidity.
Among the less well-known cultivars in California are:
'Amir Hajj'introduced from Mandali Oasis in Iraq in 1929. The fruit is soft, with thin skin and
thick flesh; of superior quality but little grown in the United States.
'Iteema'offshoots from Algeria were introduced into California in 1900. The fruit is large,
oblong, light amber, soft, very sweet. Much grown in Algeria but not rain resistant and little grown
in California.
'Migraf' ('Mejraf)a very popular cultivar in Southern Yemen. Fruit is light golden-amber, large;
of good quality.
In inland oases of Tunisia, in addition to the 'Deglet Noor', there is 'Ftimi' ('Alligue') which is
equally subject to humidity, less productive and less disease-resistant.
'Manakbir' has a large fruit and ripens earlier but has the disadvantage that the palm produces
few offshoots and its multiplication is limited.
In coastal oases, the main cultivars are 'Kenta', Agnioua', 'Bouhatam' and 'Lemsi' which come into
season early and ripen before the fall rains. They require less heat than other cultivars. The fruits
are more or less dry and the flesh firm.
In all date-growing areas, some confusion is caused if a seed from harvested fruits falls at the base
of a select cultivar and the seedling springs up unnoticed among the offshoots. Such seedlings
should be watched for and discarded lest they be mistakenly transplanted with the offshoots and
later bear fruits of inferior quality.
Date
Pollination
Date pollen is abundant but is not airborne very far. It has become customary to plant one male
palm for every 48 or 50 females to provide pollen for artificial pollination which is an ancient
practice. In Saudi Arabia and a few other areas of the Old World and in California and Arizona,
the long spines on the petioles are first removed to facilitate the pollinating operation.
Traditionally, a few strands of open male flowers are put upside-down in a female inflorescence
while it is still upright, and a cord is bound around the latter to keep the strands in place when the
cluster enlarges and bends downward. However, the pollen can be dried and will keep for 6
months at room temperature. Pollen stored for one year at 8F (-13.33C) has given 58%fruit set.
Some has been found viable after 7 years of storage, and it is reported that pollen has been kept 14
years in Iran. There are various techniques for applying stored pollen to the female flowers. It may
be dusted on by a tractor-drawn, convertible pollen/pesticide machine, or applied with a cotton
pad, or sprayed on with a long tubed applicator or other device. Lack of pollination results in
small, seedless fruits. In acute shortages, pollen of another species of Phoenix or of some other
genera may be used.
Climate
The date palm must have full sun. It cannot live in the shade. It will grow in all warm climates
where the temper ature rarely falls to 20F (-6.67C). When the palm is dormant, it can stand
temperatures that low, but when in flower or fruit the mean temperature must be above 64F
(17.78C). Commercial fruit production is possible only where there is a long, hot growing season
with daily maximum temperatures of 90F (32.22C) and virtually no rainless than 1/2 in (1.25
cm) in the ripening season. The date can tolerate long periods of drought though, for heavy
bearing, it has a high water requirement. This is best supplied by periodic flooding from the rivers
in North Africa and by subsurface water rather than by rain. (See remarks on irrigation under
"Culture").
Soil
The date thrives in sand, sandy loam, clay and other heavy soils. It needs good drainage and
aeration. It is remarkably tolerant of alkali. A moderate degree of salinity is not harmful but
excessive salt will stunt growth and lower the quality of the fruit.
Propagation
Date palms grow readily from seeds if the seeds and seedlings are kept constantly wet. But
seedlings are variable and take 6 to 10 years to fruit. Furthermore, 50% of the seedlings may turn
out to be males. The best and common means of propagation is by transplanting the suckers, or
offshoots when they are 3 to 5 years old and weigh 40 to 75 lbs (18-34 kg). They are usually
separated from the parent palm as needed, but in southern Algeria suckers are often put on sale
standing in tubs of water. Some offshoots are maintained in nurseries until roots are formed,
though most are set directly in the field after a seasoning period of 10 to 15 days just lying on the
ground, in order to lose 12 to 15% of their moisture. In parts of Egypt subject to annual flooding,
very large offshootsup to 500lbs (226 kg) are planted to avoid water damage. In general, it is
said that at least 2 offshoots can be taken from each palm annually for a period of 10 to 15 years.
The potential of tissue culture for multiplication of date palms is being explored in Iraq, Saudi
Date
Arabia and in California.

Culture
In Tunisia, in former times, it was customary to plant 200 date palms per acre (500/ha). Today,
optimum density is considered to be 50 per acre (120/ha) and this is about the standard in the
Coachella Valley of California, but small-growing palms may be set much closer. The off shoots,
trimmed back 1/3 or 1/4, leaving some of the stiff outer leaves to protect the inner ones, are
usually planted 30 to 33 ft (9-10 m) apart each way. The holes should be 3 ft (0.9 m) wide and
deep, prepared and enriched several months in advance, and may be encircled by a watering ditch.
If the soil dries out prior to planting, the holes are filled with water at that time. In Algeria and
Oman, the palms may be set much deeper in order to be closer to ground water, but this may result
in drowning the palms when irrigating or they may be smothered by sandstorms.
Planting may be done at any time of year, but most often takes place in spring or fall. In Tunisia
planting is done in April and May. The base is set vertically in the ground and the curving fronds
will gradually assume an upright position, especially if the concave side is set to face south. Most
plants will root in 2 months if the soil is kept constantly moist, while some may be delayed for a
year or even several years before they show vigorous growth. Some growers expect a loss of 25%
of the off shoots. Formerly, the young plants in nursery rows were wrapped nearly to the top with
old leaves, paper or burlap sacks for the first year to prevent dehydration by cold, heat or wind.
But it is now held that such wrapping interferes with the proper development of the leaves.
The offshoots that survive may begin to bloom in 3 years and fruit a year later but a substantial
crop is not possible before the 5th or 6th year. In 8 or 10 years, the date will attain full production
and it will keep on for a century though productivity declines after 60 to 80 years and also the
flowers will be too high to pollinate and the fruits too high to pick. The palm grows at the rate of 1
to 11/2 ft (30-45 cm) a year and can reach 20 ft in 15 to 20 years depending on the cultivar and soil
and water conditions.
In Iraq, date palms are fertilized once a year with manure at the rate of 44 lbs (20 kg) per tree.
Commercial fertilizers are utilized in Saudi Arabia and the United States. Of more importance is
the supply of water, a large amount being necessary and it is usually supplied by irrigation ditches.
In some Old World plantations rising tides cause rivers to flood the ditches twice a day. Where this
natural irrigation does not occur, the palms are watered 15 to 40 times a year. Overhead moisture
(including rain) during fruit development will cause minute cracks (checking), beginning at the
apex of the fruit which ultimately darkens. In California, the fruit clusters are covered with paper
bags to shelter them from rain, dust, and predators.
The female inflorescences may be shortened, thinned out, or some removed entirely at pollinating
time, or several weeks later when the stalk has drooped lower, in order to conserve the palm's
energy for the following season. Some growers advise leaving no more than 12 bunches per palm.
Many leave only 30 strands per cluster, each with about 30 fruits. Without thinning, fruits would
be borne only every other year. During the pollinating operation, a grower may tie the elongating
flower stalk to a palm frond to prevent breaking when later laden with fruit.
The palms are pruned twice a year, dry fronds being removed in the fall and the leaf bases may be
taken off in the spring in order that their fiber may be used as a substitute for coir
Date
In Iraq, growth regulators have been experimentally applied to developing dates. In 'Zahdi' and
'Sayer', naphthaleneacetic acid, at 60 ppm, applied 15 to 16 weeks after pollination, improved
quality and increased fruit weight by 39%. Moisture content was elevated. Ripening was delayed
for 30 days or more.
In the Old World, most date plantations are intercropped with vegetables, cereals or fodder crops
in the first few years and subsequently with low growing fruit trees or grapevines. Some
authorities hold that this practice distracts the grower from proper care of the dates. In mechanized
plantations, intercropping is not possible inasmuch as space must be left for the mobile equipment.
Yield
Ordinarily, in palms 5 to 8 years old, the first crop will be 17.5 to 22 lbs (8-10 kg) per palm; at 13
years, 132 to 176 lbs (60-80 kg). Some improved cultivars, at high densities, have yielded over
220 lbs (100 kg) per year. 'Deglet Noor' in California may yield 4.5 to 7 tons per acre (11-17
tons/ha).
Harvesting and Ripening
Some high-quality dates are picked individually by hand, but most are harvested by cutting off the
entire cluster. In North Africa, the harvesters climb the palms, use forked sticks or ropes to lower
the fruit clusters, or they may pass the clusters carefully down from hand to hand. Growers in
California and Saudi Arabia use various mechanized means to expedite harvestingsaddles,
extension ladders, or mobile steel towers with catwalks for pickers. All fruits in a cluster and all
clusters on a palm do not ripen at the same time. A number of pickings may have to be made over
a period of several weeks. In the Coachella Valley, dates ripen from late September through
December and there are 6 to 8 pickings per palm.
Dates go through 4 stages of development: 1) Chimri, or Kimri, stage, the first 17 weeks after
pollination: green, hard, bitter, 80% moisture, 50% sugars (glucose and fructose) by dry weight; 2)
Khalal stage, the next 6 weeks: become full grown, still hard; color changes to yellow, orange or
red, sugars increase, become largely sucrose; 3 ) Rutab stage, the next 4 weeks: half-ripe; soften,
turn light brown; some sucrose reverts to reducing sugar which gains prominence; 4) Tamar stage:
ripe; the last 2 weeks; in soft dates, the sugar becomes mostly reducing sugar; semi-dry and dry
dates will have nearly 50% each of sucrose and reducing sugars.
Soft dates may be picked early while they are still light colored. Semi dry dates may be picked as
soon as they are soft and then ripened artificially at temperatures of 80 to 95F (26.67-35C),
depending on the cultivar. Dry dates may be left on the palm until they are fully ripe. Dry dates
that have become too dehydrated and hardened on the palm are rehydrated by soaking in cold,
tepid or hot water, or by exposure to steam or a humid atmosphere. Extremely dry weather will
cause dates to shrivel on the palm. In the Sudan, the fruits are picked when just mature and then
are ripened in jars to prevent so much loss of moisture. Rain, high humidity or cool temperatures
during the maturing period may cause fruit drop or checking, splitting of the skin, darkening,
blacknose, imperfect maturation, and excessive moisture content, or even rotting. Under such
adverse weather conditions, as may occur in the Salt River Valley, Arizona, dates must be
harvested while still immature and ripened artificially. In the Old World, there are many different
methods of doing this: storing in earthen jars, placing the jars in sun hot enough to prevent
Date
spoilage, boiling the fruits in water and then sun drying. In Australia, entire clusters are kept under
cover with the cut end of the stalk in water until the fruits are fully ripe. In modern packing houses,
prematurely harvested dates are ripened in controlled atmospheres, the degrees of temperature and
humidity varying with the nature of the cultivar.
Where there is low atmospheric humidity outdoors and adequate sunshine, harvested dates are sun
dried whole or cut in half. For fresh shipment in California, the normally ripe, harvested fruits are
carried to packing plants, weighed, inspected by agents of the United States Department of
Agriculture, fumigated, cleaned, graded, packed, stored under refrigeration, and released to
markets according to demand. Saudi Arabia has constructed a number of extra-modern processing
plants for fumigation, washing, drying, and packing of dates prior to cold storage.
Keeping Quality
Slightly underripe 'Deglet Noor' dates will keep at 32F (0C) up to 10 months; fully mature, for 5
to 6 months. Freezing will extend the storage life for a much longer period. In India, sun-dried
dates, buried in sand, have kept well for 1 1/2 years and then have been devoured by worms.
Pests and Diseases
Unripe fruits are attacked by Coccotrypes daclyliperda which makes them fall prematurely. Ripe
fruits are often infested by nitidulidsCarpophilus hemipterus, C. multilatus (C. dimidiatus),
Urophorus humeralis, and Heptoncus luteolus, which cause decay. Control by insecticides is
necessary to avoid serious losses. In Israel, the fruit clusters are covered with netting to protect
them from such pests as Vespa orientalis, Cadra figulilella and Arenipes sabella as well as from
depredations by lizards and birds.
In Pakistan, the red weevil, or Indian palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, bores into the leaf
bases at the top of the trunk, causing the entire crown to wither and die. The rhinocereus beetle, or
black palm beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, occasionally attacks the date. Its feeding damage may
provide entrance-ways for the weevil. Scale insects may infest the leaves and the trunk. They have
been controlled by trimming off the heavily infested leaves, spraying the remaining ones, and
treating the fire resistant trunk with a blowtorch. Two of the most destructive scales are the Marlatt
scale, Phoenicoccus marlatti; which attacks the thick leaf bases, and the Parlatoria scale,
Parlatoria blanchardii, which is active in summer. The latter was the object of an eradication
campaign in California and Arizona in the late 1930's. The date mite scars the fruits while they are
still green.
A tineid moth and a beetle, Lasioderma testacea, have damaged stored dates in the Punjab. Dates
held in storage are subject to invasion by the fig-moth, Ephestia cautella, and the Indian
meal-moth, Plodia interpunctella.
Fusarium albedinis causes the disastrous Bayoud, or Baioudh, disease in Morocco and Algeria. It
is evidenced by a progressive fading and wilting of the leaves. Over a 9-year study period of 26
resistant varieties in Morocco, Bayoud disease reduced the planting density from 364 palms per
acre (900/ha) to 121 to 142 per acre (300-350/ha). It is because of this disease that 'Medjool' can
no longer be grown commercially in Morocco and Algeria.
Decay of the inflorescence is caused by Manginiella scaeltae in humid seasons. Several brown
Date
stains will be seen on the unopened spathe and the pedicels of the opened cluster will be coated
with white "down". Palm leaf pustule, small, dark-brown or black cylindrical eruptions exoding
yellow spores, resulting from infestation by the fungus Graphiola phoenicis, is widespread but
often a serious problem in Egypt. Date palm decline may be physiological or the result of a species
of the fungus genus Omphalia. Diplodia disease is a fungus manifestation on leafstalks and
offshoots and it may kill the latter if not controlled. The fungus caused condition called "black
scorch" stunts, distorts and blackens leaves and adjacent inflorescences. Other fungus diseases
include pinhead spot (Diderma effusum), gray blight (Pestalotia palmarum) and spongy white rot
(Polyporus adustus). The date, as well as its relative, Phoenix canariensis Hort. ex Chaub., has
shown susceptibility to lethal yellowing in Florida and Texas. No commercial plantings have been
affected.
Food Uses
Dry or soft dates are eaten out-of-hand, or may be seeded and stuffed, or chopped and used in a
great variety of ways: on cereal, in pudding, bread, cakes, cookies, ice cream, or candy bars. The
pitting may be done in factories either by crushing and sieving the fruits or, with more
sophistication, by piercing the seed out, leaving the fruit whole. The calyces may be mechanically
removed also. Surplus dates are made into cubes, paste, spread, powder (date sugar), jam, jelly,
juice, sirup, vinegar or alcohol. Decolored and filtered date juice yields a clear invert sugar
solution. Libya is the leading producer of date sirup and alcohol.
Cull fruits are dehydrated, ground and mixed with grain to form a very nutritious stockfeed. Dried
dates are fed to camels, horses and dogs in the Sahara desert. In northern Nigeria, dates and
peppers added to the native beer are believed to make it less intoxicating. The First International
Date Conference was held in Tripoli, Libya in 1959, and led to the development of a special
program under the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to promote the
commercial utilizetion of substandard or physically defective dates.
Young leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable, as is the terminal bud or heart, though its
removal kills the palm. In India, date seeds are roasted, ground, and used to adulterate coffee. The
finely ground seeds are mixed with flour to make bread in times of scarcity.
In North Africa, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, date palms are tapped for the sweet sap which is
converted into palm sugar, molasses or alcoholic beverages, but each palm should not be tapped
more than 2 or 3 times. Tapping the edible date palm interferes with fruit production and it is wiser
to tap P. sylvestris, which is not valued for its fruit, or some other of the 20 well-known palm
species exploited for sugar. When the terminal bud is cut out for eating, the cavity fills with a
thick, sweet fluid (called lagbi in India) that is drunk for refreshment but is slightly purgative. It
ferments in a few hours and is highly intoxicating. Fresh spathes, by distillation, yield an aromatic
fluid enjoyed by the Arabian people.
Other Uses
Seeds: Date seeds have been soaked in water until soft and then fed to horses, cattle, camels, sheep
and goats. Dried and ground up, they are now included in chicken feed. They contain 7.17-9%
moisture, 1.82-5.2% protein. 6.8-9.32% fat, 65.5% carbohydrates, 6.4-13 6% fiber, 0.89-1.57%
ash, also sterols and estrone, and an alkali-soluble polysaccharide. The seeds contain 6 to 8% of a
Date
yellow-green, non-drying oil suitable for use in soap and cosmetic products. The fatty acids of the
oil are: lauric, 8%; myristic, 4%; palmitic, 25%; stearic, 10%, oleic, 45%, linoleic, 10%; plus some
caprylic and capric acid. Date seeds may also be processed chemically as a source of oxalic acid,
the yield amounting to 65%. In addition, the seeds are burned to make charcoal for silversmiths,
and they are often strung in necklaces.
Leaves: In Italy, there are some groves of date palms maintained solely to supply the young leaves
for religious use on Palm Sunday. In Spain, only the leaves of male palms are utilized for this
purpose. In North Africa, the leaves have been commonly used for making huts. Mature leaves are
made into mats, screens, baskets, crates and fans. The processed leaflets, combined with ground up
peanut shells and corn cobs, are used for making insulating board. The leaf petioles have been
found to be a good source of cellulose pulp. Dried, they are used as walking sticks, brooms, fishing
floats, and fuel. The midribs are made into baskets. The leaf sheaths have been prized for their
scent. Fiber from the old leaf sheaths is used for various purposes including packsaddles, rope,
coarse cloth and large hats. It has been tested as material for filtering drainage pipes in Iraq, as a
substitute for imported filters. Analyses of the leaves show: 0.4-0.66% nitrogen; 0.025 0.062%
phosphorus; 0.33-0.66% potassium; 10-16.4% ash. There is some coumarin in the leaves and leaf
sheaths.
Fruit clusters: The stripped fruit clusters are used as brooms. The fruit stalks contain 0.28-0.42%
nitrogen, 0.017-0.04% phosphorus; 3.46-4.94% potassium; 7.7-9.88% ash.
Fruits: In Pakistan, a viscous, thick sirup made from the ripe fruits, is employed as a coating for
leather bags and pipes to prevent leaking.
Wood: Posts and rafters for huts are fashioned of the wood from the trunk of the date palm,
though this wood is lighter than that of the coconut. It is soft in the center and not very durable.
That of male trees and old, un productive females is readily available and used for aqueducts,
bridges and various kinds of construction, also parts of dhows. All left over parts of the trunk are
burned for fuel.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit, because of its tannin content, is used medicinally as a detersive and
astringent in intestinal troubles. In the form of an infusion, decoction, sirup or paste, is
administered as a treatment for sore throat, colds, bronchial catarrh. It is taken to relieve fever,
cystisis, gonorrhea, edema, liver and abdominal troubles. And it is said to counteract alcohol
intoxication.
The seed powder is an ingredient in a paste given to relieve ague.
A gum that exudes from the wounded trunk is employed in India for treating diarrhea and
genito-urinary ailments. It is diuretic and demulcent. The roots are used against toothache. The
pollen yields an estrogenic principle, estrone, and has a gonadotropic effect on young rats.
Calories
Moisture
Fresh, uncooked Dried

142
274 293
31.9 78.5 g
7.0 26.1
Date
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Potassium
Vitamin A
0.9 2.6 g
0.6 1.5 g
36.6 g
2.6 4.5 g
0.5 2.8 g
34 mg
350 mg
6.0 mg
?
110-175 mcg
1.7 3.9 g
0.1 1.2 g
72.9 77.6 g
2.0 8.5 g
0.5 2.7 g
59 103 mg
63 105 mg
3.0 13.7 mg
648 mg
15.60 mg
Thiamine
0.03 0.09 mg
Riboflavin
Niacin
Tryptophan
Ascorbic Acid
?
4.4-6.9 mg
?
30 mg
0.10 0.16 mg
1.4 2.2 mg
10 17 mg
0
( carotene)
*Based on standard analyses.

Sawaya et al., in their studies of fresh dates in Saudi Arabia, reported ascorbic acid content as
1.8-14.3 mg/100 g in the Khalal stage; 1.1-6.1 in the Tamar state. They found that vitamin A
ranged from 20 to 1.416 I.U. in the Khalal stage; from 0-259 l.U. in the Tamar stage. Tannin
varied from 1.2 to 6.7% in the Khalal stage. 0.6 to 3.2 % in the Tamar stage.
The sap contains 10% sucrose. Jaggery made from it contains 9.6% moisture, 86.1 %
carbohydrates, 1.5% protein, 0.3% fat, 2.6% minerals, 0.36% calcium, 0.06% phosphorus.
Pejibaye

Morton, J. 1987. Pejibaye. p. 1214. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Pejibaye
Bactris gasipaes
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Highly regarded today as a source of nutritious food, the pejibaye, Bactris gasipaes HBK. (syns.
B. speciosa Karst.; Guilielma gasipaes L.H. Bailey; G. speciosa Mart.; G. utilis Orst.), family
Palmae, is also called peach palm. It is known as pejivalle in Costa Rica; peach-nut, pewa or
pupunha in Trinidad; piva in Panama; cachipay, chichagai, chichaguai, contaruro, chonta,
choritadura, chenga, jijirre, pijiguay, pipire, pirijao, pupunha, or tenga in Colombia; bobi,
cachipaes, rnacanilla, melocoton, pichiguao, pihiguao, pijiguao, piriguao, or pixabay in
Venezuela; comer, chonta, and tempe in Bolivia; chonta dura, chonta ruru, pijuanyo, pifuayo,
sara-pifuayo, pisho-guayo in Peru; amana, in Surinam; parepon in French Guiana; popunha in
Brazil.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pejibaye.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:33:21 PM]
Pejibaye
The palm is erect, with a single slender stem or, more often, several stems to 8 in (20 cm) thick, in
a cluster; generally armed with stiff, black spines in circular rows from the base to the summit.
There are occasional specimens with only a few spines. The pejibaye attains a height of 65 to 100
ft (20 30 m) and usually produces suckers freely. The leaves, with short, spiny petioles, are
pinnate, about 8 to 12 ft (2.4-3.6 m) long, with many linear, pointed leaflets to 2 ft (60 cm) long
and 1 1/4 in (3.2 cm) wide; dark green above, pale beneath, spiny on the veins. The inflorescence,
at first enclosed in a spiny spathe, is composed of slender racemes 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) long on
which the yellowish male and female flowers are mingled except for the terminal few inches
where there are only male flowers.
The fruit, hanging in clusters of 50 to 100 or sometimes as many as 300, weighing 25 lbs (11 kg)
or more, is yellow to orange or scarlet, yellow-and-red, or brownish at first, turning purple when
fully ripe. It is ovoid, oblate, cylindrical or conical, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) long, cupped at the base by
a green, leathery, 3-pointed calyx. A single stem may bear 5 or 6 clusters at a time. The skin is
thin, the flesh yellow to light-orange, sweet, occasionally with a trace of bitterness, dry and mealy.
Some fruits are seedless. Normally there is a single conical seed 3/4 in (2 cm) long, with a hard,
thin shell and a white, oily, coconut-flavored kernel. Rarely one finds 2 fused seeds.
This useful palm is apparently indigenous to Amazonian areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and
Brazil, but it has been cultivated and distributed by Indians from ancient times and is so commonly
naturalized as an escape that its natural boundaries are obscure. Of prehistoric introduction into
Costa Rica, it is plentiful in a seemingly wild state of the Atlantic side of that country and also
much cultivated. Every Indian dwelling has a patch of pejibaye palms. The palm has also been
planted as partial shade for coffee. It is not as common anywhere else in Central America, though
it is fairly abundant in Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, and has long been grown in
commercial plots in Panama to furnish fruits for local markets. In Colombia and Peru, great
quantities of the fruits appear in the markets and vendors sell them along the streets. There are
large stands of this palm in the Orinoco region of Venezuela and equatorial Brazil. The Indians of
Colombia and Ecuador hold festivals when the pejibayes are in season, though in the latter country
the fruits are valued more as feed for livestock than as food for humans.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Costa Rica in 1920 (S.P.I.
#50679), but those in the first lot had lost viability. The United Fruit Company shipped whole
fruits but they fermented en route and were mistakenly thrown overboard at New York, the
stevedores not being aware that they were imported only for their seeds. Another shipment was
made with adequate instructions and 1,000 seedlings were grown in greenhouses in Maryland and
distributed. Today there are scattered specimens in southern Florida, Cuba, Puerto Rico and
Trinidad. The palm was introduced into the Philippines in 1924. In the 1970's, the possibility of
growing pejibayes in India was inspired by settlers of East Indian lineage in Trinidad and South
America who produce and sell the fruits. In 1978, Brazilian horticulturists undertook a study to
determine the feasibility of establishing pejibaye plantations in the State of Sao Paulo with a view
to exploiting the fruit and the tenninal bud (heart, or palmito). There has been much interest
generated in recent years in the cultivation of the palm solely for its hearts which are of high
quality. Costa Rica is a leader in this enterprise and there the hearts are being canned
commercially.
Pejibaye
Varieties
There is much variation in form, size, color
and quality of the fruits. Some with
longitudinal scars (pejibaye rayodo) are
considered of superior quality. These scars
indicate low water content, firmness and a
minimum of fiber in the flesh. In Costa Rica
there are palms that bear clusters having a
majority of seedless fruits. These are called
pejibaye macho (male pejibaye) and are
much prized. It has been found in surveys
that only 30 to 60 palms in a seedling
planting of 400 will yield highgrade fruit.
As many as 100 may yield fruit of such low Fig. 3: A single-stemmed pejibave palm (Bactris gasipaes),
quality that it is not marketable for human photo'd by the author at Buenaventura, Colombia, in 1969.
consumption.
In recent years, germplasm collections have
been initiated in Costa Rica, Panama,
Colombia and Brazil, and there is a great
potential for crop improvement and
standardization. Spineless forms (tapire),
especially, are being sought for breeding
purposes.
Climate
The pejibaye requires a tropical climate. It
is generally restricted to elevations below
Plate I: PEJIBAYE, Bactris gasipaes (green and ripe)
6,000 ft (1,800 m). Fruiting is reduced
above 5,000 ft (1,500 m). The ideal average
annual temperature ranges between 64.4
and 75.2F (18-24C). At low elevations
with excessive rainfall, the palm cannot
succeed. Optimum rainfall is 78 to 156 in
(200-400 cm), rather evenly distributed the
year around.
Soil
The palm does well even on poor soils but
thrives best on fertile, well drained land. In
a favorable producing region of Costa Rica,
the soil varies from clay loam to nearly pure Plate II: PEJIBAYE, Bactris gasipaes (in foreground)
clay. However, riparian, alluvial soils are deemed most desirable.
Propagation
Pejibaye
The pejibave is grown from seed or from suckers. Seeds can be shade-dried for a few hours,
packed in moist sphagnum moss or charcoal and shipped to any part of the world. When planted,
they will germinate in 3 months. Young plants must be protected from ants which will destroy the
tender shoots.
Culture
The palm grows rapidly and reaches 43 ft (13 m) in 10 to 15 years. At low altitudes, seedlings
begin to bear in 6 to 8 years. In cool regions, bearing may not begin until the plant is 10 to 12
years old. Productive life is said to be 50 to 75 years.
In fruit plantations, the palms are set 20 ft (6 m) apart. After a few years the suckers emerge and
only 2 to 4 are allowed to remain to maturity. When they are 4 to 6 ft (1.2-1.8 m) high and about 3
in (7.5 cm) thick at the base, excess suckers are taken up, cut back severely, kept in the shade and
watered until new roots are formed, and then transplanted to new locations. Weeding is done 2 or 3
times a year.
For the production of palm hearts, the spacing is closer, from 5 to 10 ft (1.5-3 m), as the terminal
buds can be harvested in 2 1/2 to 3 years. Researchers have found that an application of flurenol
(10 ppm) will induce formation of lateral shoots. At 200 ppm, shoot growth is inhibited.
Season
In Colombia, the fruits of cultivated palms mature in January and February. Wild palms may bear
twice a year. There are 2 crops a year in Trinidad, one without seeds, the other with seeds. In Costa
Rica, the flowers appear in April, May and June in the lowlands, later in the highlands, and fruits
mature from September to April.
Harvesting
Because of the spines on the stems, the fruits are knocked down with long poles or harvested with
long poles equipped with cutters, unless ladders are available and the bunches can be cut intact and
lowered by rope. If the bunch is dropped down, it is caught in a leaf-lined sack held by 2 men, or
may land on a deep pile of banana leaves. When the palm gets too tall, the farmer usually cuts it
down to obtain the fruits and the heart. If he is fortunate enough to have a number of nearly
spineless palms, the spines can be trimmed off and the palm can be climbed. If all the spines are
cut off the spiny trunks, the palm will die, but 5 to 8 ft (1.5 2.5 m) of trunk can be despined safely.
Special gear of rope and stirrups has been devised to facilitate climbing. Then, too, if the palms
have single trunks and are close enough together, the worker need climb only every other tree,
using a specially equipped pole to cut bunches from the neighboring tree. Johannessen (1966)
provides details of the modes of handling the crop and the economic role of the pejibaye in the
lives of Costa Rican farmers.
In the period 1948 to 1963 in Costa Rica, the harvesting cost was calculated as representing 11.4%
of the total cash value of the crop. Hunter (1969) has developed data showing that, efficiently
managed, the pejibaye crop, in terms of financial return to the grower, compares favorably with
maize (corn).
Yield
Pejibaye
A palm with 4 or 5 stems may produce 150 lbs (68 kg) of fruit in a season.
Keeping Quality
Undamaged, raw fruits keep in good condition in a dry atmosphere with good air circulation for a
long time, gradually dehydrating. Roughly handled and bruised fruits ferment in only 3 to 4 days.
The cooked fruits, as commonly marketed, can be held for 5 or 6 days. In refrigerated storage at
35.6 to 41F (2-5C), uncooked fruits can be kept for 6 weeks with a minimum of dehydration or
spoilage.
Pests and Diseases
In Costa Rica, a stem borer, Metamasius hemipterus, sometimes penetrates the stalk of the fruit
cluster, causing the fruits to rot. There have been no reports of diseases attacking the palm. Fruits
injured during harvesting or transport are soon invaded by rot-inducing fungi.
Food Uses
The fruit is caustic in its natural state. It is commonly boiled; in fact, it is customary to boil the
fruits for 3 hours in salted water, sometimes with fat pork added, before marketing. Boiling causes
the flesh to separate easily from the seed and usually the skin as well, though in some varieties the
skin adheres to the flesh even after cooking. It is only necessary to remove the skin from the
cooked flesh which can then be eaten out-of-hand. The pre-boiled fruit is sometimes deep-fried or
roasted and served as a snack garnished with mayonnaise or a cheese-dip. It is also mixed with
cornmeal, eggs and milk and fried, and is often employed as stuffing for roasted fowl.
Occasionally it is made into jam. Oven dried fruits have been kept for 6 months and then boiled for
half an hour which causes them to regain their characteristic texture and flavor. Peeled, seeded,
halved fruits, canned in brine, have been exported to the United States. Dried fruits can be ground
into flour for use in various dishes. A strong alcoholic drink is made by allowing the raw, sugared
flesh to stand for a few days until it ferments. This is prohibited in some parts of tropical America.
Young flowers may be chopped and added to omelettes. The cooked seeds are eaten like chestnuts
but are hard and considered difficult to digest.
The palm heart is excellent raw or cooked. It is served in salads or prepared with eggs and
vegetables in a casserole. It is a traditional food of the Indians and its harvesting has greatly
reduced the stands of wild palms.
Food Value
One average pejibaye fruit contains 1,096 calories. Analyses made in Honduras and Costa Rica
show the following values for 100 g of ripe flesh and skin combined:
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Crude Fiber
36.4-60.9 g
0.340-0.633 g
3.10-8.17 g
0.8-1.4 g
Pejibaye
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.72-1.64 g
8.9-40.4 mg
33.5-55.2 mg
0.85-2.25 mg
0.290-2.760 mg
0.037-0.070 mg
0.099-0.154 mg
0.667-1.945 mg
14.8-41.4 mg
The protein contains 7 of the 8 essential amino acids: threonine 2.5%/g/N; valine, 2.7%;
methionine, 1.3%; isoleucine, 1.7% leucine, 2.6%; phenylalanine, 1.3%; lysine, 4.6%; and 10
others. Tests for tryptophan have given negative results.
The following approximate values are shown for the seed kernels per 100 g: moisture (loss at
212F [100C]), 6.9%; protein (N x 6.25), 8.8%; fat, 31.3%; crude fiber, 18.2%; starch (by acid
hydrolysis), 20.8%; ash, 1.9%; undetermined material, 12.1%.
Other Uses
Fruit: Excess fruits and peelings are used as feed for poultry and pigs.
Leaves: Leaflets stripped off for better visibility in harvesting are fed to livestock. The leaves have
been importent for thatching huts.
Sap: The trunk may be tapped for sap which is fermented into wine.
Bark: The bark is peeled off in one piece, despined and used like canvas to make a substitute for a
flat spring in a crude bed or bunk.
Wood: The dark brown wood is very hard but elastic and takes a good polish. It has been used for
spears, Indian satires, bows, arrowheads, staffs and walking sticks. More modern uses are siding
for houses, veneer and tool handles. Small pieces are fashioned into spindles and other parts used
in weaving. Split trunks are used as water troughs.
Ceriman

Morton, J. 1987. Ceriman. p. 1517. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Ceriman
Monstera deliciosa
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Toxicity
Other Uses
Of the many aroids (members of the family of Araceae) that are cultivated as ornamental plants,
only this one has been grown as well for its fruit. The ceriman, Monstera deliciosa Liebm. (syn.
Philodendron pertusum Kunth & Bouche), is often called merely monstera and, inappropriately,
false breadfruit. Because of the apertures in its leaves, some have called it Swiss-cheese plant, or
hurricane plant, suggesting that the holes and slits permit the wind to pass through without
damaging the foliage. Generally, in Mexico and other Latin American countries it is known as
pinanona, or pina anona, but in Venezuela it is called ojul or huracan; in Colombia, hojadillo; in
Guatemala, harpon or arpon comun. In Guadeloupe it is caroal, liane percee, or liane franche; in
Martinique, siguine couleurre; in French Guiana, arum du pays or arum troud. In Brazil it is
catalogued by a leading nursery as ananas japonez (Japanese pineapple).
Description
The plant is a fast-growing, stout, herbaceous vine spreading over the ground and forming
extensive mats if unsupported, but climbing trees to a height of 30 ft (9 m) or more. The stems are
cylindrical, heavy, 2 1/2 to 3 in (6.25-7.5 cm) thick, rough with leaf scars, and producing
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/ceriman.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:33:23 PM]
Ceriman
numerous, long, tough aerial roots. The

leathery leaves, on stiff, erect, flattened
petioles to 3 1/2 ft (105 cm) long, are oval,
cordate at the base, to 3 ft (90 cm) or more
in length and to 2 3/4 ft (82.8 cm) wide;
deeply cut into 9-in (22.8 cm) strips around
the margins and perforated on each side of
the midrib with elliptic or oblong holes of
various sizes.
Several inflorescences arise in a group from
the leaf axils on tough, cylindrical stalks.
The cream colored spadix, sheltered at first Fig. 4: The ceriman (Monstera deliciosa) in flower and fruit
by a waxy, white, calla-lily-like spathe,
at Palm Lodge Tropical Grove, Homestead, Fla. In: J.F.
develops into a green compound fruit 8 to Morton, Some Useful and Ornamental Plants of the
12 in (20-30 cm) or more in length and 2 to Caribbean Gardens, 1955.
3 1/2 in (5-8.75 cm) thick, suggesting an ear of corn. The thick, hard rind, made up of hexagonal
plates or "scales", covers individual segments of ivory-colored, juicy, fragrant pulp much like
diced pineapple. Between the segments there are thin, black particles (floral remnants). Generally
there are no seeds, but sometimes, pale-green, hard seeds the size of large peas, may occur in a
dozen or so of the segments.
The ceriman is native to wet forests of southern Mexico, Guatemala and parts of Costa Rica and
Panama. It was introduced into cultivation in England in 1752; reached Singapore in 1877 and
India in 1878. Specimens of the fruit were exhibited by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in
1874 and 1881. It has become familiar as an ornamental in most of the warm countries of the
world and is widely used in warm and temperate regions as a potted plant indoors,especially in
conservatories and greenhousesthough it does not bloom nor fruit in confinement. In Guatemala,
it is raised in pots in patios to prevent too rampant growth, as it is apt to become an aggressive
nuisance.
The fruits are marketed to some extent in Queensland and, in the past, were sometimes shipped
from Florida to gourmet grocers in New York and Philadelphia.
Climate
The ceriman is strictly tropical and cannot tolerate frost. It does best in semi-shade and has a high
moisture requirement.
Soil
The plant grows vigorously in almost any soil, including limestone but flourishes best in well
drained, rich loam. It is not adapted to saline conditions.
Propagation
In some European nurseries, the ceriman is raised from imported seed. Rapid multiplication has
Ceriman
been achieved through tissue culture in Denmark. Generally, propagation is by means of stem
cuttings, which may be simply set in beds or pots in the ground where the vine is intended to grow.
Suckers or offshoots, with or without roots, can be separated from parent plants and transplanted
successfully. Mulching is desirable as well as watering until new roots have become
well-established.
Culture
Suckers will fruit in 2 to 4 years; cuttings in 4 to 6 years, depending on the location, soil and
attention given. Out-of-doors, the ceriman requires little care. If it is desired to expedite growth
and fruiting, a complete fertilizer may be applied 3 or 4 times a year. Indoor plants need frequent
repotting to accommodate the root system, and they should be set outside at least once a year in
direct light.
Season
Flowering and fruiting overlap because it requires 12 to 14 months from the opening of the
inflorescence to the maturity of the fruit. Therefore, there are often unopened inflorescences,
immature fruits and ripening fruits together on the same plant. The current year's crop is ripening
through summer and fall while the following year's crop is forming beside it.
Harvesting
The rind is always green though it assumes a lighter shade as the fruit matures. The fruit, with at
least an inch (2.5 cm) of stem, should be cut from the plant when the tile-like sections of rind
separate slightly at the base, making it appear somewhat bulged. At this state, the fruits have been
shipped to local or distant markets. If kept at room temperature, the ceriman will ripen
progressively toward the apex over a period of 5 or 6 days. The flesh should be eaten only from
that portion of the fruit from which the rind segments have so loosened as to be easily flicked off.
To ripen the whole fruit at one time, it should be wrapped in paper or plastic, or possibly
aluminum foil, as soon as cut from the plant and kept at room temperature until the rind has
loosened the entire length of the fruit. At this stage, it will be found that the flesh also falls easily
away from the inedible core. Once ripened, the fruit can be kept in the refrigerator in good
condition for a week or a little more. Rinsing off the floral remnants improves the appearance of
the flesh, but it does cause some loss of juice.
Pests and Diseases
When grown indoors, the plants are subject to infestation by scale insects, mites and mealybugs.
Outdoors, they are usually pest-free. However, in dry seasons in Florida, the lubber grasshopper
(Romalea microptera) has rapidly consumed entire leaves, leaving only the base of the midrib and
the petiole. In India, wire cages are placed around developing fruits to protect them from rats,
squirrels, monkeys and other creatures.
The following diseases have been recorded in Florida: leaf spot caused by Leptosphaeria sp.,
Macrophoma philodendri, Phytophthora sp., and Pseudomonas cichorri; anthracnose from
Glomerella cingulata; bacterial soft rot from infection by Erwinia carotovora; and root rot caused
by Pythium splendens and Rhizoctonia solani.
Food Uses
Ceriman
Fully ripe pulp is like a blend of pineapple

and banana. It may be served as dessert with
a little light cream, or may be added to fruit
cups, salads or ice cream. Some people cut
cross-sections right through the core,
creating wheel like disks that can be held
with the thumb and fore finger pinching the
"hub" while the edible part is nibbled from
the rim. To make a preserve, rinsed
segments can be stewed for 10 minutes in a
little water, a cup of sugar and a tablespoon
of lime juice is then added for each 2 cups Fig. 5: Compound fruit of the ceriman fully ripe, with loose
of fruit, the mixture is simmered again for segments of rind removed and flesh separated for eating.
20 minutes and preserved in sterilized jars. Black specks are floral remnants.
Some cooks substitute honey for sugar.
Food Value
Philippine analyses show the following values for the edible portion: calories, 335/lb (737/kg);
moisture, 77.88%; protein, 1.81%; fat, 0.2%; sugar, 16.19%; fiber 0.57%; ash, 0.85%.
Toxicity
The oxalic acid, and possibly other unidentified principles, in the unripe fruit, the floral remnants
of the ripe fruit, and all parts of the plant, cause oral and skin irritation. Some sensitive individuals
claim that even the ripe fruit irritates the throat. It would be well to avoid eating the ceriman in
quantity until it is determined that there are no undesirable reactions. Some individuals have
experienced urticaria and anaphylaxis after eating ceriman. Some children and adults have
reported diarrhea and intestinal gas after consuming the flesh or products made from it.
Other Uses
The aerial roots have been used as ropes in Peru. In Mexico, they are fashioned into coarse, strong
baskets.
Medicinal Uses: In Mexico, a leaf or root infusion is taken daily to relieve arthritis. A preparation
of the root is employed in Martinique as a remedy for snakebite.
Pineapple

Morton, J. 1987. Pineapple. p. 1828. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Pineapple
Ananas comosus
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests
Diseases
Harvesting
Life of plantation
Storage
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Ornamental Value
The pineapple is the leading edible member of the family Bromeliaceae which embraces about
2,000 species, mostly epiphytic and many strikingly ornamental. Now known botanically as
Ananas comosus Merr. (syns. A. sativus Schult. f., Ananassa sativa Lindl., Bromelia ananas L., B.
comosa L.), the fruit has acquired few vernacular names. It is widely called pina by
Spanish-speaking people, abacaxi in the Portuguese tongue, ananas by the Dutch and French and
the people of former French and Dutch colonies; nanas in southern Asia and the East Indes. In
China, it is po-lo-mah; sometimes in Jamaica, sweet pine; in Guatemala often merely "pine" .
Description
The pineapple plant is a terrestrial herb 2 1/2 to 5 ft (.75-1.5 m) high with a spread of 3 to 4 ft
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pineapple.html (1 of 20) [5/16/2004 1:33:26 PM]
Pineapple
(.9-1.2 m); a very short, stout stem and a

rosette of waxy, straplike leaves,
long-pointed, 20 to 72 in (50-180cm) 1ong;
usually needle tipped and generally bearing
sharp, upcurved spines on the margins. The
leaves may be all green or variously striped
with red, yellow or ivory down the middle
or near the margins. At blooming time, the
stem elongates and enlarges near the apex
and puts forth a head of small purple or red
flowers, each accompanied by a single red,
yellowish or green bract. The stem
continues to grow and acquires at its apex a
compact tuft of stiff, short leaves called the
"crown" or "top". Occasionally a plant may
Fig. 6: A spiny-leaved pineapple in the Supply garden,
bear 2 or 3 heads, or as many as 12 fused
Homestead, Fla., 1946.
together, instead of the normal one.
As individual fruits develop from the flowers they join together forming a cone shaped,
compound, juicy, fleshy fruit to 12 in (30 cm) or more in height, with the stem serving as the
fibrous but fairly succulent core. The tough, waxy rind, made up of hexagonal units, may be
dark-green, yellow, orange-yellow or reddish when the fruit is ripe. The flesh ranges from nearly
white to yellow. If the flowers are pollinated, small, hard seeds may be present, but generally one
finds only traces of undeveloped seeds. Since hummingbirds are the principal pollinators, these
birds are prohibited in Hawaii to avoid the development of undesired seeds. Offshoots, called
"slips", emerge from the stem around the base of the fruit and shoots grow in the axils of the
leaves. Suckers (aerial suckers) are shoots arising from the base of the plant at ground level; those
proceeding later from the stolons beneath the soil are called basal suckers or "ratoons".
Native to southern Brazil and Paraguay (perhaps especially the Parana-Paraguay River) area where
wild relatives occur, the pineapple was apparently domesticated by the Indians and carried by them
up through South and Central America to Mexico and the West Indies long before the arrival of
Europeans. Christopher Columbus and his shipmates saw the pineapple for the first time on the
island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and then again in Panama in 1502. Caribbean Indians placed
pineapples or pineapple crowns outside the entrances to their dwellings as symbols of friendship
and hospitality. Europeans adopted the motif and the fruit was represented in carvings over
doorways in Spain, England, and later in New England for many years. The plant has become
naturalized in Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Trinidad but the fruits of wild plants are
hardly edible.
Spaniards introduced the pineapple into the Philippines and may have taken it to Hawaii and Guam
early in the 16th Century. The first sizeable plantation 5 acres (2 ha)was established in Oahu in
1885. Portuguese traders are said to have taken seeds to India from the Moluccas in 1548, and they
also introduced the pineapple to the east and west coasts of Africa. The plant was growing in
China in 1594 and in South Africa about 1655. It reached Europe in 1650 and fruits were being
Pineapple
produced in Holland in 1686 but trials in England were not success ful until 1712. Greenhouse
culture flourished in England and France in the late 1700's. Captain Cook planted pineapples on
the Society Islands, Friendly Islands and elsewhere in the South Pacific in 1777. Lutheran
missionaries in Brisbane, Australia, imported plants from India in 1838. A commercial industry
took form in 1924 and a modern canning plant was erected about 1946. The first plantings in Israel
were made in 1938 when 200 plants were brought from South Africa. In 1939, 1350 plants were
imported from the East Indies and Australia. but the climate is not a favorable one for this crop.
Over the past 100 years, the pineapple has become one of the leading commercial fruit crops of the
tropics. In 1952-53, world production was close to 1,500,000 tons and reportedly nearly doubled
during the next decade. Major producing areas are Hawaii, Brazil, Malaysia, Taiwan, Mexico, the
Philippines, South Africa and Puerto Rico. By 1968, the total crop had risen to 3,600,000 tons, of
which only 100,000 tons were shipped fresh (mainly from Mexico, Brazil and Puerto Rico)
and925.000 tons were processed. In the period 1961-66, imports of fresh pineapples into Europe
rose by 70%. Soon many new markets were opening. In 1973, the total crop was estimated at
4,000,000 tons with 2.2 million tons processed. The increased worldwide demand for canned fruit
has greatly stimulated plantings in Africa and Latin America. For years, Hawaii supplied 70% of
the world's canned pineapple and 85% of canned pineapple juice, but labor costs have shifted a
large segment of the industry from Hawaii to the Philippines. Because production costs in Hawaii
(which are 50% labor) have increased 25% or more, Dole has transferred 75% of its operation to
the Philippines, where, in 1983, it employed 10,000 laborers on about 25,000, mostly rented, acres
(10,117 ha).
Pineapples were first canned in Malaya by a retired sailor in 1888 and exporting from Singapore
soon followed. By 1900, shipments reached a half million cases. The industry alternately grew and
declined, and then ceased entirely for 3 1/2 years during World War II. The Malaysian Pineapple
Industry Board was established in 1959. Thereafter there has been steady progress. The pineapple,
was a very minor crop in Thailand until 1966 when the first large cannery was built. Others
followed. Since then processing and exporting have risen rapidly. In 1977-78 many farmers
switched from sugarcane to pineapple. Of the annual production of 1 1/2 million tons, 1/8 is
canned as fruit or Julce.
South Africa produces 2.7 million cartons of canned pineapple yearly and exports 2.4 million. In
addition, 31,000 tons of fresh pineapple are sold on the domestic market and 500,000 cartons
exported yearly. As in many areas, pineapple culture existed on a small scale on the Ivory Coast
until post WW II when cultural efforts were stepped up. By 1950, annual production amounted to
1800 tons. By 1972, it had risen to 200,000 tons for shipment, fresh or canned, to western Europe.
Cameroun's annual production is about 6,000 tons.
In the Azores, pineapples have been grown in green-houses for many years for export mainly to
Portugal and Madeira. They are of luxury quality, carefully tended and blemish free, graded for
uniform size and well padded in each box for shipment.
As of 1971, the ten leading exporters of fresh pineapples were (in descending order): Taiwan
(39,621 tons), Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Ivory Coast, Brazil, Guinea, Mexico, South Africa, Philippines
and Martinique (5,000 tons). The ten leading exporters of processed pineapples were (in
descending order): Hawaii, Philippines, Taiwan, South Africa, Malaysia (Singapore), Ivory Coast,
Pineapple
Australia, Ryukyu, Mexico, Thailand (10,500,000 tons).

In Puerto Rico, the pineapple is the leading fruit crop, 95% produced, processed and marketed by
the Puerto Rico Land Authority. The 1980 crop was 42,493 tons having a farm value of 6.8 million
dollars.
For 250 years, pineapples have been grown in the Bahama Islands. At one time plantings on
Eleuthera, Cat Island and Long Island totaled about 12,000 acres. The pineapple was a pioneer
crop along the east coast of Florida and or, the Keys. In 1860 fields were established on Plantation
Key and Merritt's Island. And in 1876 planting material from the Keys was set out all along the
central Florida east coast. Shipping to the North began in 1879. In 1910 there were 5000 to 10,000
acres stretching as far north as Ft. Pierce. There were more than a dozen families raising
pineapples on Elliott's Key where an average crop was 50,000 to 75,000 dozen fruits, mostly sent
by schooner to New York. When the industry was flourishing, Florida shipped to New York,
Philadelphia and Baltimore one million crates of pineapples a year from the sandy ridge along the
Indian River. It was believed in those days that the pineapple benefitted by closeness to salt water.
Wood-lath sheds roofed with palmetto fronds, Spanish moss or tobacco cloth were constructed to
provide shade which promoted vigorous plant growth and high fruit quality. Wood-burning ovens
were scattered through the sheds for frost protection in winter. Small, open boxcars operating on
steam or horsepower ran on wooden rails the length of the shed to transport loads of fruit to the
packing station. In open fields, plants were sheltered by palmetto fronds from mid-December to
mid-March. 'Smooth Cayenne' had to be grown in sheds. It was not successful in the open. One
early planter on Eden Island moved his farm to the mainland because bears ate the ripe fruits. With
the coming of the railroad in 1894, pineapple growing expanded. The 1908-09 crop was 1,110,547
crates. Then Cuban competition for U.S. markets caused prices to fall and many Florida growers
gave up. The ridge pineapple fields begain to fail as the humus was exhausted by cultivation.
Fertilization was steadily raising the pH too high for the pineapple. World War I brought on a
shortage of fertilizer, then several freezes in 1917 and 1918 devastated the industry.
In the early 1930's, the United Fruit Company supplied slips for a new field at White City but the
pressure of coastal development soon reduced this to a small patch. Shortly after World War II, a
plantation of 'Natal Queen' and 'Eleuthera' was established in North Miami but, after a few years,
the operation was shifted inland to Sebring, in Highlands County, Central Florida, where it still
produces on a small scale.
Varieties
In international trade, the numerous pineapple cultivars are grouped in four main classes: 'Smooth
Cayenne', 'Red Spanish', 'Queen', and 'Abacaxi', despite much variation in the types within each
class.
'Smooth Cayenne' or 'Cayenne', 'Cayena Lisa' in Spanish (often known in India, Sri Lanka,
Malaysia and Thailand as 'Sarawak' or 'Kew') was selected and cultivated by Indians in Venezuela
long ago and introduced from Cayenne (French Guyana) in 1820. From there it reached the Royal
Botanical Gardens, Kew, England, where it was improved and distributed to Jamaica and
Queensland, Australia. Because of the plants near freedom from spines except for the needle at the
leaftip and the size-4 to 10 lbs (1.8 4.5 kg)-cylindrical form, shallow eyes, orange rind, yellow
Pineapple
flesh, low fiber, juiciness and rich mildly acid flavor, it has become of greatest importance
worldwide even though it is subject to disease and does not ship well. Mainly, it is prized for
canning, having sufficient fiber for firm slices and cubes as well as excellent flavor.
It was the introduction of this cultivar into the Philippines from Hawaii in 1912 that upgraded the
Philippine industry from the casual growing of the semi-wild type which was often seedy. There
are several clones of 'Smooth Cayenne' in Hawaii which have been selected for resistance to
mealybug wilt. It is the leading cultivar in Taiwan. In 1975, the Queensland Department of
Primary Industries, after 20 years of breeding and testing, released a dual purpose cultivar named
the 'Queensland Cayenne'. South Africas Pineapple Research Station, East London, after 20 years
of selecting and testing of 'Smooth Cayenne' clones, has chosen 4 as superior especially for the
canning industry.
'Hilo'is a variant of 'Smooth Cayenne' selected in Hawaii in 1960. The plant is more compact, the
fruit is smaller, more cylindrical; produces no slips but numerous suckers It may be the same as
the 'Cayenne Lisse' strain grown in Martinique and on the Ivory Coast, the fruit of which weighs
from 2 to 2 3/4 lbs (1-1 1/2 kg) and has a very small crown.
'St. Michael', another strain of 'Smooth Cayenne' is the famous product of the Azores. The fruit
weighs 5 to 6 lbs (2.25-2.75 kg), has a very small crown, a small core, is sweet with low acidity,
and some regard it as insipid when fully ripe.
'Giant Kew', well-known in India, bears a large fruit averaging 6 lbs (2.75 kg), often up to 10 lbs
(4.5 kg) and occasionall up to 22 lbs (10 kg). The core is large and its extraction results in too
large a hole in canned slices.
'Charlotte Rothschild', second to 'Giant Kew' in size in India, tapers toward the crown, is
orange-yellow when ripe, aromatic, very juicy. The crop comes in early. 'Baron Rothschild', a
Cayenne strain, grown in Guinea, has a smaller fruit 1 3/4 to 5 lbs (0.8-2 kg) in weight, marketed
fresh.
'Perolera' (also celled 'Tachirense', 'Capachera', 'Motilona', and 'Lebrija') is a 'Smooth Cayenne'
type ranking second to 'Red Spanish' in importance in Venezuela. It has long been grown in
Colombia. The plant is entirely smooth with no spine at the leaftip. The fruit is yellow, large-7 to 9
1bs (3-4 kg) and cylindrical.
'Bumanguesa', of Venezuela and Colombia, is probably a mutation of 'Perolera'. The fruit is red
or purple externally, cylindrical with square ends, shallow eyes, deep-yellow flesh, very slender
core but has slips around the crown and too many basal slips to suit modern commercial
requirements.
'Monte Lirio', of Mexico and Central America, also has smooth leaves with no terminal spine.
The fruit is rounded, white-fleshed, with good aroma and flavor. Costa Rica exports fresh to
Europe.
Other variants of 'Smooth Cayenne' include the 'Esmeralda' grown in Mexico and formerly in
Florida for fresh, local markets; 'Typhone', of Taiwan; 'Cayenne Guadeloupe', of Guadeloupe,
which is more disease resistant than 'Smooth Cayenne'; and 'Smooth Guatemalan' end 'Palin'
grown in Guatemala; also 'Piamba da Marquita' of Colombia. Some who have made efforts to
Pineapple
classify pineapple strains have proposed grouping all smooth-leaved types under the collective
name 'Maipure'. In Amazonas, Venezuela, this name is given to a large plant with smooth leaves
stained with red. The fruit has 170 to 190 eyes.
Philipps Platts, a leading pineapple
authority, experimented with 60 to 70
cultivars in Florida but 'Red Spanish'
proved most dependable. Despite the
spininess of the plant, it still is the most
popular among growers in the West Indies,
Venezuela and Mexico. 'Red Spanish'
constitutes 85% of all commercial planting
in Puerto Rico and 75% of the production
for the fresh fruit market. It is only fair for
canning. The fruit is more or less round,
orange-red externally, with deep eyes, and
ranges from 3 to 6 lbs (1.36-2.7 kg). The
flesh is pale-yellow, fibrous, with a large
core, aromatic and flavorful. The fruit is
hard when mature, breaks off easily and
cleanly at the base in harvesting, and stands
handling and transport well. It is highly
resistant to fruit rot though subject to
gummosis.
Two vigorous hybrids of 'Smooth Cayenne'
and 'Red Spanish' were developed at the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the
University of Puerto Rico and released in
1970'P.R. 1-56' and the slightly larger
'P.R. 1 67', both with good resistance to
gummosis and mealybug wilt and of
excellent fruit quality. 'P.R. 1 67' averages 5
3/4 lbs (2.5 kg), gives a high yield32 tons
per acre (79 tons/ha). The fruit is sweeter
Fig. 7: 'Red Spanish' (left) and 'Abacaxi' (called 'English' in
yet with more acidity than 'Red Spanish',
the Bahamas) (right). In: K. and J. Morton, Fifty Tropical
less fibrous and good for marketing fresh
Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
and for canned juice. It was introduced into
Venezuela about 1979 and is grown in the State of Lara.
'Cabezona' ('Bull Head', or 'Pina de ague') is a prominent variant (a natural tetraploid) of 'Red
Spanish' long grown in Puerto Rico in the semiarid region of Lajas, to which it is well suited; also
in El Salvador. The plant is large, over 3 ft (1 m) high; the leaves are gray-green. The fruit is
conical but not as tall as that of 'Valera'; averages 4 to 6 lbs (1.8-2.75 kg) and may reach 18 lbs (8
kg) or more. It is orange-yellow at maturity, has few fibers and sweet-acid flesh. The stem is large
and extends up into the base of the fruit and if the fruit is broken off when harvested it leaves a
cavity. Consequently, it must be cut with a machete and later trimmed flush with the base in the
Pineapple
packing house. It is marketed fresh only. It is resistant to gummosis. Platts reported that it gave a
low yield and was disease prone in Florida. There are small plantings in the States of Trujillo and
Monagas, Venezuela. It has been cultivated frequently in the Philippines.
'Valera' ('Negrita', or 'Andina'), is an old cultivar originating in Puerto Rico; it is grown in the
States of Lara, Merida and Trujillo in Venezuela. It is a small to medium plant with long, narrow,
spiny, purple green leaves. The fruit is conical cylindrical, weighing 3 1/2 to 5 1/2 lbs (1.5-2.5 kg);
is purple outside with white flesh.
'Valera Amarilla' is a 'Red Spanish' strain grown in the States of Lara and Trujillo in Venezuela.
The fruit is broad cylindrical and tall with a large crown; weighs 4 1/2 to 9 lbs (2-4 kg); is yellow
externally with very deep eyes, about 72 to 88 in number. The flesh is pale-yellow and very sweet
in flavor.
'Valera Roja', grown in Lara, Trujillo and Merida, Venezuela, is a small-to-medium plant with
cylindrical fruit 1 1/2 to 2.2 lbs (0.6-1 kg) in weight, reddish externally, with 100 eyes. It has
pale-yellow flesh.
'Castilla' is a 'Red Spanish' strain grown in Colombia and El Salvador.
'Cumanesa', supposedly a selection of 'Red Spanish', grown mainly in the State of Sucre,
Venezuela, is a medium-sized plant, very spiny, producing an oblong fruit with a large crown. It is
orange-yellow externally; weighs 2 to 3 3/4 lbs (0.9-1.70 kg). and has yellowish-white flesh.
'Morada', believed to be a variant of 'Red Spanish', is one of the less important cultivars of
Colombia and the State of Monagas, Venezuela. The plant is large, with long, narrow, purple-red
leaves. The fruit is broad-cylindrical, purple-red externally, with white flesh.
'Monte Oscuro' ('Pilon'), is a large plant with broad, sawtoothed, spiny-edged leaves. The fruit is
barrel-shaped, large, weighing 6.6 lbs (3 kg); has 160-180 medium-deep eyes; is yellow outside
with deep-yellow, fibrous flesh. It is ,grown among Mauritia palms in the State of Monagas,
Venezuela.
'Abacaxi' (also called 'White Abacaxi of Pernambuco', 'Pernambuco', 'Eleuthera', and 'English') is
well known in Brazil, the Bahamas and Florida. The plant is spiny and disease-resistant. Leaves
are bluish-green with red-purple tinge in the bud. The numerous suckers need thinning out. The
fruit weighs 2.2 to ll lbs (1-5 kg), is tall and straight-sided; sunburns even when erect. It is very
fragrant. The flesh is white or very pale yellowish, of rich, sweet flavor, succulent and juicy with
only a narrow vestige of a core. This is rated by many as the most delicious pineapple. It is too
tender for commercial handling, and the yield is low. The fruit can be harvested without a knife;
breaks off easily for marketing fresh.
'Sugarloaf' (also called 'Pan de Azucar') is closely related to 'Abacaxi', and much appreciated in
Central and South America, Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines. The leaves of the plants and
crowns pull out easily and this fact gave rise to the unreliable theory that pineapple ripeness is
indicated by the looseness of the leaves. The fruit is more or less conical, sometimes round; not
colorful; weighs 1 1/2 to 3 lbs (0.68-1.36 kg). Flesh is white to yellow, very sweet, juicy. This
cultivar is too tender for shipping.
Pineapple
Among several strains of 'Sugarloaf' are 'Papelon', and 'Black Jamaica', and probably also
'Montufar' ('Sugar Slice' of Guatemala). The latter fruit is green, conical, weighs 2 to 5 1/2 lbs (0.8
2.5 kg); has yellow, very juicy, flesh, sweet yet a little acid. This pineapple also is too tender to
ship.There are a number of tropical American cultivars not categorized as to groups, and among
them are:
'Brecheche', grown to a limited extent in southern Venezuela, is a small fruit with small, spineless
crown. Average weight is 1 1/2 to 2.2 lbs (0.7-1 kg). The fruit is yellow externally. Flesh is
yellow, with little fiber, small core, very fragrant, very juicy.
'Caicara', grown to a small extent in the State of Bolivar, Venezuela, is a large fruit weighing 4 to
5 1/2 lbs (1.8-2.5 kg). with a large, spiny crown. It is cylindrical conical with deep eyes; yellow
externally with white flesh, a little fiber, very juicy, with large core.
'Chocona' and 'Sante Clara' are cultivars that have been introduced into Trinidad.
'Congo Red' is a plant with bright-red, long-lasting flowers. The fruit bends over and cracks in
hot, dry weather. It weighs up to 5 lbs (2.25 kg), is waxy, with yellow flesh of good flavor.
'Panare', named after the tribe of Indians that has grown it for a long time, is commercially grown
to a small extent in the State of Bolivar, Venezuela. The plant is of medium size with long, spiny
leaves. The fruit is bottle-shaped, small, 1 to 1 l/2 lbs (0.45-0.70 kg), with small crown; ovate, with
deep eyes; orange externally with deep-yellow flesh; slightly fragrant, with little fiber and small
core.
'Santa Marta' of Colombia, is subject to cracking of the core in hot, dry weather.
In Peru, farmers still grow the old common 'Criolla' because it can be sold fresh and is not easily
damaged in shipment. But modern pineapple production in that country depends on the 'Smooth
Cayenne' for canning.
Minor cultivars in Colombia include: 'Amarilla de Cambao', 'Amarilla de Tocaima', 'Blanca
Chocoana', 'Blanca del Atrato', 'Blanca de Valle del Cauca', 'Cimarrona', 'Espanola de Santander',
'Hartona', 'Jamaiquena' and 'Manzana'.
'Cacho de Venado' is grown to a small extent in Monagas and Sucre, and 'Injerta' in Trujillo,
Venezuela.
'Pearl', 'Itaparica', 'Paulista', and 'Maranhao' (or 'Amarella') are spoken of in Brazil; 'Azucaron' in
El Salvador; 'Roja' in Mexico. It remains to be determined if some of these names are merely
synonyms for cultivars already referred to.
'Mauritius' (also known as 'European Pine', 'Malacca Queen', 'Red Ceylon' and 'Red Malacca') is
one of the 2 leading pineapple cultivars in Malaya; also important in India and Ceylon. The leaves
are dark green with broad red central stripe and red spines on the margins. The fruit is small, 3 to 5
lbs (1.36-2.25 kg), yellow externally; has a thin core and very sweet flesh. It is sold fresh and
utilized for juice.
'Singapore Red' (Also called 'Red Jamaica', 'Singapore Spanish', 'Singapore Queen', 'Singapore
Common') is second to 'Mauritius' in popularity. The leaves are usually all-green but sometimes
Pineapple
have a reddish stripe near the margins; they are rarely spiny except at the tips. The fruits,
cylindrical, reddish, with deep eyes, are small3 1/2 to 5 lbs (1.6-2.25 kg)with slender core,
fibrous, golden-yellow flesh; insipid raw but valued for canning. The plant is disease and
pest-resistant.
The related 'Green Selangor' (also called 'Selangor Green', 'Green Spanish', and 'Selassie') of
Malaysia has all-green leaves prickly only at the tips. The flesh is golden-yellow, often with white
dots. This cultivar is grown for canning.
'Queen' (also called 'Common Rough' in Australia) is the leading cultivar in South Africa,
Queensland and the Philippines. The plant is dwarf, compact, more cold-resistant and more
disease-resistant then 'Smooth Cayenne'. It matures its fruit early but suckers freely and needs
thinning, and the yield is low. The fruit is conical, deep-yellow, with deep eyes; weighs 1 to 2 1/2
lbs (0.45-1.13 kg); is less fibrous than 'Smooth Cayenne', but more fragrant; it is juicy, of fine
flavor with a small, tender core. It is sold fresh and keeps well. It is only fair for canning because
of its shape which makes for much waste.
'Natal Queen' of South Africa, also grown in El Salvador, produces many suckers. The fruit
weighs 1 1/2 to 2 lbs (0.75-0.9 kg).
'MacGregor', a variant of 'Nasal Queen' selected in South Africa and grown also in Queensland,
is a spreading, more vigorous plant with broad leaves and large suckers produced less freely. The
fruit is cylindrical, medium to large, with firm flesh and flavor resembling 'Queen'.
'James Queen' (formerly 'Z') is a mutation of 'Nasal Queen' that originated in South Africa. It has
larger fruit with square shoulders.
'Ripley' or 'Ripley Queen', ,grown in Queensland, is a dwarf, compact plant with crimson tinge on
leaves; takes 22 weeks from flowering to fruit maturity; is an irregular bearer. The fruit weighs 3
to 6 lbs (1.36-2.7 kg); is pale-copper externally; flesh is pale-yellow, non-fibrous, very sweet and
rich. In Florida this cultivar tends to produce suckers without fruiting.
'Alexandria', a selection of 'Ripley Queen' in Queensland, is more vigorous with large suckers
and fruit. The fruit is conical, tender, with 'Ripley Queen' flavor.
'Egyptian Queen' was introduced into Florida in 1870. It was popular at first, later abandoned.
The fruit weighs 2 to 4 lbs (0 9-1.8 kg).
'Kallara Local' is a little-known cultivar in India. Minor strains in Thailand are 'Pattavia',
'Calcutta', 'Sri Racha', 'Intorachit' and 'Chantabun'.
In the evaluation of pineapples, the crown can be an asset or a liability. Small crowns detract from
the decorative appearance of the fruit; large crowns are more attractive but hamper packing and
constitute too great a proportion of inedible material from the standpoint of the purchaser.
Climate
The pineapple is a tropical or near tropical plant limited (except in greenhouses) to low elevations
between 30N and 25S. A temperature range of 65-95F (18.33-45C) is most favorable, though
the plant can tolerate cool nights for short periods. Prolonged cold retards growth, delays maturity
Pineapple
and causes the fruit to be more acid. Altitude has an important effect on the flavor of the fruit. In
Hawaii, the 'Smooth Cayenne' is cultivated from sea level up to 2,000 ft (600 m). At higher
elevations the fruit is too acid. In Kenya, pineapples grown at 4500 ft (1371 m) are too sweet for
canning; between 4500 and 5700 ft (1371-1738 m) the flavor is most suitable for canning; above
5700 ft (1738 m) the flavor is undesirably acid. Pineapples are grown from sea level to 7545 ft
(2300 m) in Ecuador but those in the highlands are not as sweet as those of Guayaquil.
Ideally, rainfall would be about 45 in (1,143 mm), half in the spring and half in the fall; though the
pineapple is drought tolerant and will produce fruit under yearly precipitation rates ranging from
25 to 150 in (650-3,800 mm), depending on cultivar and location and degree of atmospheric
humidity. The latter should range between 70 and 80 degrees.
Soil
The best soil for pineapple culture is a well-drained, sandy loam with a high content of organic
matter and it should be friable for a depth of at least 2 ft (60 cm), and pH should be within a range
of 4.5 to 6.5. Soils that are not sufficiently acid are treated with sulfur to achieve the desired level.
If excess manganese prevents response to sulfur or iron, as in Hawaii, the plants require regular
spraying with very weak sulfate or iron. The plant cannot stand waterlogging and if there is an
impervious subsoil, drainage must be improved. Pure sand, red loam, clay loam and gravelly soils
usually need organic enrichment. Filter presscake from sugar mills, worked into clay soils in
Puerto Rico, greatly enhances plant vigor, fruit yield, number of slips and suckers.
Propagation
Crowns (or "tops"), slips (called nlbs or robbers in New South Wales), suckers and ratoons have
all been commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of the pineapple. To a lesser degree, some
growers have used "stumps", that is, mother plant suckers that have already fruited. Seeds are
desired only in breeding programs and are usually the result of hand pollination. The seeds are
hard and slow to germinate. Treatment with sulfuric acid achieves germination in 10 days, but
higher rates of germination (75-90 % ) and more vigorous growth of seedlings results from
planting untreated seeds under intermittent mist.
The seedlings are planted when 15-18 months old and will bear fruit 16-30 months later.
Vegetatively propagated plants fruit in 15-22 months.
In Queensland, tops and slips from the summer crop of 'Smooth Cayenne' are stored upside down,
close together, in semi-shade, for planting in the fall. Some producers salvage the crowns from the
largest grades of fruits going through the processing factory to be assured of high quality planting
material.
South African experiments with 'Smooth Cayenne' have shown medium-size slips to be the best
planting material. Next in order of yield were large crowns, medium-size suckers, medium-size
crowns and large suckers. Medium and large suckers, however, fruited earlier. Trimming of basal
leaves increased yields. Workers in Johore, Malaya, report, without specifying cultivar, that large
crowns give highest yield and more slips, followed by small crowns, big slips, small slips, large
and small suckers in descending order.
With the 'Red Spanish' in Puerto Rico, the utilization of large slips for planting in the first quarter
Pineapple
of the year, medium slips during the next six months, and small slips in the final quarter, provides
fruits of the maximum size over an extended period of harvest. Storage of slips until optimum
planting time prevents premature bloom and diminished fruit size.
The 'Red Spanish' reaches shipping-green stage (one week before coloring begins) in Puerto Rico
150 days after natural blooming.
In South Africa the 'Queen' is grown mainly from stumps, secondly from suckers. The stumps
which have fruited are detached from the mother plant as soon as possible to avoid their
developing suckers of their own. In comparison with suckers, the stumps are consistently heavier
in yield after the 4th crop. When suckers are used, those of medium size, approximately 18 in (45
cm) long, planted shallow and upright, yield best.
In the past, growers preferred plants that supplied abundant basal slips for planting, not
recognizing the fact that such plants gave smaller fruits than those without slips or suckers. Also,
breeders aim toward elimination of slips to facilitate harvesting. Because of the increased demand
for planting material, a new method of mass propagation received wide attention in 1960. During
the harvest, plants that have borne single-crowned, superior fruits without basal slips are selected
and marked. Following harvest, these plants are cut close to the ground, the leaves are stripped off
and the stemsusually 1 to 2 ft (30-60 cm) long and 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) thickare sliced
lengthwise into 4 triangular strips. The strips are disinfected and placed 4 in (10 cm) apart, with
exterior side upward, in beds of sterilized soil, semi-shaded and sprinkler-irrigated. Shoots emerge
in 3 to 5 weeks and are large enough to transplant to the nursery in 6 to 8 weeks. 'Smooth Cayenne'
yields an average of 3 shoots per slice. 'Red Spanish' and 'Natal Queen', 4 per slice.
This use of the stem is a major improvement over the former practice of allowing it to develop
suckers high up after the fruit is harvested. If such suckers bear fruit in situ they are not strong
enough to support it and collapse. They are better removed for planting, but repeated removal of
suckers weakens the mother plant.
In Sri Lanka, the shortage of planting material inspired experiments at first utilizing stem
cross-sections 1 in (2.5 cm) thick15 to 24 from each stem. These sprouted in 4 weeks but plant
growth was slow and fruiting was delayed for 30 months. Most of the cuttings developed a single
sprout, some as many as 5, others, none at all. Accordingly, this technique was abandoned in favor
of a system developed for purposes of reproducing a selected strain in Hawaii. Stems are cut into
segments bearing 3 to 5 whorls of leaves. The leaves are trimmed to 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) and the
disinfected cuttings set upright in beds until each gives rise to one strong plantlet which is then
transferred to the nursery.
The butts, or bases, of mother plants, with leaves intact, are laid end to end in furrows in nurseries
and covered with 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) of soil. Sprouting occurs in 6 to 8 weeks. The butts give an
average of 6 suckers each, though some have put forth up to 25. A one-acre (0.4 ha) nursery of
25,000 butts, therefore, yields between 100,000 and 200,000 suckers.
The Pineapple Research Institute in Hawaii has also employed axillary buds at the base of crowns.
Each crown segment may develop 20 plantlets. This method has been adopted in Sri Lanka for
perpetuating superior strains but not for commercial cultivation because the resulting plants
require 24 months or more to fruit.
Pineapple
In India, because of low production of slips and suckers in 'Smooth Cayenne', crown cuttings
(15-16 per crown) have been adopted for propagation with 95% success, and this method is
considered more economical than the utilization of butts.
Vegetative propagation does not assure facsimile reproduction of pineapple cultivars, as many
mutations and distinct clones have occurred in spite of it.
Culture
The land should be well prepared at the outset because the pineapple is shallow-rooted and easily
damaged by post-planting cultivation. Fumigation of the soil contributes to high quality and high
yields.
Planting: In small plots or on very steep slopes, planting is done manually using the traditional
short-handled narrow-bladed hoe, the handle of which, 12 in (30 cm) long, is used to measure the
distance between plants. Crowns are set firmly at a depth of 2 in (5 cm); slips and suckers at 3 1/2
to 4 in (9 10 cm). Butts, after trimming and drying for several days, are laid end-to-end in furrows
and covered with 4 in (10 cm) of soil.
Double-rowing has been standard practice for many years, the plantlets set 10 to 12 in (25 30 cm)
apart and staggered, not opposite, in the common rows, and with 2 ft (60 cm) between the two
rows. An alley 3, 5 1/2 or 6 ft (.9, 1.6 or 1.8 m) wide is maintained between the pairs, allowing for
plant populations of 17,400, 15,800 or 14,500 per acre (42,700, 37,920 or 33,800 per ha)
respectively. Close spacing gives highest total crop weighte.g.. 18,000 plants/acre = 28.8 tons
(43,200 plants/ha = 69.12 tons). However, various trials have shown that overcrowding has a
negative effect, reducing fruit size and elongating the form undesirably, and it reduces the number
of slips and suckers per plant. Density trials with 'P.R. 1-67' in Puerto Rico demonstrated that
21,360 plants per acre (51,265/ha) yielded 35.8 tons/:acre (86 tons/ha) in the main crop and 18.9
tons/acre (45.43 tons/ha) in the ratoon crop, but only one slip per plant for replanting. Excessively
wide spacing tends to induce multiple crowns in 'Smooth Cayenne' in Hawaii and in 'Red Spanish'
in Puerto Rico.
Some plantings are mulched with bagasse. In large operations, asphalt-treated paper, or black
plastic mulch is regarded as essential. It retards weeds, retains warmth in cool seasons, reduces
loss of soil moisture, and can be laid by machines during the sterilization and pre-fertilization
procedures. Mulch necessitates removal of basal leaves of crowns, slips and suckers and the use of
a tool to punch a hole at the pre-marked planting site for the insertion of each plantlet. The mulch
is usually rolled onto rounded beds 3 1/4 ft (1 m) wide.
Mechanical planting: Research on the potential of machines to replace the hard labor of planting
pineapples was begun in Hawaii in 1945. A homemade device was first employed in Queensland
in 1953. Early semi-mechanical planters were self propelled platforms with driver and two men
who made the holes in the mulch and set the plants in place. With a 2-row planter, 3 men can set
7,000 plants per hour of operation. Frequent stops are necessary to reload with planting material.
With improved equipment, mechanical planting has become standard practice in large plantations
everywhere. The most sophisticated machines have attachments which concurrently apply
premixed fertilizer and lay a broad center strip of mulch, set the plantlets along each edge, and
place a narrow strip along the outer sides. The only manual operation, apart from driving, is
Pineapple
feeding of the plantlets to the planting unit. With this system, up to 50,000 plants have been set out
per day.
Fertilization: Nitrogen is essential to the increase of fruit size and total yield. Fertilizer trials in
Kenya show that a total of 420 lbs N/acre (471.7 kg/ha) in 4 equal applications during the first year
is beneficial, whereas no advantage is apparent from added potassium and, phosphorus. Puerto
Rican studies have indicated that maximum yields are achieved by urea sprays supplying 147 lbs
N/acre (151 kg/ha). In Queensland, total yield of mother plants and ratoons was increased 8% by
urea spraying. Normal rate of application is 3 1/2 gals (13.3 liters) per 1,000 plants. On acid
Bayamon sandy clay in Puerto Rico, addition of magnesium to the fertilizer mix or applying it as a
spray (300 lbs magnesium sulfate per acre327 kg/ha) increased yield by 3 tons/acre (7 tons/ ha).
On sloping, stony clay loam high in potassium, Queensland growers obtained high yields of
'Smooth Cayenne' from side dressings of NPK mixture 5 times a year. On poor soils, nitrogen and
potassium levels of the plants may become low toward the end of the crop season. This must be
anticipated early and suitable adjustments made in the application of nutrients. Potassium uptake is
minimal after soil temperatures drop below 68F (20C). On fine sandy loam in Puerto Rico, the
cultivar 'P.R. 1-67' performed best with 13-3-12 fertilizer applied at the rate of 1.5 tons/acre (3.74
tons/ha). In this expertmeet, 13,403 plants/acre (32,167/ha) produced 9,882 fruits/acre (23,717/ha),
weighing 31.28 tons/acre (75 tons/ha). In Venezuela, 6,250 medium-size fruits per acre (15,000
fruits/ha) is considered a very good crop.
Fruit weight has been considerably increased by the addition of magnesium. In Puerto Rican trials,
magnesium treatment resulted in 54% more total weight providing an average of 2.7 more
tons/acre (64.8 tons/ha) than in control plots. Fruit size and total yield have been enhanced by
applying chelated iron with nitrogen; also, where chlorosis is conspicuous, by accompanying
nitrogen with foliar sprays of 0.10% iron and manganese.
Some growers thin out suckers and slips to promote stronger growth of those that remain.
Irrigation: Irrigation is desirable only in dry seasons and should not exceed 1 in (2.5 cm)
semi-monthly.
Weed Control: Manual weeding in pineapple fields is difficult and expensive. It requires
protective clothing and tends to induce soil erosion. Coir dust has been used as mulch in Sri Lanka
to discourage weeds but it has a deleterious effect on the crop, delaying or preventing flowering.
The use of paper or plastic mulch and timely application of approved herbicides are the best means
of preventing weed competition with the pineapple crop.
Flower Induction: Pineapple flowering may be delayed or uneven, and it is highly desirable to
attain uniform maturity and also to control the time of harvest in order to avoid overproduction in
the peak periods. In 1874 in the Azores it was accidentally discovered that smoke would bring
pineapple plants into bloom in 6 weeks. The realization that ethylene was the active ingredient in
the smoke led to the development of other methods.
As far back as 1936, compressed acetylene gas, or a spray of calcium carbide solution (which
generates acetylene) were employed to expedite uniform blooming. Some growers have merely
deposited calcium carbide in the crown of each plant to be dissolved by rain. A more advanced
method is the use of the hormone, a-naphthaleneacetic acid (ANA) or B naphylacetic acid (BNA)
Pineapple
which induce formation of ethylene. In recent years, B-hydroxyethyl hydrazine (BOH) came into
use. Treatment is given when the plants are 6 months old, 3 months before natural flowering time.
The plants should have reached the 30 leaf stage at this age.
Spraying of a water solution of ANA on the developing fruit has increased fruit size in 'Smooth
Cayenne' in Hawaii and Queensland. In West Malaysia, spraying 'Singapore Spanish' 6 weeks after
flowering with Planofix, an ANA-based trade product, delayed fruit maturity, increased fruit size,
weight and acidity. Similar results have been seen after hormone treatment of 'Cayenne Lisse' on
the Ivory Coast.
Trials with 'Sugarloaf' in Ghana showed calcium carbide and BOH equally effective on 42-to
46-week-old plants, and Ethrel performed best on 35-to 38-week-old plants. 'Sugarloaf' seems to
respond 10 days earlier than 'Red Spanish'.
Ethrel, or the more recently developed Ethephon, applied at the first sign of fruit ripening in a field
will cause all the fruit to ripen simultaneously. It brings the ratoons into fruit quickly. There is a
great saving in harvesting costs because it reduces the need for successive pickings.
Plants treated with naphthaleneacetic acid produce long, cylindrical, pointed fruits, maturing over
an extended period of time, ripening first at the base while the apex is still unripe. Ethylene
treatment results in a square shouldered, shorter fruit maturing over a shorter period and ripening
more uniformly.
In Puerto Rico, treatment in 'Cabezona' can be done to induce flowering at any time of the year.
Pests
Nematodes (Rotylenchulus, Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Ditylenchus, Helicotylenchus, and other
genera) cause stunting and degeneration in pineapple plants unless soil is fumigated. In
Queensland, nematicides have increased yields by 22-40%. Crop rotation has been found effective
in Puerto Rico. Turning the field over to Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens Stent.) or green
foxtail grass (Setaria viridis Beauv.) for 3 years suppresses nematode populations and benefits the
soil but may not be practicable unless spare land is available for pineapple culture in the interim.
Mealybugs (Pseudococcus brevipes and P. neobrevipes) attack leaf bases and cause wilt. The
leaves turn orange-brown and wither due to root rot. Prevention requires spraying and dusting to
control the fire ants (Solenopsis spp. ) which carry the mealybugs from diseased to healthy plants.
Control is difficult because there are many weeds and other local plants acting.as mealybug hosts.
Some success was achieved in Florida in combatting mealybugs with the parasitic wasp,
Hambletonia pseudococciaa Comp., though the general use of insecticides limits the activity of the
wasp.
The pineapple mite, or so-called red spider (Dolichote-tranychus (or Stigmacus) floridanus
(Banks) also attacks leaf bases and is troublesome during prolonged droughts, heavily infesting the
slips. The pineapple red scale (Diaspis bromeliae) has been a minor pest in Florida. Since 1942
this scale has spread to many pineapple districts in southeastern Queensland, with occasional
serious infestations. Natural predators afford about 40% control. The palmetto beetle
(Rhynchophorus cruentatus), which feeds on palm logs, enters the bud and lays eggs in young
fruits and the fruit stalk.
Pineapple
The sap beetle (Carpophilus humeralis) is one of the main enemies of pineapple fruits in Puerto
Rico, Hawaii and Malaysia and is especially attracted to fruits affected by gummosis. Populations
have been diminished by sanitary procedures and growing of cultivars resistant to gummosis, and
chemical control is being evaluated.
In Brazil, larvae of the large moth, Castnia licus, and of the butterfly, Thecla basilides, damage the
fruit. The latter is a problem in other parts of tropical America also and in Trinidad.
Cutworms eat holes in the base of the immature fruit. Fruit fly larvae do not pupate in 'Smooth
Cayenne' but new hybrids lack resistance and may require treatment.
In New South Wales, poison baits are employed to combat fruit damage by crows, rats and mice.
Rats may eat the base of the stem and destroy ratoons and suckers. Rabbits in winter eat the leaves
as high as they can reach.
Diseases
In Queensland, top rot and root rot are caused by the soil fungi Phytophthora cinnamomi and P.
nicotianae var. parasitica which are most prevalent in prolonged wet weather in autumn and
winter. Improved drainage helps reduce the risk and monthly spraying with fungicide gives good
control. P. cinnamomi may also cause rot in green fruit on ratoons. These diseases are largely
prevented by the use of paper or plastic mulch on raised beds.
Base rot is caused by the fungus Ceratocystis paradoxa, especially where drainage is poor. The
imperfect form (conidial state) of this fungus, known as Thielaviopsis paradoxa, causes butt rot in
planting material, also soft rot or breakdown of fruits during shipment and storage. If 1/4-ripe 'Red
Spanish' fruits are kept at temperatures between 44.6 and 46.4F (7-8C) while in transit, soft rot
will not develop.
Fusarium spp. in the soil are the source of wilt. Black heart is a physiological disorder not visible
externally, usually occuring in winter particularly in locations where air flow is inadequate.
Highest incidence in West Africa has been reported in midsummer. It begins as "endogenous
brown spot" at the base of the fruitless close to the core. Later, affected areas merge. It has been
attributed to chilling or low light intensity from dense planting or cloudiness. It can be controlled
by one-day heat treatment at 90 to 100F (32-38C) before or after refrigerated storage. In 1974,
the microorganism Erwinia chrysanthemi was identified in Malaya as the cause of bacterial heart
rot and fruit collapse.
Yellow spot virus on leaves is transmitted by Thrips tabaci Lind. Black speck and water blister are
mentioned among other problems of the pineapple.
A condition called Crookneck is caused by zinc deficiency. It occurs mainly in plants 12-15
months old but is also frequent in suckers. The heart leaves become curled and twisted, waxy,
brittle, and light yellowish-green. Sometimes the plant bends over and grows in a nearly horizontal
position. Small yellow spots appear near the edges of the leaves and eventually merge and form
blisters. Later, these areas become grayish or brownish and sunken. Treatment is usually a 1%
solution of zinc sulfate. Many growers use a combined spray of 10% urea. 2% iron sulfate and 1%
zinc sulfate. If burning occurs. the proportion of urea should be changed to 5%. Excessive use of
urea for this or any other purpose can lead to leaf tip dieback and yellowing of older leaves due to
Pineapple
the biuret content in urea.

Copper deficiency is evident in concave leaves with dead tips and waxiness without bloom on the
underside.
Sunburn or sunscald develops when fruits fall over and expose one side to the sun, though
'Abacaxi' may sunburn even when erect. Affected fruits soon rot and become infested with pests.
They must be cut as soon as noticed and safely disposed of where they will not contaminate other
fruits. Dry grass, straw, excelsior or brown paper sleeves may be placed over fruits maturing in the
summer to prevent sunburn.
Harvesting
It is difficult to judge when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. The grower must depend a great
deal on experience. Size and color change alone are not fully reliable indicators. Conversion of
starch into sugars takes place rapidly in just a few days before full maturity. In general, for the
fresh fruit market, the summer crop is harvested when the eye shows a light pale green color. At
this season, sugar content and volatile flavors develop early and steadily over several weeks. The
winter crop is about 30 days slower to mature, and the fruits are picked when there is a slight
yellowing around the base. Even then, winter fruit tends to be more acid and have a lower sugar
level than summer fruit, and the harvest period is short. Fruits for canning are allowed to attain a
more advanced stage. But overripe fruits are deficient in flavor and highly perishable.
Maturity studies conducted with 'Giant Kew' in India showed that highest quality is attained when
the fruit is harvested at a specific gravity of 0.98-1.02, total soluble solids of 13.8-17%, or total
soluble solids/acid ratio of 20.83-27.24 with development of external yellow color. Some people
judge ripeness and quality by snapping a finger against the side of the fruit. A good, ripe fruit has a
dull, solid sound; immaturity and poor quality are indicated by a hollow thud.
In manual harvesting, one man cuts off or breaks off the fruits (depending on the cultivar) and
tosses them to a truck or passes them to 2 other workers with baskets who convey them to boxes in
which they are arranged with the stems upward for the removal of bracts and application of a 3%
solution of benzoic acid on the cut stem of all fruits not intended for immediate processing. The
harvested fruits must be protected from rain and dew. If moist, they must be dried before packing.
All defective fruits are sorted out for use in processing.
If the work is semi-mechanized, the harvesters decrown and trim the fruits and place them on a
30-ft conveyor boom which extends across the rows and carries the fruits to a bin on a forklift
which loads it onto a truck or trailer. Some conveyors take the fruits directly into the canning
factory from the field. In most regions of the world, pineapples are commonly marketed with
crowns intact, but there is a growing practice of removing the crowns for planting. For the fresh
fruit market, a short section of stem is customarily left on to protect the base of the fruit from
bruising during shipment.
Total mechanical harvesting is achieved by 2 hydraulically operated conveyors with fingers on the
top conveyor to snap off the fruit, the lower conveyor carrying it away to the decrowners. After the
fruit has been conveyed away, the workers go through the field to collect the crowns (where they
have been left on the tops of the plants) and place them on the conveyors for a trip to the bins
which are then fork lifted and the crowns dumped into a planting machine.
Pineapple
Life of plantation
In Florida, 'Abakka' fields were maintained for 2, 3, or 4 crops. Some plantings of 'Red Spanish'
were prolonged for 25-26 years. In current practice, after the harvesting of the first crop, workers
trim off all but 2 ratoons which will bear fruit in 15-18 months. Perhaps there may be a second or
third ratoon crop. Then the field is cleared to minimize carryover of pests and diseases. The
method will vary with the interest in or practicality of making use of by products. In Malaya, fields
have been cleared by cutting the plants, leaving them to dry for 12-16 weeks, then piling and
burning. Spraying with kerosene or diesel fuel makes burning possible in 9 weeks. Spraying with
Paraquat allows burning in 3 weeks but does not destroy the stumps which take 3-5 months to
completely decay while new plants are set out between them.
Field practices will differ if pineapples are interplanted with other crops. In Malaya, pineapples
have been extensively grown in young rubber plantations. In India and Sri Lanka the pineapple is
often a catchcrop among coconuts. Venezuelan farmers may interplant with citrus trees or
avocados.
Storage
Cold storage at a temperature of 40F (4.44C) and lower causes chilling injury and breakdown in
pineapples. At 44.6-46.4F (7-8C) and above, 80-90% relative humidity and adequate air
circulation, normal ripening progresses during and after storage. At best, pineapples may be stored
for no more than 4-6 weeks. There is a possibility that storage life might be prolonged by dipping
the fruits in a wax emulsion containing a suitable fungicide. Irradiation extends the shelf life of
half- ripe pineapples by about one week.
Food Uses
In Puerto Rico and elsewhere in the Caribbean, Spaniards found the people soaking pineapple
slices in salted water before eating, a practice seldom heard of today.
Field ripe fruits are best for eating fresh, and it is only necessary to remove the crown, rind, eyes
and core. In Panama, very small pineapples are cut from the plant with a few inches of stem to
serve as a handle, the rind is removed except at the base, and the flesh is eaten out-of-hand like
corn on the cob. The flesh of larger fruits is cut up in various ways and eaten fresh, as dessert, in
salads, compotes and otherwise, or cooked in pies, cakes, puddings, or as a garnish on ham, or
made into sauces or preserves. Malayans utilize the pineapple in curries and various meat dishes.
In the Philippines, the fermented pulp is made into a popular sweetmeat called nata de pina. The
pineapple does not lend itself well to freezing, as it tends to develop off flavors.
Canned pineapple is consumed throughout the world. The highest grade is the skinned, cored fruit
sliced crosswise and packed in sirup. Undersize or overripe fruits are cut into "spears", chunks or
cubes. Surplus pineapple juice used to be discarded after extraction of bromelain (q.v.). Today
there is a growing demand for it as a beverage. Crushed pineapple, juice, nectar, concentrate,
marmalade and other preserves are commercially prepared from the flesh remaining attached to the
skin after the cutting and trimming of the central cylinder. All residual parts cores, skin and fruit
ends are crushed and given a first pressing for juice to be canned as such or prepared as sirup used
to fill the cans of fruit, or is utilized in confectionery and beverages, or converted into powdered
pineapple extract which has various roles in the food industry. Chlorophyll from the skin and ends
Pineapple
imparts a greenish hue that must be eliminated and the juice must be used within 20 hours as it
deteriorates quickly. A second pressing yields "skin juice" which can be made into vinegar or
mixed with molasses for fermentation and distillation of alcohol.
In Africa, young, tender shoots are eaten in salads. The terminal bud or "cabbage" and the
inflorescences are eaten raw or cooked. Young shoots, called "hijos de pina" are sold on vegetable
markets in Guatemala.
Food Value Per l00 g of Edible Portion*
Moisture
Ether Extract
Crude Fiber
Nitrogen
Ash
Calcium
81.3-91.2 g
0.03 0.29 g
0.3-0.6 g
0.038-0.098 g
0.21-0.49 g
6.2 37.2 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
6.6-11.9 mg
0.27-1.05 mg
0.003 0.055 mg
0.048 0.138 mg
0.011-0.04 mg
0.13-0.267 mg
27.0-165.2 mg
*Analyses of ripe pineapple made in Central America.

Sugar/acid ratio and ascorbic acid content vary considerably with the cultivar. The sugar content
may change from 4% to 15% during the final 2 weeks before full ripening.
Toxicity
When unripe, the pineapple is not only inedible but poisonous, irritating the throat and acting as a
drastic purgative.
Excessive consumption of pineapple cores has caused the formation of fiber balls (bezoars) in the
digestive tract.
Other Uses
Bromelain: The proteolytic enzyme, bromelain, or bromelin, was formerly derived from
pineapple juice; now it is gained from the mature plant stems salvaged when fields are being
cleared. The yield from 368 lbs (167 kg) of stern juice is 8 lbs (3.6 kg) of bromelain. The enzyme
is used like papain from papaya for tenderizing meat and chill proofing beer; is added to gelatin to
increase its solubility for drinking; has been used for stabilizing latex paints and in the
leather-tanning process. In modern therapy, it is employed as a digestive and for its
Pineapple
anti-inflammatory action after surgery, and to reduce swellings in cases of physical injuries; also in
the treatment of various other complaints.
Fiber: Pineapple leaves yield a strong, white, silky fiber which was extracted by Filipinos before
1591. Certain cultivars are grown especially for fiber production and their young fruits are
removed to give the plant maximum vitality. The 'Perolera' is an ideal cultivar for fiber extraction
because its leaves are long, wide and rigid. Chinese people in Kwantgung Province and on the
island of Hainan weave the fiber into coarse textiles resembling grass cloth. It was long ago used
for thread in Malacca and Borneo. In India the thread is prized by shoemakers and it was formerly
used in the Celebes. In West Africa it has been used for stringing jewels and also made into capes
and caps worn by tribal chiefs. The people of Guam hand-twist the fiber for making fine casting
nets. They also employ the fiber for wrapping or sewing cigars. Pina cloth made on the island of
Panay in the Philippines and in Taiwan is highly esteemed. In Taiwan they also make a coarse
cloth for farmers' underwear.
The outer, long leaves are preferred. In the manual process, they are first decorticated by beating
and rasping and stripping, and then left to ret in water to which chemicals may be added to
accelerate the activity of the microorganisms which digest the unwanted tissue and separate the
fibers. Retting time has been reduced from 5 days to 26 hours. The rested material is washed clean,
dried in the sun and combed. In mechanical processing, the same machine can be used that extracts
the fiber from sisal. Estimating 10 leaves to the lb (22 per kg), 22,000 leaves would constitute one
ton and would yield 50-60 lbs (22-27 kg) of fiber.
Juice: Pineapple juice has been employed for cleaning machete and knife blades and, with sand,
for scrubbing boat decks.
Animal Feed: Pineapple crowns are sometimes fed to horses if not needed for planting. Final
pineapple waste from the processing factories may be dehydrated as "bran" and fed to cattle, pigs
and chickens. "Bran'' is also made from the stumps after bromelain extraction. Expendable plants
from old fields can be processed as silage for maintaining cattle when other feed is scarce. The
silage is low in protein and high in fiber and is best mixed with urea, molasses and water to
improve its nutritional value.
In 1982, public concern in Hawaii was aroused by the detection of heptachlor (a carcinogen) in the
milk from cows fed "green chop" leaves from pineapple plants that had been sprayed with the
chemical to control the ants that distribute mealybugs. There is supposed to be a one year lapse to
allow the heptachlor to become more dilute before sprayed plants are utilized for feed.
Folk Medicine: Pineapple juice is taken as a diuretic and to expedite labor, also as a gargle in
cases of sore throat and as an antidote for seasickness. The flesh of very young (toxic) fruits is
deliberately ingested to achieve abortion (a little with honey on 3 successive mornings); also to
expel intestinal worms; and as a drastic treatment for venereal diseases. In Africa the dried,
powdered root is a remedy for edema. The crushed rind is applied on fractures and the rind
decoction with rosemary is applied on hemorrhoids. Indians in Panama use the leaf juice as a
purgative, emmenagogue and vermifuge.
Ornamental Value
The pineapple fruit with crown intact is often used as a decoration and there are variegated forms
Pineapple
of the plant universally grown for their showiness indoors or out. Since 1963, thousands of potted,
ethylene treated pineapple plants with fruits have been shipped annually from southern Florida to
northern cities as indoor ornamentals.
Banana

Morton, J. 1987. Banana. p. 2946. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Banana
Musa x paridasiaca
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Handling and Packing
Controlled Ripening and Storage
Pests
Diseases
Food Uses
Animal Feed
Other Uses
Folklore
The word "banana" is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids in the genus Musa of the
family Musaceae. Some species such as M. Basjoo Sieb. & Zucc. of Japan and M. ornata Roxb., native from
Pakistan to Burma, are grown only as ornamental plants or for fiber. M. textilis Nee of the Philippines is
grown only for its fiber, prized for strong ropes and also for tissue-thin tea bags. The so-called Abyssinian
banana, Ensete ventricosum Cheesman, formerly E. edule Horan, Musa ensete Gmel., is cultivated in Ethiopia
for fiber and for the staple foods derived from the young shoot, the base of the stem, and the corm.
Most edible-fruited bananas, usually seedless, belong to the species M. acuminata Colla (M. cavendishii
Lamb. ex Paxt., M. chinensis Sweet, M. nana Auth. NOT Lour., M. zebrina Van Houtee ex Planch.), or to the
hybrid M. X paradisiaca L. (M. X sapientum L.; M. acumianta X M. balbisiana Colla).
M. balbisiana Colla of southern Asia and the East Indies, bears a seedy fruit but the plant is valued for its
disease-resistance and therefore plays an important role as a ";parent"; in the breeding of edible bananas.
M. fehi Bertero ex Vieill. and M. troglodytarum L. have been applied to the group of bananas known as fehi
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html (1 of 23) [5/16/2004 1:33:33 PM]
Banana
or fe'i but taxonomists have yet to make final decisions as to the applicability of these binomials.
To the American consumer, ";banana"; seems a simple name for the yellow fruits so abundantly marketed for
consumption raw, and ";plantain"; for the larger, more angular fruits intended for cooking but also edible raw
when fully ripe. However, the distinction is not that clear and the terms may even be reversed. The types we
call ";banana"; are known by similar or very different names in banana-growing areas. Spanish-speaking
people say banana china (Paraguay), banano enano (Costa Rica), cambur or camburi (Colombia,
Venezuela), cachaco, colicero, cuatrofilos (Colombia); carapi (Paraguay), curro (Panama), guineo (Costa
Rico, Puerto Rico, E1 Salvador); murrapo (Colombia); mampurro (Dominican Republic); patriota (Panama);
platano (Mexico); platano de seda (Peru); platano enano (Cuba); suspiro (Dominican Republic); zambo
(Honduras). Portuguese names in Brazil are: banana maca, banana de Sao Tome', banana da Prata. In
French islands or areas, the terms may be bananier nain, bananier de Chine (Guadaloupe), figue, figue
banane, figue naine (Haiti). Where German is spoken, they say: echte banane, feige, or feigenbaum. In the
Sudan, baranda.
The types Americans call ";plantain";, Plate IV, may be known as banaan (Surinam); banano macho
(Panama); banane or bananier (Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique); banane misquette or banane musquee, or pie
banane (Haiti); bananeira de terra (Brazil); banano indio (Costa Rica); barbaro (Mexico); butuco
(Honduras); parichao (Venezuela); plantain (Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad); platano (Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Dominican Republic); platano burro, platano hembra (Cuba); platano macho (Cuba, Panama); platano de la
isla (Peru); topocho or yapuru (Venezuela); zapolote (Mexico). Numerous other vernacular names, according
to geographical region, are provided by N.W. Simmonds in his textbook, Bananas.
In India, there is no distinction between bananas and plantains. All cultivars are merely rated as to whether
they are best for dessert or for cooking.
Description
The banana plant, often erroneously referred to as a "tree", is a large herb, with succulent, very juicy stem
(properly "pseudostem") which is a cylinder of leaf-petiole sheaths, reaching a height of 20 to 25 ft (6-7.5 m)
and arising from a fleshy rhizome or corm. Suckers spring up around the main plant forming a clump or
"stool'', the eldest sucker replacing the main plant when it fruits and dies, and this process of succession
continues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 or 5 to 15, are
arranged spirally. They unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather, and extend
upward and outward, becoming as much as 9 ft (2.75 m) long and 2 ft (60 cm) wide. They may be entirely
green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upperside and red purple beneath. The inflorescence, a
transformed growing point, is a terminal spike shooting out from the heart in the tip of the stem. At first, it is
a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, it is seen that the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed,
white flowers are clustered in whorled double rows along the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick,
waxy, hoodlike bract, purple outside, deep-red within. Normally, the bract will lift from the first hand in 3 to
10 days. If the plant is weak, opening may not occur until 10 or 15 days. Female flowers occupy the lower 5
to 15 rows; above them may be some rows of hermaphrodite or neuter flowers; male flowers are borne in the
upper rows. In some types the inflorescence remains erect but generally, shortly after opening, it begins to
bend downward. In about one day after the opening of the flower clusters, the male flowers and their bracts
are shed, leaving most of the upper stalk naked except at the very tip where there usually remains an
unopened bud containing the last-formed of the male flowers. However, there are some mutants such as
'Dwarf Cavendish' with persistent male flowers and bracts which wither and remain, filling the space between
the fruits and the terminal bud.
As the young fruits develop from the female flowers, they look like slender green fingers. The bracts are soon
shed and the fully grown fruits in each cluster become a "hand" of bananas, and the stalk droops with the
weight until the bunch is upside down. The number of "hands" varies with the species and variety.
Banana
The fruit (technically a "berry") turns from deep-green to yellow or red, or, in some forms, green-and
white-striped, and may range from 2 1/2 to 12 in (6.4-30 cm) in length and 3/4 to 2 in (1.9-5 cm) in width,
and from oblong, cylindrical and blunt to pronouncedly 3-angled, somewhat curved and hornlike. The flesh,
ivory-white to yellow or salmon-yellow, may be firm, astringent, even gummy with latex, when unripe,
turning tender and slippery, or soft and mellow or rather dry and mealy or starchy when ripe. The flavor may
be mild and sweet or subacid with a distinct apple tone. Wild types may be nearly filled with black, hard,
rounded or angled seeds 1/8 to 5/8 in (3-16 mm) wide and have scant flesh. The common cultivated types are
generally seedless with just minute vestiges of ovules visible as brown specks in the slightly hollow or faintly
pithy center, especially when the fruit is overripe. Occasionally, cross-pollination by wild types will result in
a number of seeds in a normally seedless variety such as 'Gros Michel', but never in the Cavendish type.
Edible bananas originated in the Indo-Malaysian region reaching to northern Australia. They were known
only by hearsay in the Mediterranean region in the 3rd Century B.C., and are believed to have been first
carried to Europe in the 10th Century A.D. Early in the 16th Century, Portuguese mariners transported the
plant from the West African coast to South America. The types found in cultivation in the Pacific have been
traced to eastern Indonesia from where they spread to the Marquesas and by stages to Hawaii.
Bananas and plantains are today grown in every humid tropical region and constitute the 4th largest fruit crop
of the world, following the grape, citrus fruits and the apple. World production is estimated to be 28 million
tons65% from Latin America, 27 % from Southeast Asia, and 7 % from Africa. One-fifth of the crop is
exported to Europe, Canada, the United States and Japan as fresh fruit. India is the leading banana producer in
Asia. The crop from 400,000 acres (161,878 ha) is entirely for domestic consumption. Indonesia produces
over 2 million tons annually, the Philippines about 1/2 million tons, exporting mostly to Japan. Taiwan raises
over 1/2 million tons for export. Tropical Africa (principally the Ivory Coast and Somalia) grows nearly 9
million tons of bananas each year and exports large quantities to Europe.
Brazil is the leading banana grower in South Americaabout 3 million tons per year, mostly locally
consumed, while Colombia and Ecuador are the leading exporters. Venezuela's crop in 1980 reached 983,000
tons. Large scale commercial production for export to North America is concentrated in Honduras (where
banana fields may cover 60 sq mi) and Panama, and, to a lesser extent, Costa Rica. In the West Indies, the
Windward Islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe are the main growers and for many years have regularly
exported to Europe. Green bananas are the basic food of the people of Western Samoa and large quantities are
exported.
In Ghana, the plantain is a staple food but up to the late 1960's the crop was grown only in home gardens or
as a shade for cacao. When the cacao trees declined, solid plantings of plantain were established in their place
and in newly cleared forest land where the richness of organic matter greatly promotes growth. By 1977,
Ghana was harvesting 2,204,000 tons (2,000,000 MT) annually.
The plantain is the most important starchy food of Puerto Rico and is third in monetary value among
agricultural crops, being valued at $30,000,000 annually. While improved methods of culture have been
adopted in recent years and production has been increased by 15% in 1980, it was still necessary to import
1,328 tons (1,207 MT) to meet local demand. Annual per capita consumption is said to be 65 lbs (29.5 kg). In
the past, most of the plantains in Puerto Rico were grown on humid mountainsides. High prices have induced
some farmers to develop plantations on level irrigated land formerly devoted to sugarcane.
In tropical zones of Colombia, plantains are not only an important part of the human diet but the fruits and the
plants furnish indispensable feed for domestic animals as well. The total plantain area is about 1,037,820
acres (420,000 ha) with a yield of 5,500 lbs per acre (5,500) kg/ha). Mexico grows about 1/6 as much, 35%
under irrigation, and the crop is valued at $1,335 US per acre ($3,300 US/ha). Venezuela has somewhat less
of a crop 517,000 tons from 146,000 acres (59,000 ha) in 1980and the Dominican Republic is fourth in
Banana
order with about 114,600 acres (46,200 ha). Bananas and plantains are casually grown in some home gardens
in southern Florida. There are a few small commercial plantations furnishing local markets.
Varieties
Edible bananas are classified into several main groups
and subgroups. Simmonds placed first the diploid M.
acuminata group 'Sucrier', represented in Malaya,
Indonesia, the Philippines, southern India, East Africa,
Burma, Thailand, the West Indies, Colombia and
Brazil. The sheaths are dark-brown, the leaves
yellowish and nearly free of wax. The bunches are
small and the fruits small, thin-skinned and sweet.
Cultivars of this group are more important in New
Guinea than elsewhere.
Here belongs one of the smallest of the well-known
Fig. 8: Green plantains (left), 'Gros Michel' bananas(right)
bananas, the 'Lady Finger', also known
and 'Lady Finger' (center). In: K. and J. Morton, Fifty
as'Date'or'Fig', and, in Spanish, as 'Dedo de Dama',
'Datil', 'Nino', Bocadillo', 'Manices', 'Guineo Blanco', Tropical Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
or 'Cambur Titiaro'. The plant reaches 25 ft (7.5 m) in height, has a slender trunk but a heavy root system that
fortifies the plant against strong winds. The outer sheaths have streaks or patches of reddish brown. The
bunch consists of 10 to 14 hands each of 12 to 20 fingers. The fruit is 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) long, with thin,
light-yellow skin and sweet flesh. This cultivar is resistant to drought, Panama disease and the black weevil
but subject to Sigatoka (leaf spot). It is common in Latin America and commercial in Queensland and New
South Wales.
In second place, there is the group represented by the prominent and widely cultivated 'Gros Michel'
originally from Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia and Ceylon. It was introduced into Martinique early in
the 19th Century by a French naval officer and, a few years later, was taken to Jamaica; from there it was
carried to Fiji, Nicaragua, Hawaii and Australia, in that sequence. It is a large, tall plant bearing long bunches
of large, yellow fruits, and it was formerly the leading commercial cultivar in Central Africa, Latin America
and the Caribbean, but has been phased out because of its great susceptibility to Panama disease. It has given
rise to several named sports or mutants.
The Cavendish subgroup includes several important
bananas:
a) The 'Dwarf Cavendish', Plate III, first known from
China and widely cultivated, especially in the Canary
Islands, East Africa and South Africa. The plant is
from 4 to 7 ft (1.2-2.1 m) tall, with broad leaves on
short petioles. It is hardy and wind resistant. The fruit
is of medium size, of good quality, but thin-skinned
and must be handled and shipped with care. This
cultivar is easily recognized because the male bracts
and flowers are not shed.
b) The 'Giant Cavendish', also known as 'Mons Mari,
'Williams', 'Williams Hybrid', or 'Grand Naine', is of
uncertain origin, closely resembles the 'Gros Michel',
and has replaced the 'Dwarf' in Colombia, Australia,
Martinique, in many Hawaiian plantations, and to
some extent in Ecuador. It is the commercial banana of
Banana
Taiwan. The plant reaches 10 to 16 ft (2.7-4.9 m). The

pseudostem is splashed with darkbrown, the bunch is
long and cylindrical, and the fruits are larger than those
of the 'Dwarf' and not as delicate. Male bracts and
flowers are shed, leaving a space between the fruits
and the terminal bud.
c) 'Pisang masak hijau', or 'Bungulan', the triploid
Cavendish clone of the Philippines, Indonesia and
Malaya, is erroneously called 'Lacatan' in Jamaica
where it replaced 'Gros Michel' because of its
immunity to Panama disease, though it is subject to
Sigatoka (leaf spot). The plant is tall and slender and
prone to wind injury. Its fruits ripen unevenly in
winter, bruise easily and are inclined to spoil in
storage. It is no longer grown commercially in Jamaica
and the Windward Islands. The fruits are commonly
used as cooking bananas in Jamaican households.
Simmonds declares this cultivar is not the true
'Lacatan' of the Philippines. He suggested that 'Pisang Plate III: DWARF CAVENDISH BANANA, Musa
masak hijau' may have been the primary source of all acuminata
the members of the Cavendish group.
d) 'Robusta', very similar to the so-called 'Lacatan', has largely replaced that cultivar in Jamaica and the
Windward Islands and the 'Gros Michel' in Central America because it is shorter, thick-stemmed, less subject
to wind. It is being grown commercially also in Brazil, eastern Australia, Samoa and Fiji. It is resistant to
Panama disease but prone to Sigatoka.
e) 'Valery', also a triploid Cavendish clone, closely resembles 'Robusta' and some believe it may be the same.
However, it is being grown as a successor to 'Robusta'. It is already more widely cultivated than 'Lacatan' for
export. As compared with other clones in cooking trials, it has low ratings because cooking hardens the flesh
and gives it a waxy texture.
The Banana Breeding Research Scheme in Jamaica has
developed a number of tetraploid banana clones with
superior disease-resistance and some are equal in
dessert quality to the so-called 'Lacatan' and 'Valery'.
'Bluggoe' (with many other local names) is a cooking
banana especially resistant to Panama disease and
Sigatoka. It bears a few distinctly separated hands of
large, almost straight, starchy fruits, and is of great
importance in Burma, Thailand, southern India, East
Africa, the Philippines, Samoa, and Grenada.
'Ice Cream' banana of Hawaii ('Cenizo' of Central
America and the West Indies; 'Krie' of the Philippines),
is a relative of 'Bluggoe'. The plant grows to 10 or 15 ft
(3-4.5 m), the leaf midrib is light pink, the flower stalk Fig. 9: 'Radja' banana, introduced into Florida by Dr. J.J.
may be several feet long, but the bunch has only 7 to 9 Ochse about 1957.
hands. The fruit is 7 to 9 in (17.5 22.8 cm) long, up to 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) thick, 4-to 5-angled, bluish with a
silvery bloom when young, pale yellow when ripe, The flesh is white, sweetish, and is eaten raw or cooked.
Banana
'Mysore', also known as 'Fillbasket' and 'Poovan', is the most important banana type of India, constituting
70% of the total crop. It is sparingly grown in Malaya, Thailand, Ceylon and Burma. It is thought to have
been introduced into Dominice in 1900 but the only place where it is of any importance in the New World is
Trinidad where it is cultivated as shade for cacao. The plant is large and vigorous, immune to Panama disease
and nearly so to Sigatoka; very hardy and drought tolerant. It bears large, compact bunches of medium sized,
plump, thin skinned, attractive, bright yellow fruits of subacid flavor.
Other prominent commercial cultivars are 'Salembale' and 'Rasabale', not suitable for canning because of
starchy taste and weak flavor. 'Pachabale' and 'Chandrabale' are important local varieties preferred for
canning. K.C. Naik described 34 cultivars as the more important among the many grown in South India.
'Silk', 'Silk Fig', or 'Apple' ('Manzana' in Spanish), is the most popular dessert banana of the tropics. It is
widely distributed around the tropics and subtropics but never grown on a large scale. The plant is 10 to 12 ft
(3-3.6m) tall, only medium in vigor, very resistant to Sigatoka but prone to Panama disease. There are only 6
to 12 hands in the bunch, each with 16 to 18 fruits. The plump bananas are 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) long, slightly
curved; astringent when unripe but pleasantly subacid when fully ripe; and apple scented. If left on the bunch
until fully developed, the thin skin splits lengthwise and breaks at the stem end causing the fruit to fall, but it
is firm and keeps well on hand in the home.
The 'Red', 'Red Spanish', 'Red Cuban', 'Colorado', or'Lal Kela' banana may have originated in India, where it
is frequently grown, and it has been introduced into all banana growing regions. The plant is large, takes 18
months from planting to harvest. It is highly resistant to disease. The pseudostem, petiole, midrib and fruit
peel are all purplish red, but the latter turns to orange yellow when the fruit is fully ripe. The bunch is
compact, may contain over 100 fruits of medium size, with thick peel, and flesh of strong flavor. In the
mutant called 'Green Red', the plant is variegated green and red, becomes 28 ft (8.5 m) tall with pseudostem
to 18 in (45 cm) thick at the base. The bunch bears 4 to 7 hands, the fruits are thick, 5 to 7 in (12.5 17.5 cm)
long. The purplish-red peel changes to orange-yellow and the flesh is firm, cream-colored and of good
quality.
The 'Fehi' or 'Fe'i' group, of Polynesia, is distinguished by the erect bunches and the purplish-red or
reddish-yellow sap of the plants which has been used as ink and for dyeing. The plants may reach 36 ft (10.9
m) and the leaves are 20 to 30 in (50-75 cm) wide. The bunches have about 6 hands of orange or
copper-colored, thick skinned fruits which are starchy, sometimes seedy, of good flavor when boiled or
roasted. These plants are often grown as ornamentals in Hawaii.
As a separate group, Simmonds places the 'I.C. 2', or 'Golden Beauty' banana especially bred at the Imperial
College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad in 1928 by crossing the 'Gros Michel' with a wild Musa
acuminata. It is resistant to Panama disease and very resistant to Sigatoka. Though the bunches are small and
the fruits short, they ship and ripen well and this cultivar is grown for export in Honduras and has been
planted in Hawaii, Samoa and Fiji.
'Orinoco', 'Horse', 'Hog', or 'Burro', banana, a medium tall, sturdy plant, is particularly hardy. The bunch
consists of only a few hands of very thick, 3 angled fruits about 6 in (15 cm) long. The flesh has a salmon
tint, is firm, edible raw when fully ripe but much better cooked fried, baked or otherwise, as are plantains.
Trials of 5 clones of 'Giant Cavendish' and 9 other cultivars ('Robusta A', 'Robusta B', 'Cocos A', 'Cocos B',
'Golden Beauty', 'Enano Nautia', 'Enano Gigante', 'Enano' and 'Valery') were made between 1976 and 1979 at
the Campo Agricola Experimental at Tecoman, Mexico. 'Enano Gigante' is the most widely grown cultivar in
that region but the tests showed that 'Enano Nautia' and 'Golden Beauty' bore heavier bunches of better
quality fruit, even though 'Enano Gigante' had a greater number of bunches and highest yield per ground area.
'Giant Cavendish' clones 1, 2, 3 and 4, and 'Cocos B' grew very tall, gave low yields and the fruit was of poor
quality.
Among the plantains, there are many forms, some with pink, red or dark-brown leaf sheaths, some having
Banana
also colored midribs or splotches on leaves or fruits.

The plants are usually large, vigorous and resistant to
Panama disease and Sigatoka but attacked by borers.
Major subgroups are known as 'French plantain' and
'Horn plantain', the former with persistent male
flowers. The usually large, angled fruits are borne in
few hands. All are important sources of food in
southern India, East Africa, tropical America and the
West Indies. The tall 'Maricongo' and the 'Common
Dwarf' are leading commercial cultivars. A dwarf
mutant is the 'Plantano enano of Puerto Rico ('banane
cochon' of Haiti). Ordinary plantains are called
'cuadrado', 'chato', and 'topocho' in Mexico. The
leading commercial cultivars are 'Pelipita' and 'Saba'
which are resistant to Black Sigatoka but they do not
have the high culinary quality of 'Harton',
'Dominico-Harton', 'Currare', and 'Horn'. 'Laknau' is a
fertile plantain that resembles 'Horn' but is of inferior
quality. It has opened up possibilities for hybridizing
and is being crossed with 'Pelipita' and 'Saba'.
Plate IV: PLANTAIN, Musa paradisiaca
Banana and plantain cultivars most often grown in

Florida are the 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Apple', and 'Orinoco' bananas and the 'Macho' plantain. The 'Red' and
'Lady Finger' bananas are very occasionally grown in sheltered locations.
There are five major collections of banana and plantain clones in the world. United Brands maintains a
collection of 470 cultivars and 100 species at La Lima, Honduras.
Climate
The edible bananas are restricted to tropical or neartropical regions, roughly the area between latitudes 30N
and 30S. Within this band, there are varied climates with different lengths of dry season and different
degrees and patterns of precipitation. A suitable banana climate is a mean temperature of 80F (26.67C) and
mean rainfall of 4 in (10 cm) per month. There should not be more than 3 months of dry season.
Cool weather and prolonged drought retard growth. Banana plants produce only one leaf per month in winter,
4 per month in summer. If low temperatures occur just at flowering time, the bud may not be able to emerge
from the stem. If fruits have already formed, maturity may be delayed several months or completely
suspended. If only the leaves are destroyed, the fruits will be exposed to sunburn. Smudging, by burning dry
trash covered with green clippings to create smoke, can raise the temperature 2 to 4 degrees. Flooding the
field in advance of a cold snap will keep the ground warm if the chill weather is brief. In Australia, bananas
are planted on sunny hill sides at elevations of 200 to 1,000 ft (60 to 300 m) to avoid the cold air that settles at
lower levels. Brief frosts kill the plants to the ground but do not destroy the corm. 'Dwarf Cavendish' and the
'Red' banana are particularly sensitive to cold, whereas the dwarf cultivar 'Walha', or 'Kullen', of India is
successful up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) in the outer range of the Western Ghats. 'Vella vazhai' is extensively
cultivated in the Lower Pulneys between 3,200 and 5,500 ft (975 and 1,616 m). A cooking banana, 'Plankel',
survives winters in home gardens in northern India. In South Africa, the main banana-producing area is along
the southeast coast at 3,000 ft (915 m) above sea level with summer rainfall of 35 to 45 in (90-115 cm). The
major part of the crop in East Africa is grown between 4,000 and 5,000 ft (1,220 and 1,524 m) and the total
range extends from sea-level to 7,500 ft (2,286 m).
Wind is detrimental to banana plants. Light winds shred the leaves, interfering with metabolism; stronger
Banana
winds may twist and distort the crown. Winds to 30 mph break the petioles; winds to 40 mph will topple a
pseudostem that is supporting the weight of a heavy bunch unless the stem is propped, and may cause root
damage in non fruiting plants that are not blown down; winds of 60 mph or over will uproot entire
plantations, especially when the soil is saturated by rain. Windbreaks are often planted around banana fields
to provide some protection from cold and wind. Cyclones and hurricanes are devastating and the latter were
the main reason for the shift of large scale banana production from the West Indies to Central America,
Colombia and Ecuador. Hail results from powerful convection currents in the tropics, especially in the spring,
and does much damage to bananas.
Soil
The banana plant will grow and fruit under very poor conditions but will not flourish and be economically
productive without deep, well-drained soilloam, rocky sand, marl, red laterite, volcanic ash, sandy clay,
even heavy claybut not fine sand which holds water. Over head irrigation is said to improve the filth of
heavy clay and has made possible the use of clay soils that would never have been considered for banana
culture in the past. Alluvial soils of river valleys are ideal for banana growing. Bananas prefer an acid soil but
if the pH is below 5.0 lime should be applied the second year. Low pH makes bananas more susceptible to
Panama disease. Where waterlogging is likely, bananas and plantains are grown on raised beds. Low,
perennially wet soils require draining and dry soils require irrigation.
Propagation
Banana seeds are employed for propagation only in breeding programs. Corms are customarily used for
planting and Mexican studies with 'Giant Cavendish' have shown that those over 17.5 lbs (8 kg) in weight
come into bearing early and, in the first year, the bunches are longer, heavier, with more hands than those
produced from smaller corms. From the second year on, the advantage disappears. Most growers prefer "bits"
2- to 4-lb (0.9-1.8 kg) sections of the corm. When corms are scarce, smaller sections1 to 2 lbs (454-908 g)
have been utilized and early fertilization applied to compensate for the smaller size. But in Queensland it is
specified that "bits" of 'Dwarf Cavendish' shall not be less than 4 x 3 x 3 in (10 x 7.5 x 7.5 cm) and "bits" of
'Lady Finger' and other tall cultivars shall be not less than 5 x 5 x 3 1/2 in ( 12.5 x 12.5 x 9 cm). The corm has
a number of buds, or "eyes", which develop into new shoots. The two upper buds are the youngest and have a
pinkish tint. These develop rapidly and become vigorous plants. To obtain the "bits", a selected, healthy
banana plant, at least 7 months old but prior to fruiting, is uprooted and cut off about 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm)
above the corm. The outer layer of leaf bases is peeled off to expose the buds, leaving just a little to protect
the buds during handling and transport. The corm is split between the 2 upper buds and trimmed with square
sides, removing the lower, inferior buds and any parts affected by pests or disease, usually indicated by
discoloration. Then the "bits" are fumigated by immersing for 20 minutes in hot water at about 130F
(54.44C) or in a commercial nematicide solution. Sometimes it is advisable to apply a fungicide to prevent
spoilage. They should then be placed in a sanitary place (away from all diseased trash) in the shade for 48 hrs
before planting.
Inasmuch as "bits" are not often available in quantity, the second choice is transplantation of suckers. These
should not be too young nor too old.
The sucker first emerges as a conical shoot which opens and releases leaves that are mostly midribs with only
vestiges of blade. These juvenile leaves are called "sword", "spear", or "arrow", leaves. Just before the sucker
produces wide leaves resembling those of the mature plant but smaller, it has sufficient corm development to
be transplanted. Sometimes suckers from old, deteriorating corms have broad leaves from the outset. These
are called "water" suckers, are insubstantial, with very little vigor, and are not desirable propagating material.
"Maiden" suckers that have passed the "sword"-leaved stage and have developed broad leaves must be large
to be acceptably productive. In banana trials at West Bengal, India, suckers 3 to 4 months old with
well-developed rhizomes proved to be the best yielders. In comparison, small, medium, or large "sword"
Banana
suckers develop thicker stems, and give much higher yields of marketable fruits per land parcel. "Bits' grow
slowly at first, but in 2 years' time they catch up to plants grown from suckers or "butts" and are much more
economical. "Butts" (entire corms, or rhizomes, of mature plants), called "bull heads" in the Windward
Islands, are best used to fill in vacancies in a plantation. For quick production, some farmers will use "butts"
with several "sword" suckers attached. Very young suckers, called "peepers", are utilized only for
establishing nurseries.
Instead of waiting for normal sucker development, multiplication has been artificially stimulated in the field
by removing the soil and outer leaf sheaths covering the upper buds of the corm, packing soil around them
and harvesting them when they have reached the "sword' sucker stage. A greenhouse technique involves
cleaning and injuring a corm to induce callus formation from which many new plants will develop. As many
as 180 plantlets have been derived from one corm in this manner.
Diseases are often spread by vegetative propagation of bananas, and this fact has stimulated efforts to create
disease-free planting material on a large scale by means of tissue culture. Some commercial banana cultivars
have been cultured in Hawaii. A million 'Giant Cavendish' banana plants were produced by meristem culture
in Taiwan in 1983. In the field, these laboratory plantlets showed 95% survival, grew faster than suckers in
the first 5 months, had bigger stems and more healthy leaves.
Rapid multiplication of 'Philippine Lacatan' and 'Grand Naine' bananas, and the Sigatoka-resistant 'Saba' and
'Pelipita' plantains by shoot-tip culture has been achieved by workers at State University of New York.
Culture
On level land where the soil is compact, deep ploughing is needed to improve aeration and water filtration,
whereas on a sloping terrain minimum tillage is advised as well as contouring of rows to minimize erosion.
Planting is best done at the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season for adequate initial
moisture and to avoid waterlogging of the young plants. Puerto Rico, because of its favorable climate, is able
to make monthly plantings of plantains the year around in order to produce a continuous supply for
processing factories. However, some consideration has been given to manipulation of planting dates to avoid
a summer surplus (June-September) caused by March and May plantings and to take advantage of higher
prices in winter and spring (February to April). To achieve this, it is suggested that plantings be made only in
the first or second weeks of January, July, September, November and December. Generally, the banana
requires 10 to 12 months from planting to harvest. Summer plantings of plantains in Puerto Rico take 14 to 16
months; winter plantings 17 to 19. In regions where there may be periods of low temperatures in winter,
planting time is chosen to allow flowering and fruiting before predictable cold periods.
Spacing varies with the ultimate size of the cultivar, the fertility of the soil, and other factors. Close planting
protects plantations exposed to high winds, but results in fewer suckers, hinders disease control, and has been
found to be profitable for only the first year. In subsequent years, fruits are shorter, the flesh is softer and
bunches ripen prematurely. The standard practice in Puerto Rico is 500 plants of 'Maricongo' plantain per
acre (1,235 plants/ha). Increasing to 800 plants/acre (1,976/ha) has increased yield by 4 tons, but elevating
density to 1,300 plants/acre (3,212 plants/ha) has not shown any further increase. In Surinam, most of the
plantains are grown at a density of 809 to 1,012 plants per acre (2,000-2,500/ha), but density may range from
243 to 1,780 plants per acre (600-4,400/ha).
The higher the number of plants in the field, the larger the volume of fertilizer that must be applied. The crop
suffers severely from root competition, for the roots of a fully grown banana plant may extend outward 18 ft
(5.5 m). The higher the altitude, the lower the density must be because solar radiation is reduced. Too much
space between plants allows excessive evaporation from uncovered soil and increases the weed problem.
Growers must determine the most economical balance between sufficient light for good yields and efficient
land managemeet. Spacing distances for 'Dwarf Cavendish' range from 10 x 6 ft (3 x 1.8 m) to 15 x 12 ft (4.5
x 3.6 m). A spacing of 12 ft (3.6 m) between rows and 8 ft (2.4 m) between plants allows 450 plants per acre
Banana
(1,112 plants/ha). Studies conducted with the so called 'Lacatan' ('Pisang masak hijau') over a 3-year period in
Jamaica, demonstrated the optimum density to be 680 plants per acre (2,680/ha). At closer spacings, yield
increased but profits declined. Hexagonal spacing gives the maximum number of plants per area. Double- and
triple-row plantings provide alleys for mechanical operations and harvesting.
Planting holes should be at least 18 in (45 cm) wide and 15 in (38 cm) deep, but may be as much as 3 ft (0.91
m) wide and 2 ft (0.6 m) deep for extra wind resistance. They should be enriched in advance of planting. On
hillsides, suckers are set with the cut surface facing downhill; the bud or "eye" of a "bit" must point uphill; so
that the "follower" sucker will emerge on the uphill side where the soil is deepest. A surface cover of about 4
in (10 cm) of soil is trampled down firmly.
Weed control is essential. Geese have been installed as weeders because they do not eat the banana plants.
However, they consume mostly grass and fail to eliminate certain broad-leaved weeds which still require
cleaning out. Certain herbicides, including Diuron and Ametryne, have been approved for banana fields. They
are applied immediately after planting but great care must be taken to minimize adverse effects on the crop.
Ametryne has been shown to be relatively safe for the plants and it has a short life in the soil. The most
persistent weed is Cyperus rotundus L. (nutgrass, yellow nutgrass, purple nutsedge, coqui or coyolillo) which
decreases yields and competes with the crop for nitrogen.
In some plantations, a mulch of dry banana leaves is maintained to discourage weeds. Some growers resort to
live groundcovers such as Glycine javanica L. (Rhodesian kodzu), Commelina spp., or Zebrina pendula
Schnizl. or other creepers, but these tend to climb the banana stems and become a nuisance. Sometimes
short-term crops are interplanted in young banana fields, for example, maize, eggplant, peppers, tomatoes,
okra, sweetpotato, pineapple or upland rice. A space of at least 3 ft (0.91 m) must be kept clear around each
banana plant. However, there are banana authorities who are opposed to interplanting.
Bananas and plantains are heavy feeders. It has been calculated that a harvest of 5 tons of fruit from an acre
leaves the soil depleted by 22 lbs (10 kg) nitrogen, 4 lbs (1.8 kg) phosphorus, 55 lbs (25 kg) potash and 11 oz
(312 kg) calcium. In general, it can be said that banana plants have high nitrogen and phosphorus
requirements and a fertilizer formula of 8:10:8 NPK is usually suitable and normally 1 to 1 1/2 tons/acre (1 1
1/2 MT/ha) may be adequate. One-third of the fertilizer is worked into each planting site when most of the
plants appear above ground, one third in a circle about 1 ft (30 cm) out from each plant 2 months later, and
one-third at double the distance 2 months after that. Supplementary feedings will depend on signs of
deficiencies (often determined by leaf analyses) as the plantation develops. Fertilization needs vary with the
soil. In Puerto Rico, most plantains are grown on humid Oxisols and Ultisols in the interior. These soils are
well drained but relatively infertile and highly acid, the pH being about 4.8. On such soils, potassium uptake
may be too high and N and Mg deficiencies occur. But experts have shown that these soils respond to good
fertilization practices and can be very productive. As an example, 224 lbs N per acre (224 kg/ha) applied in
circular bands 1.5 ft (0.46 m) from the base of the pseudostem gives a significantly higher yield than
broadcast N, and there is good response to Mg applied at time of planting and again 7 months later.
In the humid mountain regions of Puerto Rico, 250 to 325 lbs N per acre (250 325 kg/ha), 125 to 163 lbs
phosphorus per acre (125 163 kg/ha), and 500 to 650 lbs potassium per acre (500 650 kg/ha) are
recommended for plantains. On lowland sandy clay, phosphorus and magnesium applications appear
ineffective. Applications of N at the rate of 168 to 282 lbs/acre (168-282 kg/ha) increase size and number of
fruits harvested, but higher rates of N decrease yield because of the number of plants that bend over halfway
or are stunted or fail to flower. Applications of 1,121 1bs N per acre (1,121 kg/ha) reduce production by 46%.
Potassium at the rate of 405 to 420 lbs/acre (405 420 kg/ha) has the effect of increasing weight and number of
fruits. However, there appear to be factors, possibly soil magnesium and calcium, which inhibit the uptake of
potassium. One study showed that it took one year for heavy applications of K to reach down to a depth of 8
in (20 cm) where most of the roots were found in a banana plantation on clay loam. One benefit of added
potassium is that it makes bananas more buoyant. In cool, dry seasons in Honduras, the fruit tissue is
Banana
abnormally dense and there is a high rate of "sinkers" when hands are floated through a washing tank. Such
fruits have been found deficient in potassium and increased potassium in the fertilizer has reduced the
problem. Irrigation by costly overhead sprinkler systems is standard practice in large scale banana culture in
Central America. Without such equipment, irrigation basins may be necessary throughout the field and they
should be able to hold at least 3 in (7.5 cm) of water. During the first 2 months, the plants should be irrigated
every 7 to 10 days; older plants need irrigation only every 3 to 4 weeks in dry seasons. On heavy soils, too
frequent irrigations decrease yields. For maximum root development, the water table must be between 14 and
19 in (36 48 cm) below ground level.
To preserve the original density, the plants are pruned; that is, only the most deep seated sucker and one or
more of its offshoots ("peepers") are permitted to exist beside each parent plant to serve as replacements and
maintain a steady succession. All other suckers are killed to prevent competition with the pseudostem and its
"followers", and a bunch of fruits will be ready for harvest every 6 to 8 months. Various methods of
de-suckering have been employed: 1) wrenching by hand; 2) cutting at soil level with a banana knife; 3)
cutting at soil level and filling the base with kerosene; 4) cutting at soil level and killing the under ground
terminal bud by thrusting in and twisting a gouging tool.
As the older leaves wither and droop, they must be removed because they interfere with spraying, they shade
the suckers, cause blemishes on the fruits, harbor disease, insects and other creatures, and constitute a fire
hazard.
Bearing bananas require propping. This has been done with simple wooden or bamboo poles, forked poles, or
two stakes fastened together to form an "X" at the top, a system much less harmful to the pseudostem. Or the
plant may be tied back to pickets driven into the ground, to prevent falling with the weight of the bunch.
Various types of coveringdry banana leaves, canvas,
drill cloth, sisal sacks, or burlap or so-called "Hessian'
bags (made of jute), have been put over banana
bunches intended for export, especially to enhance fruit
development in winter and avoid blemishes. In 1955,
Queensland led the trend toward adoption of tubular
poly vinylchloride (PVC), then the cheaper blue
polyethylene covers after trials produced record
bunches. At first, the transparent covering caused
sunburn on the first two hands and it was found
necessary to protect these with newspaper before
pulling on the plastic sleeve. The use of plastic covers
became standard practice not only in Australia but in
Africa, India and the American tropics. In 1963,
Queensland growers were turning to covers made of
High Wet Strength (formaldehyde-treated) kraft paper
which was already in use for garbage bags. These bags
were easily stapled at the top, prevented sunburn,
resisted adverse weather, and were reusable for at least
another season. Some growers still prefer the burlap. It
is cautioned that the cover should not be put on until
the bracts have lifted from the fruits (about 21 days
after "shooting") so that the young fingers will be firm
enough to resist the friction of the cover.
If bunches are composed of more than 7 hands,
debudding, or "de-belling" that is, removal of the
Banana
terminal male bud (which keeps on extending and

Fig. 10: Immature banana bunch ("stem") in protective plastic
growing) will result in somewhat fuller bananas, thus cover; Hacienda Secadal, Ecuador.
increasing bunch weight. The cut should be made several inches below the last hand so that the rotting tip of
the severed stalk will not affect the fruits.
Harvesting
Banana bunches are harvested with a curved knife when the fruits are fully developed, that is, 75% mature,
the angles are becoming less prominent and the fruits on the upper hands are changing to light green; and the
flower remnants (styles) are easily rubbed off the tips. Generally, this stage is reached 75 to 80 days after the
opening of the first hand. Cutters must leave attached to the bunch about 6 to 9 in (15-18 cm) of stalk to serve
as a handle for carrying. With tall cultivars, the pseudostem must be slashed partway through to cause it to
bend and harvesters pull on the leaves to bring the bunch within reach. They must work in pairs to hold and
remove the bunch without damaging it. In the early 1960's a "banana bender" was invented in
Queenslandan 8-ft pole with a steel rod mounted at the top and shaped with a downward pointing upper
hook and an upward-pointing lower hook, the first to pull the pseudostem down after nicking and the second
to support the bent pseudostem so that the bunch can be cut at a height of about 4 1/2 ft ( 1.35 m).
Formerly, entire bunches were transported to shipping
points and exported with considerable loss from
inevitable damage. Improved handling methods have
greatly reduced bunch injuries. In modern plantations,
the bunches are first rested on the padded shoulder of a
harvester and then are hung on special racks or on
cables operated by pulleys by means of which they can
be easily conveyed to roads and by vehicle to nearby
packing sheds. Where fields have been located in
remote areas lacking adequate highways, transport out
has been accomplished by hovercraft flying along
riverbeds. In Costa Rica, when rains have prevented
truck transport to railway terminals, bananas have been Fig. 11: Mature, newly harvested, banana bunches at
Hacienda Secadal, Ecuador.
successfully carried in slings suspended from
helicopters. Exposure to even moderate light after harvest initiates the ripening process. Therefore the fruits
should be protected from light as much as possible until they reach the packing shed.
In India, studies have been made to determine the most feasible disposition of a plant from which a bunch has
been harvested. It is normal for it to die and it may be left standing for 3 to 4 months to dehydrate before
removal, or the top half may be removed right after harest by means of a tool called a "mattock" (a combined
axe and hoe); or the pseudostem may be cut at ground level, split open, and the tender core taken away for
culinary purposes. Results indicated that the first two practices have equal effect on production, but the
complete felling and removal of the pseudostem lowered the yield of the "follower" significantly. In Jamaica
and elsewhere it is considered best to chop and spread as organic matter the felled pseudostem and other plant
residue. This returns to the soil 404 lbs N, 101 lbs P and 1, 513 lbs K from an acre of bananas (404 kg, 101 kg
and 1,513 kg, respectively, from a hectare). The stump should be covered with hard-packed soil to discourage
entrance of pests.
Banana plantations, if managed manually, may survive for 25 years or far longer. The commercial life of a
banana "stool" is about 5 or 6 years. From the 4th year on, productivity declines and the field becomes too
irregular for mechanical operations. Sanitary regulations require that the old plantings be eradicated. In the
past, this has been done by digging out the plants with the mattock, or bringing in cattle to graze on them. In
recent years, the old plants and the suckers that arise from the old corms are injected with herbicide until all
are thoroughly killed and the field is then cleared. Where bananas or plantains are raised on cleared forest
Banana
land without sophisticated maintenance practices, they become thoroughly infested with nematodes by the
end of the third year and the regrowth of underbrush has begun to take over the field, so it is simply
abandoned.
Yield
It is clear that many factors determine the annual yield from a banana or plantain plantation: soil and
agronomic practices, the cultivar planted, spacing, the type of propagating material and the management of
sucker succession. The 'Gros Michel' banana has yielded 3 to 7 tons per acre (3 to 7 MT/ha) in Central
America. A 'Giant Cavendish' bunch may weigh 110 lbs (50 kg) and have a total of 363 marketable fruits. A
well-filled bunch of "Dwarf Cavendish' will have no more than 150 to 200 fruits. Sword suckers of plantains
have yielded 54,984 fruits per acre (135,866 fruits /ha); water suckers, 49,021 fruits per acre (121,132
fruits/ha).
With heavy fertilization, the 'Maricongo' plantain in Puerto Rico, planted at the rate of 725 per acre has
produced 21,950 fruits per acre (54,238 fruits/ha); at the rate of 1,450 per acre has produced 39,080 fruits per
acre (96,369 fruits/ha); in a single year.
In 1981, investigators of the earnings of plantain producers in Puerto Rico found that traditional farmers had
costs of $1,568.00 per acre ($3,874.59/ha); gross income of $2,436.90 per acre ($6,021.58/ha); and net profit
of $868.88 per acre ($2,146.99/ha). Those farmers who had adopted improved techniques for preparing the
field, weeding and control of pests and diseases had a cost of $2,132.14 per acre ($5,268.52/ha); gross income
of $4,253.26 per acre ($10,509.81/ha); and net profit of $2,121.12 per acre ($5,241.29/ha).
'Maricongo' plantains spaced at 5 x 5 ft (1.5 x 1.5 m), 1,742 plants/acre (4,303 plants/ha), have produced 33.4
tons per acre (73.5 tons/ha) over a period of 30 months.
Handling and Packing
Banana bunches were formerly padded with leaf trash which absorbed much of the sap and latex from the
hervesting operation and the sites of broken off styles, each of which can leak at least 6 drops, especially if
bunches are cut early in the morning. In the 1960's, when whole bunches were being exported from the
Windward Islands and Jamaica to England, they were wrapped in wadding (paperbacked layers of paper
tissue) to absorb the latex, and then encased in plastic sleeves for shipment. Nowadays plastic sleeves left on
the bunches help protect them during transport from the field to distant packing sheds and a cushion of
banana trash on the floor and against the sides of the truck does much to reduce injury. But the plastic bags
increase the problem of staining by the sap/latex which mingles with the condensation inside the bag,
becomes more fluid, runs down the inside and stains the peel. When hands are cut off, additional sap/latex
mixture oozes from the severed crown. Banana growers and handlers know that this substance oxidizes and
makes an indelible dark-brown stain on clothing. It similarly blemishes the fruits. At packing stations, the
hands are floated through water tanks to wash it off. (Sodium hydrochlorate is an effective solvent.) Some
people maintain that the fruit should remain in the tank for 30 minutes until all oozing of latex ceases. At
certain times of the year, up to 5% of the hands may sink to the bottom of the tank, become superficially
scarred and no longer exportable. As mentioned earlier, increased potassium in fertilizer mixtures renders the
bananas more buoyant and fewer hands sink. In rainy seasons, it may be necessary to apply fungicide on the
cut crown surface to avoid rotting, though experiments have shown that some fungicides give an off-flavor to
the fruit.
Boxing was experimented with in the late 1920's but abandoned because of various types of spoilage. Modern
means of combatting the organisms that cause such problems, as well as better systems of handling and
transport, quality control, and good container design, have made carton packing not only feasible but
necessary. First, the hands are graded for size and quality and then packed in layers in special ventilated
cartons with plastic padding to minimize bruising.
Banana
In the past, bananas for export from Fiji to New Zealand were detached individually from the hands and
packed tightly in 72-lb (33 kg) wooden boxes, with much bruising of the upper layer and of the fruits in
contact with the sides. Reduction of fruit quality was found to offset the economic advantage of filling all the
shipping space with fruits. Wooden boxes were abandoned and suppliers were converted to the packing of
hands with cushioning material.
Controlled Ripening and Storage
At times, markets may not be able to absorb all the bananas or plantains ready for harvest. Experiments have
been conducted to determine the effect of applying gibberellin, either by spraying or in the form of a lanolin
paste, on the stalk just above the first hands, or by injection of a solution, powder or tablet into the stalk. In
Israel, gibberellin A4A7, applied by any of these methods about 2 months before time of normal ripening,
had the effect of delaying ripening from 10 to 19 days. If applied too early, the gibberellin treatment has no
effect.
Harvested bananas allowed to ripen naturally at room temperature do not become as sweet and flavorful as
those ripened artificially. Post harvest ripening is expedited undesirably if bunches or hands are stored in
unventilated polyethylene bags. As a substitute for expensive controlled-temperature storage rooms,
researchers in Thailand have found that hands treated with fungicide can be stored or shipped over a period of
4 weeks in polyethylene bags if ethylene absorbing vermiculite blocks (treated with a fresh solution of
potassium permanganate) are included in the sack. The permanganate solution will be ineffective if exposed
to light and oxygen. The blocks must be encased in small polyethylene bags perforated only on one side to
avoid staining the fruits.
Bananas are generally ripened in storage rooms with 90 to 95% relative humidity at the outset, later reduced
to 85% by ventilation: and at temperatures ranging from 58 to 75F (14.4-23.9C), with 2 to 3 exposures to
ethylene gas at 1: 1000, or 6 hourly applications for 1 to 4 days, depending on the speed of ripening desired.
The fruit must be kept cool at 56 60F (13.3-15.6C) and 80 to 85% relative humidity after removal from
storage and during delivery to markets to avoid rapid spoilage. Post-ripening storage at 70F (21C) in air
containing 10 to 100 ppm ethylene accelerates softening but the fruits will remain clear yellow and attractive
with few or no superficial brown specks.
Plantains for processing in the ripe stage or marketing fresh must be stored under conditions that will provide
the best quality of finished product. Puerto Rican studies have shown that uniform ripening is achieved in 4 to
5 days by storage at 56 to 72F (13.3-22.2C), 95 to 100% relative humidity, and with a single exposure to
ethylene gas. The initial 4% starch content is reduced to 1 to 1.74% and sugars increase by about 2%. The
ripe fruit can be held another 6 days at 56F (13.3C) and still be acceptable for processing.
The manufacture of products from the green, still starchy, plantain is a major industry in Puerto Rico. If held
at room temperature, the fruits begin to ripen 7 days after harvest and become fully ripe at the end of 2 more
days. Chemically disinfected fruits stored in polyethylene bags with an ethylene absorbent (Purefil wrapped
in porous paper) keep 25 days at room temperature of 85F (29.44C), and for 55 days under refrigeration at
55F (12.78C). Products of such fruits have been found to be as good as or better than those made from
freshly harvested green plantains.
The potential benefits of waxing have been considered by various investigators. While it is true that waxing
of pre-disinfected fruits prolongs storage life by 60% at room temperature, 78-92F (25.56-33.33C), and
by 28% at 52 to 55F (11.11-12.78C), there is no advantage in waxing if the fruits can be held in gas
storage, a combination of waxing and gassing being no better than gassing alone. In fact, waxing may result
in uneven ripening after storage.
In the mid 1960's, fumigation by ethylene dibromide (EDB) against fruit fly infestation was authorized to
permit export of Hawaiian bananas to the mainland USA. The treatment accelerated ripening and it could not
Banana
be applied to 'Dwarf Cavendish' without covering the bunch with opaque or semi-opaque material for at least
2 months prior to harvest. EDB is no longer approved for use on food products for marketing within the
United States.
Pests
Wherever bananas and plantains are grown, nematodes are a major problem. In Queensland, bananas are
attacked by various nematodes that cause rotting of the corms: spiral nematodesScutellonema brachyurum,
Helicotylenchus multicinctus and H. nannus; banana root-lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffaea, syn. P.
musicola; and the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis less than 1 mm long, which enters roots and
corms, causing red, purple and reddish-black discoloration and providing entry for the fungus Fusarium
oxysporum. And also prevalent is the root-knot nematode, Meliodogyne javanica.
Plantains in Puerto Rico are attacked by 22 species of nematodes. The most injurious is the burrowing
nematode and it is the cause of the common black headtoppling disease on land where plantains have been
cultivated for a long time. Wherever coffee has been grown, Pratylenchus coffaea is the principal nematode,
and where plantains have been installed on former sugar cane land, Meliodogyne incognita is dominant.
These last two are among the three most troublesome nematodes of Surinam, the third being Helicotylenchus
spp., especially H. multicinctus.
Nematicides, properly applied, will protect the crop. Otherwise, the soil must be cleared, plowed and exposed
to the sun for a time before planting. Sun destroys nematodes at least in the upper several inches of earth.
Some fields may be left fallow for as long as 3 years. Rotating plantains with Pangola grass (Digitaria
decumbens) controls most of the most important species of nematodes except Pratylenchus coffaea. All
planting material must be disinfectedcorms, or parts of corms, or the bases of suckers. There are various
means of accomplishing this. In Hawaii, corms are immersed in water at 122F (50C) for 15 minutes and
soaked for 5 minutes in 1% sodium hypochlorite. In Puerto Rico, nematodes are combatted by immersing
plantain corms in a solution of Nemagon for 5 minutes about 24 hours before planting and, when planting,
mixing the soil in the hole with granular Dasanit (Fensulfothion) and every 6 months applying Dasanit in a
ring around the pseudostem.
In Queensland, corms are immersed in hot water-131F (55C)for 20 minutes or solutions of nonvolatile
Nemacur or Mocap. Hot water and Nemacur are equally effective but hot water has less adverse effects on
plant vigor. The Australians believe that nematicidal treatment of corms must be preceded by peeling off 3/8
in (1 cm) of the outer layer (usually discolored) even though this diminishes the vigor of the planting
material. However, tests with 'Maricongo' plantain corms in Puerto Rico indicate that immersing for 10
minutes in aqueous solutions of Carbofuran, Dasanit, Ethoprop, or Phenamiphos without the time consuming
and possibly detrimental peeling reduces the initial nematode populations by about 95 % and all the
nematicides except Carbofuran give adequate post-planting control. Carbofuran apparently does not penetrate
deeply enough. The Florida spiral nematode is the most damaging nematode in Brazil and Florida, especially
during hot, rainy summers. Ethoprop is the only nematicide registered for use on bananas in Florida but it is
not effective against this pest. The hot water treatment must be employed.
The black weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, also called banana stalk borer, banana weevil borer, or corm
weevil, is the second most destructive pest of bananas and plantains. It attacks the base of the pseudostem and
tunnels upward. A jelly like sap oozes from the point of entry. It was formerly controlled by Aldrin, which is
now banned. In Surinam it has been combatted by injecting pesticide into the pseudostem, or spraying the
pseudostem with Monocrotophos. In Ghana, they dip planting material in a solution of Monocrotophos and
apply dust of Dieldrin or Heptachlor around the base of the pseudostem. Puerto Rican tests of several
pesticides have shown that Aldicarb 10G, a nematicide insecticide, applied at the base of plantain plants at the
rate of 1 to 1 1/2 oz (30-45 g) every 4 months, or 1 oz (30 g) every 6 months, controls both the burrowing
nematode and the black weevil. Biological control of black weevil utilizing a weevil predator, Piaesius
Banana
javanus, has not been successful.

The banana rust thrips, Chaetanophothrips orchidii; syn. C. signipennis, stains the peel, causes it to split and
expose the flesh which quickly discolors. The pest is usually partially controlled by the spraying of Dieldrin
around the base of the pseudostem to combat the banana weevil borer, because it pupates in the soil. Another
measure has been to treat the inside of polyethylene bunch covers with insecticidal dust, especially Diazinon,
before slipping them over the bunches. It is recognized that this procedure constitutes a health hazard to the
workers. A great improvement is the introduction of polyethylene bags impregnated with 1% of the
insecticide Dursban, eliminating the need for dusting. Bunches enclosed in these bags have been found 85.%
free of attack by the banana rust thrips. The bags retain their potency for at least a year in storage.
Impregnated with 1 to 2% Dursban, they are equal to Diazinon in preventing banana injury by the banana
fruit scarring beetle, Colaspis hypochlora, also called coquito. This pest invades the bunches when the fruits
are very young. It has been very troublesome in Venezuela, and at times from Guyana to Mexico. The banana
scab moth, Nacoleia octasema, infests the inflorescence from emergence to the time half the bracts have
lifted. It is a major pest in North Queensland, Malaysia and the southwest Pacific. Control may be by
injection or dusting with pesticide, sometimes with lifting or removal of bracts. Corky scab of bananas in
southern Queensland is caused by the banana flowers thrips, Thrips florum, especially in hot, dry weather.
The infestation is lessened by removal of the terminal male bud which tends to harbor the pest.
Among minor enemies in Queensland is the banana spider mite, Tetranychus lambi which moves from
beneath the leaves to the fruits in warm weather and creates dull brown specks which may become so
numerous as to completely cover the peel, causing it to dehydrate and crack irregularly. The leaves of the
plant will wilt. Bi-weekly sprayings of pesticide get rid of the mites.
The banana silvering thrips, Hercinothrips bicintus, causes silvery patches on the peel and dots them with
shiny black specks of excrement. The rind-chewing caterpillar, Barnardiella sciaphila, usually does little
damage. Two species of fruit flyStrumeta tryoni and S. musae occasionally attack bananas in North
Queensland.
Diseases
The subject of diseases is authoritatively presented by C.W. Wardlaw in the second edition of his textbook,
Banana Diseases, including plantains and abaca, 1972; 878 pages.
It is appropriate here only to mention the main details of those maladies which are of the greatest concern to
banana and plantain growers. Sigatoka, or leaf spot, caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella musicola (of which
the conidial stage is Cercospora musae) was first reported in Java in 1902, next in Fiji in 1913 where it was
named after the Sigatoka Valley. It appeared in Queensland 10 years later, and in another 10 years made its
appearance in the West Indies and soon spread throughout tropical America. The disease was noticed in East
and West Tropical Africa in 1939 and 1940. It was discovered in Ghana in 1954 and ravaged a state farm in
1965. It is most prevalent on shallow, poorly drained soil and in areas where there is heavy dew. The first
signs on the leaves are small, pale spots which enlarge to 1/2 in (1.25 cm), become dark purplish black and
have gray centers. When the entire plant is affected, it appears as though burned, the bunches will be of poor
quality and will not mature uniformly. The fruits will be acid, the plant roots small. Control is achieved by
spraying with orchard mineral oil, usuall every 3 weeks, a total of 12 applications of 1 1/2 gals per acre
(14.84 liters/ha); or by systemic fungicides applied to the soil or by aerial spraying.
A much more virulent malady, Black Sigatoka, or Black Leaf Streak, caused by Mycosphaerella fifiensis var.
difformis, attacked bananas in Honduras in 1969 and spread to banana plantations in Guatemala and Belize. It
appeared in plantations in Honduras in 1972 where there had not been any need to spray against ordinary
Sigatoka. It made headway rapidly through plantain fields in Central America to Mexico and about 10 years
later was found in the Uruba region of Colombia. The disease struck Fiji in 1963 and became an epidemic. It
began spreading in 1973, largely replacing ordinar Sigatoka. Surveys have revealed this previously
Banana
unrecognized disease on several other South Pacific islands, in Hawaii, the Philippines, Malaysia and Taiwan.
It is spread mostly by wind; kills the leaves and exposes the bunches to the sun. Cultivars which are resistant
to Sigatoka have shown no resistance to Black Sigatoka. There are vigorous efforts to control the disease by
fungicides or intense oil spraying. But it is not completely controlled even by spraying every 10 to 12 days a
total of 40 sprayings. The cost of control with fungicides is 3 to 4 times that of controlling ordinary Sigatoka
because of the need for more frequent aerial sprayings. It is very difficult to treat properly on islands where
bananas are grown mostly in scattered plantings. In Mexico where plantains are extremely important in the
diet, and 65% of the production is on non-irrigated land, control efforts have elevated costs of plantain
production by 145 to 168%. In the Sula Valley of Honduras, Black Sigatoka has caused annual losses of
3,000,000 boxes of bananas. The great need is for resistant cultivars of high quality.
Panama Disease or Banana Wilt, which arises from infection by the fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
cubense originates in the soil, travels to the secondary roots, enters the corm only through fresh injuries,
passes into the pseudostem; then, beginning with the oldest leaves, turns them yellow first at the base,
secondly along the margins, and lastly in the center. The interior leaves turn bronze and droop. The
pseudostem turns brown inside. This plague has seriously affected banana production in Central America,
Colombia and the Canary Islands. It started spreading in southern Taiwan in 1967 and has become the leading
local banana disease. The 'Cavendish' types have been considered highly resistant but they succumb if planted
on land previously occupied by 'Gros Michel'. The disease is transmitted by soil, moving agricultural vehicles
or other machinery, flowing water, or by wind. It is combatted by flooding the field for 6 months. Or, if it is
not too serious, by planting a cover crop. There are reportedly two races: Race #1 affects 'Gros Michel',
'Manzano', 'Sugar' and 'Lady Finger'; Race #2 attacks 'Bluggoe'. Resistant cultivars are the Jamaican
'Lacatan', 'Monte Cristo', and 'Datil'or'Nino'. Resistant plantains are 'Maricongo', 'Enano' end 'Pelipita'.
Moko Disease, or Moko de Guineo, or Marchites bacteriana, is caused by the bacterium, Pseudomonas
solanacearum, resulting in internal decay. It has become one of the chief diseases of banana and plantain in
the western hemisphere and has seriously reduced production in the leading areas of Colombia. It attacks
Heliconia species as well. It is transmitted by insects, machetes and other tools, plant residues, soil, and root
contact with the roots of sick plants. There are said to be 4 different types transmitted by different means.
Efforts at control include covering the male bud with plastic to prevent insects from visiting its mucilaginous
excretion; debudding, disinfecting of cutting tools with formaldehyde in water 1: 3; disinfection of planting
material; disposal of infected fruits and plant parts; injection of herbicide into infected plants to hasten
dehydration, and also seemingly healthy neighboring plants. If the organism is variant SFR, all adjacent
plants within a radius of 16.5 ft (5 m) must be destroyed and the area not replanted for 10 to 12 months, for
this variant persists in the soil that long. If it is variant B, the plants within 32.8 ft (10 m) must be injected and
the area not replanted for 18 months. In either case, the soil must be kept clear of broad leaved weeds that
may serve as hosts. In Colombia, there are 12 species of weeds that serve as hosts or "carriers" but only 4 of
these are themselves susceptible to the disease. Crop rotation is sometimes resorted to. The only sure defense
is to plant resistant cultivars, such as the 'Pelipita' plantain.
Black-end arises from infection by the fungus Gloeosporium musarum, of which Glomerella cingulata is the
perfect form. It causes anthracnose on the plant and attacks the stalk and stalk-end of the fruits forming dark,
sunken lesions on the peel, soon penetrating the flesh and developing dark, watery, soft areas. In severe cases,
the entire skin turns black and the flesh rots. Very young fruits shrivel and mummify. This fungus is often
responsible for the rotting of bananas in storage. Immersing the green fruits in hot water, 131F (55C) for 2
minutes before ripening greatly reduces spoilage.
Cigar-tip rot, or Cigar-end disease, Stachylidium ( Verticillium) theobromae begins in the flowers and extends
to the tips of the fruits and turns them dark, the peel darkens, the flesh becomes fibrous. One remedy is to cut
off withered flowers as soon as the fruits are formed and apply copper fungicides to the cut surfaces.
In Surinam, cucumber mosaic virus attacks plantains especially when cocumber is interplanted in the fields.
Banana
Also, Chinese cabbage, Cayenne pepper and "bitter greens" (Cestrum latifolium Lam.) are hosts for the
disease.
Cordana leaf spot (Cordana musae), causes oval lesions 3 in (7.5 cm) or more in length, brown with a
bright-yellow border. There is progressive dying of the leaves beginning with the oldest, as in Sigatoka, with
consequent undersized fruits ripening prematurely. It formerly occurred mainly in sheltered, humid regions of
Queensland. Now it is seen mostly as an invader of areas affected by Sigatoka, in various geographical
locations.
Bunchy top, an aphid-transmitted virus disease of banana, was unknown in Queensland until about 1913
when it was accidentally introduced in suckers brought in from abroad. In the next 10 years it spread swiftly
and threatened to wipe out the banana industry. Drastic measures were taken to destroy affected plants and to
protect uninvaded plantations. The disease was found in Western Samoa in 1955 and it eliminated the
susceptible 'Dwarf Cavendisht' from commercial plantings. A vigorous eradication and quarantine program
was undertaken in 1956 and carried on to 1960. Thereafter, strict inspection and control measures continued.
Other crops were provided to farmers in heavily infested areas. Leaves formed after infection are narrow,
short, with upturned margins and become stiff and brittle; the leafstalks are short and unbending and remain
erect, giving a "rosetted" appearance. The leaves of suckers and the 3 youngest leaves of the mother plant
show yellowing and waviness of margins, and the youngest leaves will have very narrow, dark-green, usually
interrupted ("dot-and dash") lines on the underside.
Because of the seriousness of Panama disease and Bunchy Top in southern Queensland, the prospective
banana planter must obtain a permit from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries. In the Southern
Quarantine Area, any plant showing Bunchy Top, as well as its suckers and all plants within a 15 ft (4.6 m)
radius must be killed by injecting herbicide or must be dug out completely and cut into pieces no bigger than
2 in (5 cm) wide. In restricted areas, only the immune 'Lady Finger' may be grown. In the Northern
Quarantine Area, no plants may be brought in from another area and all plants within a radius of 120 ft (36.5
m) from a diseased plant must be eradicated.
Swelling and splitting of the corm and the base of the pseudostem is caused by saline irrigation water and by
overfertilization during periods of drought which builds up soluble salts in the soil.
Food Uses
The ripe banana is utilized in a multitude of ways in the human dietfrom simply being peeled and eaten out
of-hand to being sliced and served in fruit cups and salads, sandwiches, custards and gelatins; being mashed
and incorporated into ice cream, bread, muffins, and cream pies. Ripe bananas are often sliced lengthwise,
baked or broiled, and served (perhaps with a garnish of brown sugar or chopped peanuts) as an
accompaniment for ham or other meats. Ripe bananas may be thinly sliced and cooked with lemon juice and
sugar to make jam or sauce, stirring frequently during 20 or 30 minutes until the mixture jells. Whole, peeled
bananas can be spiced by adding them to a mixture of vinegar, sugar, cloves and cinnamon which has boiled
long enough to become thick, and then letting them cook for 2 minutes.
In the islands of the South Pacific, unpeeled or peeled, unripe bananas are baked whole on hot stones, or the
peeled fruit may be grated or sliced, wrapped, with or without the addition of coconut cream, in banana
leaves, and baked in ovens. Ripe bananas are mashed, mixed with coconut cream, scented with Citrus leaves,
and served as a thick, fragrant beverage.
Banana puree is important as infant food and can be successfully canned by the addition of ascorbic acid to
prevent discoloration. The puree is produced on a commercial scale in factories close to banana fields and
packed in plastic-lined #10 cans and 55-gallon metal drums for use in baby foods, cake, pie, ice cream,
cheesecake, doughnuts, milk shakes and many other products. It is also used for canning half-and-half with
applesauce, and is combined with peanut butter as a spread. Banana nectar is prepared from banana puree in
Banana
which a cellulose gum stabilizer is added. It is homogenized, pasteurized and canned, with or without
enrichment with ascorbic acid.
Sliced ripe bananas, canned in sirup, were introduced to the food trade for commercial use in frozen tarts,
pies, gelatins and other products. In 1966, the United Fruit Company built a processing plant at La Lima,
Honduras, for producing canned and frozen banana puree and canned banana slices. Because of seasonal gluts
and perishability and the tonnages of bananas and plantains that are not suitable for marketing or export
because of overripeness or stained peel or other defects, there is tremendous interest in the development of
modes of processing and preserving these fruits.
In Polynesia, there is a traditional method of preserving large quantities of bananas for years as emergency
fare in case of famine. A pit is dug in the ground and lined with banana and Heliconza leaves. The peeled
bananas are wrapped in Heliconza leaves, arranged in layer after layer, then banana leaves are placed on top
and soil and rocks heaped over all. The pits remain unopened until the fermented food, called "masi", is
needed.
In Costa Rica, ripe bananas from an entire bunch are peeled and boiled slowly for hours to make a thick sirup
which is called "honey".
Green bananas, boiled in the skin, are very popular in Cuba, Puerto Rico and other Caribbean islands. In
Puerto Rico, the cooked bananas are recooked briefly in a marinating sauce containing black pepper, vinegar,
garlic, onions, bay leaves, olive oil and salt and left standing at room temperature for 24 hours before being
eaten. Peeled, sliced green bananas are quick-frozen in Puerto Rico for later cooking. If steam treated to
facilitate peeling, the enzymes are inactivated only on the surface of the flesh and the interior, when exposed,
will turn brown unless sulfited. It is more satisfactory to immerse the whole bananas in water at 200F (93C)
for 30 minutes which wholly inactivates the enzymes. No sulfite is then needed and no browning occurs.
Much research has been conducted by food technologists at the University of Puerto Rico to determine the
best procedures for canning sliced green bananas and plantains to make them readily available for cooking.
Enzyme inactivation is necessary and the hot water treatment facilitates the peeling. If peeled raw, green
bananas and plantains exude gummy white latex which stains materials. When canning, citric acid in a 2%
brine is added, but this method of preservation has not yet met with success because of rapid detinning of the
inside of the cans. The problem is not solved by using enamellined cans because the fruit darkens quickly
after the cans are opened. Glass jars may prove to be the only suitable containers.
Through experimental work with a view to freezing peeled, blanched, sliced green bananas, it has been found
that, with a pulp-to-peel ratio of less than 1:3 the fruits turn gray on exposure to air after processing and this
discoloration is believed to be caused by the high iron content (4.28 p/m) of the surface layer of the flesh and
its reaction to the tannin normally present in green bananas and plantains. At pulp to peel ratio of 1:0, the
tannin level in green bananas is 241.4 mg; at l:3, 151.0 mg, and at 1:5, 112.6 mg, per 100 g. Therefore, it is
recommended that for freezing green bananas be harvested at a stage of maturity evidenced by 1:5
pulp-to-peel ratio. Such fruits have a slightly yellowish flesh, higher carotene content, and are free of
off-flavors. The slices are cooked by the consumer without thawing.
Completely green plantains are 50% flesh and 50% peel. Plantains for freezing should have a pulp content of
at least 60% for maximum quality in the ultimate food product, but a range of 55 to 65% is considered
commercially acceptable.
Ripe plantains, held until the skin has turned mostly or wholly black, are commonly peeled, sliced diagonally
and fried in olive oil, accompany the main meal daily in the majority of homes in tropical Latin America. In
the Dominican Republic, a main dish is made of boiled, mashed ripe plantains mixed with beaten eggs, flour,
butter, milk and cloves, and layered in a casserole with ground beef fried with Picalilli and raisins, lastly
topped with grated cheese and baked until golden brown. In Guatemala, boiled plantains are usually served
Banana
with honey.
Green plantains are popular sliced crosswise, fried until partially cooked, pressed into a thickness of 1/2 in
(1.25 cm), and fried in deep fat till crisp. The product is called 'tostones" and somewhat resembles
French-fried potatoes. Puerto Rican "mofongo" is a ball of fried green plantain mashed with fried pork rind,
seasoned with thickened stock, garlic and other condiments. It must be eaten hot before it hardens.
"Mofongo" has been successfully frozen in boilable pouches. Slices of nearly ripe plantain (5% starch
content) are cooked in sirup and frozen in boilable pouches. Puerto Rican plantains, shipped green to Florida,
have been ripened, peeled, quartered, infused with orange juice, frozen and provided to schools for serving as
luncheon dessert.
In Ghana, plantains are consumed at 5 different stages of ripeness. Fully ripe plantains are often deep fried or
cooked in various dishes. A Ghanian pancake called "fatale" is made of nearly full ripe plantains and
fermented whole meal dough of maize, seasoned with onions, ginger, pepper and salt, and fried in palm oil.
"Kaklo" is the same mix but thicker and rolled into balls which are deep-fried. Because home preparation is
laborious, a commercial dehydrated mix has been developed. In Ghana, green plantains are boiled and eaten
in stew or mashed, together with boiled cassava, into a popular plastic product called "fufu" which is eaten
with soup. Because of the great surplus of plantains in summer, technologists have developed methods for
drying and storing of strips and cubes of plantain for house use in making "fufu" out of season. The cubes can
also be ground into plantain flour. Use of infrared, microwave, and extrusion systems has resulted in
high-quality finished products. Processing has the added advantage of keeping the peels at factories where
they may be converted into useful by-products instead of their adding to the bulk of household garbage.
Banana or plantain flour, or powder, is made domestically by sun-drying slices of unripe fruits and
pulverizing. Commercially, it is produced by spray-drying, or drum-drying, the mashed fruits. The flour can
be mixed 50-50 with wheat flour for making cupcakes. Two popular Puerto Rican foods are "pasteles" and
"alcapurias"; both are pastry stuffed with meat; the first is wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled; the latter is
fried. The pastry is made of plantain flour or a mixture of plantain with cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz. )
or cocoyam (tanier), Xanthosoma spp. The plantain cultivars 'Saba', 'Tundoc' and 'Latundan' are very suitable
for making flour.
Commercial production and marketing of fried green plantain and banana chips has been increasing in
various parts of the world over the past 25 years and these products are commonly found in retail groceries
alongside potato chips and other snack foods. 'Carinosa' and 'Bungulan' bananas are favored for chip-making.
In Puerto Rico, the plantain cultivars 'Guayamero Alto' and 'Congo Enano' are chosen for this purpose.
Dried bananas, or so-called "banana figs" are peeled firm-ripe bananas split lengthwise, sulphured, and
ovendried to a moisture content of 18 to 20%. Wrapped individually in plastic and then packed by the dozen
in polyethylene bags, and encased in cartons, they can be stored for a year at room temperature75.2 to
86F (24-30C) and they are commonly exported. The product can be eaten as a snack or minced and used
together with candied lemon peel in fruit cake and other bakery products. In India the 'Dwarf Cavendish' is
preferred for drying; in the Philippines, the true 'Lacatan' or the 'Higo'.
Canadian researchers have developed a system of osmotic dehydration for sliced firm ripe bananas and
plantains, especially designed for developing countries with plentiful sugar for the solutions required.
Since the early 1960's, Brazil has produced dehydrated banana flakes for local markets and export to the USA
and elsewhere in vacuum sealed cans. The flakes are used on cereal, in baked goods, canapes, meat loaf and
curries, desserts, sauces, and other products. In Israel, banana flakes have been made by steam blanching
'Dwarf Cavendish' bananas and drum drying to 2.6% moisture. The flakes, packed in vacuum sealed cans,
keep for a year at 75.2 to 86F (24 30C). At temperatures to 95F (35C), the flakes darken somewhat and
tend to stick together. Israel has also introduced a formula for high-protein flakes made of 70% banana and
30% soybean protein and this development has been adopted in Brazil. The flakes are used by Brazilian food
Banana
manufacturers in ice cream, and as fillings for cakes and other bakery products. South Africa has produced
flakes of 2/3 banana and 1/3 maize meal.
In Africa, ripe bananas are made into beer and wine. The Tropical Products Institute in London has
established a simple procedure for preparing an acceptable vinegar from fermented banana rejects.
The terminal male bud of the wild banana, M. balbisiana, is marketed in Southeast Asia. It is often boiled
whole after soaking an hour in salt water, or with several changes of water to reduce astringency, and eaten as
a vegetable. The male bud of cultivated bananas is considered too astringent but it is, nevertheless, sometimes
similarly consumed. The flowers may be removed from the bud and prepared separately. They are used in
curries in Malaya and eaten with palm oil in West Tropical Africa.
The new shoots of young plants may be cooked as greens. Banana pseudostem core constitutes about 10 to
15% of the whole and contains 1% starch, 0.68% crude fiber and 1% total ash. It is often cooked and eaten as
a vegetable in India and is canned with potatoes and tomatoes in a curry sauce. Circular slices about 1/2 in
(1.25 cm) thick are treated with citric acid and potassium metabisulphite and candied.
In India, a solution of the ash from burned leaves and pseudostems is used as salt in seasoning vegetable
curries. The ash contains roughly (per 100 g): potassium, 255 mg; magnesium, 27 mg; phosphorus, 33 mg;
calcium, 6.6 mg; sodium, 51 mg.
Dried green plantains, ground fine and roasted, have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Animal Feed
Reject ripe bananas, supplemented with protein, vitamins and minerals, are commonly fed to swine. Green
bananas are also used for fattening hogs but, because of the dryness and astringency and bitter taste due to the
tannin content, these animals do not care for them unless they are cooked, which makes the feeding costs too
high for most growers. Therefore, dehydrated green banana meal has been developed and, though not equal to
grain, can constitute up to 75% of the normal hog diet, 40% of the diet of gestating sows. It is not
recommended for lactating sows, nor are ripe bananas, even with a 40% protein supplement.
Beef cattle are very fond of green bananas whether they are whole, chopped or sliced. Because of the fruit's
deficiency in protein, urea is added at the rate of 8.8 lbs (4 kg) per ton, with a little molasses mixed in to mask
the flavor. But transportation is expensive unless the cattle ranch is located near the banana fields. A minor
disadvantage is that the bananas are somewhat laxative and the cattle need to be washed down daily. With
dairy cattle, it is recommended that bananas constitute no more than 20% of the feed.
In the Philippines, it has been found that meal made from dehydrated reject bananas can form 14% of total
broiler rations without adverse effects. Meal made from green and ripe plantain peels has been experimentally
fed to chicks in Nigeria. A flour from unpeeled plantains, developed for human consumption, was fed to
chicks in a mixture of 2/3 flour and 1/3 commercial chickfeed and the birds were maintained until they
reached the size of fryers. They were found thinner and lighter than those on 100% chickfeed and the gizzard
lining peeled in shreds. It was assumed that these effects were the result of protein deficiency in the plantains,
but they were more likely the result of the tannin content of the flour which interferes with the utilization of
protein.
Leaves, pseudostems, fruit stalks and peels, after chopping, fermentation, and drying, yield a meal somewhat
more nutritious than alfalfa presscake. This waste material has been considered for use as organic fertilizer in
Somalia. In Malaya, pigs fed the pseudostems are less prone to liver and kidney parasites than those on other
diets.
Banana peel contains beta sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, cycloeucalenol, cycloartanol, and
24-methylene cycloartanol. The major constituents are 24-methylene cycloartanol palmitate and an
Banana
unidentified triterpene ketone.

Banana
Plantain
Flour
(green)
340
Ripe
Green
(cooked)
110.7-156.3 77
90.5-145.9
Green Dried
Calories
65.5-111
108
Moisture
68.6-78.1g
72.4g 19.5-27.7g 11.2-13.5g 52.9-77.6g
79.8g
58.7-74.1g
9.0g
Protein
1.1-1.87g
1.1g
2.8-3.5g
3.8-4.1g
0.8-1.6g
1.3g
1.16-1.47g
3.3g
Fat
.016-0.4g
0.3g
0.8-1.1g
0.9-1.0g
0.1-0.78g
0.10g
0.10-0.12g
1.4g
298
Ripe
Dried
(green)
359
Ripe
Carbohydrates 19.33-25.8g
25.3g 69.9g
79.6g
25.50-36.81g 18.1g
23.4-37.61g
83.9g
Fiber
0.33-1.07g
1.0g
2.1-3.0g
3.2-4.5g
0.30-0.42g
0.2g
0.40-0.48g
1.0g
Ash
0.60-1.48g
0.9g
2.1-2.8g
3.1g
0.63-1.40g
0.7g
0.63-0.83g
2.4g
Calcium
Phosphorus
3.2-13.8mg
16.3-50.4mg
11mg
28mg
30-39mg
93-94mg
5.0-14.2mg
21.0-51.4mg
10.01-12.2mg 50mg
32.5-43.2mg 65mg
Iron
0.4-1.50mg
0.9mg
2.6-2.7mg 0.40-0.11mg
0.56-0.87mg 1.1mg
B-Carotene
0.006-0.151mg
0.11-1.32mg
0.06-1.38mg 45mg
Thiamine
0.04-0.54mg
0.04-0.11mg
0.06-0.09mg 0.10mg
Riboflavin
0.05-0.067mg
0.04-0.05mg
0.04-0.05mg 0.16mg
Niacin
0.60-1.05mg
0.48-0.70mg
0.32-0.55mg 1.9mg
Ascorbic Acid 5.60-36.4mg
18-31.2mg
22.2-33.8mg 1mg
Tryptophan
17-19mg
8-15mg
7-10mg
Methionine
7-10mg
4-8mg
3-8mg
Lysine
58-76mg
34-60mg
37-56mg
14mg
*Derived from various analyses made in Cuba, Central America and Africa.
Other Uses
Banana leaves are widely used as plates and for lining cooking pits and for wrapping food for cooking or
storage. A section of leaf often serves as an eye-shade. In Latin America, it is a common practice during rains
to hold a banana leaf by the petiole, upside-down, over one's back as an "umbrella" or "raincoat". The leaves
of the 'Fehi' banana are used for thatching, packing, and cigarette wrappers. The pseudostems have been
fastened together as rafts.
Split lengthwise, they serve as padding on banana inspection turntables and as cushioning to protect the
bunches ("stems") during transport in railway cars and trucks. Seat pads for benches are made of strips of
dried banana pseudostems in Ecuador. In West Africa, fiber from the pseudostem is valued for fishing lines.
In the Philippines, it is woven into a thin, transparent fabric called "agna" which is the principal material in
some regions for women's blouses and men's shirts. It is also used for making handkerchiefs. In Ceylon, it is
fashioned into soles for inexpensive shoes and used for floor coverings.
Plantain fiber is said to be superior to that from bananas. In the mid-19th Century, there was quite an active
banana fiber industry in Jamaica. Improved processes have made it possible to utilize banana fiber for many
purposes such as rope, table mats and handbags. In Kerala, India, a kraft type paper of good strength has been
made from crushed, washed and dried banana pseudostems which yield 48 to 51% of unbleached pulp. A
Banana
good quality paper is made by combining banana fiber

with that of the betel nut husk (Areca catechu L.). But
Australian investigators hold that the yield of banana
fiber is too low for extraction to be economical. Only 1
to 4 oz (28-113 g) can be obtained from 40 to 80 lbs
(18-36 kg) of green pseudostems; 132 tons of green
pseudostems would yield only 1 ton of paper. Their
conclusion is that the pseudostem has much greater
value as organic matter chopped and left in the field.
Dried banana peel, because of its 30 to 40% tannin
content, is used to blacken leather. The ash from the
dried peel of bananas and plantains is rich in potash
and used for making soap. That of the burned peel of
unripe fruits of certain varieties is used for dyeing.
Fig. 12 Banana pseudostem pad on inspection-turntable,

Hacienda Secadal, Ecuador.
In the Philippines, the Pinatubo Negritos cut off a banana plant close to the ground, make a hollow in the top
of the stump, which then fills with watery sap drunk as an emergency thirst quencher. Central Americans
obtain the sap of the red banana in the same manner and take it as an aphrodisiac.
Medicinal Uses: All parts of the banana plant have medicinal applications: the flowers in bronchitis and
dysentery and on ulcers; cooked flowers are given to diabetics; the astringent plant sap in cases of hysteria,
epilepsy, leprosy, fevers, hemorrhages, acute dysentery and diarrhea, and it is applied on hemorrhoids, insect
and other stings and bites; young leaves are placed as poultices on burns and other skin afflictions; the
astringent ashes of the unripe peel and of the leaves are taken in dysentery and diarrhea and used for treating
malignant ulcers; the roots are administered in digestive disorders, dysentery and other ailments; banana seed
mucilage is given in cases of catarrh and diarrhea in India.
Antifungal and antibiotic principles are found in the peel and pulp of fully ripe bananas. The antibiotic acts
against Mycobacteria. A fungicide in the peel and pulp of green fruits is active against a fungus disease of
tomato plants. Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are also present in the ripe peel and pulp. The first
two elevate blood pressure; serotonin inhibits gastric secretion and stimulates the smooth muscle of the
intestines.
Alleged hallucinogenic effects of the smoke of burning banana peel have been investigated scientifically and
have not been confirmed.
Folklore
The banana plant because of its continuous reproduction is regarded by Hindus as a symbol of fertility and
prosperity, and the leaves and fruits are deposited on doorsteps of houses where marriages are taking place. A
banana plant is often installed in the corner of a rice field as a protective charm. Malay women bathe with a
decoction of banana leaves for 15 days after childbirth. Early Hawaiians used a young plant as a truce flag in
wars.
Fig

Morton, J. 1987. Fig. p. 4750. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Fig
Ficus carica
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting and Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
While the ancient history of the fig centers around the Mediterranean region, and it is most
commonly cultivated in mild-temperate climates, it nevertheless has its place in tropical and
subtropical horticulture. Botanically identified as Ficus carica L. (family Moraceae), it is unique
in a genus embracing perhaps over 1,000 species, mostly giant "rubber trees", and mostly tropical.
It is almost universally known simply as fig, common fig, or edible fig. The name is very similar
in French (figue), German (feige), Italian and Portuguese (figo). In Spanish it is higo or brevo.
Haitians give it the name, figue France, to distinguish it from the small, dried bananas called
"figs".
Description
The fig is a tree of small dimensions, 10 to 30 ft (3-9 m) high, with numerous spreading branches
and a trunk rarely more than 7 in (17.5 cm) in diameter. It contains copious milky latex. The root
system is typically shallow and spreading, sometimes covering 50 ft (15 m) of ground, but in
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/fig.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:33:36 PM]
Fig
permeable soil some of the roots may

descend to 20 ft (6 m). The deciduous
leaves are palmate, deeply divided into 3 to
7 main lobes, these more shallowly lobed
and irregularly toothed on the margins. The
blade is up to 10 in (25 cm) in length and
width, fairly thick, rough on the upper
surface, softly hairy on the underside. What
is commonly accepted as a "fruit" is
technically a synconium, that is, a fleshy,
hollow receptacle with a small opening at
the apex partly closed by small scales. It
may be obovoid, turbinate, or pear-shaped,
1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long, and varies in
color from yellowish-green to coppery,
bronze, or dark-purple. Tiny flowers are
massed on the inside wall. In the case of the
common fig discussed here, the flowers are
all female and need no pollination. There
are 3 other types, the ''Caprifig'' which has Plate V: FIG, Ficus carica
male and female flowers requiring visits by
a tiny wasp, Blastophaga grossorum; the "Smyrna" fig, needing crosspollination by Caprifigs in
order to develop normally; and the "San Pedro" fig which is intermediate, its first crop independent
like the common fig, its second crop dependent on pollination. The skin of the fig is thin and
tender, the fleshy wall is whitish, pale-yellow, or amber, or more or less pink, rose, red or purple;
juicy and sweet when ripe, gummy with latex when unripe. Seeds may be large, medium, small or
minute and range in number from 30 to 1,600 per fruit.
The fig is believed to be indigenous to Western Asia and to have been distributed by man
throughout the Mediterranean area. It has been cultivated for thousands of years, remnants of figs
having been found in excavations of Neolithic sites traced to at least 5,000 B.C. As time went on,
the fig-growing territory stretched from Afghanistan to southern Germany and the Canary Islands.
Pliny was aware of 29 types. Figs were introduced into England some time between 1525 and
1548. It is not clear when the common fig entered China but by 1550 it was reliably reported to be
in Chinese gardens. European types were taken to China, Japan, India, South Africa and Australia.
The first figs in the New World were planted in Mexico in 1560. Figs were introduced into
California when the San Diego Mission was established in 1769. Later, many special varieties
were received from Europe and the eastern United States where the fig reached Virginia in 1669.
The Smyrna fig was brought to California in 1881-82 but it was not until 1900 that the wasp was
introduced to serve as the pollinating agent and make commercial fig culture possible. From
Virginia, fig culture spread to the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana
and Texas. The tree was planted in Bermuda in early times and was common around Bahamian
plantations in Colonial days. It became a familiar dooryard plant in the West Indies, and at
medium and low altitudes in Central America and northern South America. There are fair-sized
Fig
plantations on mountainsides of Honduras and at low elevations on the Pacific side of Costa Rica.
From Florida to northern South America and in India only the common fig is grown. Chile and
Argentina grow the types suited to cooler zones.
In Venezuela, the fig is one of the fruits in greatest demand by fruit processors. Because of the
inadequate supply, a program was launched in 1960 to encourage commercial plantings. In 1976,
fresh figs were regarded as highly desirable luxuries and were selling for $6.35 to $7.25 per lb
($14-$16/kg) in Colombia. The Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario had realized some years
earlier that fig growing should be encouraged and had established an experimental plantation in
1973. The results were so favorable that they circulated an advisory bulletin to farmers in 1977,
including improved methods of cultivation, costs of production and potential revenue.
Varieties
There are many cultivated varieties in each class of figs. In fact, over 700 varietal names are in use
but many are synonyms. Here we need only present those that are suited to warm areas and do not
require pollination. Most popular among these are 'Celeste' and 'Brown Turkey', followed by
'Brunswick' and 'Marseilles', described as follows:
'Celeste'pear-shaped, ribbed, sometimes with a short neck and slender stalk to 3/4 in (2 cm)
long; the eye (opening at apex) is closed; the fruit is small to medium; the skin purplish-brown or
bronze tinged with purple and covered with bloom; the pulp whitish or pinkish amber, of rich
flavor and good quality; almost seedless. Main crop is heavy but of short duration. There is rarely
an early, "breba", crop.
'Brown Turkey'broad-pyriform, usually without neck; medium to large; copper-colored; pulp
is whitish shading to pink or light red; of good to very good quality; with few seeds. The tree is
prolific. The main crop, beginning in mid-July, is large; the early, breba, crop is small. This
cultivar is well adapted to warm climates. It is grown on all the islands of Hawaii.
'Brunswick' ('Magnolia')leaves narrow-lobed; fruits of main crop are oblique-turbinate, mostly
without neck; fruit stalk thick, often swollen; fruit of medium size; bronze or purple-brown; pulp
whitish near skin, shading to pink or amber; hollow in center; of fair to good quality; nearly
seedless. Ripens over a long season. Breba crop poor; large, bronze-skinned; flesh light-red;
coarse.
'Marseilles' ('White Marseilles', or 'Lemon')fruits of main crop round to oblate without neck; on
slender stalks to 1/4 in (6 mm) long; of medium size. Those of breba crop, turbinate with short,
thick neck and short stalk; yellow-green with small green flecks; pulp white, sweet; seeds large,
conspicuous. Of fair quality.
In Queensland, 'Brown Turkey', 'Adriatic', 'Genoa' and 'Purple Genoa' perform very well.
'Adriatic' ('White Adriatic', or 'Grosse Verte')turbinate with short, thick neck and short stalk;
above medium size; green to yellowish-green with red pulp; of distinctive flavor and very good
quality. In early, minor, breba crop the fruits are oblique-pyriform, large, green, often tinged with
purplish-red with dark-red pulp and strong flavor.
'Genoa' ('White Genoa')pyriform or turbinate, very faintly ribbed; neck thick and short, or
Fig
absent; above medium in size; skin downy, greenish-yellow; pulp greenish-white near skin, mostly
amber tinged with red; hollow; of fair quality. Fruits of breba crop oblique-obovate with thick
neck and short stalk; yellowish-green externally; pulp light-red; of fair to good quality.
'Purple Genca' ('Black Genoa'; 'Black Spanish') oblong, broad at apex, narrow at base; large; very
dark-purple with thick blue bloom; pulp yellowish becoming reddish to red at the center; juicy,
with sweet, rich flavor.
At Saharanpur, India, 'Brown Turkey', 'Bangalore', 'Black Ischia' and 'Lucknow' are successfully
grown. Around Bombay, there is only one variety, 'Poona'.
'Black Ischia' ('Blue Ischia')an Italian variety; main crop is elongated pear shaped with many
noticeable rlbs; short neck and short to medium stalk; large, 2 1/2 in (6.35 cm) long and 1 1/2 in
(3.8 cm) wide; dark purple-black except at the apex where it is lighter and greenish; there are many
golden flecks; skin is wholly coated with thin, dark-blue bloom; eye open, with red-violet scales;
pulp is violet-red, of good quality. In the breba crop, there are few rlbs and mostly indistinct; the
fruit is small, about 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) long and of the same width at the apex; the pulp is red to
greenish-amber; of poor flavor. The tree is particularly ornamental and the leaves are glossy, only
shallowly 3 lobed. A heavy bearer.
'Poona'-bell-shaped, of medium size, weighing about 1 1/2 oz (42 g); thin-skinned; light-purple
with red flesh, of sweet, good flavor.
We have no descriptions of 'Bangalore' and 'Lucknow'.
Climate
In southern India, 'Marseilles' flourishes on hills above 5,000 ft (1,525 m). In tropical areas
generally, figs thrive between 2,600 and 5,900 ft (800-1,800 m). The tree can tolerate 10 to 20 of
frost in favorable sites. It should have a dry climate with light early spring rains if it is intended for
the production of fresh fruit. Rains during fruit development and ripening are detrimental to the
crop, causing the fruits to split. The semi arid tropical and subtropical regions of the world are
ideal for fig-growing if means of irrigation are available. But very hot, dry spells will cause
fruit-drop even if the trees are irrigated.
Soil
The fig can be grown on a wide range of soils; light sand, rich loam, heavy clay or limestone,
providing there is sufficient depth and food drainage. Sandy soil that is medium-dry and contains a
good deal of lime is preferred when the crop is intended for drying. Highly acid soils are
unsuitable. The pH should be between 6.0 and 6.5. The tree is fairly tolerant of moderate salinity.
Propagation
Fig trees have been raised from seed, even seed extracted from commercial dried fruits. Groundor air-layering can be done satisfactorily, and rapid mass multiplication by tissue culture has been
achieved in Greece, but the tree is commonly propagated by cuttings of mature wood 2 to 3 years
of age, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) thick and 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) long. Planting must be done
within 24 hours but, first, the upper, slanting end of the cutting should be treated with a sealant to
protect it from disease, and the lower, flat, end with a root-promoting hormone. Trees of
Fig
unsatisfactory varieties can be topworked by shield- or patch-budding, or cleft- or bark-grafting.

Culture
Cuttings are raised in nursery beds and are set out in the field after 12 or 15 months. They may be
spaced from 6 to 25 ft (1.8-7.5 m) apart depending on the cultivar and the fertility of the soil. A
spacing of 13 x 13 ft (4x4 m) allows 260 trees/acre (625 trees/ha). In Colombia, growers are
advised to set the trees at 10 x 10 ft (3x3 m) on level land, 10 x 13 ft (3x4 m) on slopes. Fruiting
will commence in less than a year from planting out. Young plants will benefit from shading with
palm fronds or other material until they are well established. A fertilizer formula of 10-30-10 or
10-20-20 NPK is recommended 2 oz (about 60 g) each for young plants and 1/5 lb (100 g) each for
adults, plus minor elements at the rate of 1 oz (30 g) per tree every 6 months.
Fig trees are cut back severely in fall or winter, depending on whether the crop is desired the
following summer or fall. Branches are often notched to induce lateral branching and increase the
yield. If there are heavy rains, drainage ditches should be dug to prevent water-logging. Fig trees
remain productive up to 12 or 15 years of age and thereafter the crop declines though the trees may
live to a very advanced age.
Season
Fig trees usually bear 2 crops a year, the early season ("breba") fruits being inferior and frequently
too acid, and only those of the second, or main, crop of actual value.
In Colombia and Venezuela, some fruits are borne throughout the year but there are 2 principal
crops, one in May and June and the other in December and January.
Large-scale fig producers in California spray ethephon to speed up ripening and then
wind-machines are drawn past the trees or helicopter overflights are made to hasten fruit drop, thus
shortening the harvest period by as much as 10 days in order to avoid impending rain and insect
attack. Proper timing of the growth regulator is crucial to fruit quality.
The fruits may be picked from the tree or gathered normally or by mechanical sweepers after they
fall to the ground. 'Brunswick' is so tender it must be picked when slightly unripe in order to be
firm enough for processing. Workers must wear gloves and protective clothing because of the
latex. Harvested fruits are spread out in the shade for a day so that the latex will dry a little. Then
they are transported to processing plants in wooden boxes holding 22 to 33 lbs (10-15 kg). In
India, a fig tree bears 180 to 360 fruits per year. Venezuelan growers expect 132 to 176 lbs (6-8
kg) per tree.
Keeping Quality
Fresh figs are very perishable. At 40 to 43F (4.44-6.11C) and 75% relative humidity, figs
remain in good condition for 8 days but have a shelf life of only 1 to 2 days when removed from
storage. At 50F (10C) and relative humidity of 85%, figs can be kept no longer than 21 days.
They remain in good condition for 30 days when stored at 32 to 35 F (0-1.67 C). If frozen
whole, they can be maintained for several months.
Fig
Pests and Diseases

Fig trees are prone to attack by nematodes (especially Meloidogyne spp.) and, in the tropics, have
been traditionally planted close to a wall or building so that the roots can go underneath and escape
damage. A heavy mulch will serve equally well. Today, control is possible with proper application
of nematicides.
In India, a stem-borer, Batocera rufomaculata, feeds on the branches and may kill the tree.
Lepidopterous pests in Venezuela include the fig borer, Azochis gripusalis, the larvae of which
feed on the new growth, tunnel down through the trees to the roots and kill the tree. Another,
called cachudo de la higuera, has prominently horned larvae up to 3 1/8 in (8 cm) long that can
destroy a fig tree in a few days. There are also coleopterous insects of the genera Epitrix and
Colaspis that perforate and severely damage the leaves and shoots. Scale insects include
Asterolecanium sp. which attacks the bark of trees weakened by excessive humidity or prolonged
drought, and the lesser enemy, Saissetia haemispherica.
A common and widespread problem is leaf rust caused by Cerotelium fici; bringing about
premature leaf fall and reducing yields. It is most prevalent in rainy seasons. Leaf spot results from
infection by Cylindrocladium scoparium or Cercospora fici. Fig mosaic is caused by a virus and is
incurable. Affected trees must be destroyed.
The dried fruit beetle, or sour bug, Carpophilus spp., enters the fruit through the eye and leads to
souring and smut caused by Aspergillus niger. This fungus may attack ripening fruits.
Food Uses
Some people peel the skin back from the stem end to expose the flesh for eating out of-hand. The
more fastidious eater holds the fruit by the stem end, cuts the fruit into quarters from the apex,
spreads the sections apart and lifts the flesh from the skin with a knife blade, discarding the stem
and skin. Commercially, figs are peeled by immersion for 1 minute in boiling lye water or a
boiling solution of sodium bicarbonate. In warm, humid climates, figs are generally eaten fresh
and raw without peeling, and they are often served with cream and sugar. Peeled or unpeeled, the
fruits may be merely stewed or cooked in various ways, as in pies, puddings, cakes, bread or other
bakery products, or added to ice cream mix. Home owners preserve the whole fruits in sugar sirup
or prepare them as jam, marmalade, or paste. Fig paste (with added wheat and corn flour, whey,
sirup, oils and other ingredients) forms the filling for the well known bakery product, "Fig
Newton". The fruits are sometimes candied whole commercially. In Europe; western Asia,
northern Africa and California, commercial canning and drying of figs are industries of great
importance.
Some drying is done in Poona, India, and there is currently interest in solar-drying in Guatemala.
Usually, the fruits are allowed to fully ripen and partially dehydrate on the tree, then are exposed
to sulphur fumes for about a half hour, placed out in the sun and turned daily to achieve uniform
drying, and pressed flat during the 5- to 7-day process. 'Black Mission' and 'Kadota' figs are
suitable for freezing whole in sirup, or sliced and layered with sugar.
Dried cull figs have been roasted and ground as a coffee substitute. In Mediterranean countries,
low-grade figs are converted into alcohol. An alcoholic extract of dried figs has been used as a
flavoring for liqueurs and tobacco.
Fig
Toxicity
The latex of the unripe fruits and of any part of the tree may be severely irritating to the skin if not
removed promptly. It is an occupational hazard not only to fig harvesters and packers but also to
workers in food industries, and to those who employ the latex to treat skin diseases.
Other Uses
Seed oil: Dried seeds contain 30% of a fixed oil containing the fatty acids: oleic, 18.99%; linoleic,
33.72%; linolenic, 32.95%; palmitic, 5.23%; stearic, 2.1 8%; arachidic, 1.05%. It is an edible oil
and can be used as a lubricant.
Leaves: Fig leaves are used for fodder in India. They are plucked after the fruit harvest. Analyses
show: moisture, 67.6%; protein, 4.3%; fat, 1.7%; crude fiber, 4.7%; ash, 5.3%; N-free extract,
16.4%; pentosans, 3.6%; carotene on a dry weight basis, 0.002%. Also present are bergaptene,
stigmasterol, sitosterol, and tyrosine.
In southern France, there is some use of fig leaves as a source of perfume material called "fig-leaf
absolute"a dark-green to brownish-green, semi-solid mass or thick liquid of
herbaceous-woody-mossy odor, employed in creating woodland scents.
Latex: The latex contains caoutchouc (2.4%), resin, albumin, cerin, sugar and malic acid, rennin,
proteolytic enzymes, diastase, esterase, lipase, catalase, and peroxidase. It is collected at its peak of
activity in early morning, dried and powdered for use in coagulating milk to make cheese and
junket. From it can be isolated the protein-digesting enzyme ficin which is used for tenderizing
meat, rendering fat, and clarifying beverages.
In tropical America, the latex is often used for washing dishes, pots and pans. It was an ingredient
in some of the early commercial detergents for household use but was abandoned after many
reports of irritated or inflamed hands in housewives.
Medicinal Uses: The latex is widely applied on warts, skin ulcers and sores, and taken as a
purgative and vermifuge, but with considerable risk. In Latin America, figs are much employed as
folk remedies. A decoction of the fruits is gargled to relieve sore throat; figs boiled in milk are
repeatedly packed against swollen gums; the fruits are much used as poultices on tumors and other
abnormal growths. The leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diabetes and calcifications in the
kidneys and liver. Fresh and dried figs have long been appreciated for their laxative action.
Calories
Moisture
Fresh
80
77.5-86.8g
Dried
274
23.0g
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
1.2-1.3g
0.14-0.30g
17.1-20.3g
1.2-2.2 g
4.3g
1.3g
69.1g
5.6 g
Fig
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Carotene
as Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.48 0.85 g
35-78.2 mg
22-32.9 mg
0.6-4.09 mg
2.0 mg
194 mg
0.013-0.195 mg
20-270 I.U.
0.034-0.06 mg
0.053-0.079 mg
0.32-0.412 mg
12.2-17.6 mg
Citric Acid
0.10-0.44 mg
2.3 g
126 mg
77 mg
3.0 mg
34 mg
640 mg
80 I.U.
0.10 mg
0.10 mg
0.7 mg
0 mg
Note: There are small amounts of malic, boric and oxalic acids.
*According to analyses made in India, Hawaii, Central America, and by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture in Washington, D.C
Breadfruit

Morton, J. 1987. Breadfruit. p. 5058. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Breadfruit
Artocarpus altilis
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
One of the great food producers in its realm and widely known, at least by name, through its
romanticized and dramatized history, the breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis Fosb. (syns. A. communis
J.R. and G. Forst.; A. incisus L.f.) belongs to the mulberry family, Moraceae. The common name is
almost universal, in English, or tanslated into Spanish as fruta de pan (fruit), or arbor de pan,
arbor del pan (tree), or pan de pobre; into French, as fruit a pain (seedless), chataignier
(withseeds), arbre a pain (tree); Portuguese, fruta pao, or pao de massa; Dutch, broodvrucht
(fruit), broodboom (tree). InVenezuela it may be called pan de ano, pan de todo el ano, pan de
palo, pan de name, topan, or tupan; in Guatemale and Honduras, mazapan (seedless), castana
(with seeds); in Peru, marure; in Yucatan, castano de Malabar (with seeds); in Puerto Rico,
panapen (seedless), pana de pepitas (with seeds). In Malaya and Java, it is suku or sukun
(seedless); kulur, kelur, or kulor (with seeds); in Thailand, sa-ke, in the Philippines, rimas
(seedless); in Hawaii, ulu. The type with seeds is sometimes called "breadnut", a name better
limited to Brosimum alicastrum Swartz, an edible-seeded tree of Yucatan, Central America and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/breadfruit.html (1 of 15) [5/16/2004 1:33:38 PM]
Breadfruit
nearby areas. Its Spanish name is ramon and the seeds, leaves and twigs are prized as stock feed.
Description
The breadfruit tree is handsome and fast
growing, reaching 85 ft (26 m) in height,
often with a clear trunk to 20 ft (6 m)
becoming 2 to 6 ft (0.6-1.8 m) in width and
often buttressed at the base, though some
varieties may never exceed 1/4 or 1/2 of
these dimensions. There are many spreading
branches, some thick with lateral
foliage-bearing branchlets, others long and
slender with foliage clustered only at their
tips. The leaves, evergreen or deciduous
depending on climatic conditions, on thick,
yellow petioles to 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) long, are
ovate, 9 to 36 in (22.8-90 cm) long, 8 to 20 Fig. 13: Ripe breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis). In: K. & J.
in (20-50 cm) wide, entire at the base, then Morton, Fifty Tropical Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
more or less deeply cut into 5 to 11 pointed
lobes. They are bright-green and glossy on the upper surface, with conspicuous yellow veins; dull,
yellowish and coated with minute, stiff hairs on the underside.
The tree bears a multitude of tiny flowers, the male densely set on a drooping, cylindrical or
club-shaped spike 5 to 12 in (12.5-30 cm) long and 1 to 1 1/2 in (2.5-3.75 cm) thick, yellowish at
first and becoming brown. The female are massed in a somewhat rounded or elliptic, green, prickly
head, 2 1/2 in (6.35 cm) long and 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) across, which develops into the compound fruit
(or syncarp), oblong, cylindrical, ovoid, rounded or pearshaped, 3 1/2 to 18 in (9-45 cm) in length
and 2 to 12 in (5-30 cm) in diameter. The thin rind is patterned with irregular, 4- to 6-sided faces,
in some "smooth" fruits level with the surface, in others conical; in some, there may rise from the
center of each face a sharp, black point, or a green, pliable spine to 1/8 in (3 mm) long or longer.
Some fruits may have a harsh, sandpaper-like rind. Generally the rind is green at first, turning
yellowish-green, yellow or yellow-brown when ripe, though one variety is lavender.
In the green stage, the fruit is hard and the
interior is white, starchy and somewhat
fibrous. When fully ripe, the fruit is
somewhat soft, the interior is cream colored
or yellow and pasty, also sweetly fragrant.
The seeds are irregularly oval, rounded at
one end, pointed at the other, about 3/4 in (2
cm) long, dull-brown with darker stripes. In
the center of seedless fruits there is a
cylindrical or oblong core, in some types
covered with hairs bearing flat, brown,
abortive seeds about 1/8 in (3 mm) long.
The fruit is borne singly or in clusters of 2
or 3 at the branch tips. The fruit stalk
Breadfruit
(pedicel) varies from 1 to 5 in (2.5-12.5 cm)

long.
All parts of the tree, including the unripe
fruit, are rich in milky, gummy latex. There
are two main types: the normal, "wild" type
(cultivated in some areas) with seeds and
little pulp, and the "cultivated" (more
widely grown) seedless type, but
occasionally a few fully developed seeds are
found in usually seedless cultivars. Some
forms with entire leaves and with both seeds
and edible pulp have been classified by Dr.
F.R. Fosberg as belonging to a separate
species, A. mariannensis Trecul. but these
commonly integrate with A. altilis and some
other botanists regard them as included in
that highly variable species.
The breadfruit is believed to be native to a
vast area extending from New Guinea
through the Indo-Malayan Archipelago to
Western Micronesia. It is said to have been
widely spread in the Pacific area by
Fig. 14 Breadfruit is borne singly or in 2's or 3's at the branch
migrating Polynesians, and Hawaiians
tips of this handsome, large-leaved tree.
believed that it was brought from the
Samoan island of Upalu to Oahu in the 12th Century A.D. It is said to have been first seen by
Europeans in the Marquesas in 1595, then in Tahiti in 1606. At the beginning of the 18th Century,
the early English explorers were loud in its praises, and its fame, together with several periods of
famine in Jamaica between 1780 and 1786, inspired plantation owners in the British West Indies to
petition King George III to import seedless breadfruit trees to provide food for their slaves.
There is good evidence that the French navigator Sonnerat in 1772 obtained the seeded breadfruit
in the Philippines and brought it to the French West Indies. It seems also that some seedless and
seeded breadfruit plants reached Jamaica from a French ship bound for Martinique but captured by
the British in 1782. There were at least two plants of the seeded breadfruit in Jamaica in 1784 and
distributions were quickly made to the other islands. There is a record of a plant having been sent
from Martinique to the St. Vincent Botanical Garden before 1793. The story of Captain Thigh's
first voyage to Tahiti, in 1787, and the loss of his cargo of 1,015 potted breadfruit plants on his
disastrous return voyage is well known. He set out again in 1791 and delivered 5 different kinds
totalling 2,126 plants to Jamaica in February 1793. On that island, the seedless breadfruit
flourished and it came to be commonly planted in other islands of the West Indies, in the lowlands
of Central America and northern South America. In some areas, only the seedless type is grown, in
others, particularly Haiti, the seeded is more common. Jamaica is by far the leading producer of
the seedless type, followed by St. Lucia. In New Guinea, only the seeded type is grown for food.
Breadfruit
It has been suggested that the seeded breadfruit was carried by Spaniards from the Philippines to
Mexico and Central America long before any reached the West Indies. On the Pacific coast of
Central America, the seeded type is common and standard fare for domestic swine. On the Atlantic
Coast, seedless varieties are much consumed by people of African origin. The breadfruit tree is
much grown for shade in Yucatan. It is very common in the lowlands of Colombia, a popular food
in the Cauca Valley, the Choco, and the San Andres Islands; mostly fed to live stock in other areas.
In Guyana, in 1978, about 1,000 new breadfruit trees were being produced each year but not nearly
enough to fill requests for plants. There and in Trinidad, because of many Asians in the population,
both seeded and seedless breadfruits are much appreciated as a regular article of the diet; in some
other areas of the Caribbean, breadfruit is regarded merely as a food for the poor for use only in
emergencies. Nowadays, it is attracting the attention of gourmets and some islands are making
small shipments to the United States, Canada and Europe for specialized ethnic markets. In the
Palau Islands of the South Pacific, breadfruit is being outclassed by cassava and imported flour
and rice. For some time breadfruit was losing ground to taro (Colocasia esculenta Schott.) in
Hawaii, but now land for taro is limited and its culture is static.
The United States Department of Agriculture brought in breadfruit plants from the Canal Zone,
Panama, in 1906 (S.P.I. #19228). For many years there have been a number of seedless breadfruit
trees in Key West, Florida, and there is now at least one on Vaca Key about 50 miles to the
northeast. On the mainland of Florida, the tree can be maintained outdoors for a few years with
mild winters but, unless protected with plastic covering to prevent dehydration, it ultimately
succumbs. A few have been kept alive in greenhouses or conservatories such as the Rare Plant
House of Fairchild Tropical Garden, and the indoor garden of the Jamaica Inn on Key Biscayne.
Varieties
An unpublished report of 1921 covered 200 cultivars of breadfruit in the Marquesas. The South
Pacific Commission published the results of a breadfruit survey in 1966. In it, there were described
166 named sorts from Tonga, Niue, Western and American Samoa, Papua and New Guinea, New
Hebrides and Rotuma. There are 70 named varieties of seeded and seedless breadfruits in Fiji.
They are locally separated into 8 classes by leaf form. The following, briefly presented, are those
that are recorded as "very good". It will be noted that some varietal names are reported under more
than one class.
Class I: Leaf entire, or with one or two, occasionally, three lobes.
'Koqo' round; 4 in (10 cm) wide; seedless; does not deteriorate quickly.
'Tamaikora'gourd shaped (constricted around middle); to 4 1/2 in (11.5 cm) long, 3 in (7.5 cm)
wide; with many seeds. Can be eaten raw when ripe. Highly perishable. Tree to 40 or 45 ft
(12-13.5 m).
Class II: Leaf dissected at apex.
'Temaipo'round; 3 1/2 in (9 cm) long; seedless. Can be eaten raw when ripe. There is also an
oblong form with many seeds.
Class III: Leaf moderately deeply dissected at apex.
Breadfruit
'Uto Kuro'round; 5 in (12.5 cm) long; does not deteriorate quickly.

Class IV: Leaf moderately deeply dissected on upper half.
'Samoa'('Kasa Balavu') round; 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) long; seeds sparse to many.
'Uto Yalewa'oblong; to 8 in (20 cm) long and 6 in (15 cm) wide; seedless.
'Kulu Dina'oblong; to 16 in (40 cm) long and 13 in (33 cm) wide; seedless. Need not be peeled
after cooking. Tree bears all year.
'Sogasoga'oblong; to 9 in (23 cm) long and 6 1/2 in (16.5 cm) wide; seedless.
'Uto Dina'oblong; to 6 in (15 cm) long and 3 to 3 1/2 in (7.5-9 cm) wide; seedless; need not be
peeled after cooking. Tree 60 to 70 ft (18-21 m) high.
'Buco Ni Viti'oblong; 11 to 14 in (28-35.5 cm) long, 6 to 7 in (15-18 cm) wide; seedless; one of
the best cultivars.
'Tamaikora'oblong; 7 to 9 in (18-23 cm) long, 5 to 6 1/2 in (12.5-16.5 cm) wide; seeds sparse;
pulp eaten raw when ripe. Tree to 75 or 85 ft (23-26 m) high; bears 2 crops per year.
'Kulu Mabomabo'oval; 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) long, 4 to 5 1/2 in (10-14 cm) wide; seedless.
Class V: Leaf moderately deeply dissected; shape of leaf base variable.
'Uto Dina'round; 4 1/2 to 5 in (11.5-12.5 cm) wide; seed less. Highly recommended. Tree is
25-30 ft (7.5-9 m) tall.
'Balekana Ni Samoa'round; 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) long; seeds sparse. Best of all Samoan
varieties. There is an oval form by the same name; seedless; deteriorates very quickly.
'Balekana Ni Vita'round; 3 1/2 to 4 in (9-10 cm) long; seedless. Does not deteriorate quickly.
'Balekana Dina'oval; 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) long, 3 to 5 in (7.5-12.5 cm) wide; seeds sparse. One
of the best, especially when boiled.
'Tabukiraro'round; 8 in (20 cm) long; seedless; skin sometimes eaten after cooking.
'Sici Ni Samoa'oval; 5 to 6 in (12.5-15 cm) long, 3 to 3 1/2 in (7.5-9 cm) wide; seedless. One of
the highly recommended Samoan varieties.
'Uto Me'oval; 5 to 6 3/4 in (12.5-17 cm) long, 4 1/2 to 5 in (11.5 cm) wide; with many seeds;
does not deteriorate quickly.
'Uto Wa'oval; 6 to 7 1/2 in (15-19 cm) long, 5 to 5 1/2 in (12.5-14 cm) wide. The variety most
recommended.
'Kulu Vawiri'oval; 9 to 12 in (22-30 cm) long, 8 to 9 in (20-22 cm) wide; especially good when
boiled.
Class VI: Leaf deeply dissected.
Breadfruit
'Kulu Dina'round; 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) long; seedless. Need not be peeled after boiling. Highly
recommended.
'Balekana'oval; 4 in (10 cm) long, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide; of the best quality. Tree 70 to 80 ft
(21-24 m) high.
'Balekana Ni Samoa'round; 3 in (7.5 cm) long; seeds sparse. Best of all Samoan varieties.
'Balekana Ni Viti'oblong; 5 to 6 in (12.5-15 cm) long, 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) wide; seedless. The
best native-type variety.
'Uto Dina'('Kasa Leka') round; 4 in (10 cm) long; seedless.
'Uto Matala'round; 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) long. Especially fine when boiled. Tree bears 3 times
a year.
Class VII: Leaf deeply dissected; apex pointed.
'Balekana Ni Samoa'round; 5 to 5 1/2 in (12.5-14 cm) long; seeds sparse. Best of all Samoan
varieties.
'Kulu Dina'('Kasa Balavu') oval; 6 to 7 in (15-18 cm) long, 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) wide;
seedless.
'Uto Dina'(Large) oval; 8 to 9 in (20-22 cm) long, 4 to 7 in (10-18 cm) wide; seedless. Also, by
the same name, a form with only moderately dissected leaves.
'Bokasi'round; 4 in (10 cm) long, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide.
Class VIII: Leaf deeply dissected, wide spaces between lobes.
'Savisavi Ni Samoa'oval; 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) long, 3 to 3 1/2 in (7.5-9 cm) wide. Ranks with
best Samoan varieties.
'Savisavi Ni Viti'oblong; 6 to 8 in(16-20 cm) long, 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) wide; seedless;
especially good when boiled.
'Savisavi'round; 3 to 3 1/2 in (7.5-9 cm) wide; especially good when boiled.
'Balawa Ni Viti'oval; 6 to 7 in (15-18 cm) long, 3 1/2 to 4 in (9-10 cm) wide; seedless.
'Uto Kasekasei'round; 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) long; seeds sparse.
'Via Loa'oblong; 6 to 7 in (15-18 cm) long, 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) wide; seedless; does not
deteriorate quickly.
Koroieveibau provides a key to the 8 classes illustrated by leaf and fruit outline sketches.
P.J. Wester, in 1928, published descriptions of 52 breadfruit cultivars of the Pacific Islands. In the
book, The Breadfruit of Tahiti; by G.P. Wilder, there are detailed descriptions and close-up,
black-and-white photographic illustrations of the foliage and fruit of 30 named varieties, and of the
foliage only of one which did not have mature fruit at the time of writing. One 'Aata', an oblong
fruit, is described as of poor quality and eaten by humans only when better breadfruits are scarce,
Breadfruit
but it is important as feed for pigs and horses. The tree bears heavily. Among the best are:
'Aravei'fruit ellipsoidal; large, 8 to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, 6 to 9 in (15-22 cm) wide; rind
yellowish-green with brown spots on the sunny side; rough, with sharp points which are shed on
maturity. Pulp is light-yellow, dry or flaky and of delicious flavor after cooking which takes very
little time. Core long, slim, with many abortive seeds.
'Havana'fruit oval-round; the rind yellowish-green, spiny; pulp golden-yellow, moist, pasty,
separates into loose flakes when cooked; very sweet with excellent flavor; core oval, large, with a
row of abortive seeds. Very perishable; must be used within 2 days; cooks quickly over fire. Fruit
borne in 2's and 3's. Popularly claimed to be one of the best breadfruits.
'Maohi'fruit round; 6 in (15 cm) wide; rind bright yellow-green with patches of red-brown;
rough, with spines, and often bears much exuded latex. Pulp cream-colored and smooth when
cooked; of very good flavor; slow cooking, needs even heat. Core is large. Fruit is borne in 2's and
3's. Tree a heavy bearer. This is the most common breadfruit of Tahiti.
'Paea'ellipsoidal; very large, to 11 in (28 cm) long and 9 in (22.8 cm) wide; rind
yellowish-green, spiny; core oblong, thick, with a row of brown, abortive seeds; pulp
bright-yellow, moist, slightly pasty, separating into flakes when cooked; agreeable but only one of
its forms, 'Paea Maaroaro', is really sweet. Formerly, 'Paea' was reserved for chiefs only. Needs
one hour to roast on open fire. The tree is tall, especially well formed and elegant.
'Pei'broad-ellipsoidal; large; rind light-green, relatively smooth; pulp light-yellow and flaky
when cooked, aromatic, of sweet, delicious "fruity" flavor; cooks quickly. Ripens earlier than
others. When the breadfruit crop is scant, the fruits of this cultivar are stored by burying in the
ground until needed, even for a year, then taken up, wrapped in Cordyline leaves and boiled.
'Pucro'fruit spherical or elongated; large; rind yellow-green with small brown spots, very
rough, spiny, thin; pulp light-yellow and smooth, of excellent flavor. Cooks quickly. Highly
esteemed, ranked with the very best breadfruits. There are two oblong forms, one with a large,
hairy core.
'Rare'fruit broad-ovoid; to 7 in (17.5 cm) long, rind bright-green, rough, spiny; pulp of
deep-cream tone, fine-grained, smooth, flaky when cooked; of very sweet, excellent flavor. Core is
small with a great many small abortive seeds. Must be cooked for about one hour. There are 3
forms that are well recognized. Fruits are borne singly on a tall, open, short branched tree.
'Rare Aumee'fruit round; 6 1/2 in (16.5 cm) across; rind bright-green with red-brown splotches,
fairly smooth at the base but rough at the apex; pulp deep-ivory, firm, smooth when cooked; not
very sweet but of excellent flavor. Cooks quickly. Highly prized; in scarce supply because the tall,
few branched tree bears scantily.
'Rare Autia'fruit round; 6 in (15 cm) across; rind dull-green with red-brown markings. Pulp
light-yellow when cooked and separates into chunks; has excellent flavor. Core is large with small
abortive seeds all around. This cultivar is so superior it was restricted to royalty and high chiefs in
olden times.
'Tatara'fruit broad-ellipsoid; verylarge, up to 10 lbs(4.5 kg) in weight; rind has prominent faces
Breadfruit
with long green spines; pulp light-yellow, smooth when cooked and of pleasant flavor. Core is
oblong. This variety is greatly esteemed. The tree is found only in a small coastal valley where
there is heavy rainfall. It is of large dimensions and high-branching and it is difficult to harvest the
fruits.
'Vai Paere'fruit is obovoid; 10 to 12 in (25-30 cm) long, 7 to 8 in (17.5-20 cm) wide; rind is
yellow-green with red-brown splotches and there is a short raised point at the center of each face;
pulp light-yellow, firm, smooth, a little dryish when cooked, with a slightly acid, but excellent
flavor. Core is oblong, large, with a few abortive seeds attached. Fruit cooks easily. Tree is very
tall, bears fruit in clusters. Grows at sea level in fairly dry locations.
There are at least 50 cultivars on Ponape and about the same number on Truk. In Samoa, a variety
known as 'Maopo', with leaves that are almost entire or sometimes very shallowly lobed, is very
common and considered one of the best.
'Puou' is another choice and much planted variety since early times. It has deeply cut leaves and
nearly round fruits 6 in (15 cm) long. 'Ulu Ea', with leaves even more deeply lobed, has oblong
fruits to 6 1/8 in (15.5 cm) long and 5 in (12.5 cm) wide; is a longtime favorite.
In the past three decades there has been an awakening to the possibilities of increasing the food
supply of tropical countries by more plantings of selected varieties of seedless breadfruit. In 1958,
many appealing varieties (some early, some late in season) were collected around the South Pacific
region and transferred to Western Samoa, Tahiti and Fiji for comparative trials. Two years later,
plans were made to introduce Polynesian varieties into Micronesia, and propagating material of 36
Micronesian types was distributed to other areas.
Climate
The breadfruit is ultra-tropical, much tenderer than the mango tree. It has been reported that it
requires a temperature range of 60 to 100F (15.56-37.78C), an annual rainfall of 80 to 100 in
(203-254 cm), and a relative humidity of 70 to 80%. However, in southern India, it is cultivated at
sea level and up humid slopes to an altitude of 3,500 ft (1,065 m), also in thickets in dry regions
where it can be irrigated. In the "equatorial dry climate" of the Marquesas, where the breadfruit is
an essential crop, there is an average rainfall of only 40 to 60 in (100-150 cm) and frequent
droughts. In Central America, it is grown only below 2,000 ft (600 m).
Soil
According to many reports, the breadfruit tree must have deep, fertile, well-drained soil. But some
of the best authorities on South Pacific plants point out that the seedless breadfruit does well on
sandy coral soils, and seeded types grow naturally on "coraline limestone" islands in Micronesia.
In New Guinea, the breadfruit tree occurs wild along waterways and on the margins of forests in
the flood plain, and often in freshwater swamps. It is believed that there is great variation in the
adaptability of different strains to climatic and soil conditions, and that each should be matched
with its proper environment. The Tahitian 'Manitarvaka' is known to be drought-resistant. The
variety 'Mai-Tarika', of the Gilbert Islands, is salt-tolerant. 'Mejwaan', a seeded variety of the
Marshall Islands, is not harmed by brackish water nor salt spray and has been introduced into
Western Samoa and Tahiti.
Breadfruit
Propagation
The seeded breadfruit is always grown from seeds, which must be planted when fairly fresh as
they lose viability in a few weeks. The seedless breadfruit is often propagated by transplanting
suckers which spring up naturally from the roots. One can deliberately induce suckers by
uncovering and injuring a root. Pruning the parent tree will increase the number of suckers, and
root pruning each sucker several times over a period of months before taking it up will contribute
to its survival when transplanted. For multiplication in quantity, it is better to make root cuttings
about 1 to 2 1/2 in (2.5-6.35 cm) thick and 9 in (22 cm) long. The ends may be dipped into a
solution of potassium permanganate to coagulate the latex, and the cuttings are planted close
together horizontally in sand. They should be shaded and watered daily, unless it is possible to
apply intermittent mist. Calluses may form in 6 weeks (though rooting time may vary from 2 to 5
months) and the cuttings are transplanted to pots, at a slant, and watered once or twice a day for
several months or until the plants are 2 ft (60 cm) high. A refined method of rapid propagation
uses stem cuttings taken from root shoots. In Puerto Rico, the cuttings are transplanted into plastic
bags containing a mixture of soil, peat and sand, kept under mist for a week, then under 65%
shade, and given liquid fertilizer and regular waterings. When the root system is well developed,
they are allowed full sun until time to set out in the field.
In India, it is reported that breadfruit scions can be successfully grafted or budded onto seedlings
of wild jackfruit trees.
Culture
Young breadfruit trees are planted in well-enriched holes 15 in (40 cm) deep and 3 ft (0. 9m) wide
that are first prepared by burning trash in them to sterilize the soil and then insecticide is mixed
with the soil to protect the roots and shoots from grubs. The trees are spaced 25 to 40 ft (7.5-12 m)
apart in plantations. Usually there are about 25 trees per acre (84/ha). Those grown from root
suckers will bear in 5 years and will be productive for 50 years. Some growers recommend
pruning of branches that have borne fruit and would normally die back, because this practice
stimulates new shoots and also tends to keep the tree from being too tall for convenient harvesting.
Standard mixtures of NPK are applied seasonally. When the trees reach bearing age, they each
receive, in addition, 4.4 lbs (2 kg) superphosphate per year to increase the size and quality of the
fruits.
Season
In the South Seas, the tree fruits more or less continuously, fruit in all stages of development being
present on the tree the year around, but there are two or three main fruiting periods. In the Caroline
Islands and the Gilbert Islands, the main ripening season is May to July or September; in the
Society Islands and New Hebrides, from November to April, the secondary crop being in July and
August. Breadfruits are most abundant in Hawaiian markets off and on from July to February.
Flowering starts in March in northern India and fruits are ready for harvest in about 3 months.
Seeded breadfruits growing in the Eastern Caroline Islands fruit only once a year but the season is
3 months longfrom December to March. Seedless varieties introduced from Ponape bear 2 to 3
times a year. In the Bahamas, breadfruit is available mainly from June to November, but some
fruits may mature at other times during the year.
Breadfruit

Breadfruits are picked when maturity is indicated by the appearance of small drops of latex on the
surface. Harvesters climb the trees and break the fruit stalk with a forked stick so that the fruit will
fall. Even though this may cause some bruising or splitting, it is considered better than catching
the fruits by hand because the broken pedicel leaks much latex. They are packed in cartons in
which they are separated individually by dividers.
In the South Pacific, the trees yield 50 to 150 fruits per year. In southern India, normal production
is 150 to 200 fruits annually. Productivity varies between wet and dry areas. In the West Indies, a
conservative estimate is 25 fruits per tree. Studies in Barbados indicate a reasonable potential of
6.7 to 13.4 tons per acre (16-32 tons/ha). Much higher yields have been forecasted, but experts are
skeptical and view these as unrealistic.
Keeping Quality
In Jamaica, surplus breadfruits are often kept under water until needed. Fully ripe fruits that have
fallen from the tree can be wrapped in polyethylene, or put into polyethylene bags, and kept for 10
days in storage at a temperature of 53.6F (12C). At lower temperature, the fruit shows chilling
injury. Slightly unripe fruits that have been caught by hand when knocked down can be maintained
for 15 days under the same conditions. The thickness of the polyethylene is important: 38-or even
50-micrometer bags are beneficial, but not 25-micrometer.
Some Jamaican exporters partly roast the whole fruits to coagulate the latex, let them cool, and
then ship them by sea to New York and Europe. Various means of preserving breadfruit for future
local use are mentioned under "Food Uses", q.v.
Pests and Diseases
Soft-scales and mealybugs are found on breadfruit trees in the West Indies and ants infest branches
that die back after fruiting. In southern India, the fruits on the tree are subject to soft rot. This
fungus disease can be controlled by two sprays of Bordeaux mixture, one month apart. Young
breadfruit trees in Trinidad have been killed by a disease caused by Rosellinia sp. In the Pacific
Islands Fusarium sp. is believed to be the cause of die back, and Pythium sp. is suspected in cases
of root rot. A mysterious malady, called "Pingalap disease", killed thousands of trees from 1957 to
1960 in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the Caroline Islands, Marshalls and Mariannas. The foliage
wilts and then the branch dies back. Sometimes the whole tree is affected and killed to the roots;
occasionally only half of a tree declines. The fungus, Phytophthora palmivora, attacks the fruit on
the island of Truk. Phomopsis, Dothiorella and Phylospora cause stem-end rot.
Food Uses
Like the banana and plantain, the breadfruit may be eaten ripe as a fruit or underripe as a
vegetable. For the latter purpose, it is picked while still starchy and is boiled or, in the traditional
Pacific Island fashion, roasted in an underground oven on pre-heated rocks. Sometimes it is cored
and stuffed with coconut before roasting. Malayans peel firm-ripe fruits, slice the pulp and fry it in
sirup or palm sugar until it is crisp and brown. Filipinos enjoy the cooked fruit with coconut and
sugar.
Breadfruit
Fully ripe fruits, being sweeter, are baked whole with a little water in the pan. Some cooks remove
the stem and core before cooking and put butter and sugar in the cavity, and serve with more of the
same. Others may serve the baked fruit with butter, salt and pepper. Ripe fruits may be halved or
quartered and steamed for 1 or 2 hours and seasoned in the same manner as baked fruits. The
steamed fruit is sometimes sliced, rolled in flour and fried in deep fat. In Hawaii, underripe fruits
are diced, boiled, and served with butter and sugar, or salt and pepper, or diced and cooked with
other vegetables, bacon and milk as a chowder. In the Bahamas, breadfruit soup is made by boiling
underripe chunks of breadfruit in water until the liquid begins to thicken, then adding cooked salt
pork, chopped onion, white pepper and salt, stirring till thick, then adding milk and butter,
straining, adding a bit of sherry and simmering until ready to serve.
The pulp scraped from soft, ripe breadfruits is combined with coconut milk (not coconut water),
salt and sugar and baked to make a pudding. A more elaborate dessert is concocted of mashed ripe
breadfruit, with butter, 2 beaten eggs, sugar, nutmeg, cinnamon and rosewater, a dash of sherry or
brandy, blended and boiled. There are numerous other dishes peculiar to different areas. Breadfruit
is also candied, or sometimes prepared as a sweet pickle.
In Micronesia, the peel is scraped off with a sharpened cowrie shell, or the fruits are peeled with a
knife, cored, cut up and put into sacks or baskets, soaked in the sea for about 2 hours while being
beaten or trampled; allowed to drain on shore for a few days; then packed in banana leaf-lined
boxes to ferment for a month or much longer, the leaves being changed weekly.
In Polynesia and Micronesia, a large number of fruits are baked in a native oven and left there to
ferment. Over a period of a few weeks, batches are taken out as needed. In the New Hebrides,
peeled breadfruits are wrapped in leaves and placed to ferment in piles of stones on open beaches
where they will be flooded at high tide. In Samoa, seeded breadfruits are skinned, washed,
quartered and left to ferment in a pit lined and covered with layers of banana and Heliconia leaves,
and topped with earth and rocks. The fruits ferment for long periods, sometimes for several years,
and form a pasty mass called masi. The seeds are squeezed out, the paste is wrapped in Heliconia
leaves smeared with coconut cream and the product is baked for 2 hours. There is a strong,
cheese-like odor, but it is much relished by the natives.
The original method of poi making involved peeling, washing and halving the fruit, discarding the
core, placing the fruits in stone pits lined with leaves of Cordylme terminalis Kunth, alternating the
layers of fruit with old fermented pod, covering the upper layer with leaves, topping the pit with
soil and rocks and leaving the contents to ferment, which acidifies and preserves the breadfruit for
several years.
Modern poi is made from firm-ripe fruits, boiled whole until tender, cored, sliced, ground,
pounded to a paste, kneaded with added water to thin it, strained through cloth, and eaten. If it is to
be kept in the refrigerator for 2 days, only a little water is added in kneading; more is added and it
is strained just before serving. Food value and digestibility are improved by mixing with poi made
from taro which is rated highly as a non-allergenic food. In the Seychelles, the seedless breadfruit
is cut into slices 1/2 in (1.25 cm) thick, dried for 4 days at 120F (48.89C). In some Pacific
Islands, the fruits are partly roasted, then peeled, dried and formed into loaves for long-time
storage. The Ceylonese dip breadfruit slices into a salt solution, then blanch them in boiling water
for 5 minutes, dry them at 158F (70C) for 4 to 6 hours before storing. The slices will keep in
Breadfruit
good condition for 8 to 10 months. In Guam, cooked fruits may be mashed to a paste which is
spread out thin, dried in the sun, and wrapped in leaves for storage. It is soaked in water to soften it
for eating. This might be called "breadfruit leather". On the small Kapingamarangi Atoll in the
Caroline Islands, the cooked paste is pressed into sheets 5 ft (1.5 m) long and 20 in (50 cm) wide,
dried in the sun on coconut leaf mats, then rolled into cylinders, wrapped in Pandanus leaves and
stored for at least 3 years.
The dried fruit has been made into flour and improved methods have been explored in Barbados
and Brazil with a view to substituting breadfruit in part for wheat flour in breadmaking. The
combination has been found more nutritious than wheat flour alone. Breadfruit flour is much richer
than wheat flour in lysine and other essential amino acids. In Jamaica, the flour is boiled,
sweetened, and eaten as porridge for breakfast.
Soft or overripe breadfruit is best for making chips and these are being manufactured
commercially in Trinidad and Barbados. Some breadfruit is canned in Dominica and Trinidad for
shipment to London and New York.
In Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the South Pacific, fallen male flower spikes are boiled, peeled and
eaten as vegetables or are candied by recooking, for 2-3 hours, in sirup; then rolled in powdered
sugar and sun-dried.
The seeds are boiled, steamed, roasted over a fire or in hot coals and eaten with salt. In West
Africa, they are sometimes made into a puree. In Costa Rica, the cooked seeds are sold by street
vendors.
Underripe fruits are cooked for feeding to pigs. Soft-ripe fruits need not be cooked and constitute a
large part of the animal feed in many breadfruit-growing areas of the Old and New World.
Breadfruit has been investigated as potential material for chickfeed but has been found to produce
less weight gain than cassava or maize despite higher intake, and it also causes delayed maturity.
Experiments by technologists at the United States Department of Agriculture's Western Regional
Research Laboratory in Berkeley, California, have demonstrated that breadfruit can be
commercially dehydrated by tunnel drying or freeze-drying and the waste from these processes
constitutes a highly-digestible stock feed.
Fruit (underripe,
raw)
Calories
105-109
Moisture
62.7-89.16 g
Protein
1.3-2.24 g
Fat
0.1-0.86 g
Carbohydrates 21.5 29.49 g
Fiber
1.08 2.1 g
Ash
0.56-1.2 g
Ripe (cooked) Seeds (fresh) Seeds (roasted) Seeds (dried)
67.8 g
1.34 g
0.31 g
27.82 g
1.5 g
1.23 g
35.08-56.80 g
5.25-13.3 g
2.59-5.59 g
30.83-44.03 g
1.34-2.14g
1.50-5.58 g
43.80 g
7.72 g
3.30 g
41.61 g
1.67 g
1.90 g
13.8-19.96 g
5.1-12.79 g
15.95 g
3.0-3.87 g
3.42-3.5 g
Breadfruit
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
0.05 mg
0.04 mg
0.61-2.4 mg
0.004 mg (35-40
Carotene
I.U.)
Thiamine
0.08-0.085 mg
Riboflavin
0.033-0.07 mg
Niacin
0.506 0.92 mg
Ascorbic Acid 15 33 mg
Amino Acids [N = 16 p. 100])
Arginine
4.9
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
Aspartic Acid
Glutamic Acid
Alanine
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
1.6
6.7
7.4
5.8
1.2
8.3
6.8
7.0
7.8
10.8
11.3
3.9
7.2
6.5
5.7
0.022 g
0.062mg
0.11 mg
0.35 mg
3.78 mg
40 mg
178 mg
2.66 mg
0.12 mg
0.37 mg
0.25 mg
0.10 mg
3.54 mg
13.70 mg
0.32 mg
0.10 mg
2.94 mg
14 mg
180 mcg
84 mcg
2.6 mg
0.66
0.62
0.91
2.41
2.60
3.17
1.05
0.78
0.98
1.53
0.95
0.72
2.08
1.45
*A composite of analyses made in Central America, Mexico, Colombia, Africa and India.
Note: There are reportedly two enzymes in the breadfruitpapayotin and artocarpine.
Negron de Bravo and colleagues in Puerto Rico show niacin content up to 8.33 mg in dried,
ground seeds collected locally.
It will be seen from the above that the seedless breadfruit is low in protein, the seeds considerably
higher, and therefore the seeded breadfruit is actually of more value as food.
Breadfruit
Breadfruit flour contains 4.05% protein; 76.70% carbohydrates, and 331 calories, while cassava
flour contains,1.16% protein, 83.83% carbobydrates, and 347 calories per 100 g.
Toxicity
Most varieties of breadfruit are purgative if eaten raw. Some varieties are boiled twice and the
water thrown away, to avoid unpleasant effects, while there are a few named cultivars that can be
safely eaten without cooking.
The cyclopropane-containing sterol, cycloartenol, has been isolated from the fresh fruit. It
contitutes 12% of the non-saponifiable extract.
Other Uses
Leaves: Breadfruit leaves are eagerly eaten by domestic livestock. In India, they are fed to cattle
and goats; in Guam, to cattle, horses and pigs. Horses are apt to eat the bark of young trees as well,
so new plantings must be protected from them.
Latex: Breadfruit latex has been used in the past as birdlime on the tips of posts to catch birds.
The early Hawaiians plucked the feathers for their ceremonial cloaks, then removed the gummy
substance from the birds' feet with oil from the candlenut, Aleurites moluccana Willd., or with
sugarcane juice, and released them.
After boiling with coconut oil, the latex serves for caulking boats and, mixed with colored earth, is
used as a paint for boats.
Wood: The wood is yellowish or yellow-gray with dark markings or orange speckles; light in
weight; not very hard but strong, elastic and termite resistant (except for drywood termites) and is
used for construction and furniture. In Samoa, it is the standard material for house-posts and for
the rounded roof-ends of native houses. The wood of the Samoan variety 'Aveloloa' which has
deeply cut leaves, is most preferred for house-building, but that of 'Puou', an ancient variety, is
also utilized. In Guam and Puerto Rico the wood is used for interior partitions. Because of its
lightness, the wood is in demand for surfboards. Traditional Hawaiian drums are made from
sections of breadfruit trunks 2 ft (60 cm) long and 1 ft (30 cm) in width, and these are played with
the palms of the hands during Hula dances. After seasoning by burying in mud, the wood is valued
for making household articles. These are rough-sanded by coral and lava, but the final smoothing
is accomplished with the dried stipules of the breadfruit tree itself.
Fiber: Fiber from the bark is difficult to extract but highly durable. Malaysians fashioned it into
clothing. Material for tape cloth is obtained from the inner bark of young trees and branches. In the
Philippines, it is made into harnesses for water buffalo.
Flowers: The male flower spike used to be blended with the fiber of the paper mulberry,
Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. to make elegant loincloths. When thoroughly dry, the flower spikes
also serve as tinder.
Medicinal Uses: In Trinidad and the Bahamas, a decoction of the breadfruit leaf is believed to
lower blood pressure, and is also said to relieve asthma. Crushed leaves are applied on the tongue
as a treatment for thrush. The leaf juice is employed as ear-drops. Ashes of burned leaves are used
on skin infections. A powder of roasted leaves is employed as a remedy for enlarged spleen. The
Breadfruit
crushed fruit is poulticed on tumors to "ripen" them. Toasted flowers are rubbed on the gums
around an aching tooth. The latex is used on skin diseases and is bandaged on the spine to relieve
sciatica. Diluted latex is taken internally to overcome diarrhea.
Jackfruit

Morton, J. 1987. Jackfruit. p. 5864. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Jackfruit
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
The jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (syns. A. integrifolius Auct. NOT L. f.; A integrifolia
L. f.; A. integra Merr.; Rademachia integra Thunb. ), of the family Moraceae, is also called
jak-fruit, jak, jaca, and, in Malaysia and the Philippines, nangka; in Thailand, khanun; in
Cambodia, khnor; in Laos, mak mi or may mi; in Vietnam, mit. It is an excellent example of a food
prized in some areas of the world and allowed to go to waste in others. O.W. Barrett wrote in
1928: ";The jaks . . . are such large and interesting fruits and the trees so well-behaved that it is
difficult to explain the general lack of knowledge concerning them.";
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/jackfruit_ars.html (1 of 11) [5/16/2004 1:33:45 PM]
Jackfruit
The tree is handsome and stately, 30 to 70 ft

(9-21 m) tall, with evergreen, alternate,
glossy, somewhat leathery leaves to 9 in
(22.5 cm) long, oval on mature wood,
sometimes oblong or deeply lobed on young
shoots. All parts contain a sticky, white
latex. Short, stout flowering twigs emerge
from the trunk and large branches, or even
from the soil-covered base of very old trees.
The tree is monoecious: tiny male flowers
are borne in oblong clusters 2 to 4 in (5-10
cm) in length; the female flower clusters are
elliptic or rounded. Largest of all tree-borne
fruits, the jackfruit may be 8 in to 3 ft
(20-90 cm) long and 6 to 20 in (15-50 cm)
wide, and the weight ranges from 10 to 60
or even as much as 110 lbs (4.5-20 or 50
kg). The "rind' or exterior of the compound
or aggregate fruit is green or yellow when
ripe and composed of numerous hard,
cone-like points attached to a thick and
Fig. 15: A heavily fruiting jackfruit (Artocarpus
rubbery, pale yellow or whitish wall. The
heterophyllus) on the grounds of the old Hobson estate,
interior consists of large "bulbs" (fully
Coconut Grove. Miami, Eila.
developed perianths) of yellow,
banana-flavored flesh, massed among
narrow ribbons of thin, tough undeveloped
perianths (or perigones), and a central, pithy
core. Each bulb encloses a smooth, oval,
light-brown "seed" (endocarp) covered by a
thin white membrane (exocarp). The seed is
3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4 cm) long and 1/2 to 3/4
in (1.25-2 cm) thick and is white and crisp
within. There may be 100 or up to 500 seeds
in a single fruit. When fully ripe, the
unopened jackfruit emits a strong
disagreeable odor, resembling that of
decayed onions, while the pulp of the
opened fruit smells of pineapple and
banana.
No one knows the jackfruit's place of origin
but it is believed indigenous to the
Plate 6: JACKFRUIT, Artocarpus heterophyllus
rainforests of the Western Ghats. It is
cultivated at low elevations throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, southern China, Malaya, and the
Jackfruit
East Indies. It is common in the Philippines, both cultivated and naturalized. It is grown to a
limited extent in Queensland and Mauritius. In Africa, it is often planted in Kenya, Uganda and
former Zanzibar. Though planted in Hawaii prior to 1888, it is still rare there and in other Pactfic
islands, as it is in most of tropical America and the West Indies. It was introduced into northern
Brazil in the mid-19th Century and is more popular there and in Surinam than elsewhere in the
New World.
In 1782, plants from a captured French ship destined for Martinique were taken to Jamaica where
the tree is now common, and about 100 years later, the jackfruit made its appearance in Florida,
presumably imported by the Reasoner's Nursery from Ceylon. The United States Department of
Agriculture's Report on the Conditions of Tropical and Semitropical Fruits in the United States in
1887 states: "There are but few specimens in the State. Mr. Bidwell, at Orlando, has a healthy
young tree, which was killed back to the ground, however, by the freeze of 1886. " There are today
less than a dozen bearing jackfruit trees in South Florida and these are valued mainly as curiosities.
Many seeds have been planted over the years but few seedlings have survived, though the jackfruit
is hardier than its close relative, the breadfruit (q.v.).
In South India, the jackfruit is a popular food ranking next to the mango and banana in total annual
production. There are more than 100,000 trees in backyards and grown for shade in betelnut,
coffee, pepper and cardamom plantations. The total area planted to jackfruit in all India is
calculated at 14,826 acres (26,000 ha). Government horticulturists promote the planting of
jackfruit trees along highways, waterways and railroads to add to the country's food supply.
There are over 11,000 acres (4,452 ha) planted to jack fruit in Ceylon, mainly for timber, with the
fruit a much-appreciated by-product. The tree is commonly cultivated throughout Thailand for its
fruit. Away from the Far East, the jackfruit has never gained the acceptance accorded the
breadfruit (except in settlements of people of East Indian origin). This is due largely to the odor of
the ripe fruit and to traditional preference for the breadfruit.
Varieties
In South India, jackfruits are classified as of two general types: 1) Koozha chakka, the fruits of
which have small, fibrous, soft, mushy, but very sweet carpels; 2) Koozha pazham, more important
commercially, with crisp carpers of high quality known as Varika. These types are apparently
known in different areas by other names such as Barka, or Berka (soft, sweet and broken open
with the hands), and Kapa or Kapiya (crisp and cut open with a knife). The equivalent types are
known as Kha-nun nang (firm; best) and Kha-nun lamoud (soft) in Thailand; and as Vela (soft)
and Varaka, or Waraka (firm) in Ceylon. The Peniwaraka, or honey jak, has sweet pulp, and some
have claimed it the best of all. The Kuruwaraka has small, rounded fruits. Dr. David Fairchild,
writing of the honey jak in Ceylon, describes the rind as dark-green in contrast to the golden
yellow pulp when cut open for eating, but the fruits of his own tree in Coconut Grove and those of
the Matheson tree which he maintained were honey jaks are definitely yellow when ripe. The Vela
type predominates in the West Indies.
Firminger described two types: the Khuja (green, hard and smooth, with juicy pulp and small
seeds); the Ghila (rough, soft, with thin pulp, not very juicy, and large seeds). Dutta says Khujja,
or Karcha, has pale-brown or occcasionally pale-green rind, and pulp as hard as an apple; Ghila,
or Ghula, is usually light-green, occasionally brownish, and has soft pulp, sweet or acidulously
Jackfruit
sweet. He describes 8 varieties, only one with a name. This is Hazari; similar to Rudrakshi; which
has a relatively smooth rind and flesh of inferior quality.
The 'Singapore', or 'Ceylon', jack, a remarkably early bearer producing fruit in 18 months to 2
1/2 years from transplanting, was introduced into India from Ceylon and planted extensively in
1949. The fruit is of medium size with small, fibrous carpers which are very sweet. In addition to
the summer crop (June and July), there is a second crop from October to December. In 1961, the
Horticultural Research Institute at Saharanpur, India, reported the acquisition of air-layered plants
of the excellent varieties, 'Safeda', 'Khaja', 'Bhusila', 'Bhadaiyan' and 'Handia' and others. The
Fruit Experimental Station at Burliar, established a collection of 54 jackfruit clones from all
producing countries, and ultimately selected 'T Nagar Jack' as the best in quality and yield. The
Fruit Experimental Station at Kallar, began breeding work in 1952 with a view to developing
short, compact, many-branched trees, precocious and productive, bearing large, yellow, high
quality fruits, 1/2 in the main season, 1/2 late. 'Singapore Jack' was chosen as the female parent
because of its early and late crops; and, as the male parent, 'Velipala', a local selection from the
forest having large fruits with large carpers of superior quality, and borne regularly in the main
summer season. After 25 years of testing, one hybrid was rated as outstanding for precocity, fruit
size, off-season as well as main season production, and yield excelling its parents. It had not been
named when reported on by Chellappan and Roche in 1982. In Assam, nurserymen have given
names such as 'Mammoth', 'Everbearer', and 'Rose-scented' to preferred types.
Pollination
Horticulturists in Madras have found that hand-pollination produces fruits with more of the fully
developed bulbs than does normal wind-pollination.
Climate
The jackfruit is adapted only to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. It is sensitive to frost in
its early life and cannot tolerate drought. If rainfall is deficient, the tree must be irrigated. In India,
it thrives in the Himalayan foothills and from sea-level to an altitude of 5,000 ft (1,500 m) in the
south. It is stated that jackfruits grown above 4,000 ft (1,200 m) are of poor quality and usable
only for cooking. The tree ascends to about 800 ft (244 m) in Kwangtung, China.
Soil
The jackfruit tree flourishes in rich, deep soil of medium or open texture, sometimes on deep
gravelly or laterite soil. It will grow, but more slowly and not as tall in shallow limestone. In India,
they say that the tree grows tall and thin on sand, short and thick on stony land. It cannot tolerate
"wet feet". If the roots touch water, the tree will not bear fruit or may die.
Propagation
Propagation is usually by seeds which can be kept no longer than a month before planting.
Germination requires 3 to 8 weeks but is expedited by soaking seeds in water for 24 hours.
Soaking in a 10% solution of gibberellic acid results in 100% germination. The seeds may be sown
in situ or may be nursery-germinated and moved when no more than 4 leaves have appeared. A
more advanced seedling, with its long and delicate tap root, is very difficult to transplant
successfully. Budding and grafting attempts have often been unsuccessful, though Ochse considers
Jackfruit
the modified Forkert method of budding feasible. Either jackfruit or champedak (q.v.) seedlings
may serve as rootstocks and the grafting may be done at any time of year. Inarching has been
practiced and advocated but presents the same problem of transplanting after separation from the
scion parent. To avoid this and yet achieve consistently early bearing of fruits of known quality,
air-layers produced with the aid of growth promoting hormones are being distributed in India. In
Florida cuttings of young wood have been rooted under mist. At Calcutta University, cuttings have
been successfully rooted only with forced and etiolated shoots treated with indole butyric acid
(preferably at 5,000 mg/l) and kept under mist. Tissue culture experiments have been conducted at
the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore.
Culture
Soaking one-month-old seedlings in a gibberellic acid solution (25-200 ppm) enhances shoot
growth. Gibberellic acid spray and paste increase root growth. In plantations, the trees are set 30 to
40 ft (9-12 m) apart. Young plantings require protection from sunscald and from grazing animals,
hares, deer, etc. Seeds in the field may be eaten by rats. Firminger describes the quaint practice of
raising a young seedling in a 3 to 4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) bamboo tube, then bending over and coiling the
pliant stem beneath the soil, with only the tip showing. In 5 years, such a plant is said to produce
large and fine fruits on the spiral underground. In Travancore, the whole fruit is buried, the many
seedlings which spring up are bound together with straw and they gradually fuse into one tree
which bears in 6 to 7 years. Seedlings may ordinarily take 4 to 14 years to come into bearing,
though certain precocious cultivars may begin to bear in 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 years. The jackfruit is a
fairly rapid grower, reaching 58 ft (17.5 m) in height and 28 in (70 cm) around the trunk in 20
years in Ceylon. It is said to live as long as 100 years. However, productivity declines with age. In
Thailand, it is recommended that alternate rows be planted every 10 years so that 20-year-old trees
may be routinely removed from the plantation and replaced by a new generation. Little attention
has been given to the tree's fertilizer requirements. Severe symptoms of manganese deficiency
have been observed in India.
After harvesting, the fruiting twigs may be cut back to the trunk or branch to induce flowering the
next season. In the Cachar district of Assam, production of female flowers is said to be stimulated
by slashing the tree with a hatchet, the shoots emerging from the wounds; and branches are lopped
every 3 to 4 years to maintain fruitfulness. On the other hand, studies at the University of Kalyani,
West Bengal, showed that neither scoring nor pruning of shoots increases fruit set and that ringing
enhances fruit set only the first year, production declining in the second year.
Season
In Asia, jackfruits ripen principally from March to June, April to September, orJune to August,
depending on the climatic region, with some off-season crops from September to December, or a
few fruits at other times of the year. In the West Indies, I have seen many ripening in June; in
Florida, the season is late summer and fall.
Harvesting
Fruits mature 3 to 8 months from flowering. In Jamaica, an "X" is sometimes cut in the apex of the
fruit to speed ripening and improve flavor.
Yield
Jackfruit
In India, a good yield is 150 large fruits per

tree annually, though some trees bear as
many as 250 and a fully mature tree may
produce 500, these probably of medium or
small size.
Storage
Jackfruits turn brown and deteriorate
quickly after ripening. Cold storage trials
indicate that ripe fruits can be kept for 3 to 6
weeks at 52 to 55F (11.11-12.78C) and
relative humidity of 85 to 95%.
Pests and Diseases
Principal insect pests in India are the
shoot-borer caterpillar, Diaphania caesalis;
mealybugs. Nipaecoccus viridis,
Pseudococcus corymbatus, and Ferrisia
virgata, the spittle bug, Cosmoscarta relata,
Fig. 16: Much white, gummy latex flows from the jackfruit
and jack scale, Ceroplastes rubina. The
stalk when the slightly underripe fruit is harvested.
most destructive and widespread bark borers
are Indarbela tetraonis and Batocera rufomaculata. Other major pests are the stem and fruit borer,
Margaronia caecalis, and the brown bud-weevil, Ochyromera artocarpio. In southern China, the
larvae of the longicorn beetles, including Apriona germarri; Pterolophia discalis, Xenolea
tomenlosa asiatica, and Olenecamptus bilobus seriously damage the fruit stem. The caterpillar of
the leaf webbers, Perina nuda and Diaphania bivitralis, is a minor problem, as are aphids,
Greenidea artocarpi and Toxoptera aurantii; and thrips, Pseudodendrothrips dwivarna.
Diseases of importance include pink disease, Pelliculana (Corticium) salmonicolor, stem rot, fruit
rot and male inflorescence rot caused by Rhizopus artocarpi; and leafspot due to Phomopsis
artocarpina, Colletotrichum lagenarium, Septoria artocarpi, and other fungi. Gray blight,
Pestalotia elasticola, charcoal rot, Ustilana zonata, collar rot, Rosellinia arcuata, and rust, Uredo
artocarpi, occur on jackfruit in some regions.
The fruits may be covered with paper sacks when very young to protect them from pests and
diseases. Burkill says the bags encourage ants to swarm over the fruit and guard it from its
enemies.
Food Uses
Westerners generally will find the jackfruit most acceptable in the full-grown but unripe stage,
when it has no objectionable odor and excels cooked green breadfruit and plantain. The fruit at this
time is simply cut into large chunks for cooking, the only handicap being its copious gummy latex
which accumulates on the knife and the hands unless they are first rubbed with salad oil. The
chunks are boiled in lightly salted water until tender, when the really delicious flesh is cut from the
rind and served as a vegetable, including the seeds which, if thoroughly cooked, are mealy and
agreeable. The latex clinging to the pot may be removed by rubbing with oil. The flesh of the
Jackfruit
unripe fruit has been experimentally canned

in brine or with curry. It may also be dried
and kept in tins for a year. Cross sections of
dried, unripe jackfruit are sold in native
markets in Thailand. Tender young fruits
may be pickled with or without spices.
If the jackfruit is allowed to ripen, the bulbs
and seeds may be extracted outdoors; or, if
indoors, the odorous residue should be
removed from the kitchen at once. The
bulbs may then be enjoyed raw or cooked
(with coconut milk or otherwise); or made
into ice cream, chutney, jam, jelly, paste,
"leather" or papad, or canned in sirup made
with sugar or honey with citric acid added. Fig. 17: Dried slices of peeled unripe jackfruit are commonly
The crisp types of jackfruit are preferred for marketed in Southeast Asia
canning. The canned product is more
attractive than the fresh pulp and is
sometimes called "vegetable meat". The
ripe bulbs are mechanically pulped to make
jackfruit nectar or reduced to concentrate or
powder. The addition of synthetic
flavoringethyl and n-butyl esters of
4-hydroxybutyric acid at 120 ppm and 100
ppm, respectively greatly improves the
flavor of the canned fruit and the nectar.
If the bulbs are boiled in milk, the latter
when drained off and cooled will congeal
and form a pleasant, orange colored custard.
By a method patented in India, the ripe
bulbs may be dried, fried in oil and salted
Fig 18: Jackfruit seeds, salvaged from the ripe fruits, are sold
for eating like potato chips. Candied
for boiling or roasting like chestnuts.
jackfruit pulp in boxes was being marketed
in Brazil in 1917. Improved methods of preserving and candying jackfruit pulp have been devised
at the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India. Ripe bulbs, sliced and packed
in sirup with added citric acid, and frozen, retain good color, flavor and texture for one year.
Canned jackfruit retains quality for 63 weeks at room temperature75 to 80F (23.89-26.67C),
with only 3% loss of B-carotene. When frozen, the canned pulp keeps well for 2 years.
In Malaya, where the odor of the ripe fruit is not avoided, small jackfruits are cut in half, seeded,
chilled, and brought to the table filled with ice cream.
The ripe bulbs, fermented and then distilled, produce a potent liquor.
The seeds, which appeal to all tastes, may be boiled or roasted and eaten, or boiled and preserved
Jackfruit
in sirup like chestnuts. They have also been successfully canned in brine, in curry, and, like baked
beans, in tomato sauce. They are often included in curried dishes. Roasted, dried seeds are ground
to make a flour which is blended with wheat flour for baking.
Where large quantities of jackfruit are available, it is worthwhile to utilize the inedible portion, and
the rind has been found to yield a fair jelly with citric acid. A pectin extract can be made from the
peel, undeveloped perianths and core, or just from the inner rind; and this waste also yields a sirup
used for tobacco curing.
Tender jackfruit leaves and young male flower clusters may be cooked and served as vegetables.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Pulp (ripe-fresh) Seeds (fresh) Seeds (dried)

98
72.0-77.2 g
51.6-57.77 g
1.3-1.9 g
6.6 g
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.1-0.3 g
18.9-25.4 g
1.0-1.1 g
0.8-1.0 g
22 mg
38 mg
0.5 mg
2 mg
407 mg
540 I.U.
0.03 mg
4 mg
8-10 mg
0.4 g
38.4 g
1.5 g
1.25-1.50 g
0.05-0.55 mg
0.13-0.23 mg
0.002-1.2 mg
2.96%
0.13%
0.54%
0.005%
The pulp constitutes 25-40% of the fruit's weight.

In general, fresh seeds are considered to be high in starch, low in calcium and iron; good sources
of vitamins B1 and B2.
Toxicity
Even in India there is some resistance to the jackfruit, attributed to the belief that overindulgence
in it causes digestive ailments. Burkill declares that it is the raw, unripe fruit that is astringent and
indigestible. The ripe fruit is somewhat laxative; if eaten in excess it will cause diarrhea. Raw
jackfruit seeds are indigestible due to the presence of a powerful trypsin inhibitor. This element is
destroyed by boiling or baking.
Jackfruit
Other Uses
Fruit: In some areas, the jackfruit is fed to cattle. The tree is even planted in pastures so that the
animals can avail themselves of the fallen fruits. Surplus jackfruit rind is considered a good stock
food.
Leaves: Young leaves are readily eaten by cattle and other livestock and are said to be fattening.
In India, the leaves are used as food wrappers in cooking, and they are also fastened together for
use as plates.
Latex: The latex serves as birdlime, alone or mixed with Ficus sap and oil from Schleichera
trijuga Willd. The heated latex is employed as a household cement for mending chinaware and
earthenware, and to caulk boats and holes in buckets. The chemical constituents of the latex have
been reported by Tanchico and Magpanlay. It is not a substitue for rubber but contains 82.6 to
86.4% resins which may have value in varnishes. Its bacteriolytic activity is equal to that of
papaya latex.
Wood: Jackwood is an important timber in Ceylon and, to a lesser extent, in India; some is
exported to Europe. It changes with age from orange or yellow to brown or dark-red; is termite
proof, fairly resistant to fungal and bacterial decay, seasons without difficulty, resembles
mahogany and is superior to teak for furniture, construction, turnery, masts, oars, implements,
brush backs and musical instruments. Palaces were built of jackwood in Bali and Macassar, and
the limited supply was once reserved for temples in Indochina. Its strength is 75 to 80% that of
teak. Though sharp tools are needed to achieve a smooth surface, it polishes beautifully. Roots of
old trees are greatly prized for carving and picture framing. Dried branches are employed to
produce fire by friction in religious ceremonies in Malabar.
From the sawdust of jackwood or chips of the heartwood, boiled with alum, there is derived a rich
yellow dye commonly used for dyeing silk and the cotton robes of Buddhist priests. In Indonesia,
splinters of the wood are put into the bamboo tubes collecting coconut toddy in order to impart a
yellow tone to the sugar. Besides the yellow colorant, morin, the wood contains the colorless
cyanomaclurin and a new yellow coloring matter, artocarpin, was reported by workers in Bombay
in 1955. Six other flavonoids have been isolated at the National Chemical Laboratory, Poona.
Bark: There is only 3.3% tannin in the bark which is occasionally made into cordage or cloth.
Medicinal Uses: The Chinese consider jackfruit pulp and seeds tonic, cooling and nutritious, and
to be "useful in overcoming the influence of alcohol on the system." The seed starch is given to
relieve biliousness and the roasted seeds are regarded as aphrodisiac. The ash of jackfruit leaves,
burned with corn and coconut shells, is used alone or mixed with coconut oil to heal ulcers. The
dried latex yields artostenone, convertible to artosterone, a compound with marked androgenic
action. Mixed with vinegar, the latex promotes healing of abscesses, snakebite and glandular
swellings. The root is a remedy for skin diseases and asthma. An extract of the root is taken in
cases of fever and diarrhea. The bark is made into poultices. Heated leaves are placed on wounds.
The wood has a sedative property; its pith is said to produce abortion.
Related Species
The Champedak, A. integer Merr. (syns. A. champeden Spreng., A. polyphena Pers.), is also
Jackfruit
known as chempedak, cempedak, sempedak, temedak in Malaya; cham-pa-da in Thailand,

tjampedak in Indonesia; lemasa in the Philippines. The wild form in Malaya is called bangkong or
baroh. The fruit is borne by a deciduous tree, reaching about 60 ft (18 m) in cultivation, up to 100
or 150 ft (30-45.5 m) in the wild. It is easy to distinguish from the jackfruit by the long, stiff,
brown hairs on young branchlets, leaves, buds and peduncles. The leaves, often 3-lobed when
young, are obovate oblong or elliptical when mature and 6 to 11 in (15-28 cm) long. The male
flower spikes are only 2 in (5 cm) long and the fruit cylindrical or irregular, no more than 14 in
(35.5 cm) long and 6 in (15 cm) thick, mustard-yellow to golden-brown, reticulated, warty, and
highly odoriferous when ripe. In fact, it is described as having the "strongest and richest smell of
any fruit in creation." The rind is thinner than that of the jackfruit and the seeds and surrounding
pulp can be extracted by cutting open the base and pulling on the fruit stalk. The pulp is
deep-yellow, tender, slimy, juicy and sweet. That of the wild form is thin, subacid and odorless.
The tree is native and common in the wild in Malaya up to an altitude of 4,200 ft (1,300 m) and is
cultivated throughout Malaysia and by many preferred to jackfruit. It is grown from seed or
budded onto self-seedlings or jackfruit or other Artocarpus species. Seedlings bear in 5 years. The
pulp is eaten with rice and the seeds are roasted and eaten. The wood is strong and durable and
yields yellow dye, and the bark is rich in tannin.
The Lakoocha, A. lakoocha Roxb., is also known as monkey jack or lakuchi in India; tampang
and other similar native names in Malaya; as lokhat in Thailand. The tree is 20 to 30 ft (6-9 m) tall
with deciduous, large, leathery leaves, downy on the underside. Male and female flowers are borne
on the same tree, the former orange-yellow, the latter reddish. The fruits are nearly round or
irregular, 2 to 5 in (5-12.5 cm) wide, velvety, dull-yellow tinged with pink, with sweet sour pulp
which is occasionally eaten raw but mostly made into curries or chutney. The male flower spike,
acid and astringent, is pickled.
A native of the humid sub-Himalayan region of India, up to 4,000 ft (1,200 m), also Malaya and
Ceylon, it is sometimes grown for shade or for its fruit. Seedlings come into production in 5 years.
A specimen was planted at the Federal Experiment Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, in 1921.
There was a large tree in Bermuda in 1918.
The wood, sold as lakuch, is heavier than that of the jackfruit, similar to teak, durable outdoors and
under water, but does not polish well. It is used for piles, and in construction; for boats, furniture
and cabinetwork. The bark contains 8.5% tannin and is chewed like betelnut. It yields a fiber for
cordage. The wood and roots yield a dye of richer color than that obtained from the jackfruit. Both
seeds and milky latex are purgative. The bark is applied on skin ailments. The fruit is believed to
act as a tonic for the liver.
The Kwai Muk, possibly A. lingnanensis Merr., was introduced into Florida as A. hypargyraea
Hance, or A. hypargyraeus Hance ex Benth. The tree is a slow-growing, slender, erect ornamental
20 to 50 ft (6-15 m) tall, with much milky latex and evergreen leaves 2 to 5 in (5-12.5 cm) long.
Tiny male and female flowers are yellowish and borne on the same tree, the female in globular
heads to 3/8 in (1 cm) long.
The fruits are more or less oblate and irregular, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) wide, with velvety, brownish,
thin, tender skin and replete with latex when unripe. When ripe, the pulp is orange-red or red, soft,
of agreeable subacid to acid flavor and may be seedless or contain 1 to 7 small, pale seeds. The
Jackfruit
pulp is edible raw; can be preserved in sirup or dried. Ripens from August to October in Florida.
The tree is native from Kwangtung, China, to Hong Kong, and has been introduced sparingly
abroad. It was planted experimentally in Florida in 1927 and was thriving in Puerto Rico in 1929.
It grows at an altitude of 500 ft (152 m) in China. Young trees are injured by brief drops in
temperature to 28 to 30F (-2.22-1.11C). Mature trees have endured 25 to 26F
(-3.89-3.33C) in Homestead, Florida; have been killed by 20F (-6.67C) in central Florida.
Cherimoya

Morton, J. 1987. Cherimoya. p. 6569. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Cherimoya
Annona cherimola
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Cropping and Yield
Keeping Quality and Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Certainly the most esteemed of the fruits of the genus Annona (family Annonaceae), the
cherimoya, A. cherimola Mill., because of its limited distribution, has acquired few colloquial
names, and most are merely local variations in spelling, such as chirimoya, cherimolia, chirimolla,
cherimolier, cherimoyer. In Venezuela, it is called chirimorrinon; in Brazil, graveola, graviola, or
grabiola; and in Mexico, pox or poox; in Belize, tukib; in El Salvador it is sometimes known as
anona poshte; and elsewhere merely as anona, or anona blanca. In France, it is anone; in Haiti,
cachiman la Chine. Indian names in Guatemala include pac, pap, tsummy and tzumux. The name,
cherimoya, is sometimes misapplied to the less-esteemed custard apple, A. reticulata L. In
Australia it is often applied to the atemoya (a cherimoya-sugar apple hybrid).
Description
The tree is erect but low branched and somewhat shrubby or spreading; ranging from 16 to 30 ft (5
to 9 m) in height; and its young branchlets are rusty-hairy. The leaves are briefly deciduous (just
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cherimoya.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:33:48 PM]
Cherimoya
before spring flowering), alternate,

2-ranked, with minutely hairy petioles 1/4
to 1/2 in (6 to 12.5 mm) long; ovate to
elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, short
blunt-pointed at the apex; slightly hairy on
the upper surface, velvety on the underside;
3 to 6 in (7.5-15 cm) long, 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 in
(3.8-8.9 cm) wide.
Fragrant flowers, solitary or in groups of 2
or 3, on short, hairy stalks along the
branches, have 3 outer, greenish, fleshy,
oblong, downy petals to 1 1/4 in (3 cm) long
Plate 7: CHERIMOYA, Annona cherimola
and 3 smaller, pinkish inner petals. A
compound fruit, the cherimoya is conical or somewhat heart-shaped, 4 to 8 in (10 to 20 cm) long
and up to 4 in (10 cm) in width, weighing on the average 5 1/2 to 18 oz (150-500 g) but extra large
specimens may weigh 6 lbs (2.7 kg) or more. The skin, thin or thick, may be smooth with
fingerprint like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The fruit is easily
broken or cut open, exposing the snow-white, juicy flesh, of pleasing aroma and delicious, subacid
flavor; and containing numerous hard, brown or black, beanlike, glossy seeds, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25 to
2 cm) long.
The cherimoya is believed indigenous to the interandean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and
Bolivia. In Bolivia, it flourishes best around Mizque and Ayopaya, in the Department of
Cochabamba, and around Luribay, Sapahaqui and Rio Abajo in the Department of La Paz. Its
cultivation must have spread in ancient times to Chile and Brazil for it has become naturalized in
highlands throughout these countries. Many authors include Peru as a center of origin but others
assert that the fruit was unknown in Peru until after seeds were sent by P. Bernabe Cobo from
Guatemala in 1629 and that thirteen years after this introduction the cherimoya was observed in
cultivation and sold in the markets of Lima. The often-cited representations of the cherimoya on
ancient Peruvian pottery are actually images of the soursop, A. muricata L. Cobo sent seeds to
Mexico also in 1629. There it thrives between 4,000 and 5,000 ft (1312-1640 m) elevations.
It is commonly grown and naturalized in temperate areas of Costa Rica and other countries of
Central America. In Argentina, the cherimoya is mostly grown in the Province of Tucuman. In
1757, it was carried to Spain where it remained a dooryard tree until the 1940's and 1950's when it
gained importance in the Province of Granada, in the Sierra Nevada mountains, as a replacement
for the many orange trees that succumbed to disease and had to be taken out. By 1953, there were
262 acres (106 ha) of cherimoyas in this region.
In 1790 the cherimoya was introduced into Hawaii by Don Francisco de Paulo Marin. It is still
casually grown in the islands and naturalized in dry upland forests. In 1785, it reached Jamaica,
where it is cultivated and occurs as an escape on hillsides between 3,500 and 5,000 ft (1,066-1,524
m). It found its way to Haiti sometime later. The first planting in Italy was in 1797 and it became a
favored crop in the Province of Reggio Calabria. The tree has been tried several times in the
Cherimoya
Botanic Gardens, Singapore first around 1878but has always failed to survive because of the
tropical climate. In the Philippines, it does well in the Mountain Province at an altitude above
2,460 ft (750 m). It was introduced into India and Ceylon in 1880 and there is small-scale culture
in both countries at elevations between 1,500 and 7,000 ft (457-2,134 m). The tree was planted in
Madeira in 1897, then in the Canary Islands, Algiers, Egypt and, probably via Italy, in Libya,
Eritrea and Somalia.
The United States Department of Agriculture imported a number of lots of cherimoya seeds from
Madeira in 1907 (S.P.I. Nos. 19853, 19854, 19855, 19898, 19901, 19904, 19905).
Seeds from Mexico were planted in California in 1871. There were 9,000 trees in that state in 1936
but many of them were killed by a freeze in 1937. Several small commercial orchards were
established in the 1940's. At present there may be less than 100 acres (42 ha) in the milder parts of
San Diego County. Seeds, seedlings and grafted trees from California and elsewhere have been
planted in Florida many times but none has done well. Any fruits produced have been of poor
quality.
Varieties
In Peru, cherimoyas are classed according to degree of surface irregularity, as: 'Lisa', almost
smooth; 'Impresa', with "fingerprint" depressions; 'Umbonada', with rounded protrusions;
'Papilonado', or 'Tetilado', with fleshy, nipple-like protrusions; 'Tuberculada', with conical
protrusions having wartlike tips. At the Agricultural Experiment Station "La Molina", several
named and unnamed selections collected in northern Peru are maintained and evaluated. Among
the more important are: #1, 'Chavez', fruits up to 3.3 lbs (1 1/2 kg); February to May; #2,
'Names', fruits January to April; #3, 'Sander', fruits with moderate number of seeds; July and
early August; #4, fruit nearly smooth, not many seeds, 1.1 to 2.2 lbs (1/2-1 kg), June to August;
#5, nearly smooth, very sweet, 2.2 Ibs (1 kg), March to June; #6, fruit with small protuberances,
1.1 to 2.2 Ibs (1/2-1 kg), not many seeds; #7 fruit small, very sweet, many seeds, March to May;
#8, fruit very sweet, 1.1 to 2.2 Ibs (1/2 1 kg), with very few seeds, February to April.
In the Department of Antioquia, Colombia, a cultivar called 'Rio Negro' has heart shaped fruits
weighing 1 3/4 to 2.2 Ibs (0.8-1 kg). The cherimoyas of Mizque, Cochabamba, Bolivia, are locally
famed for their size and quality. 'Concha Lisa' and 'Bronceada' are grown commercially in
Chile. Other cultivars mentioned in Chilean literature are 'Concha Picuda' and 'Terciopelo'.
Dr. Ernesto Saavedra, University of Chile, after ex perimenting with growth regulators for 4 years,
developed a super cherimoya, 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) wide and weighing up to 4 Ibs (1.8 kg);
symmetrical, easy to peel and seedless, hence having 25% more flesh than an ordinary cherimoya.
However, the larger fruits are subject to cracking.
The leading commercial cultivars in Spain are 'Pinchua' (thin-skinned) and 'Baste'
(thick-skinned.)
Named cultivars in California include:
'Bays'rounded, fingerprinted, light green, medium to large, of excellent flavor; good bearer;
early.
Cherimoya
'Whaley'long-conical, sometimes shouldered at the base, slightly and irregularly tuberculate,

with fairly thick, downy skin. Of good flavor, but membranous sac around each seed may adhere
to flesh. Bears well; grown commercially; early.
'Deliciosa'long-conical, prominently papillate; skin tbin, slightly downy; variable in flavor; only
fair in quality; generally bears well but doesn't ship well; cold-resistant. Midseason.
'Booth'short-conical, fingerprinted, medium to large; of good flavor; next to 'Deliciosa in
hardiness. Late.
'McPherson'short conical, fingerprinted but umbonate at the base; medium to large; of high
quality; bears well. Midseason.
'Carter'long-conical, but not shouldered; smooth or faintly fingerprinted; skin green to bronze;
bears well. Late. Leaves wavy or twisted.
'Ryerson'long-conical, smooth or fingerprinted, with tbick, tough, green or yellow green skin;
of fair quality; ships well. Leaves wavy or twisted.
'White'short-conical with rounded apex; slightly papil late to umbonate; medium to large; skin
medium thick; of good flavor; doesn t bear well near the coast.
'Chaffey'introduced in 1940s; rounded, short, finger printed; of medium size; excellent quality;
bears well, even without hand-pollination.
'Ott'(Patent #656)introduced in 1940's; long conical to heart shaped, slightly tuberculate; of
excellent flavor; ships well.
Among others that have been planted in California but considered inferior are: 'Horton', 'Golden
Russet', 'Loma', 'Mire Vista', 'Sallmon'.
Pollination
A problem with the cherimoya is inadequate natural pollination because the male and female
structures of each flower do not mature simultaneously. Few insects visit the flowers. Therefore,
hand-pollination is highly desirable and must be done in a 6- to 8-hour period when the stigmas are
white and sticky. It has been found in Chile that in the first flowers to open the pollen grains are
loaded with starch, whereas flowers that open later have more abundant pollen, no starch grains,
and the pollen germinates readily. Partly-opened flowers are collected in the afternoon and kept in
a paper bag overnight. The next morning the shed pollen is put, together with moist paper, in a vial
and transferred by brush to the receptive stigmas. Usually only a few of the flowers on a tree are
pollinated each time, the operation being repeated every 4 or 5 days in order to extend the season
of ripening. The closely related A. senegalensis Pers., if available, is a good source of abundant
pollen for pollinating the cherimoya. The pollen of the sugar apple is not satisfactory. Fruits from
hand-pollinated flowers will be superior in form and size.
Climate
The cherimoya is subtropical or mild-temperate and does not succeed in the lowland tropics. It
requires long days. In Colombia and Ecuador, it grows naturally at elevations between 4,600 and
Cherimoya
6,600 ft (1,400-2,000 m) where the temperature ranges between 62.6 and 68F (17-20C). In
Peru, the ideal climate for the cherimoya is said to lie between 64.5 and 77F (18-25C) in the
summer and 64.5 and 41F (18-5C) in winter. In Guatemala, naturalized trees are common
between 4,000 and 8,200 ft (1,200-2,500 m) though the tree produces best between 4,000 and
5,900 ft (1,200-1,800 m) and can be grown at elevations as low as 2,950 ft (900 m). The tree
cannot survive the cold in the Valle de Mexico at 7,200 ft (2,195 m). In Argentina, young trees are
wrapped with dry grass or burlap during the winter. The cherimoya can tolerate light frosts. Young
trees can withstand a temperature of 26F (-3.33C), but a few degrees lower will severely injure
or kill mature trees. In February 1949, a small scale commercial grower (B. E. Needham) in
Glendora, California, reported that most of his crop was lost because of frost and snow, the
cherimoya suffering more cold damage than his avocados, oranges or lemons.
The tree prefers a rather dry environment as in southern Guatemala where the rainfall is 50 in (127
cm) and there is a long dry season. It is not adaptable to northern Guatemala where the 100 inch
(254 cm) rainfall is spread throughout the year.
Finally, the tree should be protected from strong winds which interfere with pollination and fruit
set.
Soil
The cherimoya tree performs well on a wide range of soil types from light to heavy, but seems to
do best on a medium soil of moderate fertility. In Argentina, it makes excellent growth on
rockstrewn, loose, sandy loam 2 to 3 ft (0.6-0.9 m) above a gravel subsoil. The optimum pH
ranges from 6.5 to 7.6. A greenhouse trial in sand has demonstrated that the first nutritional
deficiency evoked in such soil is lack of calcium.
Propagation
Cherimoya seeds, if kept dry, will remain viable for several years. While the tree is traditionally
grown from seed in Latin America, the tendency of seedlings to produce inferior fruits has given
impetus to vegetative propagation.
Seeds for rootstocks are first soaked in water for 1 to 4 days and those that float are discarded.
Then planting is done directly in the nursery row unless the soil is too cool, in which case the
seeds must be placed in sand peat seedbeds, covered with 1 in (2.5 cm) of soil and kept in a
greenhouse. They will germinate in 3 to 5 weeks and when the plants are 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm)
high, they are transplanted to pots or the nursery plot with 20 in (50 cm) between rows. When 12
to 24 months old and dormant, they are budded or grafted and then allowed to grow to 3 or 4 ft
(0.9-1.2 m) high before setting out in the field. Large seedlings and old trees can be topworked by
cleft-grafting. It is necessary to protect the trunk of topped trees to avoid sunburn.
The cherimoya can also be grafted onto the custard apple (A. reticulata). In India this rootstock has
given 90% success. Cuttings of mature wood of healthy cherimoya trees have rooted in coral sand
with bottom heat in 28 days.
Culture
The young trees should be spaced 25 to 30 ft (7.5-9 m) apart each way in pits 20 to 24 in (50-60
Cherimoya
cm) wide, enriched with organic material. In Colombia, corn (maize), vegetables, ornamental
foliage plants, roses or annual flowers for market are interplanted during the first few years. In
Spain, the trees are originally spaced 16.5 ft (5 m) apart with the intention of later thinning them
out. Thinning is not always done and around the village of Jete, where the finest cherimoyas are
produced, the trees have grown so close together as to form a forest. In the early years they are
interplanted with corn, beans and potatoes.
Pruning to eliminate low branches, providing a clean trunk up to 32 in (80 cm), to improve form,
and open up to sunlight and pesticide control, is done preferably during dormancy. After 6 months,
fertilizer (10-8-6 N, P, K) is applied at the rate of 1/2 lb (227 g) per tree and again 6 months later at
1 lb (454 g) per tree. In the 3rd year, the fertilizer formula is changed to 6-10-8 N,P,K and each
year thereafter the amount per tree is increased by 1 lb (454 g) until the level of 5 lbs (2.27 kg) is
reached. Thenceforth this amount is continued each year per tree. The fertilizer is applied in
trenches 6 in (15 cm) deep and 8 in (20 cm) wide dug around each tree at a distance of 5 ft (1.5 m)
from the base, at first; later, at an appropriately greater distance.
Young trees are irrigated every 15 to 20 days for the first few years except during the winter when
they must be allowed to go dormantideally for 4 months. When the first leafbuds appear,
irrigation is resumed. With bearing trees, watering is discontinued as soon as the fruits are
full-grown.
In Chile, attempts to increase fruit set with chemical growth regulators have been disappointing.
Spraying flowers with gibberellic acid has increased fruit set and improved form and size but
induces deep cracking prior to full maturity, far beyond the normal rate of cracking in fruits from
natural or hand-pollinated flowers.
Cropping and Yield
The cherimoya begins to bear when 3 1/2 to 5 years old and production steadily increases from the
5th to the 10th year, when there should be a yield of 25 fruits per tree2,024 per acre (5,000 per
ha). Yields of individual trees have been reported by eyewitnesses as a dozen, 85, or even 300
fruits annually. In Colombia, the average yield is 25 fruits; as many as 80 is exceptional. In Italy,
trees 30 to 35 years old produce 230 to 280 fruits annually.
The fruits must be picked when full grown but still firm and just beginning to show a slight hint of
yellowish-green and perhaps a bronze cast. Bolivians judge that a fruit is at full maturity by
shaking it and listening for the sound of loose seeds. Italians usually wait for the yellowish hue and
the sweet aroma noticeable at a distance, picking the fruits only 24 to 28 hours prior to
consumption. However, if the fruits must travel to markets in central Italy, they are harvested
when the skin turns from dark-green to lighter green.
In harvesting, the fruits must be clipped from the branch so as to leave only a very short stem
attached to the fruit to avoid stem caused damage to the fruits in handling, packing and shipping.
Firm fruits should be held at a temperature of 50F (10C) to retard softening. When transferred to
normal room temperature, they will become soft and ready to eat in 3 to 4 days. Then they can be
kept chilled in the home refrigerator if not to be consumed immediately. A California grower has
Cherimoya
shipped cherimoyas ('Deliciosa' and 'Booth') packed in excelsior in 12 lb (5.5-kg) boxes to Boston
and New York quite satisfactorily. And the fruit has been shipped from Madeira to London for
many years.
In Bolivia, fruits for home use are wrapped in woollen cloth as soon as picked and kept at room
temperature so that they can be eaten 3 days later.
Pests and Diseases
The cherimoya tree is resistant to nematodes. Very few problems have been noted in California
except for infestations of mealybugs, especially at the base of the fruit, and these can be flushed
off. In Colombia, on the other hand, it is said that a perfectly healthy tree is a rarity. In the Valle de
Tenza, formerly an important center of production, lack of control of pests greatly reduced the
plantations before 1960 when programs were launched to improve cherimoya culture here and in
various other regions of the country.
Caterpillars (Thecla sp. and Oiketicus kubeyi) may defoliate the tree. A scale insect, Conchaspis
angraeci attacks the trunk and branches. Prime enemies are reported to be fruit flies (Anastrepha s
p. ); leaf miners (Leucoptera sp.), particularly in the Valle de Tenza, which necessitate the
collection and burning of affected leaves plus the application of systemic insecticides; and the seed
borer (Bephrata maculicollis). The latter pest deposits eggs on the surface of the developing fruits,
the larvae invade the fruit and consume the seeds, causing premature and defective ripening and
rendering the fruits susceptible to fungal diseases. This pest is difficult to combat. Borers attack
the tree in Argentina reducing its life span from 60 to 30 years.
The coccid, Pseudococcus filamentosus attacks the fruit in Hawaii, and Aulacaspis miranda and
Ceropute yuccae in Mexico. In Spain, the thin-skinned cultivar 'Pinchua' is subject to attack by the
Mediterranean fruit-fly, Ceratitis capitata.
Stored seeds for planting are subject to
attack by weevils. To avoid damping-off of
young seedlings, dusting of seeds with
fungicide is recommended. The tree may
succumb to root-rot in clay soils or where
there is too much moisture and insufficient
drainage. Sooty mold may occur on leaves
and fruits where ants, aphids and other
insects have deposited honeydew.
Food Uses
The flesh of the ripe cherimoya is most
commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped
Fig. 19: Cherimoyas (Annona cherimola) from the highlands
with a spoon from the cut open fruit. It
are sold at fruit stands along Venezuelan roadways.
really needs no embellishment but some
people in Mexico like to add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is seeded and added to fruit
salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of
lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. The fruit has been fermented to
produce an alcoholic beverage.
Cherimoya

Analysis of cherimoyas in Ecuador
Moisture
Ether Extract
Crude Fiber
Nitrogen
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
74.6 g
0.45 g
1.5 g
.227 g
0.61 g
21.7 g
30.2 mg
0.80 mg
0.000 mg
0.117 mg
Colombian Analysis
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A (Carotene)
0.112 mg Thiamine
1.02 mg Riboflavin
16.8 mg Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
77.1 g
1.9 g
0.1 g
18.2 g
2.0 g
0.7 g
32.0 mg
37.0 mg
0.5 mg
0.0 I.U.
0.10 mg
0.14 mg
0.9 mg
5.0 mg
Toxicity
The seeds, like those of other Annona species, are crushed and used as insecticide. Paul Allen, in
his Poisonous and Injurious Plants of Panama, (see Bibliography), implies personal knowledge of
a case of blindness resulting from "the juice of the crushed seeds coming in contact with the eyes.
" The seeds contain several alkaloids: caffeine, ( + )-reticuline, (-)-anonaine, liriodenine, and
lanuginosine.
Human ingestion of 0.15 g of the dark-yellow resin isolated from the seeds produces dilated
pupils, intense photophobia, vomiting, nausea, dryness of the mouth, burning in the throat,
flatulence, and other symptoms resembling the effects of atropine. A dose of 0.5 g, injected into a
medium-sized dog, caused profuse vomiting.
Wilson Popenoe wrote that hogs feed on the fallen fruits in southern Ecuador where there are
many cherimoya trees and few people. One wonders whether the hogs swallow the hard seeds
whole and avoid injury.
The twigs possess the same alkaloids as the seeds plus michelalbine. A team of pharmacognosists
in Spain and France has reported 8 alkaloids in the leaves: ( + )-isoboldine, (-)-stepholidine, ( +
)-corytuberine, ( + ) nornantenine, ( + )-reticuline, (-)-anonaine, liriodenine, and lanuginosine.
Other Uses
In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff.
Medicinal Uses: In Mexico, rural people toast, peel and pulverize 1 or 2 seeds and take the
Cherimoya
powder with water or milk as a potent emetic and cathartic. Mixed with grease, the powder is used
to kill lice and is applied on parasitic skin disorders. A decoction of the skin of the fruit is taken to
relieve pneumonia.
Sugar Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Sugar Apple. p. 6972. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Sugar Apple
Annona squamosa
Description
Cultivars
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Cropping and Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The most widely grown of all the species of Annona, the sugar apple, A. squamosa L., has
acquired various regional names: anon (Bolivia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Panama); anon de azucar, anon
domestico, hanon, mocuyo (Colombia); anona blanca (Honduras, Guatemala, Dominican
Republic); anona de castilla (El Salvador); anona de Guatemala (Nicaragua); applebush
(Grenadines); ata, fruta do conde, fruta de condessa, frutiera deconde, pinha, araticutitaia, or ati
(Brazil); ates or atis (Philippines); atte (Gabon); chirimoya (Guatemala, Ecuador); cachiman
(Argentina); cachiman cannelle (Haiti); kaneelappel (Surinam); pomme cannelle (Guadeloupe,
French Guiana, French West Africa); rinon (Venezuela); saramulla, saramuya, ahate (Mexico);
scopappel (Netherlands Antilles); sweetsop (Jamaica, Bahamas); ata, luna, meba, sharifa, sarifa,
sitaphal, sita pandu, custard apple, scaly custard apple (India); bnah nona, nona, seri kaya
(Malaya) manonah, noinah, pomme cannelle du Cap (Thailand); qu a na (Vietnam); mang cau ta
(Cambodia); mak khbieb (Laos); fan-li-chi (China).
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sugar_apple.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:33:51 PM]
Sugar Apple
The sugar apple tree ranges from 10 to 20 ft

(3-6 m) in height with open crown of
irregular branches, and some-what zigzag
twigs. Deciduous leaves, alternately
arranged on short, hairy petioles, are
lanceolate or oblong, blunt tipped, 2 to 6 in
(5-15 cm) long and 3/4 to 2 in (2-5 cm)
wide; dull-green on the upperside, pale,
with a bloom, below; slightly hairy when
young; aromatic when crushed. Along the
branch tips, opposite the leaves, the fragrant
flowers are borne singly or in groups of 2 to
4. They are oblong, 1 to 1 1/2 in (2.5-3.8
cm) long, never fully open; with 1 in (2.5
cm) long, drooping stalks, and 3 fleshy
outer petals, yellow-green on the outside
and pale-yellow inside with a purple or
dark-red spot at the base. The 3 inner petals
are merely tiny scales. The compound fruit
is nearly round, ovoid, or conical; 2 1/3 to 4
in (6-10 cm) long; its thick rind composed Plate 8: SUGAR APPLE, Annona squamosa
of knobby segments, pale-green, gray-green,
bluish-green, or, in one form, dull, deep-pink externally (nearly always with a bloom); separating
when the fruit is ripe and revealing the mass of conically segmented, creamy-white, glistening,
delightfully fragrant, juicy, sweet, delicious flesh. Many of the segments enclose a single
oblong-cylindric, black or dark-brown seed about 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long. There may be a total of 20
to 38, or perhaps more, seeds in the average fruit. Some trees, however, bear seedless fruits.
The original home of the sugar apple is unknown. It is commonly cultivated in tropical South
America, not often in Central America, very frequently in southern Mexico, the West Indies,
Bahamas and Bermuda, and occasionally in southern Florida. In Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Barbados,
and in dry regions of North Queensland, Australia, it has escaped from cultivation and is found
wild in pastures, forests and along roadsides.
The Spaniards probably carried seeds from the New World to the Philippines and the Portuguese
are assumed to have introduced the sugar apple to southern India before 1590. It was growing in
Indonesia early in the 17 th century and has been widely adopted in southern China, Queensland,
Australia, Polynesia, Hawaii, tropical Africa, Egypt and the lowlands of Palestine. Cultivation is
most extensive in India where the tree is also very common as an escape and the fruit exceedingly
popular and abundant in markets. The sugar apple is one of the most important fruits in the interior
of Brazil and is conspicuous in the markets of Bahia.
Cultivars
The 'Seedless Cuban' sugar apple was introduced into Florida in 1955, has produced scant crops
Sugar Apple
of slightly malformed fruits with mere vestiges of undeveloped seeds. The flavor is less appealing
than that of normal fruits but it is vegetatively propagated and distributed as a novelty. Another
seedless type was introduced from Brazil.
Indian horticulturists have studied the diverse wild and cultivated sugar apples of that country and
recognize ten different types: 'Red' (A. squamosa var. Sangareddyiz)red-tinted foliage and
flowers, deep-pink rind, mostly non-reducing sugars, insipid, with small, blackish-pink seeds; poor
quality; comes true from seed. 'Red-speckled'having red spots on green rind.
'Crimson'conspicuous red-toned foliage and flowers, deep-pink rind, pink flesh. 'Yellow';
'White-stemmed'; 'Mammoth' (A. squamosa var. mammoth)pale yellow petals, smooth,
broad, thick, round rind segments that are light russet green; fruits lopsided, pulp soft, white, very
sweet; comes true from seed. 'Balangar'large, with green rind having rough, warty
[tuberculate], fairly thick rind segments with creamy margins; sweet; high yielding.
'Kakarlapahad'very high yielding. 'Washington'acute tuberculate rind segments,
orange-yellow margins; high yielding; late in season, 20 days after others. 'Barbados' and 'British
Guiana'having green rind, orange-yellow margins; high-yielding; late.
Named cultivars growing at the Sabahia Experiment Station, Alexandria, Egypt, include: 'Beni
Mazar'nearly round, large, 5 1/4 to 6 1/2 oz (150-180 g); 56-60% flesh; 15 30 seeds. 'Abd El
Razik'light-green or reddish rind; nearly round, large, maximum 8 1/3 oz (236.3 g); 69.5%
flesh; 14 seeds.
Climate
The sugar apple tree requires a tropical or near-tropical climate. It does not succeed in California
because of the cool winters though in Israel it has survived several degrees below freezing.
Generally, it does best in dry areas and it has high drought tolerance. However, in Ceylon it
flourishes in the wet as well as the dry zones from sea level to 3,500 ft (1,066 m) elevation. During
the blooming season, drought interferes with pollination and it is, therefore, concluded that the
sugar apple should have high atmospheric humidity but no rain when flowering. In severe
droughts, the tree sheds its leaves and the fruit rind hardens and will split with the advent of rain.
Soil
The sugar apple is not particular as to soil and has performed well on sand, oolitic limestone and
heavy loam with good drainage. Water-logging is intolerable. The tree is shallow-rooted and
doesn't need deep soil. Irrigation water containing over 300 ppm chlorine has done the tree no
harm.
Propagation
Sugar apple seeds have a relatively long life, having kept well for 3 to 4 years. They germinate
better a week after removal from the fruit than when perfectly fresh. Germination may take 30
days or more but can be hastened by soaking for 3 days or by scarifying. The percentage of
germination is said to be better in unsoaked seeds. While the tree is generally grown from seed,
vegetative propagation is practiced where the crop is important and early fruiting is a distinct
advantage.
Seedlings may be budded or grafted when one-year old. In India, selected clones grafted on A.
Sugar Apple
reticulata seedlings have flowered within 4 months and fruited in 8 months after planting out,
compared with 2 to 4 years in seedlings. The grafted trees are vigorous, the fruits less seedy and
more uniform in size. A. senegalensis is employed as a rootstock in Egypt. A. glabra is suitable but
less hardy. The sugar apple itself ranks next after A. reticulata as a rootstock. In India, budding is
best done in January, March and June. Results are poor if done inJuly, August, November or
December unless the scions are defoliated and debudded in advance and cut only after the petioles
have dehisced. Side-grafting can be done only from December to May, requires much skill and the
rate of success has not exceeded 58.33%. Shield-budding gives 75% success and is the only
commercially feasible method.
Inarching is 100% successful. Cuttings, layers, airlayers have a low rate of success, and trees
grown by these techniques have shallow root systems and cannot endure drought as well as
seedlings do.
Culture
In Egypt, sugar apple trees are spaced at 10 x 10 ft (3x3 m) in order to elevate atmospheric
humidity and improve pollination. Palestinian growers were spacing at 16 x 16 ft (5x5 m) but
changed to 16 x 10 ft (5x3 m) as more feasible. On light soils, they apply 132 to 176 lbs (60-80 kg)
manure per tree annually and they recommend the addition of nitrogen. Commercial fertilizer
containing 3% N, 10 % P and 10% K significantly increases flowering, fruit set and yield.
Judicious pruning to improve shape and strength of tree must be done only in spring when the sap
is rising, otherwise pruning may kill the tree. Irrigation during the dry season and once during
ripening will increase fruit size.
Cropping and Yield
Seedlings 5 years old may yield 50 fruits per tree in late summer and fall. Older trees rarely exceed
100 fruits per tree unless hand-pollinated. With age, the fruits become smaller and it is considered
best to replace the trees after 10 to 20 years. The fruits will not ripen but just turn black and dry if
picked before the white, yellowish or red tint appears between the rind segments, the first signs of
separation. If allowed to ripen on the tree, the fruit falls apart.
Keeping Quality
In India, mature fruits treated with 50-60 g carbide ripened in 2 days and thereafter remained in
good condition only 2 days at room temperature, while those packed in straw ripened in 5-6 days
and kept well for 4 days.
Storage trials in Malaya indicate that the ripening of sugar apples can be delayed by storage at
temperatures between 59 and 68F (15-20C) and 85-90% relative humidity, with low O2 and
C2 H2. To speed ripening at the same temperature and relative humidity, levels of O2 and CO2
should be high. Storing at 39.2F (4C) for 5 days resulted in chilling injury.
In Egypt, of 'Beni Mazar' fruits, picked when fullgrown, ll5 days from set, and held at room
temperature, 86,to ripened in 10 days. Of 'Abd E1 Razik' fruits, 140 days from set, 56% were ripe
in 15 days. Therefore, 'Abd E1 Razik' is better adapted to Upper Egypt where the climate should
promote normal ripening.
Sugar Apple
Pests and Diseases

In Florida and the Caribbean, a seed borer (chalcid fly), Bephratelloides cubensis, infests the seeds
and an associated fungus mummifies the partly grown fruits on the tree. This has discouraged
many from growing the sugar apple, though in the past it was a fairly common dooryard fruit tree.
Similar damage is caused by B. maculicollis in Colombia, Venezuela and Surinam, by B. ruficollis
in Panama, and B. paraguayensis in Paraguay. The soft scale, Philephedra sp., attacks leaves and
twigs and deposits honeydew on which sooty mold develops. Ambrosia beetles lay eggs on young
stems and the larvae induce dieback during the winter.
The mealybug is the main pest in Queensland, Australia, but is easily controlled. The green tree
ant is a nuisance because of the nests it makes in the tree. Bird and animal predators force Indian
growers to cover the tree with netting or pick the fruits prematurely and ripen them in straw.
A serious leaf blight in India is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum annonicola. In 1978 a new
fruit rot of sugar apple was observed in India, beginning with discoloration at one end which turns
brown or black in 4 or 5 days, and 2 or 3 days later the entire fruit starts to rot. Later, the fruit is
covered with gray-black mycelium and spherical bodies. The isolated fungus was identified as the
Colletotrichum state of Glomerella cingulata.
Food Uses
The ripe sugar apple is usually broken open and the flesh segments enjoyed while the hard seeds
are separated in the mouth and spat out. It is so luscious that it is well worth the trouble. In
Malaya, the flesh is pressed through a sieve to eliminate the seeds and is then added to ice cream
or blended with milk to make a cool beverage. It is never cooked.
Toxicity
The seeds are acrid and poisonous. Bark, leaves and seeds contain the alkaloid, anonaine. Six other
aporphine alkaloids have been isolated from the leaves and stems: corydine, roemerine,
norcorydine, norisocarydine, isocorydine and glaucine. Aporphine, norlaureline and dienone may
be present also. Powdered seeds, also pounded dried fruits serve as fish poison and insecticides in
India. A paste of the seed powder has been applied to the head to kill lice but must be kept away
from the eyes as it is highly irritant and can cause blindness. If applied to the uterus, it induces
abortion. Heat-extracted oil from the seeds has been employed against agricultural pests. Studies
have shown the ether extract of the seeds to have no residual toxicity after 2 days. High
concentrations are potent for 2 days and weaken steadily, all activity being lost after 8 days. In
Mexico, the leaves are rubbed on floors and put in hen's nests to repel lice.
Other Uses
The seed kernels contain 14-49% of whitish or yellowish, non-drying oil with saponification
index of 186.40. It has been proposed as a substitute for peanut oil in the manufacture of soap and
can be detoxified by an alkali treatment and used for edible purposes. The leaves yield an excellent
oil rich in terpenes and sesquiterpenes, mainly B-caryophyllene, which finds limited use in
perfumes, giving a woody spicy accent.
Fiber extracted from the bark has been employed for cordage. The tree serves as host for
Sugar Apple
lac-excreting insects.
Medicinal Uses: In India the crushed leaves are sniffed to overcome hysteria and fainting spells;
they are also applied on ulcers and wounds and a leaf decoction is taken in cases of dysentery.
Throughout tropical America, a decoction of the leaves alone or with those of other plants is
imbibed either as an emmenagogue, febrifuge, tonic, cold remedy, digestive, or to clarify the urine.
The leaf decoction is also employed in baths to alleviate rheumatic pain. The green fruit, very
astringent, is employed against diarrhea in El Salvador. In India, the crushed ripe fruit, mixed with
salt, is applied on tumors. The bark and roots are both highly astringent. The bark decoction is
given as a tonic and to halt diarrhea. The root, because of its strong purgative action, is
administered as a drastic treatment for dysentery and other ailments.
Calories
Moisture
Fat
88.9-95.7 g
69.8-75.18 g
0.26-1.10 g
Carbohydrates** 19.16-25.19 g
Crude Fiber
1.14-2.50 g
Protein
1.53-2.38 g
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
9-10 mg
7-8 mg
54-69 mg
Minerals:
Ash
Phosphorus
Calcium
Iron
0.55-1.34 mg
23.6-55.3 mg
19.4-44.7 mg
0.28-1.34 mg
Vitamins:
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
5-7 I.U.
0.100-0.13 mg
0.113-0.167 mg
0.654-0.931 mg
34.7-42.2 mg
*Minimum and maximum levels of constituents from analyses made in the Philippines, Central
America and Cuba.
**The average sugar content is 14.58% and is about 50-50 glucose and sucrose.
Sugar Apple
Atemoya

Morton, J. 1987. Atemoya. p. 7275. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Atemoya
Annona squamosa Annona cherimola
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
The atemoya, Annona squamosa A. cherimola, is a hybrid of the sugar apple and cherimoya,
qq.v. It was for many years mistakenly called custard apple or cherimoya in Queensland and New
South Wales. The name applied in Venezuela is chirimorinon.
Description
The tree closely resembles that of the cherimoya; is fast-growing; may reach 25 to 30 ft (7.5-9 m)
and is short-bunked, the branches typically drooping and the lowest touching the ground. The
leaves are deciduous, alternate, elliptical, leathery, less hairy than those of the cherimoya; and up
to 6 in (15 cm) in length. The flowers are long-stalked, triangular, yellow, 2 3/8 in (6 cm) long and
1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide. The fruit is conical or heart-shaped, generally to 4 in (10 cm) long and
to 3 3/4 in(9.5 cm) wide; some weighing as much as 5 lbs(2.25 kg); pale bluish-green or
pea-green, and slightly yellowish between the areoles. The rind, 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, is composed
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/atemoya.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:33:52 PM]
Atemoya
of fused areoles more prominent and

angular than those of the sugar apple, with
tips that are rounded or slightly upturned;
firm, pliable, and indehiscent. The fragrant
flesh is snowy-white, of fine texture, almost
solid, not conspicuously divided into
segments, with fewer seeds than the sugar
apple; sweet and subacid at the same time
and resemblirig the cherimoya in flavor.
The seeds are cylindrical, 3/4 in (2 cm) long
and 5/16 in (8 mm) wide; so dark a brown
as to appear black; hard and smooth.
The first cross was made by the
horticulturist, P.J. Wester, at the United
States Department of Agriculture's
subtropical laboratory, Miami, in 1908.
Seedlings were planted out in 1910. Other
Plate 9: ATEMOYA, Annona squamosa Annona cherimola
crosses made in 1910 fruited in 1911 and
seeds were taken by Wester to the Philippines. The hybrids grew there to 7 1/2 ft (2.3 m) high in
one year, had to be moved to another location; one bloomed in 1913 and was pollinated by the
custard apple, q.v. The rest of the plants fruited in 1914. Resulting fruits were superior in quality to
the sugar apple and were given the name "atemoya", a combinetion of "ate", an old Mexican name
for sugar apple, and "moya" from cherimoya. Cuttings of 9 of the hybrids were sent by Wester to
the United States Department of Agriculture in January of 1915. (S.P.I. Nos. 39808-39816),
#39809 representing the hybrid tree pollinated by the custard apple. In 1917, Wester sent cuttings
of #39809 under the name "cuatemoya" to the United States Department of Agriculture (S.P.I.
Nos. 44671-44673). In the meantime, Edward Simmons, at the Plant Introduction Field Station,
Miami, had successfully grown hybrids and they had survived an early February 1917 drop in
temperature to 26.5F (-3.10C), showing the hardiness derived from the cherimoya. Another
introduction was received from the Philippines in 1918 (S.P.I. #45571).
A few experimental growers in southern Florida maintained atemoya trees (apparently distributed
by the United States Department of Agriculture) for many years while there was a general lapse of
interest in this fruit. Today, there are a few small commercial plantings and the fruits are being
sent to some northern fruit dealers.
In the early 1930's or 1940's, what were apparently chance hybrids between adjacent sugar apple
and cherimoya orchards attracted attention in Israel and work was begun to choose and standardize
the best of these for vegetative propagation.
Varieties
One of the first named selections of atemoya was the 'Page', so-named by Roy Page of Coral
Gables who took budwood from superior atemoya trees on the property of Morrison Page in the
Redlands. Perhaps the second was the 'Bradley' which the Newcomb Nursery sold grafted onto
Atemoya
custard apple.
An early hybrid that arose in Queensland after the introduction of cherimoya seeds from South
America, was named 'Mammoth' (or 'Pink's Prolific', or 'Pink's Mammoth') and became the basis
of the commercial production of atemoyas there and on the north coast of New South Wales,
though the flesh of this cultivar immediately below the rind is usually brownish and bitter. 'Island
Beauty', a vigorous selection with excellent fruit quality was grown to a lesser extent. 'Mammoth'
was introduced into Hawaii from Queensland in 1960 and grafted plants were soon being
distributed by agricultural stations of the University of Hawaii in Kona and Hilo, and being sold by
nurseries in Honolulu.
'African Pride' is an improved clone that originated in South Africa. It was introduced into
Queensland by Langbecker Nurseries and 3,000 trees were released for commercial planting in
July 1961. It was quickly adopted as a replacement for 'Mammoth' as it was free of the
discoloration and bitterness next to the skin. In 1963, 6 plants of 'African Pride' were obtained
from Landbecker's by private experimenters and planted at several locations in southern Florida.
They began fruiting in 1965. The fruits appeared to be superior in quality to the 'Page' and
'Bradley'.
Israeli selections tried at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education Center,
Homestead, and the United States Department of Agriculture's Subtropical Horticulture Research
Unit, Miami, are 'Geffner', 'Malamud', 'Bernitski', 'Kabri' and 'Malai #1'. Other named
selections that have been grown in Florida over the years are 'Caves', Chirimorinon A, B and C,
'Island Gem', 'Keller', 'Lindstrom', 'Priestly' and 'Stermer'. 'Geffner' is being propagated at the
AREC, Homestead; 'Priestly' by the Zill Nursery in Boynton Beach. None of the others have
outstanding features; some develop hard spots in the flesh. In 'Keller' there is frequently a black
membrane around each seed-containing carper.
'Cherimata' and 'Finny' are Egyptian clones. 'Finny' is somewhat cylindrical, is more productive
than'Cherimata', has been grown in Egypt for many years and is considered the best for
commercial production in coastal districts.
Pollination
The atemoya and other annona trees bear hermaphroditic protogynous flowers and self-pollination
is rare. Atemoyas are sometimes misshapen, underdeveloped on one side, as the result of
inadequate pollination. The flower, in its female stage, opens between 2 and 4 o'clock in the
afternoon. Between 3 and 5 o'clock on the following afternoon, the flower converts to its male
stage. In cold and humid climates it releases pollen even though it is sticky. Where the climate is
hot and the humidity low at the blooming season, the carpers are short lived and the stigmatic
surface soon dries up and insects are necessary to transfer the pollen. Studies in Israel have
identified the principal insect pollinators as nitidulid beetlesCarpophilus hemipterus, C.
mutilatus, Haptoncus luteolus, and Uroporus humeralis. Even where these beetles are present,
hand-pollination will enhance fruit-setting and this is commonly practiced in Egypt. Spraying the
flowers several times with gibberellin at 1,000 ppm has increased fruit yield. The resulting fruits
are seedless but smaller and less flavorful than fruits with seeds.
Climate
Atemoya
The atemoya is slightly hardier than the sugar apple but still is limited to tropical or near-tropical
lowlands. In New South Wales, it is said to do best near the coast where rainfall and humidity are
high and winters are warm. Rainy weather during the ripening season, however, may cause the
fruits to split.
Soil
The tree thrives in various types of soil, from sandy loam to red basalt or heavy clay, but best
growth and productivity occur in deep, rich loam of medium texture, with good organic content
and a moderate amount of moisture. Good drainage is essential; waterlogging is fatal.
Propagation
Atemoyas for rootstocks are raised from seeds which germinate in about 4 weeks in seedbeds.
Seedlings are transplanted to nursery rows when they are a year old and they are placed 18 in (45
cm) apart in rows 3 ft (90 cm) apart. Grafting is done in the spring, using the whip- or
tongue-graft. If older trees are top worked, it is done by cleft- or bark-grafting. Scion wood is
taken from selected cultivars after the leaves have fallen. In Florida and India, the atemoya is
usually grafted onto the custard apple or sugar apple. Cherimoya is used as a rootstock in Israel.
Culture
When transferred to the field at the near-dormant period, grafted plants are spaced 28 to 30 ft
(8.5-9 m) apart each way and cut back to a height of 24 to 30 in (60-75 cm). Weeds are eliminated
to avoid competition with the spreading, shallow root system. During the next 2 or 3 years, the
trees are kept pruned to form a strong frame. Thereafter, only light pruning is done. No fertilizer is
applied until after the trees are well established, since the young roots are very sensitive. A
6-10-16 formula is recommended for broadcasting over the root area, the amount gradually
increased to 10 to 12 lbs (4.5-5.4 kg) annually for mature trees. Half is given in the spring a month
before flowering. Irrigation during flowering and fruit setting improves yield and fruit quality.
Season
In Florida, the atemoya ripens in the fall. In Queensland, the main blooming period is October and
November and the fruits mature in April and May. If there is light fruit set in October/November,
flowering may continue to February and the fruit from such late blooms may have to be picked
prematurely and ripened artificially to avoid cold night temperatures, but it will not develop the
highest quality.
Harvesting
The fruits must be clipped from the branch, taking care that the stalk left on the fruit does not
protrude beyond the shoulders. Frequent picking is necessary to harvest the fruit at the ideal stage,
that is, when creamy lines appear around the areoles showing that the spaces between them are
widening. If picked too soon, the fruit will not ripen but will darken and shrivel.
Fruits colonized by mealybugs have to be cleaned by brushing or the use of compressed air before
marketing. The fruits should not be wrapped because this will speed ripening, but they need to be
packed in boxes with padding between layers. Because of the irregular form, the fruits must be
carefully fitted together with the base of each fruit against the wall of the container and the more
Atemoya
delicate apex inward.

Yield
The atemoya is a shy yielder, mainly for the reason mentioned under "Pollination". Trees 5 years
old are expected to bear 50 fruits annually. In Queensland, commercial groves have produced 5
bushels of fruit per tree67 bushels per acre (165.5 bu/ha). An exceptionally large atemoya tree in
Florida yielded 11 bushels of fruits in the 1972 season.
Keeping Quality
Atemoyas keep very well in cool, shady, well-ventilated storage for at least 3 weeks. The rind may
darken before the interior shows any signs of spoilage. The ideal temperature for refrigerated
storage is 68F (20C), though an acceptable temperature range is 59 to 77F (15-25C). Lower
temperatures cause chilling injury.
Pests and Diseases
The citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri; which congregates around the base of the fruit, is the most
common pest, and sooty mold develops on its exodate.
In Queensland, the protective activities of the natural enemies of the mealybug are disrupted by the
coastal brown ant, Pheidole megacephala, which carries mealybugs up the trunk and around
between the fruits. Australian growers have tried sticky-banding the trunks and this has reduced
the numbers of ants but not sufficiently.
The chalcid fly that lays eggs in the seeds and makes exit holes in the fruit permitting entrance of
fungi, occasionally causes mummification of the atemoya. White wax, pink wax, and brown olive
scales may be found on the foliage but are shed along with the leaves.
A condition called "littleleaf" is not a disease but zinc deficiency which can be corrected by foliar
spraying.
Atemoyas are prone to collar rot (Phytophthora sp.), the first sign being an exudation of gum near
the base of the trunk and on the crown roots.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion of Ripe Fruit*
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
94
71.48-78.7 g
1.07-1.4 g
0.4-0.6 g
24 g
Fiber
Ash
Sodium
Potassium
0.05-2.5 g
0.4-0.75 g
4-5 mg
250 mg
Atemoya
Iron
Calcium
Magnesium
Zinc
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
a-carotene
B-carotene
Cryptoxanthin
Ascorbic Acid
0.3 mg
17 mg
32 mg
0.2 mg
0.05 mg
0.07 mg
0.8 mg
10 mcg
10 mcg
10 mcg
50 mg
*Analyses made in Florida, the Philippines and at the University of New South Wales.
Food Uses
The atemoya, preferably chilled, is one of the most delicious of fruits. It needs no seasoning. It
may be simply cut in half or quartered and the flesh eaten from the "shell" with a spoon. Slices or
cubes of the pulp may be added to fruit cups or salads or various dessert recipes. Some people
blend the pulp with orange juice, lime juice and cream and freeze as ice cream.
Toxicity
The seeds, like those of all Annona species, are toxic and care should be taken to seed the pulp
before it is mechanically blended.
Soursop

Morton, J. 1987. Soursop. p. 7580. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Soursop
Annona muricata
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Of the 60 or more species of the genus Annona, family Annonaceae, the soursop, A. muricata L., is
the most tropical, the largest-fruited, and the only one lending itself well to preserving and
processing.
It is generally known in most Spanish-speaking countries as guanabana; in E1 Salvador, as
guanaba; in Guatemala, as huanaba; in Mexico, often as zopote de viejas, or cabeza de negro; in
Venezuela, as catoche or catuche; in Argentina, as anona de puntitas or anona de broquel; in
Bolivia, sinini; in Brazil, araticum do grande, graviola, or jaca do Para; in the Netherlands
Antilles, sorsaka or zunrzak, the latter name also used in Surinam andJava; in French-speaking
areas of the West Indies, West Africa, and Southeast Asia, especially North Vietnam, it is known
as corossol, grand corossol, corossol epineux, or cachiman epineux. In Malaya it may be called
durian belanda, durian maki; or seri kaya belanda; in Thailand, thu-rian-khack.
In 1951, Prof. Clery Salazar, who was encouraging the development of soursop products at the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/soursop.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:33:59 PM]
Soursop
College of Agriculture at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, told me that they would like to adopt an English
name more appealing than the word "soursop", and not as likely as guanabana to be
mispronounced. To date, no altematives have been chosen.
Description
The soursop tree is low-branching and
bushy but slender because of its upturned
limbs, and reaches a height of 25 or 30 ft
(7.5-9 m). Young branchlets are rusty-hairy.
The malodorous leaves, normally evergreen,
are alternate, smooth, glossy, dark green on
the upper surface, lighter beneath; oblong,
elliptic or narrowobovate, pointed at both
ends, 2 1/2 to 8 in (6.25-20 cm) long and 1
to 2 1/2 in (2.5-6.25 cm) wide. The flowers,
which are borne singly, may emerge
anywhere on the trunk, branches or twigs.
They are short stalked, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4 5 cm)
long, plump, and triangular-conical, the 3
fleshy, slightly spreading, outer petals
yellow-green, the 3 close-set inner petals
pale-yellow.
The fruit is more or less oval or
heart-shaped, some times irregular, lopsided
Plate 10: SOURSOP, Annona muricata
or curved, due to improper carper
development or insect injury. The size
ranges from 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) long and
up to 6 in (15 cm) in width, and the weight
may be up to 10 or 15 lbs (4.5-6.8 kg). The
fruit is compound and covered with a
reticulated, leathery-appearing but tender,
inedible, bitter skin from which protrude
few or many stubby, or more elongated and
curved, soft, pliable "spines". The tips break
off easily when the fruit is fully ripe. The
skin is dark-green in the immature fruit,
becoming slightly yellowish-green before
the mature fruit is soft to the touch. Its inner
surface is cream-colored and granular and Fig. 20: Exceptionally large and well-formed soursops
(Annona muricata) in a Saigon market, 1968.
separates easily from the mass of
snow-white, fibrous, juicy segmentsmuch like flakes of raw fishsurrounding the central,
soft-pithy core. In aroma, the pulp is somewhat pineapple-like, but its musky, subacid to acid
flavor is unique. Most of the closely-packed segments are seedless. In each fertile segment there is
a single oval, smooth, hard, black seed, l/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) long; and a large fruit may contain
from a few dozen to 200 or more seeds.
Soursop

Oviedo, in 1526, described the soursop as abundant in the West Indies and in northern South
America. It is today found in Bermuda and the Bahamas, and both wild and cultivated, from
sea-level to an altitude of 3,500 ft (1,150 m) throughout the West Indies and from southern Mexico
to Peru and Argentina. It was one of the first fruit trees carried from America to the Old World
Tropics where it has become widely distributed from southeastern China to Australia and the
warm lowlands of eastern and western Africa. It is common in the markets of Malaya and
southeast Asia. Very large, symmetrical fruits have been seen on sale in South Vietnam. It became
well established at an early date in the Pacific Islands. The tree has been raised successfully but
has never fruited in Israel.
In Florida, the soursop has been grown to a limited extent for possibly 110 years. Sturtevant noted
that it was not included by Atwood among Florida fruits in 1867 but was listed by the American
Pomological Society in 1879. A tree fruited at the home of John Fogarty of Manatee before the
freeze of 1886. In the southeastern part of the state and especially on the Florida Keys, it is often
planted in home gardens.
In regions where sweet fruits are preferred, as in South India and Guam, the soursop has not
enjoyed great popularity. It is grown only to a limited extent in Madras. However, in the East
Indies it has been acclaimed one of the best local fruits. In Honolulu, the fruit is occasionally sold
but the demand exceeds the supply. The soursop is one of the most abundant fruits in the
Dominican Republic and one of the most popular in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, Colombia
and northeastern Brazil.
In 1887, Cuban soursops were selling in Key West, Florida, at 10 to 50 cents apiece. In 1920,
Wilson Popenoe wrote that: "In the large cities of tropical America, there is a good demand for the
fruits at all times of the year, a demand which is not adequately met at present." The island of
Grenada produces particularly large and perfect soursops and regularly delivers them by boat to
the market of Port-of Spain because of the shortage in Trinidad. In Colombia, where the soursop is
generally large, well-formed and of high quality, this is one of the 14 tropical fruits recommended
by the Instituto Latinoamericano de Mercadeo Agricola for large-scale planting and marketing.
Soursops produced in small plots, none over 5 acres (2.27 ha), throughout Venezuela supply the
processing plants where the frozen concentrate is packed in 6 oz (170 g) cans. In 1968, 2,266 tons
(936 MT) of juice were processed in Venezuela. The strained pulp is also preserved commercially
in Costa Rica. There are a few commercial soursop plantations near the south coast of Puerto Rico
and several processing factories. In 1977, the Puerto Rican crop totaled 219,538 lbs (99,790 kg).
At the First International Congress of Agricultural and Food Industries of the Tropical and
Subtropical Zones, held in 1964, scientists from the Research Laboratories of Nestle Products in
Vevey, Switzerland, presented an evaluation of lesser-known tropical fruits and cited the soursop,
the guava and passionfruit as the 3 most promising for the European market, because of their
distinctive aromatic qualities and their suitability for processing in the form of preserved pulp,
nectar and jelly.
Varieties
In Puerto Rico, the wide range of forms and types of seedling soursops are roughly divided into 3
Soursop
general classifications: sweet, subacid, and acid; then subdivided as round, heart-shaped, oblong or
angular; and finally classed according to flesh consistency which varies from soft and juicy to firm
and comparatively dry. The University of Puerto Rico's Agricultural Experiment Station at one
time cataloged 14 different types of soursops in an area between Aibonito and Coamo. In El
Salvador, 2 types of soursops are distinguished: guanaba azucaron (sweet) eaten raw and used for
drinks; and guanaba acida (very sour), used only for drinks. In the Dominican Republic, the
guanabana dulce (sweet soursop) is most sought after. The term "sweet" is used in a relative sense
to indicate low acidity. A medium-sized, yellow-green soursop called guanabana sin fibre
(fiberless) has been vegetatively propagated at the Agricultural Experiment Station at Santiago de
las Vegas, Cuba. The foliage of this superior clone is distinctly bluish-green. In 1920, Dr. Wilson
Popenoe sent to the United States Department of Agriculture, from Costa Rica, budwood of a
soursop he named 'Bennett' in honor of G.S. Bennett, Agricultural Superintendent of the Costa
Rican Division of the United Fruit Company. He described the fruit as large and handsome (as
shown in the photograph accompanying the introduction record No. 51050) and he declared the
tree to be the most productive he had seen.
Climate
The soursop is truly tropical. Young trees in
exposed places in southem Florida are killed
by only a few degrees of frost. The trees
that survive to fruiting age on the mainland
are in protected situations, close to the south
side of a house and sometimes near a source
of heat. Even so, there will be temporary
defoliation and interruption of fruiting when
the temperature drops to near freezing. In
Key West, where the tropical breadfruit
thrives, the soursop is perfectly at home. In
Puerto Rico, the tree is said to prefer an
altitude between 800 and 1,000 ft (244300 Fig. 21: The soursop tree may bear fruits anywhere on its
trunk or branches. Multiple-stems of this tree are the result of
m), with moderate humidity, plenty of sun its having been frozen to the ground more than once.
and shelter from strong winds.
Soil
Best growth is achieved in deep, rich, well-drained, semi-drysoil, but the soursop tree can be and is
commonly grown in acid and sandy soil, and in the porous, oolitic limestone of South Florida and
the Bahama Islands.
Propagation
The soursop is usually grown from seeds. They should be sown in flats or containers and kept
moist and shaded. Germination takes from 15 to 30 days. Selected types can be reproduced by
cuttings or by shield-budding. Soursop seedlings are generally the best stock for propagation,
though grafting onto custard apple (Annona reticulata), the mountain soursop (A. montana), or
pond apple (A. glabra), is usually successful. The pond apple has a dwarfing effect. Grafts on
sugar apple (A. squamosa) and cherimoya (A. cherimola) do not live for long, despite the fact that
Soursop
the soursop is a satisfactory rootstock for sugar apple in Ceylon and India.
Culture
In ordinary practice, seedlings, when 1 ft (30 cm) or more in height are set out in the field at the
beginning of the rainy season and spaced 12 to 15 ft (3.65-4.5 m) apart, though 25 ft (7.5 m) each
way has been suggested. A spacing of 20 x 25 ft (6x7.5 m) allows 87 trees per acre (215/ha).
Close-spacing, 8 x 8 ft (2.4x2.4 m) is thought aufficient for small gardens in Puerto Rico. The tree
grows rapidly and begins to bear in 3 to 5 years. In Queensland, well-watered trees have attained
15 to 18 ft (4.5-5.5 m) in 6 to 7 years. Mulching is recommended to avoid dehydration of the
shallow, fibrous root system during dry, hot weather. If in too dry a situation, the tree will cast off
all of its old leaves before new ones appear. A fertilizer mixture containing 10% phosphoric acid,
10% potash and 3% nitrogen has been advocated in Cuba and Queensland. But excellent results
have been obtained in Hawaii with quarterly applications of 10-10-10 N P K1\2 lb (.225 kg) per
tree the first year, 1 lb (.45 kg)/tree the 2nd year, 3 lbs (1.36 kg)/tree the 3rd year and thereafter.
Season
The soursop tends to flower and fruit more or less continuously, but in every growing area there is
a principal season of ripening. In Puerto Rico, this is from March to June or September; in
Queensland, it begins in April; in southern India, Mexico and Florida, it extends from June to
September; in the Bahamas, it continues through October. In Hawaii, the early crop occurs from
January to April; midseason crop, June to August, with peak in July; and there is a late crop in
October or November.
Harvesting
The fruit is picked when full grown and still firm but slightly yellow-green. If allowed to soften on
the tree, it will fall and crush. It is easily bruised and punctured and must be handled with care.
Firm fruits are held a few days at room temperature. When eating ripe, they are soft enough to
yield to the slight pressure of one's thumb. Having reached this stage, the fruit can be held 2 or 3
days longer in a refrigerator. The skin will blacken and become unsightly while the flesh is still
unspoiled and usable. Studies of the ripening process in Hawaii have determined that the optimum
stage for eating is 5 to 6 days after harvest, at the peak of ethylene production. Thereafter, the
flavor is less pronounced and a faint offodor develops. In Venezuela, the chief handicap in
commercial processing is that the fruits stored on racks in a cool shed must be gone over every day
to select those that are ripe and ready for juice extraction.
Yield
The soursop, unfortunately, is a shy-bearer, the usual crop being 12 to 20 or 24 fruits per tree. In
Puerto Rico, production of 5,000 to 8,000 lbs per acre (roughly equal kg/ha), is considered a good
yield from well-cared-for trees. A study of the first crop of 35 5 year-old trees in Hawaii showed
an average of 93.6 lbs (42.5 kg) of fruits per tree. Yield was slightly lower the 2nd year. The 3rd
year, the average yield was 172 lbs (78 kg) per tree. At this rate, the annual crop would be 16,000
lbs per acre (roughly equal kg/ha).
Pests & Diseases
Soursop
Queensland's principal soursop pest is the mealybug which may occur in masses on the fruits. The
mealybug is a common pest also in Florida, where the tree is often infessed with scale insects.
Sometimes it may be infected by a lace-wing bug.
The fruit is subject to attack by fruit fliesAnastrepha suspensa, A. striata and Ceratitis capitata.
Red spiders are a problem in dry climates.
Dominguez Gil (1978 and 1983), presents an extensive list of pests of the soursop in the State of
Zulia, Venezuela. The 5 most damaging are: 1) the wasp, Bephratelloides (Bephrata) maculicollis,
the larvae of which live in the seeds and emerge from the fully-grown ripe fruit, leaving it
perforated and highly perishable; 2) the moth, Cerconota (Stenoma) anonella, which lays its eggs
in the very young fruit causing stunting and malformation; 3) Corythucha gossipii; which attacks
the leaves; 4) Cratosomus inaequalis, which bores into the fruit, branches and trunk; 5)
Laspeyresia sp., which perforates the flowers. The first 3 are among the 7 major pests of the
soursop in Colombia, the other 4 being: Toxoptera aurantii; which affects shoots, young leaves,
flowers and fruits; present but not important in Venezuela; Aphis spiraecola; Empoasca sp.,
attacking the leaves; and Aconophora concolor, damaging the flowers and fruits. Important
beneficial agents preying on aphids are A phidius testataceipes, Chrysopa sp., and Curinus sp.
Lesser enemies of the soursop in South America include: Talponia backeri and T. batesi which
damage flowers and fruits; Horiola picta and H. lineolata, feeding on flowers and young branches;
Membracis foliata, attacking young branches, flower stalks and fruits; Saissetia nigra; Escama
ovalada, on branches, flowers and fruits; Cratosomus bombina, a fruit borer; and Cyclocephala
signata, affecting the flowers.
In Trinidad, the damage done to soursop flowers by Thecla ortygnus seriously limits the
cultivation of this fruit. The sphinx caterpillar, Cocytius antueus antueus may be found feeding on
soursop leaves in Puerto Rico. Bagging of soursops is necessary to protect them from Cerconota
anonella. However, one grower in the Magdalena Valley of Colombia claims that bagged fruits are
more acid than others and the flowers have to be handpollinated.
It has been observed in Venezuela and El Salvador that soursop trees in very humid areas often
grow well but bear only a few fruits, usually of poor quality, which are apt to rot at the tip. Most of
their flowers and young fruits fall because of anthracnose caused by Collectotrichum
gloeosporioides. It has been said that soursop trees for cultivation near San Juan, Puerto Rico,
should be seedlings of trees from similarly humid areas which have greater resistance to
anthracnose than seedlings from dry zones. The same fungus causes damping-off of seedlings and
die-back of twigs and branches. Occasionally the fungus, Scolecotrichum sp. ruins the leaves in
Venezuela. In the East Indies, soursop trees are sometimes subject to the root-fungi, Fomes
lamaoensis and Diplodia sp. and by pink disease due to Corticum salmonicolor.
Food Uses
Soursops of least acid flavor and least fibrous consistency are cut in sections and the flesh eaten
with a spoon. The seeded pulp may be torn or cut into bits and added to fruit cups or salads, or
chilled and served as dessert with sugar and a little milk or cream. For years, seeded soursop has
been canned in Mexico and served in Mexican restaurants in New York and other northern cities.
Most widespread throughout the tropics is the making of refreshing soursop drinks (called
Soursop
champola in Brazil; carato in Puerto Rico).

For this purpose, the seeded pulp may be
pressed in a colander or sieve or squeezed in
cheesecloth to extract the rich, creamy juice,
which is then beaten with milk or water and
sweetened. Or the seeded pulp may be
blended with an equal amount of boiling
water and then strained and sweetened. If an
electric blender is to be used, one must first
be careful to remove all the seeds, since
they are somewhat toxic and none should be
accidentally ground up in the juice.
In Puerto Rican processing factories, the
hand-peeled and cored fruits are passed
through a mechanical pulper having nylon
brushes that press the pulp through a screen,
separating it from the seeds and fiber. A
Fig. 22: Canned soursop concentrate is produced in
soursop soft drink, containing 12 to 15%
Venezuela. On the branch at the right is a soursop flower.
pulp, is canned in Puerto Rico and keeps
well for a year or more. The juice is prepared as a carbonated bottled beverage in Guatemala, and a
fermented, cider-like drink is sometimes made in the West Indies. The vacuum-concentrated juice
is canned commercially in the Philippines. There soursop drinks are popular but the normal "milk"
color is not. The people usually add pink or green food coloring to make the drinks more
attractive. The strained pulp is said to be a delicacy mixed with wine or brandy and seasoned with
nutmeg. Soursop juice, thickened with a little gelatin, makes an agreeable dessert.
In the Dominican Republic, a soursop custard is enjoyed and a confection is made by cooking
soursop pulp in sugar sirup with cinnamon and lemon peel. Soursop ice cream is commonly frozen
in refrigerator ice-cube trays in warm countries.
In the Bahamas, it is simply made by mashing the pulp in water, letting it stand, then straining to
remove fibrous material and seeds. The liquid is then blended with sweetened condensed milk,
poured into the trays and stirred several times while freezing. A richer product is made by the
usual method of preparing an ice cream mix and adding strained soursop pulp just before freezing.
Some Key West restaurants have always served soursop ice cream and now the influx of residents
from the Caribbean and Latin American countries has created a strong demand for it. The canned
pulp is imported from Central America and Puerto Rico and used in making ice cream and sherbet
commercially. The pulp is used, too, for making tarts and jelly, sirup and nectar. The sirup has
been bottled in Puerto Rico for local use and export. The nectar is canned in Colombia and frozen
in Puerto Rico and is prepared fresh and sold in paper cartons in the Netherlands Antilles. The
strained, frozen pulp is sold in plastic bags in Philippine supermarkets.
Immature soursops are cooked as vegetables or used in soup in Indonesia. They are roasted or fried
in northeastern Brazil. I have boiled the half-grown fruit whole, without peeling. In an hour, the
fruit is tender, its flesh off-white and mealy, with the aroma and flavor of roasted ears of green
corn (maize).
Soursop

Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A (B-carotene)
61.3-53.1
82.8g
1.00g
0.97g
14.63g
0.79g
60g
10.3 mg
27.7 mg
0.64 mg
0
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
0.11 mg
0.05 mg
1.28mg
29.6 mg
11 mg
7 mg
60mg
*Analyses made at the Laboratorio FIM de Nutricion, Havana, Cuba.

Toxicity
The presence of the alkaloids anonaine and anoniine has been reported in this species. The
alkaloids muricine, C19H21O4N (possibly des-N-methylisocorydine or des-N methylcorydine)
and muricinine, C18H19O4 (possibly des-N-methylcorytuberine), are found in the bark.
Muricinine is believed to be identical to reticuline. An unnamed alkaloid occurs in the leaves and
seeds. The bark is high in hydrocyanic acid. Only small amounts are found in the leaves and roots
and a trace in the fruit. The seeds contain 45% of a yellow non-drying oil which is an irritant
poison, causing severe eye inflarnmation.
Other Uses
Fruit: In the Virgin Islands, the fruit is placed as a bait in fish traps.
Seeds: When pulverized, the seeds are effective pesticides against head lice, southern army worms
and pea aphids and petroleum ether and chloroform extracts are toxic to black carpet beetle larvae.
The seed oil kills head lice.
Leaves: The leaf decoction is lethal to head lice and bedbugs.
Soursop
Bark: The bark of the tree has been used in tanning. The bark fiber is strong but, since fruiting
trees are not expendable, is resorted to only in necessity. Bark, as well as seeds and roots, has been
used as fish poison.
Wood: The wood is pale, aromatic, soft, light in weight and not durable. It has been used for ox
yokes because it does not cause hair loss on the neck.
In Colombia, it is deemed to be suitable for pipestems and barrelstaves. Analyses in Brazil show
cellulose content of 65 to 76%, high enough to be a potential source of paper pulp.
Medicinal Uses: The juice of the ripe fruit is said to be diuretic and a remedy for haematuria and
urethritis. Taken when fasting, it is believed to relieve liver ailments and leprosy. Pulverized
immature fruits, which are very astringent, are decocted as a dysentery remedy. To draw out
chiggers and speed healing, the flesh of an acid soursop is applied as a poultice unchanged for 3
days.
In Materia Medica of British Guiana, we are told to break soursop leaves in water, "squeeze a
couple of limes therein, get a drunken man and rub his head well with the leaves and water and
give him a little of the water to drink and he gets as sober as a judge in no time." This sobering or
tranquilizing formula may not have been widely tested, but soursop leaves are regarded throughout
the West Indies as having sedative or soporific properties. In the Netherlands Antilles, the leaves
are put into one's pillowslip or strewn on the bed to promote a good night's sleep. An infusion of
the leaves is commonly taken internally for the same purpose. It is taken as an analgesic and
antispasmodic in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. In Africa, it is given to children with fever and
they are also bathed lightly with it. A decoction of the young shoots or leaves is regarded in the
West Indies as a remedy for gall bladder trouble, as well as coughs, catarrh, diarrhea, dysentery
and indigestion; is said to "cool the blood," and to be able to stop vomiting and aid delivery in
childbirth. The decoction is also employed in wet compresses on inflammations and swollen feet.
The chewed leaves, mixed with saliva, are applied to incisions after surgery, causing proudflesh to
disappear without leaving a scar. Mashed leaves are used as a poultice to alleviate eczema and
other skin afflictions and rheumatism, and the sap of young leaves is put on skin eruptions.
The roots of the tree are employed as a vermifuge and the root bark as an antidote for poisoning. A
tincture of the powdered seeds and bay rum is a strong emetic. Soursop flowers are believed to
alleviate catarrh.
Custard Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Custard Apple. p. 8083. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Custard Apple
Annona reticulata
Description
Cultivars
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Both in tree and in fruit, the custard apple, Annona reticulata L., is generally rated as the mediocre
or "ugly duckling" species among the prominent members of this genus. Its descriptive English
name has been widely misapplied to other species and to the hybrid ATEMOYA, and it is
sometimes erroneously termed "sugar apple", "sweetsop" and, by Spanish-speaking people, "anon"
or "rinon", in India, "ramphal", all properly applied only to Annona squamosa. It has, itself,
acquired relatively few appropriate regional names. Most commonly employed as an alternate
name in English-speaking areas is bullock's-heart or bull's-heart; in French, coeur de boeuf;
Portuguese, coracao de boi; in Spanish, often merely corazonall alluding to its form and
external blush. The skin color is reflected in the Bolivian name, chirimoya roia, the Salvadoran
anona rosada, and the Guatemalan anona roja or anona colorada. In the latter country it is also
known as anona de seso. Araticum ape or araticum do mato are additional names in Brazil. Some
people refer to it as Jamaica apple, or as netted custard apple, which is translated as anona de
redecilla in Honduras and Nicaragua. Cachiman, cachiman coeur de boeuf and corossol sauvage
may be heard in the French-influenced West Indies.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/custard_apple.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:34:01 PM]
Custard Apple
In the Netherlands Antilles it is kasjoema. This name and boeah nona are used in Surinam. In
Cuba, it is mamon or chirimoya. Some Central Americans give it the name anona, or anonillo;
Colombians, anon pelon. To the Carib Indians the fruit was known as alacalyoua; to the Aztecs,
quaultzapotl, and to the Maya, tsulimay, tsulilpox, tsulipox, pox, oop, or op. It is generally called in
the Philippines sarikaya; in India ramphal, nona or luvuni, in Malaya, nona kapri, or lonang; in
Thailand, noi nong";; in Cambodia, mo bat or mean bat; in Laos, khan tua lot; in South Vietnam,
binh bat; North Vietnam, qua na.
Description
The custard apple tree is not especially
attractive. It is erect, with a rounded or
spreading crown and trunk 10 to 14 in
(25-35 cm) thick. Height ranges from 15 to
35 ft (4.5-10 m). The ill-smelling leaves are
deciduous, alternate, oblong or
narrow-lanceolate, 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm)
long, 3/4 to 2 in (2 5 cm) wide, with
conspicuous veins. Flowers, in drooping
clusters, are fragrant, slender, with 3 outer
fleshy, narrow petals 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2 3
cm) long; light-green externally and
Fig. 23: Bahamian custard apples (Annona reticulata) show
pale-yellow with a dark-red or purple spot typical variability in form and roughness of surface.
on the inside at the base. The flowers never
fully open.
The compound fruit, 3 l/4 to 6 1/2 in (8-16 cm) in diameter, may be symmetrically heart-shaped,
lopsided, or irregular; or nearly round, or oblate, with a deep or shallow depression at the base.
The skin, thin but tough, may be yellow or brownish when ripe, with a pink, reddish or
brownish-red blush, and faintly, moderately, or distinctly reticulated. There is a thick, cream-white
layer of custardlike, somewhat granular, flesh beneath the skin surrounding the concolorous
moderately juicy segments, in many of which there is a single, hard, dark-brown or black, glossy
seed, oblong, smooth, less than 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long. Actual seed counts have been 55, 60 and 76.
A pointed, fibrous, central core, attached to the thick stem, extends more than halfway through the
fruit. The flavor is sweet and agreeable though without the distinct character of the cherimoya,
sugar apple, or atemoya.
The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times
through Central America to southern Mexico. It has long been cultivated and naturalized as far
south as Peru and Brazil. It is commonly grown in the Bahamas and occasionally in Bermuda and
southern Florida.
Apparently it was introduced into tropical Africa early in the 17th century and it is grown in South
Africa as a dooryard fruit tree. In India the tree is cultivated, especially around Calcutta, and runs
wild in many areas. It has become fairly common on the east coast of Malaya, and more or less
throughout southeast Asia and the Philippines though nowhere particularly esteemed. Eighty years
Custard Apple
ago it was reported as thoroughly naturalized in Guam. In Hawaii it is not well known.
Cultivars
No named cultivars are reported but there is considerable variation in the quality of fruit from
different trees. The yellow-skinned types seem superior to the brownish, and, when well filled out,
have thicker and juicier flesh. Seeds of a purple-skinned, purple-fleshed form, from Mexico, were
planted in Florida and the tree has produced fruit of unremarkable quality.
Climate
The custard apple tree needs a tropical climate but with cooler winters than those of the west coast
of Malaya. It flourishes in the coastal lowlands of Ecuador; is rare above 5,000 ft (1,500 m). In
Guatemala, it is nearly always found below 4,000 ft (1,220 m). In India, it does well from the
plains up to an elevation of 4,000 ft (1,220 m); in Ceylon, it cannot be grown above 3,000 ft (915
m). Around Luzon in the Philippines, it is common below 2,600 ft (800 m). It is too tender for
California and trees introduced into Palestine succumbed to the cold. In southem Florida the leaves
are shed at the first onset of cold weather and the tree is dormant all winter. Fully grown, it has
survived temperatures of 27 to 28F (-2.78 to 2.22C) without serious harm. This species is less
drought-tolerant than the sugar apple and prefers a more humid atmosphere.
Soil
The custard apple does best in low-lying, deep, rich soil with ample moisture and good drainage. It
grows to full size on oolitic limestone in southern Florida and runs wild in light sand and various
other types of soil in the New and Old World tropics but is doubtless less productive in the less
desirable sites.
Propagation
Seed is the usual means of propagation. Nevertheless, the tree can be multiplied by inarching, or
by budding or grafting onto its own seedlings or onto soursop, sugar apple or pond apple
rootstocks. Experiments in Mexico, utilizing cherimoya, llama, soursop, custard apple, Annona sp.
Af. lutescens and Rollinia jimenezii Schlecht. as rootstocks showed best results when custard apple
scions were side-grafted onto self-rootstock, soursop, or A. sp. Af. lutescens. Custard apple
seedlings are frequently used as rootstocks for the soursop, sugar apple and atemoya.
Culture
The tree is fast-growing and responds well to mulching, organic fertilizers and to frequent
irrigation if there is dry weather during the growing period. The form of the tree may be improved
by judicious pruning.
The custard apple has the advantage of cropping in late winter and spring when the preferred
members of the genus are not in season. It is picked when it has lost all green color and ripens
without splitting so that it is readily sold in local markets. If picked green, it will not color well and
will be of inferior quality. The tree is naturally a fairly heavy bearer. With adequate care, a mature
tree will produce 75 to 100 lbs (34-45 kg) of fruits per year. The short twigs are shed after they
Custard Apple
have borne flowers and fruits.

Pests and Diseases
The custard apple is heavily attacked by the chalcid fly. Many if not all of the fruits on a tree may
be mummified before maturity. In India, the ripening fruits must be covered with bags or nets to
avoid damage from fruit bats.
A dry charcoal rot was observed on the fruits in Assam in 1947. In 1957 and 1958 it made its
appearance at Saharanpur. The causal fungus was identified as Diplodia annonae. The infection
begins at the stem end of the fruit and gradually spreads until it covers the entire fruit.
Food Uses
In India, the fruit is eaten only by the lower classes, out-of-hand. In Central America, Mexico and
the West Indies, the fruit is appreciated by all. When fully ripe it is soft to the touch and the stem
and attached core can be easily pulled out. The flesh may be scooped from the skin and eaten as is
or served with light cream and a sprinkling of sugar. Often it is pressed through a sieve and added
to milk shakes, custards or ice cream. I have made a delicious sauce for cake and puddings by
blending the seeded flesh with mashed banana and a little cream.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Crude Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
80-101
68.3-80.1 g
1.17-2.47 g
0.5-0.6 g
20-25.2 g
0.9-6.6 g
0.5-1.11 g
17.6-27 mg
14.7-32.1 mg
0.42-1.14 mg
0.007-0.018 mg
0.075-0.119 mg
0.086-0.175 mg
0.528-1.190 m
15.0-44.4 mg
Nicotinic Acid 0.5 mg

*Minimum and maximum levels of constituents from analyses made in Central America,
Philippines and elsewhere.
Toxicity
Custard Apple
The seeds are so hard that they may be swallowed whole with no ill effects but the kernels are very
toxic. The seeds, leaves and young fruits are insecticidal. The leaf juice kills lice. The bark
contains 0.12% anonaine. Injection of an extract from the bark caused paralysis in a rear limb of an
experimental toad. Sap from cut branches is acrid and irritant and can severely injure the eyes. The
root bark has yielded 3 alkaloids: anonaine, liriodenine and reticuline (muricinine).
Other Uses
The leaves have been employed in tanning and they yield a blue or black dye. A fiber derived from
the young twigs is superior to the bark fiber from Annona squamosa. Custard apple wood is
yellow, rather soft, fibrous but durable, moderately close-grained, with a specific gravity of 0.650.
It has been used to make yokes for oxen.
Medicinal Uses: The leaf decoction is given as a vermifuge. Crushed leaves or a paste of the flesh
may be poulticed on boils, abscesses and ulcers. The unripe fruit is rich in tannin; is dried,
pulverized and employed against diarrhea and dysentery. The bark is very astringent and the
decoction is taken as a tonic and also as a remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. In severe cases, the
leaves, bark and green fruits are all boiled together for 5 minutes in a liter of water to make an
exceedingly potent decoction. Fragments of the root bark are packed around the gums to relieve
toothache. The root decoction is taken as a febrifuge.
Ilama

Morton, J. 1987. Ilama. p. 8385. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Ilama
Annona diversifolia
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Harvesting
Yield
Pests
Food Uses
This member of the Annonaceae was little known and the subject of much confusion until 1911,
when it was investigated and fully described by W.E. Safford, of the United States Department of
Agriculture's Bureau of Plant Industry, and given the botanical name of Annona diversifolia
Safford. In Mexico, it has been called llama, izlama, illamatzopotl (translated as zapote de las
viejas, or "old woman's sapote"), hilama, and papuasa. In Guatemala, it is called anona blanca or
papauce; in El Salvador, anona blanca.
Description
The tree may be spreading or erect, to 25 ft (7.5 m), often branching from the ground. It has
aromatic, pale brownish-gray, furrowed bark and glossy, thin, elliptic to obovate or oblanceolate
leaves, 2 to 6 in (5-15 cm) long. There are 1 or 2 leaflike, nearly circular, glabrous bracts, 1 to 1
3/8 in (2.5 3.5 cm) long, clasping the base of the flowering branchlets. The new foliage is reddish
or coppery. Solitary, long-stalked, maroon flowers, which open to the base, have small rusty hairy
sepals, narrow, blunt, minutely hairy outer petals, and stamen-like, pollenbearing inner petals. The
fruit is conical, heart-shaped, or ovoid globose, about 6 in (15 cm) long; may weigh as much as 2
Ibs (0.9 kg). Generally, the fruit is studded with more or less pronounced, triangular protuberances,
though fruits on the same tree may vary from rough to fairly smooth. The rind, pale-green to
deep-pink or purplish, is coated with a dense, velvety gray-white bloom. It is about 1/4 in (6 mm)
thick, leathery, fairly soft and granular. In green types, the flesh is white and sweet; in the pink
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/ilama.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:34:02 PM]
Ilama
types, it is pink-tinged near the rind and

around the seeds, all-pink or even
deep-rose, and tart in flavor. It is somewhat
fibrous but smooth and custardy near the
rind; varies from dryish to fairly juicy, and
contains 25 to 80 hard, smooth, brown,
cylindrical seeds, 3/4 in (2 cm) long, 3/8 in
(1 cm) wide, each enclosed in a close-fitting
membrane easily slipped off when split.
The ilama is native and grows wild in
foothills from the southwest coast of
Fig. 24: The ilama (Annona daversifolia), as grown in
Mexico to the Pacific coast of Guatemala
southern Florida, has a thick rind and dryish flesh.
and El Salvador. The earliest known record
of the fruit was made by Francisco Hernandez who was sent by King Philip II of Spain in 1570 to
take note of the useful products of Mexico. For many years, it was confused with either the
soursop or the custard apple.
The United States Department of Agriculture introduced seeds from El Salvador in 1914 (P.I. No.
35567); from Guatemala in 1917 (P.I. No. 45548); and from Mexico in 1919, 1922 and 1923 (P.I.
Nos. 46781, 55709, and 58030). One of the trees planted at the Plant Introduction Garden, Miami,
Florida, bore its first fruits in 1923. Several thousand seedlings had been sent to Puerto Rico, St.
Croix, various part of tropical America and Asia (including Ceylon), and the Philippines.
Apparently few survived. Only in its homeland is the ilama commonly grown in dooryards,
occasionally in orchards of 100 trees or more. Dr. Victor Patino took seeds from Mexico to
Colombia for planting in the Cauca Valley in 1957. In spite of early enthusiasm for this species, it
is seldom mentioned in horticultural literature. In 1942, there were no more than 50 trees in
southern Florida, only 3 of bearing age. In 1965, Dr. John Popenoe, Director of Fairchild Tropical
Garden, brought seeds from Guatemala and raised a number of seedlings for distribution, but the
tree is still quite rare in Florida. It is too tender even for southern California.
Varieties
One named cultivar, 'Imery', introduced into Florida from El Salvador and grown at the
Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, is large and pinkfleshed but not as
flavorful as some of the white-fleshed acquisitions from Guatemala.
Climate
The ilama is strictly tropical; grows naturally not higher than 2,000 ft (610 m) in Mexico; is
cultivated up to 5,000 ft (1,524 m) in El Salvador; up to 5,900 ft (1,800 m) in Guatemala. It seems
to do best where there is a long dry season followed by plentiful rainfall. In areas where rainfall is
scant, the tree is irrigated.
Soil
Dr. Wilson Popenoe observed that the tree was not particular as to soil but should prosper in rich,
Ilama
loose loam. In Florida, it performs better on deep sand than on oolitic limestone.
Propagation
Ilama seeds, taken from ripe fruits, remain dormant for several weeks or even months and the
germination rate thereafter is low. Applications of gibberellic acid at 350 ppm greatly increases
germination. Higher concentrations cause malformations in the seedlings. Whip-or cleft-grafting
onto custard apple (A. reticulata) rootstocks has been successful. Seedlings begin to bear when 3
to 5 years old.
Harvesting
The harvesting season begins in late June in Mexico and lasts only a few weeks. It extends from
late July to September in Guatemala; from July to December in Florida. Traditionally, the fruits
are not picked until they have begun to crack open, but they can be picked a little earlier and held
up to 3 days to soften. They will not ripen if harvested too early.
Yield
The yield is typically low. In Mexico, during the normal fruiting period, some trees will have no
fruits, others only 3 to 10; exceptional trees may bear as many as 85 to 100 fruits in a season.
Pests
The Ilama is not as susceptible to the chalcid fly as are its more popular relatives in Florida.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
71.5 g
0.447 g
0.16 g
1.3 g
1.37 g
31.6 mg
51.7 mg
0.70 mg
0.011 mg
0.235 mg
0.297 mg
2.177 mg
Ascorbic Acid 13.6 mg

*According to analyses made in El Salvador.
Food Uses
The early plant explorers of the United States Department of Agriculture and their contacts in
Ilama
Mexico and Central America described the ilama as resembling the cherimoya or atemoya in
flavor and expected it to be well received in this country and abroad. However, as grown in
Florida, it is not as appealing as the sugar apple. There is a slightly unpleasant flavor close to the
rind. The flesh is always consumed raw, either in the half shell or, better still, shallowly scooped
out, chilled, and served with a little cream and sugar to intensify the flavor, or with a dash of lime
or lemon juice.
Biriba

Morton, J. 1987. Biriba. p. 8890. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Biriba
Rollinia mucosa
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate and Soil
Season and Harvesting
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Of the approximately 65 species of the genus Rollinia (family Annonaceae), only a few have
edible fruit and the best-known is the biriba, R. mucosa Baill. (syns. R. orthopetala A. DC.;
Annona mucosa Jacq.; A. sieberi A. DC.; and possibly R. deliciosa Safford?). The popular
Brazilian name has been widely adopted, but in that country it may also be called biriba de
Pernambuco, fruta da condessa, jaca de pobre, araticu, araticum, araticum pitaya. In Peru, it is
anon; in Ecuador, chirimoya; in Colombia, mulato; in Venezuela, rinon or rinon de monte; in
Mexico, anona babosa or zambo. In Trinidad it is called wild sugar apple; in Guadeloupe,
cachiman morveux, cachiman cochon or cachiman montagne, in Puerto Rico, cachiman or anon
cimarron, in the Dominican Republic, candongo or anona.
Description
This fast-growing tree ranges from 13 to 50 ft (4-15 m) in height; has brown, hairy twigs and
alternate, deciduous, oblong-elliptic or ovate-oblong leaves, pointed at the apex, rounded at the
base, 4 to 10 in (10-25 cm) long, thin but somewhat leathery and hairy on the underside. The
flowers, borne 1 to 3 or occasionally more together in the leaf axils, are hermaphroditic, 3/4 to 1
3/8 in (23.5 cm) wide; triangular, with 3 hairy sepals, 3 large, fleshy outer petals with upturned or
horizontal wings, and 3 rudimentary inner petals. The fruit is conical to heart-shaped, or oblate; to
6 in (15 cm) in diameter; the rind yellow and composed of more or less hexagonal, conical
segments, each tipped with a wart-like protrusion; nearly 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, leathery, tough and
indehiscent. The pulp is white, mucilaginous, translucent, juicy, subacid to sweet. There is a
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/biriba.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:34:04 PM]
Biriba
slender, opaque-white core and numerous

dark-brown, elliptic or obovate seeds 5/8 to
3/4 in (1.6-2 cm) long.
This species has an extensive natural range,
from Peru and northern Argentina, Paraguay
and Brazil and northward to Guyana,
Venezuela, Colombia and southern Mexico;
Trinidad, the Lesser Antilles including
Guadeloupe, Martinique and St. Vincent;
and Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. It is much
cultivated around Iquitos, Peru, and Rio de Fig. 26: The biriba (Rollinia mucosa) is an attractive
Janeiro, Brazil and the fruits are marketed in light-yellow at first.
abundance. It is the favorite fruit in western Amazonia.
Seeds were first introduced into the United States from Para, Brazil, by O.W. Barrett in 1908
(S.P.I. #22512); a second time from Parain 1910 (S.P.I. #27579) and again in 1912 (S.P.I.
#27609). The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Rio de Janeiro in 1914
(S.P.I. #38171). P.J. Wester may have taken seeds to the Philippines where the species first fruited
in 1915. Seedlings were distributed to pioneers in southern Florida but only a very few trees exist
here today.
Varieties
The only named selection referred to in the literature is 'Regnard' reported by P.J. Wester in 1917
as the best variety introduced into the Philippines. A form in the western Amazon region has very
pronounced points; weighs up to 8.8 lbs (4 kg).
Pollination
Brazilian scientists have found that 4 species of beetles of the family Chrysomelidae pollinate the
flowers, but only 32% of the blooms set fruit. Fruiting begins 55 days after the onset of flowering.
Climate and Soil
The biriba is limited to warm lowlands, from 20 north to 30 south latitudes in tropical America.
In Puerto Rico, it occurs at elevations between 500 and 2,000 ft (150-600 m). It has succumbed to
temperature drops to 26.5F (-3.10C) in southern Florida. In Brazil, the tree grows naturally in
low areas along the Amazon subject to periodic flooding and it was expected to do well in the
Florida Everglades. In the Philippines it is said to flourish where the rainfall is equally distributed
throughout the year. Calcareous soils do not seem to be unsuitable in Florida or Puerto Rico as
long as they are moist.
In Amazonia, the tree may flower and fruit off and on during the year but the fruits are most
abundant from January to June. The fruits ripen in February and March in Rio de Janeiro. In
Florida, fruits have matured in November and December. In South America, the fruit is picked
Biriba
when still green and hard in order to

transport it intact to urban markets where it
gradually turns yellow and soft. When the
fruit is fully ripe, handling causes the
wart-like protuberances on the rind to turn
brown or near-black, rendering it
unattractive.
Pests and Diseases
The most important pests in Brazil are the
larvae of Cerconota anonella
(Lepidopterae) which attack fruits in the
process of maturing. The borer, Cratosomus
bombina, penetrates the bark and trunk. A Fig. 27: Handling causes the conical projections on the fruit to
turn black.
stinging caterpillar, Sabine sp., feeds on the
leaves. A white fly, Aleurodicus cocois, attacks foliage of young and adult plants. Pseudococcus
brevipes and Aspidiotus destructor are found on the leaves and sometimes on the fruits. Black
spots on the leaves are caused by the fungus Cercospora anonae. Glomerella cingulata causes
dieback and fruit rot in Florida.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Lipids
Glycerides
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
80
77.2 g
2.8 g
0.2 g
l9.1 g
1.3 g
0.7 g
24 mg
26 mg
1.2 mg
0.04 mg
0.04 mg
0.5 mg
33.0 mg
Amino Acids
Lysine
Methionine
Threonine
Tryptophan
(mg per g of Nitrogen (N = 6.25):

316 mg
178 mg
219 mg
57 mg
Biriba
*According to Brazilian analyses.

Food Uses
The fruit is eaten fresh and is fermented to make wine in Brazil.
Other Uses
The wood of the tree is yellow, hard, heavy, strong and is used for ribs for canoes, boat masts,
boards and boxes.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit is regarded as refrigerant, analeptic and antiscorbutic. The powdered
seeds are said to be a remedy for enterocolitis.
Avocado

Morton, J. 1987. Avocado. p. 91102. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Avocado
Persia americana
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Spacing
Maturity and Harvesting
Yield
Marketing
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Avocado Oil
Toxicity
Other Uses
Medicinal Uses
Related Species
The avocado, unflatteringly known in the past as alligator pear, midshipman's butter,
vegetable butter, or sometimes as butter pear, and called by Spanish-speaking people
aguacate, cura, cupandra, or palta; in Portuguese, abacate; in French, avocatier; is the only
important edible fruit of the laurel family, Lauraceae. It is botanically classified in three
groups: A), Persea americana Mill. var. americana (P. gratissima Gaertn.), West Indian
Avocado; B) P. americana Mill. var. drymifolia Blake (P. drymifolia Schlecht. & Cham.),
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/avocado_ars.html (1 of 24) [5/16/2004 1:34:07 PM]
Avocado
the Mexican Avocado; C) P. nubigena var. guatemalensis L. Wms., the Guatemalan

Avocado.
Description
The avocado tree may be erect,
usually to 30 ft (9 m) but sometimes
to 60 ft (18 m) or more, with a trunk
12 to 24 in (30-60 cm) in diameter,
(greater in very old trees) or it may be
short and spreading with branches
beginning close to the ground.
Almost evergreen, being shed briefly
in dry seasons at blooming time, the
leaves are alternate, dark-green and
glossy on the upper surface, whitish
on the underside; variable in shape
Fig. 28: West Indian avocados (Persea americana). The fruit
(lanceolate, elliptic, oval, ovate or
cut open is a 'Hall'.
obovate), 3 to 16 in (7.5-40 cm) long.
Those of the Mexican race are strongly anise-scented. Small, pale-green or yellow-green
flowers are borne profusely in racemes near the branch tips. They lack petals but have 2
whorls of 3 perianth lobes, more or less pubescent, and 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar
glands. The fruit, pear-shaped, often more or less necked, oval, or nearly round, may be 3 to
13 in (7.5-33 cm) long and up to 6 in (15 cm) wide. The skin may be yellow-green,
deep-green or very dark-green, reddish-purple, or so dark a purple as to appear almost black,
and is sometimes speckled with tiny yellow dots, it may be smooth or pebbled, glossy or
dull, thin or leathery and up to 1/4 in (6 mm) thick, pliable or granular and brittle. In some
fruits, immediately beneath the skin there is a thin layer of soft, bright-green flesh, but
generally the flesh is entirely pale to rich-yellow, buttery and bland or nutlike in flavor. The
single seed is oblate, round, conical or ovoid, 2 to 2 1\2 in (5-6.4 cm) long, hard and heavy,
ivory in color but enclosed in two brown, thin, papery seedcoats often adhering to the flesh
cavity, while the seed slips out readily. Some fruits are seedless because of lack of
pollination or other factors.
The avocado may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio
Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. Thereafter, it was carried not
only to the West Indies (where it was first reported in Jamaica in 1696), but to nearly all
parts of the tropical and subtropical world with suitable environmental conditions. It was
taken to the Philippines near the end of the 16th Century; to the Dutch East Indies by 1750
and Mauritius in 1780; was first brought to Singapore between 1830 and 1840 but has never
become common in Malaya. It reached India in 1892 and is grown especially around Madras
and Bangalore but has never become very popular because of the preference for sweet fruits.
It was planted in Hawaii in 1825 and was common throughout the islands by 1910; it was
introduced into Florida from Mexico by Dr. Henry Perrine in 1833 and into California, also
from Mexico, in 1871. Vegetative propagation began in 1890 and stimulated the importation
Avocado
of budwood of various types, primarily to extend the season of fruiting. Some came from
Hawaii in 1904 (S. P. I. Nos. 19377-19380).
Now the avocado is grown commercially not only in the United States and throughout
tropical America and the larger islands of the Caribbean but in Polynesia, the Philippines,
Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, Mauritius, Madeira, the Canary Islands, Algeria,
tropical Africa, South Africa, southern Spain and southern France, Sicily, Crete, Israel and
Egypt.
Though the Spaniards took the avocado to Chile, probably early in the 17th Century and it
was planted from the Peruvian border southward for over 1000 mi (1,600 km) actual
commercial plantings were not established until California cultivars were introduced about
1930 into two areas within 100 mi (160 km) of Santiago where the industry is now centered.
The first trees were planted in Israel in 1908, but named cultivars ('Fuerte' and 'Dickinson')
were not introduced until 1924. These aroused interest in the feasibility of the crop for the
southern half of the coastal plain and the interior valleys, and development of the industry
has steadily gone forward, except for a period in the 1960's when much planting stock was
destroyed because of marketing problems. In 1979, Israel produced 33,000 tons (30,000
MT) and exported 28,600 tons (26,000 MT).
In just the last few years, New Zealand has launched a program to expand commercial
production, especially in the Bay of Plenty area, with protection from wind and frost, with a
view to becoming a major exporter of avocados.
California produced 265 million lbs (12,045 MT) in 1976; 486 million lbs (22,090 MT) in
1981. The Florida avocado potential is estimated at 150 million lbs (6,818 MT). Both states
suffer fluctuations because of the impact of periodic freezes, droughts, high winds or other
seasonal factors.
Presently, Mexico, with 150,000 acres (62,500 ha) is the leading producer267,786 tons
(243,000 MT); the Dominican Republic is second144,362 tons (131,000 MT); U.S.A.
(California and Florida combined) with 52,000 acres (21,666 ha), third131,138 tons
(119,000 MT); Brazil is fourth128,934 tons (117,000 MT). Israel, with 16,000 acres
(6,666 ha), is fifth; and South Africa sixth. Half of California's plantings are in San Diego
County close to Mexico.
As an exporter, Mexico again leads, followed by California, Israel, South Africa and
Florida, in that order. Nearly all of Brazil's crop is consumed domestically.
Varieties
WEST INDIAN race: Florida avocados were at first mainly of the summer fruiting West
Indian race, but these had to compete commercially with similar fruits imported from Cuba,
and growers sought other cultivars maturing at a later season. This led to the development of
West Indian X Guatemalan hybrids. The cessation of trade with Cuba in the early 1960's
brought about a shift back to summer cultivars in new groves to fill the gap. The majority of
the avocados grown in the West Indies, Bahamas and Bermuda and the tropics of the Old
World are still of the West Indian race. The skin is leathery, pliable, non-granular, and the
Avocado
flesh low in oil. The leaves are not aromatic. The following are the most prominent of early
and more recent West Indian cultivars which have played an important role in the
development of the avocado industry in Florida and elsewhere. New selections appear from
time to time that may have special adaptability to certain locales or conditions.
'Butler' (a USDA selection in Florida; fruited in 1909, propagated from 1914 to 1918) pear
shaped; medium-large; skin smooth; seed of medium size, tight in the cavity. Season:
Aug.-Sept. No longer grown in Florida. Cultivated in Puerto Rico.
'Fuchs' ('Fuchsia') (seed of unknown origin planted in Homestead, Florida, in 1910;
propagated commercially in 1926); pear shaped to oblong, sometimes with a neck; of
medium size; skin smooth; flesh pale greenish-yellow; 4 to 6% oil; seed loose. Season:
earlyJune-Aug.; a poor shipper. Tree not very productive in Florida; no longer popular in
commercial groves.
'Maoz' (a seedling selected from a plot near Maoz, Israel); pear-shaped; of medium size;
skin rough, leathery, violet-purple when ripe; flesh sweetish and very low in oil. Season:
medium-late (Oct.). Tree is an alternate bearer but is fairly small, highly salt-tolerant; used
in Israel as rootstock on either saline or calcareous soils.
'Pollock' (originated in Miami before 1896; commercially propagated in 1901); oblong to
pear shaped; very large, up to 5 lbs (2.27 kg); skin smooth; flesh green near skin, contains 3
to 5% oil; seed large, frequently loose in cavity. Season: early July to Aug. or Oct.
Shy-bearing and too large but of superior quality.
'Ruchle' (a seedling of Waldin planted at the Agricultural Research and Education Center,
Homestead, in 1923; first propagated in 1946); pear-shaped; of medium size, 10 to 20 oz
(280-560 g); flesh low in oil (2-5%). Season begins in July in Florida; Jan. in Queensland.
Heavy bearer in Florida.
'Russell' (originated in Islamorada in Florida Keys); pearshaped at apex with long neck
giving it a total length up to 13 in (32.5 cm); skin, smooth, glossy, thin, leathery; flesh of
excellent quality; seed small. Season: Aug. and Sept. Tree bears well and is recommended
for home gardens.
'Simmonds' (possibly from a seed of Pollock, first fruited in Miami in 1913; propagated
commercially in 1921); oblongoval to pear-shaped; large; skin smooth, light green; flesh of
good flavor, 3 to 6% oil; seed of medium size, usually tight. Season: mid-July to mid-Sept.
Tree bears more regularly than Pollock but is less vigorous; sometimes sheds many of its
fruits; no longer planted commercially in Florida.
'Trapp' (originated in Miami in 1894; propagated in 1901); round to pear-shaped; medium
to large; skin smooth; flesh golden-yellow, green near skin, of excellent quality, 3 to 6% oil;
seed large, loose in cavity. Season: medium-late (Sept. to Nov. or Dec.); a good shipper.
Was prominent in Florida for 25 years despite tendency to overbloom and bear lightly some
years; usually bore regularly and well.
'Waldin' (seed planted in Florida in 1909; propagated commercially in 1917); oblong to
oval; medium to large; skin smooth; flesh pale to greenish-yellow, of good flavor, 5 to 10%
Avocado
oil; seed medium to large, tight. Season: fairly late (mid-Sept. through Oct.). Tree tends to
overbear and die back; is hardy. Has been a leading commercial cultivar in central and
southern Florida.
There are several Puerto Rican selections'Alzamora', 'Avila', 'Faria', 'Garcia', 'Hernandez',
'St. Just'and some cultivars of unknown ancestry: 'Amador', 'Galo', 'Gimenez', 'Torres',
and 'Trujillo'.
GUATEMALAN race: (skin varies from thin to very thick and is granular or gritty). Among
prominent early Florida and California cultivars were:
'Anaheim' (originated in California); oval to elliptical; large; skin glossy, rough, thick; flesh
of fair to good flavor, up to 22% oil, but inferior to'Fuerte', 'Nabal' and 'Benik'; is best in
Mar. and Apr. in Israel, July and Aug. in Queensland. Tree slender, erect, tall,
cold-sensitive; bears regularly, up to 220 lbs (100 kg) annually in Israel. Considered of poor
quality and subject to disease during ripening in Queensland.
'Benik' (introduced from Guatemala to California in 1917 and from California into Israel in
1934); pear-shaped; medium to large; skin rough, purple, medium-thick; flesh of good
quality, 15 to 24% oil; seed nearly round, medium. Season: Apr. to Aug. in Calif.; Jan. to
Mar. in Israel; July and Aug. in Queensland. The tree begins to bear late and yields only
about 116 lbs (53 kg) per year. Color is not popular on the market. Not grown in Florida.
'Dickinson' (a California selection, first propagated in 1912); oval to obovate; small to
medium; skin dark-purple with large maroon dots, rough, very thick, granular, brittle; flesh
of good quality; seed small to medium, tight. Season: June-Oct. in California; Feb. and Mar.
in Florida; Jan. and Feb. in Puerto Rico. Tree is a moderate but regular bearer. In Israel
'Dickinson' is described as round, small to large, very thick-skinned with very large seed; of
poor quality, not worth growing. It is no longer grown in Florida or California.
'Edranol' (seedling planted at Vista, California in 1927; propagated in 1932), pear-shaped;
of medium size; skin olivegreen, slightly rough, thin leathery; flesh of high quality and nutty
flavor, 15 to 18% oil; seed small, tight. Season: Feb. to July at Vista; Apr. to Dec. at Santa
Barbara; May and June in Queensland. Disease resistant. Rated as excellent. No longer
planted in California but popular in Mexico.
'Hazzard' (seedling of 'Lyon'planted at Vista, California in 1928) pear-shaped; of medium
size; skin rough, fairly thin; flesh of good quality, 15 to 34% oil; seed small. Season: Apr. to
July in California, July and Aug. in Queensland where it is rated as excellent and free of
external and internal diseases and discolorations in storage. The tree grows slowly, reaches
only 12 to 15 ft (3.5-4.5 m), begins bearing early and is a dependable producer. Some fruits
may crack if left on tree too long. More than 100 trees can be planted per acre (240 per ha).
'Itzamna' (budwood brought from Guatemala to Florida in 1916); oblong pear-shaped;
medium large; skin rough; flesh yellow, 11% oil; seed small, tight. Season: very late (Mar.
to May). May not bear well; little planted in Florida; a commercial cultivar in California and
in Puerto Rico where it is a consistently heavy bearer.
'Linda' (budwood introduced into California from Guatemale in 1914; propagated in
Avocado
Florida in 1917); elliptical; very large; skin rough, dull-purple when ripe; flesh yellow, 10 to
14% oil; seed small, tight. Season: May to Oct. in California; late (Dec. to Feb.) in Florida.
A good shipper but not popular in Florida because of size and color. Of some commercial
importance in California. Tree low, spreading, vigorous and bears regularly.
'Lyon' (originated in California; propagated in 1911); broad-pear-shaped; beyond medium
to large; skin somewhat rough to rough; bright-green with many small yellowish or
red-brown dots; medium-thick, granular and brittle; flesh greenish near skin, of high quality;
seed medium-small to medium, tight. Season: Apr. to Aug. in California. Tree comes into
bearing early and bears heavily, so much so as to weaken the tree. Grown in Florida only
from 1918 to 1922.
'Macarthur' (originated in 1922 at Monrovia, California); pear-shaped; large; skin thin,
pliable; flesh has sweet, nutty but watery flavor, contains 13 to 16.7% oil; seed medium to
large. Season: Aug. to Nov. in California; Aug. and Sept. in Queensland where it is rated as
of poor quality. It is one of the 6 leading commercial cultivars in California, where it is very
cold-hardy.
'Nabal'(budwood brought from Guatemala in 1917; propagated in California since 1927, in
Florida from 1937; in Israel since 1934); nearly round; medium to large; skin nearly smooth,
thick, granular; flesh of high quality, green near skin; 10 to 15 % oil in Florida, 18 to 22 %
in Queensland; seed small, tight. Season: June to Sept. in California; Jan. and Feb. in
Florida; Oct. and Nov. in Queensland. Tree bears well in central Florida; bears late and
poorly in Israel averaging 68 lbs (31 kg) per year in alternate years. In Queensland, bears in
alternate years very heavily, but is rated as of medium quality and disease-prone during
prolonged ripening.
'Nimlioh' (USDA budwood brought from Guatemala in 1917; propagated commercially in
1921); elliptical; large; skin slightly rough; flesh thick; seed fairly small, tight. Season: late
(Jan. and Feb.) in Florida; May to Aug. in California. Tree bears moderate crops on south
coast of Puerto Rico. Abandoned in Florida in 1925 because tree found to be weak and not
prolific.
'Panchoy' (a USDA introduction into Florida from Guatemala; fruited in 1919);
pear-shaped to almost elliptical; medium to large; skin rough, very thick; seed of medium
size, tight. Season: very late (Mar. to early Apr.) in Florida; Apr. to Aug. in California.
Formerly a heavy bearer in Florida and still is on the south coast of Puerto Rico but subject
to die-back. Has been commercially important in California and Hawaii.
'Pinkerton' (seedling, probably of 'Rincon', found on Pinkerton ranch in Ventura Co.,
California, in 1970; patented); early crop roundish; later, pear shaped with neck; of medium
size, 8 to 14 oz (227-397 g); skin medium-leathery, pliable; flesh thick, up to 10% more than
in 'Hass' or 'Fuerte'; smooth textured, of good flavor, high in oil, rated as of good quality but
inferior to 'Hess' and 'Fuerte'; tends to darken in the latter part of the season; seed small,
separates readily from the flesh with the coat adhering to the seed. Season: first crop, Oct. or
Nov., 2nd crop, Dec. or Jan. Fruit ships well and has good shelf life, but the neck is a
disadvantage on the fresh fruit market; accordingly, the late-season fruits are sent to
processing plants. The tree is of low, spreading habit; bears early and heavily; is as
Avocado
cold-sensitive as 'Hass'. About 1200 acres (486 ha) in California in 1984.

'Reed' (originated about 1948 on Reed property in Carlsbad, California, as a seedling,
possibly of a 'Anaheim' X 'Nabal' hybrid; patented in 1960; patent now expired); round;
medium to large, 8 to 18 oz (227-510 g); skin slightly rough, medium-thick, pliable; flesh
cream-colored with rich, faintly nutty flavor; doesn't darken when cut; rated as excellent
quality; seed small to medium, tight; coat adheres to seed. Season:July to Oct. in California;
late Feb. to Apr. in New Zealand where it is one of the most promising cultivars. Tree erect,
can be spaced 15 x 15 ft (4.6x4.6 m); bears early and regularly; about as cold-sensitive as
'Hass'. In 1984, about 1,000 acres (405 ha) in California.
'Schmidt' (budwood introduced into California in 1911; propagated in Florida in 1922);
pear-shaped; medium to large; skin rough; flesh pale-yellow, 12 to 16% oil; seed of medium
size, tight. Season: very late (Feb. and Mar.). The tree is a poor bearer and cold-sensitive
and the fruit of poor keeping quality.
'Sharpless' (originated in California; propagated in 1913); slender-pear-shaped, sometimes
with long neck; large to very large; skin slightly rough, greenish-purple to dark-purple with
many yellowish dots, thick, granular; flesh of superior quality and flavor; seed small, tight.
Very late (Oct. to Feb.) in California.
'Solano' (originated in California; propagated in 1912); obovate to oval; beyond medium to
large; skin nearly smooth, bright-green with many yellowish dots, medium-thick, granular;
flesh greenish near skin, of fair quality; seed small, tight. Season: Mar. to May in California;
Oct. to mid Nov. or Dec. in Florida. A good bearer, but not grown in Florida for many years.
'Spinks' (originated in California; propagated in 1915); broad-obovate; very large; skin
rough, dark-purple, thick, granular, brittle; flesh of very good quality and flavor; seed small,
tight. Season: Aug. to Apr. in California. Formerly grown in central Florida.
'Taft' (originated in 1899 in California; propagated in 1912); broad pear-shaped; medium to
very large; skin faintly rough, more so at base; many yellowish dots, thick, granular but
somewhat pliable; flesh of excellent quality and flavor; seed of medium size, tight. Season:
May to Dec. in California; Feb. and Mar. in Florida. Poor bearer in California; fair in
Florida but cold-sensitive.
'Taylor' (seed of 'Royal' planted in Florida in 1908, propagated commercially in 1914);
obovate to pear-shaped, occasionally with neck; small to medium size12 to 18 oz (340510
g); skin rough, with many small yellow dots; fairly thin; flesh of excellent quality and
flavor, 12 to 17% oil; seed of medium size, tight. Season: late (Dec. and Jan. or even to end
of Mar.). The tree is cold-hardy but excessively tall and slender.
'Tonnage' (seed of 'Taylor' planted in Florida in 1916; propagated commercially in 1930);
pear-shaped, medium large; skin dark green, rough, thick; flesh green near skin, rich in
flavor, 8 to 15% oil; seed medium, fairly tight. Season: from mid-Oct. through Nov. in
Florida; May to mid-Aug. inArgentine. Tree erect, fairly slender, requiring less distance
between trees; is a heavy bearer. Cross pollinated by 'Lula' and 'Collieson' in Argentina.
'Wagner' (seed of 'Royal' planted in California in 1908; propagated in Florida in 1916);
Avocado
rounded to obovate; small to medium; skin slightly rough; flesh light yellow, 16 to 20% oil;
seed large, tight. Season: Late (mid-Jan. to mid-Mar.). Tree lower-growing than 'Taylor', a
heavy bearer, but fruit more subject to black spot than 'Taylor'. Not recommended in
Florida.
'Wurtz' (originated in 1935 at Encinitas, California; cultivated in Queensland for only the
past 12 or 13 years); pearshaped, small to medium; 8 to 12 oz (226-240 g); seed large.
Season: May to Sept. in Calif.; late in Queensland. Tree is small and slow growing, bears
moderately but regularly. More than 100 trees may be planted per acre (240 per ha).
GUATEMALAN X WEST INDIAN hybrids: Inasmuch as pure Guatemalan avocados
proved not well adapted to Florida, Guatemaian X West Indian hybrids have come to be of
utmost importance in the Florida avocado industry, representing more than half of the more
than 20 major and minor commercial cultivars grown in this state today. Prominent cultivars
past and present include:
'Bonita' (seed planted in Florida in 1925); obovate, slightly flattened on one side; of
medium size; skin slightly rough; flesh contains 8 to 10% oil; seed of medium size. Season:
late (Dec. and Jan.). Hardy in California.
'Booth 1' (seed planted in Florida in 1920); round-obovate; medium-large; skin almost
smooth, medium thick, brittle; flesh pale, 8 to 12% oil; seed large and loose; Season: late
(Dec. and Jan.). The tree is a heavy bearer but the fruit is of poor quality and the seed is too
big.
'Booth 7' (seed planted in Florida in 1920; propagated commercially in 1935); round
obovate; of medium size; skin slightly rough, thick, brittle; flesh contains 7 to 14% oil; seed
of medium size, tight. Season: late (Dec. to mid-Jan.). The fruit is commercially popular and
the tree is a good bearer.
'Booth 8' (seed planted in Florida in 1920); oblong-obovate; medium-large; skin slightly
rough, fairly thick, brittle; flesh contains 6 to 12% oil; seed medium large, tight. Season: late
(Nov. to mid-Dec.). Popular commercially and the tree is a heavy bearer.
'Chequette' (originated in Miami from seed planted in 1929; propagated in 1939); oval;
large; skin glossy, smooth, slightly leathery; flesh of good quality, 13% oil; seed medium,
tight. Season: Jan. to Mar. Tree bears heavily in alternate years.
'Collinson' (seed planted in Florida in 1915); broad-obovoid to elliptical; large; skin
smooth; flesh of excellent flavor, 10 to 16% oil; seed of medium size, tight. Season: late
(Nov. and Dec.). Tree doesn't produce pollen in Florida; is a heavy bearer in Puerto Rico
when interplanted with other cultivars. The flesh is apt to blacken around the seed in cold
storage Cold-sensitive and unfruitful in Israel.
'Fuchs-20' (a seedling of 'Fuchs' selected in Israel); ellipsoid; medium to large; skin smooth,
speckled with yellowish lenticels when ripe; flesh flavor is excellent. Season: medium late
(Oct.). Tree is vigorous but a poor bearer; seedlings vary in salt-tolerance but cuttings of
resistant selections perform well in saline conditions.
Avocado
'Grande' (brought to California in 1911 from Atlixco, Mexico); pear-shaped; large; skin
rough, green to purplish; seed of medium size, tight. Season: late (Dec. and Jan. in Fla.; Apr.
and May in Calif.). Grown in California and Puerto Rico. Tree is a heavy bearer around
Mayaguez.
'Hall' (originated in Miami; of unknown parentage; fruited in 1937, propagated in 1938);
pear-shaped; large: skin smooth, fairly thick; flesh deep-yellow, 12 to 16% oil; seed medium
large, tight. Season: Nov. and Dec. Heavy bearer and coldhardy but subject to scab.
'Herman' (seed planted in Florida in 1935); obovate; skin smooth, fairly thin, flexible; flesh
yellow, 10 to 14% oil; seed small. Season: fairly late (mid-Nov. to mid-Jan.). Tree a heavy
bearer and hardy.
'Hickson'(seedling, fruited in Florida in 1932; propagated commercially in 1938); obovate;
medium to small; skin slightly rough, thick, brittle; flesh of fair to good quality, 8 to 10%
oil; seed small, tight. Season: late (Dec. and Jan.). Tree bears heavily every other year; is
cold-sensitive.
'Simpson' (a sprout of 'Collinson'; fruited in Florida in 1925); obovate-elliptical; rather
large; skin slightly rough and thick but not brittle; flesh pale, 10 to 14% oil; seed
medium-large, tight. Season: late (mid Nov. and December). The tree is a good bearer.
'Winslowson' (seed of 'Winslow' planted in Miami in 1911; propagated commercially in
1921); round-oblate; large; skin smooth; flesh pale, 9 to 15% oil; seed of medium size,
loose. Season: late (Oct. to Dec. in Fla.; Dec. and Jan. in Puerto Rico). This hybrid is closer
to the West Indian race than the Guatemalan and therefore popular in Puerto Rico. Formerly
commercial in Florida but abandoned because of loose seed, overblooming, tendency to
shed crop, and tree and fruit are susceptible to anthracnose.
In 1963, Puerto Rican horticulturists reported on the performance of 25 selections from 100
studied in the previous 5 years. Four of the selections preceded the establishment of the
collection at the Isabela Substation of the University of Puerto Rico. One of the objectives
was to identify late maturing varieties with superior quality and yield. Of the leading 10, all
are presumed to be Guatemalan X West Indian hybrids except one, 'Kanan No. 1', which is
probably Guatemalan, and this and 'Melendez No. 2' are the only ones of alternate bearing
habit. 'Gripina' Nos. 2, 5 and 12 were highly rated as, respectively, better than 'Nabal', one
of the best commercial cultivars, and most attractive of all. 'Semil' Nos. 23, 31, 34, 42, 43,
and 44 seemed equally desirable, with Nos. 34 and 42 noted as wind-resistant.
Puerto Rican breeders have now developed the following Guatemalan X West Indian
hybrids: 'Adjuntas', 'Guatemala', 'Melendez 2', 'Gripina 45', and 'Semil 34' and 43, as
late-maturing (Nov. to Mar.), having medium oil content, rich-yellow flesh, and tight seed in
order to be able to stand handling and shipment.
MEXICAN race: (skin thin and tender, clings to the flesh; flesh of high oil content, up to
30%. The foliage has a pronounced anise-like odor; the tree is more cold resistant than those
of the other races or hybrids, thriving near Puebla, Mexico, at 500 ft (1,800 m) above
sea-level.
Avocado
'Duke' (originated in California in 1912); elongated; rather small 5 1\2 to 7 oz (150 200 g);
flesh of good quality, 14.5% oil. Season: Sept. to Nov. in Calif.; late July or mid Aug. to
mid-Sept. in Israel. Tree is large, symmetrical and wind and cold-resistant, and also highly
resistant to root rot, especially when grown from cuttings. It is a poor bearer in some areas
of California; has borne 168 lbs (78 kg) annually from the 6th to the 15th year in Israel.
'Ganter' (originated in 1905 in California; introduced into Israel in 1943); small, about 5
1/2 oz (150 g); of good quality, 18% oil; seed small to medium, usually loose. Season: Oct.
to Dec. in Calif.; second half of Sept. in Israel. Tree is small, yields no more than 44 lbs (20
kg) per year. Poor shipper.
'Gottfried' (seed of a seedling on Key Largo planted at USDA, Miami, in 1906; distributed
in 1918); pear shaped; medium size; skin smooth, purple; flesh of excellent quality, 9 to
13% oil; seed medium. Season: Aug. to Oct. Tree prolific in California; a poor bearer in
southern Florida and subject to anthracnose, but hardy and desirable for home gardens on
west coast of Florida.
'Mexicola' (originated about 1910 at Pasadena, California; propagated about 1912); very
small; skin black; flesh of excellent flavor; seed large. Season: Aug. to Oct. Grown only in
home gardens in California. Bears early and regularly; very heat- and cold-resistant; much
used as a parent in California breeding programs.
'Northrop' (seedling from C.P. Taft planted about 1900 near Tustin, California; propagated
about 1911); small, 3 1/2 to 5 1/2 oz (100-150 g); skin nearly black; flesh of good quality,
26% oil; seed medium. Season: Oct. and Nov. in California; mid July to mid-Sept. in
Florida; mid Sept. to mid Oct. in Israel. Fruit does not keep well; flavor disagreeable when
overripe. Tree bears regularly but has lower yield than 'Duke'.
'Puebla' (considered pure Mexican but some suggest may be a Mexican X Guatemalan
hybrid; was found in 1911 at Atlixco near where 'Fuchs' originated). Of medium size; skin
smooth, purple; flesh of good flavor; oil content nearly 20%; seed medium to large. Season:
Sept. and Oct. in Florida; early to mid-winter in cool regions of California. Tree does not set
fruit regularly in California or Israel and therefore is seldom planted now. Has been
recommended for home gardens in Central Florida because of hardiness.
'Zutano' (hybrid, originated in 1926 at Fallbrook, California; registered in 1932); pear
shaped; medium-small, skin light green, very thin, leathery; flesh watery, 15 to 22% oil;
seed medium. Season: Dec. and Jan. in California; Apr. and May in Queensland where it is
considered of poor quality delicate to handle, and prone to disease during ripening. Tree is a
good bearer. Ranks among 6 leading commercial cultivars in California, being grown where
it is too cold for 'Hass'.
GUATEMALAN X MEXICAN hybrids include:
'Bacon' Quality of flesh slightly better than 'Zutano'. Season: slightly later then 'Zutano'.
Tends to be affected with end spot, an external blemish. This cultivar and 'Zutano' are the
only 2 reasonably productive of 60 cultivars tried in Los Angeles and Orange Counties in
California. In 1957, top working of all the others to these 2 cold hardy cultivars was strongly
recommended. 'Bacon' is a good choice for tropical American highlands about 5,200 ft (160
Avocado
m).
'Fuerte' (a natural hybrid originated at Atlixco, Mexico; introduced into California in
1911); pear shaped; small to medium or a little larger; skin slightly rough to rough, with
many small yellow dots, thin, not adherent to flesh; flesh green near skin, 12 to 17% oil;
seed small, tight. Season Jan. to Aug. in southern California; Dec. to Feb. in Israel; Apr. and
May in Queensland, and New South Wales; mid-Aug. to Oct. in New Zealand. Tree is
broad, very productive, but tends to bear biennially. Subject to scab and anthracnose in
Florida. Formerly very popular in California (61 % of all avocados shipped); now second to
'Hess' because of a trend to summer instead of winter production and marketing that began
in 1972. It is the leading cultivar in Chile where it bears more dependably than in California.
It is a very erratic bearer in Israel. Represents 42% of all Australian plantings. Has long
been the leading avocado on the European market.
'Hess' (seed planted at La Habra Heights, Calif.; registered in 1932); pear shaped to ovoid;
of medium size; has a tendency to be undersized except in New Zealand; skin tough,
leathery, dark-purple or nearly black when ripe; pebbled; fairly thin; flesh of good flavor, 18
to 22% oil, generally; up to 35% in Queensland; seed small. Season: begins in mid-Mar. in
California; Nov. to Jan. in Queensland; mid-Nov. to Mar. in New Zealand; Aug. and Sept. in
New South Wales. Formerly accounted for 20% of California avocados shipped; now is the
leading cultivar (70% of the crop in 1984). Tree bears better then 'Nabal' in cool areas of
California, but grows tall and requires topping. This is the leading cultivar in New Zealand,
representing 50% of all commercial plantings; 25% in Queensland. It is second in
importance to 'Fuerte' in Chile.
'Hayes' (a new hybrid in Hawaii, one parent being 'Hass'). Fruit resembles 'Hess' but is
larger; skin is glossier, is pebbled, rough, thick and becomes brown-purple. Season: late
(mid-Oct. to Dec. in New Zealand). Tree is erect with drooping branches and the fruit is
largely sheltered by the foliage.
'Lula' (seed of 'Taft' planted in Miami in 1915); pearshaped, sometimes with neck; medium
large; skin almost smooth; flesh pale-to greenish-yellow, 12 to 16% oil; seed large, tight.
Season: medium-late (mid-Nov. and Dec.). Tree tall, bears early and heavily; cold resistant,
successful in central and southern Florida where it was formerly the leading commercial
cultivar. It is the principal cultivar in Martinique for exporting to France; represents 95% of
the crop.
'Rincon' (originated at Carpinteria, California); pearshaped; small to medium; skin fairly
thin, smooth, leathery; flesh buttery, contains 15 to 26.5% oil; fibers in flesh near base turn
black when fruit is cut; seed of medium size. Season: Mar. and Apr. in Queensland, where it
is rated as of poor quality. It is one of the 6 leading cultivars in California. Tree has a low
spreading habit.
'Ryan' (perhaps seedling of 'amigo' found in 1927 at Whittier, California); pear-shaped; of
medium size, 8 to 12 oz (226-340 g); skin medium-rough; flesh of fair quality; seed rather
large. Season: May to Sept. in California; July to Oct. in Queensland. Tree large and bears
regularly but not as heavily as 'Fuerte' or 'Hess' in Queensland. Important in Chile.
Avocado
'Sharwil' (originated in Australia); similar to 'Fuerte' in shape but a little more oval; of
medium size, skin rather rough, fairly thin; flesh rich in flavor, of high quality, 15 to 26%
oil. Season: May and June in New South Wales and Queensland. Tree bears regularly but
not heavily. Represents 18 to 20 % of all avocados in New South Wales and Queensland.
Disease-free during ripening.
'Susan' (evaluated by California Avocado Society January 2, 1975; patented but patent has
now expired); pear-shaped; of medium size, averaging 8 to 10 oz (227-283 g); skin
light-green smooth, thin, peels well; flesh pale cream-color, of bland flavor; ripens unevenly
with darkening spots; has slight tendency to turn dark when cut; not attractive; of only fair
quality; seed large, loose; coat adheres to seed. Season: early fall; short. Tree of medium
size; grown commercially only in the San Joaquin Valley because of its cold hardiness.
Many local and introduced cultivars representing all 3 races are being grown and evaluated
at the experimental station at Minas Gerais, Brazil. A large collection is also maintained in
Bahia. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has an international repository of 170 clones in
Miami.
In general, small to medium-sized fruits are best for commercial production and especially
for metropolitan markets. Large fruits are suitable for local use especially by large families.
Smooth, thin or fairly thin, pliable, green skin is preferred by the consumer. The flesh
should be virtually fiberless and of agreeable flavor and, for the dieter, of low oil content.
The seed must be small and tight so as not to bruise the flesh during handling and shipping.
The seed coats ought to adhere to the seed and not to the cavity. The fruit should ship well
and stand cold storage. The tree should be of moderate height, slender enough to permit
judiciously close planting without crowding. It should bear at an early age and regularly but
not so heavily as to suffer die back, and, of course, should be disease-, insect-, and, in
subtropical areas, cold-resistant. Cold-resistant cultivars stand cold-storage better than
cold-sensitive cultivars.
Pollination
Many isolated avocado trees fail to fruit from lack of pollination. Commercial growers are
careful to match Class A cultivars whose flowers will receive pollen in the morning with
Class B cultivars that release pollen in the morning and every grower must be sure to
include compatible pollinators in his grove. Bulletin 29 (1971) of the Ministry of
Agriculture in Guatemala tabulates the flowering periods (varying from August to April) of
48 introduced and locally selected cultivars, and the hours of the day when each is receptive
to or shedding pollen.
Climate
The West Indian race requires a tropical or near tropical (southern Florida) climate and high
atmospheric humidity especially during flowering and fruitsetting. The Guatemalan race is
somewhat hardier, having arisen in subtropical highlands of tropical America, and it is
successful in coastal California. The Mexican race is the hardiest and the source of most of
California avocados. It is not suited to southern Florida, Puerto Rico or other areas of similar
climate. Temperatures as low as 25F (-4C) do it little harm. In areas of strong winds,
Avocado
wind-breaks are necessary. Wind reduces humidity, debydrates the flowers and interferes
with pollination, and also causes many fruits to fall prematurely.
Soil
The avocado tree is remarkably versatile as to soil adaptability, doing well on such diverse
types as red clay, sand, volcanic loam, lateritic soils, or limestone. In Puerto Rico, it has
been found healthier on nearly neutral or slightly alkaline soils than on moderately or highly
acid soils. The desirable pH level is generally considered to be between 6 and 7, but, in
southern Florida, avocados are grown on limestone soils ranging from 7.2 to 8.3. Mexican
and Guatemalan cultivars have shown chlorosis on calcareous soils in Israel. The tree's
primary requirement is good drainage. It cannot stand excessive soil moisture or even
temporary water-logging. Sites with underlying hardpan must be avoided. The water table
should be at least 3 ft (.9 m) below the surface. Salinity is prejudicial but certain cultivars
(see 'Fuchs-20' and 'Maoz') have shown considerable salt-tolerance in Israel. Avocados
grafted onto 'Fuch-20' rootstocks and irrigated with water containing 380 to 400 ppm C1
performed well in a commercial orchard. In the Rio Grande Valley of Texas, cultivars of the
Mexican race must be grafted onto salt tolerant West Indian rootstocks.
Propagation
Normally, avocado seeds lose viability within a month. 'Lula' seeds can be stored up to 5
months if placed in non-perforated polyethylene bags and kept at 40F (4.4C), thus
indicating that it may be possible to successfully store seeds of other cultivars ripening at
different seasons for later simultaneous planting. Fresh seeds germinate in 4 to 6 weeks, and
many people in metropolitan areas grow avocado trees as novelty house plants by piercing
the seed partway through with toothpicks on both sides to hold it on the top of a tumbler
with water just covering 1/2 in (1.25 cm) of the base. When roots and leaves are well formed
(in 2 to 6 weeks), the plant is set in potting soil. Of course, it must be given adequate light
and ventilation. In nurseries, seeds that have been in contact with the soil are disinfected
with hot water. Experiments with gibberellic acid and cutting of both ends of the seed with a
view to achieving more uniform germination have not produced encouraging results.
Seedlings will begin to bear in 4 or 5 years and the avocado tree will continue to bear for 50
years or more. Some bearing trees have been judged to be more than 100 years old.
In Australia, seeds planted in early fall germinate in 4 to 6 weeks; if planted later, they may
remain dormant all winter and germinate in early spring. Seedlings should be kept in partial
shade and not overwatered. While many important selections have originated from seeds,
vegetative propagation is essential to early fruiting and the perpetuation of desirable
cultivars. However, seedlings are grown for rootstocks.
For many years, shield budding was commonly practiced in Florida, but this method
requires considerable skill and experience and is not successful with all cultivars. Therefore,
it was largely replaced by whip, side-, or cleft-grafting, all of which make a stronger union
than budding.
In the past, seedlings were grafted when 18 to 36 in (45-90 cm) high. It is now considered
far better to graft when 6 to 9 in (15-23 cm) high, making the graft 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5 cm)
Avocado
above ground level. West Indian rootstocks are desirable for overcoming chlorosis in
avocados in Israel.
Avocado cuttings are generally difficult to root. Cuttings of West Indian cultivars will
generally root only if they are taken from the tops or side shoots of young seed rings. But
etiolated cuttings (new shoots) from gibberellin treated hardwood and semi hardwood
cuttings of 'Pollock' as well as 'Lula' have been rooted with 50-60% success and, when
treated with IBA, 66-83% success under mist in Trinidad. Cuttings of 'Fuchs-20' have rooted
under mist with 40 to 50 or even 70% in Israel. Cuttings of 'Maoz' have rooted at the rate of
60% by a special technique developed in California. An Israeli selection, 'G.A. 13' has given
70 to 90% success in rooting cuttings under mist for the purpose of utilizing them as
rootstocks in saline and high lime situations. Air-layering is sometimes done to obtain
uniform material uninfluenced by rootstock, for research on specific problems. Degree of
success depends on the cultivar (those of the Mexican race rooting most quickly), and
air-layering is best done in spring and early summer.
At times, mature avocado groves are top worked to change from an unsatisfactory cultivar,
or one declining in popularity, to a more profitable one, or an assortment of cultivars for
different markets. In 1957, 2,700 ";obsolete"; avocado trees in Ventura, California, were
being grafted (top-worked) to mainly 'Hass', some to 'Bacon' and 'Rincon'. This procedure
may involve thousands of trees in a given region. It is done in December and January in
Florida.
Inasmuch as avocado roots are sensitive to transplanting, it is now considered advisable to
raise planting material in plastic bags which can be slit and set in the field without
disturbing the root system.
Spacing
Spacing is determined by the habit of the cultivar and the character of the soil. In light soil,
25 x 25 ft (7.5x7.5 m) may be sufficient. In deep, rich soil, the tree makes its maximum
growth and a spacing of 30 or 35 ft (9.1 or 10.7 m) may be necessary. If trees are planted so
close that they will ultimately touch each other, the branches will die back. Some growers
plant 10 to 15 ft (3-4.5 m) apart initially and remove every other tree at 7 to 8 years of age.
If the surplus trees are not bulldozed but just cut down leaving a stump, application of
herbicide may be needed to prevent regrowth. Ammonium sulfamate has been proven
effective. In modernized plantings, space between rows is necessary for mechanical
operations.
Holes at least 2 ft (0. 6 m) deep and wide are prepared well in advance with enriched soil
formed into a mound. After the young plant is put in place a mulch is beneficial, weeds
should be controlled, and watering is necessary until the roots are well established.
Generally small amounts of fertilizer are given every 2 months with the amount gradually
increasing until fruiting begins. Bearing trees need, on the average, 3 to 4 lbs (1 1/2-2 kg) 3
times a year, beginning when the tree is making vegetative growth. No fertilizer should be
given at blooming time; one must wait until the fruits are firmly set. Nitrogen has the
greatest influence on tree growth, its resistance to cold temperatures, and on fruit size and
yield. Fertilizer mixes vary greatly with the type of soil. Mineral deficiencies determined by
Avocado
leaf analysis, are usually remedied by foliar spraying. Magnesium deficiency was formerly a
serious handicap to avocado growers in Florida and Kenya. In California, zinc deficiency
has been corrected by applying zinc chelates or zinc sulfate to the soil instead of spraying
the foliage.
Keeping the upper soil moist has been greatly facilitated by drip irrigation, which also may
carry 80% of the fertilizer requirement.
Because some cultivars tend to grow too tall for practical purposes, commercial growers cut
trees back to 16 or 18 ft (4.8-5.4 m), let them grow back to 30 ft (9.1 m) and top them again.
But decapitation is not a perfect remedy because the tendency of the avocado tree is to grow
a new top very quickly. Recently it has been found that the growth-inhibiting chemical,
TIBA (triiodobenzoic acid) slows down terminal growth and encourages lateral shoots. A
system of pruning to encourage lower branching is being tried on 'Lula' in Martinique.
Avocado branches frequently need propping to avoid breaking with the weight of the
developing fruits.
Some growers find it profitable to interplant bananas until the avocado trees reach bearing
age.
Maturity and Harvesting
Avocados will not ripen while they are still attached to the tree, apparently because of an
inhibitor in the fruit stem. Homeowners usually consider the entire crop pickable when a
few mature (full grown) fruits have fallen. This is not a dependable guide because the
prolonged flowering of the avocado results in fruits in varying stages of development on the
tree at the same time. The largest fruits, of course, should be picked first but the problem is
to determine when the largest are full grown (perfectly mature for later perfect ripening). If
picked when full grown and firm, avocados will ripen in 1 to 2 weeks at room temperature.
If allowed to remain too long on the tree, the fruits may be blown down by wind and they
will be bruised or broken by the fall.
Florida maturity standards for marketing have been determined by weight and time of year
for each commercial cultivar so that immature fruits will not reach the market. Immature
fruits do not ripen but become rubbery, shriveled and discolored. Most West Indian cultivars
will ripen properly if picked when the specific gravity becomes 0. 96 or lower, but 'Waldin'
is fully mature when the specific gravity is still above 0.98. Guatemalan and Guatemalan X
West Indian cultivars generally are harvest-mature when the specific gravity is 0.98 or
lower. In California, physiological maturity of 'Bacon', 'Fuerte,' 'Hess' and 'Zutano' has been
determined by measurement of length, diameter and volume, but dry weight, correlating
with oil content, is considered a better maturity index. California law has, since 1925,
required a minimum of 8 % oil, but oil content varies greatly among cultivars and also the
climatic region where the fruit is grown. Some people complain that the 8% standard is too
low for some cultivars. Maximum flavor of 'Fuerte' develops when the fruit is harvested at
an oil content of 16%. Therefore, a minimum dry weight standard of 21 % has been
recommended.
Formerly, avocados were detached by means of a forked stick and allowed to fall, but this
Avocado
causes much damage and loss. Nowadays harvesters usually use clippers for lowhanging
fruits and for those higher up a long handled picking pole with a sharp ";V"; on the metal
rim to cut the stem and a strong cloth bag to catch the fruit. Gloves are worn to avoid
fingernail scratches on the fruit. In California, studies have been made of the effects of hand
clipping (leaving stem on), hand snapping (which removes the stem), tree-shaking, and limb
shaking (which removes the stem from some of the fruits). All methods are acceptable if the
stem scar is waxed on stemless fruits to avoid weight loss before ripening at which time the
stem detaches naturally. In Australia, some growers are using hydraulic lifts to facilitate
hand-picking. A tractor fitted with a triple-decked picking platform has been adopted by
some large growers in Chile. Efforts to develop dwarf avocado trees by means of sandwich
interstocks from low growing types have been going on in California since 1964.
Avocados must be handled with care and are packed and padded in single or double-layer
boxes or cartons for shipment. A special ";Bruce box";, holding 32 lbs (14.5 kg) is used for
large fruit. The fruits may be held in position in molded trays.
Yield
It will be seen that the yield varies greatly with the cultivar, age of tree, the locale, weather
and other conditions. The small tree, 'Ganter', has yielded 44 lbs (20 kg) annually; 'Nabal',
68 lbs (31 kg); 'Benik', 116 lbs (53 kg); 'Duke', 168 lbs (76 kg), and 'Anaheim', 220 lbs (100
kg). Close-planting in southern Florida provides yields averaging 11,000 lbs per acre
(11,000 kg per ha) in young groves and nearly twice this amount is anticipated after the time
has come to thin the planting by half.
Girdling has been tested in Florida, Australia and Israel as a means of increasing the yield of
shy bearing but popular cultivars. It must be repeated every year to be fully effective. It may
decrease the yield of normally fruitful cultivars.
Marketing
Inasmuch as the avocado, outside of Latin America, has been widely regarded as a luxury
fruit, large scale marketing has been dependent on consumer education and advertising.
Calavo Growers of California is an enterprising association of 2,600 avocado growers. The
Mayflower Fruit Association, of which Blue Anchor is a member, packs over 60% of the
avocados grown in the San Joaquin Valley. The California Avocado Commission spends
millions of dollars in newspaper, magazine, television, radio and other publicity financed by
grower assessments. The Florida Lime and Avocado Administrative Committees, together
with the Florida Division of Marketing's Bureau of Market Expansion and Promotion, spend
about 1/4 million dollars annually for advertising and publicity through the Press and by
means of special marketing displays and distribution of recipes. The trademarks, ";Calavo";
and ";Flavocado"; (Florida Avocado Growers Exchange), are recognized nationally and
internationally.
The 8% oil standard established in California kept Florida avocados out of the California
market until a court decision in 1972 outlawed the discrimination against Florida fruits
which average about half the oil content of California cultivars and are advocated by
growers as having better flavor and fewer calories. Calavo Growers Cooperative of
Avocado
California now handles 57% of the local avocado crop and 33% of the Florida crop, selling
directly to the retail markets. Combined Florida and California efforts have raised the rate of
regular avocado consumption in the United States from 6% in the late 1960's to over 15%
today. In California, the Avocado Marketing Research Information Center was created in
1983 to gather and report information on production, foreign and domestic shipments and
other activities.
Israel makes substantial investments in developing European markets for avocados and has
attained the position of principal exporter to Europe. France and the United Kingdom are the
chief consumers.
Storage
Ripening of avocados may be hastened by exposure to an atmosphere of at least 10 ppm
ethylene 25 to 49 hours after harvest. The avocado does not respond to earlier treatment.
Changes in pectinesterase activity and pectin content are being studied to measure ripening
of avocados in storage. Dipping in latex has retarded decay in avocados stored at room
temperature.
Avocados ship well and are sent to overseas markets under refrigeration in surface vessels.
The fruits are subject to chilling injury (dark-brown or gray discoloration of the mesocarp)
in refrigerated storage and degree of susceptibility varies with the cultivar and stage at
harvesting and length of time in storage. Most commercial cultivars can be held safely at
temperatures between 40 and 55F (4.5-12.8C) for at least two weeks. The best ripening
temperature after removal from storage is 60F (15.5C).
Removal of ethylene from controlled atmospheric storage (2% oxygen, 10% carbon dioxide)
prolongs the marketable life of avocados. Reducing atmospheric pressure to subatmospheric
60 mm Hg in the refrigerated storage unit at 42.8F (6C) retards ripening of avocados by
reducing respiration and ethylene production. Removed after 70 days, fruits have ripened
normally at atmospheric pressure and 57.2F (14C). Experimental calcium treatments have
delayed ripening and reduced internal chilling injury in storage but make the fruit externally
less attractive and are, therefore, considered commercially undesirable.
'Hess' fruits dipped in fungicide 24 hours after harvest and sealed in polyethylene bags
containing an ethylene absorbent (potassium permanganate on vermiculite or on aluminum
silicate), have been successfully stored for 40 or 50 days at 50F (10C). Waxed 'Fuerte'
avocados stored for 2 weeks at 41F (5C) and ripened at 68F (20C) ripened only 1 day
later than non-waxed; however, waxing does reduce weight loss.
In 1965, to overcome the problem of oversupply during the harvesting season and
undersupply during the offseason, California adopted liquid-nitrogen freezing of peeled or
unpeeled avocado halves, which can be thawed and served as the equivalent of fresh fruits
in restaurants, on airplanes and in institutions.
Pests and Diseases
Avocados have no major insect enemies in Florida but migrating cedar waxwings feed on
leaves, flowers and very young fruits and the fruits are commonly attacked by squirrels, rats
Avocado
and mice. The avocado red mite, Oligonychus yothersi; is the most common predator on the
leaves in some groves and not in others. Red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus, the
greenhouse thrips, Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, and red-spider, Tetranychus mytilaspidis,
may feed on avocado leaves and blemish the fruits from time to time. There are several
scales also which may feed on foliage, especially the Florida wax scale, Ceroplastes
floridensis, the pyriform, or soft white, scale, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Dictyospermum
scale, Chrysomphalus dictyospermi; and the black scale, Saissetia oleae. Among two dozen
other minor pests in Florida are the citrus mealybug, Pseudococcus citri and avocado
mealybug, P. nipae. Stinkbugs may prick the fruits leaving little dents in the skin coupled
with gritty areas at the same locations inside.
In California, 2 lepidopterous pests, Amorbia cuneana and the omnivorous looper,
Sabulodes aegrotata, when present in large numbers, cause severe defoliation and
fruit-scarring. Biological control is being achieved by release of the egg parasite,
Trichogramma platneri; which is now commercially available to growers. Since 1949, the
orange tortrix (a leaf roller), Argyrotaenia citrana, has been increasing as a menace to the
avocado in California, the larvae feeding on twigs, terminal buds and foliage, flowers, and
fruits. Since the pest requires shaded areas, it is best controlled by thinning out a
close-planted grove or top-working to less susceptible cultivars.
The fruit-spotting bug, Amblypelta nitida, and banana spotting bug, A. Iutescens, are
important pests requiring control in Queensland. The Mediterranean fruit fly is a major
hazard in Israel, but very thick-skinned fruits such as 'Anaheim' are not attacked. The
Queensland fruit fly, Dacus tryoni; seriously damages only Mexican cultivars or
Guatemalan X Mexican hybrids in Australia. In 1971, a nematode survey in Bahia, Brazil,
revealed 9 genera of known or suspected parasitic nematodes associated with avocado tree
decline. Israeli avocado growers are seeking and testing means of biological control of the
more serious of the 3 dozen insects and mites preying on the crop in that country. In
Mexico, the avocado weevil, Heilipus lauri; tunnels into the seeds.
The major disease of avocados in South and Central America and some islands of the West
Indies, in California, Hawaii, and various other areas, is root-rot caused by the fungus,
Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is being combatted by the use of strict sanitary procedures
and resistant rootstocks, especially 'Duke'. At the University of California, Riverside, over
750 seedlings and cuttings were being tested for root-rot resistance in 1976 and 1977 and the
most promising tried out for grafting compatibility with commercial cultivars. Also, soil
fumigation experiments with methyl bromide and newly developed chemicals were being
carried forward. The disease has been so devastating in the high rainfall areas of New South
Wales and Queensland that plantings have expanded into the semi-arid Murray Valley in the
hope of avoiding it. In New Zealand, it is not a problem on deep, volcanic soils, but occurs
on shallow, heavier soils. It was allegedly introduced into Chile with balled trees from
California and vigorous measures are being taken to control it.
Mushroom root-rot from Clitocybe tabescens may occasionally occur. Cercospora spot
(brown spots on the leaves and fruits), caused by the fungus, Cercospora purpurea, may
cause cracks in affected areas of the skin and thus allow entrance of the anthracnose fungus,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which invades and spoils the flesh. Glomerella cingulata is
Avocado
an important source of anthracnose in Queensland. Some cultivars are subject to scab which
is readily controlled by copper sprays.
More than 30 other pathogens are variously responsible for wood rot, collar rot, dieback,
leafspot, stem-and rot of fruit, branch canker, and powdery mildew. Sunblotch viroid
cripples young trees and damages fruits in California and Israel. So far, it is unknown in
New Zealand. Stems of young trees may be affected by sunburm, and hot, dry winds cause
tipburm of leaves. The avocado tree may show copper or zinc deficiency or tipburm from an
excess of mineral salts.
Food Uses
Indians in tropical America break avocados in half, add salt and eat with tortillas and a cup
of coffeeas a complete meal. In North America, avocados are primarily served as salad
vegetables, merely halved and garnished with seasonings, lime juice, lemon juice, vinegar,
mayonnaise or other dressings. Often the halves are stuffed with shrimp, crab or other
seafood. Avocado flesh may be sliced or diced and combined with tomatoes, cocumbers or
other vegetables and served as a salad. The seasoned flesh is sometimes used as a sandwich
filling. Avocado, cream cheese and pineapple juice may be blended as a creamy dressing for
fruit salads.
Mexican guacamole, a blend of the pureed flesh with lemon or lime juice, onion juice or
powder, minced garlic, chili powder or Tabasco sauce, and salt and pepper has become a
widely popular ";dip"; for crackers, potato chips or other snacks. The ingredients of
guacamole may vary and some people add mayonnaise.
Because of its tannin content, the flesh becomes bitter if cooked. Diced avocado can be
added to lemon-flavored gelatin after cooling and before it is set, and chunks of avocado
may be added to hot foods such as soup, stew, chili or omelettes just before serving. In
Guatemalan restaurants, a ripe avocado is placed on the table when a hot dish is served and
the diner scoops out the flesh and adds it just before eating. For a ";gourmet"; breakfast,
avocado halves are warmed in an oven at low heat, then topped with scrambled eggs and
anchovies.
In Brazil, the avocado is regarded more as a true fruit than as a vegetable and is used mostly
mashed in sherbet, ice cream, or milk shakes. Avocado flesh is added to heated ice cream
mixes (such as boiled custard) only after they have cooled. If mashed by hand, the fork must
be a silver one to avoid discoloring the avocado. A New Zealand recipe for avocado ice
cream is a blend of avocado, lemon juice, orange juice, grated orange rind, milk, cream,
sugar and salt, frozen, beaten until creamy, and frozen again.
Some Oriental people in Hawaii also prefer the avocado sweetened with sugar and they
combine it with fruits such as pineapple, orange, grapefruit, dates, or banana.
In Java, avocado flesh is thoroughly mixed with strong black coffee, sweetened and eaten as
a dessert.
Avocado slices have been pickled and marketed in glass jars. California began marketing
frozen guacamole in 1951, and a frozen avocado whip, developed at the University of
Avocado
Miami, was launched in 1955. To help prevent enzymatic browning of these products, it is
recommended that sodium bisulfite and/or ascorbic acid be mixed in before freezing.
Avocado Oil
Oil expressed from the flesh is rich in vitamins A, B, G and E. It has a digestibility
coefficient of 93.8% but has remained too costly to be utilized extensively as salad oil. The
amino acid content has been reported as: palmitic, 7.0; stearic, 1.0; oleic, 79.0; linoleic,
13.0.
The oil has excellent keeping quality. Samples kept in a laboratory in Los Angeles at 40F
(4.4C) showed only slight rancidity after 12 years. There is much interest in the oil in Italy
and France. The Institut Francais de Recherches Fruitieres Outre Mer has studied the yield
of oil in 25 cultivars. Joint Italian/Venezuelan studies of 5 prominent cultivars indicated that
the fatty acid composition and tryglyceride structure was not influenced by variety. The oil
is used as hair-dressing and is employed in making facial creams, hand lotions and fine
soap. It is said to filter out the tanning rays of the sun, is non-allergenic and is similar to
lanolin in its penetrating and skinsoftening action. In Brazil, 30% of the avocado crop is
processed for oil, 2\3 of which is utilized in soap, 1/3 in cosmetics. The pulp residue after oil
extraction is usable as stockfeed.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion (Flesh)*
Moisture
Ether Extract
Fiber
Nitrogen
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
65.7-87.7 g
5.13-19.80 g
1.0-2.1 g
0.130-.382 g
0.46-1 68 g
3.6-20.4 mg
20.7-64.1 mg
0.38-1.28 mg
0.025-.0475 mg
0.033-0.117 mg
0.065-0.176 mg
0.999-2.220 mg
4.5-21.3 mg
*Analyses of West Indian, Guatemalen and Mexican avocados marketed in Central

America.
Browning of the flesh of freshly cut avocado fruits is caused by polyphenol oxidase
isoenzymes. Avocado halves average only 136 to 150 calories.
The avocado has a high lipid content-from 5 to 25% depending on the cultivar. Among the
saturated fatty acids, myristic level may be .1%, palmitic, 7.2, 14.1 or 22.1%; stearic, 0.2,
Avocado
0.6 or 1.7%. Of the unsaturated fatty acids, palmitoleic may range from 5.5 to 11.0%; oleic
may be 51.9, 70.7 or 80.97%, linoleic, 9.3, 11.2 or 14.3%. Non saponifiable represents 1.6
to 2.4%. Iodine number is 94.4. In feeding experiments which excluded animal fat, 16
patients were given 1/2 to 1 l/2 avocados per day. Total serum cholesterol and phospholipid
values in the blood began to fall in one week. Body weight did not increase. Cholesterol
values did not rise and 8 patients showed decreases in total serum cholesterol and
phospholipids.
Amino acids of the pulp (N = 16 p. 100) are recorded as: arginine, 3.4; cystine, 0: histidine,
1.8; isoleucine, 3.4; leucine, 5.5; lysine, 4.3;methionine, 2.1; phenylalanine, 3.5; threonine,
2.9; tryptophan, 0; tyrosine, 2.3; valine, 4.6; aspartic acid, 22.6; glutamic acid, 12.3; alanine,
6.0; glycine, 4.0; proline, 3.9; serine, 4.1.
Toxicity
Unripe avocados are said to be toxic. Two resins derived from the skin of the fruit are toxic
to guinea pigs by subcutaneous and peritoneal injection. Dopamine has been found in the
leaves. The leaf oil contains methyl chavicol. Not all varieties are equally toxic. Rabbits fed
on leaves of 'Fuerte' and 'Nabal' died within 24 hours. Those fed on leaves of 'Mexicola'
showed no adverse reactions. Ingestion of avocado leaves and/or bark has caused mastitis in
cattle, horses, rabbits and goats. Large doses have been fatal to goats. Craigmill et al. at
Davis, California, have confirmed deleterious effects on lactating goats which were allowed
to graze on leaves of 'Anaheim' avocado an hour each day for 2 days. Milk was curdled and
not milkable, the animals ground their teeth, necks were swollen and they coughed, but the
animals would still accept the leaves on the 4th day of the experiment. By the 10th day, all
but one goat were on the road to recovery. All abnormal signs had disappeared 20 days later.
In another test, leaves of a Guatemalan variety were stored for 2 weeks in plastic bags and
then given to 2 Nubian goats in addition to regular feed over a period of 2 days. Both
suffered mastitis for 48 hours. Avocado leaves in a pool have killed the fish. Canaries have
died from eating the ripe fruit. The seeds, ground and mixed with cheese or cornmeal, have
been used to poison rodents. However, tests in Hawaii did not show any ill effect on a
mouse even at the rate of 1/4 oz (7 g) per each 2.2 lbs (1 kg) of body weight, though the
mouse refused to eat the dried, grated seed material until it was blended with cornmeal.
Avocado seed extracts injected into guinea pigs have caused only a few days of
hyperexcitability and anorexia. At Davis, mice given 10 to 14 g of half-and-half normal
ration and either fresh or dried avocado seed died in 2 or 3 days, though one mouse given 4
times the dose of the others survived for 2 weeks.
The seed contains 13.6% tannin, 13.25% starch. Amino acids in the seed oil are reported as:
capric acid, 0.6; myristic, 1.7; X, 13.5; palmitic, 23.4; X, 10.4; stearic, 8.7; oleic, 15.1;
linoleic, 24.1; linolenic, 2.5%. The dried seed contains 1.33% of a yellow wax containing
sterol and organic acid. The seed and the roots contain an antibiotic which prevents bacterial
spoilage of food. It is the subject of two United States patents.
The bark contains 3.5% of an essential oil which has an anise odor and is made up largely of
methyl chavicol with a little anethole.
Other Uses
Avocado
The seed yields a milky fluid with the odor and taste of almond. Because of its tannin
content, it turns red on exposure, providing an indelible red-brown or blackish ink which
was used to write many documents in the days of the Spanish Conquest. These are now
preserved in the archives of Popayan. The ink has also been used to mark cotton and linen
textiles.
In Guatemala, the bark is boiled with dyes to set the color.
Much avocado wood is available when groves are thinned out or tall trees are topped. The
sapwood is cream-colored or beige; the heartwood is pale red-brown, mottled, and dotted
with small drops of gummy red sap; fine-grained; light40 lbs per cu ft(560-640 kg/cu
m); moderately soft but brittle; not durable; susceptible to drywood termites and fungi. The
wood has been utilized for construction, boards and turnery. An Australian woodworker has
reported that it is suitable for carving, resembles White Beech (Eucalyptus kirtonii); is easy
to work, and dresses and polishes beautifully. He has made it into fancy jewel boxes. It
probably requires careful seasoning. A Florida experimenter made bowls of it but they
cracked.
Honeybees gather a moderate amount of pollen from avocado flowers. The nectar is
abundant when the weather is favorable. When unmixed by that from other sources it
produces a dark, thick honey favored by those who like buckwheat honey or sugarcane
sirup.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit skin is antibiotic; is employed as a vermifuge and remedy for
dysentery. The leaves are chewed as a remedy for pyorrhea. Leaf poultices are applied on
wounds. Heated leaves are applied on the forehead to relieve neuralgia. The leaf juice has
antibiotic activity. The aqueous extract of the leaves has a prolonged hypertensive effect.
The leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diarrhea, sore throat and hemorrhage; it
allegedly stimulates and regulates menstruation. It is also drunk as a stomachic. In Cuba, a
decoction of the new shoots is a cough remedy. If leaves, or shoots of the purple-skinned
type, are boiled, the decoction serves as an abortifacient. Sometimes a piece of the seed is
boiled with the leaves to make the decoction.
The seed is cut in pieces, roasted and pulverized and given to overcome diarrhea and
dysentery. The powdered seed is believed to cure dandruff. A piece of the seed, or a bit of
the decoction, put into a tooth cavity may relieve toothache. An ointment made of the
pulverized seed is rubbed on the face as a rubefacientto redden the cheeks. An oil
extracted from the seed has been applied on skin eruptions.
Related Species
Persea schiedeana Nees, called coyo, coyocte, chalte, chinini; chucte, chupte, cotyo,
aguacate de monte, aguacaton, wild pear, and yas, grows wild in mountain forests from
southern Mexico to Panama at altitudes between 4,600 and 6,200 ft (1,400-1,900 m). The
tree is usually from 50 to 65 ft (15-20 m) tall, occasionally to 165 ft (50 m). Young branches
are densely brown-hairy. The leaves are deciduous, obovate to oval, often cordate at the
base; 5 to 12 in (12.5-30 cm) long, 2 3/4 to 6 in (7-15 cm) wide, white-hairy on the
underside. Downy flowers, borne in densely grayish-hairy panicles, are light
Avocado
greenish-yellow, the perianth and stamens turning red with age. The fruit, resembling that of
the avocado and equally variable, is generally pear-shaped, weighing 8 to 14 oz (227-397 g),
with thick, leathery, flexible skin. Variously described as brownish-white, light-brown,
pale-green, greenish-brown or dark-brown, the flesh is oily with a milky juice, few to many
coarse fibers, but a very appealing, avocado-coconut flavor. The seed is very large. The
cotyledons, unlike those of the avocado, are pink internally.
The tree is left standing when forests are cleared and is cultivated in Veracruz and on some
farms in Guatemala. The fruits from the best of the wild and cultivated trees are marketed
locally. The timber is used in construction and carpentry. This species was introduced into
the USA from Guatemala and Honduras in 1948 as a wilt-resistant rootstock for the
avocado. It is very sensitive to frost. In 1974 it was reported to be a poor bearer in Puerto
Rico.
A more distant relative is Beilschmiedia anay Kosterm. (Huielandia anay Blake), called
anay, payta, escalalan or excalan, which is native to moist, relatively low altitudes, 985 to
2,300 ft (300 to 700 m) in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica and Colombia. Seeds
were collected by Dr. Wilson Popenoe in 1917 and seedlings were set out in the Plant
Introduction Garden of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miami.
The tree attains a height of 66 ft (20 m); the young branches are brown-hairy. Leathery
leaves, broad-elliptic or broad-ovate, are 4 3/4 to 12 in (12-30 cm) long and 3 to 7 1/2 in
(7.5-19 cm) wide, white-hairy only on the veins. The flowers (in December and January) are
fragrant, greenish, in slender panicles to 5 in (13 cm) long. The fruit is ellipsoid-pyriform, 2
3/4 to 6 in (7-15 cm) long, with very thin, glossy, purplish-black skin and sparse green, oily
flesh similar to that of the avocado in texture and flavor. The seed is obovoid, up to 2 3\4 in
long, with thick, purplish-yellow, red spotted coat, and strong almond odor. In Guatemala,
the fruit matures in August and September, falls while hard, and ripens in 2 or 3 days.
Analyses in Guatemala show (per 100 g/flesh): moisture, 73.86 g; protein, 1.62-1.80 g;
carbohydrates, 3.32-3.90 g; fat, 12.98-17.44 g; cellulose, 2.12 g; ash, 1.38 g.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion (flesh)*
Moisture
Ether Extract
Fiber
Nitrogen
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
76.5-77.6 g
5.55-7.59 g
1.0-1.8 g
0.191-0.204 g
0.72-0.91 g
11.4-12.5mg
35.5-36.2 mg
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
0.31-0.35 mg
0.003-0.033 mg
0.048-0.070 mg
0.067-0.089 mg
Avocado
Niacin
0.598-0.718 mg
Ascorbic Acid 5.7-16.4mg
*Analyses by Munsell et al.
Loquat

Morton, J. 1987. Loquat. p. 103108. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Loquat
Eriobotrya japonica
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
A fruit of wide appeal, the loquat, Eriobotrya japonica Lindl., (syn. Mespilus japonicus Thunb.),
of the rose family, Rosaceae, has been called Japan, or Japanese, plum and Japanese medlar. To
the Italians, it is nespola giapponese; to French-speaking people, it is nflier du Japon, or
bibassier. In the German language, it is japanische mispel, or wollmispel; in Spanish, nispero,
nispero japons, or nispero del Japn; in Portuguese, ameixa amarella, or ameixa do Japao.
Description
A tree of moderate size, the loquat may reach 20 to 30 ft (6-9 in), has a rounded crown, short
trunk, and woolly new twigs. The evergreen leaves, mostly whorled at the branch tips, are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/loquat.html (1 of 12) [5/16/2004 1:34:11 PM]
Loquat
elliptical-lanceolate to obovate lanceolate, 5

to 12 in (12.5-30 cm) long and 3 to 4 in
(7.5-10 cm) wide; dark-green and glossy on
the upper surface, whitish-or rusty-hairy
beneath, thick, stiff, with conspicuous
parallel, oblique veins, each usually
terminating at the margin in a short, prickly
point. Sweetly fragrant flowers, borne in
rusty-hairy, terminal panicles of 30 to 100
blooms, are white, 5-petalled, 1/2 to 3/4 in
(1.25-2 cm) wide. The fruits, in clusters of 4
to 30, are oval, rounded or pear-shaped, 1 to
2 in (2.5-5 cm) long, with smooth or downy,
yellow to orange, sometimes red-blushed,
skin, and white, yellow or orange, succulent
pulp, of sweet to subacid or acid flavor.
There may be 1 to 10 seeds, though,
ordinarily, only 3 to 5, dark-brown or
light-brown, angular -ellipsoid, about 5/8 in Plate XI: LOQUAT, Eriobotrya japonica
(1.5 cm) long and 5/16 in (8 mm) thick.
The loquat is indigenous to southeastern China and possibly southern Japan, though it may have
been introduced into Japan in very early times. It is said to have been cultivated in Japan for over
1, 000 years. The western world first learned of it from the botanist Kaempfer in 1690. Thunberg,
who saw it in Japan in 1712, provided a more elaborate description. It was planted in the National
Gardens, Paris, in 1784 and plants were taken from Canton, China, to the Royal Botanical Gardens
at Kew, England, in 1787. Soon, the tree was grown on the Riviera and in Malta and French North
Africa (Algeria) and the Near East and fruits were appearing on local markets. In 1818, excellent
fruits were being produced in hothouses in England. The tree can be grown outdoors in the
warmest locations of southern England.
Cultivation spread to India and southeast Asia, the medium altitudes of the East Indies, and
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Chinese immigrants are assumed to have carried the
loquat to Hawaii.
In the New World, it is cultivated from northern South America, Central America and Mexico to
California: also, since 1867, in southern Florida and northward to the Carolinas, though it does not
fruit north of Jacksonville. It was quite common as a small-fruited ornamental in California
gardens in the late 1870's. The horticulturist, C.P. Taft, began seedling selection and distributed
several superior types before the turn of the century, but further development was slow. Dwarfing
on quince root-stocks has encouraged expansion of loquat cultivation in Israel since 1960. In the
northern United States and Europe, the tree is grown in greenhouses as an ornamental, especially
var. variegata with white and pale-green splashes on the leaves.
In India and many other areas, the tree has become naturalized, as it volunteers readily from seed.
Loquat
Japan is the leading producer of loquats, the annual crop amounting to 17,000 tons. Brazil has
150,000 loquat trees in the State of Sao Paulo.
Varieties
The loquat has been the subject of much horticultural improvement, increasing the size and quality
of the fruit. There are said to be over 800 varieties in the Orient. T. Ikeda catalogued 46 as more or
less important in Japan; over 15 have originated in Algeria through the work of L. Trabut; C.P.
Taft selected and introduced at least 8 into cultivation in California; 5 or 6 have been selected in
Italy; only 1 in Florida. A number of widely planted, named cultivars have been classed as either
"Chinese" or "Japanese". In the Chinese group, the trees have slender leaves, the fruit is
pear-shaped or nearly round with thick, orange skin and dark-orange flesh, not very juicy, subacid,
but of distinct flavor. The seeds are small and numerous. The harvesting period is midseason to
late and the fruits are of good keeping quality.
In the Japanese group, the tree has broad leaves, the fruit is pear-shaped or long-oval, the skin is
usually pale-yellow, the flesh whitish, very juicy, acid but otherwise not very distinct in flavor.
The seeds are large and there may be just a few or only one. The harvesting period is early to
midseason. Keeping quality is fair to poor.
In Egypt, most loquats are of Lebanese origin. Egyptian horticulturists have selected from
seedlings of 'Premier' 2 superior clones, 'Golden Ziad' and 'Maamora Golden Yellow' and have
vegetatively propagated them on quince rootstocks for commercial distribution.
Some of the oldtime selections, 'Advance', 'Champagne', 'Premier', 'Success' and 'Tanaka' are no
longer popular in California but are performing well in other areas. In Florida, 'Oliver' has always
been the most common cultivar, though a number of others'Advance', 'Champagne', 'Early Red',
'Pineapple', 'Premier', 'Tanaka' and 'Thales' have been more or less successful.
In the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2 cultivars are raised on a commercial scale'Precoce de Itaquera'
and 'Mizuho'. In the southernmost state of the U.S.S.R., Georgia, several loquat cultivars are
grown, including 'Champagne', 'Comune', 'Grossa de Sicilia', 'Premier', 'Tanaka', and 'Thales'.
The following are the cultivars most commonly described:
'Advance' (Japanese group)A seedling selected by C. P. Taft in California in 1897. Fruit is borne
in large clusters; pear-shaped to elliptic-round; of medium to large size; skin downy, yellow, thick
and tough; flesh thick, cream-colored, juicy, subacid, of excellent flavor. Seeds of medium size,
may be as many as 4 or 5; average is 3.20 per fruit. A late cultivar though it ripens earlier than
'Champagne' which it other-wise closely resembles. Tree is a natural dwarf, to a little over 5 ft
(1.58 m); is highly resistant to pear blight. Self-infertile; a good pollinator for other cultivars. It is
interplanted with 'Golden Yellow' and 'Pale Yellow' in India.
'Ahdar' (Lebanese; grown in India)oval, of medium size; greenish-yellow with white flesh; bears
moderately; late-ripening; of poor keeping quality.
'Ahmar' (Lebanese; grown in India)pear-shaped, large, with reddish-orange skin; yellow flesh,
firm, juicy; early ripening; of good keeping quality. A leading cultivar in Lebanon. Very
precocious. Self-infertile.
Loquat
'Akko 1' or 'Acco 1' (of Japanese origin)long-oval to pear-shaped, 20 to 25 g in weight; skin
orange with a little russeting, thick; flesh yellow, juicy, of average flavor, and there are 3 or 4
seeds. Ripens in midseason, beginning in mid-April in Israel where it constitutes 10 to 20% of
commercial plantings. Precocious and a good bearer; sets 20 to 30 fruits per cluster and requires
drastic thinning, leaving about 6 fruits. Fruit is subject to sunburn. Stands harvesting and shipping
well, keeps in good condition less than 2 weeks under refrigeration. This cultivar is self-fertile.
'Akko 13' or 'Acco 13' (of Japanese origin)pear-shaped, 20 to 25 g in weight; dark-orange, with
no russeting; flesh yellow, juicy, with acid, agreeable flavor; 2 or 3 seeds. Bears from end of
March through April in Israel, regularly and abundantly; constitutes 50 to 70% of commercial
plantings in Israel; of good handling and keeping quality; stands transportation for 2 weeks at 32F
(O.OC). Fruit is subject to sunburn. Needs cross-pollination.
'Asfar' (Lebanese, grown in India)oval, smaller than 'Ahmar', with yellow skin and flesh, very
juicy, of superior flavor, but very perishable.
'Blush' ('Red Blush') -Resembles 'Advance' but is very large. Was selected by C.P. Taft as being
immune to blight, but was abandoned after 'Advance' proved to be highly blight-resistant.
'Champagne' (Japanese), often misidentified as 'Early Red'. Selected and introduced into
cultivation in California by C. P. Taft around 1908. Elongated pear-shaped, often oblique; small to
large (depending on where it is grown); skin pale-golden to deep-yellow, thick, tough, astringent;
flesh white or yellow, soft, juicy, mild and subacid to sweet; of excellent flavor. There are 3 to 5
seeds. Midseason to late. Prolific; fruits borne in large clusters. Perishable; good for preserving.
Tree has long, narrow, pointed leaves; is self -infertile.
'Early Red' (Japanese); originated by Taft in 1909. Obliquely pear-shaped; medium-large; skin
orange-red with white dots, thick, tough, acid; flesh orange, very juicy, sweet, of fair to excellent
flavor; has 2 or 3 seeds. Earliest in season, often appearing on California markets at the end of
January or in the beginning of February. Borne in compact clusters.
'Eulalia' (a seedling of 'Advance' selected by M. Payan in California in 1905)pear-shaped to
obovate -pear-shaped; skin faintly downy, orange-yellow with red blush and pale gray dots, thick,
tough; flesh pinkish or orange, melting, soft, very juicy; subacid in flavor. Seeds medium in size,
numerous. Early in season.
'Fire Ball' (popular in India)ovate to ovate-elliptic; small, with yellow, thick skin; flesh white to
straw-colored, thick, crisp, smooth, of mild, subacid flavor. Seeds are large: average 2.90 per fruit.
Midseason. Tree is a natural dwarf to 9.5 ft (2.84 in).
'Glenorie Superb' (grown in Western Australia)round, large, dark-orange with yellow flesh
which is juicy and sweet. Somewhat late in season. Inclined to bruise during harvesting.
'Golden Red' (grown in California)flesh pale-orange, medium-thick, smooth, melting, of
subacid, agreeable taste; few seeded. Midseason.
'Golden Yellow' (grown in India)ovate-elliptic; of medium size; skin orange-yellow; flesh
pale-orange, medium-thick, soft, smooth, with subacid, mild flavor. Seeds of medium size;
average 4.83 per fruit.
Loquat
'Golden Ziad' (#2-6) (grown in Egypt)dark-yellow to light-orange; up to 1 1/2 in (3.96 cm) long;
average number of seeds, 2.93-3.83 per fruit. Early. High-Yielding; 50 lbs (23.5 kg) per tree.
'Herd's Mammoth' (grown in Western Australia)long and slightly tapering at the stem end;
large; yellow to orange with white to cream-colored flesh. Ripens earlier than 'Victory'. Subject to
black spot; not often planted.
'Improved Golden Yellow' (grown in India)ovate-elliptic; skin orange-yellow; flesh
orange-yellow, thick, crisp, smooth, with subacid to sweet, mild flavor. Seeds large; average 3.06
per fruit. Tree to 15 ft (4.49 in). Early.
'Improved Pale Yellow' (grown in India)flesh pale-orange or cream-colored, firm or soft,
smooth, of subacid, pleasant flavor, with medium number of seeds. Midseason.
'Kusunoki' (grown in Japan)small; early.
'Large Agra' (grown in India)ovate-round; of medium size; skin deep-yellow; flesh yellow or
pale-orange, medium thick, smooth, firm, of pleasant flavor, fairly sweet. Seeds small; average
5.10 per fruit. Midseason. Tree a medium-dwarfto 9 1/2 ft (2.83 in).
'Large Round' (grown in India)ovate-round; of medium size; yellow of skin with cream-colored
flesh, firm, coarse, subacid to sweet, mild. Seeds of medium size; average 4.80 per fruit.
Midseason. Tree fairly tall13 ft. (3.92 in).
'Maamora Golden Yellow' (#7-9) (grown in Egypt)dark-yellow to light-orange; to 1 1/2 in (3.91
cm long); seeds average 2.40 to 4.03 per fruit; late in season. High-yielding44 lbs (20 kg) per
tree.
'Mammoth' (grown in Australia; mentioned in California in 1889)flesh orange, medium thick,
granular, coarse, of subacid, agreeable flavor. Midseason.
'Matchless' (grown in India) pear shaped; flesh medium-thick, pale-orange, smooth, soft, of mild,
subacid flavor; medium number of seeds. Midseason.
'Mizuho' (grown in Japan)rounded-oval; extra large (70-120 g); juicy, with agreeable, slightly
acid though also sweet flavor, and with 5 or more seeds. Subject to fruit spots and sunburn.
'Mogi' (grown in Japan)elliptical, light-yellow; small (40-50 g); Ripens in early spring. Tree is
cold sensitive. Self-fertile. Constitutes 60% of the Japanese crop of loquats.
'Obusa' (a hybrid of 'Tanaka' and 'Kusonoki', developed and grown in Japan)deep yellow, very
large (80-100 g); of medium flavor; good keeping and shipping quality. Ripens earlier than
Tanaka. Tree bears regularly and is resistant to insects and diseases, but fruit is subject to sunburn
(purple stains on skin).
'Oliver' ('Olivier' X 'Tanaka'). In the past was considered the best loquat for southern Florida.
'Pale Yellow' (grown in India)oblique -elliptic to round; light yellow, large; flesh white or
cream-colored, thin, smooth, melting, of subacid to sweet flavor; seeds large; average 4.8 per fruit.
Early. Tree is fairly tallto 13 ft (4 in).
Loquat
'Pineapple' (developed and introduced into cultivation in California by Taft in 1899)round or

sometimes pear-shaped; light-yellow with white flesh. Of good quality but inferior to
'Champagne'. Abandoned in California because of the weakness of the tree.
'Precoce de Itaquera' (erroneously called 'Tanaka'; grown in Brazil; believed to be a local
selection of 'Mogi')oval-pear-shaped; deep-orange; very small (25.3-29.1 g). Flesh is firm and
acid-sweet. Very productive: 1,500 to 2,000 fruits per tree annually. Subject to sunburn (purple
stains on skin) but less so than 'Mizuho'. Was for a long time the leading cultivar in the State of
Sao Paulo but has lost ground to 'Mizuho' even though a pear-shaped fruit is preferred by
consumers, because it does not keep or ship as well as the 'Mizuho', which now makes up 65% of
the plantings and 'Precoce de Itaquera' 35%.
'Premier' (originated by Taft in California in 1899)oval to oblong-pear-shaped; large; skin
downy, orange-yellow to salmon-orange with large white dots; medium-thick, tough; flesh
whitish, melting, juicy, subacid, of agreeable flavor; seeds average 4 or 5 per fruit. Late. Good for
dooryards. Does not ship well, nor keep well.
'Safeda' (grown in India)flesh is cream-colored, thick, smooth and melting, of subacid, excellent
flavor; contains medium number of seeds. Early to midseason.
'Saint Michel' (unclassified; grown in Israel)round but has the thin skin and white flesh of the
Japanese group. Ripens late. Self-infertile.
'Swell's Enormity' (grown in Western Australia)pear-shaped, very large; deep apricot-colored
externally with flesh of the same color. Acid if harvested too early. Very late in season. Subject to
sunburn in hot weather.
'Tanaka' (Chinese group; a seedling originated in Japan; young trees introduced by the United
States Department of Agriculture in 1902; widely grown)ovoid or round; large (70-80 g) in
Japan; in some other areas small (30 g); skin orange or orange-yellow; flesh brownish-orange,
medium thick, coarse, firm, juicy, sweet or subacid, of excellent taste. There may be 2 to 4 seeds;
average 2.70 per fruit. Ripens latebeginning the first of May, which is too late for California
because of susceptibility to sunburn. The tree is of medium size-nearly 10 ft (2.98 m); precocious;
bears regularly; is self-fertile to a degree. Constitutes 10% of commercial crop in Israel; 35% of
the crop in Japan. Highly cold-tolerant.
'Thales', also known as 'Gold Nugget' and 'Placentia', (Chinese group; very similar to 'Tanaka' and
possibly a clone. Introduced from Japan and planted at Placentia, California, between 1880 and
1900)oblong-obovate to round, large, skin orange-yellow with numerous white dots, tough; flesh,
orange, thick, firm, juicy, of sweet, apricot-like flavor. There are 2 to 4 seeds. Late in season.
Fruits borne only a few to a cluster; keep and ship well. Self-fertile.
'Thames Pride' (grown in India)ovate-elliptic, of medium size or sometimes large; pale-orange
or deep-yellow with cream colored or pale-orange, juicy, coarse, somewhat granular flesh of
subacid flavor; moderately seedy; average 3.20 seeds per fruit. Early in season. Tree tall, to 13 1/2
ft (4.19 m). Bears heavily. This cultivar is grown and canned commercially.
'Tsrifin 8' (grown in Israel)rounded pear-shaped; 25 to 30 g in weight; yellow-orange with some
russeting. Of excellent quality with good acid and sugar content. Stands handling. shipping and
Loquat
storage well. Latemid-April to mid-May. Precocious, bears regularly and abundantly but is
subject to sunburn. Constitutes 10% of Israeli plantings.
'Victor' (originated by C.P. Taft in 1899)oblong-pear-shaped; large; skin deep-yellow,
medium-thick, tough. Flesh whitish, translucent, melting, very juicy, of sweet, mild flavor. There
may be 3 to 5 seeds. Very late; too late for California. Good for canning.
'Victory' (the most popular cultivar in West Australia)oval, large, yellow to orange, becoming
amber on the sunny side. Flesh is white to cream-colored, juicy, sweet. Midseason to occasionally
early.
'Wolfe', (S.E.S. #4) (a seedling of 'Advance' selected and named at the Agricultural Research and
Education Center of the University of Florida in Homestead, and released in 1966)obovoid to
slightly pear-shaped; 1 3/4 to 2 in (4.5-5 cm) long and 1 to 1 1/4 in (2.5-3.2 cm) wide; yellow with
fairly thick skin and pale-yellow, thick, firm, juicy flesh of excellent flavor, acid but also sweet
when tree-ripe; has 1 to 5 seeds (usually 1 to 3). Tree reaches 25 ft (7.5 in) and bears well nearly
every year,
Pollination
The loquat is normally pollinated by bees. Some cultivars such as 'Golden Yellow' are not
self-fertile. 'Pale Yellow', 'Advance', and 'Tanaka' are partially self-fertile. In India, it has been
observed that cross-pollination generally results in 10-17 % increased production over
self-pollination. 'Tanaka' pollinated by 'Pale Yellow' has a lower yield than when self-pollinated,
indicating a degree of cross-incompatibility. Whereas, when pollinated by 'Advance', the normal
yield of 'Tanaka' is nearly doubled.
When cross-pollinating for the purpose of hybridizing, only flowers of the second flush should be
used, as early and late flushes have abnormal stamens, very little viable pollen, and result in poor
setting and undersized fruits.
Climate
The loquat is adapted to a subtropical to mild-temperate climate. In China it grows naturally at
altitudes between 3,000 and 7,000 ft (914-2,100 m). In India, it grows at all levels up to 5, 000 ft
(1,500 m). In Guatemala, the tree thrives and fruits well at elevations between 3,000 and 6,900 ft
(900-1,200 m), but bears little or not at all at lower levels.
Well-established trees can tolerate a drop in temperature to 12 F (-11.11 C). In Japan, the killing
temperature for the flower bud is 19.4 F (7 C); for the mature flower, 26.6 F (-3 C). At 25 F
(-3.89 C), the seed is killed, causing the fruit to fall.
Loquats are grown on hillsides in Japan to have the benefit of good air flow. Extreme summer heat
is detrimental to the crop, and dry, hot winds cause leaf scorch. Where the climate is too cool or
excessively warm and moist, the tree is grown as an ornamental but will not bear fruit.
Soil
The tree grows well on a variety of soils of moderate fertility, from light sandy loam to heavy clay
and even oolitic limestone, but needs good drainage.
Loquat
Propagation
Generally, seeds are used for propagation only when the tree is grown for ornamental purposes or
for use as rootstock. Loquat seedlings are preferred over apple, pear, quince or pyracantha
rootstocks under most conditions. Quince and pyracantha may cause extreme dwarfing-to less than
8 ft (2.5 in). Quince rootstock tolerates heavier and wetter soils than loquat but is apt to put out
numerous suckers. Loquat seeds remain viable for 6 months if stored in partly sealed glass jars
under high humidity at room temperature, but the best temperature for storage is 40 F (5 C). They
are washed and planted in flats or pots soon after removal from the fruit and the seedlings are
transplanted when 6 to 7 in (15-17.5 cm) high to nursery rows. When the stem is 1/2 in (1.25 cm)
thick at the base, the seedlings are ready to be top-worked. In India, inarching is commonly
practiced but budding and grafting are more popular in most other areas. Shield-budding, using
3-month-old scions, is successful. Cleft-grafting has been a common practice in Florida.
Veneer-grafting in April has proved to be a superior method in Pakistan. Cuttings are not easy to
root. Air-layering may be only 20% successful, though 80 to 100% of the layers root in 6 weeks if
treated with 3% NAA (2-naphthoxyacetic acid).
Trees that are vegetatively propagated will begin to bear fruit in 5 years or less, as compared to 8
to 10 years in seedling trees. Old seedling trees can be converted by cutting back severely and
inserting budwood of a preferred cultivar.
Culture
The rainy season is best for planting loquats. When planted on rich soil, normal size trees should
be set 25 to 30 ft (7.5-9 m) apart, allowing about 83 trees per acre (200 per ha). In Brazil, a spacing
of 23 x 23 ft (7x7 m) is recommended on flat land, 26 x 20 ft (8x6 m) or 26 x 16.5 ft (8x5 m) on
slopes. Dwarf trees are spaced at 13 x 6.5 ft (4x2 m) in Japan and this may allow 208 per acre (500
per ha). The tree is a heavy feeder. For good fruit production the trees require ample fertilization
and irrigation. In the tropics, animal manure is often used. A good formula for applications of
chemical fertilizer is: 1 lb (.45 kg) 6-6-6 NPK three times a year during the period of active growth
for each tree 8 to 10 ft in height. The trees should be watered at the swelling of blossoms and 2 to
3 waterings should be given during harvest-time. Thinning of flowers and young fruits in the
cluster, or the clipping off of the tip of the cluster, or of entire clusters of flowers and fruits, is
sometimes done to enhance fruit size. This is carefully done by hand in Japan. With the 'Tanaka'
cultivar, the Japanese leave only one fruit per cluster; with the 'Mogi', two. In Taiwan, thinning is
done by spraying with NAA when the flowers are fully open.
In Taiwan, because of the hazard of strong typhoons, the loquat is grown as a mini-dwarf no more
than 3 ft (0.9 m) high and wide, and branch tips may be tied to the ground because branches kept
at a 451 angle flower heavily. Spraying with gibberellic acid (60 ppm) at full bloom enhances fruit
set and increases fruit size and weight, total reducing sugars and ascorbic acid content, reduces
fruit drop, number of seeds, and acidity. Spraying the same at 300 ppm results in small, seedless
fruits. There should be judicious pruning after harvest, otherwise terminal shoots become too
numerous and cause a decline in vigor which may result in biennial bearing. In Brazil, the clusters
are bagged to eliminate sunburn (purple staining of the skin) to which both of the leading cultivars
are susceptible.
Because of the shallow root system of the loquat, great care must be taken in mechanical
Loquat
cultivation not to damage the roots. The growing of dwarf trees greatly reduces the labor of
flower-and fruit-thinning, bagging, and, later, harvesting and pruning.
Season
Generally, the loquat tree blooms in the fall and fruits in early spring. However, in tropical
climates, the tree may flower 2 or 3 times a year beginning in July and set fruit mainly from the
second flowering. In Florida, ripening begins in February; in California, usually in April; in Israel,
the crop ripens from March to May. In Brazil, the harvesting extends from May to October.
Harvesting
Loquats reach maturity in 90 days from full flower opening. Determination of ripeness is not easy,
but it is important because unripe fruits are excessively acid. Full development of color for each
cultivar is the best guide.
The fruits are difficult to harvest because of the thick, tough stalk on each fruit which does not
separate readily from the cluster, and the fruits must be picked with stalk attached to avoid tearing
the skin. Clusters are cut from the branch with a sharp knife or with clippers. Whole clusters are
not particularly attractive on the market, therefore the individual fruits are clipped from the cluster,
the stalk is detached from each fruit and the fruits are graded for size and color to provide uniform
packs. Great care is taken to avoid blemishes.
Major Japanese growers have monorail systems for conveying the picked fruits and equipment
from their hillside plantations.
Yield
Dwarf loquats in Israel have produced 7 tons/ha at 3 years of age, 25 tons/ha at 7 years. Normal
size trees in Brazil are expected to bear 110 lbs (50 kg) per tree, 4.17 tons per acre (10 tons/ha)
when planted at a rate of 83 trees per acre (200 trees/ha). The 'Wolfe' cultivar in southern Florida
has borne 100 lbs (45 kg) per tree at 5 years of age; 300 lbs (136 kg) when 15 to 20 years old.
Keeping Quality
Loquats generally will keep for 10 days at ordinary temperatures, and for 60 days in cool storage.
After removal from storage, the shelf-life may be only 3 days. Treatment with the fungicide,
benomyl, makes it possible to maintain loquats for one month at 60 F (15.56 C) with a minimum
of decay. Other fungicides tried have proved much less effective. Cold storage of loquats in
polyethylene bags alters the flavor of the fruit, promotes internal browning and the development of
fungi.
Pests and Diseases
In Japan, scale insects, aphids, fruit flies and birds damage the fruits and may necessitate covering
the clusters with cloth or paper bags. Laborers can attach 1,000 to 1,500 bags per day. An acre may
require 62,500 bags (150,000/ha). A pole with a hook at the tip is employed to bring each branch
within reach. The process is labor intensive. In Israel, wire netting is placed over trees to protect
the crop from birds.
Loquat
The Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa) has ruined the dooryard loquat crop for the past
several years in Florida. The fruit flies, A. striata and A. serpentina, require control in Venezuela,
the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, in Tunisia. Another fruit fly, Dacus dorsalis, is the
major pest in India, forces the harvesting of mature fruits while they are still too hard to be
penetrated, and the complete removal of all immature fruits at the same time so that they will not
remain as hosts. The soil around the base of the tree must be plowed up and treated to kill the
pupae. The second most important predator is the bark-eating caterpillar, Indarbela quadrinotata.
Minor pests include leaf-eating chafer beetles, A doretus duvauceli, A. lasiopygus, A. horticola and
A. versutus; gray weevils, Myllocerus lactivirens and M. discolor which attack the margins of the
leaves. The scale insects, Coccus viridis, Eulecanium coryli, Parlatoria oleae, P. pseudopyri,
Pulvinaria Psidii and Saissetia hemisphaerica suck the sap from loquat leaves and branches.
Carpenter bees, Megochile anthracina, cut holes in the leaves and take the tissue to line their mud
nests. Aphids (Aphis malvae) suck sap from twigs and shoots and sooty mold develops on the
honeydew which they excrete. Flowers are attacked by thrips (Heliothrips sp.). The caterpillars of
the anar butterfly, Virachola isocrates, bore into the fruits and lay eggs on the fruits, flowers and
leaves. In New Zealand, a leaf-roller caterpillar eats into the buds and flowers. In California, the
main pests of loquat are the codlin moth (Cydia pomonella), the green apple aphis (Aphis pomi)
and scales.
The roots of loquat trees in India are preyed on by nematodesCriconemoides xenophax,
Helicotylenchus spp., Hemicriconemoides communis, Haplolaimus spp. and Xiphinema insigne.
Diseases
Pear blight (Bacillus amylovorus) is the major enemy of the loquat in California and has killed
many trees. Phytophthora is responsible for crown rot and Pseudomonas eriobotryae causes
cankers in California. Scab may occur on the bark of the trunk and larger branches. A serious
disease is collar rot and root rot caused by Diplodia natalensis. D. eriobotrya sometimes affects
the leaves. The parasitic fungus, Monochaetia indica, induces leaf spot in India. Leaf spot is also
caused by the soil-inhabiting fungus Schlerotium rolfsii. Spilocaeae eriobotryae causes black spot
on fruits and leaves in Italy and South Western Australia. Fleck, caused by the fungus Fabraea
maculata is recognized by red-brown spots with whitish centers on leaves, shoots and fruit. In
Florida, leaf spot may result from infection by Pestalotia sp. The foliage of young plants in
Brazilian nurseries is damaged by the fungus Entomosporium maculatum. Other fungus problems
of the loquat include stem-brown disease caused by Batryosphaeria dothidee; die-back from
Macrophoma sp., withertip from Collectotrichum gloeosporioides, and twig blight and canker
from Cytospora chrysospernw. Post-harvest fruit rot is the result of infection by Diplodia
natalensis, Pestalotia sp. or Aspergillus niger.
Sunburn, "purple spot", is responsible for much fruit loss in hot regions with long summers.
Chemical sprays have been employed to hasten fruit maturity to avoid sunburn. Various types of
bags have been tried in Brazil to protect the fruit from this blemish. The best are 2- and 3-ply
newspaper bags.
Food Uses
The skin of the loquat is easily removed. Peeled and seeded fruits are eaten fresh, sometimes
combined with sliced banana, orange sections and grated coconut. They are delicious simply
Loquat
stewed with a little sugar added. The fruits

are also used in gelatin desserts or as
pie-filling, or are chopped and cooked as a
sauce. Loquats canned in sirup are exported
from Taiwan. Some people prepare spiced
loquats (with cloves, cinnamon, lemon and
vinegar) in glass jars. The fruit is also made
into jam and, when slightly underripe, has
enough pectin to make jelly. The jelly was
formerly manufactured commercially in
California on a small scale.
Food Value Per 100 g of
Edible Portion*
Calories
Protein
168
1.4 g
Fat
Carbohydrates
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Potassium
Vitamin A
Ascorbic Acid
0.7 g
43.3 g
70 mg
126 mg
Fig. 29: Peeled, seeded loquats (Eriobotrya japonica) canned
in sirup in Taiwan.
1.4 mg
1,216 mg
2,340 I.U.
3 mg
*Analyses reported by the Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture.
The fruit contains laevulose, sucrose and malic acid and lesser amounts of citric, tartaric and
succinic acid. The pulp contains the carotenoids B-carotene (33%); y-carotene (6%); cryptoxanthin
(22%), lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin (3-4% each). The peel is 5 times richer than the pulp in
carotenoids which are similar to those in apricots.
Toxicity
A 5-year-old girl in Florida ate 4 unripe loquats, fell asleep and was difficult to awaken and
seemed dazed. After about 2 hours, she was back to normal. There have been instances of
poisoning in poultry from ingestion of loquat seeds. The seeds contain amygdalin (which is
converted into HCN); also the lipids, sterol, -sitosterol, triglyceride, sterolester, diglyceride and
compound lipids; and fatty acids, mainly linoleic, palmitic, linolenic and oleic. There is amygdalin
also in the fruit peel. The leaves possess a mixture of triterpenes, also tannin, vitamin B and
ascorbic acid; in addition, there are traces of arsenic. Young leaves contain saponin. Some
individuals suffer headache when too close to a loquat tree in bloom, The emanation from the
flowers is sweet and penetrating.
Loquat
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is pink, hard, close-grained, medium-heavy. It has been used instead of pear
wood in making rulers and other drawing instruments.
Animal feed: The young branches have been lopped for fodder.
Perfume: In the 1950's, the flowers attracted the interest of the perfume industry in France and
Spain and some experimental work was done in extraction of the essential oil from the flowers or
leaves. The product was appealing but the yield was very small.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit is said to act as a sedative and is eaten to halt vomiting and thirst.
The flowers are regarded as having expectorant properties. An infusion of the leaves, or the dried,
powdered leaves, may be taken to relieve diarrhea and depression and to counteract intoxication
from consumption of alcoholic beverages. Leaf poultices are applied on swellings.
Capulin

Morton, J. 1987. Capulin. p. 108109. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Capulin
Prunus salicifolia
Description
Climate
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
The capulin is a true cherry and doesn't really belong with fruits of warm regions. However, it
must be included here to distinguish it from the Jamaica cherry (q.v.), for the two share a number
of colloquial names. Prunus salicifolia HBK. (syns. P. capuli Cav.; P. serotina var. salicifolia
Koehne), of the family Rosaceae, is most often called capulin, capuli, capoli or capolin, especially
in Colombia and Mexico, but in certain parts of the latter country it is known as cerezo, dets,
detz, taunday, jonote, puan, palman or xengua. In Colombia it is sometimes called cerezo criollo.
In Guatemala, it is known as capulin, cereza, cereza comn, or wild cherry; in Bolivia, it is capuli;
in Eucador, capuli or black cherry.
Description
The tree is erect, reaching 40 to 50 ft (12-15 m) in height, with a short, stout trunk to 3 ft (0.9 m) in
diameter. The deciduous, alternate, aromatic leaves are lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 2 3/8 to 7 in
(6-18 cm) long, dark-green and glossy above, pale beneath; thin, finely toothed. New leaves are
often rosy. Flowers, borne in slender, pendent racemes with 1 or more leaves at the base, are about
3/4 in (2 cm) wide with white petals and a conspicuous tuft of yellow stamens. The aromatic fruit
is round, 3/8 to 3/4 in (1-2 cm) wide, with red or nearly black, rarely white or yellowish, smooth,
thin, tender skin and pale-green, juicy pulp of sweet or acid, agreeable, but slightly astringent
flavor. There is a single stone with a bitter kernel.
The capulin is native and common throughout the Valley of Mexico from Sonora to Chiapas and
Veracruz, and possibly also indigenous to western Guatemala. It has been cultivated since early
times in these areas and other parts of Central America and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/capulin.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:34:12 PM]
Capulin
Bolivia, and is extensively and abundantly naturalized. The fruit is an important food, not only of
the Indians, but of all the inhabitants, and it was at times a mainstay of the invading Spaniards.
Great quantities appear in the native markets, especially of El Salvador, Guatemala and Ecuador.
In Guatemala, seedlings of the capulin are utilized as rootstock on which commercial cultivars of
the northern cherry are grafted. The capulin is little-known in eastern South America and
elsewhere in the world. It was introduced into the cool medium elevations of the Philippines in
1924.
Climate
The tree requires a subtropical to subtemperate climate. It grows naturally at elevations between
4,000 and 11,000 ft (1,200-3,400 m).
Season
In Mexico, the tree blooms from January to March and the fruits ripen in July and August. In
Guatemala, flowers appear from January to May and fruits from May to September. The fruiting
season in El Salvador extends from December through April.
Food Uses
The ripe fruits are eaten raw or stewed; also are preserved whole or made into jam. In Mexico they
are used as filling for special tamales. With skin and seeds removed, they are mixed with milk and
served with vanilla and cinnamon as dessert. Sometimes the fruits are fermented to make an
alcoholic beverage.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
76.8-80.8 g
0.105-0.185 g
0.26-0.37 g
0.1-0.7 g
0.56-0.82 g
17.2-25.1 mg
16.9-24.4 mg
0.65-0.84 mg
0.005-0.162 mg
0.016-0.031 mg
0.018-0.028 mg
0.640-1.14 mg
Ascorbic Acid
22.2 32.8 mg
*According to analyses made in Guatemala and Ecuador.

Other Uses
Capulin
Seeds: The seeds contain 30-38% of a yellow, semidrying oil suitable for use in soap and paints.
Flowers: The flowers are much visited by honeybees.
Wood: The sapwood is yellow with touches of red. The heartwood is reddish-brown, fine-grained,
very hard, strong, durable. It is used for furniture, interior paneling, cabinets, turnery and general
carpentry. Old roots are valued for carving tobacco pipes, figurines, et cetera.
Medicinal Uses: A sirup made of the fruits is taken to alleviate respiratory troubles. The leaf
decoction is given as a febrifuge and to halt diarrhea and dysentery; also applied in poultices to
relieve inflammation. A leaf infusion is prescribed in Yucatan as a sedative in colic and neuralgia
and as an antispasmodic. The pounded bark is employed in an eyewash.
The leaves contain essential oil, fat, resin, tannin, amygdalin, glucose, a brown pigment and
mineral salts. The bark contains starch, brown pigment, amygdalin, gallic acid, fat, calcium,
potassium and iron. All of these parts must be utilized cautiously because the bark, leaves or seeds
in contact with water can release HCN.
Mysore Raspberry

Morton, J. 1987. Mysore Raspberry. p. 109110. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Mysore Raspberry
Rubus neveus
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Many species of Rubus (family Rosaceae), especially from the warm regions of the world, have
been tried in southern Florida. Only one has been truly successful here, the Mysore raspberry, R.
niveus Thunb., (syns. R. lasiocarpus Hook. f. in part; R. albescens Roxb.; R. mysorensis Heyne),
also called Ceylon, hill or Mahabaleshwar, raspberry in India and pilai in the Philippines.
Description
The plant is a large scrambling shrub growing 10 to 15 ft (3-4.5 m) high, with cylindrical, flexible
stems downy when young, later purple, coated with a white bloom. It is thoroughly set with sharp,
hooked thorns. The leaves, 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm) long, are composed of 5 to 9 elliptic-ovate leaflets
1 to 2 1/2 in (2.5-6.25 cm) long, coarsely toothed, dark-green above and, on the underside,
white-hairy with small, sharp spines along the rachis, petiole and midrib. Pink or red-purple,
5-petalled flowers, 1/2 in (1.25 cm) across, occur in lax axillary and terminal clusters. The fruit is
rounded-conical, flat at the base; compound, made up of individual drupelets; red when unripe,
purple-black when ripe, with a very fine bloom; 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) in diameter, juicy and of
sweet, rich black-raspberry flavor. The clusters may contain as many as 2 dozen or even more. The
seeds are small and not objectionable.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mysore_raspberry.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:34:14 PM]
Mysore Raspberry

The species is native to Burma and India,
particularly the lower Himalayas, from
Punjab to Assam, the Deccan peninsula, and
the Western Ghats; and is common in the
evergreen forests of Mahabaleshwar. The
more hairy var. horsfieldii Focke extends
south through Malaya to Indonesia and
Bontoc and Benguet in the Philippines.
From India, the Mysore raspberry was
introduced into Kenya, East Africa, and has
been grown in the mountains there for many
years. Seeds from Kenya were obtained by
F. B. Harrington of Natal, South Africa, in
1947. In 1948, he supplied seeds to the
University of Florida's Agricultural
Research and Education Center, Homestead.
The resulting seedlings were planted out in Plate XII: MYSORE RASPBERRY, Rubus niveus
1949 and fruited so well the following
winter that plants were distributed to many experimenters throughout south and central Florida. By
1952, many nurseries were offering the plants for sale and had difficulty filling the demand. By
1955, a major supermarket in Lake Worth was selling the fruits by the pint. In 1955, the University
of Puerto Rico received planting material from Florida and established plantings in the
central-western mountains of that island.
In Florida, some interest was still alive in 1965, but early enthusiasm waned as homeowners
neglected their raspberry bushes, growth became too rampant, picking more and more difficult
among the tangle of thorny canes, and birds competed eagerly for the crop. Many plantings were
destroyed, and few remain.
Climate
This raspberry has a remarkable climatic range in Asia, from the relatively warm altitude of 1,500
ft (450 m) to the temperate environment at 10,000 ft (3,000 m). In Florida, brief drops in
temperature to 35 F (1.67 C) have done the plants no harm but 20 F (-1.67 C) has killed young,
tender growth, and prolonged freezing weather has killed the plants to the ground or outright.
Soil
In Florida, the plant flourishes on limestone or acid sand. In Puerto Rico it is grown on lateritic
Alonso clay with a pH of 5.0. Good drainage is essential.
Propagation
The Mysore raspberry is often grown from seed but germination is slow and irregular (from 3
weeks to several months), and the seedlings are subject to damping-off. Germination can be
expedited by pre-treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid. Stem cuttings root well, but the
Mysore Raspberry
preferred method of propagation is by tip-layering. They develop plentiful roots in 3 to 4 weeks.

Culture
Florida gardeners place the plants 2 1/2 to 4 ft (0.75-1.2 m)apart in rows 6 to 8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) apart
supported by 2 or 3 strands of wire attached to end-posts. In Puerto Rico, the plants are set out in
hills spaced 6 to 8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) apart each way. If taller than 18 in (45 cm), they are cut back,
surrounded by 2 or 3 stakes 6 ft (1.8 m) high linked by crosswires. As the canes grow, they are
loosely tied to the stakes and wires. A mulch is desirable to retain Moisture and control weeds.
During the first year, in Puerto Rico, the plants are given 1 to 2 oz (28-56 g) each of ammonium
sulfate quarterly. Thereafter, a 9-10-5 fertilizer formula is applied quarterly, 4 to 6 oz (113-170 g)
per plant.
On Florida limestone, the recommended fertilizer consisting of 4-8-4 or 4-7-5 NPK with 3 to 4%
magnesium and 30 to 40% organic nitrogen is applied every 2 to 3 weeks. And it is considered
highly desirable that a mixture of zinc, copper and manganese be sprayed on the underside of the
leaves 3 to 4 times per year.
Irrigation is necessary in dry seasons. Old canes should be cut to the ground at the end of the
fruiting period and there should be severe pruning and thinning out in the late fall to force new
growth for a winter-spring crop.
Season
The Mysore raspberry tends to bloom and fruit throughout the year but summer fruits are of poor
size and quality. Therefore, the seasonal pruning has the additional purpose of preventing spring
and summer flowering and allowing the first blooms to appear in December. Thus managed, the
fruits are borne continuously from about February to May or June.
Harvesting
The fruits should be harvested only when they are not wet from dew or rain and when they are
fully ripe and separate easily from the receptacle which remains on the plant. Gathering should be
done at least 2 or 3 times a week to avoid losses by falling and spoilage. The fruits are highly
perishable and should be consumed or processed as soon as possible.
Yield
In full sun, the crop is light. Where the plants receive some light shade in the afternoon, the yield
is heavy. A single plant may yield 2,400 to 3,000 fruits over a 4-month period. A plot of 8 test
plants in Florida produced 50 lbs (22.5 kg) in one season.
Pests and Diseases
The 2-spotted mite, Tetranychus bimaculatus, congregates on the underside of the leaves of
shade-grown seedlings, turning them yellow. Occasionally, flower buds and fruits are attacked by
the green stink bug, Nezara viridula, also called pumpkin or squash bug.
Anthracnose (Elsinoe veneta) causes spotting and scabbing of the canes toward the end of the
fruiting season. Affected canes should be cut off and destroyed to prevent further infection.
Mysore Raspberry
Damping-off of seedlings can be avoided by planting seeds in a mixture of peat moss and
vermiculite, or in sphagnum moss.
Food Uses
The fruits are enjoyed fresh, alone or served with sugar and cream or ice cream. They are excellent
for making pie, tarts, jam and jelly. The fresh fruits can be quick-frozen for future use.
Red Ceylon Peach

Morton, J. 1987. Red Ceylon Peach. p. 111112. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Red Ceylon Peach

Prunus persica
Description
Other Cultivars
Culture
Status
The peach, Prunus Persica Batsch, is not ordinarily included among tropical or subtropical fruits.
It is grown mainly in temperate regions of the world, including North America from the
mild-temperate areas of Nova Scotia and the Ontario peninsula close to the Great Lakes, to
north-central Florida, and across the Gulf States to California.
The earliest settlers in the South grew peaches, especially the highly-esteemed 'Spanish Blood'.
Commercial culture began in the southern states with the introduction of other types and, by 1900,
peach culture was receiving serious attention in many parts of the country. There are 5 races of the
peach differing widely in their characteristics. The United States Department of Agriculture
introduced many cultivars of the South China race, typified by the 'Peen-to', a flat type well
adapted to moderately warm climates. The peach tree has a chilling requirement of a certain
number of hours at 45 F (7.22 C) from the time of leaf-fall to the emerging of new buds. This
period varies with the race and cultivar from 30 to 1,000 hours. Late in the 1880's, the 'Red
Ceylon', which requires no more than 50 hours of chilling, became well-established in southern
Florida. In 1904, this cultivar was planted at the agricultural experiment station at Santiago de Las
Vegas, Cuba, and was soon being grown all around the Havana area because it was the only peach
found suitable to that tropical climate and the local soils.
Description
The tree is dwarf, slender and willowy, with deciduous, alternate, slender, pointed leaves; bears
pink, 5-petalled flowers on bare branches in January and February, sometimes March, and fruits
heavily in April and May. The fruit is oval with a protruding knob at the apex, 2 3/4 in (7 cm) long
and 2 3/8 in (6 cm) wide; velvety, green with deep-red blush when ripe. The flesh is mainly white
but a rich strawberry-red in the center; tender, juicy, and of excellent, sweet-acid flavor having a
slight suggestion of bitter-almond. The stone is free, corrugated and very hard; small in proportion
to the size of the fruit. Despite its unattractiveness externally and small dimensions, the 'Red
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/red_ceylon_peach.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:34:18 PM]
Red Ceylon Peach
Ceylon' is much-appreciated on close

acquaintance. It is peeled, sliced and
enjoyed fresh or stewed and can be used for
various culinary purposes. The sliced fruit
can be frozen in sirup and relished
out-of-season as topping on cake or ice
cream. In fact, one becomes so partial to
this peach that the ordinary commercial
peaches, though far more beautiful, seem
somewhat rubbery and much less flavorful
by comparison.
Other Cultivars
Two other subtropical cultivars have been
successfully grown in southern Florida:
'Saharanpur'a selection from seedlings
received in 1969 from the Horticultural
Research Institute, Saharanpur, India. The
fruit is very similar to that of 'Red Ceylon'
Fig. 30: The supple branches of the 'Red Ceylon Peach'
except that it lacks the fine red coloration in (Prunus persica) bend to the ground when laden with fruit.
the center. The seedlings received from
India were probably of the selection 'Shabati' reported by Dr. L. B. Singh as having been released
in 1950 and widely distributed all over India where winter chilling requirement of 30 to 40 hours
could be guaranteed.
'Okinawa'a fruit of superior form but of inferior quality. This cultivar has been valued mainly as
a rootstock because of its greater nematode-resistance.
Culture
The 'Red Ceylon' peach has been commonly propagated by seed or by grafting. The seeds may
take several months to germinate unless cracked which will induce sprouting in 10 to 90 days. The
tree grows rapidly and bears in 2 years from seed. It is relatively nematode-resistant and requires
little care, but should receive plenty of water for good production.
Status
In the 1940's and 1950's the 'Red Ceylon' peach was being deservedly promoted as a useful fruit
for home gardens. It is impractical for marketing because of the protruding tip which bruises and
then spoils readily. Seedlings and grafted plants were being sold by nurseries. Unfortunately, with
the advent of the Caribbean fruit fly in 1965, and its rapid spread in southern Florida, interest in
peach-growing dwindled, for the peach is a major host of this pest. Marie Neal wrote that, in
Hawaii, a type of peach with small fruits having whitish flesh was formerly grown from the
lowlands to an altitude of 3,000 ft (900 m), but its cultivation was discouraged because of the
prevalence of the Mediterranean fruit fly.
The 'Red Ceylon' and the 'Okinawa' have been used as rootstocks for peaches in central Florida,
Red Ceylon Peach
though such tender rootstocks may make the

grafted tree inclined to cold-sensitivity. In
1957, a hybrid between the 'Red Ceylon'
and the 'Southland' peach was developed at
the University of Florida's Agricultural
Experiment Station in Gainesville.
In the past 2 decades there have been
continuous efforts to develop low-chilling
cultivars for central Florida and also hardier
types as a crop replacement for the orange
in the northern part of the "Citrus Belt"
where severe damage to orange trees
occurred in the winter of 1962-1963 and
200,000 bearing trees were killed by freezes
in December 1983 and January 1985.
Dr. Ralph Sharpe has been a leader in
peach-breeding in this state for many years.
Through his research and that of his
Plate XIII: RED CEYLON PEACH, Prunus persica
colleagues, Florida now has a substantial
peach industry. The low-chilling, semi -cling-stone 'Floridaprince', requiring only 150 hours
below 45 F (7.22 C), was released to nurseries in late 1985.
Sansapote

Morton, J. 1987. Sansapote. p. 113114. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Sansapote
Licania platypus
Description
Climate
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
A fruit held in rather low esteem, the sansapote, Licania platypus Fritsch (syn. Moquilea platypus
Hemsl.), of the family Chrysobalanaceae, is often called sonzapote, sunzapote, sungano, zapote
cabelludo, sapote or sangre in Costa Rica and El Salvador; sonzapote in Nicaragua; zapote
amarillo, zapote borracho, zapote cabello, zapote de mico, zapote de mono, mesonsapote,
mezonzapote, cabeza de mico, or caca de nio in Mexico; sonza, sunza, zunza, chaute jolobob in
Guatemala; urraco in Honduras; chupa in Colombia; monkey apple in Belize.
Description
The handsome tree is erect, stately, reaching
100 to 160 ft (30-50 m) in height; has a
rounded crown of thick branches, heavily
foliaged, and dark purplish or brown bark
dotted with tiny white or reddish-white
lenticels. It is sometimes slightly buttressed.
The deciduous leaves are alternate,
occasionally spiraled, elliptic- to
narrow-lanceolate, pointed at both ends; 4
to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, 1 1/4 to 3 1/2 in
(3-9 cm) wide, with thick midrib, indented
above and prominent beneath. New foliage
is bronze or red-purple and very showy. The
abundant, fragrant flowers, in broad
terminal, branched panicles 4 to 14 in
(10-35 cm) long, are small and densely
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sansapote.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:34:20 PM]
Sansapote
hairy with recurved petals and numerous

protruding stamens. Only 1 to 3 fruits
develop from each particle. The obovoid or
pyriform. fruit, 5 to 8 in (13-20 cm) long, 4
to 5 1/2 in (10-14 cm) wide, has a thin,
dark-brown or reddish, warty rind covered
with white lenticels. The flesh, somewhat
pumpkin-scented, is yellow or
orange-yellow, soft, fibrous, dry or juicy
and of subacid or sweet flavor. Usually
there is a single rounded or ovate-oblong,
flattened seed, 2 3/8 to 4 in (6-10 cm) long.
The sansapote grows wild in dense forests
from southern Mexico to Panama, on both
coasts, and also in northern Colombia. It is
much planted as an ornamental and shade
tree throughout Central America. It was
introduced into the Philippines in the early
1900's and into Hawaii only about 25 years
ago. In the spring of 1913, the United States
Department of Agriculture received seeds
from the Department of Agriculture in San
Jos, Costa Rica (S.P.I. #34915). In
November of the same year, seeds of a
small-fruited type from the Pacific Coast
and a large-fruited type from the Atlantic
slope were received from the same source
(S.P.I. #36590). Another introduction was
made from Colombia in 1916 (S.P.I.
#42991).
Fig 31: The sansapote, photographed by the U.S. Department

of Agriculture plant explorers, Cook, Collins and Doyle, at
Nicoya, Costa Rica, in 1903. Published in Henry Pittier's New
or Noteworthy Plants from Colombia and Central America #3
(Contribution of the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. 13, Part
Few of the trees planted in southern Florida 12), the Smithsonian Institution; 1912.
have survived. Several young specimens have died at the Fairchild Tropical Garden. One at the
Subtropical Horticulture Research Station, Miami, has bloomed several times after rains but has
not fruited. William Whitman obtained seeds from the Ministry of Agriculture, El Salvador, in
1957. One tree grew well, suffered severe hurricane damage in 1964, recovered, bloomed in late
1969 and, in the summer of 1970, produced a dozen fruits; over 100 in 1971. The fruits are not
highly regarded in Central America but are sold in native markets. Tapirs and peccaries feast on
those that are left on the ground.
Climate
This is a tropical species limited to low elevationsnot more than 2,000 ft (600 m) above sea-level.
Season
Sansapote
According to Pennington, the tree blooms from July to September in Mexico and the fruits ripen
from August to December. Perhaps he means of the following year. In Costa Rica and Honduras
the fruit is said to take a year to develop to maturity. In Florida, one tree bloomed in November
and the first fruits ripened 9 months later and the season extended from summer to fall.
Food Uses
The fruit is eaten raw when better fruits are not available. According to Standley, it has the
reputation of being unwholesome, causing fever and other illnesses.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
64.6-67.4 g
0.230-0.291 g
0.26-0.49 g
0.9-2.5 g
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.96-1.61 mg
10.5-33.2 mg
24.5-29.1 mg
0.52-1.70 mg
0.157-0.273 mg
0.005-0.16 mg
0.013-0.027 mg
1.466-1.530 mg
11.0-35.6 mg
*According to analyses made in Costa Rica and El Salvador.

Other Uses
The sapwood is pale-yellow or light yellowish-brown; the heartwood is purplish-brown or reddish,
fine-grained, very heavy and strong, suitable for fine furniture and cabinetwork, but it is not
durable in contact with the ground. It is little-known inasmuch as the trees are valued and seldom
felled. Related species provide timber for construction and charcoal. The seeds of L. rigida Benth.
yield oiticica oil, much like tung oil.
Tamarind

Morton, J. 1987. Tamarind. p. 115121. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Medicinal Uses
Superstitions
Of all the fruit trees of the tropics, none is more widely distributed nor more appreciated as an
ornamental than the tamarind, Tamarindus indica L. (syns. T. occidentalis Gaertn.; T. officinalis
Hook.), of the family Leguminosae. Most of its colloquial names are variations on the common
English term. In Spanish and Portuguese, it is tamarindo; in French, tamarin, tamarinier,
tamarinier des Indes, or tamarindier; in Dutch and German, tamarinde; in Italian, tamarandizio;
in Papiamiento of the Lesser Antilles, tamarijn. In the Virgin Islands, it is sometimes called
taman; in the Philippines, sampalok or various other dialectal names; in Malaya, asam jawa; in
India, it is tamarind or ambli, imli, chinch, etc.; in Cambodia, it is ampil or khoua me; in Laos, mak
kham; in Thailand, ma-kharm; in Vietnam, me. The name "tamarind" with a qualifying adjective is
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tamarind.html (1 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:34:23 PM]
Tamarind
often applied to other members of the family Leguminosae having somewhat similar foliage.
Description
The tamarind, a slow-growing, long-lived,
massive tree reaches, under favorable
conditions, a height of 80 or even 100 ft
(24-30 m), and may attain a spread of 40 ft
(12 m) and a trunk circumference of 25 ft
(7.5 m). It is highly wind-resistant, with
strong, supple branches, gracefully drooping
at the ends, and has dark-gray, rough,
fissured bark. The mass of bright-green,
fine, feathery foliage is composed of pinnate
leaves, 3 to 6 in (7.5-15 cm) in length, each
having 10 to 20 pairs of oblong leaflets 1/2
to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) long and 1/5 to 1/4 in
(5-6 mm) wide, which fold at night. The
leaves are normally evergreen but may be
shed briefly in very dry areas during the hot
season. Inconspicuous, inch-wide flowers,
borne in small racemes, are 5-petalled (2
reduced to bristles), yellow with orange or
Plate XIV: TAMARIND, Tamarindus indica
red streaks. The flowerbuds are distinctly
pink due to the outer color of the 4 sepals which are shed when the flower opens.
The fruits, flattish, beanlike, irregularly curved and bulged pods, are borne in great abundance
along the new branches and usually vary from 2 to 7 in long and from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm) in
diameter. Exceptionally large tamarinds have been found on individual trees. The pods may be
cinnamon-brown or grayish-brown externally and, at first, are tender-skinned with green, highly
acid flesh and soft, whitish, under-developed seeds. As they mature, the pods fill out somewhat
and the juicy, acidulous pulp turns brown or reddish-brown. Thereafter, the skin becomes a brittle,
easily-cracked shell and the pulp dehydrates naturally to a sticky paste enclosed by a few coarse
strands of fiber extending lengthwise from the stalk. The 1 to 12 fully formed seeds are hard,
glossy-brown, squarish in form, 1/8 to 1/2 in (1.1-1.25 cm) in diameter, and each is enclosed in a
parchmentlike membrane.
Native to tropical Africa, the tree grows wild throughout the Sudan and was so long ago
introduced into and adopted in India that it has often been reported as indigenous there also, and it
was apparently from this Asiatic country that it reached the Persians and the Arabs who called it
"tamar hindi" (Indian date, from the date-like appearance of the dried pulp), giving rise to both its
common and generic names. Unfortunately, the specific name, "indica", also perpetuates the
illusion of Indian origin. The fruit was well known to the ancient Egyptians and to the Greeks in
the 4th Century B.C.
The tree has long been naturalized in the East Indies and the islands of the Pacific. One of the first
Tamarind
tamarind trees in Hawaii was planted in 1797. The tamarind was certainly introduced into tropical
America, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the West Indies much earlier. In all tropical and
near-tropical areas, including South Florida, it is grown as a shade and fruit tree, along roadsides
and in dooryards and parks. Mexico has over 10,000 acres (4,440 ha) of tamarinds, mostly in the
states of Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca and Veracruz. In the lower Motagua Valley
of Guatemala, there are so many large tamarind trees in one area that it is called "El Tamarindal".
There are commercial plantings in Belize and other Central American countries and in northern
Brazil. In India there are extensive tamarind orchards producing 275,500 tons (250,000 MT)
annually. The pulp is marketed in northern Malaya and to some extent wherever the tree is found
even if there are no plantations.
Varieties
In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type
and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter than most. One in
Thailand is known as 'Makham waan'. One distributed by the United States Department of
Agriculture's Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit, Miami, is known as 'Manila Sweet'.
Climate
Very young trees should be protected from cold but older trees are surprisingly hardy. Wilson
Popenoe wrote that a large tree was killed on the west coast of Florida (about 7.5 lat. N) by a
freeze in 1884. However, no cold damage was noted in South Florida following the low
temperatures of the winter of 1957-1958 which had severe effects on many mango, avocado,
lychee and lime trees. Dr. Henry Nehrling reported that a tamarind tree in his garden at Gotha,
Florida, though damaged by freezes, always sprouted out again from the roots. In northwestern
India, the tree grows well but the fruits do not ripen. Dry weather is important during the period of
fruit development. In South Malaya, where there are frequent rains at this time, the tamarind does
not bear.
Soil
The tree tolerates a great diversity of soil types, from deep alluvial soil to rocky land and porous,
oolitic limestone. It withstands salt spray and can be planted fairly close to the seashore.
Propagation
Tamarind seeds remain viable for months, will germinate in a week after planting. In the past,
propagation has been customarily by seed sown in position, with thorny branches protecting the
young seedlings. However, today, young trees are usually grown in nurseries. And there is
intensified interest in vegetative propagation of selected varieties because of the commercial
potential of tamarind products. The tree can be grown easily from cuttings, or by shield-budding,
side-veneer grafting, or air-layering.
Culture
Nursery-grown trees are usually transplanted during the early rainy season. If kept until the second
rainy season, the plants must be cut back and the taproot trimmed. Spacing may be 33 to 65 ft
(10-20 m) between trees each way, depending on the fertility of the soil. With sufficient water and
Tamarind
regular weeding, the seedlings will reach 2 ft (60 cm) the first year and 4 ft (120 cm) by the second
year.
In Madagascar, seedlings have begun to bear in the 4th year; in Mexico, usually in the 5th year;
but in India, there may be a delay of 10 to 14 years before fruiting. The tree bears abundantly up to
an age of 50-60 years or sometimes longer, then productivity declines, though it may live another
150 years.
Season
Mexican studies reveal that the fruits begin to dehydrate 203 days after fruit-set, losing
approximately 1/2 moisture up to the stage of full ripeness, about 245 days from fruit-set. In
Florida, Central America, and the West Indies, the flowers appear in summer, the green fruits are
found in December and January and ripening takes place from April through June. In Hawaii the
fruits ripen in late summer and fall.
Harvesting
Tamarinds may be left on the tree for as long as 6 months after maturity so that the moisture
content will be reduced to 20% or lower. Fruits for immediate processing are often harvested by
pulling the pod away from the stalk which is left with the long, longitudinal fibers attached. In
India, harvesters may merely shake the branches to cause mature fruits to fall and they leave the
remainder to fall naturally when ripe. Pickers are not allowed to knock the fruits off with poles as
this would damage developing leaves and flowers. To keep the fruit intact for marketing fresh, the
stalks must be clipped from the branches so as not to damage the shell,
Yield
A mature tree may annually produce 330 to 500 lbs (150-225 kg) of fruits, of which the pulp may
constitute 30 to 55%, the shells and fiber, 11 to 30 %, and the seeds, 33 to 40%.
Keeping Quality
To preserve tamarinds for future use, they may be merely shelled, layered with sugar in boxes or
pressed into tight balls and covered with cloth and kept in a cool, dry place. For shipment to
processors, tamarinds may be shelled, layered with sugar in barrels and covered with boiling sirup.
East Indians shell the fruits and sprinkle them lightly with salt as a preservative. In Java, the salted
pulp is rolled into balls, steamed and sun-dried, then exposed to dew for a week before being
packed in stone jars. In India, the pulp, with or without seeds and fibers may be mixed with salt
(10%), pounded into blocks, wrapped in palmleaf matting, and packed in burlap sacks for
marketing. To store for long periods, the blocks of pulp may be first steamed or sun-dried for
several days.
Pests and Diseases
One of the major pests of the tamarind tree in India is the Oriental yellow scale, Aonidiella
orientalis. Tamarind scale, A. tamarindi, and black, or olive, scale, Saissetia oleae, are also partial
to tamarind but of less importance. Butani (1970) lists 8 other scale species that may be found on
the tree, the young and adults sucking the sap of buds and flowers and accordingly reducing the
crop.
Tamarind
The mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus, is a leading pest of tamarind in India, causing leaf-fall and
sometimes shedding of young fruits. Another mealybug, Nipaecoccus viridis, is less of a menace
except in South India where it is common on many fruit trees and ornamental plants. Chionaspis
acuminata-atricolor and Aspidiotus spp., suck the sap of twigs and branches and the latter also
feeds on young fruits. White grubs of Holotrichia insularis may feed on the roots of young
seedlings. The nematodes, Xiphinema citri and Longidorus elongatus may affect the roots of older
trees. Other predators attacking the leaves or flowers include the caterpillars, Thosea aperiens,
Thalarsodes quadraria, Stauropus alternus, and Laspeyresia palamedes; the black citrus aphid,
Toxoptera aurantii, the whitefly, Acaudaleyrodes rachispora; thrips, Ramaswamia hiella
subnudula, Scirtothrips dorsalis, and Haplothrips ceylonicus; and cow bugs, Oxyrhachis tarandus,
Otinotus onerotus, and Laptoentrus obliquis.
Fruit borers include larvae of the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne, also of Virachola
isocrates, Dichocrocis punctiferalis, Tribolium castaneum, Phycita orthoclina, Cryptophlebia
(Argyroploca) illepide, Oecadarchis sp., Holocera pulverea, Assara albicostalis, Araecerus
suturalis, Aephitobius laevigiatus, and Aphomia gularis. The latter infests ripening pods on the
tree and persists in the stored fruits, as do the tamarind beetle, Pachymerus (Coryoborus) gonogra,
and tamarind seed borer, Calandra (Sitophilus) linearis. The rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, the
rice moth, Corcyra cepholonica, and the fig moth, Ephestia cautella, infest the fruits in storage.
The lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica bores into stored seeds.
In India, a bacterial leaf-spot may occur. Sooty mold is caused by Meliola tamarindi. Rots
attacking the tree include saprot, Xylaria euglossa, brownish saprot, Polyporus calcuttensis, and
white rot, Trametes floccosa. The separated pulp has good keeping quality but is subject to various
molds in refrigerated storage.
Food Uses
The food uses of the tamarind are many.
The tender, immature, very sour pods are
cooked as seasoning with rice, fish and
meats in India. The fully-grown, but still
unripe fruits, called "swells" in the
Bahamas, are roasted in coals until they
burst and the skin is then peeled back and
the sizzling pulp dipped in wood ashes and
eaten. The fully ripe, fresh fruit is relished
out-of-hand by children and adults, alike.
The dehydrated fruits are easily recognized
when picking by their comparatively light
weight, hollow sound when tapped and the Fig 32: Acid-sweet pulp of the tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
cracking of the shell under gentle pressure. is blended with sugar as a confection, or preserved as jam or
The shell lifts readily from the pulp and the nectar. It enhances chutney and some well-known sauces.
lengthwise fibers are removed by holding
the stem with one hand and slipping the
pulp downward with the other. The pulp is
made into a variety of products. It is an
Tamarind
important ingredient in chutneys, curries

and sauces, including some brands of
Worcestershire and barbecue sauce, and in a
special Indian seafood pickle called
"tamarind fish". Sugared tamarind pulp is
often prepared as a confection. For this
purpose, it is desirable to separate the pulp
from the seeds without using water. If ripe,
fresh, undehydrated tamarinds are available,
this may be done by pressing the shelled
and defibered fruits through a colander
while adding powdered sugar to the point
where the pulp no longer sticks to the
fingers. The seeded pulp is then shaped into Fig. 33: Bahamian children hold mature but still green
balls and coated with powdered sugar. If the tamarinds in hot ashes until they sizzle, then dip the tip in the
tamarinds are dehydrated, it is less laborious ashes and eat them. The high calcium content contributes to
good teeth.
to layer the shelled fruits with granulated
sugar in a stone crock and bake in a moderately warm oven for about 4 hours until the sugar is
melted, then the mass is rubbed through a sieve, mixed with sugar to a stiff paste, and formed into
patties. This sweetmeat is commonly found on the market in Jamaica, Cuba and the Dominican
Republic. In Panama, the pulp may be sold in corn husks, palmleaf fiber baskets, or in plastic bags.
Tamarind ade has long been a popular drink in the Tropics and it is now bottled in carbonated
form in Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico and elsewhere. Formulas for the commercial production
of spiced tamarind beverages have been developed by technologists in India. The simplest home
method of preparing the ade is to shell the fruits, place 3 or 4 in a bottle of water, let stand for a
short time, add a tablespoonful of sugar and shake vigorously. For a richer beverage, a quantity of
shelled tamarinds may be covered with a hot sugar sirup and allowed to stand several days (with or
without the addition of seasonings such as cloves, cinnamon, allspice, ginger, pepper or lime
slices) and finally diluted as desired with ice water and strained.
In Brazil, a quantity of shelled fruits may be covered with cold water and allowed to stand 10 to 12
hours, the seeds are strained out, and a cup of sugar is added for every 2 cups of pulp; the mixture
is boiled for 15 to 20 minutes and then put up in glass jars topped with paraffin. In another method,
shelled tamarinds with an equal quantity of sugar may be covered with water and boiled for a few
minutes until stirring shows that the pulp has loosened from the seeds, then pressed through a
sieve. The strained pulp, much like apple butter in appearance, can be stored under refrigeration
for use in cold drinks or as a sauce for meats and poultry, plain cakes or puddings. A foamy
"tamarind shake" is made by stirring this sauce into an equal amount of dark-brown sugar and then
adding a tablespoonful of the mixture to 8 ounces of a plain carbonated beverage and whipping it
in an electric blender.
If twice as much water as tamarinds is used in cooking, the strained product will be a sirup rather
than a sauce. Sometimes a little soda is added. Tamarind sirup is bottled for domestic use and
export in Puerto Rico. In Mayaguez, street vendors sell cones of shaved ice saturated with
tamarind sirup. Tamarind pulp can be made into a tart jelly, and tamarind jam is canned
commercially in Costa Rica. Tamarind sherbet and ice cream are popular and refreshing. In
Tamarind
making fruit preserves, tamarind is sometimes combined with guava, papaya or banana.
Sometimes the fruit is made into wine.
Inasmuch as shelling by hand is laborious and requires 8 man-hours to produce 100 lbs (45 kg) of
shelled fruits, food technologists at the University of Puerto Rico have developed a method of pulp
extraction for industrial use. They found that shelling by mechanical means alone is impossible
because of the high pectin and low moisture content of the pulp. Therefore, inspected and washed
pods are passed through a shell-breaking grater, then fed into stainless steel tanks equipped with
agitators. Water is added at the ratio of 1:1 1/2 or 1:2 pulp/water, and the fruits are agitated for 5 to
7 minutes. The resulting mash is then passed through a screen while nylon brushes separate the
shells and seeds. Next the pulp is paddled through a finer screen, pasteurized, and canned.
Young leaves and very young seedlings and flowers are cooked and eaten as greens and in curries
in India. In Zimbabwe, the leaves are added to soup and the flowers are an ingredient in salads.
Tamarind seeds have been used in a limited way as emergency food. They are roasted, soaked to
remove the seedcoat, then boiled or fried, or ground to a flour or starch. Roasted seeds are ground
and used as a substitute for, or adulterant of, coffee. In Thailand they are sold for this purpose. In
the past, the great bulk of seeds available as a by-product of processing tamarinds, has gone to
waste. In 1942, two Indian scientists, T. P. Ghose and S. Krishna, announced that the decorticated
kernels contained 46 to 48% of a gel-forming substance. Dr. G. R. Savur of the Pectin
Manufacturing Company, Bombay, patented a process for the production of a purified product,
called "Jellose", "polyose", or "pectin", which has been found superior to fruit pectin in the
manufacture of jellies, jams, and marmalades. It can be used in fruit preserving with or without
acids and gelatinizes with sugar concentrates even in cold water or milk. It is recommended as a
stabilizer in ice cream, mayonnaise and cheese and as an ingredient or agent in a number of
pharmaceutical products.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Invert Sugars
(70% glucose; 30% fructose)
Ash
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Pulp (ripe) *
115
28.2-52 g
3.10 g
0.1 g
5.6 g
67.4 g
30-41 g
Leaves (young) Flowers

70.5 g
5.8 g
2.1 g
1.9 g
18.2 g
80 g
0.45 g
1.54 g
1.5 g
2.9 g
35-170 mg
1.5 g
101 mg
71 mg
140 mg
0.72 g
35.5 mg
54-110 mg
45.6 mg
Tamarind
Iron
Copper
Chlorine
Sulfur
Sodium
Potassium
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Oxalic Acid
1.3-10.9 mg 5.2 mg
2.09 mg
94 mg
63 mg
24 mg
375 mg
15 I.U.
250 mcg
0.16 mg
0.24 mg
0.07 mg
0.17 mg
0.6-0.7 mg 4.1 mg
0.7-3.0 mg 3.0 mg
196 mg
Tartaric Acid
Oxalic Acid
8-23.8 mg
trace only
1.5 mg
0.31 mg
0.072 mg
0.148 mg
1.14 mg
13.8 mg
*The pulp is considered a promising source of tartaric acid, alcohol (12% yield) and pectin (2
1/2% yield). The red pulp of some types contains the pigment, chrysanthemin.
Seeds contain approximately 63% starch, 14-18% albuminoids, and 4.5-6.5% of a semi-drying oil.
Food Value
Analyses of the pulp are many and varied. Roughly, they show the pulp to be rich in calcium,
phosphorus, iron, thiamine and riboflavin and a good source of niacin. Ascorbic acid content is
low except in the peel of young green fruits.
Other Uses
Fruit pulp: in West Africa, an infusion of the whole pods is added to the dye when coloring goat
hides. The fruit pulp may be used as a fixative with turmeric or annatto in dyeing and has served to
coagulate rubber latex. The pulp, mixed with sea water, cleans silver, copper and brass.
Leaves: The leaves are eaten by cattle and goats, and furnish fodder for silkwormsAnaphe sp. in
India, Hypsoides vuilletii in West Africa. The fine silk is considered superior for embroidery.
Tamarind leaves and flowers are useful as mordants in dyeing. A yellow dye derived from the
leaves colors wool red and turns indigo-dyed silk to green. Tamarind leaves in boiling water are
employed to bleach the leaves of the buri palm (Corypha elata Roxb.) to prepare them for
hat-making. The foliage is a common mulch for tobacco plantings.
Flowers: The flowers are rated as a good source of nectar for honeybees in South India. The honey
is golden-yellow and slightly acid in flavor.
Seeds: The powder made from tamarind kernels has been adopted by the Indian textile industry as
300% more efficient and more economical than cornstarch for sizing and finishing cotton, jute and
Tamarind
spun viscose, as well as having other technical advantages. It is commonly used for dressing
homemade blankets. Other industrial uses include employment in color printing of textiles, paper
sizing, leather treating, the manufacture of a structural plastic, a glue for wood, a stabilizer in
bricks, a binder in sawdust briquettes, and a thickener in some explosives. It is exported to Japan,
the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.
Tamarind seeds yield an amber oil useful as an illuminant and as a varnish especially preferred for
painting dolls and idols. The oil is said to be palatable and of culinary quality. The tannin-rich
seedcoat (testa) is under investigation as having some utility as an adhesive for plywoods and in
dyeing and tanning, though it is of inferior quality and gives a red hue to leather.
Wood: The sapwood of the tamarind tree is pale-yellow. The heartwood is rather small, dark
purplish-brown, very hard, heavy, strong, durable and insect-resistant. It bends well and takes a
good polish and, while hard to work, it is highly prized for furniture, panelling, wheels, axles,
gears for mills, ploughs, planking for sides of boats, wells, mallets, knife and tool handles, rice
pounders, mortars and pestles. It has at times been sold as "Madeira mahogany". Wide boards are
rare, despite the trunk dimensions of old trees, since they tend to become hollow-centered. The
wood is valued for fuel, especially for brick kilns, for it gives off an intense heat, and it also yields
a charcoal for the manufacture of gun-powder. In Malaysia, even though the trees are seldom
felled, they are frequently topped to obtain firewood. The wood ashes are employed in tanning and
in de-hairing goatskins. Young stems and also slender roots of the tamarind tree are fashioned into
walking-sticks.
Twigs and barks: Tamarind twigs are sometimes used as "chewsticks" and the bark of the tree as
a masticatory, alone or in place of lime with betelnut. The bark contains up to 7% tannin and is
often employed in tanning hides and in dyeing, and is burned to make an ink. Bark from young
trees yields a low-quality fiber used for twine and string. Galls on the young branches are used in
tanning.
Lac: The tamarind tree is a host for the lac insect, Kerria lacca, that deposits a resin on the twigs.
The lac may be harvested and sold as stick-lac for the production of lacquers and varnish. If it is
not seen as a useful byproduct, tamarind growers trim off the resinous twigs and discard them.
Medicinal Uses:Medicinal uses of the tamarind are uncountable. The pulp has been official in the
British and American and most other pharmacopoeias and some 200,000 lbs (90,000 kg) of the
shelled fruits have been annually imported into the United States for the drug trade, primarily from
the Lesser Antilles and Mexico. The European supply has come largely from Calcutta, Egypt and
the Greater Antilles. Tamarind preparations are universally recognized as refrigerants in fevers and
as laxatives and carminatives. Alone, or in combination with lime juice, honey, milk, dates, spices
or camphor, the pulp is considered effective as a digestive, even for elephants, and as a remedy for
biliousness and bile disorders, and as an antiscorbutic. In native practice, the pulp is applied on
inflammations, is used in a gargle for sore throat and, mixed with salt, as a liniment for
rheumatism. It is, further, administered to alleviate sunstroke, Datura poisoning, and alcoholic
intoxication. In Southeast Asia, the fruit is prescribed to counteract the ill effects of overdoses of
false chaulmoogra, Hydnocarpus anthelmintica Pierre, given in leprosy. The pulp is said to aid the
restoration of sensation in cases of paralysis. In Colombia, an ointment made of tamarind pulp,
butter, and other ingredients is used to rid domestic animals of vermin.
Tamarind
Tamarind leaves and flowers, dried or boiled, are used as poultices for swollen joints, sprains and
boils. Lotions and extracts made from them are used in treating conjunctivitis, as antiseptics, as
vermifuges, treatments for dysentery, jaundice, erysipelas and hemorrhoids and various other
ailments. The fruit shells are burned and reduced to an alkaline ash which enters into medicinal
formulas. The bark of the tree is regarded as an effective astringent, tonic and febrifuge. Fried with
salt and pulverized to an ash, it is given as a remedy for indigestion and colic. A decoction is used
in cases of gingivitis and asthma and eye inflammations; and lotions and poultices made from the
bark are applied on open sores and caterpillar rashes. The powdered seeds are made into a paste for
drawing boils and, with or without cumin seeds and palm sugar, are prescribed for chronic diarrhea
and dysentery. The seedcoat, too, is astringent, and it, also, is specified for the latter disorders. An
infusion of the roots is believed to have curative value in chest complaints and is an ingredient in
prescriptions for leprosy.
The leaves and roots contain the glycosides: vitexin, isovitexin, orientin and isoorientin. The bark
yields the alkaloid, hordenine.
Superstitions
Few plants will survive beneath a tamarind tree and there is a superstition that it is harmful to sleep
or to tie a horse beneath one, probably because of the corrosive effect that fallen leaves have on
fabrics in damp weather. Some African tribes venerate the tamarind tree as sacred. To certain
Burmese, the tree represents the dwelling-place of the rain god and some hold the belief that the
tree raises the temperature in its immediate vicinity. Hindus may marry a tamarind tree to a mango
tree before eating the fruits of the latter. In Nyasaland, tamarind bark soaked with corn is given to
domestic fowl in the belief that, if they stray or are stolen, it will cause them to return home. In
Malaya, a little tamarind and coconut milk is placed in the mouth of an infant at birth, and the bark
and fruit are given to elephants to make them wise.
Carob

Morton, J. 1987. Carob. p. 6569. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Carob
Ceratonia siliqua
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Non-fleshy and bean-like, the carob would not be generally regarded as a fruit, in the food-use
sense, except for its sweetness. To many people it is familiar only by name as "St. John's Bread",
in allusion to the "locusts" which, according to the Bible, sustained St. John the Baptist in the
desert, and the "husks" which tempted the hungry Prodigal Son, though "no man gave unto him."
The word "locust" was originally applied to the carob tree; later to migratory and other
grasshoppers; and the name is attached to a number of other leguminous trees with pinnate leaves
and oblong pods (Gleditsia, Hymenaea, Parkia, Robinia). The carob tree is called carrubo in
Sicily, carrubio in Italy, algarrobo in Guatemala, alfarrobeira in Brazil.
Description
The tree reaches 50 to 55 ft (15-17 m) in height and at an age of 18 years may have a trunk 33 in
(85 cm) in circumference. The evergreen leaves are pinnate with 6 to 10 opposite leaflets, oval,
rounded at the apex, dark-green, leathery, 1 to 2 1/2 in (2.5-6.25 cm) long. The tiny red flowers are
in short, slender racernes borne in clusters along the branchesmale, female or hermaphrodite on
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/carob.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:34:27 PM]
Carob
separate trees. The pod is light- to

dark-brown, oblong, flattened, straight or
slightly curved, with a thickened margin; 4
to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, 3/4 to 1 in (1-2.5
cm) wide, glossy, tough and fibrous. It is
filled with soft, semi-translucent,
pale-brown pulp, scant or plentiful, and 10
to 13 flattened, very hard seeds which are
loose in their cells and rattle when the pod
is fully ripe and dry. The unripe pod is
green, moist and very astringent; the ripe
pod sweet when chewed (avoiding the
seeds) but the odor of the broken pod is
faintly like Limburger cheese because of its
1.3% isobutyric acid content.
Alphonse de Candolle said that the carob
"grew wild in the Levant, probably on the
southern coast of Anatolia and in Syria,
perhaps also in Cyrenaica. Its cultivation
Fig. 34: A rarity in southern Florida, this carob tree on the
began within historic time. The Greeks
campus of the University of Miami was 15 years old when
diffused it in Greece and Italy, but it was
photographed in 1954. It is still bearing small fruits every
afterwards more highly esteemed by the
year without cross-pollination.
Arabs, who propagated it as far as Morocco
and Spain. In all these countries the tree has become naturalized here and there in a less productive
form . . . ".
In Spain and Portugal it survives only on their Atlantic coasts. Throughout the Mediterranean
region, it is grown only in the warmest areas near the coast, and the neighboring islandsCyprus,
Crete, Sicily, Sardinia and Majorca. Producers in the Bari region of Italy on the Adriatic coast
have long exported the pods to Russia and central Europe. Prince Belmonte in the Province of
Salerno, Italy, was a leading influence in the 19th century in the use of the carob as an ornamental
and avenue tree and in the planting of thousands for reforestation of the slopes of the Appenines.
Spanish missionaries introduced the carob into Mexico and southern California. In 1856, 8,000
seedlings, from seed brought in from Spain by the United States Patent Office, were distributed in
the southern states. More seeds came from Israel in 1859. Many carobs were planted in Texas,
Arizona, California and a few in Florida as ornamental and street trees. Seeds privately imported
from Dalmatia were planted in California in 1873.
In the Mediterranean region, peasants have virtually lived on the pods in times of famine, but the
tree is valued mostly as providing great amounts of pods as feed for livestock, as it is also in the
State of Campinas, Brazil. Imported pods used to be regularly sold by street vendors in the Italian
section of lower New York City for chewing. In the early 1920's, there was much promotion of
carob culture in California, especially allied with the development of arid lands, and there was a
Carob
flurry of activity in producing "health food" products from imported pods. Some of these products
are still sold today, especially as substitutes for chocolate. Dr. J. Eliot Coit, of Vista, California,
led in the study of the carob and wrote extensively on its potential improvement as a crop and its
utilization.
In 1949, Dr. Walter Rittenhouse provided funds for the establishment of a 30-year test plot in
northern San Diego County, where 400 local nursery seedlings and many trees grafted with
Mediterranean budwood were planted and evaluated. Fruits from several thousand ornamental
carob trees in California and Arizona were collected in an effort to identify superior types for
human food use. Budwood of the most promising clones was supplied to horticulturists in Tunisia,
Israel, Australia, South Africa, Hawaii, Mexico, Brazil and Chile.
Varieties
From more than 80 clones, 7 selections made by Coit were set out at the Citrus Research Center of
the University of California for preservation. The 7 are, briefly:
'Amele'-an old commercial variety from Italy; S.P.I. #19437. Female. Pods light-brown, straight
or slightly curved, 5 1/2 to 6 1/4 in (14-16 cm) long, 3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) wide; 53.8% sugar
content under irrigation near Indio. Flavor good. Season: September at Indio; October at Vista.
'Casuda'-a very old cultivar from Spain. Female. Pod brown, mostly straight; 4 3/4 in (12 cm)
long; 3/5 in (1.5 cm) wide; 51.7 % sugar at Vista; 56.7 % under irrigation at Indio. Flavor fair.
Season: September at Indio; October at Vista.
'Clifford'-seedling street tree in Riverside. Hermaphrodite. Pod light-brown, slightly curved, 5 1/8
in (13 cm) long, 3/4 in (2 cm) wide; 52.9% sugar content. Flavor fair. Season: early October; bears
regularly and heavily.
'Sfax'-from Menzel bou Zelfa, Tunisia; S.P.I. #187063. Female. Pod red-brown, straight or
slightly curved; 6 in (15 cm) long, 3/4 in (2 cm) wide; 56.6% sugar at Vista, 45.6% at Indio.
Excellent flavor. Season: August at Indio, September at Vista. A regular, medium-heavy bearer.
'Santa Fe'-seedling from Santa Fe Springs, California. Hermaphrodite; self-fertile. Pod
light-brown, slightly curved, often twisted; 7 to 7 7/8 in (18-20 cm) long, 3/4 in (2 cm) wide;
47.5% sugar at Vista. Excellent flavor. Season: October. Bears regular, good crops. Good for
coastal foothills. Not suited to irrigated culture at Indio.
'Tantillo'-from Sicily; S.P.I. #233580. Hermaphrodite. Pod dark-brown, mostly straight; 5 1/8 to 6
in (13-15 cm) long, 3/4 in (2 cm) wide. Of fair flavor. Season: mid-September to mid-October.
Bears heavily and regularly.
'Tylliria'-from Cyprus; their chief export variety; S.P.I. # 189008. Female. Pod dark
mahogany-brown, slightly curved, 6 in (15 cm) long, 3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) wide; 47.4% sugar at
Vista; 50.9% at Indio; 48.8% in Cyprus. Good flavor. Season: mid-August to mid-September at
Indio; October at Vista. Adapted to coastal foothills. (As reported from Cyprus, seed content is 7.6
to 10.6%; pod contains 51 % sugar and the seeds 49% gum).
These 7 superseded some older cultivars, including 'Bolser', 'Conejo', 'Gabriel', 'Horne', and
'Molino'; all hermaphroditic.
Carob
Other common cultivars in Cyprus are:

'Koundourka'-a tree with weeping branches; mature pods generally less than 6 1/2 in (17 cm)
long; they split readily; have 14.7% seeds with a high (58%) gum content.
'Koumbota'-a large-growing tree with "knotty" pods with low seed content. Pods contain 53%
sugar; seeds, 53% gum.
Grafted types are classed as 'Imera'. The name 'Apostolika' is a general term for seedlings of fair
quality. Wild types as a group are called 'Agria'.
Pollination
In a planting of female trees, one male should be included for every 25 or 30 females. In southern
Europe, branches from male trees are grafted onto some of the females in an orchard instead of
interplanting male trees.
Climate
The carob is slightly hardier than the sweet orange. Young trees suffer frost damage. Mature tees
can endure a temperature drop to 20 F (-6.67 C). Frost during the blooming period will reduce or
prevent fruit-set. The tree does best in a Mediterranean-type climate with cool, not cold, winters,
mild to warm springs, and warm to hot summers with little or no rain. Temperatures in
carob-growing regions of Israel may reach 104 to 122 F (40-50 C) in summer. Ideal annual
precipitation is 30 in (75 cm), but widely spaced trees will thrive with only 6 to 15 in (15-37.5 cm)
without irrigation in mild climates. The pods should not be exposed to rain or heavy dew after they
have turned brown and developed a high sugar content. Wet pods ferment quickly.
Soil
The tree flourishes in widely divergent soils, from rocky hillsides to deep sand or heavy loam, but
must have good drainage. In Nicosia, Cyprus, a large plantation was developed by dynamiting
planting holes in caprock underlaid with limestone (pH 9). The carob is not tolerant of acid or wet
soils; it is extremely drought-tolerant.
Propagation
Fresh seeds germinate quickly and may be sown directly in the field. Dried, hard seeds need to be
scarified or chipped and then soaked in water or dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acid solutions until
they swell. In Cyprus, seeds are planted in sand and kept wet for 6 weeks or more, periodically
sifting out those that have swollen to 3 times normal size. Germination rate may be only 25%. The
swollen seeds are traditionally planted in flats and when they produce the second set of leaves they
are transferred to small pots. When 12 in (30 cm) tall, they are transplanted to large containers or
nursery rows. A recently developed technique is to plant the seeds in 2 halves of clay drainpipes
bound together or in plastic tubes packed in deep wooden boxes to accommodate the long taproot.
In perhaps a year, the tubes are split and the seedlings are planted in the field in holes made with a
post-hole digger. Budding is done when the stem is at least 3/8 in (1 cm) thick.
The shield-budding system is employed, or sometimes a blend of budding and grafting, in
February and March in Cyprus, in April, May and June in California and Mexico. Male trees or
Carob
those that bear poorly are top-worked to productive cultivars.

Culture
The carob grows slowly during the first year. Stem-elongation in young plants has been expedited
by application of gibberellin (50 mg/liter monthly, or 25 mg/liter semi-monthly) for 5 months. It is
necessary to cut back the taproot 6 months before transferring to the field if the plant is not grown
by the tube/post-hole method. Large trees cannot be successfully transplanted.
A good spacing is 30 ft (9 in) apart each way. Most carob growers consider fertilizing
unnecessary but the government of Cyprus subsidizes fertilizationso much per tree. Irrigation
must be provided in very dry seasons if the tree is grown for its fruits. Budded trees begin to bear
in the 6th year from planting. A carob tree may remain productive for 80 to 100 years.
Harvesting
The pods must be harvested before winter rains. They are shaken down by means of a long pole
with a terminal hook to grasp the branches. Those that don't fall readily are knocked off with the
pole. The pods are caught on canvas sheets laid on the ground. Then they are sun-dried for 1 or 2
days until the moisture content is reduced to 8% or below and then go through a kibbling
processcrushing and grading into 4 categories: cubed, medium-kibbled, meal, and seed kernels.
Yield
At 6 years of age, a budded tree in California should yield about 5 lbs (2.25 kg). At 12 years, the
crop should be 100 lbs (45 kg). Productivity increases steadily up to 25 or 30 years when the yield
may average 200 lbs (90 kg). In Israel individual trees have produced 450 to 550 lbs (204-227 kg)
18 years after grafting. Some ancient trees in the Mediterranean area are reported to have borne
3,000 lbs (1,360 kg) in a season.
Pests and Diseases
In the Mediterranean area, the major pest is the carob moth, Myelois ceratoniae. It lays eggs on the
flowers or newly-formed pods and the larvae bore into the pods and ruin them. The larvae of a
midge, Asphondylia gennadii, cause stunting of the pods. Some of the best cultivars are resistant to
these pests.
In Cyprus, the tree is subject to several scale insects: Aspidiotus ceratoniae, Lecanium sp.,
Lepidosaphes sp. and the red scale, Aonidiella aurantii. A beetle, Cerambyx velutinus, may bore
holes in the trunk. Rats climb the trees, hide among the branches, gnaw the bark until the branches
die. Such branches are pruned out twice a year. The only pests reported as attacking carob trees in
California are scale insects, including the red scale. Ground squirrels feed on plants under 2 years
of age. Pocket gophers are very fond of carob roots, and rabbits and deer graze on the young trees.
Diseases are few. In Cyprus, deformation of young pods may be caused by the fungus Oidium
ceratoniae. Cercospora ceratoniae occasionally induces leaf-spotting.
Food Uses
Apart from being chewed as a sweetmeat, carob pods are processed to a cocoa -like flour which is
added to cold or heated milk for drinking. It has been combined with wheat flour in making bread
Carob
or pancakes. A flour made by beating the

seeded pods is high in fiber and has been
utilized in breakfast foods. The finer flour is
also made into confections, especially candy
bars. The pods, coarsely ground and boiled
in water yield a thick, honey-like sirup, or
molasses.
The seeds constitute 10 to 20% of the pod.
They yield a tragacanth-like gum
(manogalactan), called in the trade
"Tragasol", which is an important
commercial stabilizer and thickener in
bakery goods, ice cream, salad dressings,
sauces, cheese, salami, bologna, canned
meats and fish, jelly, mustard, and other
food products. The seed residue after gum
extraction can be made into a starch- and
sugar-free flour of 60% protein content for
diabetics.
Plate XV: CAROB, Ceratonia siliqua
In Germany, the roasted seeds have served

as a substitute for coffee. In Spain, they have been mixed with coffee.
It has been demonstrated that the extracted sugars of the pod (sucrose, glucose, fructose and
maltose in the ratio 5:1:1:0:7) can be utilized to produce fungal protein. Infusions of the pulp are
fermented into alcoholic beverages.
Food Value Per 100 g of Carob Flour
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates*
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
180
11.2 g
4.5 g
1.4 g
80.7 g
7.7 g
2.2 g
352 mg
81 mg
*Sugar content may be as high as 72%.

The pods contain up to 1.5% tannins which interfere with the body's utilization of protein.
Other Uses
Pods: The pods are relished by horses, cattle, pigs, goats and rabbits. Whole pods are broken up in
Carob
a hammermill in order to crush the seeds as well. Because of the tannin content, carob pods should
constitute no more than 10% of total feed, other-wise they will depress growth rate. They cannot
be fed to chickens. The flour is often utilized in dog biscuits. Great quantities of pods have been
imported into the United States for flavoring uncured tobacco.
Seeds: The seed gum is much employed in the manufacture of cosmetics, pharmaceutical
products, detergents, paint, ink, shoe polish, adhesives, sizing for textiles, photographic paper,
insecticides and match heads. It is also utilized in tanning. Where rubber latex is produced, the
gum is added to cause the solids to rise to the surface. It is also used for bonding paper pulp and
thickening silkscreen pastes, and some derivatives are added to drilling mud. It has many other
actual or potential applications. A flour made from the seeds serves as cattle feed.
Wood: The heartwood is hard and close-grained. It is prized for turnery and cabinetwork. As a
fuel it burns slowly and makes excellent charcoal. It yields algarrobin, which gives textiles a
light-brown hue.
Carambola

Morton, J. 1987. Carambola. p. 125128. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Carambola
Averrhoa carambola
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
A curious, attractive fruit of the Oxalidaceae, the carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., has traveled
sufficiently to have acquired a number of regional names in addition to the popular Spanish
appelation which belies its Far Eastern origin. In the Orient, it is usually called balimbing,
belimbing, or belimbing manis ("sweet belimbing"), to distinguish it from the bilimbi or belimbing
asam, A. bilimbi L. In Ceylon and India, the carambola has the alternate names of kamaranga,
kamruk, or other variants of the native kamrakh. In Vietnam, it is called khe, khe ta, or similar
terms; in Kampuchea, spu; in Laos, nak fuang, or the French name, carambolier; in Thailand, ma
fueang. Malayans may refer to it as belimbing batu, belimbing besi, belimbing pessegi, belimbing
sayur, belimbing saji, kambola, caramba, or as "star fruit". Australians use the descriptive term,
five corner; in Guam, it is bilimbines; to the Chinese, it is yang-to. Early English travelers called
it Chinese, or Coromandel gooseberry, or cucumber tree. In Guyana, it is five fingers; in the
Dominican Republic, it is vinagrillo; in Haiti, zibline; in some of the French Antilles, cornichon;
in El Salvador, pepino de la India; in Surinam, blimbing legi or fransman-birambi; Costa Rica,
tiriguro; in Brazil, camerunga or caramboleiro, or limas de Cayena; in Mexico, carambolera or
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/carambola.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:34:29 PM]
Carambola
caramboler or rbol de pepino; in Trinidad, it may be called coolie tamarind. Venezuelans call it
tamarindo chino or tamarindo dulce.
Description
The carambola tree is slow-growing,
short-trunked with a much-branched, bushy,
broad, rounded crown and reaches 20 to 30
ft (6-9 m) in height. Its deciduous leaves,
spirally arranged, are alternate,
imparipinnate, 6 to 10 in(15-20 cm) long,
with 5 to 11 nearly opposite leaflets, ovate
or ovate-oblong, 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 in (3.8-9 cm)
long; soft, medium-green, and smooth on
the upper surface, finely hairy and whitish
on the underside. The leaflets are sensitive
to light and more or less inclined to fold
together at night or when the tree is shaken
or abruptly shocked. Small clusters of
red-stalked, lilac, purple-streaked, downy
flowers, about 1/4 in (6 mm) wide, are
borne on the twigs in the axils of the leaves.
The showy, oblong, longitudinally 5- to
Plate XVI: CARAMBOLA, Averrhoa carambola
6-angled fruits, 2 1/2 to 6 in (6.35-15 cm)
long and up to 3 1/2 (9 cm) wide, have thin, waxy, orange-yellow skin and juicy, crisp, yellow
flesh when fully ripe. Slices cut in cross-section have the form of a star. The fruit has a more or
less pronounced oxalic acid odor and the flavor ranges from very sour to mildly sweetish. The
so-called "sweet" types rarely contain more than 4% sugar. There may be up to 12 flat, thin, brown
seeds 1/4 to 1/2 in (6-12.5 mm) long or none at all.
The carambola is believed to have originated in Ceylon and the Moluccas but it has been
cultivated in southeast Asia and Malaysia for many centuries. It is commonly grown in the
provinces of Fukien, Kuangtung and Kuangsi in southern China, in Taiwan and India. It is rather
popular in the Philippines and Queensland, Australia, and moderately so in some of the South
Pacific islands, particularly Tahiti, New Caledonia and Netherlands New Guinea, and in Guam and
Hawaii.
There are some specimens of the tree in special collections in the Caribbean islands, Central
America, tropical South America, and also in West Tropical Africa and Zanzibar. Several trees
have been growing since 1935 at the Rehovoth Research Station in Israel. In many areas, it is
grown more as an ornamental than for its fruits.
It was introduced into southern Florida before 1887 and was viewed mainly as a curiosity until
recent years when some small groves have been established and the fruits have been used as
"conversation pieces" to decorate gift shipments of citrus fruits, and also, in clear-plastic-wrapped
trays, have been appearing in the produce sections of some supermarkets. One fruit-grower and
Carambola
shipper now has 50 acres (20 ha) planted but suggests that other prospective growers be cautious
as the market may remain limited. Shipments go mainly to Vancouver, Quebec, Cleveland, and
Disneyworld. Small amounts are sold locally.
Varieties
There are 2 distinct classes of carambolathe smaller, very sour type, richly flavored, with more
oxalic acid; the larger, so-called "sweet" type, mild-flavored, rather bland, with less oxalic acid.
In 1935, seeds from Hawaii were planted at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and
Education Center in Homestead. A selection from the resulting seedlings was vegetatively
propagated during the 1940's and 1950's and, in late 1965, was officially released under the name
'Golden Star' and distributed to growers. The fruit is large, deeply winged, decorative, and mildly
subacid to sweet. Furthermore, this cultivar shows the least minor-element deficiency in alkaline
soil, and even isolated trees bear well and regularly without cross-pollination.
Several cultivars from Taiwan are being grown at the United States Department of Agriculture's
Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit in Miami, including 'Mih Tao' (P. I. No. 272065)
introduced in 1963, also 'Dah Pon' and 'Tean Ma' and others identified only by numbers, and
Fwang Tung' brought from Thailand by Dr. R J. Knight in 1973. There are certain "lines" of
carambola, such as 'Newcomb', 'Thayer' and 'Arkin' being grown commercially in southern
Florida. Some cultivars and seedlings bear flowers with short styles, others only flowers with long
styles, a factor which affects self- and cross-pollination.
Climate
The carambola should be classed as tropical and sub-tropical because mature trees can tolerate
freezing temperatures for short periods and sustain little damage at 27 F (-2.78 C). In Florida, the
tree survives in sheltered sites as far north as St. Petersburg on the west coast and Daytona Beach
on the east. It thrives up to an elevation of 4,000 ft (1,200 m) in India. In an interior valley of
Israel, all trees succumbed to the prevailing hot, dry winds. The carambola needs moisture for best
performance and ideally rainfall should be fairly evenly distributed all year. In Australia, it is
claimed that fruit quality and flavor are best where annual rainfall is 70 in (180 cm) or somewhat
more.
Soil
Not too particular as to soil, the carambola does well on sand, heavy clay or limestone, but will
grow faster and bear more heavily in rich loam. It is often chlorotic on limestone. It needs good
drainage; cannot stand flooding.
Propagation
The carambola is widely grown from seed though viability lasts only a few days. Only plump,
fully developed seeds should be planted. In damp peat moss, they will germinate in one week in
summer, require 14 to 18 days in winter. The seedlings are transplanted to containers of light
sandy loam and held until time to set out. They are very tender and need good care. Seedlings are
highly variable. Air-layering has been practiced and advocated. However, root formation is slow
and later performance is not wholly satisfactory. Inarching is successful in India, shield-budding in
Carambola
the Philippines and the Forkert method in Java. Trees can be top-worked by bark-grafting, a
popular technique in Java. For mass production, side-veneer grafting of mature, purplish wood,
onto carambola seedlings gives best results for most workers. The rootstocks should be at least 1
year old and 3/8 to 5/7 in (1-1.5 cm) thick. One Florida farmer prefers cleft-grafting of green
budwood and has 90% success. Grafted trees will fruit in 10 months from the time of planting out.
Mature trees can be top-worked by bark-grafting.
Culture
The tree needs full sun. A spacing of 20 ft (6 m) has been advocated but if the trees are on good
soil no less than 30 ft (9 m) should be considered. At the Research Center in Homestead, trees 8 to
10 ft (2.4-3 m) high respond well to 1 lb (0.5 kg) applications of N, P, K, Mg in the ratio of
6-6-6-3 given 3 to 4 times per year. If chlorosis occurs, it can be corrected by added iron, zinc and
manganese. Some advisers recommend minor-element spraying 4 times during the year if the trees
are on limestone soils. Moderate irrigation is highly desirable during dry seasons. Heavy rains
during blooming season interfere with pollination and fruit production. Interplanting of different
strains is usually necessary to provide cross-pollination and obtain the highest yields.
In India, carambolas are available in September and October and again in December and January.
In Malaya, they are produced all the year. In Florida, scattered fruits are found through the year but
the main crop usually matures from late summer to early winter. Some trees have fruited heavily in
November and December, and again in March and April. There may even be three crops. Weather
conditions account for much of the seasonal variability.
The fruits naturally fall to the ground when fully ripe. For marketing and shipping they should be
hand-picked while pale-green with just a touch of yellow.
Trees that receive adequate horticultural attention have yielded 100 to 250 or even 300 lbs
(45-113-136 kg) of fruit.
Keeping Quality
Carambolas have been shipped successfully without refrigeration from Florida to northern cities in
avocado lugs lined and topped with excelsior. The fruits are packed solidly, stem-end down, at a
45 angle, the flanges of one fruit fitting into the "V" grooves of another. Of course, they cannot
endure rough handling.
In storage trials at Winter Haven, Florida, carambolas picked when showing the first signs of
yellowing kept in good condition for 4 weeks at 50 F (10 C); 3 weeks at 60 F (15.56 C); 2
weeks at 70 F (21.1 C). Waxing extends storage life and preserves the vitamin value.
Pests and Diseases
The carambola is relatively pest-free except for fruit flies. In Malaya, fruit flies (especially Dacus
dorsalis) are so troublesome on carambolas that growers have to wrap the fruits on the tree with
paper. Experimental trapping, with methyl eugenol as an attractant, has reduced fruit damage by
20%. In Florida, a small stinkbug causes superficial blemishes and a black beetle attacks overripe
fruits. Reniform nematodes may cause tree decline.
Carambola
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides may be a problem in Florida, and leaf spot
may arise from attack by Phomopsis sp., Phyllosticta sp. or Cercospora averrhoae. Cercospora
leaf spot is reported also from Malaya, Ceylon, China and may occur in the Philippines as well. A
substance resembling sooty mold makes many fruits unmarketable in summer.
Food Uses
Ripe carambolas are eaten out-of-hand, sliced and served in salads, or used as garnish on avocado
or seafood. They are also cooked in puddings, tarts, stews and curries. In Malaya, they are often
stewed with sugar and cloves, alone or combined with apples. The Chinese cook carambolas with
fish. Thais boil the sliced green fruit with shrimp. Slightly underripe fruits are salted, pickled or
made into jam or other preserves. In mainland China and in Taiwan, carambolas are sliced
lengthwise and canned in sirup for export. In Queensland, the sweeter type is cooked green as a
vegetable. Cross-sections may be covered with honey, allowed to stand overnight, and then cooked
briefly and, put into sterilized jars. Some cooks add raisins to give the product more character. A
relish may be made of chopped unripe fruits combined with horseradish, celery, vinegar,
seasonings and spices. Indian experimenters boiled horizontal slices with 3/4 of their weight in
sugar until very thick, with a Brix of 68. They found that the skin became very tough, the flavor
was not distinctive, and the jam was rated as only fair. Sour fruits, pricked to permit absorption of
sugar and cooked in sirup, at first 33 Brix, later 72, made an acceptable candied product though
the skin was still tough. The ripe fruits are sometimes dried in Jamaica.
Carambola juice is served as a cooling beverage. In Hawaii, the juice of sour fruits is mixed with
gelatin, sugar, lemon juice and boiling water to make sherbet. Filipinos often use the juice as a
seasoning. The juice is bottled in India, either with added citric acid (1% by weight) and 0.05 %
potassium metabisulphite, or merely sterilizing the filled bottles for 1/2 hr in boiling water.
To make jelly, it is necessary to use unripe "sweet" types or ripe sour types and to add commercial
pectin or some other fruit rich in pectin such as green papaya, together with lemon or lime juice.
The flowers are acid and are added to salads in Java; also, they are made into preserves in India.
The leaves have been eaten as a substitute for sorrel.
Food Value
Ripening and storage studies were conducted at the Florida Citrus Experiment Station at Lake
Alfred in 1966. They found quite a difference in the acid make-up of mature green and mature
yellow carambolas. Fresh mature green fruits of 'Golden Star' were found to have a total acid
content of 12.51 mg/g consisting of 5 mg oxalic, 4.37 tartaric, 1.32 citric, 1.21 malic, 0.39
-ketoglutaric, 0.22 succinic, and a trace of fumaric. Mature yellow fruits had a total acid content
of 13 mg/g, made up of 9.58 mg oxalic, 0.91 tartaric, 2.20 -ketoglutaric, 0.31 fumaric.
In 1975, 16 carambola selections and 2 named cultivars were assayed at the United States Citrus
and Subtropical Products Laboratory, Winter Haven, Florida. Preliminary taste tests ranked 'No.
17, 'No. 37', 'No. 42' and 'Tean Ma' as preferred. In a later test, 'Dah Pon' was ranked above 'Tean
Ma'. 'No. 17' ( Brix 9.9) was described as "sweet, good and apple-like". 'No. 37' ( Brix 6.7), as
"sour and sweet". 'No. 42' ( Brix 8.3), as "sour, tart and apple-like". 'Dah Pon' ( Brix 8.0), as
"good and mild". 'Tean Ma ( Brix 7.2), as "sweet, good and mild". Analyses showed that these 5
Carambola
were among those with relatively high ascorbic acid content'No. 17, 30 mg; 'Dah Pon', 30 mg;
'No. 37', 37 mg; 'No. 42', 37 mg; and 'Tean Ma', 41 mg. 'No. 40' had 43 mg and 'No. 11', 50 mg,
whereas 'M-23007' had only 14 mg and 'No. 10' only 17 mg.
Oxalic acid content of the 18 selections and cultivars ranged from 0.039 mg to 0.679 mg and 4 of
the preferred carambolas were in the lower range as follows: 'No. 17', 0.167; 'Dah Pon', 0.184;
'Tean Ma', 0.202; 'No. 42', 0.276 mg, but 'No. 37', with 0.461 was 3rd from the highest of all.
Puerto Rican technologists found the oxalic acid content of ripe carambolas to average 0.5 g per
100 ml of juice, the acid being mostly in the free state. They likened the juice to rhubarb juice and
advised that physicians be informed of this because there are individuals who may be adversely
affected by ingestion of even small amounts of oxalic acid or oxalates. Other investigators have
presumed the oxalic acid in fully ripe carambolas to be precipitated as calcium oxalate or in
solution as neutral salts. The health risk needs further study.
Calories
35.7
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid*
89.0-91.0 g
0.38 g
0.08 g
9.38 g
0.80-0.90 g
0.26-0.40 g
4.4-6.O mg
15.5-21.0 mg
0.32-1.65 mg
0.003-0.552 mg
0.03-0.038 mg
0.019-0.03 mg
0.294-0.38 mg
26.0-53.1 mg
* According to analyses made in Cuba and Honduras.

Amino Acids: (shown in Cuban analyses)
Tryptophan 3.0 mg
Methionine 2 mg
Lysine
26 mg
Other amino acids reported by the Florida Citrus Experiment Station at Lake Alfred and expressed
Carambola
in micromoles per g in mature green fruits (higher) and mature yellow fruits (lower), respectively,
are:
Asparagine
Threonine
Serine
Glutamic Acid
Proline
Glycine
Alanine
Valine
Isoleucine
Leucine
0.82-0.64
0.92-0.79
3.88-2.00
2.41-1.80
0.23-0.09
0.20-0.10
5.40-1.26
0.17-0.11
0.03-trace
trace
Phenylalanine
Gamma Amino Bytyric Acid
Ornithine
Histidine
trace
0.77-0.55
0.11-0.13
trace
**Analyses in India showed 10.40 mg ascorbic acid in the juice of a "sweet" variety; 15.4 mg in
juice of a sour variety. Ascorbic acid content of both waxed and unwaxed fruits stored at 50 F
(10 C) has been reported as 20 mg/100 ml of juice. Waxed fruits stored for 17 days at 60 F
(15.56 C) had 11 mg/100 ml of juice. Unwaxed fruits had lost ascorbic acid.
Other Uses
The acid types of carambola have been used to clean and polish metal, especially brass, as they
dissolve tarnish and rust. The juice will also bleach rust stains from white cloth. Unripe fruits are
used in place of a conventional mordant in dyeing.
Wood: Carambola wood is white, becoming reddish with age; close-grained, medium-hard. It has
been utilized for construction and furniture.
Medicinal Uses: In India, the ripe fruit is administered to halt hemorrhages and to relieve bleeding
hemorrhoids; and the dried fruit or the juice may be taken to counteract fevers. A conserve of the
fruit is said to allay biliousness and diarrhea and to relieve a "hangover" from excessive
indulgence in alcohol. A salve made of the fruit is employed to relieve eye afflictions. In Brazil,
the carambola is recommended as a diuretic in kidney and bladder complaints, and is believed to
have a beneficial effect in the treatment of eczema. In Chinese Materia Medica it is stated, "Its
action is to quench thirst, to increase the salivary secretion, and hence to allay fever."
A decoction of combined fruit and leaves is drunk to overcome vomiting. Leaves are bound on the
temples to soothe headache. Crushed leaves and shoots are poulticed on the eruptions of
chicken-pox, also on ringworm.
Carambola
The flowers are given as a vermifuge. In southeast Asia, the flowers are rubbed on the dermatitis
caused by lacquer derived from Rhus verniciflua Stokes.
Burkill says that a preparation of the inner bark, with sandalwood and Alyxia sp., is applied on
prickly heat. The roots, with sugar, are considered an antidote for poison. Hydrocyanic acid has
been detected in the leaves, stems and roots.
A decoction of the crushed seeds acts as a galactagogue and ernmenagogue and is mildly
intoxicating. The powdered seeds serve as a sedative in cases of asthma and colic.
Bilimbi

Morton, J. 1987. Bilimbi. p. 128129 In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Bilimbi
Averrhoa bilimbi
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Season, Harvesting and Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
The bilimbi, Averrhoa bilimbi, L., (Oxalidaceae), is closely allied to the carambola but quite
different in appearance, manner of fruiting, flavor and uses. The only strictly English names are
"cucumber tree" and "tree sorrel", bestowed by the British in colonial times. "Bilimbi" is the
common name in India and has become widely used. In Malaya, it is called belimbing asam,
belimbing buloh, b'ling, or billing-billing. In Indonesia, it is belimbing besu, balimbing, blimbing,
or blimbing wuluh; in Thailand, it is taling pling, or kaling pring.
In Haiti, it is called blimblin; in Jamaica, bimbling plum; in Cuba, it is grosella china; in El
Salvador and Nicaragua, mimbro; in Costa Rica, mimbro or tiriguro; in Venezuela, vinagrillo; in
Surinam and Guyana, birambi; in Argentina, pepino de Indias. To the French it is carambolier
bilimbi, or cornichon des Indes. Filipinos generally call it kamias but there are about a dozen other
native names.
Description
The tree is attractive, long-lived, reaches 16 to 33 ft (5-10 m) in height; has a short trunk soon
dividing into a number of upright branches. The leaves, very similar to those of the Otaheite
gooseberry and mainly clustered at the branch tips, are alternate, imparipirmate; 12 to 24 in (30-60
cm) long, with 11 to 37 alternate or subopposite leaflets, ovate or oblong, with rounded base and
pointed tip; downy; medium-green on the upper surface, pale on the underside; 3/4 to 4 in (2-10
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bilimbi.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:34:32 PM]
Bilimbi
cm) long, 1/2 to 1 1/8 in (1.2-1.25 cm)

wide.
Small, fragrant, 5-petalled flowers,
yellowish-green or purplish marked with
dark-purple, are borne in small, hairy
panicles emerging directly from the trunk
and oldest, thickest branches and some
twigs, as do the clusters of curious fruits.
The bilimbi is ellipsoid, obovoid or nearly
cylindrical, faintly 5-sided, 1 1/2 to 4 in
(4-10 cm) long; capped by a thin,
star-shaped calyx at the stem-end and tipped
with 5 hair-like floral remnants at the apex.
The fruit is crisp when unripe, turns from
bright-green to yellowish-green, ivory or
nearly white when ripe and falls to the
ground. The outer skin is glossy, very thin,
soft and tender, and the flesh green,
jelly-like, juicy and extremely acid. There
Plate XVII: BILIMBI, Averrhoa bilimbi
may be a few (perhaps 6 or 7) flattened,
disc-like seeds about 1/4 in (6 mm) wide,
smooth and brown.
Perhaps a native of the Moluccas, the bilimbi is cultivated throughout Indonesia; is cultivated and
semi-wild everywhere in the Philippines; is much grown in Ceylon and Burma. It is very common
in Thailand, Malaya and Singapore; frequent in gardens across the plains of India, and has run
wild in all the warmest areas of that country. It is much planted in Zanzibar. Introduced into
Queensland about 1896, it was readily adopted and commercially distributed to growers.
In 1793, the bilimbi was carried from the island of Timor to Jamaica and, after some years, was
planted in Cuba and Puerto Rico, Trinidad, the lowlands of Central America, Venezuela,
Colombia, Ecuador, Surinam, Guyana and Brazil, and even in northern Argentina, and it is very
popular among the Asiatic residents of those countries as it must be in Hawaii. Still it is grown
only as an occasional curiosity in southern Florida.
Varieties
Bilimbis are all much the same wherever they are grown, but P.J. Wester reported that a form with
sweet fruits had been discovered in the Philippines.
Climate
The bilimbi is a tropical species, more sensitive to cold than the carambola, especially when very
young. In Florida, it needs protection from cold and wind. Ideally, rainfall should be rather evenly
distributed throughout most of the year but there should be a 2- to 3-month dry season. The bilimbi
is not found in the wettest zones of Malaya. The tree makes slow growth in shady or semi-shady
Bilimbi
situations. It should be in full sun.

Soil
While the bilimbi does best in rich, moist, but well-drained soil, it grows and fruits quite well on
sand or limestone.
Propagation
Most efforts at grafting and budding have not been rewarding, though Wester had success in
shield-budding, utilizing non-petioled, ripe, brown budwood cut 1 1/2 to 2 in (3.8-5 cm) long.
Air-layering has been practiced in Indonesia for many years. However, the tree is more widely
grown from seed.
Bilimbi trees are vigorous and receive no special horticultural attention. It has been suggested that
they would respond well to whatever cultural treatment gives good results with the carambola.
Season, Harvesting and Keeping Quality
In India as in Florida, the tree begins to flower about February and then blooms and fruits more or
less continuously until December. The fruits are picked by hand, singly or in clusters. They need
gentle handling because of the thin skin. They cannot be kept on hand for more than a few days.
Pests and Diseases
No pests or diseases have been reported specifically for the bilimbi.
Food Uses
The bilimbi is generally regarded as too acid for eating raw, but in Costa Rica, the green,
uncooked fruits are prepared as a relish which is served with rice and beans. Sometimes it is an
accompaniment for fish and meat. Ripe fruits are frequently added to curries in the Far East. They
yield 44.2% juice having a pH of 4.47, and the juice is popular for making cooling beverages on
the order of lemonade.
Mainly, the bilimbi is used in place of mango to make chutney, and it is much preserved. To
reduce acidity, it may be first pricked and soaked in water overnight, or soaked in salted water for
a shorter time; then it is boiled with much sugar to make a jam or an acid jelly. The latter, in
Malaya, is added to stewed fruits that are oversweet. Half-ripe fruits are salted, set out in the sun,
and pickled in brine and can be thus kept for 3 months. A quicker pickle is made by putting the
fruits and salt into boiling water. This product can be kept only 4 to 5 days.
The flowers are sometimes preserved with sugar.
Moisture
Protein
Fiber
Ash
94.2-94.7 g
0.61 g
0.6g
0.31-0.40 g
Bilimbi
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
3.4 mg
11.1 mg
1.01 mg
0.035 mg
0.010 mg
0.026 mg
0.302 mg
15.5 mg
*According to analyses of fruits studied in Nicaragua and the Philippines.

Other Uses
Fruit: Very acid bilimbis are employed to clean the blade of a kris (dagger), and they serve as
mordants in the preparation of an orange dye for silk fabrics. Bilimbi juice, because of its oxalic
acid content, is useful for bleaching stains from the hands and rust from white cloth, and also
tarnish from brass.
Wood: The wood is white, soft but tough, even-grained, and weighs 35 lbs/cu ft. It is seldom
available for carpentry.
Medicinal Uses: In the Philippines, the leaves are applied as a paste or poulticed on itches,
swellings of mumps and rheumatism, and on skin eruptions. Elsewhere, they are applied on bites
of poisonous creatures. Malayans take the leaves fresh or fermented as a treatment for venereal
disease. A leaf infusion is a remedy for coughs and is taken after childbirth as a tonic. A leaf
decoction is taken to relieve rectal inflammation. A flower infusion is said to be effective against
coughs and thrush.
In Java, the fruits combined with pepper are eaten to cause sweating when people are feeling
"under the weather". A paste of pickled bilimbis is smeared all over the body to hasten recovery
after a fever. The fruit conserve is administered as a treatment for coughs, beri-beri and
biliousness. A sirup prepared from the fruit is taken as a cure for fever and inflammation and to
stop rectal bleeding and alleviate internal hemorrhoids.
Sour Orange

Morton, J. 1987. Sour Orange. p. 130133. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Sour Orange
Citrus aurantium
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
A species of multiple uses, the sour orange (Citrus aurantium, L.), is also known as bitter,
bigarade, or Seville orange. In Spanish-speaking areas it may be called naranja cida, naranja
agria, or naranja amarga. In Arabia, it is naranji; in Italy, melangolo; in India, khatta; in Samoa,
moli, in Guam, soap orange.
Description
The tree ranges in height from less than 10
ft (3 m) to 30 ft (9 m), is more erect and has
a more compact crown than the sweet
orange; has smooth, brown bark, green
twigs, angular when young, and flexible,
not very sharp, thorns from 1 in to 3 1/8 in
(2.5-8 cm) long. The evergreen leaves
(technically single leaflets of compound
leaves), are aromatic, alternate, on
broad-winged petioles much longer than
those of the sweet orange; usually ovate
with a short point at the apex; 2 1/2 to 5 1/2
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sour_orange.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:34:33 PM]
Sour Orange
in (6.5-13.75 cm) long, 1 1/2 to 4 in

Fig. 35: The sour orange (Citrus aurantium)has a rough, fairly
thick skin, very sour juice.
(3.75-10 cm) wide; minutely toothed;
dark-green above, pale beneath, and dotted with tiny oil glands. The highly fragrant flowers, borne
singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils, are about 1 1/2 in (3.75 cm) wide, with 5 white, slender,
straplike, recurved, widely-separated petals surrounding a tuft of up to 24 yellow stamens. From 5
to 12% of the flowers are male.
The fruit is round, oblate or oblong-oval, 2 3/4 to 3 1/8 in (7-8 cm) wide, rough-surfaced, with a
fairly thick, aromatic, bitter peel becoming bright reddish-orange on maturity and having minute,
sunken oil glands. There are 10 to 12 segments with bitter walls containing strongly acid pulp and
from a few to numerous seeds. The center becomes hollow when the fruit is full-grown.
The sour orange is native to southeastern Asia. Natives of the South Sea Islands, especially Fiji,
Samoa, and Guam, believe the tree to have been brought to their shores in prehistoric times. Arabs
are thought to have carried it to Arabia in the 9th Century. It was reported to be growing in Sicily
in 1002 A.D., and it was cultivated around Seville, Spain, at the end of the 12th Century. For 500
years, it was the only orange in Europe and it was the first orange to reach the New World. It was
naturalized in Mexico by 1568 and in Brazil by 1587, and not long after it was running wild in the
Cape Verde Islands, Bermuda, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and Barbados. Sir Walter Raleigh took sour
orange seeds to England; they were planted in Surrey and the trees began bearing regular crops in
1595, but were killed by cold in 1739.
Spaniards introduced the sour orange into St. Augustine, Florida. It was quickly adopted by the
early settlers and local Indians and, by 1763, sour oranges were being exported from St. Augustine
to England. Sour orange trees can still be found in Everglades hammocks on the sites of former
Indian dwellings. The first sweet orange budwood was grafted onto sour orange trees in pioneer
dooryards and, from that time on, the sour orange became more widely grown as a rootstock in all
citrus-producing areas of the world than for its fruit or other features. Today, the sour orange is
found growing wild even in southern Georgia and from Mexico to Argentina.
It is grown in orchards or groves only in the Orient and the various other parts of the world where
its special products are of commercial importance, including southern Europe and offshore islands,
North Africa, the Middle East, Madras, India, West Tropical Africa, Haiti, the Dominican
Republic, Brazil and Paraguay.
Varieties
There are various well-established forms of the sour orange. In the period 1818-1822, 23 varieties
were described and illustrated in Europe. A prominent subspecies is the Bergamot orange, C.
aurantium, var. bergamia Wight & Arn., grown in the Mediterranean area since the 16th Century
but commercially only in Italy. Trees grown in California and Florida under this name are actually
the 'Bouquet' variety of sour orange (see below). The flowers of the Bergamot are small, sweetly
fragrant; the fruits round or pear-shaped, with strongly aromatic peel and acid pulp.
The myrtle-leaved orange (C. aurantium, var. myrtifolia), is a compact shrub or tree with small
leaves and no thorns. It was found as a bud mutation on trunks of old sour orange trees in Florida.
It is propagated and grown only on the French and Italian Riviera for its small fruits which are
Sour Orange
preserved in brine and exported for candying.

Apart from these special types, there are several groups of sour oranges, within which there are
placed certain cultivars:
1) Normal group (large, seedy fruits)
'African', 'Brazilian', 'Rubidoux', 'Standard', 'Oklawaha' and 'Trabut'. 'Oklawaha' originated in the
United States. It has large fruits rich in pectin and is prized for marmalade.
2) Aberrant group
'Daidai', or 'Taitai', popular in Japan and China. Its fruits are large with very thick peel, very acid
pulp, and many seeds. The tree is somewhat dwarf and almost thornless; immune to citrus canker
in the Philippines. It is prized for its flower buds which are dried and mixed with tea for their
scent.
'Goleta' has medium-large fruits with juicy, medium-sour pulp and very few seeds. The tree is of
medium size and almost thornless.
'Bouquet' has small, deep-orange fruits, acid, with few seeds. The tree is less than 10 ft (3 in) high
and is grown as an ornamental.
3) Bittersweet group includes any sweet-acid forms of the sour orange introduced by Spaniards
and formerly found growing in the Indian River region of Florida. These oranges are often seen in
a naturalized state in the West Indies. The peel is orange-red, the pulp is darker in hue than that of
the normal sour orange.
'Paraguay' was introduced from Paraguay in 1911. The fruit is of medium size, with sweet pulp,
moderately seedy. The tree is large, thorny and hardy.
Among other forms of sour orange, there is in India a type called 'Karna', 'Khatta' or 'Id Nimbu',
identified as C. aurantium var. khatta (or C. karna Raf.) but suspected of being a hybrid of sour
orange and lemon. The fruits are typical sour oranges but the flowers are red-tinted like those of
the lemon.
Two cultivars are grown as rootstocks for the sweet orange in China:
'Vermilion Globe' has oblate fruits containing 30 to 40 seeds. The tree has long, narrow, pointed
leaves.
'Leather-head' has small, oblate, rough fruits with 20 seeds. The tree has elliptic, blunt leaves.
Cultivars grown especially for the production of Neroli oil in France and elsewhere, have flowers
in large, more concentrated clusters than the ordinary types of sour orange. One of these, 'Riche
Dfouille', has unusual, wingless leaves.
Climate
The sour orange flourishes in subtropical, near-tropical climates, yet it can stand several degrees of
frost for short periods. Generally it has considerable tolerance of adverse conditions. But the
Bergamot orange is very sensitive to wind and extremes of drought or moisture.
Sour Orange
Soil
Unlike its sweet relative, the sour orange does well on low, rich soils with a high water table and is
adapted to a wide range of soil conditions.
Propagation
Sour orange trees volunteer readily from self-sown seeds. As generally grown for rootstock for
sweet oranges, they are raised in nurseries for 1 or 2 years and then budded. Growth of the
seedlings, especially in diameter, has been expedited by weekly applications of gibberellic acid to
the stems, making it possible to bud them much earlier.
Culture
In the proper climatic and soil conditions, the sour orange is self-maintaining and receives only a
modicum of cultural attention. It has an extraordinary ability to survive with no care at all. Some
trees in Spain are said to be over 600 years old and one tree in a tub at Versailles, which, of course,
must be carefully tended, was reportedly planted in the year 1421.
Pests and Diseases
The sour orange is subject to most of the pests that attack the sweet orange. In addition to its
susceptibility to the disease called tristeza, the tree is liable to other viruses -crinkly leaf, gummy
bark, psorosis, and xyloporosis. The Division of Plant Industry of the Florida State Department of
Agriculture has recorded the following fungal problems as sometimes seen: leaf spot (AIternaria
citri, Cercospora penzigii, Mycophaerella horii, Cladosporium oxysporum, and Phyllosticta
hesperidearum); greasy spot (Cercospora citri-grisea); tar spot (C. gigantea); leprosis
(Cladosporium herbarum); mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens); anthracnose (Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides); thread blight (Corticium koleroga and C. stevensii); gummosis and dieback
(Diaporthe citri); foot rot and root rot (Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomia phaseolina,
Phytophthora spp.); heart rot and wood rot (Fomes applanatus, Ganoderma sessilis, Xylaria
polymorpha), and others.
Food Uses
The normal types of sour orange are usually
too sour to be enjoyed out-of-hand. In
Mexico, however, sour oranges are cut in
half, salted, coated with a paste of hot chili
peppers, and eaten.
The greatest use of sour oranges as food is
in the form of marmalade and for this
purpose they have no equal. The fruits are
largely exported to England and Scotland
for making marmalade. Sour oranges are
used primarily for marmalade in South
Africa.
Fig. 36: Dried peel of the locally-grown sour orange yields

the essential oil that flavors "Curacao liqueur".
The juice is valued for ade and as a flavoring on fish and, in Spain, on meat during cooking. In
Sour Orange
Yucatan, it is employed like vinegar. In Egypt and elsewhere, it has been fermented to make wine.
"Bitter orange oil", expressed from the peel, is in demand for flavoring candy, ice cream, baked
goods, gelatins and puddings, chewing gum, soft drinks, liqueurs and pharmaceutical products,
especially if the water-or alcohol-insoluble terpenes and sesquiterpenes are removed. The oil is
produced in Sicily, Spain, West Africa, the West Indies, Brazil, Mexico and Taiwan.
The essential oil derived from the dried peel of immature fruit, particularly from the selected types
-'Jacmel' in Jamaica and the much more aromatic 'Curacao orange' (var. curassaviensis)-gives a
distinctive flavor to certain liqueurs.
"Neroli oil", or "Neroli Bigarade Oil", distilled from the flowers of the sour orange, has limited use
in flavoring candy, soft-drinks and liqueurs, ice cream, baked goods and chewing gum.
'Petitgrain oil', without terpenes, is used to enhance the fruit flavors (peach, apricot, gooseberry,
black currant, etc.) in food products, candy, ginger ale, and various condiments.
'Orange leaf absolute' enters into soft-drinks, ice cream, baked goods and candy.
The ripe peel of the sour orange contains 2.4 to 2.8%, and the green peel up to 14%, neohesperidin
dihydrochalcone which is 20 times sweeter than saccharin and 200 times sweeter than cyclamate.
Potential use as a sweetener may be hampered by the limited supply of peel.
Fruit (raw)
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Iron
Phosphorus
Vitamin A
Thiamine
37-66
83-89.2 g
0.6-1.0 g
trace-0.1 g
9.7-15.2 g
0.4 g
0.5 g
18-50 mg
0.2 mg
12 mg
290 mcg or 200 I.U.
100 mcg
Riboflavin
40 mcg
Niacin
0.3 mg
Ascorbic Acid
45-90 mg
*Sampled in Guatemala and El Salvador.
Fruit (raw, with only superficial

layer of peel removed)*
77.8-83.1 g
0.154-0.167 g
0.05-0.07 g
?
1.8-2.2 g
0.57-0.69 g
64.3-81.9 mg
0.22-0.85 mg
19.6-20.4 mg
0.055-0.07 mg
0.048-0.059 mg
0.030-0.040 mg
0.282-0.400 mg
55.2-103.5 mg
Sour Orange
Other Uses
Soap substitute: Throughout the Pacific Island, the crushed fruit and the macerated leaves, both
of which make lather in water, are used as soap for washing clothes and shampooing the hair.
Safford described the common scene in Guam of women standing in a river with wooden trays on
which they rub clothing with sour orange pulp, then scrub it with a corncob. He wrote: "Often the
entire surface of the river where the current is sluggish is covered with decaying oranges." On the
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, the fruits are used for scouring floors and brass.
Perfumery: All parts of the sour orange are more aromatic than those of the sweet orange. The
flowers are indispensable to the perfume industry and are famous not only for the distilled Neroli
oil but also for "orange flower absolute" obtained by fat or solvent extraction. During favorable
weather in southern France, 2,200 lbs (1,000 kg) of flowers will yield 36 to 53 oz (1,000-1,500 g)
of oil.
Neroli oil consists of 35% terpenes (mainly dipentene, pinene and camphene), 30% 1-linalool, and
4% geraniol and nerol, 2% d-terpineol, 6% d-nerolidol, traces of decyclic aldehyde, 7% 1-linalyl
acetate, 4% neryl and geranyl acetates, traces of esters of phenylacetic acid and benzoic acid, as
much as 0.1% methyl anthranilate, and traces of jasmone, farnesol, and palmitic acid. Orange
flower water is usually a by-product of oil production.
Petitgrain oil is distilled from the leaves, twigs and immature fruits, especially from the Bergamot
orange. Both Petitgrain and the oil of the ripe peel are of great importance in formulating scents
for perfumes and cosmetics. Petitgrain oil is indispensable in fancy eau-de-cologne. The seed oil is
employed in soaps.
Honey: The flowers yield nectar for honeybees.
Wood: The wood is handsome, whitish to pale-yellow, very hard, fine-grained, much like
boxwood. It is valued for cabinetwork and turnery. In Cuba it is fashioned into baseball bats.
Medicinal Uses: Sour orange juice is antiseptic, anti-bilious and hemostatic. Africans apply the
cut-open orange on ulcers and yaws and areas of the body afflicted with rheumatism. In Italy,
Mexico and Latin America generally, decoctions of the leaves are given for their sudorific,
antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic and stomachic action. The flowers, prepared as a sirup, act as a
sedative in nervous disorders and induce sleep. An infusion of the bitter bark is taken as a tonic,
stimulant, febrifuge and vermifuge.
The fresh young leaves contain as much as 300 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g. The mature leaf
contains 1-stachyhydrine.
Orange

Morton, J. 1987. Orange. p. 134142. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Orange
Citrus sinensis
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests
Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Toxicity
Other Uses
One of the most widely favored of the world's fruits, the orange, sweet orange, or round orange,
was for many years known as Citrus aurantium var. sinensis L. and considered to be a form of the
sour orange (q.v.). It is still not universally agreed to be a distinct species, C. sinensis Osbeck, but
it is usually treated as though it were. One of its first recorded regional names was the Persian
narang, from which were derived the Spanish name, naranja, and the Portuguese, laranja. In some
Caribbean and Latin American areas, the fruit is called naranja de China, China dulce, or simply
China (pronounced cheena).
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/orange.html (1 of 16) [5/16/2004 1:34:37 PM]
Orange
The orange tree, reaching 25 ft (7.5 m) or, with great age, up to 50 ft (15 m), has a rounded crown
of slender branches. The twigs are twisted and angled when young and may bear slender,
semi-flexible, bluntish spines in the leaf axils. There may be faint or conspicuous wings on the
petioles of the aromatic, evergreen, alternate, elliptic to ovate, sometimes faintly toothed
"leaves"technically solitary leaflets of compound leaves. These are 2 1/2 to 6 in (6.5-15 cm) long,
1 to 3 3/4 in (2.5-9.5 cm) wide. Borne singly or in clusters of 2 to 6, the sweetly fragrant white
flowers, about 2 in (5 cm) wide, have a saucer-shaped, 5-pointed calyx and 5 oblong, white petals,
and 20 to 25 stamens with conspicuous yellow anthers. The fruit is globose, subglobose, oblate or
somewhat oval, 2 1/2 to 3 3/4 in (6.5-9.5 cm) wide. Dotted with minute glands containing an
essential oil, the outer rind (epicarp) is orange or yellow when ripe, the inner rind (mesocarp) is
white, spongy and non-aromatic. The pulp (endocarp), yellow, orange or more or less red, consists
of tightly packed membranous juice sacs enclosed in 10 to 14 wedge-shaped compartments which
are readily separated as individual segments. In each segment there may be 2 to 4 irregular seeds,
white externally and internally, though some types of oranges are seedless. The sweet orange
differs physically from the sour orange in having a solid center.
The orange is unknown in the wild state; is assumed to have originated in southern China,
northeastern India, and perhaps southeastern Asia (formerly Indochina). It was carried to the
Mediterranean area possibly by Italian traders after 1450 or by Portuguese navigators around 1500.
Up to that era, citrus fruits were valued by Europeans mainly for medicinal purposes, but the
orange was quickly adopted as a luscious fruit and wealthy persons grew it in private
conservatories, called orangeries. By 1646 it had been much publicized and was well known.
Spaniards undoubtedly introduced the sweet orange into South America and Mexico in the
mid-1500's, and probably the French took it to Louisiana. It was from New Orleans that seeds
were obtained and distributed in Florida about 1872 and many orange groves were established by
grafting the sweet orange onto sour orange rootstocks. Arizona received the orange tree with the
founding of missions between 1707 and 1710. The orange was brought to San Diego, California,
by those who built the first mission there in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel
Mission around 1804. A commercial orchard was established in 1841 on a site that is now a part of
Los Angeles. In 1781, a surgeon and naturalist on the ship, Discovery, collected orange seeds in
South Africa, grew seedlings on board and presented them to tribal chiefs in the Hawaiian Islands
on arrival in 1792. In time, the orange became commonly grown throughout Hawaii, but was
virtually abandoned after the advent of the Mediterranean fruit fly and the fruit is now imported
from the United States mainland.
The orange has become the most commonly grown tree fruit in the world. It is an important crop in
the Far East, the Union of South Africa, Australia, throughout the Mediterranean area, and
subtropical areas of South America and the Caribbean. The United States leads in world
production, with Florida, alone, having an annual yield of more than 200 million boxes, except
when freezes occur which may reduce the crop by 20 or even 40%. California, Texas and Arizona
follow in that order, with much lower production in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia.
Other major producers are Brazil, Spain, Japan, Mexico, Italy, India, Argentina and Egypt. In
Brazil, oranges are grown everywhere in the coastal plain and in the highlands but most
extensively in the States of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, where orange culture rose sharply in the
Orange
years immediately following World War II and is still advancing. Mexico's citrus industry is
located largely in the 4 southern states of Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi and Veracruz.
The orange crop is over one million MT and Nuevo Leon has 20 modern packing plants, mostly
with fumigation facilities. Large quantities of fresh oranges and orange juice concentrate are
exported to the United States and small shipments go to East Germany, Canada and Argentina.
However, overproduction has glutted domestic markets and brought down prices and returns to the
farmer to such an extent that plantings have declined and growers are switching to grapefruit.
Cuba's crop has become nearly 1/3 as large as that of Florida. Lesser quantities are produced in
Puerto Rico, Central America (especially Guatemala), some of the Pacific Islands, New Zealand,
and West Africa, where the fruit does not acquire an appealing color but is popular for its quality
and sweetness. Many named cultivars have been introduced and grown in the Philippines since
1912, but the fruitis generally of low qualitybecause of the warm climate.
Varieties
Most of the oranges grown in California are of 2 cultivars: the 'Washington Navel' and the
'Valencia'. Florida's commercial cultivars are mainly: (early) 'Hamlin'; (mid-season) 'Pineapple';
(late) 'Valencia'.
The 'Washington Navel' (formerly known as 'Bahia') originated, perhaps as a mutant in Bahia,
Brazil, before 1820. It was introduced into Florida in 1835 and several other times prior to 1870.
In 1873, budded trees reached California where the fruit matures at the Christmas season. It is
large but with a thick, easily removed rind; not very juicy; of excellent flavor, and seedless or
nearly so. Ease of peeling and separation of segments makes this the most popular orange in the
world for eating out-of-hand or in salads. Limonene content of the juice results in bitterness when
pasteurized and therefore this cultivar is undesirable for processing. The tree needs a relatively
cool climate and should not be grown below an elevation of 3,300 ft (1,000 in) in tropical
countries. Today it is commercially grown, not only in Brazil and California, but also in Paraguay,
Spain, South Africa, Australia and Japan.
'Trovita', a non-navel seedling raised in 1914-1915 at the Citrus Experiment Station in California
and released in 1935, is milder in flavor and has a few seeds, but may be earlier in season, and it
has been considered promising in hot, dry regions unsuitable for 'Washington Navel'. There are
several other named variations such as 'Robertson Navel', 'Summer Navel', 'Texas Navel', and the
externally attractive 'Thompson Navel' which was grown in California for a time but dropped
because of its poor quality. Various mutants, more suitable for warmer climates, have been
selected and named in Florida, including 'Dream', 'Pell', 'Summerfield', 'Surprise'the latter being
more productive than 'Washington Navel' in Florida but still not grown to any extent. 'Bahiamina'
is a small version of the 'Washington Navel' developed in Brazil in the late 1940's. It follows 'Pera'
and 'Natal' sweet oranges in importance in tropical Bahia.
'Valencia', or 'Valencia Late', is the most important cultivar in California, Texas and South Africa.
It has been the leader in Florida until recently. In 1984, 40% of the oranges being planted in
Florida were 'Valencia', 60% were 'Hamlin'. The 'Valencia' may have originated in China and it
was presumably taken to Europe by Portuguese or Spanish voyagers. The well-known English
nurseryman, Thomas Rivers, supplied plants from the Azores to Florida in 1870 and to California
in 1876. In Florida, it was quickly appreciated and cultivated, at first labeled 'Brown' and later
Orange
renamed 'Hart's Tardiff, 'Hart' and 'Hart Late' until it was recognized as identical to the 'Valencia'
in California. It was not propagated for sale in California until 1916 and was slow to be adopted
commercially. It is smaller than the 'Washington Navel', with a thinner, tighter rind; is far juicier
and richer in flavor; nearly seedless except in Chile where the dry climate apparently allows better
pollination and development of many more seeds -up to 980 in 44 lbs (20 kg). It needs a warm
climate. In fact, it is the most satisfactory orange for the tropics, even though it may not develop
full color in warm regions. In Colombia, the quality is good from sea-level to 5,000 ft (1,600 m). It
bears two crops a year, overlapping and giving it the great advantage of a late and long season
lasting until midsummer. The fruits on the trees in spring will regreen, lose their orange color and
turn green at the stem end, but the quality is not affected. They were formerly dyed to improve
market appearance but since the 1955 Food & Drug Administration ban on the synthetic dyes used
on oranges, they have been colored by exposure to ethylene gas in storage. The gas removes the
chlorophyll layer, revealing the orange color beneath. Degreening does not occur in California
where 'Valencia' oranges from one growing area or another are marketed from late spring through
fall.
'Lue Gim Gong' was claimed to be a hybrid of 'Valencia' and 'Mediterranean Sweet' made by a
Chinese grower in 1886. 'Lue Gim Gong' was awarded the Wilder Silver Medal by the American
Pomological Society in 1911 but, later on, his hybrid was judged to be a nucellar seedling of
'Valencia'. Propagated and distributed by Glen St. Mary Nurseries in 1912, this cultivar closely
resembles 'Valencia', matures and is marketed with its parent without distinction. It is best cited as
the 'Lue Gim Gong Strain' of 'Valencia'. 'Mediterranean Sweet' was introduced into Florida from
Europe in 1875, was briefly popular, but is no longer grown.
Certain strains of 'Valencia' are classed as summer oranges because the fruits can be left on the
trees longer without dehydrating. One is known as 'Pope', 'Pope Summer', or 'Glen Summer'. It
was found in a grove of 'Pineapple' oranges near Lakeland about 1916, was propagated in 1935,
and trademarked in 1938. On sour orange or sweet orange rootstocks in hammock soils, the fruit
matures in April but is still in good condition on the tree in July and August.
'Rhode Red Valencia' was discovered in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida, by Paul Rhode,
Sr., of Winter Haven. Some budwood was put on sour orange stock which caused dwarfing and
some on rough lemon which produced large, vigorous, productive trees. In 1974, 5 trees were
accepted into the Citrus Budwood Registration Program but there was no budwood free of
exocortis and xyloporosis viruses. The fruit equals 'Valencia' insoluble solids, excels 'Valencia' in
volume of juice, is less acid, has slightly less ascorbic acid, but has a far more colorful juice due to
its high content of cryptoxanthin, a precursor of vitamin A which remains nearly stable during
processing.
In Cuba, 'Campbell Valencia' (a 1942 seedling similar to 'Valencia'), 'Frost Valencia' (a 1915
nucellar seedling of 'Valencia'), and 'Olinda Valencia' (a virus-free nucellar seedling of 'Valencia'
discovered in California in 1939), each on 2 different rootstockssour orange and Cleopatra
mandarinwere test-planted in 1973 and evaluated in 1982. 'Olinda Valencia' on sour orange
excelled in quality and in productivity.
'Hamlin', discovered in 1879 near Glenwood, Florida, in a grove later owned by A.G. Hamlin, is
small, smooth, not highly colored, seedless and juicy but the juice is pale. The fruit is of
Orange
poor-to-medium quality but the tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant. The fruit is harvested from
October to December and this cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida. On pineland and
hammock soil it is budded on sour orange which gives a high solids content. On sand, it does best
on rough lemon rootstock.
'Homosassa', a selected Florida seedling named in 1877, is of rich orange color, of medium size,
and excellent flavor, It was formerly one of the most valued midseason oranges in Florida but it is
too seedy to maintain that position. It is no longer planted except perhaps in Texas and Louisiana.
'Shamouti' ('Jaffa'; 'Khalili'; 'Khalili White')originated as a limb sport on a 'Beledi' tree near
Jaffa, Israel, in 1844; introduced into Florida about 1883; oval, medium-large; peel entirely orange
when ripe; leathery, thick, easy to remove; pulp very juicy, of good quality. Constitutes 75% of the
Lebanese and Israeli crops; is one of the 2 main cultivars in Syria; was formerly an important,
midseason, cold-tolerant, cultivar in Florida and was grown in all other orange-growing regions of
the United States. However, the tree tends to alternate-bearing, the fruit does not hold for long on
the tree and is subject to the fungus, Alternaria citri, and it is no longer planted in this country.
'Parson Brown' wasdiscovered in a grove owned by Parson Brown in Wester, Florida; was
purchased, propagated and distributed by J.L. Carney between 1870 and 1878. It is rough-skinned,
with pale juice; moderately seedy; of low-to-medium quality. It was formerly popular in Florida
because of its earliness and long season (October through December), but has been largely
replaced by 'Hamlin'. It is grown in Texas, Arizona and Louisiana but is not profitable in
California where it matures at the same time as 'Washington Navel'. It does not develop acceptable
quality in the tropics.
'Pineapple' is a seedling found in a grove near Citra, Florida. It was propagated in 1876 or 1877
under the name of 'Hickory'. It is pineapple-scented, smooth, highly colored, especially after cold
spells; of rich, appealing flavor, and medium-seedy. It is the favorite midseason orange in Florida,
its tendency to preharvest drop having been overcome by nutrition and spray programs. If the crop
is allowed to remain too long on the tree, it may induce alternate-bearing. It is grown to some
extent in Texas, rarely in California; succeeds on sour orange rootstock in low hammock land, on
rough lemon in light sand. Seedless mutants of 'Pineapple' have been produced by seed irradiation.
This cultivar does fairly well in tropical climates though not as well as 'Valencia'.
'Queen' is a seedling of unknown origin which was found in a grove near Bartow, Florida.
Because it survived the freeze of 1894-95, it was propagated in 1900 under the name 'King' which
was later changed to 'Queen'. It is much like 'Pineapple', has fewer seeds, higher soluble solids,
persists on the tree better in dry spells; is high-yielding and somewhat more cold-tolerant than
'Pineapple'.
'Blood Oranges' are commonly cultivated in the Mediterranean area, especially in Italy, and also
in Pakistan. They are grown very little in Florida where the red coloration rarely develops except
during periods of cold weather. In California they are grown only as novelties. Among the
well-known cultivars in this group are 'Egyptian', which tends to develop a small navel; 'Maltese',
'Ruby', and 'St. Michael'.
Pollination
Orange blossoms yield very little pollen and orange growers do not practice artificial pollination.
Orange
However, there is evidence of self-incompatibility and need for cross-pollination in the TANGOR
and TANGELO (qq.v.).
Climate
The orange is subtropical, not tropical. During the growing period, the temperature should range
from 55 to 100 F (12.78-37.78 C). In the winter dormancy, the ideal temperature range is 35 to
50 F (1.67-10 C). Mature, dormant trees have survived 10 hours at temperatures below 25 F
(-3.89 C) but fruit is damaged by freezing30 to 26 F (-1.11-3.33 C). Young trees may be
killed outright by even brief frosts. Hardiness, however, varies with the cultivar and rootstock,
Seedling orange trees of bearing age are capable of enduring more cold than budded cultivars.
Prolonged cold is more injurious than short periods of freezing temperatures. In Florida, many
efforts have been made to protect orange trees from winter cold, which is most damaging if
preceded or accompanied by drought.
In the early days, slatted shadehouses were erected over young groves. Windbreaks have been
planted on the northeast exposure. Old automobile tires have been burned in piles throughout
groves. A commercially produced heater has been fueled and lit in the coldest predawn hours.
Helicopters have been flown back and forth to cause movement of air, and, more recently, wind
machines have been installed. Most recent, and most effective are overhead sprinklers which give
maximum protection from cold damage.
Favorable annual precipitation varies from 5 to 20 in (12.5-50 cm), though oranges are frequently
grown in areas receiving 40 to 60 in (100-150 cm) of rain. Benthall says that in the damp climate
of Lower Bengal, the fruits lack juice and are usually very sour. California's generally dry climate
contributes to more intense color in the orange peel than is seen in humid areas. Success in orange
culture depends a great deal on the selection of cultivars tolerant of the weather conditions where
they are to be grown.
Soil
The best soil for orange-growing in Florida is known as Lakeland fine sand, well-drained, and
often identified as high hammock or high pineland soil. There must be adequate depth for good
root development. Shallow soils of high water-holding ability are avoided. In Egypt, it has been
found that where the water table is too high30 in (78 cm) or less below the surface of the
soilroot growth, vegetative vigor and fruit yield of orange trees are greatly reduced. In the
alkaline soil of South Florida, neglected orange trees develop chlorosis and gradually decline.
Many old groves planted in the southern part of the state to avoid cold have been totally lost. In
California, the best soils for orange groves are deep loams. It is important to select the appropriate
rootstock for particular soil conditions.
Propagation
While the orange will often come true from seed because of nucellar embryos, the common means
of assuring the reproduction of cultivars of known quality is by budding onto appropriate
rootstocks. It is believed that budding was practiced by Europeans during the 16th and 17th
Centuries, but, with the realization that seedling trees were more vigorous and productive, Italian
and Spanish orange growers went back to planting seeds. Fortunately, budded orange trees from
Europe had been imported into Florida in 1824 and budwood from these and of others later
Orange
brought in from England was utilized in topworking existing sour and sweet orange seedlings. It
was soon apparent that the budded trees came into bearing earlier than seedlings, were less thorny,
and matured uniformly. The sweet orange lost popularity as a rootstock because of its
susceptibility to foot rot. Sour orange, resistant to foot rot, became the preferred rootstock in low
hammock and flatwoods soils with high water table until the discovery of the virus disease,
tristeza, in Florida orange groves in 1952. This caused many to switch from the susceptible sour
orange to 'Cleopatra mandarin'. Unfortunately, trees on 'Cleopatra' stock are reduced in size, they
have lower yields than those on sour orange, and acidity of the fruit is elevated.
As citrus-growing stretched southward into high pineland, rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri)
rootstock gained favor and was found to induce more rapid and vigorous growth and earlier
bearing, counterbalancing its sensitivity to cold and tendency toward foot rot. Rough lemon
became the dominant rootstock in Florida until it was found to be extremely susceptible to blight
and was abandoned. Sour orange has been reinstated in recent years because tristeza has been more
or less dormant since the 1940's and sour orange is now the prevailing stock for 50% of the orange
and grapefruit trees in the state. In second place is the 'Carrizo citrange', resistant to tristeza but
subject to exocortis and also to blight though less so than rough lemon. 'Carrizo' is somewhat
resistant to the burrowing nematode and gives a little higher yield than the similar rootstocks.
Growers are advised to quickly replace blight-affected orange trees on rough lemon with new
plants on 'Carrizo' held ready for this purpose. Because exocortis can now be detected quickly, it
has become possible to utilize 'Carrizo' as a rootstock for hundreds of thousands of orange trees in
Florida.
About 90% of commercial orange groves in Queensland are on rough lemon rootstock, as are 90%
of the citrus trees in Jamaica. In Egypt, rough lemon rootstock has been found short-lived on
heavy soils. In that country, early budding was done on citron (Citrus medica L.) but that stock
was abandoned when sour orange was found much more desirable on the prevailing loamy-clay.
Second to the sour orange rootstock is the Egyptian lime, locally considered native and used
mainly on lighter soils.
In the tropical citrus-growing region of Bahia, Brazil, Rangpur lime (C. X limonia Osbeck) has
been the dominant rootstock95 % in orchards and 100% in nurseriesbut experiments in the past
few years have shown that rough lemon and Cleopatra mandarin give better results. Also,
'Cleopatra' has good resistance to citrus decline, whereas Rangpur is susceptible to Phytophthora
root rot and exocortis.
Some oranges are budded onto the so-called trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata Raf.) which tends
to reduce the growth but is cold-tolerant and able to flourish on low, wet soils. It does poorly in
light sand. Rootstocks capable of dwarfing orange trees may become necessary if close spacing is
to be considered more advantageous. Trifoliate orange cultivar 'English Small' has successfully
dwarfed 'Valencia'. 'Rusk' and 'Carrizo' ('Troyer') citranges (P. trifoliata X C. sinensis) show
promise for semi-dwarfing of 'Valencia'. However, all of these are very susceptible to the exocortis
virus. Alternative root-stocks include 'Swingle citrumelo' (P. trifoliata X C. paradisi)cold-hardy,
resistant to tristeza, exocortis, xyloporosis, and the citrus nematode but not the burrowing
nematodeand the 'Volkamer lemon' (C. volkameriana) which behaves much like rough lemon but
gives very high yields of fruit of slightly better quality.
Orange
In India, the sweet lime (C. limettioides Tanaka) was found to be the best rootstock for their
'Mosambi' orange in wet zones with high maximum temperatures.
Cuban horticulturists are currently experimenting with various Citrus species as potential
rootstocks to replace sour orange.
In Florida, nurseries of seedling rootstocks must be approved by the Department of Agriculture,
Division of Plant Industry. The seeds must not be more than 3 to 4 weeks old unless they have
been washed, dried, then mixed with sand and kept in a cool place, or put into a plastic bag and
refrigerated for a few weeks at about 40 F (4.4 C). Seeds of P. trifoliata are planted in the fall but
sour orange and 'Cleopatra mandarin' are planted in spring. Seeds are set in rows 3 to 4 ft (0.9-1.2
m) apart and will germinate in 3 weeks. When the stems reach 1/2 in (1.25 cm) in diameter, the
seedlings are ready for budding. The budding technique most commonly used in Florida is
shield-budding by the inverted T method, inserting the bud 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) above ground
level. California propagators favor the upright T. Usually the trees are ready for transplanting after
one growing season. Mature trees that have been frozen back, or that are to be converted to more
suitable cultivars, may be top-worked by cleft-grafting, crown grafting, or budding of the sprouts
that arise after the tree is cut off close to the ground.
It must be kept in mind that the rootstock influences not only the rate of growth, disease resistance
and productivity of the cultivar but also the physical and chemical attributes of the crop. For
example, 'Valencia' oranges on sour orange stock have been found to have more dry matter in the
peel, pulp and juice than those on rough lemon. 'Washington Navel' oranges on rough lemon stock
have had low levels of potassium in the peel, pulp and juice; and, on 'Cleopatra mandarin' stock,
even lower in the pulp and juice. Trifoliate orange rootstock produces high levels of potassium
throughout the fruit. In south-eastern Queensland, Australia, nearly half of the oranges for
processing are grown in the Near North Coast area. There, trials of 'Valencia' on rough lemon
revealed that fruit quality was inferior to that in Florida; there was bitterness in the juice and only a
small percentage of the fruits met the minimum standards for processing as frozen orange juice
concentrate. General quality, flavor and ascorbic acid content were considerably higher on sweet
orange rootstock. Trifoliate orange gave second-best results. Rootstocks affect the chemistry of the
peel oil, especially the aldehyde content, and the oil content of the peel is influenced by selection
of budwood. Dr. Walter T. Swingle, one of the early and renowned plant explorers of the United
States Department of Agriculture, was an authority on Citrus and vitally interested in rootstocks.
He was convinced that they were the key to the successful future of the citrus industry.
Culture
A spacing of 25 x 25 ft (7.5x7.5 m) was standard in the past. However, many orange groves today
are being close-planted and hedged to facilitate both manual and wide enough to accommodate
mobile machinery for fertilizing, spraying, pruning and harvesting. There are arguments against
close-spacing; mainly that, as the trees grow and become more crowded, productivity declines;
also that close-spacing requires expensive pruning. However, data gathered on yields of the
'Pineapple' orange on rough lemon rootstock at Lake Alfred, Florida, over an 11-year trial, showed
total yields for the period as: 2,380 boxes per acre (5,880/ha) at 25 x 20 ft (7.5x6 m)87 trees per
acre (215/ha); 3,496 boxes per acre (8,639/ha) at 20 x 15 ft (6x4.5 m)145 trees per acre (358/ha);
4,484 boxes per acre (11,079/ha) at 15 x 10 ft (4.5-3 m)290 trees per acre (716/ha). Other
Orange
examples are given under Yield.

The young trees must be carefully tended and kept weed-free for the first 2 or 3 years in the field.
Citrus trees have special nutritional requirements. The soil should be tested to determine the best
balance of major and minor elements to be added. In general, orange trees need to be fertilized
with N P K very soon after harvesting. The balance of major nutrients has to be considered in
relation to the ultimate use of the crop. For example, extra nitrogen increases the peel oil content
of oranges, while extra potassium decreases it. In California, 1 lb (0.45 kg) of nitrogen per tree per
year has been found sufficient to maintain high productivity. Indian scientists, after a 4-year study,
concluded that sweet oranges of the best quality were produced by applications of nitrogen at the
rate of 2 lbs (0.9 kg) per year for 8-year-old trees. Orange trees are watched for signs of
deficiencies which may be counteracted by foliar spraying. Leaf analysis reveals what is lacking or
being applied in excess.
Efforts in northern India to control spring fruit drop with growth regulators have not been
successful but pre-harvest drop has been greatly reduced. Gibberellic acid at 100 to 1,000 ppm,
whether applied at full bloom or small fruit stage, has significantly increased the number of
'Washington Navel' fruits harvested.
Irrigation: Irrigation of orange trees is carefully managed. Ordinarily, it is omitted in the fall in
order to avoid the production of tender new growth that would be damaged in winter cold spells. It
may be very desirable in the spring dry season to prevent wilting. Excessive irrigation lowers the
solids content of the fruit. The deeper the soil, the better the root system and the greater the ability
to withstand drought. Soils at least 4 ft (1.2 m) deep can be given 1 1/2 in (6.25 cm) of water as
needed, whereas soils only 1 1/2 ft (45 cm) deep should receive no more than 1 in (2.5 cm) of
water at a time but more frequently.
Pruning: Orange trees are self-forming and do not need to be shaped by early pruning. Removal
of water sprouts from young and older trees is important. Branches that are lower than 1 ft (30 cm)
from the ground should be taken off. Deadwood from any causeadverse soil conditions, pests or
diseases, nutritional deficiencies, or cold injuryshould be cut out and cut surfaces over 1 in (2.5
cm) in diameter should be sealed with pruning compound. Orange trees that are close-planted and
hedged are being mechanically pruned by special equipment. Cuban experimenters claim that this
procedure is beneficial in increasing the number of new shoots and that it decreases pest and
disease problems.
In Israel, the old practice of girdling has been revived. If done in winter, it will enhance the
sprouting of buds in the spring. Summer girdling increases the size of the fruits.
Harvesting
In the early days of the orange industry, harvesters climbed ladders and pulled the fruits off by
hand, putting them into pails or shoulder-sacks which they later emptied into 90-lb (40.8 kg) field
boxes. From 1900 to 1940, they used clippers. With the erstwhile shortage and increased cost of
field labor, various changes and improvements have been made in harvesting methods. Pulling is
again practiced, especially with fruits destined for processing. In the United States, Federal
regulations and the individual state Department of Agriculture and state Citrus Commission
control the stage of maturity at which the fruits may be picked and the grading of the fruits for
Orange
marketing and shipping.

In anticipation of drastic increases in the cost of conventional harvesting, various methods of
wholly or partly mechanized harvesting have been explored, including limb and tree shakers and
air jets. Devices developed are not being widely utilized as yet because of the investments
necessary for their acquisition and the current availability of manual labor. Manual picking is less
laborious now that oranges for processing can be allowed to fall on the ground instead of being
placed in sacks which have to be carried down ladders. The efficiency of hand-harvesting has been
enhanced also by the use of fiberglass ladders and abscission agents which make it possible to
pluck the fruit with less force and consequently greater speed. Good workers who have harvested
oranges at the rate of 6.5 boxes per hour are now able to pick 9.1 boxes per hour. The effectiveness
of the abscission agent depends largely on the lapsed time after spray-application and the
prevailing temperature and relative humidity during that period.
Yield
On the average, a 'Washington Navel' orange tree may bear approximately 100 fruits in a season.
Horticulturists at the University of Puerto Rico have selected Navel orange clones and budded
them onto orange seedlings for test plantings. Of 5 that were numbered 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, numbers 5
and 7 surpassed the others in productivity, number 7 yielding 293 fruits per tree. These two clones
are considered worthy of propagation and naming. It is said that very old, large orange trees in the
Mediterranean area may bear 3,000 to 5,000 oranges each year.
Growers everywhere are testing high-density as a means of gaining higher yields. In Australia,
'Valencia' orange trees 6 years old, planted 1,011 to 2,023 trees per acre (2,500-5,000/ha), yielded
24 tons/acre (60 tons/ha). 'St. Ives Valencia' trees on P. trifoliata rootstock and inoculated in the
nursery with mildly dwarfing exocortis, were planted in 1973 at densities ranging from 270 to
2,023 trees per acre (667-5,000 trees/ha). Those at 506 trees/ acre (1,250/ha) yielded 55 tons/acre
(135 tons/ha). Those at 1,214 to 2,023 trees/acre (3,000-5,000/ha) yielded 105 tons/acre (260
tons/ha) until after the 4th crop, when productivity began to decline.
Keeping Quality
Oranges can be stored for 3 months at 52 F (11.11 C); up to 5 months at 36 to 39 F (2.22-3.89
C). Deterioration in market quality is primarily due to transpiration-loss of moisture in the peel and
pulp. After 2 months of storage at 68 F (20 C) and, relative humidity of 60 to 80 %, 'Valencia'
oranges have been found to have lost 9.5% of the moisture in the peel but only 2.1% of that in the
pulp. The peel becomes 50% thinner, the pulp 10%. Later, the peel is very thin, dry and brittle
while the pulp is still juicy. Coating the fruits with a polyethylene/wax emulsion doubles the
storage life.
Pests
Oranges and other citrus fruits are commonly affected by citrus rust mites causing external
blemishing and, in extreme infestations, smaller fruits, pre-mature falling and even shedding of
leaves. Citrus red mites (purple mites) and Texas citrus mites, common in summer, disfigure the
surface of the fruit and the foliage mainly in the winter and during droughts. Parasitic fungi
(Hirsutella thompsonii and Triplosporium floridana) help to eradicate rust mites and the Texas
citrus mite.
Orange
Several scale insects prey on citrus trees. The most harmful enemy is citrus snow scale infesting
the woody portions of the tree. Purple scale and glover scale suck sap from the branches, twigs,
leaves and fruit. Florida red scale and yellow scale induce shedding of fruit and foliage. Chaff
scale may be found on the fruit, foliage and bark and produces green spots on the fruit. Cottony
cushion scale often infests young trees. Maintaining populations of the Vedalia lady beetle in
nurseries and groves is a fairly effective means of controlling this scale. Parasitic wasps (Aphytis
spp.) are able to control Citrus snow scale, purple scale and Florida red scale.
California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) is fairly well controlled by insect parasites in desert
orchards but chemical treatment is necessary in the San Joaquin Valley when pheromone trapping
of males reveals infestations. Pheromone trapping has virtually eliminated this scale in commercial
groves in Arizona.
Mealybugs, prevalent in spring and early summer, form white masses underneath and between
fruits in the early stages of development and may cause shedding, and their excretion of honeydew
provides a base for the fungal manifestation termed sooty mold. The whitefly in its immature stage
congregates on the lower side of the leaves, sucking the sap, and also excreting honeydew leading
to sooty mold. Immature whiteflies are preyed upon by the parasitic fungi, Aschersonia spp. and
Aegerita sp., which are frequently mistaken for harmful pests. The citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus
woglumi, deposits eggs in spiral formations on the underside of the leaves. It is a serious pest in
many of the citrus regions of the world. In January 1976, an inspection program was launched in
Florida with the expectation that spraying could eventually be replaced with biological control
utilizing the blackfly parasites, Amitus hesperidum and Prospaltella opulenta. By 1978, the
parasites were credited with a 97% reduction in the blackfly population.
Aphids (plant lice) cause leaves to curl and become crinkled. The brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera
citricidus, is the main vector of the tristeza virus. The orange dog is a large brown-and-white
caterpillar, the larva of a black-and-yellow, swallowtailed butterfly. These pests damage the trees
in summer and autumn.
In 1953, it was discovered that the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, was the cause of
spreading decline in Florida and extraordinary measures costing over 21 million dollars in the next
22 years were taken to remove infested trees, treat the soil and create buffer zones to prevent
spread into other groves.
Fruit flies are a constant threat to oranges and massive steps have been taken against the spread of
the Mediterranean fruit fly whenever it has appeared in Florida or California. The Caribbean fruit
fly is common in Florida and oranges from this state were, until 1980, fumigated with ethylene
dibromide before export. When this chemical was reported to have caused cancer in experimental
animals, it was banned for export or domestic use. Instead, cold treatment for 17 days at 34 F
(1.1 C) has been required. Quality of 'Valencia' oranges has remained stable for only 1 week at
40 F (4.4 C) following cold treatment; has deteriorated in a further 2 weeks at 70 F (21.1 C).
Diseases
Orange and other citrus trees are subject to a great number of fungal diseases affecting the roots,
the trunk and branches, the foliage and the fruits. Greasy spot, caused by Cercospora citri-grisea,
is seen, 2 to 9 months after severe infection, as yellow-brown, blistery, oily, brown or black spots
Orange
on the foliage. Severe defoliation may follow. The fungus, Diaporthe citri, is responsible for
gummosis, melanose, dieback and stem-end rot. The fungus, Elsinoe australis, causes sweet
orange scab which is frequently seen on oranges in South America and in Sicily and New
Caledonia. Phytophthora megasperma, P. palmivora and P. Parasitica are common causes of foot
rot.
There are also viruses and viroids usually named for the syndromes they causecrinkly leaf;
gummy bark; exocortis (scaly butt) transmitted by budwood and by tools; psorosis, xyloporosis
(cachexia), transmitted only by budwood. Tristeza has been a major problem in Florida in the past
and still is in Brazil. Since 1953, Florida has maintained a Citrus Budwood Registration program
for the production of virus-tested citrus trees. Under this program, the Etrog citron was adopted as
a test plant for identifying exocortis virus in one year's time, and techniques have been developed
for identifying tristeza in a few hours instead of months.
In 1984, an outbreak of citrus canker (Xanthomonas campestris pr. citri or Phytomonas citri) in
four whole-sale citrus nurseries in Florida caused widespread alarm and forced the burning of
thousands of nursery plants and a search for plants that had been sold by those nurseries, in efforts
to prevent the spread of this menace. The virus causes lesions on fruits, stems, and, unlike other
diseases, on both sides of the leaves; induces leaf fall and premature fruit drop and, in severe cases,
the death of the tree. Canker is common in various countries including India, the Philippines, the
Middle East, parts of Africa and in Brazil and Argentina. The highly virulent Oriental Strain A
was introduced into Florida in 1910 and was eradicated in Florida and the Gulf States by 1933. In
anticipation of reintroduction, pathologists have gone abroad to study the disease. By January
1986, Strain E had been reported in 17 nurseries and over 15 million young trees had been
destroyed. Eradication programs were intensified when Oriental Strain A reappeared on Florida's
west coast in midsummer, and 5 million more trees had to be burned.
Blight, or young tree decline (YTD), is the leading cause of losses of orange trees-up to a
half-million per year-in Florida, especially 'Valencia' on rough lemon, but any cultivars on any
rootstocks. Sour orange rootstock seems somewhat more resistant than the others. Blight was
thought to be the result of nutritional deficiencies or physiological or soil problems. But
root-grafting of healthy trees onto affected trees has shown the disease to be infectious.
Experiments at Lake Alfred have shown that substantial recovery from YTD, can be achieved by
early treatment of an affected tree with 20 gals (7 6 liters) of a 1 1/2% solution of sodium
erythorbate or erythorbic acid applied to the soil, and 10 gals (38 liters) applied as a foliar spray,
plus soil application of 5 to 7 1/2 lbs (2.2-3.3 kg) of calcium chloride or calcium nitrateabout 6 ft
(1.8 m) out from the base of the trunk. Foliar sprays of urea5 lbs (2.2 kg) per 100 gals (380
liters)with a wetter-sticker are given to encourage new growth.
Californian scientists have traced decline of the 'Navel' orange to incompatibility with trifoliate
orange rootstock (especially 'Rubidoux'; rarely 'Rich 16-6'). Malformation at the union, evident in
about 20 years, fully developed in 25, takes two formstongue-and-groove, and shelf-and-shoulder
distortions.
Often, abnormal aspects of leaves, occasioned by mineral deficiencies, may be mistaken for signs
of disease, Exanthema is the result of copper deficiency. Mottle-leaf indicates zinc deficiency.
Yellow spot signals lack of molybdenum. On the other hand, star melanose is brought about by
Orange
late copper spraying. Inspection by trained entomologists and/or plant pathologists is usually
necessary to determine the actual cause, or causes, of disfigurations or decline. Citrus quarantine
laws are very strict with a view to preventing the introduction and spread of pests and diseases,
and failure to comply with these laws can have disastrous consequences.
Food Uses
In the past, oranges were primarily eaten fresh, out-of-hand, and many are so consumed in warm
climates. In Cuba, oranges are peeled by an old-fashioned apple peeler mounted on the pushcart of
fruit vendors. Today, pre-peeled oranges in plastic bags are sold to motorists by Latin American
street vendors in Miami. The hand-labor of peeling oranges has limited the production of sliced
oranges for use by restaurants and orange-salad packers. However, a peeling machine developed
by John Webb in Clear-water, Florida, is peeling 80 oranges a minute and this device, together
with his successful sectioning machine, is expected to greatly expand the commercial use of fresh
oranges.
In the home, oranges are commonly peeled, segmented and utilized in fruit cups, salads, gelatins
and numerous other desserts, and as garnishes on cakes, meats and poultry dishes. They were also
squeezed daily in the kitchen for juice but housewives are becoming less and less inclined to do
this. In South America, a dozen whole, peeled oranges are boiled in 3 pints (1.41 liters) of slightly
sweetened water for 20 minutes and then strained and the liquid is poured over small squares of
toast and slices of lemon and served as soup.
In the past few decades, the commercial extraction of orange juice and its marketing in waxed
cartons or cans has become a major industry, though now surpassed on a grand scale by the
production of frozen orange concentrate to be diluted with water and served as juice. Dehydrated
orange juice (orange juice powder), developed in 1963, is sold for use in food manufacturing,
adding flavor, color and nutritive elements to bakery goods and many other products. Whole
oranges are sliced, dried and pulverized, and the powder is added to baked goods as flavoring.
Orange slices and orange peel are candied as confections. Grated peel is much used as a flavoring
and the essential oil, expressed from the outer layer of the peel, is employed commercially as a
food, soft-drink and candy flavor and for other purposes. Pectin for use in fruit preserves and
otherwise, is derived from the white inner layer of the peel. Finisher pulp, consisting mostly of the
juice sacs after the extraction of orange juice, has become a major by-product. Dried to a moisture
content of less than 10%, it has many uses as an emulsifier and binder in the food and beverage
industries.
Orange wine was at one time made in Florida from fruits too affected by cold spells to be
marketed. It is presently produced on a small scale in South Africa. Orange wine and brandy are
made in Brazil from fruits which have been processed for peel oil and then crushed.
Food Value
The chemistry of the orange is affected by many factors. On the average, 'Valencia', 'Washington
Navel', and other commercial oranges have been found to possess the values shown on the next
page.
Orange
Frozen
Juice (canned,
concentrate
unsweetened,
(unsweetened,
undiluted)
undiluted)
223
158
Fruit
(fresh)
Juice
(fresh)*
Calories
47-51
Moisture
86.0 g
40-48
87.2-89.6
42.0 g
g
0.5-1.0 g 4.1 g
0.1-0.3 g 1.3 g
Juice
(dehydrated)
Orange
Peel
(raw)**
380
58.2 g
1.0 g
72.5%
0.7-1.3 g
0.1-0.3 g
12.0-12.7
Carbohydrates
9.3-11.3 g 50.7 g
g
Fiber
0.5 g
0.1 g
0.5 g
Ash
0.5-0.7 g 0.4 g
1.9 g
2.3 g
0.2 g
5.0 g
1.7 g
1.5 g
0.2 g
38.0 g
88.9 g
25.0 g
0.2 g
1.3 g
0.8 g
3.4 g
0.8 mg
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
51 mg
86 mg
1.3 mg
5 mg
33 mg
55 mg
0.4 mg
2 mg
84 mg
134 mg
1.7 mg
8.0 mg
161 mg
21 mg
0.8 mg
3.0 mg
942 mg
657 mg
1,728 mg
212 mg
960 I.U.
0.39 mg
0.12 mg
1.7 mg
229 mg
710 I.U.
0.30 mg
0.05 mg
1.2 mg
158 mg
1,680 I.U.
0.67 mg
0.21 mg
2.9 mg
359 mg
420 I.U.
0.12 mg
0.09 mg
0.9 mg
136 mg
Protein
Fat
40-43 mg
17-22 mg
0.2-0.8 mg
1.0 mg
190-200
Potassium
mg
Vitamin A
200 I.U.
Thiamine
0.10 mg
Riboflavin
0.04 mg
Niacin
0.4 mg
Ascorbic Acid 45-61 mg
10-11 mg
15-19 mg
0.2-0.3 mg
1.0 mg
190-208
mg
200 I.U.
0.09 mg
0.03 mg
0.4 mg
37-61 mg
*Volatile properties include: ethyl, isoamyl and phenylethyl alcohols; acetone; acetaldehyde;
formic acid; esters of formic, acetic and caprylic acids; geraniol and terpineol. The juice also
contains -sitosteryl-D-glucoside and -sitosterol.
**Orange Peel Oil d-limonene (90%); citral; citranellal; methyl ester of anthranilic acid; decyclic
aldehyde; linalool; d-l-terpineol; nonyl alcohol; methyl anthranilate; and traces of caprilic acid
esters.
Toxicity
Persons in close proximity to orange trees in bloom may have adverse respiratory reactions.
Sawdust of the wood of orange trees, formerly used for polishing jewelry, has caused asthma.
Excessive contact with the volatile oils in orange peel can produce dermatitis. People who suck
oranges often suffer skin irritation around the mouth. Those who peel quantities of oranges may
have rash and blisters between the fingers. If they touch their faces, they are apt to have facial
symptoms as well. In southern Florida, a young woman shook an orange tree in order to cause the
Orange
fruit to fall. An hour later, she broke out in hives, presumably from exposure to a spray of citrus
oils from the ruptured peduncles, stem-end peel, and broken leaf petioles. A similar reaction has
occurred from shaking down the fruits of a lime tree in Miami. Sensitive individuals may have
respiratory reactions in proximity to the volatile emanations from broken orange peel.
Other Uses
Pulp: Citrus pulp (3/4 being a by-product of orange juice extraction) is highly valued as pelleted
stockfeed with a protein content of 6.58 to 7.03%, and it is also being marketed as cat litter. It is a
source of edible yeast, non-potable alcohol, ascorbic acid, and hesperidin.
Peel: In addition to its food uses, orange peel oil is a prized scent in perfume and soaps. Because
of its 90-95% limonene content, it has a lethal effect on houseflies, fleas and fireants. Its potential
as an insecticide is under investigation. It is being used in engine cleaners and in waterless
hand-cleaners in heavy machinery repair shops. It is commercially produced mainly in California
and Florida, followed distantly by Italy, Israel, Jamaica, South Africa, Brazil and Greece, in that
order. Terpenes extracted from the outer layer of the peel are important in resins and in
formulating paints for ships. Australians have reported that a shipment of platypuses sent to the
United States in the 1950s was fed mass-produced worms raised on orange peel.
Seeds: Oil derived from orange and other citrus seeds is employed as a cooking oil and in soap
and plastics. The high-protein seed residue is suitable for human food and an ingredient in
cattlefeed, and the hulls enter into fertilizer mixtures.
Flowers and foliage: The essential oils distilled from orange flowers and foliage are important in
perfume manufacturing. Some Petitgrain oil is distilled from the leaves, flowers, twigs, and small,
whole, unripe fruits.
Nectar: The nectar flow is more abundant than that from any other source in the United States and
is actually a nuisance to grove workers in California, more moderate in Florida. It is eagerly
sought by honeybees and the delicious, light-colored honey is widely favored, though it darkens
and granulates within a few months. Citrus honey constitutes 25% of all honey produced in
California each year. There are efforts to time pest-control spraying to avoid adverse effects on
honeybees during the period of nectar-gathering.
Wood: The wood is yellowish, close-grained and hard but prone to attack by drywood termites. It
has been valued for furniture, cabinetwork, turnery and engraver's blocks. Branches are fashioned
into walking-sticks. Orange wood is the source of orange sticks used by manicurists to push back
the cuticle.
Medicinal Uses: Oranges are eaten to allay fever and catarrh. The roasted pulp is prepared as a
poultice for skin diseases. The fresh peel is rubbed on acne. In the mid-1950s, the health benefits
of eating peeled, whole oranges was much publicized because of its protopectin, bioflavonoids and
inositol (related to vitamin B). The orange contains a significant amount of the vitamin-like
glucoside, hesperidin, 75-80% of it in the albedo, rag and pulp. This principle, also rutin, and other
bioflavonoids were for a while much advocated for treating capillary fragility, hemorrhages and
other physiological problems, but they are no longer approved for such use in the United States.
An infusion of the immature fruit is taken to relieve stomach and intestinal complaints. The
Orange
flowers are employed medicinally by the Chinese people living in Malaya. Orange flower water,
made in Italy and France as a cologne, is bitter and considered antispasmodic and sedative. A
decoction of the dried leaves and flowers is given in Italy as an antispasmodic, cardiac sedative,
antiemetic, digestive and remedy for flatulence. The inner bark, macerated and infused in wine, is
taken as a tonic and carminative. A vinous decoction of husked orange seeds is prescribed for
urinary ailments in China and the juice of fresh orange leaves or a decoction of the dried leaves
may be taken as a carminative or emmenagogue or applied on sores and ulcers. An orange seed
extract is given as a treatment for malaria in Ecuador but it is known to cause respiratory
depression and a strong contraction of the spleen.
Mandarin Orange

Morton, J. 1987. Mandarin Orange. p. 142145. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Mandarin Orange
Citrus reticulata
Description
Climate
Varieties
Food Uses
Other Uses
Mandarin is a group name for a class of oranges with thin, loose peel, which have been dubbed
"kid-glove" oranges. These are treated as members of a distinct species, Citrus reticulata Blanco.
The name "tangerine" could be applied as an alternate name to the whole group, but, in the trade,
is usually confined to the types with red-orange skin. In the Philippines all mandarin oranges are
called naranjita. Spanish-speaking people in the American tropics call them mandarina.
Description
The mandarin tree may be much smaller
than that of the sweet orange or equal in
size, depending on variety. With great age,
some may reach a height of 25 ft (7.5 m)
with a greater spread. The tree is usually
thorny, with slender twigs, broad-or
slender-lanceolate leaves having minute,
rounded teeth, and narrowly-winged
petioles. The flowers are borne singly or a
few together in the leaf axils. The fruit is
oblate, the peel bright-orange or red-orange
when ripe, loose, separating easily from the
37: Easily-peeled Mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulata)
segments. Seeds are small, pointed at one Fig.
are ideal for eating out-of-hand and very popular in Central
end, green inside.
America.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mandarin_orange.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:34:39 PM]
Mandarin Orange

The mandarin orange is considered a native of south-eastern Asia and the Philippines. It is most
abundantly grown in Japan, southern China, India, and the East Indies, and is esteemed for home
consumption in Australia. It gravitated to the western world by small steps taken by individuals
interested in certain cultivars. Therefore, the history of its spread can be roughly traced in the
chronology of separate introductions. Two varieties from Canton were taken to England in 1805.
They were adopted into cultivation in the Mediterranean area and, by 1850, were well established
in Italy. Sometime between 1840 and 1850, the 'Willow-leaf' or 'China Mandarin' was imported by
the Italian Consul and planted at the Consulate in New Orleans. It was carried from there to
Florida and later reached California. The 'Owari' Satsuma arrived from Japan, first in 1876 and
next in 1878, and nearly a million budded trees from 1908 to 1911 for planting in the Gulf States.
Six fruits of the 'King' mandarin were sent from Saigon in 1882 to a Dr. Magee at Riverside,
California. The latter sent 2 seedlings to Winter Park, Florida. Seeds of the 'Oneco' mandarin were
obtained from India by the nurseryman, P.W. Reasoner, in 1888. In 1892 or 1893, 2 fruits of
'Ponkan' were sent from China to J.C. Barrington of McMeskin, Florida, and seedlings from there
were distributed and led to commercial propagation.
The commercial cultivation of mandarin oranges in the United States has developed mostly in
Alabama, Florida and Mississippi and, to a lesser extent, in Texas, Georgia and California. Mexico
has overproduced tangerines, resulting in low market value and cessation of plantings. The
1971-72 crop was 170,000 MT, of which, 8,600 MT were exported to the United States and lesser
amounts to East Germany, Canada and Argentina. There is limited culture in Guatemala and some
other areas of tropical America. These fruits have never been as popular in western countries as
they are in the Orient, Coorg, a mountainous region of the Western Ghats, in India, is famous for
its mandarin oranges. For commercial exploitation, mandarins have several disadvantages: the fruit
has poor holding capacity on the tree, the peel is tender and therefore the fruits do not stand
shipping well, and the tree has a tendency toward alternate bearing.
Climate
Mandarin oranges are much more cold-hardy than the sweet orange, and the tree is more tolerant
of drought. The fruits are tender and readily damaged by cold.
Varieties
Mandarin cultivars fall into several classes:
Class I, Mandarin:
'Changsa'brilliant orange-red; sweet, but insipid; seedy. Matures early in the fall. The tree has
high cold resistance; has survived 4 F (-15.56 C) at Arlington, Texas. It is grown as an
ornamental.
'Le-dar'arose from a climbing branch discovered on an 'Ellendale Beauty' mandarin tree in
Bundaberg, Queensland, Australia, about 1959. The owners, named Darrow, took bud-wood from
the branch and found that it retained its climbing tendency. Commercial propagation was
undertaken by Langbecker Nurseries and the name was trademarked in 1965 when over 5,000
budded trees were put on sale. The budded trees produced large fruits, of rich color and high
Mandarin Orange
quality, maturing a little later than the parent.

'Emperor'believed to have originated in Australia, and a leading commercial cultivar there;
oblate, large, 2 1/2 in (6.5 cm) wide, 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) high; peel pale-orange, medium thin; pulp
pale-orange; 9-10 segments; seeds long, pointed, 10-16 in number. Midseason. Grown on rough
lemon rootstock or, better still, on Poncirus trifoliata.
'Oneco'closely related to 'Emperor'; from northwestern India; introduced into Florida by P.W.
Reasoner in 1888. Oblate to faintly pear-shaped; medium to large, 2 1/2-3 1/2 in (6.25-9 cm) wide,
2 1/4-3 in (5.7-7.5 cm) high; peel orange-yellow, glossy, rough and puffy; pulp orange-yellow, of
rich, sweet flavor; 5-10 seeds. Medium to late in season. Tree large and vigorous, high-yielding.
Not grown commercially in the United States.
'Willow-leaf'(China Mandarin')oblate to rounded, of medium size, 2-2 1/2 in (5-6.25 cm) wide,
1 3/4-2 1/4 in (4.5-5.7 cm) high; peel orange, smooth, glossy, thin; pulp orange, with 10-12
segments; very juicy, of sweet, rich flavor; 15-20 seeds. Early in season. Tree is small to medium,
with very slender, willowy branches, almost thornless, and slim leaves. Reproduces true from
seed. Grown mainly as an ornamental and for breeding.
Class II, Tangerine:
'Clementine' (Algerian Tangerine')introduced into Florida by the United States Department of
Agriculture in 1909 and from Florida into California in 1914; also brought directly from the
Government Experiment Station in Algeria about the same time; round to elliptical; of medium
size, 2-2 3/8 in (5-6.1 cm) wide, 2-2 3/4 in (5-7 cm) high; peel deep orange-red, smooth, glossy,
thick, loose, but scarcely puffy; pulp deep-orange with 8-12 segments; juicy, and of fine quality
and flavor; 3-6 seeds of medium size, non-nucellar; season early but long, extending into the
summer. Tree is of medium size, almost thornless; a shy bearer. In Spain it has been found that a
single application of gibberellic acid at color-break, considerably reduces peel blemishes and
permits late harvesting. 'Clementine' crossed with pollen of the 'Orlando' tangelo produced the
hybrid selections, 'Robinson', 'Osceola', and 'Lee', released in 1959. The last two are no longer
grown as fruit crops; only utilized in breeding programs.
'Cleopatra' ('Ponki', or 'Spice')(now being shown as Citrus reshni Hort. ex Tanaka)introduced
into Florida from Jamaica before 1888; oblate, small; peel dark orange-red; pulp of good quality
but seedy. Fruits too small to be of commercial value; they remain on the tree until next crop
matures, adding to the attractiveness of the tree which is itself highly ornamental; much used as a
rootstock in Japan and Florida.
'Dancy'may have come from China; found in the grove of Col. G.L. Dancy at Buena Vista,
Florida, and brought into cultivation in 1871 or 1872. Oblate to pear-shaped; of medium size, 2
1/4-3 in (5.7-7.5 cm) wide, 1 1/2-2 1/8 in (4-5.4 cm) high; peel deep orange-red to red, smooth,
glossy at first but lumpy and fluted later, thin, leathery, tough; pulp dark-orange with 10-14
segments, of fine quality, richly flavored; 6-20 small seeds. In season in late fall and winter. This
is the leading tangerine in the United States, mainly grown in Florida, secondarily in California,
and, to a small extent, in Arizona. Tree is vigorous, cold-tolerant, bears abundantly.
Alternate-bearing induced by an abnormally heavy crop, can be avoided by spraying with a
chemical thinner (Ethephon) when the fruits are very young. Thinning enhances fruit size and
Mandarin Orange
market value. This cultivar is disease-resistant but highly susceptible to chaff scale (Parlatoria
pergandii) which leaves green feeding marks on the fruit making it unmarketable. Control can be
achieved by spring and summer or spring and fall spraying of an appropriate pesticide.
'Ponkan' ('Chinese Honey Orange')round to oblate; large, 2 3/4-3 3/16 in (7-8 cm) wide; peel
orange, smooth, furrowed at apex and base; medium thick; pulp salmon-orange, melting, with 9-12
segments, very juicy, aromatic, sweet, of very fine quality and with few seeds. Tree not as
cold-hardy as 'Dancy', small, upright; can be maintained as a "dwarf' and in China, where the fruit
is greatly prized, may be planted 900 to the acre (2,224/ha). R.C. Pitman, Jr., of Apopka, Florida,
organized the Florida Ponkan Corporation in 1948, served as its President, and has continuously
promoted the culture of this delicious fruit.
'Robinson'the result of pollinating the 'Clementine' tangerine with the 'Orlando' tangelo, at the
United States Department of Agriculture's Horticultural Field Station, Orlando, Florida, was
introduced into cultivation in 1960. It is essentially a tangerine, has 10 to 20 seeds. Back-crossing
with pollen of the 'Orlando' greatly elevates fruit-set but also results in increasing the seed count to
an average of 22 per fruit. This cultivar had lost popularity with growers but the recent practice of
spraying with Ethrel (a ripening agent) to speed up coloring on the tree and loosen the fruit has
been such an important advance in harvesting and in reducing time in the coloring room that it has
reinstated the 'Robinson' as a commerical cultivar. In 1980, the crop forecast was 1.1 million
boxes, about 40% of that of 'Dancy'.
'Sunburst'This cultivar was selected in 1967 from 15 seedlings; of hybrids of 'Robinson' and
'Osceola', the latter being another 'Clementine' pollinated with 'Orlando' tangelo but still
dominantly a tangerine. 'Sunburst' was propagated on several rootstocks in 1970 and released in
Florida in 1979. Oblate, medium-sized, 2 1/2-3 in (6.25-7.5 cm) wide; peel is orange to scarlet in
central Florida, orange around the Indian River area; pulp in 11-15 segments with much colorful
juice; seeds 10 to 20 according to degree of pollination; green inside. Matures in a favorable
season: (mid-November to mid-December). Tree vigorous, thornless, early-bearing, self-infertile;
needs cross-pollination for good fruit set; amenable to sour orange, rough lemon, 'Carrizo' and
'Cleopatra' root-stocks though the latter results in slightly reduced fruit size; medium cold-hardy;
resistant to Alternaria and very tolerant of snow scale.
Class III, Satsuma (sometimes marketed as "Emerald Tangerine")
The Satsuma orange is believed to have originated in Japan about 350 years ago as a seedling of a
cultivar, perhaps the variable 'Zairi'. It is highly cold-resistant; has survived 12 F (-11.11 C); is
more resistant than the sweet orange to canker, gummosis, psorosis and melanose. It is budded
onto Poncirus trifoliata in Florida, sweet orange in California. It has been found in Spain that
spraying with gibberellic acid 4 to 5 weeks before commercial maturity prevents puffiness, delays
ripening, and permits harvesting 2 months later than normal, but this leads to reduced yields the
following year.
'Owari'oblate to rounded or becoming pear-shaped with age; of medium size, 1 1/2-2 3/4 in
(4-6.1 cm) wide, 1 1/2-2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) high; peel orange, slightly rough, becoming lumpy and
fluted, thin, tough; pulp orange, of rich, subacid flavor; nearly seedless, sometimes 1-4 seeds.
Early but short season. Peel often remains more or less green after maturity and needs to be
artificially colored in order to market before loss of flavor. Tree small, almost thornless,
Mandarin Orange
large-leaved, with faint or no wings on petioles; cultivated commercially in northern Florida,

Alabama and other Gulf States; very little in California.
'Wase'Discovered at several sites in Japan from before 1895; believed to be a bud sport of
'Owari'; was propagated and extensively planted in Japan before 1910; was growing in Alabama in
1917; one tree was sent to California in 1929; oblate to rounded or somewhat conical; large, 2 1/3
in (5.81 cm) wide, 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) high; peel orange, thin, smooth; pulp salmon-orange, melting,
sweet, with 10 segments more or less. Very early in season. Tree is dwarf, slow-growing,
heavy-bearing, but susceptible to pests and diseases; has been planted to a limited extent in
California and southern Alabama.
'Kara' ('Owari' X 'King' tangor)a hybrid developed at the California Citrus Experiment Station
and distributed in 1935; sub-oblate or nearly round; of medium size, 2 1/8-3 in (5.4-7.5 cm) wide,
2 1/8-2 3/4 in (5.4-7 cm) high; peel deep-orange to orange-yellow, lumpy and wrinkled at apex,
puffy with age, thin to medium, fairly tough; pulp deep yellow-orange, with 10-13 segments,
tender, very juicy, aromatic, of rich flavor, acid until fully ripe, then sweet; usually 12-20 large
seeds, at times nearly seedless. Late in season. Tree is vigorous, thornless, with large leaves, the
petiole narrowly winged. Grown in coastal California.
Tangerines generally do not have good keeping quality. Commercially washed and waxed 'Dancy'
tangerines show a high rate of decay if kept for 2 weeks, will totally decay if held 4 weeks, at 70
F (21 C). To prolong storage life, pads impregnated with the fungistat, diphenyl, have been placed
in shipping cartons. The chemical is partly absorbed by the fruit and Federal regulations allow a
residue of only 110 ppm. Storage trials have shown that washed and waxed 'Dancy' and 'Sunburst',
with 2 pads per carton, absorbed more than 110 ppm in 2 weeks at 70 F (21 C). Though 'Dancy'
absorbed more of the fungistat than 'Sunburst', it showed more decay. Storage of unwashed 'Dancy'
fruits for 2 weeks at 39.2 F (3 C) with 1 pad per carton showed diphenyl absorption below the
legal limit. Unwashed 'Sunburst' fruits with 2 pads can be stored 4 weeks without absorbing
excessive diphenyl. Early-harvested tangerines are less susceptible to decay but apt to absorb an
excess of diphenyl.
In the Coorg region of India, mandarins of the main crop, harvested in January/February, lose
moisture and become shriveled and unmarketable in 10 days at room temperature, 69 F (20.26
C). Wax-coating extends shelf-life to 14 days. Fruits stored in perforated polyethylene bags remain
marketable for 21 days at room temperature, and, whether waxed or unwaxed, held at 41 F (5 C),
retain quality for 31 days.
Food Uses
Mandarin oranges of all kinds are primarily eaten out-of-hand, or the sections are utilized in fruit
salads, gelatins, puddings, or on cakes. Very small types are canned in sirup.
The essential oil expressed from the peel is employed commercially in flavoring hard candy,
gelatins, ice cream, chewing gum, and bakery goods. Mandarin essential oil paste is a standard
flavoring for carbonated beverages. The essential oil, with terpenes and sesquiterpenes removed, is
utilized in liqueurs. Petitgrain mandarin oil, distilled from the leaves, twigs and unripe fruits, has
the same food applications. Tangerine oil is not suitable for flavoring purposes.
Mandarin Orange

Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
82.6-90.2 g
0.61-0.215 g
0.05-0.32 g
0.3-0.7 g
0.29-0.54 g
25.0-46.8 mg
11.7-23.4 mg
0.17-0.62 mg
0.013-0.175 mg
0.048-0.128 mg
0.014-0.041 mg
Niacin
0.199-0.38 mg
Ascorbic Acid 13.3-54.4 mg
*Analyses of tangerines made in Central America.
In 1965, the 'Dancy' tangerine was found to contain more of the decongestant synephrine than any
other citrus fruit-97-152 mg/liter, plus 80 mg/100 g ascorbic acid.
Mandarin peel oil contains decylaldehyde, y-phellandrene, p-cymene, linalool, terpineol, nerol,
linalyl, terpenyl acetate, aldehydes, citral, citronellal, and d-limonene. Petitgrain mandarin oil
contains a-pinene, dipentene, limonene, p-cymene, methyl anthranilate, geraniol, and methyl
methylanthranilate.
Other Uses
Mandarin essential oil and Petitgrain oil and tangerine oil, and their various tinctures and essences,
are valued in perfume-manufacturing, particularly in the formulation of floral compounds and
colognes. They are produced mostly in Italy, Sicily and Algiers.
Tangor

Morton, J. 1987. Tangor. p. 145146. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Tangor
Citrus reticulata Citrus sinensis
Varieties
Pests and Diseases
Tangors are deliberate or accidental hybrids of the mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and the sweet
orange (C. sinensis). The following are among the better known:
Varieties
'King' ('King of Siam'); formerly identified as Citrus nobilis Lour.; is believed to have originated
in Malaya and to have traveled from there to Japan and then to Florida; oblate to rounded; large, 2
1/2-3 3/4 in (6.25-9.5 cm) wide, 2 1/4-3 1/2 in (5.7-9 cm) high; peel deep orange-yellow to orange,
thick, rough, lumpy; pulp dark-orange, with 10 to 12 segments, very little rag, melting, of fine
quality and flavor; 5-15 or more seeds, white within. Late in season. Tree of medium size, erect,
thorny to almost thornless, large-leaved, with narrowly-winged petioles; cold-resistant, very
productive; may overbear and break branches. Formerly popular in Florida; of limited cultivation
in California. No longer grown commercially in the United States. Does very well at cool
elevations in Peru.
'Murcott' (Honey Murcott'; 'Murcott Honey Orange'; 'Red'; 'Big Red'; 'Honey Bell'
tangelo)believed to have resulted from breeding work by Dr. Walter Swingle and associates at the
United States Department of Agriculture nursery in the Little River district of northeast Miami.
The original tree was sent to R.D. Hoyt, in Safety Harbor, about 1913 for trial. Budwood was
given to his nephew, Charles Murcott Smith, who propagated several trees about 1922. This led to
propagation by several nurseries beginning in 1928 under the name, 'Honey Murcott'. Large-scale
production began in 1952. The fruit is oblate, of medium size, 2 3/4-3 3/16 in (7.0-8.0 cm) wide, 1
4/5-2 1/16 in (4.7-5.2 cm) high; peel yellow to deep-orange, glossy, smooth, faintly ribbed, thin,
clings to pulp but easily removed when fresh; pulp orange, 11-12 segments, with little rag; tender,
having an abundance of reddish-orange juice, with high soluble solids; flavor rich, sweet-subacid;
seeds 18-24, small, white inside. Because of the thin peel, the fruit is clipped from the tree, not
pulled. It stores and ships well; is in high demand as a fresh fruit, not desirable for canned juice or
frozen juice concentrate because of poor processed flavor. Tree is bushy with slender branches
bearing fruits near the tips where they are subject to wind and cold damage. Very productive on
rough lemon rootstock. Tends to alternate bearing. In heavy-fruiting years, crop may be so heavy
as to break the limbs, or the tree may collapse ('Murcott Decline'), or many branches may die back.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tangor.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:34:40 PM]
Tangor
This cultivar is subject to a virus disease known as fovea.

'Temple' (believed identical to the 'Magnet' of Japan)a seedling discovered by a fruit buyer
named Boyce who went to Jamaica in 1896 to purchase oranges after a severe freeze in Florida. He
sent budwood to several friends in Winter Park, Florida, who later shared budwood with others.
One budded tree fruiting in the grove of L.A. Hakes was brought to the attention of W.C. Temple
who recommended it to H.E. Gillett, owner of Buckeye Nurseries. The latter named and
propagated it and offered it for sale in 1919. It was not extensively planted until after 1940. The
fruit is oblate to round, medium to large, 2 5/8-3 1/4 in (6.6-8.25 cm) wide, 2 1/4-2 1/2 in (5.7-6.25
cm) high; peel is deep-orange to red-orange, glossy, slightly rough, loose, thick, leathery; pulp
orange, melting, of rich, sprightly flavor and superb quality; about 20 seeds of medium size, 25%
being under-developed; green inside. Midseason. Tree not very cold-hardy, moderately thorny,
bushy; most satisfactory on sour orange rootstock, and succeeds better in Florida than in California
or Texas. Excessive applications of nitrogen and potassium increase acidity of the juice. For
low-acid juice, low rates of nitrogen and potassium and high rates of phosphorus are necessary.
Florida produced 3.3 million boxes in 1984-85 despite severe freezes.
'Umatilla' (incorrectly 'Umatilla Tangelo')arose from pollination of the flowers of a 'Ruby'
orange by 'Owari' Satsuma at Eustis, Florida, in 1911. The progeny was propagated in 1931. Much
like 'King'; oblate to rounded; large, 3 1/4-4 3/4 in (8.25-12 cm) wide, 2 1/2-2 3/4 in (6.25-7 cm)
high; peel red-orange, smooth, glossy, medium-thick, not very loose; pulp orange, with usually 10
segments, melting, very juicy, of rich sweet-acid flavor and fine quality; 10 or more large seeds or
occasionally none. Late in season; holds well on tree. Tree is slow-growing, high-yielding; leaves
thick and leathery without wings. Not extensively grown but prized for gift-boxes in Florida.
'Ortanique'believed to be a chance cross of sweet orange and tangerine; discovered in the
Christiana market, Jamaica, by a Manchester man named Swaby who bought 6 fruits. Of resulting
seedlings, 2 bore fruit true to type which were exhibited at an agricultural show in the early 1900's.
A man named C. P. Jackson, from Mandeville, bought 2 fruits, planted 130 seeds. Some of the
seedlings were very thorny. Jackson selected the least thorny, least seedy, and named the fruita
contraction of orange, tangerine, and unique. The Citrus Growers Association took charge of the
marketing for export in 1944. Fruit closely resembles 'Temple'; oblate; peel deep-orange, thin,
adherent; pulp divided into 16 segments with scant rag, very juicy, of distinctive acid-sweet flavor;
seedless or with few seeds; subject to bruising when freshly picked; needs special handling by
harvesters and packers. Grown commercially only in Jamaica but planted to some extent on other
Caribbean islands. Fresh fruits and hot-pack concentrate have been shipped to the United Kingdom
and New Zealand for many years. Citrus Growers Association took charge of marketing for export
in 1944. The fruit is in demand domestically and abroad and brings a premium price. The tree is
budded onto pummelo rootstock; cannot tolerate excessive moisture; optimum rainfall is 55-60 in
(140-150 cm) annually, half in spring, half in fall. Ideal day temperature is 70-80 or up to 90 F
(21.11-26.67 or up to 35 C), with 55 F (12.7 C) at night. The 'Ortanique' does well in hot, dry
weather on shallow bauxite soil between 2,000 and 3,000 ft (600-900 m) elevation. There is less
flavor in fruits from trees grown on clay or alluvial soils or at lower elevations. On clay, the
'Ortanique' is budded on sour orange rootstock. Rough lemon rootstock produces very inferior
fruit. The tree begins to bear regularly at 3 years, and a 5-year-old tree will yield 1 1/2 to 2 1/2
90-lb (40.8 kg) field boxes; a 10-year-old tree, 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 boxes; and trees 15 to 20 years old, 4
to 5 1/2 boxes.
Tangor
The 'Ortanique' has not performed well in Florida. In South Africa, fruiting has been somewhat
irregular. Horticulturists at the Citrus and Subtropical Fruit Research Institute, Nelspruit, found it
to be self-incompatible. Cross-pollination with the 'Valencia' orange, 'Minneola' and 'Orlando'
tangelos and 'Marsh' grapefruit greatly increases fruit-set and elevates the seed count.
Pests and Diseases
In Jamaica, the 'Ortanique' is attacked by aphids (Aphis gossypii), rust mite (Phyllocoptruta
oleivora), Florida red scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum), purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckii), and
occasionally the West Indian red scale (Selanaspidus articulatus). Frequently seen are the
fruit-piercing moth (Gonodonta spp.) and moths of the genus Tortrix.
The fungus, Sphaeropsis tumefaciens, sometimes causes large galls or knots around new twigs.
Thread blight (Corticium stevensii) may occur in some localities.
Pummelo

Morton, J. 1987. Pummelo. p. 147151. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Pummelo
Citrus maxima
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
This, the largest citrus fruit, is known in the western world mainly as the principal ancestor of the
grapefruit. As a luscious food, it is famous in its own right in its homeland, the Far East.
Botanically it is identified as Citrus maxima Merr., (C. grandis Osbeck; C. decumana L.). The
common name is derived from the Dutch pompelmoes, which is rendered pompelmus or
pampelmus in German, pamplemousse in French. An alternate vernacular name, shaddock, now
little used, was acquired on its entry into the Western Hemisphere as related below. The current
Malayan names are limau abong, limau betawi, limau bali, limau besar, limau bol, limau jambua,
Bali lemon, and pomelo.
Description
The pummelo tree may be 16 to 50 ft (5-15 m) tall, with a somewhat crooked trunk 4 to 12 in
(10-30 cm) thick, and low, irregular branches. Some forms are distinctly dwarfed. The young
branchlets are angular and often densely hairy, and there are usually spines on the branchlets, old
limbs and trunk. Technically compound but appearing simple, having one leaflet, the leaves are
alternate, ovate, ovate-oblong, or elliptic, 2 to 8 in (5-20 cm) long, 3/4 to 4 3/4 in (2-12 cm) wide,
leathery, dull-green, glossy above, dull and minutely hairy beneath; the petiole broadly winged to
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pummelo.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:34:42 PM]
Pummelo
occasionally nearly wingless. The flowers

are fragrant, borne singly or in clusters of 2
to 10 in the leaf axils, or sometimes 10 to 15
in terminal racemes 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm)
long; rachis and calyx hairy; the 4 to 5
petals, yellowish-white, 3/5 to 1 1/3 in
(1.5-3.5 cm) long, somewhat hairy on the
outside and dotted with yellow-green
glands; stamens white, prominent, in
bundles of 4 to 5, anthers orange. The fruit
ranges from nearly round to oblate or
pear-shaped; 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) wide; the
peel, clinging or more or less easily
removed, may be greenish-yellow or
Fig. 38: Pummelos (Citrus maxima) vary in form, size, color
and flavor of pulp.
pale-yellow, minutely hairy, dotted with
tiny green glands; 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) thick, the albedo soft, white or pink; pulp varies from
greenish-yellow or pale-yellow to pink or red; is divided into 11 to 18 segments, very juicy to
fairly dry; the segments are easily skinned and the sacs may adhere to each other or be loosely
joined; the flavor varies from mildly sweet and bland to subacid or rather acid, sometimes with a
faint touch of bitterness. Generally, there are only a few, large, yellowish-white seeds, white
inside; though some fruits may be quite seedy. A pummelo cross-pollinated by another pummelo is
apt to have numerous seeds; if cross-pollinated by sweet orange or mandarin orange, the progeny
will not be seedy.
The pummelo is native to southeastern Asia and all of Malaysia; grows wild on river banks in the
Fiji and Friendly Islands. It may have been introduced into China around 100 B.C. It is much
cultivated in southern China (Kwang-tung, Kwangsi and Fukien Provinces) and especially in
southern Thailand on the banks to the Tha Chine River; also in Taiwan and southernmost Japan,
southern India, Malaya, Indonesia, New Guinea and Tahiti. The first seeds are believed to have
been brought to the New World late in the 17th Century by a Captain Shaddock who stopped at
Barbados on his way to England. By 1696, the fruit was being cultivated in Barbados and Jamaica.
Dr. David Fairchild was enthusiastic about the first pummelo he tasted, aboard ship between
Batavia and Singapore in 1899. In 1902, the United States Department of Agriculture obtained
several plants from Thailand (S.P.I. Nos. 9017, 9018, 9019). Only one (No. 9017) survived and
was planted in the agricultural greenhouse in Washington, and budwood from it was sent to
Florida, California, Puerto Rico, Cuba (the Isle of Pines), and Trinidad. When the trees fruited, the
flavor and general quality were inferior and aroused no enthusiasm. Other introductions were
attempted in 1911 but all the plants died in transit. In 1913, a horticulturist of the Philippine
Bureau of Agriculture was given the assignment of collecting the best types of pummelos in
Thailand. He shipped to San Francisco one tree of a 'Bangkok' type that had been introduced into
the Philippines in 1912; it was planted in the greenhouse of the Plant Introduction Garden at
Chico. When it fruited several years later, the fruit was of such poor quality that it was considered
useless. However, budwood was sent to Riverside and grafted onto two grapefruit trees growing
on sour orange rootstock. One of the trees died but the other bore high-quality fruits which were
Pummelo
much admired. Budwood was sent to different locations in Florida. In 1919, two trees of a superior
pummelo (possibly 'Hao Phuang') from Thailand, which had been doing well in the Philippines,
were shipped to the United States Quarantine Station in Bethesda, Maryland, and one of these
survived. In addition, seeds from Thailand and from fruits in Chinese markets had been sent to
Washington and seedlings were growing in greenhouses.
Dr. Fairchild was eager to introduce the red-fleshed type he had enjoyed in 1899. In 1926, he
collected budwood at a hotel in Bandoeng and sent it, together with seeds, to the United States
Department of Agriculture but they did not survive the trip. However, seeds of a cultivar in Kediri
with flesh nearly as red as his ideal pummelo did reach the Citrus Quarantine Station in Bethesda,
Maryland (as S.P.I. No. 67641), and the seedlings were grown there successfully.
In all the succeeding years, the pummelo has never attained significant status in this hemisphere.
Generally, it is casually grown as a curiosity in private gardens in Florida and the Caribbean area,
and mainly for experimental and breeding purposes at the United States Department of
Agriculture's research stations in Orlando and Leesburg, Florida, and at Indio, California, and
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, and at the University of California's Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside.
There are small commercial plantings in southern Mexico furnishing fruits for local markets. At
least one fruit-grower in Lady-lake, Florida, raises pummelos on a small commercial scale. He
ships the fruits to New York's Chinatown for $3 each for Chinese New Year festivities. They must
be 5 in (12.5 cm) or more in diameter.
Varieties
Professor G. Weidman Groff, in his Culture and Varieties of Siamese Pummelos, lists 20 named
Thai cultivars, giving the date and identification number of their introduction into the United
States. He describes nine. Dr. J.J. Ochse, in Fruits and Fruitculture in the Dutch East Indies,
described 8 types commonly grown in Batavia. All have red or pink pulp; most have a more or less
acid flavor, or a sweetish flavor with an astringent aftertaste. None seems to be of outstanding
quality. Reuther, Webber and Batchelor, in Citrus Industry, Volume I, 2nd ed., describe 14
cultivars, including the best-known in Thailand, Japan, Indonesia and Tahiti and hybrids created in
California. The following 22, from these and other sources, are briefly presented in alphabetical
order:
'Banpeiyu' (believed to be the same as 'Pai Yau' of Taiwan)originated in Malaya, introduced into
Taiwan in 1920 and from there into Japan; nearly round, very large; peel pale-yellow, smooth,
thick, tightly clinging; pulp pale-yellow, in 15-18 segments with thin but tough walls; firm but
tender, juicy, of excellent, sweet-acid flavor; medium-late in season; keeps well for several
months. Tree large, vigorous, with hairy new growth; leaves hairy beneath. Widely grown in the
Orient; the leading cultivar of Japan where it attains high quality only in the warmest locations.
'Chandler'a hybrid of 'Siamese Sweet' (white) and 'Siamese Pink' (acid) developed at Indio,
California and released in 1961; oblate to globose; of medium size; peel smooth, at times minutely
hairy, medium-thick; core small; pulp pink, fine-grained, tender, fairly juicy; segment walls thin;
flavor superior to that of either parent; subacid, about 12% sugar. Seedy. Early in season; of good
keeping quality.
'Daang Ai Chaa' ('Red Bantam')grown in Thailand; round, faintly furrowed at base and apex;
Pummelo
peel very smooth with conspicuous oil glands; the albedo sometimes tinted with pink; pulp
rich-red; the segment walls thick; pulp sacs separate easily from the walls and each other; juicy; of
mild flavor, neither sweet nor acid. Tree is more or less dwarfed, with low-lying branches.
Non-commercial.
'Double' (incorrectly called 'Banda Navel'; known locally as 'Lemon Banda', 'Lemon Bonting',
'Lemon pompelmoes')grown in the Banda and Ambon Islands, the Moluccas, Batavia and Java;
first reported by Rumphius in 1741; sought out and found by O.A. Reinking in 1926. He supplied
budwood of various types to the Departments of Agriculture in Java, Manila, and Washington,
D.C. Fruit is round, oblate or faintly pear-shaped; 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) wide; peel smooth, up to 1
in (2.5 cm) thick; shows no evidence of deformity but, inside, there is a second, rindless fruit the
size of a small orange embedded in the apex. The main fruit has 19 segments, the lesser fruit 4;
pulp may be red, pink-and-white, or white; is sweet and juicy; mostly seedless, rarely with one or a
few more seeds. Occasionally, under adverse conditions, there are many seeds. Fruits are borne in
clusters of 5 or 6; not all on a tree will be double. Tree may be low and spreading, to 15 ft (4.5 m)
or upright and 18 to 30 ft (5.5-9 in) high.
'Hirado' ('Hirado Buntan')a chance seedling found in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan; named and
introduced into cultivation around 1910; oblate; large; peel bright-yellow, smooth, glossy,
medium-thick, clings tightly; pulp pale greenish-yellow, in numerous segments with thin, tough
walls; tender, medium-juicy; of good, subacid flavor, faintly bitter. Medium-early in season; of
good keeping quality. Tree of fairly large size, vigorous, unusually cold-tolerant. Occupies second
place as a commercial cultivar in Japan.
'Hom Bai Toey' ('Scented Toey Leaf')grown in Thailand; nearly round, slightly depressed at
apex; large, 5 1/8 in (13 cm) wide; peel yellow, smooth, nearly 5/8 in (1.5 cm) thick; pulp of
peculiar aroma, white, non-juicy; of slightly bitter flavor. Non-commercial.
'Kao Lang Sat' (White Lang Sat')grown in Thailand; oval-pyriform without neck, faintly
furrowed at both ends; 4 in (10 cm) wide; peel slightly rough, less than 3/8 in (1 cm) thick; pulp
has peculiar aroma; pale pinkish, resembling that of the Langsat (q.v.); divided into 11 or 12
segments; sacs very dry and loosely packed; very sweet without a trace of acid; of inferior quality.
Non-commercial.
'Kao Pan' ('Kao Panne', 'Khao Paen', 'White flat')grown mainly in Nakhon Chaisri district, south
of Bangkok, Thailand, for about 160 years; subglobose, flattened at base and apex; 4 1/2 in (11.5
cm) wide; peel light lemon-yellow, smooth, 3/8 to 3/4 in (1-2 cm) thick, tightly clinging; shrinks in
storage; core is large and stringy; pulp is divided into 12-15 segments difficult to separate; walls
are thick and tough, inedible; they are skinned off and the individual pulp sacs separate readily
from each other and are eaten by the handful, like those of the pomegranate (q.v.). They are very
juicy, of sweet, faintly acid flavor with hardly a hint of bitterness. Seeds under-developed and
inconspicuous in June as grown locally; may be fully developed and numerous in November or
when planted elsewhere. Considered the most delicious of Thai pummelos. Almost ever-bearing.
Tree is round-topped and spreading, nearly thornless, very productive, but not vigorous and is
subject to insects and diseases, especially prone to citrus canker. Non-commercial in Thailand. Air
layers were sent to the United States Department of Agriculture's Date Garden, Indio, California,
in 1929 and grown as 'Siamese Pink'. All produced seedy fruits. Trees in the United States
Pummelo
Department of Agriculture's Foundation Farm near Leesburg, Florida, bear fruits of excellent
flavor.
'Kao Phuang' ('Khao Phoang'; 'White tassel')grown in Thailand; Groff records P.J. Wester's
description of a cultivar that he named 'Siam', the budwood of which was taken by H.H. Boyle
from a tree in the garden of Prince Yugelar in Bangkok, and grafted onto calamondin rootstock at
the Lamao experiment station, Philippines, in 1913. The trees fruited in 1916. Reinking and Groff
later determined that the Prince's tree was the 'Kao Phuang'. Fruit is elongated-pear-shaped with
neck; 5 in (12.5 cm) wide or more; peel greenish to yellow, smooth, glossy, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2
cm) thick, not clinging; pulp in 11-13 segments which separate readily; walls medium thick and
tough, ordinarily not eaten; pulp sacs easy to separate, very juicy; flavor excellent, somewhat acid,
turning nearly sweet when fully ripe, non-bitter; seeds, few; virtually none in fruits of the third
season. This is the leading and perhaps the only commercial cultivar of Thailand; in great demand;
considerable quantities are exported to Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia. Tree is of upright
habit with more thorns than 'Kao Pan'; vigorous, ever bearing, high-yielding. Thai growers
maintain that this cultivar never attains the same quality when grown in other locations that it does
in the Bang Bakok district. However, fruit produced at Indio, California, is of excellent quality.
'Kao Ruan Tia' ('White Dwarf')grown in Thailand; bell-shaped; larger than 'Kao Phuang'; peel
pale-yellow; pulp in as many as 16 segments; of excellent flavor; seeds numerous. Later in season
than 'Kao Phuang'; non-commercial.
'Kao Yai' ('White Large')native to the area east of the Chao Phraya River south of Bangkok;
globose, symmetrical; very large, 5 1/2 in (14 cm) or more in diameter; peel light-yellow outside,
slightly pinkish inside, exudes a little gum when cut, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) thick; pulp in 13
segments; sacs irregularly arranged, clinging tightly together; juicier and sweeter than 'Kao
Phuang' but they become tough and indigestible if fruit is left too long on tree; seeds numerous and
fully developed. Tree is upright, with a rounded top, large leaves, wavy-edged, with strongly
winged petiole. Non-commercial.
'Khun Nok' ('Eagle'; 'Bang Khun Non'; 'Khun Hon Village')closely allied to 'Kao Pan'; well
suited to northern Thailand; fruit subglobose, much like 'Kao Pan'; 5 3/5 in (14.5 cm) wide; pulp of
fine flavor and quality; seeds fully developed and numerous. Fruit stores and ships very well.
'Mato' ('Mato Butan'; 'Amoy')Originated in China and introduced into Taiwan around 1700;
obovoid to pear-shaped; peel pale-yellow; rough because of prominent oil glands, medium-thick,
closely adhering to pulp; pulp white; segment walls thin, tough; sacs non-juicy, rather dry; flavor
sweet. Early in season. The leading cultivar in Punan, China, and Taiwan; one of the three main
cultivars in Japan.
'Nakhon' (mispelled 'Nakorn')a seedling of 'Kao Pan' (PI 52388), introduced from Thailand in
1930 and grown by United States Department of Agriculture at Orlando, Florida, and at
Foundation Farm at Leesburg; broad pear-shaped; small, 4 in (10 cm) wide; peel lemon-yellow;
pulp white, of fine flavor. Midseason; remains in good condition for a long time on the tree.
'Pandan Bener'grown in Java; oblate; peel smooth with small oil glands, thick but brittle; pulp
dark-red; segment membranes thin but adherent; juice sacs solidly packed, less juicy than 'Pandan
Wangi'; sweetish but somewhat astringent. Tree bears a moderate crop. Fruit is rarely attacked by
Pummelo
the borer.
'Pandan Wangi'grown in Java; oblate to round; peel rough because of large oil glands, fairly
thick; pulp red, coarse-grained; segment walls thin, bitter, difficult to remove from the juice sacs
which are fibrous, slightly juicy, but sweet. Tree vigorous, productive, pest-and disease-resistant
but the fruits are heavily attacked by citrus rind borer.
'Reinking'a selected seedling from a cross of 'Kao Phuang' and the 'Shamouti' orange made at
Indio, California, but still a typical pummelo.
'Seeloompang'grown in Java; pronouncedly oblate, flattened at both ends; peel green even when
fully ripe, smooth, thin, brittle; pulp red; segment membranes non-adherent; juice sacs densely
compacted, very juicy, acid-sweet and somewhat astringent. Very early in season.
'Siamese Sweet'introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1930 (CES 2240)
and grown at the Citrus Research Center, Riverside, California; oblate to broad ovoid; pulp white,
with large, crisp, non-juicy sacs easily separating from each other; mild-flavored but faintly bitter.
Tree is a dwarf with drooping branches and hairy new growth.
'Tahitian' ('Moanalua'; often called 'Tahitian grapefruit')grown from seed thought to have been
taken from Borneo to Tahiti; later introduced into Hawaii; a typical pummelo but with a thin peel
and amber-colored, very juicy pulp. The flavor and quality are excellent and it is locally popular.
'Thong Dee' (Khao Thongdi'; 'Golden')grown in Thailand; oblate; large, 6 in (15 cm) wide; peel
pinkish inside, 3/8 in (1 cm) thick; pulp white with light-brown streaks; pulp sacs large, separating
easily from the segment walls; juicy; flavor good but inferior to that of 'Kao Pan'; seedy. Not
outstanding as a shipper. Non-commercial. Tree vigorous and produces good quality fruits under
unfavorable conditions. A seedling at the United States Department of Agriculture's research
station in Orlando, Florida, bears fruits with pink flesh and of good quality despite having a
number of seeds. In William Cooper's garden at Winter Park, a tree of this cultivar produces some
seedless fruits but most are seedy. Trees at the Foundation Farm near Leesburg bear fruits of
excellent flavor.
'Tresca'a seedling from a tree in the Bahamas grew in the grove of Captain Fred Tresca in
Manatee County, Florida. Discovered and propagated in 1887 by Reasoner's Nurseries, Oneco.
Fruit is oblate to round, obovoid, or pear-shaped; of medium size, 4 in (10 cm) wide; peel
light-yellow, smooth, thick; albedo cream-colored to white; pulp pale-orange, or pink, in 12 to 14
segments; of good flavor; very juicy; many, medium-sized seeds. Late in season. Tree of medium
size; new growth hairy; very sensitive to cold. Has been grown commercially in Florida and
marketed as a grapefruit. Flesh shows very little color in California.
Climate
The pummelo is tropical or near-tropical and flourishes naturally at low altitudes close to the sea.
It has never performed well in New Zealand because of insufficient heat. In the prime growing
region of Bang Bakok in southern Thailand, the mean temperature is 82.4 F (28 C) and mean
annual rainfall is 56 in (143 cm), being heaviest from May through October and scant in January,
February and March, and November and December.
Pummelo
Soil
It is obvious from its coastal habitat that the pummelo revels in the rich silt and sand overlying the
organically enriched clay loam of the flood plain, and that it is highly tolerant of brackish water
pushed inland by high tides. On the salty mud flats, farmers dig ditches and create elevated beds of
soil for planting pummelo trees. They claim that salt contributes to the flavor and juiciness of the
fruits. The salt content of the water varies throughout the year but may be as high as 2.11 % at
times. In southern Florida and the Bahamas, the trees grow and fruit modestly on oolitic limestone.
In Malaya, the tree grows well on the tailings of tin mines.
Propagation
Though the seeds of the pummelo are monoembryonic, seedlings usually differ little from their
parents and therefore most pummelos in the Orient are grown from seed. The seeds can be stored
for 80 days at 41 F(5 C) and 56-58% relative humidity. Only the best varieties are vegetatively
propagated-traditionally by air-layering but more modernly by budding onto rootstocks of
pummelo, 'King' or 'Cleopatra' mandarin, rough lemon, or Rangpur lime. In experimental work in
the United States, the "T", or shield-budding, method has been found most satisfactory.
Culture
Pummelo, growers in Thailand and elsewhere in southeastern Asia are primarily Chinese who dike
the swampy land, dig the ditches and canals for drainage and as routes of transportation, and build
the raised beds. In the 3- to 5 -year period before the beds are ready for the pummelo trees, quick
crops such as bananas, sugarcane and peanuts are grown on them. Water gates at intervals along
the base of the dikes, allow water to flow through hollow coconut trunks and into the ditches in the
dry season. Continual deepening and widening of ditches and adding of soil to the beds is
necessary to counteract erosion. Coconut and betel nut palms are planted for shade for the young
citrus trees but are removed at the end of 3-5 years, or sometimes not until the pummelos are 10 to
15 years old. Rice may be grown in the ditches. The pummelo trees are spaced 10 to 15 ft (3-4.5
m) apart. Some growers interplant the colurrinar tree, Erythrina fusca Lour., to shade the mature
pummelos, and to help retain the soil with its extensive, fibrous root system, and enrich the soil
with its falling leaves. Weeds are removed. by hoeing. Night soil, of course, is the standard
fertilizer in the Orient and is used on pummelos but, more commonly, paddy ash (the ash of
burned rice hulls) is placed in piles under each tree to gradually seep down to the roots. The
air-layered trees have a low, spreading habit and must eventually be pruned.
An analysis of production methods by farmers whose main source of income is marketing
pummelos was made by agriculturists at the University of Malaya in 1974. It was concluded that
labor input was excessive; fertilizer (all organic on mature trees), was under-utilized on young
trees; chemicals were over-utilized on young trees and under-utilized on older trees which the
farmers are inclined to neglect because most of them suffer from Phytophthora root rot. Pummelo
trees may need nutritional sprays to correct zinc, manganese or boron deficiencies.
Harvesting and Keeping Quality
Pummelos may flower 2 to 4 times a year. In the Old World, there are usually 4 harvesting
seasons. The main crop matures in November but it is said that fruits that ripen at other seasons
have fewer seeds and superior quality. In Florida, the fruits ripen from November to February and
Pummelo
there may be a small crop in the spring. In Thailand, fruits for marketing are generally picked
when just beginning to turn yellow, heaped in large piles for sale. If not disposed of immediately,
they are stored in dry, ventilated sheds shaded by trees. The fruits keep for long periods and ship
well because of the thick peel. After 3 months, the peel will be deeply wrinkled but the pulp will
be juicier and of more appealing flavor than in the fresh fruit. If stored too long, they may become
bitter. Paper-wrapped fruits in ventilated crates have kept in good condition for 6 to 8 months
during sea transport to Europe. According to an old Chinese Atlas, the fruits of the 'Double'
pummelo, if hung in the house, will remain in good condition for a year.
Pests and Diseases
Among the leading insect pests of pummelo in the Orient are a leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citrella; a
flea beetle which attacks the leaves; a stinging red ant (Pheidologeton sp.) that damages roots,
twigs, leaves and trunk, sometimes girdling and killing the tree. Scale insects (Chrysomphalus
aonidum and C. aurantii, Coccus hesperidum, Lepidosaphes gloverii, Parlatoria brasiliensis and
P. zizyphus, Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, and Saissetia sp.) are prevalent but are partly controlled
by natural enemies a black ant (Dolochonderus sp.) and a parasitic fungus, Aschersonia
aleyrodis. The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, tends scale insects for their honeydew. Fruit
growers in China and Southeast Asia put out chicken entrails to encourage the weaver ant to
construct its long, hanging nests on citrus trees because it controls the tree borers (Pentatomidae)
and other pests. Though beneficial, it is a nuisance at harvest time because it inflicts painful stings.
The "eggs" (pupae) are commonly eaten.
In Indonesia, the fruits of one cultivar, 'Bali Merah', which has a thin rind, are so heavily attacked
by the citrus rind borer and other insects that they are commonly wrapped in old banana leaves,
paper or cloth when young.
Sooty mold, develops on the honeydew excreted by the scale insects. The pummelo is subject to
most of the diseases that affect the orange (q.v.). But Dr. Walter Swingle, on his trip to Japan,
China and the Philippines, found some varieties very resistant to canker. Most of the older trees in
Malaya, as already mentioned, succumb to Phytophthora root rot.
Mistletoe (Loranthus sp.) is a great pest on pummelo trees in Asia.
Food Uses
Though there is some labor involved, it is worth the effort to peel good pummelos, skin the
segments, and eat the juicy pulp. The skinned segments can be broken apart and used in salads and
desserts or made into preserves. The extracted juice is an excellent beverage. The peel can be
candied.
Calories
25-58
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
84.82-94.1 g
0.5-0.74 g
0.2-0.56 g
6.3-12.4 g
Pummelo
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.3-0.82 g
0.5-0.86 g
21-30 mg
20-27 mg
0.3-0.5 mg
20 I.U.
0.04-0.07 mg
0.02 mg
0.3 mg
30-43 mg
*Analyses made in China and the United States.

Toxicity
Like that of other citrus fruits, the peel of the pummelo contains skin irritants, mainly limonene
and terpene, also citral, aldehydes, geraniol, cadinene and linalool, which may cause dermatitis in
individuals having excessive contact with the oil of the outer peel. Harvesters, workers in
processing factories, and housewives may develop chronic conditions on the fingers and hands.
Other Uses
The flowers are highly aromatic and gathered in North Vietnam for making perfume. The wood is
heavy, hard, tough, fine-grained and suitable for making tool handles.
Medicinal Uses: In the Philippines and Southeast Asia, decoctions of the leaves, flowers, and rind
are given for their sedative effect in cases of epilepsy, chorea and convulsive coughing. The hot
leaf decoction is applied on swellings and ulcers. The fruit juice is taken as a febrifuge. The seeds
are employed against coughs, dyspepsia and lumbago. Gum that exudes from declining trees is
collected and taken as a cough remedy in Brazil.
Grapefruit

Morton, J. 1987. Grapefruit. p. 152158. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Grapefruit
Citrus paradisi
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting and Handling
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
A relative newcomer to the citrus clan, the grapefruit was originally believed to be a spontaneous
sport of the pummelo (q.v.). James MacFayden, in his Flora of Jamaica, in 1837, separated the
grapefruit from the pummelo, giving it the botanical name, Citrus paradisi Macf. About 1948,
citrus specialists began to suggest that the grapefruit was not a sport of the pummelo but an
accidental hybrid between the pummelo and the orange. The botanical name has been altered to
reflect this view, and it is now generally accepted as Citrus X paradisi.
When this new fruit was adopted into cultivation and the name grapefruit came into general
circulation, American horticulturists viewed that title as so inappropriate that they endeavored to
have it dropped in favor of "pomelo". However, it was difficult to avoid confusion with the
pummelo, and the name grapefruit prevailed, and is in international use except in
Spanish-speaking areas where the fruit is called toronja. In 1962, Florida Citrus Mutual proposed
changing the name to something more appealing to consumers in order to stimulate greater sales.
There were so many protests from the public against a name change that the idea was abandoned.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/grapefruit.html (1 of 11) [5/16/2004 1:34:44 PM]
Grapefruit
The grapefruit tree reaches 15 to 20 ft (4.5-6

m) or even 45 ft (13.7 m) with age, has a
rounded top of spreading branches; the
trunk may exceed 6 in (15 cm) in diameter;
that of a very old tree actually attained
nearly 8 ft (2.4 m) in circumference. The
twigs normally bear short, supple thorns.
The evergreen leaves are ovate, 3 to 6 in
(7.5-15 cm) long, and 1 3/4 to 3 in (4.5-7.5
cm) wide; dark-green above, lighter
beneath, with minute, rounded teeth on the
margins, and dotted with tiny oil glands; the
petiole has broad, oblanceolate or obovate Plate XVIII: NAVEL GRAPEFRUIT, Citrus paradisi
wings. The white, 4-petalled flowers, are 1
3/4 to 2 in (4.5-5 cm) across and borne singly or in clusters in the leaf axils. The fruit is nearly
round or oblate to slightly pear-shaped, 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) wide with smooth, finely dotted peel,
up to 3/8 in (1 cm) thick, pale-lemon, sometimes blushed with pink, and aromatic outwardly;
white, spongy and bitter inside. The center may be solid or semi-hollow. The pale-yellow, nearly
whitish, or pink, or even deep-red pulp is in 11 to 14 segments with thin, membranous, somewhat
bitter walls; very juicy, acid to sweet-acid in flavor when fully ripe. While some fruits are seedless
or nearly so, there may be up to 90 white, elliptical, pointed seeds about 1/2 in (1.25 cm) in length.
Unlike those of the pummelo, grapefruit seeds are usually polyembryonic. The number of fruits in
a cluster varies greatly; a dozen is unusual but there have been as many as 20.
The grapefruit was first described in 1750 by Griffith Hughes who called it the "forbidden fruit" of
Barbados. In 1789, Patrick Browne reported it as growing in most parts of Jamaica and he referred
to it as "forbidden fruit" or "smaller shaddock". In 1814, John Lunan, in Hortus Jamaicensis,
mentions the "grapefruit" as a variety of the shaddock, but not as large; and, again, as "forbidden
fruit", "a variety of the shaddock, but the fruit is much smaller, having a thin, tough, smooth, pale
yellow rind". In 1824, DeTussac mentions the "forbidden fruit or smaller shaddock" of Jamaica as
a variety of shaddock the size of an orange and borne in bunches. William C. Cooper, a citrus
scientist (USDA, ARS, Orlando, Florida, to 1975), traveled widely observing all kinds of citrus
fruits. In his book, In Search of the Golden Apple, he tells of the sweet orange and the grapefruit
growing wild on several West Indian islands. He cites especially a fruit similar to grapefruit that is
called chadique growing wild on the mountains of Haiti and marketed in Port-au-Prince. The
leaves are like those of the grapefruit. He says that it was from the nearby Bahama Islands in 1823
that Count Odette Phillipe took grapefruit seeds to Safety Harbor near Tampa, Florida. When the
seedlings fruited, their seeds were distributed around the neighborhood.
At first, the tree was grown only as a novelty in Florida and the fruit was little utilized. Even in
Jamaica, the trees were often cut down. Mrs. Mary McDonald Carter of Eustis, Florida, was
quoted in the Farm and Livestock Record, Jacksonville, in 1953, as relating that her father, John A.
MacDonald, settled in Orange County in 1866. In 1870, he was attracted to a single grapefruit tree
with clusters of lemon-colored fruits on the Drawdy property at Blackwater. He bought the entire
crop of fruits, planted the seeds and established the first grapefruit nursery. The first grapefruit
Grapefruit
grove planted from this nursery by a man named Hill was sold in 1875 to George W. Bowen who
developed it commercially. In 1881, MacDonald bought the Drawdy crop and once more raised
seedlings for his nursery in Eustis. Early settlers began planting the tree and acquired a taste for
the fruit. There was already a small demand in the North. New York imported 78,000 fruits from
the West Indies in 1874. Florida started sending small shipments to markets in New York and
Philadelphia between 1880 and 1885.
In 1898, Dr. David Fairchild was excited to learn of a grove of 2,000 grapefruit trees in the
Kendall area south of Miami on the property of the Florida East Coast Railway. In 1904, he was
amazed to see one tree in the door-yard of the Kennedy ranch in southern Texas where he thought
the climate too cold for it. He was told that the tree had been frozen to the ground but had
recovered. He predicted that a citrus industry could not be established in that region of the country.
In 1928, he photographed the same tree, which had been killed back several times in the interim,
but was again in fruit. By 1910, grapefruit had become an important commercial crop in the Rio
Grande Valley and, to a lesser extent, in Arizona and desert valleys of California. By 1940, the
United States was exporting close to 11,000,000 cases of grape-fruit juice and nearly one-half
million cases of canned sections. Cultivation had reached commercial proportions in Jamaica and
Trinidad and spread to Brazil, South America and Israel. In 1945/46, the United States (mainly
Florida) produced a record of 2,285,000 tons of grapefruit. In 1967/68, this country accounted for
70% of the world crop despite a great decline in Texas production because of severe weather.
Grapefruit was moving forward by leaps and bounds. Israel, in 1967, supplied only 11% of the
world crop but, by 1970, her production had increased by 300%. In 1980, Florida exported just
under 10 million boxes, making grapefruit this state's most valuable export crop. Japan is the main
importer and has, at times, suspended shipments to determine the safety of fungicide residues or
because of discovery of larvae of the Caribbean fruit fly. Great care is taken to maintain this
important trade. Other countries which had entered the grapefruit industry were Mexico,
Argentina, Cyprus, Morocco and some areas of South America which raise grapefruit for local
markets. In Central America, the grapefruit is not much favored because of its acidity.
In the late 1960's and early 1970's, Mexico was rapidly expanding its grapefruit plantings,
especially in the states of Tamaulipas and Veracruz, to save its citrus industry in view of the
decline in market value of oranges and tangerines brought on by over-production. Furthermore,
there were great advantages in the lower costs of producing grapefruit without irrigation and with
good biological control of pests. Now Mexico exports large quantities of grapefruit to the United
States and lesser amounts to Canada and Japan. Puerto Rico formerly exported grapefruit to the
United States but is no longer able to compete in the trade and has only remnants of former
plantations. Cuba has planted 370,000 acres (150,000 ha) of citrus, mostly grapefruit with
expectations of exporting to the Soviet Union and eastern European countries. The grapefruit is
grown only in a small way in the Orient where the pummelo is cultivated. In recent years, the
grapefruit has become established in India in hot regions where the sweet orange and the mandarin
are prone to sunburn.
Varieties
Named varieties of grapefruit appeared in the official list of the American Pomological Society in
1897, but pioneers had selected and named favorite clones for several years before that time. The
following are among the most noteworthy of old and new cultivars:
Grapefruit
'Duncan'the original trees were virtually identical seedlings that grew in a grove owned by a man
named Snedicor near Safety Harbor, Florida. Propagation was first undertaken by A. L. Duncan of
Dunedin in 1892. The fruit is round or slightly obovate; large, 3 1/2 to 5 in (9-12.5 cm) wide; peel
is very light yellow (usually called "white"), with large oil glands, medium-thick, highly aromatic;
pulp is buff, in 12-14 segments with medium-tender membranous walls, very juicy, of fine flavor;
seeds medium-large, 30-50. Early to mid-season. Tree is unusually cold-hardy. This was the
leading cultivar for many years in Florida and Texas and was introduced into all the
grapefruit-growing areas of the world. Today, in the United States, it has largely given way to
cultivars with fewer seeds, but it is being grown commercially in India. Recent seed irradiation
experiments have shown that a high percentage of seedless mutants results from exposure to 20-25
krad.
'Foster' ('Foster Pink Flesh')Originated as a branch sport of a selection called 'Walters' in the
Atwood Grove near Ellenton, Florida, discovered by M.B. Foster of Manatee in 1906, and
propagated for sale by the Royal Palm Nurseries. Fruit is oblate to round; medium-large, averaging
3 3/4 in (9.5 cm) in width; peel light-yellow blushed with pink, smooth but with large, conspicuous
oil glands; albedo pink; pulp light-buff, pinkish near the center; in 13 or 14 segments with pinkish
walls, tender, juicy, of good quality despite seeds, up to 50 or even more, of medium size.
Medium-early in season. Not very popular; grown to a limited extent in Florida, Texas, Arizona
and India. In Texas, it is more colorful, the pulp being entirely pinkish in hue.
'Marsh' ('Marsh Seedless')one of 3 seedling trees on the property of a Mrs. Rushing near
Lakeland, Florida, purchased by William Hancock in 1862. Because the fruits of this tree were
seedless, C.M. Marsh took budwood from it for nursery propagation and he bought young trees
previously budded by others. He sold the budded offspring and, in time, the 'Marsh' was planted
more than any other cultivar. The original tree was killed by cold in the winter of 1895-96. The
fruit is oblate to round, medium in size, 3 1/2 to 4 3/4 in (9-12 cm) wide; peel is light-yellow, very
smooth, with medium-size oil glands, mildly aromatic; pulp is buff, in 12-14 segments with tender
membranes, melting, extremely juicy and rich in flavor; seeds absent or 3-8, medium-sized.
Medium to late in season and holds well on the tree. Keeps well after harvest. The leading
grapefruit cultivar; grown in Florida, California, Texas, Arizona, South America, Australia, South
Africa, Israel and India. A local selection, presumably of a seedling 'Marsh', in Surinam is known
there as 'Hooghart'. The two are almost indistinguishable.
'Oroblanco'a triploid from a grapefruit X pummelo cross made in 1958 by geneticists R.K. Soost
and J.W. Cameron of the University of California, Riverside. Patent obtained in 1981 and assigned
to the University of California Board of Regents. Fruit form and size similar to 'Marsh'; peel paler
and thicker; pulp paler and has larger hollow in center; sections easily skinned; tender, juicy,
non-bitter; has faintly astringent after-taste before full maturity or in cooler climates; seedless.
Season early: December to April at Riverside; early November through February at Landcove.
Tree is vigorous, large, hardy, can tolerate temperatures down to 30 F (-1.11 C); yields medium
to heavy crops and may tend to alternate bearing. Seems better adapted to California's inland citrus
locations than to desert sites. Has been grown experimentally on trifoliate orange, 'Troyer'
citrange, citremon 1449, Brazilian sour orange, grapefruit, sweet orange, rough lemon and 'Red'
rough lemon rootstocks. The two latter have adversely affected internal quality
'Paradise Navel'a selection from the 100-year-old Nicholson citrus grove near Winter Garden,
Grapefruit
Florida; propagated and patented by W.H. Nicholson, improved and released for distribution in
1976. Fruit is oblate, smaller than a typical grapefruit. Originally very seedy, but, by budding onto
various rootstocks and transferring from one rootstock to another over a period of years, there
eventually emerged one tree bearing fruit without seeds. Budwood from this tree has produced
uniformity of seedlessness regardless of rootstock. The fruits have been sold to local customers but
no scions nor trees were sold prior to 1976.
'Redblush' (including 'Ruby', 'Ruby Red', 'Shary Red', 'Curry Red', 'Fawcett Red', 'Red Radiance',
and 'Webb' [Webb's Redblush Seedless'])originated as sportslower branchesgrowing out of
'Thompson' trees which a Texas nursery had purchased from Glen St. Mary Nursery and sold to
growers in the Rio Grande Valley, and which were frozen back in 1929. All are seedless and
otherwise similar to 'Thompson' but display redder color. 'Redblush' grapefruits have been
extensively planted in Florida in the past few decades though the juice is not suitable for canning
as it tends to turn brown with age. By 1950, 75% of Florida's grapefruit crop was of the pink or red
seedless type. Under the name, 'Ruby Red', a member of this group is a standard commercial
cultivar in Texas. In 1958, budwood of 'Redblush' from California was acquired by the Regional
Fruit Research Station at Abohar, India, was propagated on rough lemon, and the resulting trees
performed so well and showed such disease resistance that the cultivar was recommended for
growing under irrigation in the and regions of the Punjab and Haryana, where it averages 250
fruits annually per tree. Probably includable in this group is 'Burgundy'. Its peel is not blushed but
the pulp is intense red throughout the season. 'Ray Ruby' and the similar if not identical
'Henderson' are branch sports propagated in Texas and introduced into Florida in the 1970's. The
peel is redder than that of 'Ruby Red' and the pulp is red though not as intense as 'Star Ruby'
throughout the season. Recently, budwood of 'Ray Ruby' has become available from the Florida
Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Citrus Budwood Registration in Winter Haven. 'Ray Ruby'
is expected to perform better than 'Star Ruby' on standard rootstocks.
'Star Ruby'a lower branch mutation bearing red-blushed fruits, noticed on a 'Foster' tree at San
Benito, Texas, in the mid 1930's. The tree had been frozen back nearly to the bud union the
previous year. Budwood from the branch was propagated by C. E. Hudson as the 'Hudson Red'
but, because of its coarse texture and high number of seeds (40-60), it was not adopted
commercially. Seeds were irradiated at the Texas A & I Citrus Center, Weslaco, in 1959. The
seedling from one of these treated seeds was named the 'Star Ruby' and introduced into cultivation
in 1971 by Richard Hensz of Texas A & I University. Several thousand trees were planted in
Texas. At least 65,000 budded trees were brought into Florida in 1971 by commercial interests
without proper qualifications and permits under the Division of Plant Industry. Investigation
revealed a susceptibility to Phytophthora root rot and ringspot virus in Texas. The Florida State
Agricultural Commissioner ordered the destruction of all unauthorized imported trees. About
25,000 were voluntarily destroyed by owners but the ruling was contested and the trees were
placed under quarantine. Subsequently, ringspot virus was found on one of the imported trees
which had already been used as a source of budwood. Infected trees from this source were found in
a nursery and were destroyed together with all neighboring healthy trees. By April 1977, certified,
disease-free budwood of 'Star Ruby' was made available and nearly 200,000 "budeyes" were
released to growers. They were urged to make only limited plantings until more was known of this
cultivar's fruiting habits. The tree tends to become more chlorotic than 'Ruby Red' when sunburned
or affected by poor drainage, or high applications of herbicides and pesticides, and it is sensitive to
Grapefruit
adverse weather conditions.

'Star Ruby' has a yellow peel distinctly red-blushed and in tensely red pulp and juice, 3 times more
colorful than 'Ruby Red'. Though the color decreases with maturity, it is maintained throughout the
season. The pulp is smooth and firmer than that of 'Ruby Red' and has a bit more sugar and acid.
Furthermore, there may be no seeds or no more than nine. Some of the juice color is dissipated by
heat in the pasteurization process but there is still enough for the product to be blended with white
or pink grapefruit juice to provide more consumer appeal.
'Sweetie'a grapefruit pummelo hybrid released in 1984 by the Citrus Marketing Board in Israel,
has all the features of a typical grapefruit but the flavor is sweet.
'Thompson' (Pink Marsh')In 1913, one branch of a 'Marsh' tree owned by W. R. Thompson,
Oneco, Florida, bore pink-fleshed, seedless fruits. Propagation of budwood from the branch was
undertaken by the Royal Palm Nurseries in 1924. A similar bud variation of the 'Marsh' had
appeared around 1920 at Riverside, California. The fruit is oblate to round, of medium size, 2 3/4
to 3 3/4 in (7-9.5 cm) wide; peel is light-yellow, smooth, with small, inconspicuous oil glands,
faintly aromatic; pulp is light- to deep-buff more or less flushed with pink, sometimes throughout,
occasionally just near the center. There are 12 to 14 segments with abundant, colorless juice, and
few seedsusually 3 to 5. The color of the pulp is most intense in January and February. By late
March and April it has faded to nearly amber.
'Triumph' (possibly the same as 'Royal' and 'Isle of Pines')a seedling on the grounds of the
Orange Grove Hotel in Tampa, Florida, propagated in 1884. The fruit is oblate to ellipsoid, slightly
flattened at both ends; of medium size; peel light-yellow, very smooth, with oil glands of medium
size; medium-thick; pulp pale, tender, juicy, only faintly bitter, the flavor having a touch of
orange; the center is semi-hollow; of superior quality; 35-50 seeds. Medium-early in season,
beginning in November. Grown only in dooryards in Florida, but has been widely distributed in
citrus regions; does better than 'Marsh' in South Africa.
A grapefruit-like, triploid hybrid named 'Melogold' was developed by crossing a sweet pummelo
with a seedy, white, tetraploid grapefruit in 1958. The fruit is larger than 'Marsh' grapefruit and its
pummelo-like flavor is considered superior though it may have a trace of bitterness at the
beginning and end of the season which extends from early November or December through
February. 'Melogold' is grafted onto rough lemon and 'Troyer' citrange rootstocks and is
recommended for interior California, not in hot desert nor in humid coastal situations. Patent rights
are held by the University of California and budwood is released only to licensed nurserymen.
Climate
The grapefruit prospers in a warm subtropical climate. Temperature differences affect the length of
time from flowering to fruit maturity. At Riverside, California the period is 13 months; at warmer
Brawley in the Imperial Valley of southern California, only 7 to 8 months. The fruit is lower in
acidity in the Indian River region and areas of southern Florida, the lower Rio Grande Valley of
Texas, and in the tropics than in cooler situations.
Humidity contributes to thinness of peel, while in arid climates the peel is thicker and rougher and,
as might be expected, the juice content is lower. Low winter temperatures also result in thicker
peel the following year and even affect the fruit shape.
Grapefruit
Ideal rainfall for grapefruit is 36 to 44 in (91.4-111.7 cm) rather evenly distributed the year around.
Soil
The grapefruit is grown on a range of soil types. In the main growing area of Florida, the soil is
mildly acid sand and applications of lime may be beneficial. On the east coast there are coquina
shell deposits and, in the extreme southern part of the peninsula, there is little soil mixed with the
prevailing oolitic limestone. Where the grapefruit is grown in California, Arizona and Texas, the
soils are largely alkaline and frequent irrigation causes undesirable alkaline salts to rise to the
surface. In Surinam, grapefruit is grown on clay. Successful grapefruit culture depends mainly on
the choice of rootstock best adapted to each type of soil.
Salinity of the soil and in irrigation water retards water uptake by the root system and reduces
yields.
Propagation
In the early years of grapefruit-growing, the customary citrus rootstocks were utilized: sour orange
on heavy hammock and flatwoods soils, rough lemon on sand, though trees grafted on this stock
were short-lived. In the early 1950's, sweet orange was being preferred over sour orange. In 1946,
the United States Department of Agriculture, Texas A & M University, and Rio Farms, Inc., of
Monte Alto, Texas, launched a cooperative program of testing grapefruit on different rootstocks.
Of 13 different rootstocks utilized, 'Swingle citrumelo', 'Morton' and 'Troyer' citranges gave the
best yield of large fruits. Rough lemon and 'Christian' trifoliate orange reduced acidity. 'Swingle
citrumelo' was never used extensively as a rootstock until 1974 when it was released to
nurserymen and growers because of its tolerance of exocortis, xyloporosis, and tristeza and
resistance to foot-rot and citrus nematode, and low uptake of salts, together with its ability to
support heavy crops. It is now in third place after 'Troyer' citrange and sour orange.
In the past, 'Marsh' and 'Hooghart', the commercial grapefruits of Surinam, have been grown there
on sour orange rootstock, but fear of tristeza inspired a rootstock testing program. Among the
stocks tried, 'King' and 'Sunki' resulted in high yield and excellent quality in contrast to rough
lemon and Rangpur lime. The two latter also showed susceptibility to Phytophthora root rot.
'Cleopatra' lowered the yield, and trifoliate orange proved unsatisfactory in such a humid climate.
In the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, grapefruit trees on 'Swingle citrumelo' have grown very
poorly on heavy clay as compared to those on sour orange.
Culture
In general, culture of grapefruit is similar to that of the orange, q.v., except that wider spacing is
necessary.
Nutritional experiments with grapefruit have shown that excessive nitrogen results in malformed
fruit, coarser texture and less juice. Lack of certain minor elements is evident in symptoms often
mistaken for disease. The condition called exanthema is caused by copper deficiency; mottle leaf
results from zinc deficiency.
In Florida, all commercial cultivars reach legal maturity in September or October if sprayed after
Grapefruit
blooming with lead arsenate to reduce acidity. Even after legal maturity the grapefruit can be
"stored" on the tree for months, merely increasing in size, and extending the marketing season. The
fruits can be harvested until near the end of May when they begin to fall and seeds start sprouting
in the fruit. The only adverse effect of late harvesting is a corresponding reduction in the following
year's crop. It has been found that spot-picking of the largest fruits partially counteracts this effect
of late harvest. Fruit drop can be retarded by spraying with a combination of gibberellic acid and
2,4-D. Either of these agents or both together will reduce the germination of seeds. Germination
may be inhibited for periods up to 11 weeks by cool storage at 50 F (10 C).
Grapefruits were formerly harvested by climbing the trees or using picking hooks which frequently
damaged the fruit. Today, the fruits on low branches are picked by hand from the ground; higher
fruits are usually harvested by workers on ladders who snap the stems or clip the fruits as required.
California began utilizing a modified olive limb-shaker for harvesting grapefruit in 1972. The
machines work in pairs to harvest opposite sides of each tree and the trees must be pruned to
remove deadwood and to give access to 3-5 main limbs for shaking. Lower branches must be
lopped off to leave a clear 2 1/2 ft (75 cm) space for the catching frame. Mechanical harvesting
causes some superficial injury. A team of 3 workers with one machine can harvest 150 to 188 field
boxes50 lbs (22.7 kg) when filledper hour, as compared with 45 boxes per hour for 3 manual
pickers. Stems are removed from the fruits before packing to avoid stem-damage.
Early in the season, when the fruits are mature but not fully colored, they are often degreened by
exposure to ethylene gas. The grapefruit is remarkable for its durability, but modern practices of
applying fungicide to the harvested fruit are given credit for the great reduction in marketing
losses. The cull rate in New York wholesale warehouses in 1983 was found to be 1.4% (mostly
fungal), as compared with 13 % estimated in 1960. Retail losses in 1983 were 3.5%, and only a
small proportion were the result of physical injury.
Keeping Quality
The grapefruit keeps well at 65 F (18.33 C) or higher for a week or more and for 2 or 3 weeks in
the fruit/vegetable compartment of the home refrigerator. The first sign of breakdown is
dehydration and collapse of the stem-end. To retard moisture loss, fruits for marketing are washed
and waxed as soon as possible after harvest. When kept in prolonged storage, the grapefruit is
subject to chilling injury (peel pitting) at temperatures below 50 F (10 C). The degree of injury
depends on several factors: the fruits on the outside of the tree are more susceptible than the fruits
that have been sheltered by foliage. The use of preharvest growth regulators tends to reduce
susceptibility, as does 100% relative humidity during storage. Preconditioning at 60.8 F (16 C)
for 7 days before storing at 33.8 F (1 C) prevents injury. Lowering the temperature gradually
after preconditioning is also beneficial, as is sealing the fruit in polyethylene shrink-film before
refrigerating.
The banning of ethylene dibromide fumigation except for export has made it necessary to resort to
cold treatment as an alternative measure against fruit fly infestation for shipment to Texas, Arizona
and California. The United States Department of Agriculture now requires that imported citrus
fruits be kept at 32 F (0 C) for 10 days or at 36 F (2.2 C) for 16 days after the fruit has been
cooled down to the specified temperature. In Israel, investigators have found that waxing with a
coating containing fungicide, and holding the packed fruit for 6 days at 62.6 F (17 C) before the
Grapefruit
cold treatment, gives good protection from chilling injury and decay in storage. Cold treatment
costs 5 times as much as fumigation with ethylene dibromide. Methyl bromide has been tested and
proposed as an effective fumigant,
Pests and Diseases
The grapefruit is subject to most of the same pests that attack the orange, including Caribbean and
Mediterranean fruit flies. In addition to the cold treatment referred to above, irradiation has been
studied as a method of disinfection, but has not been authorized for citrus fruit treatment. Exposure
of early-season fruit to 60 and 90 krad causes scald and rind breakdown after 28 days of storage,
and mainly pitting in midseason and late fruits. Minimal injury results from exposure to 7.5, 15,
and 30 krad.
The following diseases have been reported for the grapefruit tree and its fruit by the Florida
Division of Plant Industry: leaf spot (A1ternaria citri, Mycosphaerella horii, Phyllosticta
hesperidearum); algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros virescens); greasy spot (Cercospora citri-grisea); tar
spot (C. gigantea); anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides); thread blight (Corticium
koleroga and C. stevensii); gummosis (Diaporthe citri); dieback (Diplodia natalensis); heart rot
(Fomes applanatus, Ganoderma sessilis, and Xylaria polymorpha); charcoal root rot
(Macrophomina phaseolina); root rot (Fusarium oxysporum); sooty blotch (Gloeodes pomigena);
flyspeck (Leptothyrium pomi); mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens); foot rot (Phytophthora
megasperma, P. palmivora, and P. parasitica); damping-off (Rhizoctonia solani); seedling blight
(Sclerotium rolfsii); felt fungus, (Septobasidium pseudopedicellatum); branch knot (Sphaeropsis
tumefaciens); leaves may be attacked by Chaetothyricum hawaiiense, and twigs by Physalospora
fusca. Brown rot of fruit is caused by Phytophthora citrophthora and P. terrestris; stem-end rot,
Botryosphaeria ribis; dry rot of fruit (Nematospora coryli); green mold (Penicillium digitatum);
blue mold, (P. italicum); pink mold (P. roseum); scab (Elsinoe fawcetti).
The tree is highly susceptible to citrus canker and several viruses: crinkly leaf virus, psorosis,
tristeza, xyloporosis, and infectious variegation. Mesophyll collapse is caused by extreme drought
and dehydrating wind.
Food Uses
As a relatively new food, the grapefruit has
made great advances in the past 75 years. In
1970, consumption of grapefruit was
temporarily heightened by a widely
promoted "grapefruit diet" plan claimed to
achieve a loss of 10 lbs (4.5 kg) in 10 days
and continuous gradual loss until the
achievement of normal body weight. In
1983, the United States Department of
Agriculture Marketing Service reported that,
among fresh fruits and vegetables consumed
in Metropolitan New York, grapefruit was
exceeded only by potatoes, lettuce, oranges Fig. 39: Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi): pink (left); yellow
(center); and russet (right). In: K. & J. Morton, Fifty Tropical
and apples.
Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
Grapefruit
Grapefruit is customarily a breakfast fruit, chilled, cut in half, the sections loosened from the peel
and each other by a special curved knife, and the pulp spooned from the "half-shell". Some
consumers sweeten it with white or brown sugar, or a bit of honey. Some add cinnamon, nutmeg
or cloves. As an appetizer before dinner, grapefruit halves may be similarly sweetened, lightly
broiled, and served hot, often topped with a maraschino cherry. The sections are commonly used
in fruit cups or fruit salads, in gelatins or puddings and tarts. They are commercially canned in
sirup. In Australia, grapefruit is commercially processed as marmalade. It may also be made into
jelly.
The juice is marketed as a beverage fresh, canned, or dehydrated as powder, or concentrated and
frozen. It can be made into an excellent vinegar or carefully fermented as wine.
Grapefruit peel is candied and is an important source of pectin for the preservation of other fruits.
The peel oil, expressed or distilled, is commonly employed in soft-drink flavoring, after the
removal of 50% of the monoterpenes. The main ingredient in the outer peel oil is nookatone.
Extracted nookatone, added to grapefruit juice powder, enhances the flavor of the reconstituted
juice. Naringin, extracted from the inner peel (albedo), is used as a bitter in "tonic" beverages,
bitter chocolate, ice cream and ices. It is chemically converted into a sweetener about 1,500 times
sweeter than sugar. After the extraction of naringin, the albedo can be reprocessed to recover
pectin.
Grapefruit seed oil is dark and exceedingly bitter but, bleached and refined, it is pale-yellow,
bland, much like olive oil in flavor, and can be used similarly. Because it is an unsaturated fat, its
production has greatly increased since 1960.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Vitamin A
(white)
(pink/red)
Pulp (raw)
34.4-46.4
87.5-91.3 g
0.5-1.0 g
0.06-0.20 g
8.07-11.5 g
0.14-0.77 g
0.29-0.52 g
9.2-32.0 mg
15-47.9 mg
0.24-0.70 mg
1.0 mg
Juice (raw)
37-42
89.2-90.4 g
0.4-0.5 g
0.1 g
8.8-10.2 g
trace
0.2-0.3 g
9.0 mg
15.0 mg
0.2 mg
1.0 mg
135 mg
162 mg
10 I.U.
440 I.U.
10. I.U.
440 I.U.
Peel (candied)**
316
17.4 g
0.4 g
0.3 g
80.6 g
2.3 g
1.3 g
Grapefruit
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
0.04-0.057 mg
0.01-0.02 mg
0.157-0.29 mg
36-49.8 mg
2 mg
0-1 mg
12-14 mg
0.04 mg
0.02 mg
0.2 mg
36-40 mg
*According to analyses made in California, Texas, Florida, Cuba and Central America.
**Peel Oil: 90% limonene; the volatile fraction (2-3%) consists mainly of oxygen compounds and
sesquiterpenes; the waxy fraction (7-8%) consists of C8 and C10 aldehydes, plus geraniol,
cadinene and small amounts of citral and dimethyl arthranilate, plus acid. Also present are 9
coumarins and 0.88% 22-dihydrostigmasterol. The dried pulp and seeds contain
-sitosteryl-D-glucoside and -sitosterol.
The glycoside 7 -neohesperidosyl-4-(-D-glucopyranosyl) naringenin occurs in the pulp
segments. Feruloylputrescine is found in the juice and leaves. Mature grapefruit leaves contain the
flavonoid, apigenin 7 -rutinoside. Young leaves contain the 7 -neohesperidoside and 7
-rutinoside of naringenin.
Other Uses
Factory waste: The waste from grapefruit packing plants has long been converted into molasses
for cattle.
Seed hulls: After oil extraction, the hulls can be used for soil conditioning, or, combined with the
dried pulp, as cattlefeed. A detoxification process must precede the feeding of this product to pigs
or poultry.
Wood: Old grapefruit trees can be salvaged for their wood. The sapwood is pale-yellow or nearly
white, the heartwood yellow to brownish, hard, fine-grained, and useful for domestic purposes.
Mainly, pruned branches and felled trees are cut up for firewood.
Medicinal Uses: An essence prepared from the flowers is taken to overcome insomnia, also as a
stomachic, and cardiac tonic. The pulp is considered an effective aid in the treatment of urinary
disorders. Leaf extractions have shown antibiotic activity.
Tangelo

Morton, J. 1987. Tangelo. p. 158160. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Tangelo
Tangelos; are deliberate or accidental hybrids of any mandarin orange and the grapefruit or
pummelo. The first known crosses were made by Dr. Walter T. Swingle at Eustis, Florida, in 1897,
and Dr. Herbert J. Webber at Riverside, California, in 1898. They are so unlike other citrus fruits
that they have been set aside in a class by themselves designated Citrus X tangelo J. Ingram & H.
E. Moore (C. X paradisi X C. reticulata).
Tangelos range from the size of a standard sweet orange to the size of a grapefruit, but are usually
somewhat necked at the base. The peel is fairly loose and easily removed. The pulp is often
colorful, subacid, of fine flavor and very juicy. The trees are large, more cold-tolerant than the
grapefruit but not quite as hardy as the mandarin. Nucellar embryos are not uncommon in these
hybrids and most of the cultivars are self-sterile, so a majority come true from seed. Tangelos are
not commonly grown in California but are produced commercially and in home gardens in Florida.
They are much more satisfactory on limestone in southern Florida than the sweet orange and are
prized for their quality.
Among the better-known tangelo cultivars are:
'KEarly' ('Sunrise Tangelo')a hybrid
propagated by growers. It is an
early-maturing cultivar of such poor quality
that it gave tangelos a bad reputation. The
Official Rules Affecting the Florida Citrus
Industry require that it be sold only as
'K-Early Citrus Fruit'.
'Minneola'a hybrid of 'Bowen' grapefruit
and 'Dancy' tangerine; oblate, faintly
necked; medium-large, 3 1/4 in (8.25 cm)
wide, 3 in (7.5 cm) high; peel deep
red-orange, thin, firm, not loose; pulp
orange, with 10-12 segments, melting,
sweet-acid; of fine flavor; 7-12 small seeds,
green inside. Late in season. Ships well. If
crop is left too long on tree, the next crop
will be light. Bears better if honeybees are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tangelo.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:34:48 PM]
Tangelo
provided and if 'Temple' tangor is

interplanted as a pollenizer, but the 'Temple'
is not as cold-hardy as the 'Minneola', and
the trees tend to crowd each other. The
'Minneola' needs fertile soil, irrigation and
adequate nutrition. Effects to increase
production of seedless fruits include
spraying the blooms with gibberellic acid,
or girdling during full bloom. The former
reduces fruit size and the latter may induce
virus outbreaks causing scaling and flaking
of the bark.
'Nova'a 'Clementine' tangerine and
'Orlando' tangelo cross made by Dr. Jack
Bellows in 1942, first fruited in 1950, and
released by the United States Department of
Agriculture's Horticultural Field Station,
Orlando, Florida, in 1964. Fruit is oblate to
rounded, of medium size, 2 3/4-3 in (7-7.5
cm) wide, 2 1/2-2 3/4 in (6.25-7 cm) high; Plate XIX: TANGELO, Citrus tangelo
peel is orange to scarlet, thin, slightly rough,
leathery, easy to remove; pulp dark-orange, with about 11 segments, of good, sweet flavor; seeds
numerous if cross-pollinated; polyembryonic, green inside. Early in season (mid-September to
mid-December). Does very well on 'Cleopatra' rootstock. The tree resembles that of the
'Clementine' tangerine, its twigs are thornless, and it is more cold-hardy than 'Orlando'. This
cultivar is self-infertile and trials have shown that 'Temple' tangor is a good pollenizer.
'Orlando' (formerly Take')result of 'Bowen' grapefruit pollinated with 'Dancy' tangerine, by Dr.
Swingle in 1911. The fruit is oblate to rounded, of medium size, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide, 2 3/4 in (7
cm) high; peel deep-orange, slightly rough, not loose; pulp deep-orange, with 12 to 14 segments,
melting, very juicy, sweet; seeds 10-12. Early in season but after 'Nova'. A good commercial fruit
in Florida. Needs cross-pollination by 'Temple' tangor, or by 'Dancy' or 'Fairchild' tangerines. The
presence of honeybees, even without interplanting with a pollinator tree, has greatly increased
yields. 'Cleopatra' mandarin is often used as a rootstock on sandy soils, but higher yields have been
obtained on sweet lime and rough lemon in Florida. In Texas, 'Orlando' is most productive on
'Swingle citrumelo', 'Morton citrange', 'Rangpur lime' and 'Cleopatra' mandarin. Fruit quality is
best on 'Morton citrange', sour orange, 'Sun Cha Sha Kat', 'Keraji' and 'Kinokune' mandarins.
'Seminole'a hybrid of 'Bowen' grapefruit and 'Dancy' tangerine; oblate, not necked;
medium-large, 3 1/4 in (8.25 cm) wide, 2 3/4 in (7 cm) high; peel deep red-orange, thin, firm,
almost tight but not hard to remove; pulp deep-orange with 11-13 segments, little rag, melting, of
fine, subacid flavor; seeds small, 20-25, green inside. Early in season but holds well through
March. Tree vigorous and high-yielding, scab-resistant; leaves with faint or no wings,
tangerine-scented.
'Thornton'a tangerine-grapefruit hybrid created by Dr. Swingle in 1899; oblate to obovate, a
Tangelo
little rough and lumpy, puffy with age; medium-large, 3 1/4 -3 3/4 in (8.25-9.5 cm) wide, 2 7/8-3
1/4 in (7.25-8.25 cm) high; peel, light-orange, medium-thick, almost loose, easily removed; pulp
pale- to deep-orange, with 10-12 segments, soft, melting, juicy, of rich subacid to sweet flavor;
seeds slender, 10-25, green inside. Matures from December to March. Tree vigorous and
high-yielding, large-leaved, well adapted to hot, dry regions of California. Fruit is a poor shipper.
'Ugli'believed to be a chance hybrid
between a mandarin orange and grapefruit.
The discoverer, G. G. R. Sharp, owner of
Trout Hall Estate, Jamaica, reported that it
was found growing in a pasture around
1917. He took budwood and grafted onto
sour orange, and kept on regrafting the
progeny with the fewest seeds. Sharp was
exporting to England and Canada in 1934
and to markets in New York City in 1942.
The fruit is obovoid, compressed to nearly
oblate, necked at the base, puffy; large, 4
1/4 to 6 in (10.8-15 cm) wide, 3 1/4-4 1/2 in
Fig. 40: The 'Ugli' tangelo of Jamaica is believed to be a
(8.25-11.5 cm) high; peel is light-yellow
chance hybrid between a Mandarin orange and a grapefruit.
with light-green areas at apex, leathery,
loose, medium-thin; albedo is thick; pulp light-orange, or apricot, divided into 12 segments with
tough membranes, easily skinned; tender, melting, very juicy; of fine flavor, superior to grapefruit,
only faintly bitter; seedless or with 3 or a few more medium-sized seeds, white inside. In Jamaica,
matures in December and January.
In January 1942, Kendal Morton purchased fruits on the New York market, sent 2 to Dr. H. Harold
Hume of the University of Florida, and 4 to Dr. H J. Webber of the University of California,
Riverside. Dr. Webber was able to examine them only at the Quarantine Station but he wrote up
the description for the first edition of the book, The Citrus Industry, by Batchelor and Webber. He
planted the seeds and reported that, of 13 seedlings, 6 had strongly mandarin-scented leaves, 3 had
weak-mandarin scent, and 4 had leaf-scent reminiscent of grapefruit or sweet orange leaves. Dr.
Webber passed on in 1943 before he could carry out his plans to bud 2 trees from each seedling.
Dr. W. P. Betters, Associate Horticulturist, reported that in 1947 the 4 seedlings still in the nursery
were bearing fruit, mostly in May-June; the fruits averaged 6 in (15 cm) in diameter, the peel was
orange-yellow with a slight tendency to regreen in the spring, the albedo was very thick and
fibrous, the flavor of the orange, juicy pulp was good but with a grapefruit tang, and there was, on
the average, one seed in each segment. These trees were destroyed in 1951 because they were in
the path of campus development, but budwood was taken for propagation and the new trees were
beginning to bear in 1954. The 'Ugli' was considered a good fruit for home dooryards in California
and was being tried as a rootstock for lemon. The 'Ugli' is little known in Florida. James McClure
of Lake Placid has a few trees that bear in February. There are small groves of 'Ugli' in South
Africa. In New Zealand a similar fruit has been grown since 1861 as "Poor-man's orange", or
"Poorman grapefruit".
'Alamoen'a fruit rather like the 'Ugli' commonly grown from seeds in Surinam. J.B. Rorer, a
Plant Pathologist in Trinidad, saw it in Surinam, considered it better-flavored than the grapefruit,
Tangelo
and sent 3 specimens to Dr. David Fairchild in 1914. Under the introduction number 37804, seeds
were planted at the United States Department of Agriculture's Garden at Chico, California. Fruits
borne by the seedlings had very thick peel and very little juice. Two of the trees were sent to Dr.
Fairchild and he planted them at his home, The Kampong, in Coconut Grove, Miami. They began
fruiting in 1931 and the fruits were not equal in quality to those he had received from Surinam,
which were much lighter in weight because of large, hollow centers. In 1944, he sent fruits to Dr.
Webber who detected several points of similarity to the 'Ugli' but found the latter easier to peel and
superior in quality and flavor.
Orangelo

Morton, J. 1987. Orangelo. p. 160. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Orangelo
orange grapefruit
Several sweet orange X grapefruit crosses were made by citrus breeders in California in early
years and were given the name "orangelo", a combination of orange and pomelo, the original name
for the grapefruit. None of the hybrids was sufficiently productive to be of horticultural value.
However, the group name is the only one on record to which such hybrids can be referred. The
only promising one being currently exploited is the following:
Chironja'This seemingly spontaneous hybrid was noticed by Carlos G. Moscoso, Fruit Specialist
in Horticulture, Agricultural Extension Service, of the University of Puerto Rico, when he was
interviewing citrus growers in the interior, mountainous, coffee zone of that island in November
1956. He saw a tree with large, bright-yellow fruits in contrast to the normal sweet orange and
grapefruit trees grown by farmers as shade for their coffee plantations. He learned that there were
several other trees of the same type on other farms in the neighborhood, some of them quite a few
years old and all raised from seed and showing only slight variations in form and size, and greater
variation in season of fruiting.
He described the fruit as round to pear-shaped, necked, equal to grapefruit in size; peel a brilliant
yellow, slightly adherent, easy to remove; the inner peel non-bitter; pulp yellow orange, with 9-13
segments having tender walls and much juice; the mild flavor reminiscent of both orange and
grapefruit, hardly acid or bitter even when immature. The seed count ranges from 7 to 15, with an
average of 11, and some fruits have as few as 2. The fruit is borne singly or in clusters. The tree,
reaching 22 ft (6.7 m), has leaves that smell like and resemble those of the grapefruit except that
they are usually deformed. Young shoots may have prominent thorns. Flowering and fruiting may
occur throughout the year, though most trees flower mainly in late spring and early summer.
By 1969, horticulturists in Puerto Rico had evaluated 500 seedlings in a test planting and selected
12 clones, 3 being considered superior. It was observed that 7-year-old trees may produce 300 to
500 fruits over a period of one year, while a 7-year-old grapefruit tree in Puerto Rico may produce
about 70.
In rootstock trials, grapefruit rootstock gave best results at the Adjuntas Agricultural Experiment
Substation and sour orange at the Isabela Substation. On grapefruit root-stock, the 'Chironja' is
larger than ordinary but not as sweet. A planting of seedlings was made at the Corozal Substation
with simultaneous planting of grafted trees for comparison. So much variation was seen in the
seedlings it was concluded that the 'Chironja' must be vegetatively propagated for uniform results.
Ten clones selected from the Corozal planting were grafted onto sour orange and set out at the 3
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/orangelo.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:34:48 PM]
Orangelo
Substations. The trees reached heavy production at 6 years of age. Yield was highest at Isabela
Substation and 'Clone 2-4' had the best yield, the thinnest peel and the most seeds. 'Clone 2-3' had
11 seeds and 'Clone 3-6' had 14.
Storage tests revealed that fruit in polyethylene bags at 44.5 F (7 C) and relative humidity of
90%, maintained acceptable quality for 70 days. But fruits harvested 5 months after fruit-set and
stored for periods of 30 to 55 days were of the best quality. Fruits harvested 7 months after
fruit-set retained high quality for only 25 days.
The 'Chironja's' productivity makes it popular with Puerto Rican growers and it is in demand on
Puerto Rican markets, mainly because it is more colorful than the grapefruit, sweeter, and easy to
peel.
The fruit is cut in half and eaten with a spoon as a grapefruit is eaten, or is peeled and the sections
eaten individually, or they are squeezed for juice. The sections can be canned in sirup with added
citric acid to enhance the flavor. The rind can be candied successfully.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/orangelo.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:34:48 PM]
Lemon

Morton, J. 1987. Lemon. p. 160168. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Lemon
Citrus limon
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The leading acid citrus fruit, because of its very appealing color, odor and flavor, the lemon, Citrus
limon Burm. f. (syns. C. limonium Risso, C. limonia Osbeck, C. medica var. limonium Brandis), is
known in Italy as limone; in most Spanish-speaking areas as limn, limn agria, limn real, or
limn francs; in German as limonen; in French as citrnnier; in Dutch as citroen. In Haiti, it is
limon France; in Puerto Rico, limon amarillo. In the Netherlands Antilles, lamoentsji, or
lamunchi, are locally applied to the lime, not to the lemon as strangers suppose. The lemon is not
grown there.
Several lemon-like fruits are domestically or commercially regarded as lemons wherever they are
grown and, accordingly, must be discussed under this heading. These include: Rough lemon (C.
jambhiri Lush.), Sweet lemon (C. limetta Risso), 'Meyer' (lemon X mandarin hybrid); 'Perrine'
(lime X lemon hybrid); 'Ponderosa' (presumed lemon X citron hybrid), qq.v. under "Varieties".
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lemon.html (1 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:34:56 PM]
Lemon
The true lemon tree reaches 10 to 20 ft (3-6

m) in height and usually has sharp thorns on
the twigs. The alternate leaves, reddish
when young, become dark-green above,
light-green below; are oblong, elliptic or
long-ovate, 2 1/2 to 4 1/2 in (6.25-11.25
cm) long, finely toothed, with slender wings
on the petioles. The mildly fragrant flowers
may be solitary or there may be 2 or more
clustered in the leaf axils. Buds are reddish;
the opened flowers have 4 or 5 petals 3/4 in
(2 cm) long, white on the upper surface
(inside), purplish beneath (outside), and
20-40 more or less united stamens with
yellow anthers. The fruit is oval with a
nipple-like protuberance at the apex; 2 3/4
to 4 3/4 in (7 -12 cm) long; the peel is
usually light-yellow though some lemons
are variegated with longitudinal stripes of
Plate XX: MEYER LEMON, possibly Citrus limon C.
green and yellow or white; it is aromatic,
reticulata
dotted with oil glands; 1/4 to 3/8 in (6-10
mm) thick; pulp is pale-yellow, in 8 to 10 segments, juicy, acid. Some fruits are seedless, most
have a few seeds, elliptic or ovate, pointed, smooth, 3/8 in (9.5 mm) long, white inside.
The true home of the lemon is unknown, though some have linked it to northwestern India. It is
supposed to have been introduced into southern Italy in 200 A.D. and to have been cultivated in
Iraq and Egypt by 700 A.D. It reached Sicily before 1000 and China between 760 and 1297 A.D.
Arabs distributed it widely in the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150 A.D. It was prized
for its medicinal virtues in the palace of the Sultan of Egypt and Syria in the period 1174-1193
A.D. Christopher Columbus carried lemon seeds to Hispaniola in 1493. The Spaniards may have
included lemons among the fruits they introduced to St. Augustine. They were grown in California
in the years 1751-1768. Lemons were reported to be increasingly planted in northeastern Florida in
1839. Because of heavy imports from Sicily, commercial culture in Florida and California was
begun soon after 1870 and grew to the point where 140,000 boxes were being shipped out of
Florida alone. The small Florida industry was set back by a freeze in 1886, the susceptibility of the
lemon to scab, and the unfavorable climate for curing the fruit, and also competition from
California. Following the devastating freeze of 1894-95, commercial lemon culture was abandoned
in Florida. Not until 1953 was interest in lemon-growing revived in Central Florida to take
advantage of the demand for frozen concentrate and for natural cold-press lemon oil. At that time,
Florida was importing lemons from Italy for processing. Plantings grew to 8,700 acres by 1975.
Freezes caused 50% reduction by 1980. Still, in 1984, Florida exported $2 million worth of
lemons.
In the meantime, Arizona had developed lemon orchards, though on a smaller scale than
Lemon
California. In the 1956-57 season, California produced 11 million gallons (42 million liters) of
frozen lemon concentrate while Florida's output was still very small. California and Arizona
became the leading sources of lemons in the western hemisphere. In recent years, California has
produced nearly double the crop that can be profitably marketed fresh or processed. Foreign
competition has increased and many California growers have destroyed their lemon groves or
topworked the trees to oranges, but new cultural techniques making summer production possible
may reverse the trend.
Guatemala has in the past 2 decades developed commercial lemon culture, primarily to produce
the peel oil for its essential oil industry and secondarily for the purpose of dehydrating the fruit and
preparing a powder for reconstituting into juice. Southern Mexico, too, is now a major grower of
lemons, also primarily for lemon peel oil. Lemons are rarely grown for the fresh fruit market in
Latin America. In South America, Argentina leads in lemon culture with Chile a distant second.
Among the world's leading lemon growers and exporters are Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus,
Lebanon, South Africa and Australia. Lemons can be grown only at medium and high elevations in
the Philippines.
Varieties
With the resumption of lemon-growing in
Florida, workers at the Citrus Experiment
Station, Lake Alfred, began a search for the
most suitable cultivars, whether in
dooryards, or in the United States
Department of Agriculture planting at
Orlovista, or the Lake Alfred collection. By
late 1950, 200 selections had been brought
together from various parts of the United
States. Of these, 40 were budded onto
30-year-old grapefruit trees on rough lemon
rootstock on the Minute Maid property at
Fig 41: Lemons: 'Ponderosa', perhaps a lemon X citron hybrid
Avon Park. Two selections grown
(left); 'Lisbon'-type commercial lemons (Citrus limon)
elsewhere were included in the
(center); and rough lemon (C. jambhiri) (right).
studies-evaluation for thorniness, cold-and
disease-susceptibility, sizes, juiciness, flavor, number of segments and seeds, yields, and quality of
peel oil. The majority of the selections were judged undesirable; only a few showed promise for
processing and fresh fruit marketing purposes. For processing, 'Villafranca' rated highest, followed
by 'Eustis', 'Bearss', 'Perkin' and 'Avon'. Any of these, properly harvested and cured would be
suitable for marketing fresh. Libby, McNeil & Libby, when planning for their lemon orchard at
Babson Park, Florida, about 1948, tested varieties from all major lemon-producing areas of the
world and chose 'Bearss' as rating highest in quality and quantity of juice, which was their chief
concern at the time. In 1960, they added marketing of the fresh fruit and found the 'Bearss' equally
desirable for this purpose.
The following are brief descriptions of most of the better known cultivars of true lemons and of
lemon-like fruits that are accepted as lemons in home or commercial usage, and a few of the
lesser-known.
Lemon
'Armstrong' ('Armstrong Seedless')a sport discovered in a private grove at Riverside, California,

about 1909. Patented in 1936 by Armstrong Nurseries. Resembles 'Eureka' except that it usually
bears seedless or near-seedless fruits. If planted among other lemon trees will occasionally have a
few seeds.
'Avon'first noticed as a budded tree in Arcadia, Florida. A budded tree propagated from the
original specimen around 1934 was planted in the Alpine Grove in Avon Park; it produced heavy
crops of fruits highly suitable for frozen concentrate. It, therefore, became the source of budwood
for commercial propagation by Ward's Nursery beginning in 1940.
'Bearss' ('Sicily', but not the original introduction by Gen. Sanford in 1875, which has
disappeared)a seedling believed to have been planted in 1892, discovered in the Bearss grove
near Lutz, Florida, about 1952. Closely resembles 'Lisbon'. It is highly susceptible to scab and
greasy spot and oil spotting. The tree is vigorous and tends to produce too many water sprouts.
Nevertheless, it has been propagated commercially by Libby, McNeill & Libby since 1953
because the peel is rich in oil. It constitutes 20% of Brazil's lemon/lime crop. ,
'Berna' ('Bernia', 'Vema', 'Vernia')oval to broad-elliptic, with pronounced nipple, short neck; peel
somewhat rough, medium-thick, becoming thinner in summer, tightly clinging. Seeds generally
few or absent. Ripens mostly in winter; fruits keep well on tree until summer but become too large.
Tree is vigorous, large, prolific. This is the leading cultivar of Spain and important in Algeria and
Morocco. It is too much like the 'Lisbon' to be of value in California. In Florida, it has been found
deficient in acid, low in juice, and too subject to scab.
'Eureka'originated from seed taken from an Italian lemon (probably the 'Lunario') and planted in
Los Angeles in 1858; selected in 1877 and budwood propagated by Thomas Garey who named it
'Garey's Eureka'. The fruit is elliptic to oblong or rarely obovate, with moderately protruding
nipple at apex, a low collar at the base; peel yellow, longitudinally ridged, slightly rough because
of sunken oil glands, medium-thick, tightly clinging; pulp greenish-yellow, in about 10 segments,
fine-grained, tender, juicy, very acid. Fruits often borne in large terminal clusters unprotected by
the foliage. Bears all year but mostly late winter, spring and early summer when the demand for
lemons is high. Tree of medium size, almost thornless, early-bearing, prolific; not especially
vigorous, cold-sensitive, not insect-resistant; relatively short-lived. Not suitable for Florida. Grown
commercially in Israel. One of the 2 leading cultivars of California, though now being superseded
by clonal selections with more vigor, e.g., 'Allen', 'Cascade', 'Cook', and 'Ross'. 'Lambert Eureka' is
a chance seedling found in 1940 on the property of Horace Lambert in New South Wales. It is
vigorous and productive.
'Femminello Ovale'one of the oldest Italian varieties; short-elliptic with low, blunt nipple;
slightly necked or rounded at base; of medium size; peel yellow, finely pitted, medium-smooth,
medium-thick, tightly clinging; pulp in about 10 segments, tender, juicy, very acid, of excellent
quality, with few, mostly undeveloped, seeds. Fruits all year but mainly in late winter and spring;
ships and stores well. The tree is almost thornless, medium-to very-vigorous, but highly
susceptible to mal secco disease. This is the leading cultivar in Italy, accounting for 3/4 of the total
lemon production, and 1/5 of the crop is processed as single-strength juice.
'Genoa'introduced into California from Genoa, Italy, in 1875. Almost identical to 'Eureka'; ovoid
or ovate-oblong with blunt nipple at apex; base rounded or slightly narrowed; of medium size; peel
Lemon
yellow, medium-thick, tightly clinging; pulp in 10-12 segments, melting, medium-juicy, with 29 to
51 seeds which are light-brown within. Tree is shrubby, nearly trunk-less, spreading, very thorny,
cold-hardy. Grown commercially in India, Chile and Argentina.
'Harvey'of unknown parentage; was found by Harvey Smith on the property of George James in
Clearwater, Florida. Fruit much like 'Eureka'. Tree highly cold-tolerant, compatible with several
rootstocks. Commercially propagated by Glen St. Mary Nurseries Company, near Jacksonville,
Florida, since 1943.
'Interdonato' ('Special')a lemon X citron hybrid that originated on property of a Colonel
Interdonato, Sicily, around 1875; oblong, cylindrical, with conical, pointed nipple at apex, short
neck or collar at base; large; peel yellow, smooth, glossy, thin, tightly clinging; pulp
greenish-yellow, in 8 or 9 segments, crisp, juicy, very acid, faintly bitter. Very few seeds. Earliest
in season; mostly fall and early winter. Tree vigorous, usually thornless, medium-resistant to mal
secco; of medium yield; accounts for 5% of Italy's crop.
'Lisbon' (perhaps the same as 'Portugal' in Morocco and Algeria)originated in Portugal, possibly
as a selection of 'Gallego'; reached Australia in 1824; first catalogued in Massachusetts in 1843;
introduced into California about 1849 and catalogued there in 1853; introduced into California
from Australia in 1874 and again in 1875. Fruit almost identical to 'Eureka'; elliptical to oblong,
prominently nippled at apex, base faintly necked; peel yellow, barely rough, faintly pitted,
sometimes slightly ribbed, medium-thick, tightly clinging; pulp pale greenish-yellow, in about 10
segments, fine-grained, tender, juicy, very acid, with few or no seeds. Main crop in February,
second crop in May. Fruit is borne inside the canopy, sheltered from extremes of heat and cold.
Tree large, vigorous, thorny, prolific, resistant to cold, heat, wind. Not well adapted to Florida. It is
low-yielding and short-lived in India. Surpasses 'Eureka' in California. Has given rise to a number
of clonal selections, particularly 'Frost', originated by H. B. Frost at the Citrus Research Station,
Riverside, California in .1917 and released about 1950; also 'Prior Lisbon' and the more vigorous
'Monroe Lisbon'.
'Meyer'a hybrid, possibly lemon X mandarin orange; introduced into the United States as S.P.I.
#23028, by the agricultural explorer, Frank N. Meyer, who found it growing as an ornamental
pot-plant near Peking, China, in 1908; obovate, elliptical or oblong, round at the base, occasionally
faintly necked and furrowed or lobed; apex rounded or with short nipple; of medium size, 2 1/4 to
3 in (5.7-7.5 cm) wide and 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 in (6.25-9 cm) high; peel light-orange with numerous
small oil glands, 1/8 to 1/4 in (3-6 mm) thick; pulp pale orange-yellow, usually in 10 segments
with tender walls, melting, juicy, moderately acid with medium lemon flavor; seeds small, 8 to 12.
Tends to be everbearing but fruits mostly from December to April. Tree small, with few thorns,
prolific, cold-resistant; produces few water sprouts, and is only moderately subject to greasy spot
and oil spotting. It is easily and commonly grown from cuttings. Does well on sweet orange and
rough lemon rootstocks; is not grafted onto sour orange because it is a carrier of a virulent strain of
tristeza. Grown for home use in California; in Florida, both for home use and to some extent
commercially for concentrate though the product must be enhanced by the addition of peel oil
from true lemons, since that from 'Meyer' peel is deficient in flavoring properties. Has been fairly
extensively planted in Texas and in Queensland, Australia, and New Zealand.
'Monachello' (Moscatello')suspected of being a lemon X citron hybrid; elliptical, with small
Lemon
nipple and no neck, merely tapered at apex and base; medium-small; peel yellow, smooth except
for large, sunken oil glands, thin, clinging very tightly; pulp in 10 segments, tender, not very juicy,
not sharply acid. Bears all year but mainly winter and spring. Tree not vigorous, slow-growing,
almost thornless, with abundant, large leaves; bears medium-well, resistant to mal secco, and has
been extensively planted in Italy in areas where the disease is common.
'Nepali Oblong' (Assam', 'Pat Nebu')originated in Assam; fruit resembles citron in some aspects;
long-elliptic to oblong-obovate, with wide, short nipple; medium-large; peel greenish-yellow,
smooth, glossy, medium-thick; pulp greenish-yellow in 11 segments, fine-grained, very juicy, of
medium acidity, with few or no seeds. Everbearing. Tree large, vigorous, spreading,
medium-thorny, prolific; foliage resembles that of the citron. Commercial in India.
'Nepali Round'of Indian origin; round, without distinct nipple; juicy; seedless. Tree large,
vigorous, compact, nearly thornless, medium-prolific. Successfully cultivated in South India.
'Perrine'a Mexican lime X 'Genoa' lemon hybrid created by Dr. Walter Swingle and colleagues
in 1909, but still a fairly typical lemon; it is lemon-shaped, with small nipple at apex, necked at
base; of medium size; peel pale lemon-yellow, smooth, slightly ridged, thin, tough; pulp pale
greenish-yellow, in 10 to 12 segments having thin walls; tender, very juicy, with slightly lime-like
flavor but acidity more like lemon; seeds usually 4 to 6, occasionally as many as 12, long-pointed.
Everbearing. Tree cold-sensitive but less so than the lime; resistant to wither tip and scab but prone
to gummosis and other bark diseases. In the early 1930's, was extensively planted in southern
Florida on rough lemon rootstock, but no longer grown.
'Ponderosa' ('Wonder'; 'American Wonder')a chance seedling, possibly of lemon/citron
parentage, grown by George Bowman, Hagerstown, Maryland around 1886 or 1887; appeared in
nursery catalogs in 1900 and 1902; obovate, lumpy and faintly ribbed, slightly necked at base;
large, 3 1/2 to 4 1/8 in (9-11 cm) wide, 3 1/2 to 4 3/4 in (9-12 cm) high; peel light orange-yellow,
with medium-large oil glands, flush or slightly depressed; 3/8 to 1/2 in (1-1.25 cm) thick; pulp
pale-green, in 10 to 13 segments with thick walls; juicy, acid; seeds of medium size, 30 to 40 or
more, brown within. Everbearing. Tree small, moderately thorny; buds and flowers white or barely
tinged with red-purple. More sensitive to cold than true lemons. Grown for home use and as a
curiosity in California and Florida and in small-scale commercial plantings since 1948. Rather
widely cultivated as an indoor potted plant in temperate regions.
'Rosenberger'a clone found in a grove of 'Lisbon' and 'Villafranca' trees at Upland, California;
was planted in the Rosenberger orchard and gained recognition as a superior cultivar. Tree closely
resembles that of 'Villafranca'. Fruit is somewhat like 'Lisbon' but is shorter and broader and less
tapered at base. Tree vigorous and prolific. Became popular in California in the 1960's.
'Rough Lemon' ('Florida Rough'; French'; 'Mazoe'; Jamberi')perhaps a lemon X citron hybrid,
but has been given the botanical name of C. jambhiri Lush. Believed to have originated in northern
India, where it grows wild; carried in 1498 or later by Portuguese explorers to southeastern Africa
where it became naturalized along the Mazoe River; soon taken to Europe, and brought by
Spaniards to the New World; is naturalized in the West Indies and Florida; oblate, rounded or oval,
base flat to distinctly necked, apex rounded with a more or less sunken nipple; of medium size,
averaging 2 3/4 in,(7 cm) wide, 2 1/2 (6.25 cm) high; peel lemon-yellow to orange-yellow, rough
and irregular, with large oil glands, often ribbed; 3/16 to 3/8 in (5-10 mm) thick; pulp
Lemon
lemon-yellow, usually in 10 segments, medium-juicy, medium-acid, with moderate lemon odor

and flavor; seeds small, 10 to 15, brownish within. Reproduces true from seeds, which are 96% to
100% nucellar. Tree large, very thorny; new growth slightly tinged with red; buds and flowers
with red-purple. The scant pulp and juice limit the rough lemon to home use. It is appreciated as a
dooryard fruit tree in Hawaii and in other tropical and subtropical areas where better lemons are
not available. The tree has been of great importance as a rootstock for the sweet orange, mandarin
orange and grapefruit. It is not now used as a rootstock for lemon in Florida because of its
susceptibility to "blight" (young tree decline). It is also prone to Alternaria leaf spot (A1ternaria
citri) in the nursery, to foot rot (Phytophthora parasitica). Incidence varies with the clone and
certain clones show significant resistance. In trials at Lake Alfred, 3 atypical clones showed
immunity to leaf spot, while a typical rough lemon clone, 'Nelspruit 15', from South African seed,
proved highly resistant to leaf spot and also extremely cold tolerant.
'Santa Teresa'an old tree discovered to be disease-free in a 'Fermminello Ovale' orchard in Italy
that had been devastated by mal secco. Budded trees from the original specimen were being
commonly planted in the 1960's wherever the disease was prevalent in Italy.
Sweet Lemon (C. limetta Risso)a general name for certain non-acid lemons or limettas, favored
in the Mediterranean region, In India, they are grown in the Nilgiris, Malabar and other areas. The
fruits are usually insipid, occasionally subacid or acid. The seeds are white within and the tree is
large, resembling that of the orange. One cultivar, called 'Dorshapo' after the plant explorers,
Dorsett, Shamel and Popenoe, who introduced it from Brazil in 1914, resembles the 'Eureka' in
most respects except for the lack of acidity. Another, called 'Millsweet', apparently was introduced
into California from Mexico and planted in a mission garden. It was reproduced at the old
University of California Experiment Station at Pomona. Neither is of any commercial value.
'Villafranca'believed to have originated in Sicily; introduced into Sanford, Florida, from Europe
around 1875 and later into California. Closely resembles 'Eureka'; of medium size. Tree is more
vigorous, larger, more densely foliaged, and more thorny than 'Eureka' but becomes thornless with
age. One strain is everbearing; another fruits heavily in summer. This was the leading lemon
cultivar in Florida for many years; is cultivated commercially in Israel; is low-yielding and
short-lived in India. It is little grown in California but has given rise to certain selections that are of
importance, particularly 'Galligan Lisbon' and 'Corona Foothill Eureka'.
Climate
Because of its more or less continuous state
of growth, the lemon is more sensitive to
cold than the orange and less able to recover
from cold injury. The tree is defoliated at
22 to 24 F (-5.56-4.44 C). A temperature
drop to 20 F (-6.67 C) will severely
damage the wood unless there has been a
fortnight of near-freezing weather to slow
down growth. Flowers and young fruits are
killed by 29 F (-1.67 C) and nearly mature
fruits are badly damaged below 28 F
(-2.22 C). On the other hand, the lemon
Lemon
attains best quality in coastal areas with

summers too cool for proper ripening of
oranges and grapefruit. Therefore, the
lemon has a relatively limited climatic
range. In Florida, lemons are produced
commercially as far north as Ft. Pierce on
the East Coast and Ruskin on the West
Coast. The 'Meyer' lemon, as a dooryard
tree, can be grown wherever oranges thrive,
even as far west as Pensacola.
The fruits are scarred and the tree readily
defoliated by winds, and benefit by the
protection of windbreaks.
Lemons are grown in both dry and humid
atmospheres, the latter being a disadvantage
mainly in the processes of curing and
storing. Over a large lemon-growing region Fig. 42: Flowers of the lemon (Citrus limon) are larger and
in California, annual rainfall varies from 25 showier than those of the orange.
to 125 cm. In long, dry periods, the lemon
must be irrigated.
Soil
The lemon tree has the reputation of tolerating very infertile, very poor soil. In Florida, groves are
mostly on sand. In California, excellent growth is maintained on silty clay loam of high
water-holding capacity. In Guatemala, recommended soils are sand, clay and sandy-clay-deep,
with high permeability and good drainage. Black soils are also suitable if not lying over calcareous
subsoil. Ph should be between 5.5 and 6.5. If acidity is high, it is necessary to apply lime to
achieve the optimum level.
Propagation
The rough lemon is widely grown from seed. The 'Meyer' lemon is easily reproduced by rooting
large cuttings in the nursery and planting them directly in the grove. They fruit 2 to 3 years sooner
than budded trees and have a long life, remaining in full production for over 30 years, perhaps
much longer.
In Florida, commercial lemons have been budded onto 'rough lemon', sweet orange, and 'Cleopatra'
mandarin rootstocks. More recent practices are the utilization of sour orange, Volkamer lemon (C.
volkameriana), and alemow (C. macrophylla Wester, an old Philippine lemon/ pummelo hybrid).
The latter is employed in California on soils containing an excess of soluble salts and boron. If
citranges are used as rootstocks for 'Eureka', bud union crease will kill the tree.
Culture
Lemon trees should be spaced 25 ft (7.6 in) apart each way. If crowded or "hedged", production
declines. The trees must be pruned when young and kept below 10 or 12 ft (3-3.6 m) in height.
Lemon
They are cut back severely after 12 years or replaced. Weeds must be controlled but lemon trees
are very sensitive to herbicides.
In Florida, fertilizing may be done 3 times a year between mid-November and the end of April, at
the gradually increasing rate of 4 to 10 lbs (1.8-4.5 kg) per tree up to an age of 50 years. Nitrogen
and potash are given in equal amounts under normal soil conditions. A nutritional spray with
copper added is applied after spring bloom. Fertilizer and irrigation programs should be varied
according to the desired goal: fresh fruit marketing or processing. High nitrogen steps up yield and
peel oil content but also results in more scab infection and poor curing. Potash increases acidity.
Heavy irrigation increases yield and peel oil, scab infection, size of fruit and accelerates maturity.
In California, foliar spraying of urea is preferred over ground application of nitrogen which can
lead to accumulations of salts and also contamination of groundwater. Leaf analyses are made to
determine the nitrogen requirements of each cultivar for maximum yield. 'Eureka', in a 6-year test,
showed no response to increased levels of nitrogen. In New Zealand, mature trees (15 to 20 years
old) are given 25 to 30 lbs (11.3-13.6 kg) of complete mixed fertilizer annually, also heavy
dressings of organic manure or mulch.
In Sicily, growers have, for over 50 years, made a practice of withholding water in summer-for 35
to 60 days-until the trees begin to wilt. Then the trees are heavily irrigated and given high nitrogen
fertilizer which induces a second bloom in August or early September, producing a crop the
following summer when lemons are scarce and prices are high. This system, called the "Verdelli
process", was adopted on a little over 1,000 acres (405 ha) in California in 1983. Adequate bloom
did not occur on sandy or shallow soils, but 80% of the plantings on gradually dehydrating,
fine-textured soil bloomed well. Nearly $3 million was expected from this extra crop of summer
lemons in the Central Valley and the Riverside area in 1984. New horticultural techniques are
needed to overcome the handicaps of higher use of fertilizer, increased insect and fungus
problems, effects of moisture stress on fruit quality, and low temperature hazard to immature fruits
in winter.
In 1965, a team of California horticulturists initiated experimental trellis culture of 'Prior Lisbon'
lemon on C. macrophylla rootstock. It was found that the labor of training, and repeated pruning
either manually or by machine hedging and topping, was excessive and uneconomic.
Guatemalan and Mexican growers interplant short-term crops such as beans, cassava, yauta
(Xanthosoma), in the rainy season, and tomatoes and peppers during the winter when the lemon
trees will be irrigated and fertilized.
The marketability of lemons depends on the stage at which they are picked. Italian lemons for
export are harvested as early as possible and are naturally "cured" in transit. In early days,
California and Florida lemons were allowed to remain on the trees until they became too large. It
was realized that early picking is necessary and California and Arizona adopted the practices of
picking at any time after the fruits reach a 25 % juice content, and using rings to gauge the
commercially acceptable size, and repeated spot-picking with clippers. Mechanical picking is
impossible with lemons. The fruits are highly prone to oil spotting (oleocellosis) and cannot be
handled roughly nor picked wet.
Lemon
Formerly, Florida lemons were picked from mid-July to October for shipping fresh, and the
balance in November was harvested for processing. Lemons under 2 1/8 in (5.4 cm) are too
immature to attain proper quality for marketing and fruits over 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) are too large.
Manual spot-picking has been commonly practiced, but some producers have found it too costly,
and are harvesting the entire crop at one time and grading for fresh sale or processing in the
packing-house, discarding all undersized fruits. The lemons, after sorting according to color,
washing and coating with a fungicide and a thin layer of wax are stored (cured) until ready for
shipping.
Yield
Lemon tree yields vary considerably with the cultivar, the location and weather conditions. A yield
of 3 boxes per tree is commercially satisfactory in Florida. In India, a 6-year-old tree bore 966
fruits and, at 9 years of age, had produced a total of 3,173 fruits.
Storage
Florida's climate is unfavorable for long-term curing. It has been claimed that a 10-day curing
period is adequate and degreening of Florida fruit is not needed. A major producer keeps the newly
harvested fruits for 48 hours at 60 F (15.56 C) and 95% humidity, then passes them through a
pre-grading procedure to eliminate all that are unusable. The usable fruits are then treated with
fungicide against stem-end rot and returned to the curing room. Those harvested early in the
season need 3 weeks to color-up, the last may require less than a week. Finally, the fruits are
washed, given a second fungicidal treatment, dried, waxed and packed.
Generally, lemons are cured at 56 to 58 F (13.33-14.4 C)and 85-90% relative humidity. Green
fruits may be held for 4 months or more, while the peel becomes yellow and thinner, the pulp
juicier (6-80%) and the proportion of soluble solids higher (7-24%). Sometimes the degreening
process is hastened by exposing the fruit to ethylene gas, ethephon, or silane, but this practice
tends to stimulate decay, mainly through the shedding of the "button" (stem stub), the absence of
which allows entry of Diplodia natalensis, Phomopsis citri, or Alternaria mycelium. Various
auxins have been studied to determine which can be applied before storage to prevent button loss
without delaying degreening. In 1982, Israeli investigators reported that decay losses from
degreening procedures can be greatly reduced (from over 50% to 6.3%) by packaging the fruits in
10 micrometer-thick high-density polyethylene. This treatment makes it possible to store lemons
with minimum damage for as long as 6 months.
In the past, New Zealand lemons for storage have been individually wrapped in diphenyl-treated
paper after washing and dipping in a 200 ppm solution of 2,4,5-T and then waxing. The fruits were
marketable after storing for 4 months at room temperature. Lemons can be kept for weeks in the
home refrigerator if placed in a jar with a tight-fitting lid to prevent loss of moisture.
Lemons for export from Florida to Hawaii and Arizona must be fumigated with methyl bromide
because of possible infestation by the Caribbean fruit fly. For sale within the state, other methods
must be employed.
Pests and Diseases
In Southeast Asia, many species of ants attack the root system and the farmer times the opening of
Lemon
the water gates so as to force the ants to the surface of the beds, where he burns them with fire.
One of the 3 most serious arthropod pests of the lemon and other citrus trees in California is
California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii. In the southern part of the state it is under biological
control but it requires applications of pesticides in the San Joaquin Valley. In Florida, rust mites,
purple mites and purple scale may at times be troublesome but they are all controllable with
appropriate sprays.
Young lemon trees in California sometimes require protection from wild rabbits.
Diseases are the greater challenges. In Florida, the main lemon diseases are scab (Elsinoe fawcetti)
on fruit, leaves and twigs; anthracnose of fruit (stylar-end-rot), leaves and twigs caused by both
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Glomerella cingulata; greasy spot (Mycosphaerella citri or
Cercospora citri-grisea); and gummosis (Diaporthe citri). The latter organism also causes
melanose and die-back, and stem-end rot. Stem-end rot may also arise from attack by
Botryosphaeria ribis and Diplodia natalensis.
Other lemon diseases recorded in Florida are branch knot (Sphaeropsis tumefaciens), damping-off
(Rhizoctonia solani), leaf spot (Mycosphaerella horii, AIternaria citri, and Catenularia sp.; algal
leaf spot or green scurf (Cephaleuros virescens); tar spot (Cercospora gigantea); felt fungus
(Septobasidium pseudopedicellatum); charcoal root rot (Macrophomia phaseolina); root rot
(Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum, and Phytophthora parasitica; heart rot and wood rot
(Fomes applanatus and Ganoderma sessilis); crinkly leaf and exocortis viruses; and green mold
(Penicillium digitatum); blue mold (P. italicum); and pink mold (P. roseum). In 1955, the lemon
budwood certification program was begun to provide virus-free stock for growers.
Red algae infests lemon trees and causes much dieback unless controlled with copper fungicide in
the summer. Zinc deficiency causes stunting of twigs, reduced flowering, premature dropping of
fruit, and yellow bands along the leaf veins. Manganese deficiency is evidenced by interveinal
chlorosis and subsequent necrosis, shedding of leaves, flowers and young fruit. In India, fruit
cracking occurs when dry periods are followed by heavy rains. Cracking can be largely avoided by
frequent light irrigation during the dry period and early picking.
Stored lemons are subject to the stem-end rots and the molds listed above. The albedo may show
small dark sunken areas even though this defect is not visible externally. Cultivars differ in their
ability to resist decay.
Food Uses
Slices of lemon are served as a garnish on fish or meat or with iced or hot tea, to be squeezed for
the flavorful juice. In Colombia, lemon soup is made by adding slices of lemon to dry bread roll
that has been sauted in shortening until soft and then sieved. Sugar and a cup of wine are added
and the mixture brought to a boil, and then served.
Lemon juice, fresh, canned, concentrated and frozen, or dehydrated and powdered, is primarily
used for lemonade, in carbonated beverages, or other drinks. It is also used for making pies and
tarts, as a flavoring for cakes, cookies, cake icings, puddings, sherbet, confectionery, preserves and
pharmaceutical products. A few drops of lemon juice, added to cream before whipping, gives
stability to the whipped cream.
Lemon
Lemon peel can be candied at home and is preserved in brine and supplied to manufacturers of
confectionery and baked goods. It is the source of lemon oil, pectin and citric acid. Lemon oil,
often with terpenes and sesquiterpenes removed, is added to frozen or otherwise processed lemon
juice to enrich the flavor. It is much employed as a flavoring for hard candies.
Fruit
(fresh,
peeled)
Calories
27
Moisture
90.1 g
Protein
1.1 g
Fat
0.3 g
Carbohydrates 8.2 g
Juice
(fresh)
Juice (canned,
unsweetened)
Juice (frozen,
unsweetened)
25
91.0 g
0.5 g
0.2 g
8.0 g
23
91.6 g
0.4 g
0.1 g
7.6 g
22
92.0 g
0.4 g
0.2 g
7.2 g
Lemonade
(concentrate,
frozen)
195
48.5 g
0.2 g
0.1 g
51.1 g
Fiber
Ash
0.4 g
0.3 g
trace
0.3 g
trace
0.3 g
trace
0.2 g
0.1 g
0.1 g
Calcium
26 mg
7 mg
7 mg
7 mg
4 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
16 mg
0.6 mg
2 mg
10 mg
0.2 mg
1 mg
10 mg
0.2 mg
I mg
9 mg
0.3 mg
I mg
6 mg
0.2 mg
0.2 mg
Potassium
138 mg
141 mg 141 mg
141 mg
70 mg
Vitamin A
20 I.U.
20 I.U.
20 I.U.
20 I.U.
Thiamine
0.04 mg 0.03 mg 0.03 mg
0.03 mg
0.02 mg
Riboflavin
0.02 mg 0.01 mg 0.01 mg
0.01 mg
0.03 mg
Niacin
0.1 mg
0.1 mg
0.1 mg
0.1 mg
0.3 mg
Ascorbic Acid 53 mg
46 mg
42 mg
44 mg
30 mg
20 I.U.
Peel
(raw)
81.6 g
1.5 g
0.3 g
16.0 g
0.6 g
134
mg
12 mg
0.8 mg
6 mg
160
mg
50 I.U.
0.06
mg
0.08
mg
0.4 mg
129
mg
*Analyses of true lemons, as marketed.

"Lemon Peel Oil consists mainly of terpenes, particularly limonene, also gamma terpinene and
beta-phellandrene. There are small amounts of sesquiterpenes and aldehydes. Among the aliphatic
aldehydes are n-octyl aldehyde, n-nonyl aldehyde, and citral.
Toxicity
The thorns of the lemon tree inflict painful punctures and scratches. Lemon peel oil may cause
Lemon
contact dermatitis, chronic in those who handle, cut and squeeze lemons daily. Parts of the body
touched by contaminated hands may show severe reactions after exposure to the sun. People that
suck lemons may suffer irritation and eruptions around the mouth. The wood of lemon trees and its
saw-dust may induce skin reactions in sensitive woodworkers.
Other Uses
Lemon juice is valued in the home as a stain remover, and a slice of lemon dipped in salt can be
used to clean copper-bottomed cooking pots. Lemon juice has been used for bleaching freckles and
is incorporated into some facial cleansing creams.
Lemon peel oil is much used in furniture polishes, detergents, soaps and shampoos. It is important
in perfume blending and especially in colognes.
Petitgrain oil (up to 50% citral), is distilled from the leaves, twigs and immature fruits of the
lemon tree in West Africa, North Africa and Italy. With terpenes removed, it is greatly prized in
colognes and floral perfumes.
Lemon peel, dehydrated, is marketed as cattlefeed.
Lemonade, when applied to potted plants, has been found to keep their flowers fresh longer than
normal. But it cannot be used on chrysanthemums without turning their leaves brown.
Wood: The wood is fine-grained, compact, and easy to work. In Mexico, it is carved into
chessmen, toys, small spoons, and other articles.
Medicinal Uses: Lemon juice is widely known as a diuretic, antiscorbutic, astringent, and
febrifuge. In Italy, the sweetened juice is given to relieve gingivitis, stomatitis, and inflammation
of the tongue. Lemon juice in hot water has been widely advocated as a daily laxative and
preventive of the common cold, but daily doses have been found to erode the enamel of the teeth.
Prolonged use will reduce the teeth to the level of the gums. Lemon juice and honey, or lemon
juice with salt or ginger, is taken when needed as a cold remedy. It was the juice of the
Mediterranean sweet lemon, not the lime, that was carried aboard British sailing ships of the 18th
Century to prevent scurvy, though the sailors became known as "limeys".
Oil expressed from lemon seeds is employed medicinally. The root decoction is taken as a
treatment for fever in Cuba; for gonorrhea in West Africa. An infusion of the bark or of the peel of
the fruit is given to relieve colic.
Mexican Lime

Morton, J. 1987. Mexican Lime. p. 168172. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle

C. acida Roxb.
C. lima Lunan
C. medica var.acida Brandis
Limonia aurantifolia Christm.
Rutaceae
Mexican Lime
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Storage
Pests
Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mexican_lime.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:34:57 PM]
Mexican Lime
Of the two acid, or sour, limes in world trade, the one longest known and most widely cultivated is
the Mexican, West Indian, or Key lime, Citrus aurantifolia Swingle (syns. C. acida Roxb., C. lima
Lunan; C. medica var. cida Brandis; and Limonia aurantifolia Christm.). It is often referred to
merely as "lime". In Spanish it is, lima cida, lima chica, lima boba, limn chiquito, limn criollo,
limn sutil, limn corriente, or limn agria. In French, it is limette or limettier acide; in German,
limett; Italian, limetta; in Dutch, lemmetje or limmetje. In East Africa, it is ndimu; in the
Philippines, dalayap or dayap; in Malaya, limau asam; in India, nimbu, limbu, nebu, lebu or
limun. In Papiamento in the Netherlands Antilles it is lamoentsji or lamunchi, in Brazil, limao
galego, or lintao miudo. In Egypt and the Sudan it is called limn baladi, or baladi, in Morocco,
doc.
Description
The Mexican lime tree is exceedingly vigorous; may be shrubby or range from 6 1/2 to 13 ft (2-4
m) high, with many slender, spreading branches, and usually has numerous, very sharp, axillary
spines to 3/8 in (1 cm) long. The evergreen, alternate leaves are pleasantly aromatic, densely set;
elliptic- or oblong-ovate, rounded at the base, 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) long, leathery; light purplish
when young, dull dark-green above, paler beneath, when mature; with minute, rounded teeth and
narrowly-winged petioles. Faintly fragrant or scentless, the axillary flowers, to 2 in (5 cm) across
are solitary or 2 to 7 in a raceme, and have 4 to 6 oblong, spreading petals, white but purple-tinged
when fresh, and 20-25 bundled white stamens with yellow anthers. The fruit, borne singly or in 2's
or 3's (or sometimes large clusters), at the twig tips, is round, obovate, or slightly elliptical,
sometimes with a slight nipple at the apex; the base rounded or faintly necked; 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm)
in diameter; peel is green and glossy when immature, pale-yellow when ripe; somewhat rough to
very smooth, 1/16 to 1/8 in (1.5-3 mm) thick; the pulp is greenish-yellow in 6 to 15 segments
which do not readily separate; aromatic, juicy, very acid and flavorful, with few or many small
seeds, green inside.
The Mexican lime is native to the Indo-Malayan region. It was unknown in Europe before the
Crusades and it is assumed to have been carried to North Africa and the Near East by Arabs and
taken by Crusaders from Palestine to Mediterranean Europe. In the mid-13th Century, it was
cultivated and well-known in Italy and probably also in France. It was undoubtedly introduced into
the Caribbean islands and Mexico by the Spaniards, for it was reportedly commonly grown in
Haiti in 1520. It readily became naturalized in the West Indies and Mexico, There is no known
record of its arrival in Florida. Dr. Henry Perrine planted limes from Yucatan on Indian Key and
possibly elsewhere. In 1839, cultivation of limes in southern Florida was reported to be
"increasing". The lime became a common dooryard fruit and by 1883 was being grown
commercially on a small scale in Orange and Lake Counties. When pineapple culture was
abandoned on the Florida Keys, because of soil depletion and the 1906 hurricane, people began
planting limes as a substitute crop for the Keys and the islands off Ft. Myers on the west coast. The
fruits were pickled in saltwater and shipped to Boston where they were a popular snack for school
children. The little industry flourished especially between 1913 and 1923, but was demolished by
the infamous hurricane of 1926. Thereafter, the lime was once again mainly a casual dooryard
resource on the Keys and the southern part of the Florida mainland.
Mexican Lime
In 1953, George D. Fleming, Jr., proprietor of Key Lime Associates, at Rock Harbor, on Key
Largo, was the chief producer of limes. Though he had sold several of his groves, he was
developing a new one as part of a "vacation cottage colony".
Fearing that this little lime might disappear with lack of demand and the burgeoning development
of the Keys, the Upper Florida Keys Chamber of Commerce launched in 1954, and again in 1959
with the help of the Upper Keys Kiwanis Club, an educational campaign to arouse interest and
encourage residents to plant the lime and nurseries to propagate the tree for sale.
The Mexican lime continues to be cultivated more or less on a commercial scale in India, Egypt,
Mexico, the West Indies, tropical America, and throughout the tropics of the Old World. There are
2,000,000 seedling trees near Colima, Mexico. Mexico raises this lime primarily for sale as fresh
fruit but also exports juice and lime oil. New plantings are being made to elevate oil production. In
1975, Rodolfo Guillen Paiz, Chief of the Citrus and Tropical Fruit Subproject of ANACAFE in
Guatemala, reported the initiation of a program to establish the Mexican lime as an all-year
commercial crop for the fresh fruit market, the production of juice and lime peel oil, and, as a first
step, the creation of a collection of selections as a genetic base for development of an industry,
possibly in association with cattle-raising since it had been observed that cattle do little damage to
the trees.
Production of Mexican limes for juice has been the major industry on the small Caribbean island
of Dominica for generations. There are at least 8 factories expressing the juice which is exported
largely to the United Kingdom in wooden casks after "settling" in wooden vats and clarifying. In
England, it is bottled as the world-famous "Rose's Lime Juice" put out by L. Rose & Co., Ltd., or
as the somewhat different product of the chief competitor, A. C. Shellingford & Co. Surplus juice,
over their requirements, is sold to soft-drink manufacturers. Since 1960, Rose has produced lime
juice concentrate in Dominica for export. There is also considerable export of lime oil distilled
from lime juice and oil expressed from the whole fruit. Jamaica, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago,
Guyana, and the Dominican Republic export lesser amounts of juice and oil. But the Dominican
Republic has recently enlarged its plantings in order to increase its oil output. Montserrat ships
only juice. Ghana is now the leading producer of lime juice and oil for L. Rose & Co., Ltd.
Gambia began serious lime processing in 1967.
The Mexican lime grows wild in the warm valleys of the Himalayas and is cultivated not only in
the lowlands but up to an elevation of 4,000 ft (1,200 m). It was first planted on the South Pacific
island of Niue in 1930. A small commercial industry has been expanding since 1966. Some of the
fruit is sold fresh but most of the crop is processed for juice and oil by the Niue Development
Board Factory. These products are shipped to New Zealand, as are a good part of the peels for the
manufacture of marmalade and jam. Production was crippled by a hurricane in 1979. This storm
inspired a search for rootstocks that could be expected to withstand strong winds.
Varieties
There are few varieties of the Mexican lime, except for several spineless selections, inasmuch as
there is no great variation in the wild or under cultivation. Some old named cultivars may not be
recognized today.
'Everglade' (Philippine Islands #2182')a seedling of a Mexican lime pollinated by flowers of a
Mexican Lime
grapefruit or pummelo, but the fruits show no grapefruit or pummelo characteristics. Introduced
into Trinidad in 1922. Planted in the Citrus Experiment Station collection at Riverside, California,
it showed little or no distinguishing features. It is limelike, elliptical, with fairly large nipple at
apex; 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide, 1 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (4.5-5.4 cm) high; peel light-yellow when ripe,
medium-smooth, the largest oil glands slightly sunken; thin, about 1/16 in (1.5 m); pulp
light-greenish, in 8 to 10 segments with tender walls; aromatic, very juicy, of excellent quality and
texture; the flavor sprightly acid; seeds 2 to 10, averaging about 5. The fruits are borne in large
clusters because all the flowers are perfect. Tree is highly susceptible to withertip.
'Kagzi'the name given the Mexican lime most commonly cultivated throughout India. It is
represented by numerous subtypes differing slightly in size, shape and color.
'Palmetto'a selected seedling from a Mexican lime pollinated by the 'Sicily' lemon; first
described by Dr. H.J. Webber in the United States Department Yearbook for 1905; elliptical or
nearly round with small nipple at apex; small of size, 1 3/8 to 1 1/2 in (3.6-4 cm) wide; 1 3/8 to 1
3/4 in (3.6-4.5 cm) high; peel pale-yellow when ripe, smooth, very thin, less than 1/16 in(1.5 mm);
pulp light greenish-yellow, in 8 to 10 segments; tender, very juicy, of fine quality, aromatic, with
sprightly acid flavor; usually 3 to 6 seeds.
'Yung' ('Spineless Mexican')of unknown origin; was introduced into California from Mexico by
George Yung around 1882.
Another spineless sport was reported in Dominica in 1892 and apparently the same was sent to the
United States Department of Agriculture from Trinidad in 1910, and several thornless sports were
found in lime groves near Weslaco, Texas, after a 1925 freeze. In 1967, seeds of a lime tree seen
flourishing in the desert at Yuma, Arizona were brought to southern Florida by Burt Colburn and
planted. Of 50 resulting seedlings, 8 were practically thornless. Budwood from these was grafted
onto rough lemon stock for distribution.
In Trinidad, hybridization was undertaken in 1925 in the hope of developing a type immune to
withertip. A seedling selection from hybrids was labeled 'T-l'. The fruits were not as juicy in the
green stage and a bit larger than the typical Mexican lime. Back-crossing was done to arrive at
'T-145' more closely resembling a typical Mexican lime in size.
Climate
The Mexican lime is more sensitive to cold than the lemon, and can be grown only in protected
locations in California. It thrives in a warm, moist climate with annual rainfall between 80 and 150
in (203-381 mm). Nevertheless, it tolerates drought better than any other citrus fruit. When there is
excessive rainfall, the tree is subject to fungus diseases.
Soil
The oolitic limestone of the Florida Keys seems perfectly acceptable to the Mexican lime. The tree
grows reasonably well in a variety of other soils. In sandy locations on the Florida mainland, best
growth is achieved by the periodic addition of lime to raise the pH. Other-wise there will be a
lighter crop of fruits; they will be larger than normal with thicker peel and less juice. In Hawaii,
this lime is cultivated in rich sandy or gravelly, well-drained soil. Porous lava soil is acceptable if
there is abundant rainfall. Stiff clay soils are unsuitable. On the island of Niue, limes are grown on
Mexican Lime
a thin layer of topsoil underlain with limestone. Farmers are advised to avoid breaking up the
limestone too much and mixing excessive calcium with the topsoil.
Propagation
The Mexican lime is usually propagated by seed because most seeds are polyembryonic and
reproduce faithfully to the parent. In some areas, root sprouts from mature trees are taken up and
transplanted into groves. Sprouting may be encouraged by digging around the parent tree to sever
the roots wholly or partly. Cuttings of mature wood may also serve for propagation but usually do
not develop strong root systems. Selected clones have been budded onto rough lemon or sour
orange. The latter is said to provide more resistance to hurricanes. Pummelo has been used in
Hawaii but doesn't make a perfect union. In Indonesia, this lime has always been air-layered. In the
1940's, air-layering became popular in Florida. It was adopted in India with 100% success, using
indole butyric acid to aid root development of the 'Kagzi' lime.
Culture
In pioneer days, people on the Florida Keys had unsophisticated methods of raising limes. They
often sowed the seeds thickly in a pot-hole in the limestone having a bit of soil in the bottom.
When the seedlings were a few inches high, they were taken up and transplanted during the rainy
season into any pot-hole with enough soil to sustain them until the roots were strong enough to
penetrate the porous rock. The result was irregular groves, and this practice was called "jungle"
planting. Sometimes volunteer seedlings would be taken up from beneath fruiting trees and
transplanted in the same manner. Later on, growers began to dynamite holes in a regular pattern in
order to have uniform rows. The breaking up of the rock enhanced root development.
The trees are best set 25 ft (7.5 m) apart each way, which allows for 70 trees per acre (28/ha).
Closer spacings of 15 or 20 ft (4.5-6 m) do not permit enough room for good cultural practices.
For many years, the trees on the Keys were fertilized only by a mulch of cured seaweed. On the
mainland, nitrogen was supplied by leguminous cover crops such as velvet bean (Mucuna
deeringiana Merr.), beggarweed (Desmodium canum Sch. & Thell.), or Showy Crotalaria
(Crotalaria spectabilis Roth.). Dade County growers came to apply commercial fertilizer, using a
2-8-10, or 2-10-10 NPK formula. Increasing potash is a means of checking growth and promoting
fruiting.
Before planting, in Niue, 1 to 2 tablespoons of zinc sulphate are placed in each hole. One month
later, and then every 4 months thereafter, 3 1/2 oz (100 g) of mixed nitrogen and potassium are
applied around the base. In the second year, the amount given is 18 oz (500 g) in 3 applications; in
the third year, 3.3 lbs (1.5 kg); in the 4th year, 6.5 lbs (3 kg) and the 5th year and beyond, 9 lbs
(4.5 kg).
Seedlings will begin to fruit in 3 to 6 years and reach full production in 8 to 10 years. The fruits
ripen and fall 5 to 6 months after flowering. Trees grown from air layers or cuttings tend to fruit
the first year and then cease fruiting until they have attained some growth. If the trees have been
correctly pruned when young, there is no further need for pruning except to remove deadwood and
water-sprouts, or for the purpose of thinning the fruits to increase size.
Harvesting
Mexican Lime
On the Florida Keys, the trees produce some fruits more or less the year around, but there are two
main seasonsMay/June and November/December. The peak season on Niue is in April and May.
The fruits may be picked while still somewhat green for home use or for the fresh fruit market, but
grove workers are reluctant to pick them because of the thorniness of the tree, unless they are
provided with protective gloves. If picked too soon, the peel is apt to develop a dark "rind scald".
The ideal stage is when the color has changed from dark to light green, the surface is smooth and
the fruit feels slightly soft to the touch. For processing, the fully ripe, yellow limes are gathered
from the ground twice a week. Because of the rough ground, pioneer growers on the Keys
collected the fruits with wheelbarrows pushed along boards placed over the limestone.
Storage
The Mexican lime ripens to full yellow and loses weight rapidly at normal room temperature in
warm climates. In the home, the fruits can be held fresh for 2 or 3 weeks if kept in water in a
closed jar. They are prone to cold injury under refrigeration at 44.6 F (7 C). A storage
temperature of 48.2 F (9 C) with 85-90% relative humidity has been recommended for delaying
ripening and loss of moisture. Controlled atmospheres low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide
are also effective in prolonging storage life. Experiments in the Sudan have shown that packing the
fruits in polyethylene bags with an ethylene absorbent retards ripening and moisture loss and
makes possible the shipping of the fruit by air freight to the United Kingdom.
In India, Mexican limes picked green were coated with wax emulsion containing the growth
regulator, indole butyric acid, at 2,000 ppm and kept at room temperature of 65 to 85 F
(18.33-29.44 C) and relative humidity of 60 to 90% for 17 days. On removal from storage, 75%
of the fruits were marketable, while fruits left untreated and those coated with wax only were
completely unmarketable.
A study in Trinidad demonstrated that Mexican limes treated with gibberellic acid, packaged in
polyethylene bags to retain moisture, and stored at ambient temperature, remained in marketable
condition for 65 days. Yellowing was retarded and there was no adverse effect on quality.
Pests
The Mexican lime is attacked by few pests. On the island of Niue, the most important enemy is
snow scale, Unaspis citri, in prolonged droughts. Severe infestations cause dieback of branches;
lighter attacks induce splitting of the bark which permits entry of other insects and fungi. The scale
insect is transported from tree to tree by ants.
Diseases
Withertip, or lime anthracnose, (Gleosporium limetticolum) is a serious affliction of the Mexican
lime in Florida. Fusarium oxysporum causes wilt of seedlings in Florida greenhouses, induces twig
dieback in India, and has been identified on Mexican lime grafted onto Rangpur mandarin lime in
Brazil.
When the weather is too humid, the Mexican lime is prone to attack by the fungus, Elsinoe
fawcetti, causing scab. It is also subject to algal disease and oil spotting can be severe. In Niue, the
trees are often afflicted with collar rot, caused by Phytophthora sp. The fungus, Sphaeropsis
tumefaciens, causing lime knot and witches broom, has destroyed many trees in Jamaica.
Mexican Lime
In 1982, a new strain of citrus canker, Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri, was found on 20,000
trees in the state of Colima, Mexico, in a 5-sq. mile (12.8 sq. km) area. Seedlings that had been
shipped from this area were destroyed and the United States Department of Agriculture culture set
up the requirement that all citrus imports from Mexico would have to be accompanied by a
phytosanitary certificate. Canker is a common plague of limes in India and in 1960 the
Horticultural Research Institute reported that Streptomycin sulfate at 500 ppm reduced the
incidence by 34%.
The fruits are attacked by decay organisms in storage, principally Rhizopus nigricans and
Penicillium spp.
Food Uses
The Mexican lime, because of its special bouquet and unique flavor, is ideal for serving in half as a
garnish and flavoring for fish and meats, for adding zest to cold drinks, and for making limeade. In
the Bahamas, fishermen and others who spend days in their sailboats, always have with them their
bottles of homemade "old sour"lime juice and salt. Throughout Malaysia, this lime is grown
mainly to flavor prepared foods and beverages. Commercially bottled lime juice is prized the
world over for use in mixed alcoholic drinks. If whole limes are crushed by the screw-press
process, the juice should be treated to remove some of the peel oil. It is calculated that 2,200 lbs (1
metric ton) of fruit should yield 1,058 lbs (480 kg) of juice.
Lime juice is made into sirup and sauce and pies similar to lemon pie. "Key Lime Pie" is a famous
dish of the Florida Keys and southern Florida, but today is largely made from the frozen
concentrate of the 'Tahiti' lime.
Mexican limes are often made into jam, jelly and marmalade. In Malaya, they are preserved in
sirup. They are also pickled by first making 4 incisions in the apex, covering the fruits with salt,
and later preserving them in vinegar. Before serving, the pickled fruits may be fried in coconut oil
and sugar and then they are eaten as appetizers.
Pickling is done in India by quartering the fruits, layering the pieces with salt in glass or glazed
clay jars, and placing in the sun for 3 to 4 days. The contents are stirred once a day. Green chili
peppers, turmeric, ginger or other spices may be included at the outset. Coconut or other edible oil
may be added last to enhance the keeping quality. Another method of pickling involves scraping
the fruits, steeping them in lime juice, then salting and exposing to the sun.
Hard, dried limes are exported from India to Iraq for making a special beverage.
The oil derived from the Mexican lime is obtained by three different methods in the West Indies:
1) by hand-pressing in a copper bowl studded with spikes (which is called an cuelle). This
method yields oil of the highest quality but it is produced in limited amounts. It is an important
flavoring for hard candy.
2) by machine pressing, cold expression, of the oil from the spent half-shells after juice extraction,
or simultaneously but with no contact with the juice.
3) by distillation from the oily pulp that rises to the top of tanks in which the washed, crushed
Mexican Lime
fruits have been left to settle for 2 weeks to a month. This yields the highest percentage of oil.
With terpenes and sesquiterpenes removed, it is extensively used in flavoring soft drinks,
confectionery, ice cream, sherbet, and other food products. The settled juice is marketed for
beverage manufacturing. The residue can be processed to recover citric acid.
The minced leaves are consumed in certain Javanese dishes. In the Philippines, the chopped peel is
made into a sweetmeat with milk and coconut.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
88.7-93.5 g
0.070-0.112 g
0.04-0.17 g
0.1-0.5 g
0.25-0.40 g
4.5-33.3 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
9.3-21.0 mg
0.19-0.33 mg
0.003-0.040 mg
0.019-0.068 mg
0.011-0.02 3 mg
0.14-0.25 mg
30.0-48.7 mg
*According to analyses made in Central America.

Other Uses
Juice: In the West Indies, the juice has been used in the process of dyeing leather. On the island of
St. Johns, a cosmetic manufacturer produces a bottled Lime Moisture Lotion as a skin-conditioner.
Peel: The dehydrated peel is fed to cattle. In India, the powdered dried peel and the sludge
remaining after clarifying lime juice are employed for cleaning metal.
Peel oil: The hand-pressed peel oil is mainly utilized in the perfume industry.
Twigs: In tropical Africa, lime twigs are popular chewsticks.
Medicinal Uses: Lime juice dispels the irritation and swelling of mosquito bites.
In Malaya, the juice is taken as a tonic and to relieve stomach ailments. Mixed with oil, it is given
as a vermifuge. The pickled fruit, with other substances, is poulticed on the head to allay neuralgia.
In India, the pickled fruit is eaten to relieve indigestion. The juice of the Mexican lime is regarded
as an antiseptic, tonic, an antiscorbutic, an astringent, and as a diuretic in liver ailments, a digestive
stimulant, a remedy for intestinal hemorrhage and hemorrhoids, heart palpitations, headache,
convulsive cough, rheumatism, arthritis, falling hair, bad breath, and as a disinfectant for all kinds
Mexican Lime
of ulcers when applied in a poultice.

The leaves are poulticed on skin diseases and on the abdomen of a new mother after childbirth.
The leaves or an infusion of the crushed leaves may be applied to relieve headache. The leaf
decoction is used as eye drops and to bathe a feverish patient; also as a mouth wash and gargle in
cases of sore throat and thrush.
The root bark serves as a febrifuge, as does the seed kernel, ground and mixed with lime juice.
In addition, there are many purely superstitious uses of the lime in Malaya.
Tahiti Lime

Morton, J. 1987. Tahiti Lime. p. 172175. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Tahiti Lime
Citrus latifolia Tan.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
This acid lime lacks the long history and wide usage that glamorize the small Mexican lime. Its
identity has been in doubt and only in recent years has it been given the botanical name, Citrus
latifolia Tan. An alternate common name is Persian lime.
Description
The Tahiti lime tree is moderately vigorous, medium to large, up to 15 or 20 ft (4.5-6 m), with
nearly thornless, widespread, drooping branches. The leaves are broad-lanceolate, with winged
petioles; young shoots are purplish. Flowers, borne off and on during the year but mainly in
January, are slightly purple-tinged. The fruit is oval, obovate, oblong or short-elliptical, usually
rounded at the base, occasionally ribbed or with a short neck; the apex is rounded with a brief
nipple; 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) wide, 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) high; peel is vivid green until ripe
when it becomes pale-yellow; smooth, thin, tightly clinging; pulp is light greenish-yellow when
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tahiti_lime.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:34:59 PM]
Tahiti Lime
ripe, in 10 segments, tender, acid, but

without the distinctive bouquet of the
Mexican lime; usually seedless, rarely with
one or a few seeds, especially if planted
among a number of other Citrus species.
The Tahiti lime flowers have no viable
pollen.
The origin of the Tahiti lime is unknown. It
is presumed to be a hybrid of the Mexican
lime and citron, or, less likely, the lemon,
and it is genetically a triploid though only
Fig. 43: Tahiti, or Persian lime (Citrus latifolia) (left); and the
the normal 18 chromosomes have been
Mexican, or West Indian (C. aurantifolia) which is especially
reported. Dr. Groff, in a reference to Citrus aromatic.
aurantifolia in his "Culture and Varieties of
Siamese Pummelos . . . ", said: ". . .it is represented by a large variety known as Manow klom and
by a small one known as Manow yai." One might speculate as to whether the large variety might
be the female parent of the Tahiti lime. At any rate, it is believed that the Tahiti was introduced
into the Mediterranean region by way of Iran (formerly called Persia). It is said that, for some
centuries, a virtually identical lime called 'Sakhesli' has been cultivated on the island of Djerba off
the coast of Tunisia, and that the local name means "from Sakhos", an old Arabic name for Chios,
a Grecian island. Portuguese traders probably carried it to Brazil, and it was apparently taken to
Australia from Brazil about 1824. It reached California from Tahiti between 1850 and 1880 and
had arrived in Florida by 1883. It was being grown at Lake Placid in 1897. This lime was adopted
into cultivation in California but is not extensively grown there, the bulk of California's lime crop
being mainly the Mexican lime. In Florida, the Tahiti quickly took the place of the more sensitive
small lime and the lemon. Following World War I, the Tahiti lime became a well-established
commercial crop. At first, there was market resistance, buyers viewing the Tahiti lime as a "green
lemon", and, for some time, Canadians would not accept it because they were accustomed to the
more flavorful Mexican lime. In the 1930's, many Florida citrus growers planted limes for extra
income and, in 1949, the development of limeade concentrate provided further impetus to the
Tahiti lime industry.
In 1954, Libby, McNeil & Libby topworked 100 acres (40 ha) of grapefruit trees in Florida to
Tahiti lime. Production increased 60% from 1970 to 1980. In 1979, the total crop was valued at
close to $9 million. Nearly 1 million bushels (250 limes per bushel) were shipped fresh and the
same amount was processed. By 1980, there were approximately 8,000 acres (about 3,250 ha) of
commercial groves. Five years later, Dade County shipped 110 million lbs (50 million kg) of fresh
fruit worth about $14 million to the growers, from a total of 6,500 acres (2,630 ha). Florida
produces 90% of the national crop, for marketing fresh and for canned lime juice, frozen lime
juice, frozen lime juice concentrate, frozen limeade and powdered lime juice. The Florida Lime
and Avocado Administrative Committee conducts research on production and carries on national
promotional activity.
Varieties
Tahiti Lime
There have been only a few named cultivars, or alleged cultivars, of the Tahiti lime:
'Bearss' ('Bearss Seedless', 'Byrum Seedless')This was first put forward as a new variety of Tahiti
lime originating in the grove of T.J. Bearss at Porterville, California, in 1895. It was described and
illustrated in 1902 and cultivated and catalogued by the Fancher Creek Nursery Company in 1905.
It was grown in California, Arizona and Hawaii under the name, 'Bearss', at least until the late
1940's. However, comparative studies made in California led to the decision that the 'Bearss' did
not differ sufficiently from the typical Tahiti lime to be maintained as a distinct cultivar.
'Idemor'a limb sport found around 1934 in a grove owned by G.L. Polk in Homestead, Florida,
and patented in 1941 (U.S. Plant Patent #444). The fruit is smaller and more rotund than the
typical Tahiti. A very similar sport has been reported from Morocco. This lime is no longer
planted because of its susceptibility to virus diseases.
'Pond'In 1914, budwood was obtained by Dr. H.J. Webber from a Tahiti lime tree in the
Moanalua Gardens, in Honolulu. Budded trees bore fruits that were somewhat smaller than the
typical Tahiti but otherwise much the same. The trees were somewhat lower growing. This cultivar
seems to have disappeared.
USDA 'No. 1' and 'No. 2'selections from many seedlings grown by Dr. James Childs of the
United States Department of Agriculture at the Horticultural Field Station, Orlando, Florida. They
are free of exocortis and xyloporosis viruses and are available to growers through Florida's
Budwood Registration Program. The fruit does not differ significantly in character from the typical
Tahiti lime. The development of these virus-free clones has been a great boon to Florida's lime
industry.
Climate
The Tahiti lime is hardier than the Mexican lime and better adapted to the mainland of Florida.
Most of the commercial groves are in Dade County, but, with some cold protection, this lime can
be grown on the east and west coasts and the central ridge as far north as Winter Haven. Even in
southern Florida, drastic drops in temperature have made it necessary to protect lime groves with
wind machines or overhead sprinkling,
Soil
The plantings in southern Florida are on oolitic limestone. Those further north are on deep sand.
The soil must be well drained. In low land subject to standing water, lime trees are planted on
elevated beds.
Propagation
The seeds of the Tahiti lime are largely monoembryonic; few seeds are available for planting; and
seedlings, for the most part, are exceedingly variable. Only 10 trees of 114 seedlings grown at the
Agricultural Research and Education Center of the University of Florida, Homestead, showed
typical Tahiti lime characters vegetatively and in the fruit, except for long thorns on the trunk and
branches.
This lime has been customarily budded onto rough lemon, but in recent years more commonly on
Tahiti Lime
the alemow, C. macrophylla. Many sweet orange and grapefruit trees have been successfully
topworked to the Tahiti lime. Today, 40% of the commercial Tahiti lime trees have been grown
from air-layers.
Culture
In Dade County's limestone, the trees are planted at the intersection of mechanically-cut trenches
16 in (40.5 cm) deep, or on mounds of crushed limestone and soil on scarified ground. The Tahiti
lime tree is less vigorous than the Mexican lime and accordingly lends itself to close-planting.
Spacing may be as close as 10 or 15 ft (3-4.5 m) in rows 20 ft (6 m) apart, which permits about
150 to 200 trees per acre (60-80/ha). When the trees overlap, they are mechanically hedged and
topped. Greater yields will result if the trees are spaced at 20 ft (6 m) and hedging and topping are
performed at 2 -to 3 -year intervals. The tree produces few water sprouts. A 12-month study in
Cuba showed that hedging does not affect yield a year later, and does not alter the normal growth
of the tree.
Air-layered trees begin to bear a year before budded trees but, as they mature, they generally do
not yield as well. Because of their year-around growth, lime trees demand more fertilization and
irrigation than other Citrus species. In commercial groves, irrigation is provided by overhead
sprinklers, portable or stationery.
In early days, many trees were afflicted with bark lesions and even girdling, killing the affected
branches or the entire tree if on the trunk. Splitting high-nitrogen fertilizer applications into 4
applications annually instead of 2 seemed to eliminate the problem. More recently, it has been
recommended that a 4-6-6 formula of NPK be applied every 60 days. Potash is particularly
important in relation to yield. In California, experimental spraying with gibberellic acid (10 ppm)
delayed maturity and increased fruit size. The fruit stayed green longer in the packinghouse.
Harvesting
Tahiti limes are harvested 8 to 12 times a yearonce a month in winter, but 70% of the crop
matures from May to fall. The peak period is July to September. The demand persists year-around
and off-season fruits sell at premium prices. Most harvesting is by hand but some use a "gig". If
picked too immature, the fruits will be deficient in juice. Since 1955, a Federal Marketing Order
has prevented the harvesting of immature fruit and has provided for the industry's setting of
standards of quality, grade and size. The minimum permissible juice content is 42%. If left too
long on the tree, the fruits will be subject to stylar-end-breakdown and are apt to turn yellowish
before they reach distant markets.
The limes are collected in wooden field boxes and conveyed by truck to packinghouses where they
are graded, washed, waxed, and packed in 10-,20-,40-,or 55-lb (4.5-,9-,18-,or 25-kg) corrugated
cartons for shipment to retailers. About 40% of the crop is processed locally for lime juice
concentrate. Cull limes are shipped to out-of-state manufacturers of citrus juices and peel oil
extractors. Limes for shipment to Hawaii and Arizona must be fumigated with methyl bromide
because of possible infestation by Caribbean fruit fly.
Yield
The yield from 7 ft (2.13 m) trees grafted on alemow rootstock has averaged 90 lbs (41 kg), while
Tahiti Lime
trees of the same size on rough lemon yielded 63 lbs (29 kg). Under advanced methods of
management, Florida lime groves produce 600 bushels per acre (243 bu/ha) annually.
Storage
The Tahiti lime requires no curing. The fresh fruits remain in good condition for 6 to 8 weeks
under refrigeration.
Pests and Diseases
The citrus red mite (purple mite, red spider, spider mite), and the broad mite may heavily infest
Tahiti lime leaves and fruits.
Formerly, the trees and fruits commonly evidenced lime blotch (yellow areas on leaves and fruits)
but the replacing of susceptible trees has largely eliminated this problem. The tree is immune to
withertip, moderately susceptible to scab and greasy spot. Red alga is a major problem, causing
bark splitting and dieback of branches. It can be prevented by regular and thorough spraying with
copper or other suitable fungicides. The tree is subject to several viruses: crinkly leaf, psorosis,
tatterleaf , tristeza, exocortis and xyloporosis.
The fruits are highly subject to oil spotting (oleocellosis), which occurs most frequently during
rainy seasons and when limes are harvested when wet with dew. Stylar-end-breakdown, or
stylar-end-rot, has been a very serious post-harvest disorder in the summer. It may develop within
2 hours after picking or several days later. It is apparently induced in oversize fruits, larger than 2
1/2 in (6.25 cm) picked early in the morning when internal pressure is high and left too long in the
hot sun in the field boxes. The effect is an expansion and rupturing of juice vesicles and the
development of a brown, soft area at the apex of the fruit, occasionally at the base also. Fruit losses
have been as high as 40%. Precooling the fruits for 24 hours greatly reduces the incidence of this
disease.
Food Uses
The Tahiti lime is utilized for making limeade and otherwise for the same purposes as the Mexican
lime. In Florida, a wedge of lime is commonly served with avocado, and lime juice is frequently
used as an alternative to vinegar in dressings and sauces.
It was formerly held that the oil from the peel of the Tahiti lime was of inferior quality. Since the
late 1960's, it has been accepted by the trade and produced in quantity as a by-product of the juice
-extraction process. It is utilized for enhancing lime juice and for most of the other purposes for
which Mexican lime peel oil is employed.
Toxicity
Excessive exposure to the peel oil of the Tahiti lime may cause dermatitis. Rolling the limes
between the hands before squeezing in order to extract more of the juice will coat the hands with
oil and this will be transferred to whatever parts of the body are touched before washing the hands.
Subsequent exposure to sunlight often results in brown or red areas that itch intensely, and
sometimes severe blistering. The sap of the tree and scratches by the thorns may cause rash in
sensitive individuals.
Tahiti Lime
Other Uses
Lime juice is employed as a rinse after shampooing the hair. Light streaks have been bleached in
the hair by applying lime juice and then going out into the sun for a time. One should be sure that
there is no peel oil on the hands when doing this. Lime juice has been applied on the face as a
freshening lotion. Some Florida housewives use lime juice for cleaning the inside of coffeepots,
and grind a whole lime in the electric garbage-disposal to eliminate unpleasant odor. Dilute lime
juice will dissolve, overnight, calcium deposits in teakettles.
Medicinal Uses: Lime juice, given quickly, is an effective antidote for the painful oral irritation
and inflammation that result from biting into aroids such as Dieffenbachia spp., Xanthosoma spp.,
Philodendron spp., and their allies. Lime juice has also been applied to relieve the effects of
stinging corals.
Sweet Lime

Morton, J. 1987. Sweet Lime. p. 175176. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Sweet Lime
Citrus limettioides Tan.
C. lumia Risso et Poit.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Propagation
Food Uses
Medicinal Uses
The sweet lime, Citrus limettioides Tan. (syn. C. lumia Risso et Poit.), is called limettier doux in
French; lima dulce in Spanish; mitha limbu, mitha nimbu, or mitha nebu, in India (mitha meaning
"sweet"); quit giy in Vietnam; limn helou, or succari in Egypt; laymn-helo in Syria and
Palestine. It is often confused with the sweet lemon, C. limetta Tan., (q.v. under LEMON) which,
in certain areas, is referred to as "sweet lime". In some of the literature, it is impossible to tell
which fruit is under discussion.
Description
The tree, its foliage, and the form and size of the fruit resemble the Tahiti lime; the leaves are
serrated and the petioles nearly wingless. The fruit is not at all similar to the Mexican lime. The
flowers are borne singly in the leaf axils or in terminal clusters of 2 to 10; the fruits may be
solitary or in bunches of 2 to 5.
It is not known where or how the sweet lime originated, but it is thought to be a hybrid between a
Mexican-type lime and a sweet lemon or sweet citron. Mediterranean botanists refer to it as native
to India. Central and northern India, northern Vietnam, Egypt and other countries around the
coasts of Mediterranean, and tropical America, are the chief areas of cultivation. It came to the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sweet_lime.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:34:59 PM]
Sweet Lime
United States from Saharanpur, India, in 1904 (S. P. I. #10365).

There is very limited culture in California where the fruits produced by desert-grown trees differ
markedly from those in cooler coastal regions. It is not grown for its fruit nor used as a rootstock
in Florida because of its high susceptibility to viruses. In India and Israel it is much utilized as a
rootstock for the sweet orange and other Citrus species.
Varieties
There are said to be several strains in India differing in fruit shape and tree productivity.
'Indian' ('Palestine')oblong, ovoid or nearly round, with rounded base and small nipple at apex,
occasionally slightly ribbed; peel aromatic, greenish to orange-yellow when ripe, smooth, with
conspicuous oil glands, thin; pulp pale-yellow, usually in 10 segments, tender, very juicy,
non-acid, bland, faintly bitter. The tree may be large or shrubby; is spreading, irregular, thorny,
with leaves resembling those of the orange but paler and with more prominent oil glands, their
petioles faintly winged. Buds and flowers are white. The tree is hardier than that of the acid lime;
bears late in the rainy season in India when other citrus fruits are out-of-season.
'Columbia'a clonal selection mentioned by Reuther et al. (Citrus Industry, Vol. 1, rev'd, 1967).
'Soh Synteng'a strongly acid variation in Assam with new shoots and flower buds briefly
pinkish.
Pollination
The sweet lime is self-compatible. In studies aimed at improving yield, Indian scientists found that
self-pollination results in maximum fruit set, while cross-pollination with sweet orange or
grapefruit results in greater fruit retention, at the same time increasing fruit size and seed count.
Therefore, the practice of interplanting with sweet orange and grapefruit has been adopted in
commercial orchards.
Propagation
In India, the sweet lime is grown from cuttings.
Food Uses
In the West Indies and Central America, the fruits are commonly enjoyed out-of-hand. The
stem-end is cut off, the core is pierced with a knife, and the juice is sucked out. The fruit is eaten
fresh in India as well as cooked and preserved.
The hand-pressed peel oil has a strong lemon odor. It contains pinene, limonene, linalool, linalyl
acetate and possibly dipentene and citral.
Medicinal Uses
In India the sweet lime is therapeutically valued for its cooling effect in cases of fever and
jaundice.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sweet_lime.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:34:59 PM]
Calamondin

Morton, J. 1987. Calamondin. p. 176178. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Calamondin
Citrus mitis Blanco
C. microcarpa Bunge
C. madurensis Lour.
X Citrofortunella mitis J. Ingram & H. E. Moore
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Prized for its ornamental value more widely than for its fruit, the calamondin was formerly
identified as Citrus mitis Blanco (syn. C. microcarpa Bunge); more recently in Citrus circles,
erroneously, as C. madurensis Lour.; now it has been given the hybrid name: X Citrofortunella
mitis J. Ingram & H. E. Moore. Among alternate common names are: calamondin orange; Chinese,
or China, orange; Panama orange; golden lime; scarlet lime; and, in the Philippines, kalamondin,
kalamunding, kalamansi, calamansi, limonsito, or agridulce. Malayan names are limau kesturi
("musk lime") and limau chuit. In Thailand it is ma-nao-wan.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/calamondin.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:01 PM]
Calamondin
The calamondin tree, ranging from 6 1/2 to

25 ft (2-7.5 m) high, is erect, slender, often
quite cylindrical, densely branched
beginning close to the ground, slightly
thorny, and develops an extraordinarily
deep taproot. The evergreen leaves
(technically single leaflets) are alternate,
aromatic, broad-oval, dark-green, glossy on
the upper surface, yellowish-green beneath,
1 1/2 to 3 in (4-7.5 cm) long, faintly toothed
at the apex, with short, narrowly-winged
petioles. The richly and sweetly fragrant
flowers, having 5 elliptic-oblong,
pure-white petals, are about 1 in (2.5 cm)
Fig. 44: The calamondin (X Citrofortunella mitis), a showy
ornamental, makes excellent marmalade.
wide and borne singly or in 2's or 3's
terminally or in the leaf axils near the
branch tips. The showy fruits are round or oblate and to 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) wide, with very aromatic,
orange-red peel, glossy, and dotted with numerous small oil glands; tender, thin, easily-removed,
sweet, and edible. The pulp, in 6 to 10 segments, is orange, very juicy, highly acid, seedless or
with 1 to 5 small, obovoid seeds, green within.
The calamondin is believed native to China and thought to have been taken in early times to
Indonesia and the Philippines. It became the most important Citrus juice source in the Philippine
Islands and is widely grown in India and throughout southern Asia and Malaysia. It is a common
ornamental dooryard tree in Hawaii, the Bahamas, some islands of the West Indies, and parts of
Central America. Dr. David Fairchild introduced it into Florida from Panama in 1899. It quickly
became popular in Florida and Texas. The California climate is not as favorable but a variegated
form ('Peters') is cultivated there.
Since 1960, thousands of potted specimens have been shipped from southern Florida to all parts of
the United States for use as house plants. Israel is now similarly raising such plants for the
European market. The calamondin is also valued as a rootstock for the oval kumquat (q.v.) for pot
culture.
At the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Florida in Gainesville, the calamondin
is much utilized for greenhouse research on the various aspects of flowering and fruiting in Citrus.
Climate
The calamondin is as cold-hardy as the Satsuma orange and can be grown all along the Gulf Coast
of the southern United States. It is moderately drought-tolerant.
Soil
The tree seems able to tolerate a wide range of soils from clay-loam in the Philippines to limestone
or sand in Florida.
Calamondin
Propagation
Calamondin trees may be easily grown from seeds, which are polyembryonic with 3 to 5 embryos
each. For commercial fruit production in the Philippines, the trees are budded onto calamondin
seedlings. In Florida, propagation by cuttings rooted under constant mist is the more common
commercial procedure for pot culture. Even leaf-cuttings will root readily.
Culture
Plants grown from cuttings fruit during the rooting period and will reach 18 to 24 in (45-60 cm) in
height in 10 1/2 months. The flowers are self-fertile and require no cross-pollination. Transplanted
into a large container and well cared for, a calamondin will grow at the rate of 1 ft (30 cm) per
year; will produce an abundant crop of fruit at the age of 2 years and will continue to bear the year
around. Potted plants for shipment can be stored in the dark for 2 weeks at 53.6 F (12 C) without
loss of leaves or fruits in storage or in subsequent transit and marketing.
In orchard plantings, Philippine workers have established that a complete commercial fertilizer
with a 1:1 nitrogen to potassium ratio gives the best growth. There are 2 applications: one prior to
the onset of the rainy season and the second just before the cessation of rains. Adequate moisture
is the principal factor in yield, size and quality of the fruit. Drought and dehydrating winds often
lead to mesophyll collapse.
Harvesting
Calamondins are harvested by clipping the stems as they become fully colored throughout the
year. In the Philippines the peak season is mid-August through October.
Storage
The fruits will keep in good condition for 2 weeks at 48 to 50 F (8.89-10 C) and 90% relative
humidity. Weight loss will be only 6.5%. Waxing retards ascorbic acid loss for 2 weeks in storage
but not thereafter.
Pests and Diseases
The calamondin is a prime host of the Mediterranean and Caribbean fruit flies, and for this reason
is much less planted in Florida than formerly. It may be attacked by other pests and diseases that
affect the lemon and lime including the viruses: crinkly leaf, exocortis, psorosis, xyloporosis and
tristeza, but it is immune to canker and scab.
Food Uses
Calamondin halves or quarters may be served with iced tea, seafood and meats, to be squeezed for
the acid juice. They were commonly so used in Florida before limes became plentiful. Some
people boil the sliced fruits with cranberries to make a tart sauce. Calamondins are also preserved
whole in sugar sirup, or made into sweet pickles, or marmalade. A superior marmalade is made by
using equal quantities of calamondins and kumquats. In Hawaii, a calamondin-papaya marmalade
is popular. In Malaya, the calamondin is an ingredient in chutney. Whole fruits, fried in coconut
oil with various seasonings, are eaten with curry. The preserved peel is added as flavoring to other
fruits stewed or preserved.
Calamondin
The juice is primarily valued for making acid beverages. It is often employed like lime or lemon
juice to make gelatin salads or desserts, custard pie or chiffon pie. In the Philippines, the extracted
juice, with the addition of gum tragacanth as an emulsifier, is pasteurized and bottled
commercially. This product must be stored at low temperature to keep well. Pectin is recovered
from the peel as a by-product of juice production.
Calories/lb
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Ash
Whole Fruit %
173 (380/kg)
87.08-87.12
0.86
2.41
3.27
0.54-0.64
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Citric Acid
0.14
0.07
0.003
2.81
Juice %
89.66
0.01
0.53
0.62
5.52
*The chemistry of the calamondin has received only moderate attention. Wester (1924) and
Maraon (1935) reported the above constituents from Philippine analyses. Mustard found the
ascorbic acid content of the whole fruit to be, 88.4-111.3 mg/100 g; of the juice, 30-31.5 mg; and
of the peel, 130-173.9 mg.
Other Uses
The fruit juice is used in the Philippines to bleach ink stains from fabrics. It also serves as a body
deodorant.
Medicinal Uses: The fruits may be crushed with the saponaceous bark of Entada Phaseoloides
Merr. for shampooing the hair, or the fruit juice applied to the scalp after shampooing. It
eliminates itching and promotes hair growth. Rubbing calamondin juice on insect bites banishes
the itching and irritation. It bleaches freckles and helps to clear up acne vulgaris and pruritus
vulvae. It is taken orally as a cough remedy and antiphlogistic. Slightly diluted and drunk warm, it
serves as a laxative. Combined with pepper, it is prescribed in Malaya to expel phlegm. The root
enters into a treatment given at childbirth. The distilled oil of the leaves serves as a carminative
with more potency than peppermint oil. The volatile oil content of the leaves is 0.90% to 1.06%.
Mandarin Lime

Morton, J. 1987. Mandarin Lime. p. 178179. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Mandarin Lime
Citus limonia Osbeck
This is a group name embracing three more or less similar fruits:
1) Rangpur (Citrus X limonia Osbeck) is also called rangpur lime, rungpur, marmalade lime,
lemandarin; Canton lemon in southern China, hime lemon in Japan; Japanche citroen in Indonesia;
sylhet lime, surkh nimboo and shabati in India; limao cravo in Brazil. It is probably a lemon X
mandarin orange hybrid originating in India. Sir Joseph Hooker recorded this as a small, slender
tree in the very bottom of valleys, along the foot of the Himalayas, from Gurhwal to the Khasia
Hills. The Reasoner Brothers, nurserymen, at Oneco, Florida, introduced seeds from northwestern
India and catalogued the tree as a lime.
The fruit resembles a mandarin orange; is round, oblate, or obovate, of irregular surface, the base
becoming furrowed and slightly necked with age, the apex rounded or faintly nippled; 1 3/4 to 2
1/2 in (4.5-6.25 cm) wide, 1 5/8 to 2 1/4 in (4.1-5.7 cm) high; peel is reddish-orange, with large oil
glands, thin, easily removed; pulp has limelike aroma, is deep-orange, in 8 to 10 segments having
tender walls and separating readily from each other; melting, very juicy; flavor exceedingly sour
but suggestive of orange; there may be 6-18 seeds, small, green within.
The tree is fast-growing, more or less spreading, reaching 15 to 20 ft (4.5-6 m); has short thorns;
the flower buds and petals are purple-tinted. It is more cold-tolerant than the lime and in California
has endured freezes better than the lemon. Unfortunately, it is highly subject to scab. It bears
abundantly, from November through winter, and the fruits remain on the tree in good condition. It
is a casual dooryard tree in Florida and a minor commercial fruit tree in California. Until the late
1930s, it was much used in Brazil and Argentina as a rootstock but trees budded onto it proved to
be short-lived It is grown to some extent in Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, rarely in Trinidad
where it was introduced from Montserrat in 1920.
In India, mandarin orange juice is improved by adding 20-40% Rangpur juice. Small, whole fruits
can be candied or pickled, but the Rangpur is not fully appreciated until it is made into marmalade.
This product is superb and rivals or excels that made from the sour orange.
2) Kusiae or kusiae lime is presumably a form of the Rangpur though it is even more limelike in
aroma. It is believed to have evolved in India where virtually identical fruits are called nasaran
and nemu tenga. Hawaiians believe that early Spanish settlers planted it on Kusiae, or Strongs
Island, in the Caroline Islands of Micronesia. In 1885, Henry Swinton introduced it into Hawaii
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mandarin_lime.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:35:01 PM]
Mandarin Lime
where it was described and pictured by Gerrit Wilder in 1911. Budwood was taken from Wilder's
garden in Honolulu to the Citrus Experiment Station at Riverside, California, in 1914.
The fruit is oval, oblate or round, furrowed and sometimes faintly necked at the base, the apex
rounded or with a slight pointed nipple; 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) wide; the peel is deep-yellow
with prominent oil glands, medium-thick to thin, leathery, easily removed; pulp is honey-yellow,
in 8 or 9 segments having tender walls; melting, somewhat less acid than the true lime and not so
rich in flavor; contains 6 to 10 small seeds; the abundant juice is colorless, transparent.
The tree is vigorous, of bushy habit, branched to the ground, but reaching 10 to 20 ft (4.5-6 m) in
height; has only a few small thorns and oval to lanceolate leaves; new growth is pale-green; sends
up many root sprouts, forming thickets. It is generally grown from seeds and seedlings may be less
thorny and seedy than their parents; can be grafted onto sour orange or other non-sprouting citrus
rootstocks to avoid root suckers. Fruiting begins in 1 1/2 to 3 years and the tree is nearly
everbearing and prolific. In Hawaii, 11-year-old trees have borne 2,000 fruits, nearly 200 lbs (90.5
kg) per tree. The Kusiae lime is cold-tolerant, immune to withertip but prone to scab and root-rot.
It is a common dooryard fruit tree in Hawaii and also grown in Trinidad, little-known elsewhere.
3) Otaheite, or Otaite, orange, or Otaheite Rangpur, formerly known as C. otaitensis Risso & Poit.
(syn. C. taitensis Risso), is now thought to be a non-acid form of the Rangpur. Its origin is
unknown. It was introduced into France from Tahiti by way of England in 1813; was being grown
in Paris by the botanist Noisitte in 1915. It was catalogued by a San Francisco nurseryman in 1882.
The fruit is oblate to spherical, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide, furrowed and rounded or slightly
necked at the base, the apex rounded or with a flat nipple; peel is orange with small oil glands;
thin; pulp is orange, in 7 to 10 segments, juicy, slightly limelike in aroma and flavor but bland with
scarcely any acidity; seedless, or with 3 to 6 small, abortive seeds.
The tree is a dwarf, spreading, thornless, with oblong to elliptic, finely-toothed leaves having
narrowly-winged petioles; the new growth is deep-purple; flowers are fragrant and purple outside.
Grown from cuttings or airlayers, the tree is widely sold in the United States as a potted "miniature
orange", especially in the Christmas season when it bears flowers and fruits concurrently.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mandarin_lime.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:35:01 PM]
Citron

Morton, J. 1987. Citron. p. 179182. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Citron
Citrus medica Linn.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Cropping and Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
A fruit better known to most consumers in its preserved rather than in its natural form, the citron,
Citrus medica Linn., is called in French, cedrat, cidratier, citronnier des Juifs; in Spanish, cidra,
poncil, poncidre, cedro limn, limn cidra, limn Francs, though in Central America it is often
referred to as toronja, the popular Spanish name for grapefruit. In Portuguese, it is cidrao; in
Italian, cedro or cedrone; in German, cedratzitrone or cederappelen; in Dutch, citroen; in India,
citron, beg-poora, or leemoo; in Malaya, limau susu, limau mata kerbau, limau kerat lingtang; in
Thailand, som-mu, som manao or som ma-ngu; in Laos, manao ripon, mak vo or mak nao; in
Vietnam, thank-yen or chanh; in Samoa, tipolo or moli-apatupatu; in China, kou-yuan.
Theophrastus wrote of it as the Persian, or Median, Apple, and it was later called the Citrus Apple.
Description
The citron is borne by a slow-growing shrub or small tree reaching 8 to 15 ft (2.4-4.5 m) high with
stiff branches and stiff twigs and short or long spines in the leaf axils. The leaflets are evergreen,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/citron.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:35:05 PM]
Citron
lemon-scented, ovate-lanceolate or ovate

elliptic, 2 1/2 to 7 in (6.25-18 cm) long;
leathery, with short, wingless or nearly
wingless petioles; the flower buds are large
and white or purplish; the fragrant flowers
about 1 1/2 in (4 cm) wide, in short clusters,
are mostly perfect but some male because of
pistil abortion; 4- to 5-petalled, often
pinkish or purplish on the outside, with 30
to 60 stamens. The fruit is fragrant, mostly
oblong, obovoid or oval, occasionally
pyriform, but highly variable; various
shapes and smooth or rough fruits
sometimes occurring on the same branch; Plate XXI: CITRON, Citrus medica
one form is deeply divided from the apex into slender sections; frequently there is a protruding
style; size also varies greatly from 3 1/2 to 9 in or even 1 ft (9-22.8 or 30 cm) long; peel is yellow
when fully ripe; usually rough and bumpy but sometimes smooth; mostly very thick, fleshy, tightly
clinging; pulp pale-yellow or greenish divided into as many as 14 or 15 segments, firm, not very
juicy, acid or sweet; contains numerous monoembryonic seeds, ovoid, smooth, white within.
The citron's place of origin is unknown but seeds were found in Mesopotamian excavations dating
back to 4000 B.C. The armies of Alexander the Great are thought to have carried the citron to the
Mediterranean region about 300 B.C. A Jewish coin struck in 136 B.C. bore a representation of the
citron on one side. A Chinese writer in AD 300 spoke of a gift of "40 Chinese bushels of citrons
from Ta-ch'in" in AD 284. Ta-ch'in is understood to mean the Roman Empire. The citron was a
staple, commercial food item in Rome in AD 301. There are wild citron trees in Chittagong,
Sitakund Hill, Khasi and Garo hills of northern India. Dioscorides mentioned citron in the 1st
Century AD and Pliny called it malus medica, malus Assyria and citrus in AD 177. The fruit was
imported into Greece from Persia (now Iran). Greek colonists began growing the citron in
Palestine about 200 B.C. The tree is assumed to have been successfully introduced into Italy in the
3rd Century. The trees were mostly destroyed by barbarians in the 4th Century but those in the
"Kingdom of Naples" and in Sardinia and Sicily survived. By the year 1003, the citron was
commonly cultivated at Salerno and fruits (called poma cedrina) were presented as a token of
gratitude to Norman lords. For centuries, this area supplied citron to the Jews in Italy, France and
Germany for their Feast of the Tabernacles (sukkot) ceremony. Moses had specified the cone of the
cedar, hadar (kedros in Greek) and when it fell into disfavor it was replaced by the citron, and the
Palestine Greeks called the latter kedromelon (cedar apple). Kedros was Latinized as cedrus and
this evolved into citrus, and subsequently into citron. For many years, most Citrus species were
identified as botanical varieties of Citrus medica.
Spaniards probably brought the citron with other Citrus species to St. Augustine, Florida, though it
could have survived there only in greenhouses. The tree was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1640.
Commercial citron culture and processing began in California in 1880. The trees suffered severe
cold damage in 1913 and, within a few years, the project was abandoned. From 1926 to 1936,
there were scattered small plantings of citron in Florida, and particularly one on Terra Ceia Island,
Citron
supplying fruits to the Hills Brothers Canning Company. The groves eventually succumbed to cold
and today the citron is grown in southern Florida only occasionally as a curiosity. The main
producing areas of citron for food use are Sicily, Corsica and Crete and other islands off the coasts
of Italy, Greece and France, and the neighboring mainland. Citron is also grown commercially in
the central, mountainous coffee regions of Puerto Rico. Some is candied locally but most is
shipped in brine to the United States and Europe. Citron is casually grown in several other islands
of the Caribbean and in Central and South America. It has been rather commonly grown in Brazil
for many years. There have long been scattered citron trees in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. After
5 years of study, horticulturists decided in 1964 that commercial culture could be profitable. Citron
trees are not uncommon in some of the Pacific Islands but are rare in the Philippines.
Varieties
Citron cultivars are mainly of two types: 1)
those with pinkish new growth, purple
flower buds and purple-tinted petals, acid
pulp and dark inner seed coat and chalazal
spot; 2) those with no pink or purple tint in
the new growth nor the flowers, with
non-acid pulp, colorless inner seed coat, and
pale-yellow chalazal spot. Among the
better-known cultivars are:
'Corsican'origin unknown but the leading
citron of Corsica; introduced into the United
Plate XXII: FINGERED CITRON, Citrus medica var.
States around 1891 and apparently the
sarcodactylus
cultivar grown in California; ellipsoid or
faintly obovate, furrowed at base; large; peel yellow, rough, lumpy, very thick, fleshy; pulp crisp,
non-juicy, non-acid, seedy. Tree small, spreading, moderately thorny with some large spines.
'Diamante' ('Cedro Liscio'; possibly the same as 'Italian' and 'Sicilian')of unknown origin but the
leading cultivar in Italy and preferred by processor's elsewhere; long-oval or ellipsoid, furrowed at
base, broadly nippled at apex; peel yellow, smooth or faintly ribbed; very thick, fleshy; pulp crisp,
non-juicy, acid; seedy. Tree small, spreading, thorny as 'Corsican'. Very similar is a cultivar called
"Earle" in Cuba.
'Etrog' ('Ethrog', 'Atrog'; C. medica var. Ethrog Engl.)the leading cultivar in Israel; ellipsoid,
spindle-shaped or lemon-like with moderate neck and often with persistent style at base; usually
with prominent nipple at apex; medium-small as harvested; if not picked early, it will remain on
the tree, continuing to enlarge for years until the branch cannot support it. For ritual use, the fruit
should be about 5 oz (142 g) and not oblong in form. Peel is yellow, semi-rough and bumpy,
faintly ribbed, thick, fleshy; flesh is crisp, firm, with little juice; acid; seedy. Tree is small, not
vigorous; leaves rounded at apex and cupped. This cultivar has been the official citron for use in
the Feast of the Tabernacles ritual but if unavailable any yellow, unblemished, lemon-sized citron
with adhering style can be substituted.
'Fingered Citron', Plate XXI, ('Buddha's Hand', or 'Buddha's Fingers'; C. medica var.
sarcodactylus Swing.); called fu shou in China, bushukon in Japan, limau jari, jeruk tangan, limau
Citron
kerat lingtang, in Malaya; djerook tangan in Indonesia; som-mu in Thailand; pht thu in Vietnam.
The fruit is corrugated, wholly or partly split into about 5 finger-like segments, with little or no
flesh; seedless or with loose seeds. The fruit is highly fragrant and is placed as an offering on
temple altars. It is commonly grown in China and Japan; is candied in China.
In India, there are several named types, in addition to the 'Fingered', in the northwest:
'Bajoura'small, with thin peel, much acid juice.
'Chhangura'believed to be the wild form and commonly found in a natural state; fruit rough,
small, without pulp.
'Madhankri' or 'Madhkunkur'fruit large with sweetish pulp.
'Turunj'fruit large, with thick peel, the white inner part sweet and edible; pulp scant, dry, acid.
Leaves are oblong and distinctly notched at the apex.
Climate
The citron tree is highly sensitive to frost; does not enter winter dormancy as early as other Citrus
species. Foliage and fruit easily damaged by very intense heat and drought. Best citron locations
are those where there are no extremes of temperature.
Soil
The soils where the citron is grown vary considerably, but the tree requires good aeration.
Propagation
Citron trees are grown readily from cuttings taken from branches 2 to 4 years old and quickly
buried deeply in soil without defoliation. For quicker growth, the citron may be budded onto rough
lemon, grapefruit, sour orange or sweet orange but the fruits do not attain the size of those
produced from cuttings, and the citron tends to overgrow the rootstock. Rough lemon has been
found too susceptible to gummosis to be employed as a rootstock for citron in Colombia. The
'Etrog', to be acceptable for ritual use, must not be budded or grafted.
Culture
The citron tree tends to put out water sprouts that should be eliminated, and the grower should
prune branches hanging so low that they touch the ground with the weight of the fruit. Italian
producers keep the tree low and stake the branches, and may even trim off the thorns, to avoid
scarring of the fruits. The trees begin to bear when 3 years old and reach peak production in 15
years; die in about 25 years.
In 'Etrog' orchards, the Israeli growers are careful to take every precaution to protect the fruit,
tying the fruiting branch securely in place and trimming away any twigs that might touch the fruit.
To avoid moving irrigation equipment through the groves, the trees are manually watered and
frequently sprayed to eliminate destructive insects.
If citrons are allowed to fully ripen on the tree they will be very aromatic and the peel yellow, the
inner peel very tender. In India, a fruiting branch may be bent down and the immature fruit put
Citron
into a jar shaped like a human head (or other form) so that the mature fruit will be of the same
shape. These are sold as curiosities and are said to be intensely fragrant.
Harvesting
The citron tree blooms nearly all year, but mostly in spring and the spring blooms produce the
major part of the crop. The fruit is dark-green when young, takes 3 months to turn yellow. To
retain the green color, firmness and uniformity desired by the dealers in candied citron, the fruit
must be picked when only 5 to 6 in (12.5-15 cm) long and 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) wide. Mature trees
yield an average of 66 lbs (30 kg) per year but exceptional trees have borne as much as 150 to 220
lbs (68-100 kg). 'Etrog' fruits are wrapped in hemp fiber immediately after picking. Those for local
use are inspected by rabbis, and those for export by agents of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Pests and Diseases
The citron tree is undoubtedly subject to most of the pests that attack other Citrus species. The
citrus bud mite (Eriophyes sheldoni), citrus rust mite (Phyllocoptruta oleivora), and snow scale
(Unaspis citri) are among its major enemies.
Horticulturists in Florida report that citron trees in this state are nearly always unthrifty, are subject
to gummosis, and usually in a state of decline and dieback, and are accordingly poor bearers.
Branch knot, caused by the fungus Sphaeropsis tumefaciens, was first noticed on citron trees in
Puerto Rico in 1977. By 1983, it had become a serious threat to the local citron industry. The
deformations become large and necrotic, lead to witches' broom, dieback and breaking of
branches.
Food Uses
The most important part of the citron is the peel which is a fairly important article in international
trade. The fruits are halved, depulped, immersed in seawater or ordinary salt water to ferment for
about 40 days, the brine being changed every 2 weeks; rinsed, put in denser brine in wooden
barrels for storage and for export. After partial de-salting and boiling to soften the peel, it is
candied in a strong sucrose/glucose solution. The candied peel is sun-dried or put up in jars for
future use. Candying is done mainly in England, France and the United States. The candied peel is
widely employed in the food industry, especially as an ingredient in fruit cake, plum pudding,
buns, sweet rolls and candy.
Puerto Rican food technologists reported in 1970 that the desalted citron could be dehydrated in a
hot air tray dryer at 108 F (42.22 C), reducing the weight by 95% to lower costs of shipment,
then stored in polyethylene bags and later reconstituted and candied. In 1979, after further
experiments, it was announced that fresh citron cubes, blanched for 1/2 minute in water at 170 F
(76.7 C) can be candied and the product is equal in quality to the brined and candied peel, and this
procedure saves the costs of salt, storage, and shipping of heavy barrels. If the citron lacks flavor, a
few orange or lemon leaves may be added to the sirup.
The fruit of the wild 'Chhangura' is pickled in India. In Indonesia, citron peel is eaten raw with
rice. The entire fruit of the 'Fingered citron' is eaten.
If there is sufficient juice in the better cultivars, it is utilized for beverages and to make desserts. In
Citron
Guatemala, it is used as flavoring for carbonated soft-drinks. In Malaya, citron juice is used as a
substitute for the juice of imported, expensive lemons. A product called "citron water" is made in
Barbados and shipped to France for flavoring wine and vermouth.
In order to expand the market for citron, Puerto Rican workers have established that the
green-mature fruits can be peeled by immersing in a boiling lye solution to save the labor of
hand-peeling and then the fruits can be made into marmalade, jelly, and fruit bars that are crusty
on the outside, soft within.
In Spain, a sirup made from the peel is used to flavor unpalatable medical preparations.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
87.1 g
0.081 g
0.04 g
1.1 g
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.41 g
36.5 mg
16.0 mg
0.55 mg
0.009 mg
0.052 mg
0.029 mg
0.125 mg
368 mg
*According to analyses made in Central America.

Other Uses
Fruit: Chinese and Japanese people prize the citron for its fragrance and it is a common practice in
central and northern China to carry a ripe fruit in the hand or place the fruit in a dish on a table to
perfume the air of a room. The dried fruits are put with stored clothing to repel moths. In southern
China, the juice is used to wash fine linen. Formerly, the essential oil was distilled from the peel
for use in perfumery.
Leaves and twigs: In some of the South Pacific islands, "Cedrat Petitgrain Oil" is distilled from
the leaves and twigs of citron trees for the French perfume industry.
Flowers: The flowers have been distilled for essential oil which has limited use in scent
manufacturing.
Wood: Branches of the citron tree are used as walking-sticks in India. The wood is white, rather
hard and heavy, and of fine grain. In India, it is used for agricultural implements.
Citron
Medicinal Uses: In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, the 'Etrog' was employed as a remedy
for seasickness, pulmonary troubles, intestinal ailments and other disorders. Citron juice with wine
was considered an effective purgative to rid the system of poison. In India, the peel is a remedy for
dysentery and is eaten to overcome halitosis. The distilled juice is given as a sedative. The candied
peel is sold in China as a stomachic, stimulant, expectorant and tonic. In West Tropical Africa, the
citron is used only as a medicine, particularly against rheumatism. The flowers are used
medicinally by the Chinese. In Malaya, a decoction of the fruit is taken to drive off evil spirits. A
decoction of the shoots of wild plants is administered to improve appetite, relieve stomachache and
expel intestinal worms. The leaf juice, combined with that of Polygonum and Indigofera is taken
after childbirth. A leaf infusion is given as an antispasmodic. In Southeast Asia, citron seeds are
given as a vennifuge. In Panama, they are ground up and combined with other ingredients and
given as an antidote for poison. The essential oil of the peel is regarded as an antibiotic.
Kumquat

Morton, J. 1987. Kumquat. p. 182185. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Kumquat
Fortunella sp. Swingle
Description
Varieties
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Kumquats have been called "the little gems of the citrus family". They were included in the genus
Citrus until about 1915 when Dr. Walter T. Swingle set them apart in the genus Fortunella, which
embraces six Asiatic species. The common name, which has been spelled cumquat, or comquot,
means "gold orange" in China. The Japanese equivalent is kin kan or kin kit for the round type, too
kin kan, for the oval type. In Southeast Asia, the round is called kin, kin kuit, or kuit xu, and the
oval, chu tsu or chantu. In Brazil, the trade name may be kumquat, kunquat, or laranja de ouro,
dos orientais.
Description
The kumquat tree is slow-growing, shrubby, compact, 8 to 15 ft (2.4-4.5 m) tall, the branches
light-green and angled when young, thornless or with a few spines. The apparently simple leaves
are alternate, lanceolate, 1 1/4 to 3 3/8 in (3.25-8.6 cm) long, finely toothed from the apex to the
middle, dark-green, glossy above, lighter beneath. Sweetly fragrant, 5-parted, white flowers are
borne singly or 1 to 4 together in the leaf axils. The fruit is oval-oblong or round, 5/8 to 1 1/2 in
(1.6-4 cm) wide; peel is golden-yellow to reddish-orange, with large, conspicuous oil glands,
fleshy, thick, tightly clinging, edible, the outer layer spicy, the inner layer sweet; the pulp is scant,
in 3 to 6 segments, not very juicy, acid to subacid; contains small, pointed seeds or sometimes
none; they are green within.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kumquat.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:07 PM]
Kumquat

Kumquats are believed native to China.
They were described in Chinese literature in
1178 A.D. A European writer in 1646
mentioned the fruit as having been
described to him by a Portuguese
missionary who had labored 22 years in
China. In 1712, kumquats were included in
a list of plants cultivated in Japan. They
have been grown in Europe and North
America since the mid-19th Century,
mainly as ornamental dooryard trees and as
potted specimens in patios and greenhouses. Fig. 45: Nagami, or Oval, kumquat (Fortunella margarita)
(left); and Marumi, or Round, kumquat (F. japonica) (right).
They are grown mainly in California,
Florida and Texas; to a lesser extent in Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Surinam, Colombia and Brazil. In
South India, they can be grown only at high elevations. There is limited cultivation in Australia
and South Africa.
Varieties
The various kumquats are distinguished as botanical species rather than as cultivars. The following
are those most utilized for food:
'Hong Kong', or Hong Kong Wild (F. Hindsii Swing.), called chin ch, shan chin kan, and chin
tou by the Chinesenative to Hong Kong and adjacent hilly and mountainous regions of Kwantung
and Chekiang Provinces of China; nearly round, 5/8 to 3/4 in (1.6-2 cm) wide; peel orange or
scarlet when ripe, thin, not very fleshy; pulp in only 3 or 4 small segments; seeds plump. Chinese
people flock to the foothills to gather the fruits in season. In the western world, the very thorny
shrub is grown only as an ornamental pot plant.
'Marumi', or Round Kumquat (F. japonica Swing., syn. Citrus maduremis Lour.)fully described
for the first time in 1784; introduced into Florida from Japan by Glen St. Mary and Royal Palm
nurseries in 1885; fruit is round, slightly oblate or obovate; to 1 1/4 in (3.2 cm) long; peel is
golden-yellow, smooth, with large oil glands, thin, aromatic and spicy; pulp, in 4 to 7 segments, is
scant and acid, with 1 to 3 seeds which are smaller than those of 'Nagami'. The tree reaches 9 ft
(2.75 m); is otherwise similar to that of 'Nagami' except that it is slightly thorny, has somewhat
smaller leaves and is considerably more cold-tolerant; bears at the same season.
'Meiwa', or Large Round Kumquat (F. crassifolia Swing.), called ninpo or neiha kinkan in
Japanpossibly a hybrid between 'Nagami' and 'Marumi'; introduced from Japan by the United
States Department of Agriculture between 1910 and 1912; short-oblong to round, about 1 1/2 in (4
cm) wide; peel orange-yellow, very thick, sweet; pulp usually in 7 segments, relatively sweet or
subacid; often seedless or with few seeds. The tree is a dwarf, frequently thornless or having short,
stout spines; the leaves differ from those of other kumquats in being very thick and rigid and partly
folded lengthwise; they are pitted with numerous dark-green oil glands. Extensively grown in
Chekiang Province, China, and less commonly in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. There is an
ornamental form with variegated fruits in Japan. This kumquat is the best for eating fresh; is still
Kumquat
somewhat rare in the United States.

'Nagami', or Oval, Kumquat (F. margarita Swing.)plants introduced from China into London in
1846 by Robert Fortune, plant explorer for the Royal Horticultural Society; was reported in North
America in 1850; introduced into Florida from Japan by Glen St. Mary and Royal Palm nurseries
in 1885; obovate or oblong; up to 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) long and 1 3/16 in (3 cm) wide; pulp divided
into 4 or 5 segments, contains 2 to 5 seeds. In season October to January. Tree to 15 ft (4.5 m) tall.
A mature specimen on rough lemon rootstock at Oneco, Florida, in 1901, bore a crop of 3,000 to
3,500 fruits. This is the most often cultivated kumquat in the United States.
Climate
Robert Fortune reported that the 'Nagami' kumquat required a hot summer, ranging from 80 to
100 F (26.67-37.78 C), but could withstand 10 to 15 degrees of frost without injury. It grows in
the tea regions of China where the climate is too cold for other citrus fruits, even the Satsuma
orange. The trees differ also from other Citrus species in that they enter into a period of winter
dormancy so profound that they will remain through several weeks of subsequent warm weather
without putting out new shoots or blossoms. Despite their ability to survive low temperatures, as in
the vicinity of San Francisco, California, the kumquat trees grow better and produce larger and
sweeter fruits in warmer regions.
Propagation
Kumquats are rarely grown from seed as they do not do well on their own roots. In China and
Japan they are grafted onto the trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata). This has been found the best
rootstock for kumquats in northern Florida and California and for dwarfing for pot culture. Sour
orange and grapefruit are suitable rootstocks for southern Florida. Rough lemon is unsatisfactory
in moist soils and tends to be too vigorous for the slow-growing kumquats.
Culture
In orchard plantings, kumquats on trifoliate orange can be set 8 to 12 ft (2.4-3.65 m) apart, or they
may be spaced at 5 ft (1.5 m) in hedged rows 12 ft (3.65 m) apart. For pot culture, they must be
dwarfed; must not be allowed to become pot-bound, and need faithful watering to avoid
dehydration and also need regular feeding.
Harvesting
For the fresh fruit market, it has been customary to clip the fruits individually with 2 or 3 leaves
attached to the stem. For decorating gift packs of other citrus fruits, or for use as table decorations,
leafy branches bearing several fruits are clipped. This practice has been common in Florida but in
cooler California the tree is not sufficiently vigorous to stand much depletion.
Keeping Quality
Because of the thick peel, the kumquat has good keeping quality and stands handling and shipment
well.
Pests and Diseases
Kumquat
Potted kumquats are subject to mealybug infestations. Dooryard and orchard trees may be attacked
by most of the common citrus pests. They are highly resistant or even immune to citrus canker.
The following diseases are recorded by the Florida Department of Agriculture as observed on
kumquats: scab (Elsino fawcetti and its conidial stage, Sphaceloma fawcetti; algal leaf spot, or
green scurf (Cephaleuros virescens); greasy spot (Cercospora citri-grisea); anthracnose
(Colletotrichum gloeosporioides); fruit rot, melanose (Diaporthe citri); stem-end rot and
gummosis (Physalospora rhodina).
Food Uses
Fresh kumquats, especially the 'Meiwa', can be eaten raw, whole. For preserving, they should be
left until they lose some of their moisture and acquire richer flavor. The fruits are easily preserved
whole in sugar sirup. Canned kumquats are exported from Taiwan and often served as dessert in
Chinese restaurants. For candying, the fruits are soaked in hot water with baking soda, next day cut
open and cooked briefly each day for 3 days in heavy sirup, then dried and sugared. Kumquats are
excellent for making marmalade, either alone or half-and-half with calamondins. The fruit may be
pickled by merely packing in jars of water, vinegar, and salt, partially sealing for 4 to 5 days,
changing the brine, sealing and letting stand for 6 to 8 weeks. To make sweet pickles, halved fruits
are boiled until tender, drained, boiled again in a mixture of corn sirup, vinegar, water and sugar,
with added cloves and cinnamon, and then baked until the product is thick and transparent.
Kumquat sauce is made by cooking chopped, seeded fruits with honey, orange juice, salt and
butter.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion (raw)*
Calories
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
274
3.8 g
0.4g
72.1 g
266 mg
97 mg
1.7 mg
30 mg
995 mg
2,530 I.U.
0.35 mg
0.40 mg
Ascorbic Acid 151 mg

*According to analyses published by the United States Department of Agriculture.

Morton, J. 1987. Sundry Hybrids and Rootstocks. p. 185186. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F.
Morton, Miami, FL.

Citrus
Rutaceae
TRIFOLIATE ORANGE (Poncirus trifoliata Raf., syn. Citrus trifoliata Linn.) grown for
thousands of years in central and northern China; from the 8th Century in Japan if not earlier; a
small, fast-growing, deciduous tree, with palmate leaves usually having 3 leaflets, rarely 4 or 5;
flowers showy, white, 5-petalled; fruits round to pear-shaped, 1 1/4 to 2 in (3.2-5 cm) wide; peel
fragrant, dull-yellow, minutely downy, rough, with numerous oil glands, thick; pulp scant, sour,
with a little acrid oil in the center; seeds ovoid, plump, numerous. Immature fruits and dried
mature fruits used medicinally in China. In southern Germany, fruit juice after 2 weeks' storage
used to make a flavoring sirup, the peel is candied and used as a spice, and is a source of pectin.
The plant is much grown as an ornamental in cool areas of Europe, Asia and North America. In
Brazil, it is valued as a protective hedge against animals and human trespassers. Seedlings are
important in most citrus-growing areas as rootstocks for various Citrus and related species.
CITRANGE (X Citroncirus Webberi J. Ingram & H. E. Moore); a trifoliate orange X sweet orange
hybrid created by Dr. Walter Swingle or under his direction, beginning in 1897. Tree is evergreen
or semi-deciduous, usually trifoliolate, deciduous; not as cold-resistant as the trifoliate orange.
Fruits more or less aromatic, outwardly orange-like; 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) wide; peel yellow to
deep-orange, may be hairy or non-hairy, wrinkled, ribbed, or smooth; thin; pulp often very juicy
and tender, richly flavored, highly acid, slightly bitter; seedless or with a few, mostly
polyembryonic, seeds. Certain cultivars, 'Coleman', 'Morton', 'Rusk' and 'Savage', especially 'Rusk',
yield juice valued for ade and mixed drinks. They are also desirable for pie, jams and marmalade.
'Troyer' ('Carrizo'), a 'Washington Navel' X trifoliate orange hybrid created by Dr. Walter Reuther
in 1909, named 'Troyer' by Swingle in 1934 and renamed 'Carrizo' in 1938, has become a very
important rootstock, particularly in California. When budded onto trifoliate orange, can be grown
in Georgia.
In early 1985, citrange hybrids 'C35' and 'C32' ('Ruby' orange X trifoliate orange) were released by
the Citrus Research Center, Riverside, California, for trial as rootstocks because of their resistance
to the citrus nematode, also to Phytophthora spp. and the tristeza virus.
CITRANGEQUAT (Fortunella sp. X citrange). The first crosses were made by Dr. Swingle at
Eustis, Florida, in 1909. Tree is vigorous, erect, thorny or thornless, with mostly trifoliolate leaves;
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sundry_hybrids.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:35:08 PM]
highly cold-resistant. Fruit resembles the oval kumquat, mostly very acid. One cultivar,
'Thomasville', becomes edible when fully mature, though it is relatively seedy. It is very juicy,
valued for eating out-of-hand, for ade and marmalade. The tree is strongly resistant to citrus canker
and is very ornamental. Two other cultivars, 'Swinton' and 'Telfair', have few seeds, but are less
desirable; have limited use for juice and as ornamentals.
LIMEQUAT (X Citrofortunella spp.)Mexican lime X kumquat hybrids made by Dr. Swingle in
1909, described and named in 1913. Tree vigorous, evergreen, the single leaflets having
narrowly-winged petioles; nearly spineless or with a few short thorns; more cold-tolerant than the
lime but not as hardy as the kumquat; very resistant to withertip. Fruit much like the Mexican lime.
There are three named cultivars:
'Eustis' (X C. floridana J. Ingram & H. E.
Moore)Mexican lime crossed with round
kumquat; oval or round, 1 1/8 to 1 1/2 in
(2.8-4 cm) wide; peel pale-yellow, smooth,
glossy, with prominent oil glands, thin,
edible; pulp light greenish in 6 to 9
segments, tender, juicy, very acid, with 5 to
12 small seeds. Of excellent quality, nearly
everbearing but mainly in fall-to-winter.
Tree has small spines and pure-white buds
and flowers; prolific.
'Lakeland' (different seed from same
hybrid parent)oval, 1 1/4 to 2 1/4 in (4.5-7 Fig. 46: 'Eustis' limequat (X Citrafortunella floridana), a
cm) wide; peel bright-yellow, smooth, thin; cross between a Mexican lime and the Marumi kumquat.
pulp in 5 to 8 segments, pale-yellow, juicy,
pleasantly acid, with 2 to 9 large seeds. Tree nearly spineless; flowers white with pink streaks.
'Tavares' (X C. Swinglei J. Ingram & H. E. Moore)a Mexican lime X oval kumquat hybrid;
obovate to oval, about 1 1/4 to 1 7/8 in (3.2-4.75 cm) wide; peel pale orange-yellow, smooth, thin,
tender, edible; pulp buff-yellow, in 7 to 8 segments, juicy, very acid, with 6 to 11 large seeds. Tree
vigorous with short spines and pink flower buds.
Limequats are cultivated as dooryard trees to a limited extent in central Florida; are more
commonly grown in California as potted ornamentals.
VOLKAMER LEMON is described and illustrated in great detail by H. Chapot as Citrus
volkameriana Pasquale, though the author views it as a hybrid between the lemon and possibly the
sour orange. Tanaka and others suggest that it may be a variety of mandarin lime.
The tree is a little smaller than the average lemon tree. Young seedlings bear a few spines 1/2 to
3/5 in (12.5-15 mm) long, but these disappear with age and are produced only occasionally on
older specimens. The leaves are short-petioled, ellipsoid, more or less toothed, 3 3/4 to 6 in (9.5-15
cm) long. The flowers, only slightly fragrant, short-stalked, 3-to-6-petalled, 1 3/8 in (3.5 cm) wide,
are borne in small clusters all along the branches and at the tips. The fruit, borne profusely, is
lemon-shaped, 2 1/4 in (5.7 cm) long, 2 1/8 in (5.4 cm) wide, rough, bright-reddish-orange. The
yellow-orange pulp, in 7 to 11 segments, is very juicy, acid, faintly bitter, of agreeable odor and
flavor, with few seeds. The fruiting tree is exceptionally ornamental and the fruit can be used as a
substitute for the lemon.
The Volkamer lemon has been known for more than 3 centuries. In the mid-1950's, it was reported
in Italy to be a promising rootstock for lemon because of its high resistance to malsecco
(Deuterophoma tracheiphila) and foot-rot (Phytophthora sp.). Trials in Morocco in 1972-1973
with scions of sour orange, sweet orange, mandarin orange, grapefruit, lemon and rough lemon,
and inoculated Volkamer rootstock, showed it to be highly susceptible to gummosis caused by
Phytophthora citrophthora in contrast to 'Carrizo' citrange rootstock's high resistance. The degree
of necrosis varied somewhat with the scion. (See Chapot in Bibliography).
During tristeza studies on Reunion, workers noted on several trunks of the Volkamer lemon woody
galls associated with a wood-bark-socket stem-pitting, according to Aubert et al. Protopapadakis
and Zambettakis have reported that, in Crete, Volkamer lemon has proved to be second only to
sour orange in resistance to mal secco.
Bael Fruit

Morton, J. 1987. Bael Fruit. p. 187190. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Bael Fruit
Aegle marmelos Correa
syn. Feronia pellucida Roth, Crataeva marmelos
L.
Description
Climate
Soil
Varieties
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Though more prized for its medicinal virtues than its edible quality, this interesting member of the
family Rutaceae is, nevertheless, of sufficient importance as an edible fruit to be included here.
The bael fruit, Aegle marmelos Correa (syns. Feronia pellucida Roth., Crataeva marmelos L.), is
also called Bengal quince, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple, bel, bela, sirphal,
maredoo and other dialectal names in India; matum and mapin in Thailand; phneou or pnoi in
Cambodia; bau nau in Vietnam; bilak, or maja pahit in Malaya; modjo in Java; oranger du
Malabar in French; marmelos in Portuguese. Sometimes it is called elephant apple, which causes
confusion with a related fruit of that name, Feronia limonia Swingle (q.v.).
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bael_fruit.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:35:09 PM]
Bael Fruit
The bael fruit tree is slow-growing, of

medium size, up to 40 or 50 ft (12-15 m)
tall with short trunk, thick, soft, flaking
bark, and spreading, sometimes spiny
branches, the lower ones drooping. Young
suckers bear many stiff, straight spines. A
clear, gummy sap, resembling gum arabic,
exudes from wounded branches and hangs
down in long strands, becoming gradually
solid. It is sweet at first taste and then
irritating to the throat. The deciduous,
alternate leaves, borne singly or in 2's or 3's,
are composed of 3 to 5 oval, pointed,
Fig. 47: A hard-shelled bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), of the
shallowly toothed leaflets, 1 1/2 to 4 in
type valued more for medicinal purposes than for eating.
(4-10 cm) long, 3/4 to 2 in (2-5 cm) wide,
the terminal one with a long petiole. New foliage is glossy and pinkish-maroon. Mature leaves
emit a disagreeable odor when bruised. Fragrant flowers, in clusters of 4 to 7 along the young
branchlets, have 4 recurved, fleshy petals, green outside, yellowish inside, and 50 or more
greenish-yellow stamens. The fruit, round, pyriform, oval, or oblong, 2 to 8 in (5-20 cm) in
diameter, may have a thin, hard, woody shell or a more or less soft rind, gray-green until the fruit
is fully ripe, when it turns yellowish. It is dotted with aromatic, minute oil glands. Inside, there is a
hard central core and 8 to 20 faintly defined triangular segments, with thin, dark-orange walls,
filled with aromatic, pale-orange, pasty, sweet, resinous, more or less astringent, pulp. Embedded
in the pulp are 10 to 15 seeds, flattened-oblong, about 3/8 in (1 cm) long, bearing woolly hairs and
each enclosed in a sac of adhesive, transparent mucilage that solidifies on drying.
The tree grows wild in dry forests on hills and plains of central and southern India and Burma,
Pakistan and Bangladesh, also in mixed deciduous and dry dipterocarp forests of former French
Indochina. Mention has been found in writings dating back to 800 B.C. It is cultivated throughout
India, mainly in temple gardens, because of its status as a sacred tree; also in Ceylon and northern
Malaya, the drier areas of Java, and to a limited extent on northern Luzon in the Philippine Islands
where it first fruited in 1914. It is grown in some Egyptian gardens, and in Surinam and Trinidad.
Seeds were sent from Lahore to Dr. Walter T. Swingle in 1909 (P.I. No. 24450). Specimens have
been maintained in citrus collections in Florida and in agriculture research stations but the tree has
never been grown for its fruit in this state except by Dr. David Fairchild at his home, the
"Kampong", in Coconut Grove, after he acquired a taste for it, served with jaggery (palm sugar), in
Ceylon.
Climate
The bael fruit tree is a subtropical species. In the Punjab, it grows up to an altitude of 4,000 ft
(1,200 m) where the temperature rises to 120 F (48.89 C) in the shade in summer and descends to
20 F (-6.67 C) in the winter, and prolonged droughts occur. It will not fruit where there is no
long, dry season, as in southern Malaya.
Bael Fruit
Soil
The bael fruit is said to do best on rich, well-drained soil, but it has grown well and fruited on the
oolitic limestone of southern Florida. According to L. B. Singh (1961), it "grows well in swampy,
alkaline or stony soils". . . "grows luxuriantly in the soils having pH range from 5 to 8". In India it
has the reputation of thriving where other fruit trees cannot survive.
Varieties
One esteemed, large cultivar with thin rind and few seeds is known as 'Kaghzi'. Dr. L.B. Singh
and co-workers at the Horticultural Research Institute, Saharanpur, India, surveyed bael fruit trees
in Uttar Padesh, screened about 100 seedlings, selected as the most promising for commercial
planting: 'Mitzapuri', 'Darogaji', 'Ojha', 'Rampuri', 'Azamati', 'Khamaria'. Rated the best
was 'Mitzapuri', with very thin rind, breakable with slight pressure of the thumb, pulp of fine
texture, free of gum, of excellent flavor, and containing few seeds.
S.K. Roy, in 1975, reported on the extreme variability of 24 cultivars collected in Agra, Calcutta,
Delhi and Varanasi. He decided that selections should be made for high sugar content and low
levels of mucilage, tannin and other phenolics.
Only the small, hard-shelled type is known in Florida and this has to be sawed open, cracked with
a hammer, or flung forcefully against a rock. Fruits of this type are standard for medicinal uses
rather than for consuming as normal food.
Propagation
The bael fruit is commonly grown from seed in nurseries and transplanted into the field. Seedlings
show great variation in form, size, texture of rind, quantity and quality of pulp and number of
seeds. The flavor ranges from disagreeable to pleasant. Therefore, superior types must be
multiplied vegetatively. L.B. Singh achieved 80% to 95% success in 1954 when he budded
1-month-old shoots onto 2-year-old seedling bael rootstocks in the month of June. Experimental
shield-budding onto related species of Afraegle and onto Swinglea glutinosa Merr. has been
successful. Occasionally, air-layers or root cuttings have been used for propagation.
Culture
The tree has no exacting cultural requirements, doing well with a minimum of fertilizer and
irrigation. The spacing in orchards is 25 to 30 ft (6-9 m) between trees. Seedlings begin to bear in
6 to 7 years, vegetatively propagated trees in 5 years. Full production is reached in 15 years. In
India flowering occurs in April and May soon after the new leaves appear and the fruit ripens in 10
to 11 months from bloomMarch to June of the following year.
Harvesting
Normally, the fruit is harvested when yellowish-green and kept for 8 days while it loses its green
tint. Then the stem readily separates from the fruit. The fruits can be harvested in January (2 to 3
months before full maturity) and ripened artificially in 18 to 24 days by treatment with 1,000 to
1,500 ppm ethrel (2-chloroethane phosphonic acid) and storage at 86 F (30 C). Care is needed in
harvesting and handling to avoid causing cracks in the rind.
Bael Fruit
A tree may yield as many as 800 fruits in a season but an average crop is 150 to 200, or, in the
better cultivars, up to 400.
Keeping Quality
Normally-harvested bael fruits can be held for 2 weeks at 86 F (30 C), 4 months at 48.2 F (9 C).
Thereafter, mold is likely to develop at the stem-end and any crack in the rind.
Pests and Diseases
The bael fruit seems to be relatively free from pests and diseases except for the fungi causing
deterioration in storage.
Food Uses
Bael fruits may be cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar,
eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar or
"squash" (diluted nectar). A popular drink (called "sherbet" in India) is made by beating the seeded
pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that
of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their
medicinal effects.
Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. The pulp is also
converted into marmalade or sirup, likewise for both food and therapeutic use, the marmalade
being eaten at breakfast by those convalescing from diarrhea and dysentery. A firm jelly is made
from the pulp alone, or, better still, combined with guava to modify the astringent flavor. The pulp
is also pickled.
Bael pulp is steeped in water, strained, preserved with 350 ppm S02, blended with 30% sugar, then
dehydrated for 15 hrs at 120 F (48.89 C) and pulverized. The powder is enriched with 66 mg per
100 g ascorbic acid and can be stored for 3 months for use in making cold drinks ("squashes"). A
confection, bael fruit toffee, is prepared by combining the pulp with sugar, glucose, skim milk
powder and hydrogenated fat. Indian food technologists view the prospects for expanded bael fruit
processing as highly promising.
The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in
Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink.
Water
Protein
Fat
54.96-61.5 g
1.8-2.62 g
0.2-0.39 g
Carbohydrates
Ash
Carotene
Thiamine
28.11-31.8 g
1.04-1.7 g
55 mg
0.13 mg
Bael Fruit
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Tartaric Acid
1.19 mg
1.1 mg
8-60 mg
2.11 mg
*Fresh bael fruit, as analyzed in India and in the Philippines.

The pulp also contains a balsam-like substance, and 2 furocoumarins-psoralen and marmelosin
(C13H12O3), highest in the pulp of the large, cultivated forms.
There is as much as 9% tannin in the pulp of wild fruits, less in the cultivated types. The rind
contains up to 20%. Tannin is also present in the leaves, as is skimmianine.
The essential oil of the leaves contains d-limonene, 56% a-d-phellandrene, cineol, citronellal,
citral; 17% p-cyrnene, 5% cumin aldehyde. The leaves contain the alkaloids
O-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-halfordinol, N-2-ethoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl) ethylcinnamide,
N-2-methoxy-2-[4-(3',3'-dimethyalloxy) phenyll]ethylcinnamide, and
N-2-methoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-ethylcinnamamide.
Toxicity
The leaves are said to cause abortion and sterility in women. The bark is used as a fish poison in
the Celebes. Tannin, ingested frequently and in quantity over a long period of time, is antinutrient
and carcinogenic.
Other Uses
Fruit: The fruit pulp has detergent action and has been used for washing clothes. Quisumbing says
that bael fruit is employed to eliminate scum in vinegar-making. The gum enveloping the seeds is
most abundant in wild fruits and especially when they are unripe. It is commonly used as a
household glue and is employed as an adhesive by jewelers. Sometimes it is resorted to as a
soap-substitute. It is mixed with lime plaster for waterproofing wells and is added to cement when
building walls. Artists add it to their watercolors, and it may be applied as a protective coating on
paintings.
The limonene-rich oil has been distilled from the rind for scenting hair oil. The shell of hard fruits
has been fashioned into pill- and snuff boxes, sometimes decorated with gold and silver. The rind
of the unripe fruit is employed in tanning and also yields a yellow dye for calico and silk fabrics.
Leaves: In the Hindu culture, the leaves are indispensable offerings to the 'Lord Shiva'. The leaves
and twigs are lopped for fodder.
Flowers: A cologne is obtained by distillation from the flowers.
Wood: The wood is strongly aromatic when freshly cut. It is gray-white, hard, but not durable; has
been used for carts and construction, though it is inclined to warp and crack during curing. It is
best utilized for carving, small-scale turnery, tool and knife handles, pestles and combs, taking a
fine polish.
Bael Fruit
Medicinal Uses: The fresh ripe pulp of the higher quality cultivars, and the "sherbet" made from
it, are taken for their mild laxative, tonic and digestive effects. A decoction of the unripe fruit, with
fennel and ginger, is prescribed in cases of hemorrhoids. It has been surmised that the psoralen in
the pulp increases tolerance of sunlight and aids in the maintaining of normal skin color. It is
employed in the treatment of leucoderma. Marmelosin derived from the pulp is given as a laxative
and diuretic. In large doses, it lowers the rate of respiration, depresses heart action and causes
sleepiness.
For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly sliced horizontally and
sun-dried and sold in local markets. They are much exported to Malaya and Europe. Because of
the astringency, especially of the wild fruits, the unripe bael is most prized as a means of halting
diarrhea and dysentery, which are prevalent in India in the summer months. Bael fruit was resorted
to by the Portuguese in the East Indies in the 1500's and by the British colonials in later times.
A bitter, light-yellow oil extracted from the seeds is given in 1.5 g doses as a purgative. It contains
15.6% palmitic acid, 8.3% stearic acid, 28.7% linoleic and 7.6% linolenic acid. The seed residue
contains 70% protein.
The bitter, pungent leaf juice, mixed with honey, is given to allay catarrh and fever. With black
pepper added, it is taken to relieve jaundice and constipation accompanied by edema. The leaf
decoction is said to alleviate asthma. A hot poultice of the leaves is considered an effective
treatment for ophthahnia and various inflammations, also febrile delirium and acute bronchitis.
A decoction of the flowers is used as eye lotion and given as an antiemetic. The bark contains
tannin and the cournarin, aegelinol; also the furocourmarin, marmesin; umbelliferone, a hydroxy
coumarin; and the alkaloids, fagarine and skimmianine. The bark decoction is administered in
cases of malaria. Decoctions of the root are taken to relieve palpitations of the heart, indigestion,
and bowel inflammations; also to overcome vomiting.
The fruit, roots and leaves have antibiotic activity. The root, leaves and bark are used in treating
snakebite. Chemical studies have revealed the following properties in the roots: psoralen,
xanthotoxin, O-methylscopoletin, scopoletin, tembamide, and skimmin; also decursinol, haplopine
and aegelinol, in the root bark.
Wood-Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Wood-Apple. p. 190191. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Wood-Apple
Feronia limonia Swingle
Feronia elephantum Correa
Limonia acidissima L.
Schinus limonia L.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Season
Harvesting
Food Uses
Other Uses
The wood-apple, Feronia limonia Swingle (syns. F. elephantum Correa; Limonia acidissima L.;
Schinus limonia L.) is the only species of its genus, in the family Rutaceae. Besides wood-apple, it
may be called elephant apple, monkey fruit, curd fruit, kath bel and other dialectal names in India.
In Malaya it is gelinggai or belinggai; in Thailand, ma-khwit; in Cambodia, kramsang; in Laos,
ma-fit. In French, it is pomme d' elephant, pomme de bois, or citron des mois.
Description
The slow-growing tree is erect, with a few upward-reaching branches bending outward near the
summit where they are subdivided into slender branchlets drooping at the tips. The bark is ridged,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/wood-apple.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:10 PM]
Wood-Apple
fissured and scaly and there are sharp spines :3/4 to 2 in (2-5 cm) long on some of the zigzag
twigs. The deciduous, alternate leaves, 3 to 5 in (7.5-12.5 cm) long, dark-green, leathery, often
minutely toothed, blunt or notched at the apex, are dotted with oil glands and slightly
lemon-scented when crushed. Dull-red or greenish flowers to 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide are borne in
small, loose, terminal or lateral panicles. They are usually bisexual. The fruit is round to oval, 2 to
5 in (5-12.5 cm) wide, with a hard, woody, grayish-white, scurfy rind about 1/4 in (6 mm) thick.
The pulp is brown, mealy, odorous, resinous, astringent, acid or sweetish, with numerous small,
white seeds scattered through it.
The wood-apple is native and common in the wild in dry plains of India and Ceylon and cultivated
along roads and edges of fields and occasionally in orchards. It is also frequently grown
throughout Southeast Asia, in northern Malaya and on Penang Island. In India, the fruit was
traditionally a "poor man's food" until processing techniques were developed in the mid-1950's.
Varieties
There are 2 forms, one with large, sweetish fruits; one with small, acid fruits.
Climate
The tree grows up to an elevation of 1,500 ft (450 m) in the western Himalayas. It is said to require
a monsoon climate with a distinct dry season.
Soil
Throughout its range there is a diversity of soil types, but it is best adapted to light soils.
Propagation
The wood-apple is generally grown from seeds though seedlings will not bear fruit until at least 15
years old. Multiplication may also be by root cuttings, air-layers, or by budding onto self-seedlings
to induce dwarfing and precociousness.
Season
In Malaya, the leaves are shed in January, flowering occurs in February and March, and the fruit
matures in October and November. In India, the fruit ripens from early October through March.
Harvesting
The fruit is tested for maturity by dropping onto a hard surface from a height of 1 ft (30 cm).
Immature fruits bounce, while mature fruits do not. After harvest, the fruit is kept in the sun for 2
weeks to fully ripen.
Food Uses
The rind must be cracked with a hammer. The scooped-out pulp, though sticky, is eaten raw with
or without sugar, or is blended with coconut milk and palm-sugar sirup and drunk as a beverage, or
frozen as an ice cream. It is also used in chutneys and for making jelly and jam. The jelly is purple
and much like that made from black currants.
Wood-Apple
A bottled nectar is made by diluting the pulp with water, passing through a pulper to remove seeds
and fiber, further diluting, straining, and pasteurizing. A clear juice for blending with other fruit
juices, has been obtained by clarifying the nectar with Pectinol R-10. Pulp sweetened with sirup of
cane or palm sugar, has been canned and sterilized. The pulp can be freeze-dried for future use but
it has not been satisfactorily dried by other methods.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Pulp*
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Pulp (ripe)
74.0%
8.00%
1.45%
7.45%
5.0%
0.17%
Seeds
4.0%
26.18%
27%
35.49%
5.03%
1.58%
Phosphorus
Iron
Tannins
0.08%
0.07%
1.03%
1.43%
0.03%
0.08%
*According to analyses made in India.

The pulp represents 36% of the whole fruit. The pectin content of the pulp is 3 to 5% (16% yield
on dry-weight basis). The seeds contain a bland, non-bitter, oil high in unsaturated fatty acids.
Other Uses
Pectin: The pectin has potential for multiple uses in pectin-short India, but it is reddish and
requires purification.
Rind: The fruit shell is fashioned into snuffboxes and other small containers.
Gum: The trunk and branches exude a white, transparent gum especially following the rainy
season. It is utilized as a substitute for, or adulterant of, gum arabic, and is also used in making
artists' watercolors, ink, dyes and varnish. It consists of 35.5% arabinose and xylose, 42.7%
d-galactose, and traces of rhamnose and glucuronic acid.
Wood: The wood is yellow-gray or whitish, hard, heavy, durable, and valued for construction,
pattern-making, agricultural implements, rollers for mills, carving, rulers, and other products. It
also serves as fuel.
The heartwood contains ursolic acid and a flavanone glycoside,
7-methylporiol--D-xylopyranosyl-D-glucopyranoside.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit is much used in India as a liver and cardiac tonic, and, when unripe, as
an astringent means of halting diarrhea and dysentery and effective treatment for hiccough, sore
throat and diseases of the gums. The pulp is poulticed onto bites and stings of venomous insects, as
is the powdered rind.
Wood-Apple
Juice of young leaves is mixed with milk and sugar candy and given as a remedy for biliousness
and intestinal troubles of children. The powdered gum, mixed with honey, is given to overcome
dysentery and diarrhea in children.
Oil derived from the crushed leaves is applied on itch and the leaf decoction is given to children as
an aid to digestion. Leaves, bark, roots and fruit pulp are all used against snakebite. The spines are
crushed with those of other trees and an infusion taken as a remedy for menorrhagia. The bark is
chewed with that of Barringtonia and applied on venomous wounds.
The unripe fruits contain 0.015% stigmasterol. Leaves contain stigmasterol (0.012%) and
bergapten (0.01%). The bark contains 0.016% marmesin. Root bark contains aurapten, bergapten,
isopimpinellin and other coumarins.
White Sapote

Morton, J. 1987. White Sapote. p. 191196. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
White Sapote
Casimiroa edulus Llave.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The genus Casimiroa of the family Rutaceae was named in honor of Cardinal Casimiro Gomez de
Ortega, a Spanish botanist of the 18th Century. It embraces 5 or 6 species of shrubs or trees. Of
these, 3 shrubby species, C. pubescens Ramirez, C. pringlei Engl. and C. watsonii Engl., are
apparently confined to Mexico and have received scant attention. An additional species, C.
emarginata Standl. & Steyerm., was described in 1944, based on a single specimen in Guatemala.
It may be merely a form of C. sapota, below.
Of the 3 larger-growing forms, the best known is the common white sapote, called zapote blanco
by Spanish-speaking people, abch or ahache by Guatemalan Indians, and Mexican apple in South
Africa, and widely identified as C. edulis Llave & Lex. The matasano (or matazano), C. sapota
Oerst., is often not distinguished from C. edulis in the literature and the name matasano has been
applied to other species in various localities. The woolly-leaved white sapote, known to the Maya
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/white_sapote.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:35:13 PM]
White Sapote
as yuy and set apart in Guatemala as matasano de mico, has been commonly considered a distinct
species, C. tetrameria Millsp., but it may be only a variant of C. edulis.
Description
White sapote trees range from 15 to 20 ft
(4.5-6 m) up to 30 to 60 ft (9-18 m) in
height. They have light-gray, thick, warty
bark and often develop long, drooping
branches. The leaves, mostly evergreen are
alternate, palmately compound, with 3 to 7
lanceolate leaflets, smooth or hairy on the
underside. The odorless flowers, small and
greenish-yellow, are 4- or 5-parted, and
borne in terminal and axillary panicles.
They are hermaphrodite or occasionally
unisexual because of aborted stigmas.
Fig. 48: A seedless white sapote, natural size, photographed
The fruit is round, oval or ovoid,

by Dr. David Fairchild at Orange, California, in October
symmetrical or irregular, more or less
1919. In his notes accompanying the picture in Inventory of
Seeds and Plants Imported, No. 60, he says: "It is not rare for
distinctly 5-lobed; 2 1/2 to 4 1/2 in
(6.25-11.25 cm) wide and up to 4 3/4 in (12 trees of this species...may often be due to defective
(Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
cm) in length; with thin green, yellowish or pollination."
Department of Agriculture)
golden skin coated with a very thin bloom,
tender but inedible; and creamy-white or yellow flesh glinting with many tiny, conspicuous,
yellow oil glands. The flavor is sweet with a hint or more of bitterness and sometimes distinctly
resinous. There may be 1 to 6 plump, oval, hard, white seeds, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) long and 1/2 to 1
in (1.25-2.5 cm) thick, but often some seeds are under-developed (aborted) and very thin. The
kernels are bitter and narcotic.
C. edulis has leaves that are usually composed of 5 leaflets, glabrous to slightly pubescent on the
underside, and 5-parted flowers. The fruit is somewhat apple-like externally, generally smooth,
fairly symmetrical and 2 1/2 to 3 in (6.25-7.5 cm) wide. C. sapota is very similar but the leaves
usually have only 3, somewhat smaller, leaflets. The woolly-leaved white sapote usually has 5
leaflets, larger and thicker than those of C. edulis and velvety-white on the underside, and all the
parts of the flowers are in 4's. The fruits are usually 4 to 4 1/2 in (10-11.25 cm) wide, ovoid,
irregular and knobby, with rough, pitted skin, and there are often gritty particles in the flesh.
The common white sapote occurs both wild and cultivated in central Mexico. It is planted
frequently in Guatemala, El Salvador and Costa Rica and is occasionally grown in northern South
America, the Bahamas, West Indies, along the Riviera and other parts of the Mediterranean region,
India and the East Indies. It is grown commercially in the Gisborne district of New Zealand and to
some extent in South Africa. Horticulturists in Israel took serious interest in white sapotes around
1935 and planted a number of varieties. The trees grew well and produced little in the coastal
plain; bore good crops in the interior and commercial prospects seemed bright but the fruit did not
appeal to consumers and was too attractive to fruit flies. White sapotes have not done well in the
White Sapote
Philippines. The common species was introduced into California by Franciscan monks about 1810,
and it is still cultivated on a limited scale in the southern part of that state. In Florida, it was first
planted with enthusiasm. Today it is seldom seen outside of fruit tree collections. Of course, many
of the trees planted have been seedlings bearing fruits of inferior size and quality, but even the best
have never attained popularity in this country.
C. sapota is wild in southern Mexico and Nicaragua, commonly cultivated in Oaxaca and Chiapas.
The woolly-leaved white sapote is native from Yucatan to Costa Rica and has not been widely
distributed in cultivation. According to Chandler, the fruits are objectionably bitter in California.
In southern Florida, the woolly-leaved is sometimes planted in preference to C. edulis.
White sapote trees often are grown strictly as ornamentals in California. They are planted as shade
for coffee plantations in Central America.
Varieties
Clonal selections were made in California from about 1924 to 1954, and several also in Florida.
Some of these may actually be chance hybrids. A surprising number have been named and
propagated: 'Blumenthal', 'Chapman', 'Coleman', 'Dade', 'Flournoy', 'Galloway', 'Gillespie', 'Golden'
or 'Max Golden', 'Johnston's Golden', 'Harvey', 'Lenz', 'Lomita', 'Maechtlen', 'Maltby' or 'Nancy
Maltby', 'Nies', 'Page', 'Parroquia', 'Pike', 'Sarah Jones', 'Suebelle', or 'Hubbell', 'Walton', 'Whatley',
'Wilson', 'Wood', 'Yellow'.
'Coleman'was one of the first named in California; fruit is oblate, somewhat lobed, furrowed at
apex; to 3 in (7.5 cm) wide; skin is yellow-green; flesh of good flavor (22% sugar) but resinous;
seeds small. Fruit ripens from late fall to summer. Tree somewhat dwarf; leaflets small and tend to
twist. Difficult to propagate.
'Dade'grown at the Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, Florida from a seed
of a selected fruit of a local seedling tree. It was planted in 1935 and fruited in 1939. Round; skin
golden-yellow tinged with green, thin; flesh of good, non-bitter flavor. There are 4 to 5 seeds.
Ripens in June-July. The tree is low-growing and spreading, with smooth leaflets.
'Gillespie'originated in California; fruit is round, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide; skin is light-green with
russet cheek, fairly tough, rough; flesh is white, of very good flavor. Tree is prolific bearer.
'Golden', or 'Max Golden'woolly-leaved; fruit conical, depressed at apex; up to 4 1/2 in (11.25
cm) wide; skin yellow-green, fairly tough; flesh has strong flavor, somewhat bitter; few seeds.
'Harvey'originated in California; round; 3 1/2 in (9 cm) wide; skin smooth, yellow-green with
bright orange cheek; flesh cream-colored to pale-yellow; not of the best flavor. Tree is a prolific
bearer.
'Maechtlen'named for the parent, an old tree on property owned by the Maechtlen family in
Covina, California. Propagated by budding and sold by nurserymen in the 1940's.
'Maltby', or 'Nancy Maltby'originated in California; round, faintly furrowed, blunt-pointed at
apex, base slightly tapered; large; skin yellow-green, smooth, of good flavor but slightly bitter.
Tree bears well.
White Sapote
'Parroquia'originated in California; oval, 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) wide, 3 in (7.5 cm) long; skin
yellow-green, smooth, thin; flesh ivory, of very good flavor. A fairly prolific bearer.
'Pike'originated in California; rounded or oblate, slightly 5-lobed; to 4 in (10 cm) wide; skin
green, very fragile; flesh white to yellowish, of rich, non-bitter, flavor. The tree bears regularly and
heavily in California and South Africa.
'Suebelle', or 'Hubbell'originated in California; round; medium to small; skin green or
yellowish-green; of excellent flavor (22% sugar). Tree is precocious and blooms and fruits all year.
Fairly widely planted in California.
'Wilson'originated in California; round to oblate; medium to large; skin smooth, medium thick;
flesh of high quality and excellent flavor. Fruit ripens in fall and winter or more or less all year.
Tree bears heavily and has been rather widely planted in California.
'Yellow'originated in California; oval with pointed apex, furrowed; skin is bright-yellow and
fairly tough; flesh is firm. Fruit keeps well. Tree bears regularly and heavily in California.
Pollination
There is a great variation in the amount of pollen produced by seedlings and grafted cultivars.
Some flowers bear no pollen grains; others have an abundance. Sterile pollen or lack of
cross-pollination are suggested causes of aborted seeds and heavy shedding of immature fruits. In
Florida, flowers of some heavy-bearing, double-cropping, trees have been observed so heavily
worked by bees that their humming is heard several feet away.
Climate
The white sapotes can be classed as subtropical rather than tropical. C. edulis is usually found
growing naturally at elevations between 2,000 and 3,000 ft (600-900 m) and occasionally in
Guatemala up to a maximum of 9,000 ft (2,700 m) in areas not subject to heavy rainfall.
In California, light frosts cause some leaf shedding but otherwise do not harm the tree. Mature
trees have withstood temperature drops to 20 F (-6.67 C) in California and 26 F (-3.33 C) in
Florida without injury.
The trees prosper near the coast of southern California where the mean temperature from April to
October is about 65 F (18 C). They do poorly and often fail to survive further north near San
Francisco where the mean temperature for the same period is 57 to 58 F (13.89-14.44 C). The
woolly-leaved is somewhat less hardy than the common white sapote.
Soil
As long as there is good drainage, the trees will do very well on sandy loam or even on clay. In
California, some of the early plantings were on light, decomposed granite soil, and they were
fruitful for many years. In Florida, the trees grow and fruit well on deep sand and on oolitic
limestone, though, on the latter, they may become chlorotic. They are fairly drought-resistant.
Propagation
White sapotes are commonly grown from seeds and seedlings usually begin to bear in 7 or 8 years.
White Sapote
Grafting is a common practice in California and Florida in midsummer. Seedlings of 'Pike', being
vigorous growers, are preferred as rootstock. Shield-budding and side-grafting in spring onto
stocks up to 3/4 in (2 cm) thick give good results. Cleft grafts and slot grafts are made on larger
rootstocks and when topworking mature trees. Grafted trees will start bearing in 3 or 4 years.
Commercial growers in New Zealand have had success with air-layers. Cuttings are very difficult
to root.
Culture
In California, the young trees are cut back to 3 ft (0.9 m) when planted out, in order to encourage
low-branching. As the branches elongate, some pruning is done to induce lateral growth.
Fertilizer formulas should vary with the nature of the soil, but, in general, the grower is advised to
follow procedures suitable for citrus trees. Many white sapote trees have received little or no care
and yet have been long-lived. One of the original trees in Santa Barbara, California, was said to be
over 100 years old in 1915.
Season
In the Bahamas, the fruits ripen from late May through August. In Mexico, flowering occurs in
January and February and the fruits mature from June to October. In Florida there is usually just a
spring-summer crop, but a heavy-bearing woolly-leaved tree in Miami blooms in December, fruits
in the spring, blooms again and produces a second crop in the fall. In California, 'Pike' and
'Yellow' bloom in the spring and again in late summer and fall, the fruits from late blooms
maturing gradually over the winter. 'Suebelle' blooms for 6 to 8 weeks in spring and again in
midsummer and fruits ripen in September and October.
Harvesting
Mature fruits must be clipped from the branches leaving a short piece of stem attached. This stub
will fall off naturally when the fruits become eating-ripe. If plucked by hand, the fruits will
separate from the stem if given a slight twist but they will soon show a soft bruised spot at the
stem-end which quickly spreads over much of the fruit, becoming watery and decayed. The fruits
must be handled with care even when unripe as they bruise so easily and any bruised skin will
blacken and the flesh beneath turns bitter. If picked just a few days before fully ripe and ready to
fall, the fruits turn soft quickly but they can be picked several weeks in advance of the failing stage
and most will develop full flavor. 'Pike', however, if picked a month early, will take 2 weeks to
ripen and will be substandard in flavor. Fruits that have ripened on hand will keep in good
condition in the home refrigerator for at least 2 weeks. Fruits from commercial orchards are graded
for size, wrapped individually to retard full ripening, packed in wooden boxes, and well-padded
for transportation under refrigeration.
Pests and Diseases
The white sapote has few natural enemies but the fruits of some cultivars are attacked by fruit flies.
Black scale often occurs on nursery stock and occasionally on mature trees in California.
Food Uses
Within its native range, the white sapote is commonly eaten out-of-hand. The flesh of ripe fruits
White Sapote
may be added to fruit cups and salads or

served alone as dessert, but it is best cut into
sections and served with cream and sugar.
Sometimes it is added to ice cream mix or
milk shakes, or made into marmalade. Even
in their countries of origin, where the fruits
may at times appear in markets, their repute
is due largely to a belief in their therapeutic
value, while, at the same time, there prevails
a fear that over-indulgence may be harmful.
The epithet "matasano" (interpreted as "kill
health") has a sinister connotation. Dr. J.B.
Londoo, in his Frutas de Antioquia,
published in Medellin, Colombia, in 1934, Fig. 49: The common white sapote (Casimiroa edulis) (left)
referred to the white sapote as disagreeable and the woolly-leaved white sapote, often called C. tetrameria
and indigestible. Some years ago in Central (right). The latter may be only a variant of C. edulis.
America there were unsuccessful efforts to manufacture from the pulp an acceptable preserve. In
processing trials at the Western Regional Research Laboratory of the United States Department of
Agriculture, Albany, California, technologists decided that white sapotes; are not suitable for
either canning in sirup or freezing as a puree.
Food Value Per 100 g of Fresh Pulp*
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
78.3 g
0.143 g
0.03 g
0.9g
0.48g
9.9 mg
20.4 mg
0.33 mg
0.053 mg
0.042 mg
0.043 mg
0.472 mg
30.3 mg

As bearers of edible fruits, the white sapotes, despite their prolificacy, will doubtless continue to
occupy the minor position which they now hold in subtropical horticulture.
Toxicity
White Sapote
The seed is said to be fatally toxic if eaten raw by humans or animals.

Other Uses
Seeds: In 1959, Dr. Everette Burdick, Consulting Chemist, of Coral Gables, Florida, made several
extractions from the kernels, securing small amounts of needle-like yellow crystals. From one
process, a yellow resinous mass resulted which functioned as an attractive and lethal bait for
American cockroaches, having the advantage of killing on the spot rather than at some distance
after ingestion of the poison. The United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural
Handbook 154, Insecticides from Plants, mentions no experiments with Casimiroa seed extracts
but reports that extracts from branches and leaves of C. edulis are non-toxic to both American and
German roaches.
Wood: The wood is yellow, fine-grained, compact, moderately dense and heavy, medium strong
and resistant, but not durable for long. It is occasionally employed in carpentry and for domestic
furniture in Central America.
Medicinal Uses: The ancient Nahuatl name for the fruits, "cochiztzapotl", is translated "sleepy
sapote" or "sleep-producing sapote", and it is widely claimed in Mexico and Central America that
consumption of the fruit relieves the pains of arthritis and rheumatism. This belief may stem only
from the oft-quoted statement to this effect by Dr. Leopoldo Flores in Manual Terapeutica de
Plantas Mexicanas, published in 1907, although the Mexican National Commission has received
frequent reports of anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic effects from physicians and their patients.
The eminent Francisco Hernandez, in his writings during the period 1570-1575 (translated and
published as Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae in 1651), noted that eating the fruit produced
drowsiness. He referred to the seeds as "deadly poison" but efficacious, when crushed and roasted,
in healing putrid sores. This vulnerary use of the seeds is cited in the obsolete Farmacopea
Mexicana, where the fruit is mentioned as a vermifuge. For many years, extracts from the leaves,
bark, and especially the seeds have been employed in Mexico as sedatives, soporifics and
tranquilizers.
The narcotic property of the seeds was first identified as an alkaloid by Dr. Jesus Sanchez of
Mexico in his thesis, Breve estudio sobre la almendra del zapote blanco, in 1893; and, in 1898, it
was made the subject of chemical study by an especially appointed commission. One of the
investigators, Alfonso Altimirano, reported the isolation of a glucoside as a pale yellow,
amorphous mass, at first sweet but with a prolonged bitter aftertaste. White sapote derivatives
were among the medicinal plant products displayed at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 and
explained in the slender book, Materia Medica Mexicana: A Manual of Mexican Medicinal Herbs,
prepared by the Mexican National Commission for that occasion.
In 1900, a quantity of white sapote seeds was sent from Mexico to F.H. Worlee & Co., in
Hamburg, Germany, with an accompanying explanation that both the fruit and the seeds possessed
sleep-inducing principles but without the undesirable after-effects of opium. This material came to
the attention of W. Bickern. He proceeded to work on the seeds, from which he obtained a
substance which he called an alkaloidal glycoside, casimirin. In France, several investigators
confirmed the narcotic nature of the seeds. Subsequently, Frederick Power and Thomas Callan of
the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories in London, declared that, though they isolated 6
White Sapote
substances including 2 alkaloids, casimiroine and casimiroedine, there was "no evidence of the
presence of a definite glucoside or a so-called glucoalkaloid ...and physiological tests conducted
with animals ...likewise failed to confirm . . . reported hypnotic or toxic properties." Meanwhile,
the seed extracts, in liquid, capsule, or tablet form, continued in use in Mexico, one product
bearing the trade name "Rutelina".
In 1934, Jos de Lille proceeded to test the effect on blood pressure of dogs. He found a dose of
.20 g per kilo of animal weight to be definitely hypotensive. A large dose (1 g) administered to a
dog weighing 11 lbs (5 kg) produced a drastic lowering of blood pressure which persisted even
after a brief rise induced by injecting adrenalin. In 1936, M. Mendez described the preparation of a
tincture of "a clear yellow color with neither special odor nor taste" which produces "a state of
depression in the entire nervous system, especially in the sensory sphere, and sleep." Dr. Faustino
Miranda reported that an infusion of the leaves of Casimiroa sapota is used for similar purposes,
and he assumed that this species has the same properties as C. edulis. According to Materia
Medica Mexicana, the extracts from the leaves and bark are half as strong as those from the seeds
and can be safely administered to children. In Costa Rica, the leaf decoction is taken as a treatment
for diabetes.
In 1956, four chemists, F. Kinel, J. Rosso, O. Rosenkranz and F. Sondheimer, on the staff of the
Mexican branch of the pharmaceutical company, Syntex, undertook chemical studies of the seeds.
They did not find the "gluco-alkaloid" casimirin, but isolated 13 substances, 6 of which coincided
with those reported by Power and Callan. One of these, casimirolid, was later found by F.
Sondheimer, A Meisels and F. Kinel, to be identical with obacunone, an attribute of citrus oil. Of
the 7 additional compounds, one palmitamide, had not previously been noted in the plant kingdom.
Another, N-benzoyltyramine, they suggested might have much to do with the reputed potency of
the seed, for tyramine is one of the active principles of ergot (is also found in mistletoe and thistle)
and is well known for its physiological action. The main alkaloid of the seeds, casimiroedine,
representing 0.143%, was crystallized in the form of needles.
Investigations of the bark from the trunk and roots of C. edulis were undertaken for Syntex by J.
Iriarte, F. Kinel, O. Rosenkranz and F. Sondheimer. No casimiroedine was found but 12
substances were identified, only 2 of which, zapotin and casimiroin, occur in the seeds. The root
bark contained .22% of the latter, while the seeds yielded only 0.0076%. In 1957, Meisels and
Sondheimer announced that one of the bark alkaloids, edulein, which they had considered new, is
identical with an alkaloid found in the bark and leaves of Lunaria amara Blanco, a citrus relative
of Malayan origin. In 1958, R.T. Major and F. Drsch, of the Cobb Chemical Laboratory,
University of Virginia, working under a grant from Merck & Co., isolated from C. edulis seeds a
compound which they identified as Na, Na-dimethy1histamine, formerly found in nature only in
the sponge, Geodia gigas. J.S.L. Ling, S.Y. P'an and F.A. Hockstein, of Chas. Pfizer & Co.
Research Laboratories, Brooklyn, New York, in experimental work with this compound in rabbits,
dogs and cats, observed strong vasodepressive action. Dr. Hockstein suggested that all of the
hypotensive properties and at least part of the sedative and pain-relieving qualities could be
attributed to this compound, which "is not considered acceptable in man".
In early July of 1960, the writer furnished approximately 2 bushels of largely overripe, fallen fruits
of C. edulis and the woolly-leaved white sapote to Delta Pharmaceuticals of Hialeah, Florida. They
readily extracted from the seeds a soporific substance, 50 mg of which, taken by humans, induced
White Sapote
sound sleep within 2 hours, with no apparent ill effects. The extract also acted as a narcotic on
goldfish.
The following statement (translated from Spanish) is made in a communication received in 1961
from the Seccin Administrativa, Direccin de Control de Medicamentos, Secretaria de Salubridad
y Asistencia, Mexico City: "In Mexico, the white sapote is not used other than in folk medicine
and not in any way by pharmacists nor doctors; neither is it an official drug in the Pharmacopoeia".
In India, extensive studies have been made of the seeds, roots and bark, which contain histamine
derivatives with strong hypotensive activity, as well as furoquinoline alkaloids and 2-quinolones
and 4-quinolones, including edulein, edulitin, edulinine and casimiroin. Also present are
coumarins, flavonoids, and limonoids, including zapoterin, zapotin, zapotinin, casimirolid,
deacetylnomilin, and 7-a-obacunol. Leaves and twigs yield isoplimpinellin (diuretic) and
n-hentriacontane (anti-inflammatory).
Wampee

Morton, J. 1987. Wampee. p. 197198. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Wampee
Clausena lansium Skeels
Clausena wampi (Blanco), D. Oliver
Clausena punctata (Sonn.), Rehd. & E.H. Wils.
Cookia punctata Sonn.
Cookia wampi Blanco
Quinaria lansium Lour.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Cultivation
Season and Yield
Food Uses
Food Value
Medicinal Uses
A minor member of the Rutaceae and distant relative of the citrus fruits, the wampee, Clausena
lansium Skeels (syns. C. wampi (Blanco), D. Oliver; C. punctata (Sonn.), Rehd. & E.H. Wils.;
Cookia punctata Sonn.; Cookia wampi Blanco; Quinaria lansium Lour.), has not traveled
sufficiently to acquire many vernacular names and most are derived from the Chinese
huang-p'i-kuo, huang p'i ho, huang p'i kan, or huang-p'i-tzu. In Malaya, it is known as wampi,
wampoi, or wang-pei; in the Philippines, uampi, uampit, huampit or galumpi; in Vietnam, hong bi,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/wampee.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:14 PM]
Wampee
or hoang bi. In Thailand it is som-ma-fai.

Description
The tree is fairly fast-growing or rather
slow, depending on its situation; attractive,
reaching 20 ft (6 m), with long,
upward-slanting, flexible branches, and
gray-brown bark rough to the touch. Its
evergreen, spirally-arranged, resinous leaves
are 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, pinnate, with
7 to 15 alternate, elliptic or elliptic-ovate
leaflets 2 3/4 to 4 in (7-10 cm) long, oblique
at the base, wavy-margined and shallowly
toothed; thin, minutely hairy on the veins
above and with yellow, warty midrib
Fig. 50: The wampee (Clausena lansium) is an attractive tree
prominent on the underside. The petiole
with somewhat grapelike fruits, but the pulp is scant and the
also is warty and hairy. The sweet-scented, seeds large.
4- to 5-parted flowers are whitish or
yellowish-green, about 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide, and borne in slender, hairy panicles 4 to 20 in
(10-50 cm) long. The fruits, on 1/4 to 1/2 in (0.6-1.25 cm) stalks, hang in showy, loose clusters of
several strands. The wampee may be round, or conical-oblong, up to 1 in (2.5 cm) long, with 5
faint, pale ridges extending a short distance down from the apex. The thin, pliable but tough rind is
light brownish-yellow, minutely hairy and dotted with tiny, raised, brown oil glands. It is easily
peeled and too resinous to be eaten. The flesh, faintly divided into 5 segments, is yellowish-white
or colorless, grapelike, mucilaginous, juicy, pleasantly sweet, subacid, or sour. There may be 1 to
5 oblong, thickish seeds 1/2 to 5/8 in (1.25-1.6 cm) long, bright-green with one brown tip.
The wampee is native and commonly cultivated in southern China and the northern part of former
French Indochina, especially from North to Central Vietnam. It was growing in the Philippines
before 1837 and was reintroduced in 1912. It is only occasionally grown in India and Ceylon.
Chinese people in southern Malaya, Singapore and elsewhere in the Malaysian Archipelago grow
the tree in home gardens. It is cultivated to a limited extent in Queensland, Australia and Hawaii.
In 1908, it was said to have been growing in a few Hawaiian gardens for many years but was not
in general cultivation. It was brought to Florida as an unidentified species in 1908. The United
States Department of Agriculture received seed from Hong Kong in 1914 (P.I. 39176); from
Canton in 1917 (P.I. 45328), and from Hawaii in 1922 (P.I. 55598). Dr. David Fairchild was
pleased with a wampee tree he grew at his 'Kampong' in Coconut Grove, Miami, and a small
cottage near it was named the 'Wamperi'.
A few other specimens have been growing in southern Florida for some years, mostly in
experimental collections, but the fruit is unknown to most residents despite some efforts to arouse
interest in it. The wampee was growing in Jamaica in 1913. Two trees were thriving at the Federal
Experimental Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, and there were specimens on St. Croix, in the
1920's. Seeds from a Chinese grower in Panama were planted at the Lancetilla Experimental
Garden, Tela, Honduras, in 1944. The tree does well in greenhouses in England.
Wampee
Varieties
A Chinese work translated and published in 1936, mentioned 7 varieties of Foochow, describing
and illustrating 6 of them. They vary somewhat in form and size, number of seeds, season of
ripening, as well as in flavor:
'Niu Shen' ("cow's kidney")sour in flavor;
'Yuan Chung' ("globular variety")sweet-subacid;
'Yeh Sheng' ("wild growing")sour;
'Suan Tsao' ("sour jujube")is very sour, of poor quality;
'Hsiao Chi Hsien' ("small chicken heart")sweet subacid;
'Chi Hsin' ("chicken heart")sweet; "best flavor of all";
'Kua Pan' ("melon section")sweet-subacid.
A professor at Sun Yat-sen University in Canton listed 8 varieties of Kwangtung with, as Dr.
Swingle stated, long, descriptive names such as "white-hairy-chicken-heart-sweet-wampee" and
"long-chicken-heart-sour-wampee".
Climate
The wampee is subtropical to tropical, and young and mature trees have been scarcely hurt by brief
exposure to 28 to 30 F (-2.22 to -1.11 C) in Florida, but they have been killed at temperatures of
20 F (-6.667 C) and lower.
Soil
The tree seems quite tolerant of a range of soils, including the deep sand and the oolitic limestone
of southern Florida but thrives best in rich loam. It requires watering in dry periods though good
drainage is essential.
Propagation
The wampee grows readily from seeds which germinate in a few days. It can also be grown from
softwood cuttings and air-layers, and can be veneer-grafted onto wampee seedlings. Dr. Swingle
said it could be grafted onto grapefruit. However, trials on various Citrus rootstocks in Florida
have shown various degrees of incompatibility and few, if any, can be said to have been really
successful in the long run. The wampee is not a first-class fruit and the tree is of only casual
interest, even as an ornamental, except in Asia.
Cultivation
No particular cultural requirements have been noted in the literature, except that the wampee is
subject to chlorosis on limestone soils and needs applications of manganese and zinc as well as
organic fertilizer and mulch to overcome this condition. Sturrock recommends thinning of the
crown to avoid overcrowding.
Wampee
Season and Yield

The fruits ripen in July and August in Florida; from June to October in Southeast Asia; in
November and December in Queensland. Seedlings begin to bear when 5 to 8 years of age or
sometimes older. Mature trees may yield 100 lbs (45 kg) of fruits in a season.
Food Uses
A fully ripe, peeled wampee, of the sweet or subacid types, is agreeable to eat out-of-hand,
discarding the large seed or seeds. The seeded pulp can be added to fruit cups, gelatins or other
desserts, or made into pie or jam. Jelly can be made only from the acid types when under-ripe. The
Chinese serve the seeded fruits with meat dishes.
In Southeast Asia, a bottled, carbonated beverage resembling champagne is made by fermenting
the fruit with sugar and straining off the juice.
Food Value
Florida-grown fruits have shown 28.8 to 29.2 mg/100 g ascorbic acid.
Medicinal Uses
The fruit is said to have stomachic and cooling effects and to act as a vermifuge. The Chinese say
that if one has eaten too many lychees, eating the wampee "will counteract the bad effects.
Lychees should be eaten when one is hungry, and wampees only on a full stomach".
The halved, sun-dried, immature fruit is a Vietnamese and Chinese remedy for bronchitis. Thin
slices of the dried roots are sold in Oriental pharmacies for the same purpose. The leaf decoction is
used as a hair wash to remove dandruff and preserve the color of the hair.
Santol

Morton, J. 1987. Santol. p. 199201. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Santol
Sandoricum koetjape Merr.
Sandoricum indicum Cav.
Sandoricum nervosum Blume
Melia koetjape Burm. f.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Season
Pests
Food Uses
Other Uses
Perhaps the only important edible fruit in the family Meliaceae, the santol, Sandoricum koetjape
Merr. (syns. S. indicum Cav., S. nervosum Blume, Melia koetjape Burm. f.), is also known as
sentieh, sentol, setol, sentul, setul, setui, kechapi or ketapi, in Malaya; saton, satawn, katon, or
ka-thon in Thailand; kompem reach in Cambodia; tong in Laos; sau chua, sau tia, sau do,
mangoustanier sauvage, or faux mangoustanier in North Vietnam. In the Philippines, it is santor
or katul; in Indonesia, ketjapi or sentool; on Sarawak and Brunei, it is klampu. In India, it may be
called sayai, sevai, sevamanu or visayan. In Guam, it is santor or wild mangosteen.
Description
The santol is a fast-growing, straight-trunked, pale-barked tree 50 to 150 ft (15-45 m) tall,
branched close to the ground and buttressed when old. Young branchlets are densely brown-hairy.
The evergreen, or very briefly deciduous, spirally-arranged leaves are compound, with 3 leaflets,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/santol.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:35:17 PM]
Santol
elliptic to oblong-ovate, 4 to 10 in (20-25

cm) long, blunt at the base and pointed at
the apex. The greenish, yellowish, or
pinkish-yellow, 5-petalled flowers, about
3/8 in (1 cm) long are borne on the young
branchlets in loose, stalked panicles 6 to 12
in (15-30 cm) in length. The fruit
(technically a capsule) is globose or oblate,
with wrinkles extending a short distance
from the base; 1 1/2 to 3 in (4-7.5 cm) wide;
yellowish to golden, sometimes blushed
with pink. The downy rind may be thin or
thick and contains a thin, milky juice. It is
edible, as is the white, translucent, juicy
pulp (aril), sweet, subacid or sour,
surrounding the 3 to 5 brown, inedible seeds
which are up to 3/4 in (2 cm) long, tightly
clinging or sometimes free from the pulp.
The santol is believed native to former
Fig. 52: Santol fruits photographed by Dr. Walter T. Swingle,
Indochina (especially Cambodia and
Plant Explorer for the United States Department of
southern Laos) and Malaya, and to have
Agriculture.
been long ago introduced into India, the
Andaman Islands, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Moluccas, Mauritius, and the Philippines where it has
become naturalized. It is commonly cultivated throughout these regions and the fruits are abundant
in the local markets.
Only a few specimens are known in the western hemisphere: one in the Lancetilla Experimental
Garden at Tela, Honduras, and one or more in Costa Rica. Seeds have been introduced into Florida
several times since 1931. Most of the seedlings have succumbed to cold injury. At least 3 have
survived to bearing age in special collections. Grafted plants from the Philippines have fruited well
at Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami.
In Asia and Malaysia, the tree is valued not just for its fruit, but for its timber and as a shade tree
for roadsides, being wind-resistant and non-littering.
Varieties
There are two general types of santol: the Yellow (formerly S. indicum or S. nervosum); and the
Red (formerly S. koetjape). The leaflets of the Yellow, to 6 in (15 cm) long, turn yellow when old;
the flowers are pinkish-yellow in panicles to 6 in (15 cm) long; the fruit has a thin rind and the
pulp is 1/4 to 1/2 in (0.6-1.25 cm) thick around the seeds and typically sweet. The fruit may not
fan when ripe. Only the Yellow is now found wild in Malayan forests.
The leaflets of the Red, to 12 in (30 cm) long, velvety beneath, turn red when old; the flowers are
greenish or ivory, in panicles to 12 in (30 cm) long; the fruit has a thick rind, frequently to 1/2 in
(1.25 cm); there is less pulp around the seeds, and it is sour. The fruit falls when ripe.
Santol
However, Corner says that these distinctions

are not always clear-cut except as to the
dying leaf color, and the fruit may not
correspond to the classifications. There are
sweet and acid strains of both the Yellow
and Red types and much variation in rind
thickness.
Climate
The santol is tropical and cannot be grown
above 3,280 ft (1,000 m) in Java. It
flourishes in dry as well as moist areas of
the Philippine lowlands.
Plate XXIII: SANTOL, Sandoricum koetjape
Soil
The tree has grown well in Florida in acid sandy soil and oolitic limestone, but in the latter the
foliage becomes chlorotic.
Propagation
The santol is reproduced by seeds,
air-layering, inarching, or by budding onto
self rootstocks.
Season
The fruit ripens in Malaya in June and July;
in Florida, August and September; in the
Philippines, from July to October.
Pests
The Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha
suspensa) causes freckle-like blemishes on
the surface of the fruit but cannot penetrate
the rind.
Food Uses
The fruit is usually consumed raw without
peeling. In India, it is eaten with spices.
With the seeds removed, it is made into jam
or jelly. Pared and quartered, it is cooked in
sirup and preserved in jars. Young fruits are
candied in Malaysia by paring, removing
the seeds, boiling in water, then boiling a
second time with sugar. In the Philippines,
santols are peeled chemically by dipping in
Santol
hot water for 2 minutes or more, then into a Fig. 51: Santol (Sandoricum indicum) marmalade made in the
lye solution at 200 F (93.33 C) for 3 to 5 Philippines is sometimes imported into the United States.
minutes. Subsequent washing in cool water removes the outer skin. Then the fruits are cut open,
seeded and commercially preserved in sirup. Santol marmalade in glass jars is exported from the
Philippines to Oriental food dealers in the United States and probably elsewhere. Very ripe fruits
are naturally vinous and are fermented with rice to make an alcoholic drink.
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Pulp
Yellow* Red**
Moisture
87.0 g
83.07-85.50 %
Protein
0.118 g 0.89 %
Carbohydrates
11.43 %
Fat
0.10 g
1.43 %
Fiber
0.1 g
2.30 %
Fruits (unspecifiedtype)***
85.4 g
0.06 g
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Pectin
0.39 g
5.38 mg
12.57 mg
0.86 mg
0.31 g
4.3 mg
17.4 mg
0.42 mg
0.003 mg
0.045 mg
0.741 mg
86.0 mg
0.65-0.88 %
0.01 %
0.03 %
0.002 %
0.52 g
1.26 g
0.037 mg
0.016 mg
0.78 mg
14.89 mg
17.01 g
*According to analyses of yellow, thick-skinned, acid fruits in Honduras.

**According to analyses of the red type in the Philippines.
***According to analyses of unspecified type in India. The pericarp contains glucose, sucrose,
malic acid, tartaric acid and much pectin.
Other Uses
Wood: The sapwood is gray, merging into the heartwood which is reddish-brown when dry,
imparting the color to water. It is fairly hard, moderately heavy, close-grained and polishes well,
but is not always of good quality. It is not durable in contact with moisture and is subject to borers.
However, it is plentiful, easy to saw and work, and accordingly popular. If carefully seasoned, it
can be employed for house-posts, interior construction, light-framing, barrels, cabinetwork, boats,
carts, sandals, butcher's blocks, household utensils and carvings. When burned, the wood emits an
aromatic scent.
The dried heartwood yields 2 triterpeneskatonic acid and indicic acidand an acidic resin.
Santol
Bark: In the Philippines, the bark is used in tanning fishing lines.

Medicinal Uses: The preserved pulp is employed medicinally as an astringent, as is the quince in
Europe. Crushed leaves are poulticed on itching skin.
In cases of fever in the Philippines, fresh leaves are placed on the body to cause sweating and the
leaf decoction is used to bathe the patient. The bitter bark, containing the slightly toxic sandoricum
acid, an unnamed, toxic alkaloid, and a steroidal sapogenin, is applied on ringworm and also enters
into a potion given a woman after childbirth. The aromatic, astringent root also serves the latter
purpose, and is a potent remedy for diarrhea. An infusion of the fresh or dried root, or the bark,
may be taken to relieve colic and stitch in the side. The root is a stomachic and antispasmodic and
prized as a tonic. It may be crushed in a blend of vinegar and water which is then given as a
carminative and remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. Mixed with the bark of Carapa obovata
Blume, it is much used in Java to combat leucorrhea.
Langsat

Morton, J. 1987. Langsat. p. 201203. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Langsat
Lansium domesticum Corr.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
A somewhat less edible fruit of the family Meliaceae, the langsat, Lansium domesticum Corr., is
also known as lansa, langseh, langsep, lanzon, lanzone, lansone, or kokosan, and by various other
names in the dialects of the Old World tropics.
Description
The tree is erect, short-trunked, slender or spreading; reaching 35 to 50 ft (10.5 to 15 m) in height,
with red-brown or yellow-brown, furrowed bark. Its leaves are pinnate, 9 to 20 in (22.5-50 cm)
long, with 5 to 7 alternate leaflets, obovate or elliptic-oblong, pointed at both ends, 2 3/4 to 8 in
(7-20 cm) long, slightly leathery, dark-green and glossy on the upper surface, paler and dull
beneath, and with prominent midrib. Small, white or pale-yellow, fleshy, mostly bisexual, flowers
are home in simple or branched racemes which may be solitary or in hairy clusters on the trunk
and oldest branches, at first standing erect and finally pendant, and 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) in length.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/langsat.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:35:19 PM]
Langsat
The fruit, borne 2 to 30 in a cluster, is oval,

ovoid-oblong or nearly round, 1 to 2 in
(2.5-5 cm) in diameter, and has light
grayish-yellow to pale brownish or pink,
velvety skin, leathery, thin or thick, and
containing milky latex. There are 5 or 6
segments of aromatic, white, translucent,
juicy flesh (arils), acid to subacid in flavor.
Seeds, which adhere more or less to the
flesh, are usually present in 1 to 3 of the
segments. They are green, relatively
large3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) long and 1/2 to
3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) wide, very bitter, and
sometimes, if the flesh clings tightly to the Fig. 53: The langsat, photographed by Dr. Walter T. Swingle,
seed, it may acquire some of its bitterness. Plant Explorer for the United States Department of
Agriculture.

The langsat originated in western Malaysia and is common both wild and cultivated throughout the
Archipelago and on the island of Luzon in the Philippines where the fruits are very popular and the
tree is being utilized in reforestation of hilly areas. It is much grown, too, in southern Thailand and
Vietnam and flourishes in the Nilgiris and other humid areas of South India and the fruits are
plentiful on local markets. The langsat was introduced into Hawaii before 1930 and is frequently
grown at low elevations. An occasional tree may be found on other Pacific islands.
The species is little known in the American tropics except in Surinam. There it is commercially
grown on a small scale. Seeds were sent from Java to the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela,
Honduras, in 1926 and plants arrived from the same source in 1927. The trees have grown well but
are usually unfruitful, occasionally having a small number of fruits. There are bearing trees in
Trinidad, where the langsat was established in 1938, and a few around Mayaguez, Puerto Rico,
that have been bearing well for about 60 years. There were young specimens growing on St. Croix
in 1930.
Southern Florida does not have climatic and soil conditions favorable to the langsat, but the
rare-fruit fancier, William Whitman, has managed to raise two bearing trees in special soil and
tented for the first several years. Winter cold has caused complete defoliation and near-girdling at
the base of the trunks, but the trees made good recovery. Other specimens have survived on the
Lower Keys in pits prepared with non-alkaline soil. There have been attempts to maintain langsats
at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead, but the
trees have succumbed either to the limestone terrain or low temperatures.
Varieties
There are two distinct botanical varieties: 1) L. domesticum var. pubescens, the typical wild langsat
which is a rather slender, open tree with hairy branchlets and nearly round, thick-skinned fruits
having much milky latex; 2) var. domesticum, called the duku, doekoe, or dookoo, which is a more
robust tree, broad-topped and densely foliaged with conspicuously-veined leaflets; the fruits, borne
few to a cluster, are oblong-ovoid or ellipsoid, with thin, brownish skin, only faintly aromatic and
Langsat
containing little or no milky latex. The

former is often referred to as the "wild" type
but both varieties are cultivated and show
considerable range of form, size and quality.
There are desirable types in both groups.
Some small fruits are completely seedless
and fairly sweet.
'Conception' is a sweet cultivar from the
Philippines; 'Uttaradit' is a popular
selection in Thailand; 'Paete' is a leading
cultivar in the Philippines.
Climate
Plate XXIV: LANGSAT, Lansium domesticum
The langsat is ultra-tropical. Even in its

native territory it cannot be grown at an altitude over 2,100 to 2,500 ft (650-750 m). It needs a
humid atmosphere, plenty of moisture and will not tolerate long dry seasons. Some shade is
beneficial especially during the early years.
Soil
The tree does best on deep, rich, well-drained, sandy loam or other soils that are slightly acid to
neutral and high in organic matter. It is inclined to do poorly on clay that dries and cracks during
rainless periods, and is not at all adapted to alkaline soils. It will not endure even a few days of
water-logging.
Propagation
Langsats are commonly grown from seeds which must be planted within 1 or 2 days after removal
from the fruit. Viability is totally lost in 8 days unless the seeds are stored in polyethylene bags at
39.2-42.8 F (4-6 C) where they will remain viable for 14 days.
Seedlings will bear in 12 to 20 years. Air-layering is discouraging, as the root system is weak and
the survival rate is poor after planting out. Shield-budding has a low rate of success. Cleft- and
side-grafting and approach-grafting give good results. The budwood should be mature but not old,
2 1/2 to 3 1/2 in (6.5-9 cm) long, 1/4 to 3/4 in (6-20 mm) thick, and it is joined to rootstock of the
same diameter about 2 1/2 to 4 in (6.5-10 cm) above the soil. Some preliminary experiments have
been conducted in Puerto Rico with hormone-treated cuttings under intermittent mist. Whitman
found that a potted cutting 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) long, will root if covered with a clear plastic bag.
Culture
The trees are spaced 25 to 33 ft (8-10 m) apart in orchards. In the Philippines they are frequently
planted around the edges of coconut plantations. Generally, the langsat is casually grown in
dooryards and on roadsides and receives no cultural attention. Regular irrigation results in better
fruit size and heavier crops. Whitman has demonstrated that thrice-yearly applications of a 6-6-6
fertilizer formula with added minor elements result in good growth, productivity and high quality
fruits even in an adverse environment.
Langsat

Langsats in Malaya generally bear twice a year-in June and July and again in December and
January or even until February. In India, the fruits ripen from April to September but in the
Philippines the season is short and most of the fruits are off the market in less than one month.
Yield
Trees in the Nilgiris average 30 lbs (13.5 kg) of fruits annually. In the Philippines, a productive
tree averages 1,000 fruits per year.
Keeping Quality
Langsats are perishable and spoil after 4 days at room temperature. They can be kept in cold
storage for 2 weeks at 52 to 55 F (11.11-12.78 C) and relative humidity of 85-90%. Sugar
content increases over this period, while acidity rises only up to the 7th day and then gradually
declines.
Fruits treated with fungicide and held at 5% 0 and zero CO2 and 58 F (14.44 C) with 85% to
90% humidity, have remained in good condition for more than 2 weeks. High C02 promotes
browning and elevates acidity.
Waxing reduces weight loss, increases sweetness, but causes browning over at least half the
surface within 5 days in storage.
Pests and Diseases
In Puerto Rico, young langsat trees have been defoliated by the sugarcane root borer, Diaprepes
abbreviatus. Scale insects, especially Pseudaonidia articulatus and Pseudaulacaspis pentagona,
and the red spider mite, Tetranychus bimaculatus, are sometimes found attacking the foliage, and
sooty mold is apt to develop on the honeydew deposited by the scales. Rats gnaw on the branchlets
and branches and the mature fruits.
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is evidenced by brown spots and other
blemishes on the fruit and peduncle and leads to premature shedding of fruits.
Canker which makes the bark become rough and corky and flake off has appeared on langsats in
Florida, Hawaii and Tahiti. It was believed to be caused by a fungus, Cephalosporium sp., and
larvae of a member of the Tineidae have been observed feeding under the loosened bark. However,
other fungi, Nectria sp. (perfect stage of Volutella sp.) and Phomopsis sp. are officially recorded as
causes of stem gall canker on the langsat in Florida.
Food Uses
The peel of the langsat is easily removed and the flesh is commonly eaten out-of-hand or served as
dessert, and may be cooked in various ways.
Varieties with much latex are best dipped into boiling water to eliminate the gumminess before
peeling.
The peeled, seedless or seeded fruits are canned in sirup or sometimes candied.
Langsat

Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Calcium
Phosphorus
Carotene (Vitamin A)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Ascorbic Acid
Phytin
86.5 g
0.8 g
9.5 g
2.3 g
20.0 mg
30.0 mg
13.0 I.U.
89 mcg
124 mcg
1.0 mg
1.1 mg (dry weight)
*According to analyses made in India.

The edible flesh may constitute 60% of the fruit.
Toxicity
An arrow poison has been made from the fruit peel and the bark of the tree. Both possess a toxic
property, lansium acid, which, on injection, arrests heartbeat in frogs. The peel is reportedly high
in tannin. The seed contains a minute amount of an unnamed alkaloid, 1% of an alcohol-soluble
resin, and 2 bitter, toxic principles.
Other Uses
Peel: The dried peel is burned in Java, the aromatic smoke serving as a mosquito repellent and as
incense in the rooms of sick people.
Wood: The wood is light-brown, medium-hard, fine-grained, tough, elastic and durable and
weighs 52.3 lbs/ cu ft. It is utilized in Java for house posts, rafters, tool handles and small utensils.
Wood-tar, derived by distillation, is employed to blacken the teeth.
Medicinal Uses: The fresh peel contains 0.2% of a light-yellow volatile oil, a brown resin and
reducing acids. From the dried peel, there is obtained a dark, semi-liquid oleoresin composed of
0.17 % volatile oil and 22% resin. The resin is non-toxic and administered to halt diarrhea and
intestinal spasms; contracts rabbit intestine in vitro.
The pulverized seed is employed as a febrifuge and vermifuge. The bark is poulticed on scorpion
stings. An astringent bark decoction is taken as a treatment for dysentery and malaria. Leaves may
be combined with the bark in preparing the decoction. The leaf juice is used as eye-drops to dispel
inflammation.
Barbados Cherry

Morton, J. 1987. Barbados Cherry. p. 204207. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Barbados Cherry
Malpighia punicifolia L.
Malpighia glabra Millsp.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pollination and Fruit Set
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Harmful Effects
Other Uses
The Barbados cherry, a member of the Malpighiaceae, is an interesting example of a fruit that rose,
like Cinderella, from relative obscurity about 40 years ago. It was at that time the subject of much
taxonomic confusion, having been described and discussed previously under the binomial
Malpighia glabra L., which properly belongs to a wild relative inhabiting the West Indies, tropical
America and the lowlands of Mexico to southern Texas, and having smaller, pointed leaves,
smaller flowers in peduncled umbels, styles nearly equal, and smaller fruits. M. Punicifolia L. (M.
glabra Millsp. NOT Linn.) has been generally approved as the correct botanical name for the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/barbados_cherry.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:35:26 PM]
Barbados Cherry
Barbados cherry, which is also called West Indian cherry, native cherry, garden cherry, French
cherry; in Spanish, acerola, cereza, cereza colorada, cereza de la sabana, or grosella; in French,
cerisier, cerise de St. Domingue; in Portuguese, cerejeira. The name in Venezuela is semeruco, or
cemeruco; in the Netherlands Antilles, shimarucu; in the Philippines, malpi (an abbreviation of the
generic name).
Description
The Barbados cherry is a large, bushy shrub
or small tree attaining up to 20 ft (6 m) in
height and an equal breadth; with more or
less erect or spreading and drooping,
minutely hairy branches, and a short trunk
to 4 in (10 cm) in diameter. Its evergreen
leaves are elliptic, oblong, obovate, or
narrowly oblanceolate, somewhat wavy, 3/4
to 2 3/4 in (2-7 cm) long, 3/8 to 1 5/8 in
(9.5-40 mm) wide, obtuse or rounded at the
apex, acute or cuneate at the base; bearing
white, silky, irritating hairs when very
young; hairless, dark green, and glossy
when mature. The flowers, in sessile or
short-peduncled cymes, have 5 pink or
lavender, spoon-shaped, fringed petals. The
fruits, borne singly or in 2's or 3's in the leaf
Plate XXV: BARBADOS CHERRY, Malpighia punicifolia
axils, are oblate to round, cherry-like but
more or less obviously 3-lobed; 1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) wide; bright-red, with thin, glossy skin
and orange-colored, very juicy, acid to subacid, pulp. The 3 small, rounded seeds each have 2 large
and 1 small fluted wings, thus forming what are generally conceived to be 3 triangular, yellowish,
leathery-coated, corrugated inedible "stones".
The Barbados cherry is native to the Lesser Antilles from St. Croix to Trinidad, also Curacao and
Margarita and neighboring northern South America as far south as Brazil. It has become
naturalized in Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico after cultivation, and is commonly grown in
dooryards in the Bahamas and Bermuda, and to some extent in Central and South America.
The plant is thought to have been first brought to Florida from Cuba by Pliny Reasoner because it
appeared in the catalog of the Royal Palm Nursery for 1887-1888. It was carried abroad rather
early for it is known to have borne fruit for the first time in the Philippines in 1916. In 1917, H.M.
Curran brought seeds from Curacao to the United States Department of Agriculture. (S.P.I.
#44458). The plant was casually grown in southern and central Florida until after World War II
when it became more commonly planted. In Puerto Rico, just prior to that war, the Federal Soil
Conservation Department planted Barbados cherry trees to control erosion on terraces at the Rio
Piedras Experiment Station. During the war, 312 seedlings from the trees with the largest and most
agreeably-flavored fruits were distributed to families to raise in their Victory Gardens. Later,
several thousand trees were provided for planting in school yards to increase the vitamin intake of
Barbados Cherry
children, who are naturally partial to the fruits.

An explosion of interest occurred as a result of some food analyses being conducted at the School
of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras in 1945. The emblic (Emblica officinalis
L.) was found to be extremely high in ascorbic acid. This inspired one of the laboratory assistants
to bring in some Barbados cherries which the local people were accustomed to eating when they
had colds. These fruits were found to contain far more ascorbic acid than the emblic, and, because
of their attractiveness and superior eating quality, interest quickly switched from the emblic to the
Barbados cherry. Much publicity ensued, featuring the fruit under the Puerto Rican name of
acerola. A plantation of 400 trees was established at Rio Piedras in 1947 and, from 1951 to 1953,
238 trees were set out at the Isabela Substation. By 1954, there were 30,000 trees in commercial
groves on the island. Several plantings had been made in Florida and a 2,000-acre (833-ha)
plantation in Hawaii. There was a great flurry of activity. Horticulturists were busy making
selections of high-ascorbic-acid clones and improving methods of vegetative propagation, and
agronomists were studying the effects of cultural practices. Smaller plantings were being
developed in Jamaica, Venezuela, Guatemala, Ghana, India, the Philippines and Queensland,
Australia, and even in Israel. Many so-called "natural food" outlets promoted various "vitamin C"
products from the fruitspowder, tablets, capsules, juice, sirup.
At length, enthusiasm subsided when it was realized that a fruit could not become a superstar
because of its ascorbic acid content alone; that ascorbic acid from a natural source could not
economically compete with the much cheaper synthetic product, inasmuch as research proved that
the ascorbic acid of the Barbados cherry is metabolized in a manner identical to the assimilation of
crystalline ascorbic acid.
The large plantation of the Hawaiian Acerola Company (a subsidiary of Nutrilite Products
Company) was abandoned for this reason, and low fruit yields; and, so it is said, the low ascorbic
acid content because of the high copper levels in the soil. Puerto Rican production was directed
thereafter mainly to the use of the fruit in specialty baby foods.
Frozen fruits are shipped to the United States for processing.
Varieties
In 1956, workers at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education Center in
Homestead, after making preliminary evaluations and selections, chose as superior and named the
'Florida Sweet', a clone that was observed to have an upright habit of growth, large fruits, thick
skin, apple-like, semi-sweet flavor, and high yield.
The first promising selections in Puerto Rico, on the bases of fruit size, yield and vitamin content,
were identified as 'A-l' and 'B-17', but these were later found to be inferior to 'B-15' in ascorbic
acid level and productivity. Yields of 10 clones ('A-l', 'A-2', 'A-4', 'A-10', 'A-21', 'B-2', 'B-9', 'B-15',
'B-17', and 'K-7') were compared over a 2-year period (1955-56) in Puerto Rico and 'B-15' far
exceeded the others in both years.
A horticultural variety in St. Croix, formerly known as M. thompsonii Britton & Small, has
displayed unusually large leaves and fruits and more abundant flowers than the common strain of
Barbados cherry.
Barbados Cherry
Climate
The Barbados cherry can be classed as tropical and subtropical, for mature trees can survive brief
exposure to 28 F (-2.22 C). Young plants are killed by any drop below 30 F (-1.11 C). It is
naturally adapted to both medium- and low-rainfall regions; can tolerate long periods of drought,
though it may not fruit until the coming of rain.
Soil
The tree does well on limestone, marl and clay, as long as they are well drained. The pH should be
at least 5.5. Elevation to 6.5 significantly improves root development. Acid soils require the
addition of lime to avoid calcium deficiency and increase yield. The lime should be worked into
the soil to a depth of 8 in (20 cm) or more.
Propagation
If seeds are used for planting, they should be selected from desirable clones not exposed to
cross-pollination by inferior types. They should be cleaned, dried, and dusted with a fungicide. It
should also be realized that the seeds in an individual fruit develop unevenly and only those that
are fully developed when the fruit is ripe will germinate satisfactorily. Germination rates may be
only 50% or as low as 5%. Seedlings should be transferred from flats to containers when 2 to 3 in
(5-7.5 cm) high.
Air-layering (in summer) and side-veneer, cleft, or modified crown grafting are feasible but not
popular because it is so much easier to raise the tree from cuttings. Cuttings of branches 1/4 to 1/2
in (6-12.5 mm) thick and 8 to 10 in (20-25 cm) long, with 2 or 3 leaves attached, hormone-treated
and set in sand or other suitable media under constant or intermittent mist, will root in 60 days.
They are then transplanted to nursery rows or containers and held in shade for 6 months or a year
before being set out in the field. Some fruits will be borne a year after planting but a good crop
cannot be expected until the 3rd or 4th year. The tree will continue bearing well for about 15 years.
There is a lapse of only 22 days between flowering and complete fruit maturity.
Grafting is generally practiced only when cuttings of a desired clone are scarce or if a
nematode-resistant rootstock is available on which to graft a preferred cultivar; or when
top-working a tree that bears fruits of low quality.
Culture
The Barbados cherry tree will grow and fruit fairly well with little care. For best performance,
Puerto Rican agronomists have recommended a fertilizer formula of 8-8-13 twice annually for the
first 4 years at the rate of 1/2 to 1 lb (0.22-0.45 kg). Older trees should have 3 to 5 lbs (1.35-2.25
kg) per tree. In addition, organic material should be worked into the planting hole and also
supplied in amounts of 10 to 20 lbs (4.5-9 kg) per tree. Under Florida conditions, a 10-10-10
formula is given in February, 1 lb (0.22 kg) for each year of growth. In May, July and September,
a 4-7-5-3 formula is recommended, 1 lb (0.22 kg) for each year of age up to the 10th year.
Thereafter, a 6-4-6-3 mixture is given5 lbs (2.25 kg) per tree in late winter and 10 lbs (4.5 kg) per
tree for each of the summer feedings. On limestone soils, sprays of minor elementscopper, zinc,
and sometimes manganesewill enhance growth and productivity. Young trees need regular
irrigation until well established; older trees require watering only during droughts. Mature plants
Barbados Cherry
will bear better if thinned out by judicious pruning after the late crop and then fertilized once
more.
Pollination and Fruit Set
In Florida, bees visit Barbados cherry flowers in great numbers and are the principal pollinators.
Maintenance of hives near Barbados cherry trees substantially improves fruit set. In Hawaii, there
was found to be very little transport of pollen by wind, and insect pollination is inadequate.
Consequently, fruits are often seedless. Investigations have shown that growth regulators (IBA at
100 ppm; PCA at 50 ppm) induce much higher fruit set but these chemicals may be too costly to
buy and apply.
Season
In Florida, the Bahamas, Puerto Rico and Hawaii the fruiting season varies with the weather.
There may be a spring crop ripening in May and then successive small crops off and on until
December, but sometimes, if spring rains are lacking, there may be no fruits at all until December
and then a heavy crop. In Zanzibar, the bearing season is said to be just the months of December
and January.
Harvesting
For home use, as dessert, the fruits are picked when fully ripe. For processing or preserving, they
can be harvested when slightly immature, when they are turning from yellow to red. As there is
continuous fruiting over long periods, picking is done every day, every other day, or every 3 days
to avoid loss by falling.
The fruits are usually picked manually in the cool of the early morning, and must be handled with
care. For immediate processing, some growers shake the tree and allow the ripe fruits to fall onto
sheets spread on the ground. Harvested fruits should be kept in the shade until transferred from the
field, which ought to be done within 3 hours, and collecting lugs are best covered with heavy
canvas to retard loss of ascorbic acid.
Yield
There is great variation in productivity. Individual trees may yield 30 to 62 lbs (13.5-28 kg) in
Puerto Rico. In Jamaica, maximum yield in the 6th year is about 80 lbs (36 kg) per tree; 24,000
lbs/acre (24,000 kg/ha). Venezuelan growers have reported 10 to 15 tons/ha; the average in Puerto
Rico is 25 tons/ha/yr. 'Florida Sweet' in Florida has yielded 65 tons/ha. A plot of 300 trees of
'Florida Sweet' has borne crops of 6,300 to 51,300 lbs (2,858-23,270 kg) of fruit from March to
November, in Homestead, Florida.
In Puerto Rico, a planting of 200 trees may be expected to produce 3,600 to 5,400 lbs (1,636-2,455
kg) of juice. From the juice there can be extracted at least 120 lbs (54.5 kg) of vitamin C expressed
as dehydroascorbic and ascorbic acid, providing the content is determined to be 2%. In Puerto
Rico, it is calculated that 10 tons of fruit should yield 435 lbs (197 kg) ascorbic acid. In a
commercial operation using ion-exchange resins, the yield of ascorbic acid from Barbados cherry
juice is expected to be about 88%.
Keeping Quality
Barbados Cherry
Ripe Barbados cherries bruise easily and are highly perishable. Processors store them for no more
than 3 days at 45 F (7.22 C). Half-ripe fruits can be maintained for a few more days. If longer
storage is necessary, the fruits must be frozen and kept at 10 F (-12.22 C) and later thawed for
use. At one time it was believed that the fruits could be transported to processing plants in water
tanks (as is done with true cherries) but it was discovered that they lose their color and ascorbic
acid content in water.
At room temperature85 F (29.44 C) in Puerto Ricocanned Barbados cherries and also the juice
lose color and fresh flavor and 53% to 80% of their ascorbic acid content in one month, and metal
cans swell because of the development of CO2. Refrigeration at 44.6 F (7 C) considerably
reduces such deterioration. Juice in the home refrigerator will lose 20% of its ascorbic acid in 18
days. Therefore, the juice and the puree should be kept no longer than one week.
Pests and Diseases
One of the major obstacles to successful cultivation of the Barbados cherry is the tree's
susceptibility to the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita var. acrita, especially in sandy
acid soils. Soil fumigation, mulching and regular irrigation will help to keep this problem under
control. The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, is also a cause of decline in otherwise
healthy trees.
In Florida, the foliage is attacked by wax scale, Florida mango scale, and other scale insects,
whiteflies, a leaf roller, and aphids. In Guatemala, the aphid, Aphis spiraecola, attacks the leaves
and young, tender branches. This pest and the Hesperid caterpillar, Ephyriades arcas, require
chemical control. In Puerto Rico, the tree is often damaged by the blue chrysomelid of acerola,
Leucocera laevicollis. Some fruits may be malformed but not otherwise affected by the sting of
stinkbugs. None of these predators is of any great importance.
The major pest in Florida is the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa, which seems to attack
all but very sour fruits and the larvae are commonly found inside. In Guatemala, a fruit worm,
Anthonomus florus, deposits its eggs in the floral ovary and also in the fruits; the larvae feed in the
fruits causing deformity and total ruin. Drastic control measures have been employed against this
predator, including the incineration of all fallen, infested fruits and the elimination of all related
species that serve as hosts.
Few diseases have been reported. However, in Florida, there are cases of anthracnose caused by
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and leafspotting by the fungus, Cercospora bunchosiae, is a
serious malady in Florida, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Green scurf, identified with the alga,
Cephaleuros virescens, occurs in Puerto Rico.
Food Uses
Barbados cherries are eaten out-of-hand, mainly by children. For dessert use, they are delicious
merely stewed with whatever amount of sugar is desired to modify the acidity of the particular
type available. The seeds must be separated from the pulp in the mouth and returned by spoon to
the dish. Many may feel that the nuisance is compensated for by the pleasure of enjoying the
flavorful pulp and juice. Other-wise, the cooked fruits must be strained to remove the seeds and
the resulting sauce or puree can be utilized as a topping on cake, pudding, ice cream or sliced
Barbados Cherry
bananas, or used in other culinary products. Commercially prepared puree may be dried or frozen
for future use. The fresh juice will prevent darkening of bananas sliced for fruit cups or salads. It
can be used for gelatin desserts, punch or sherbet, and has been added as an ascorbic acid
supplement to other fruit juices. The juice was dried and powdered commercially in Puerto Rico
for a decade until the cost of production caused the factory to be closed down.
The fruits may be made into sirup or, with added pectin, excellent jelly, jam, and other preserves.
Cooking causes the bright-red color to change to brownish-red. The pasteurization process in the
canning of the juice changes the color to orange-red or yellow, and packing in tin cans brings on
further color deterioration. Enamel-lined cans preserve the color better.
Wine made from Barbados cherries in Hawaii was found to retain 60% of the ascorbic acid.
Calories
59
Moisture
81.9-91.10 g
Protein
Ether Extract
Fiber
Fat
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
(Vitamin A)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid**
0.68-1.8 g
0.19-0.09 g
0.60-1.2 g
0.18-0.1 g
6.98-14.0 g
0.77-0.82 g
8.2-34.6 mg
16.2-37.5 mg
0.17-1.11 mg
0.003-0.408 mg
408-1000 I.U.
0.024-0.040 mg
0.038-0.079 mg
0.34-0.526 mg
*According to analyses made in Hawaii, Guatemala, and elsewhere.

**According to analyses at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology of fruits grown in Barbados:
4,500 mg (green), 3,300 mg (medium-ripe), 2,000 mg (very ripe). The ascorbic acid level of unripe
fruits can range up to 4,676 mg and such ratings are exceeded only by the fruits (rose hips) of Rosa
rugosa Thunb., which may have as much as 6,977 mg/100 g. This constituent varies as much as
25% with the clone, the locale, cultural methods and degree of exposure to sunlight during
developmental stages and after harvesting. At INCAP (Instituto de Nutricion de Central America
and Panama), in Guatemala assays in 1950-1955 showed distressingly low levelsan average of 17
mg/100 g, whereas fruits sent to INCAP by air and in dry ice from Florida were analyzed and
Barbados Cherry
contained 1,420 mg/100 g. In field experiments, treatment of young fruits on the tree with 200
ppm gibberellic acid has brought about a marked increase in the ascorbic acid content of the
mature fruits.
The ascorbic acid is not totally destroyed by heat, for the jelly may contain 499-1,900 mg/100 g.
Of the total ascorbic acid in Barbados cherry juice, 0.18% is in the bound form. Other constituents
include dextrose, levulose, and a little sucrose.
Harmful Effects
Physicians in Curacao report that children often require treatment for intestinal inflammation and
obstruction caused by eating quantities of the entire fruits, including seeds, from the wild Barbados
cherries which abound on the island.
People who pick Barbados cherries without gloves and long sleeves may suffer skin irritation from
contact with the minute stinging hairs on the leaves and petioles.
Other Uses
Bark: The bark of the tree contains 20-25% tannin and has been utilized in the leather industry.
Wood: The wood is surprisingly hard and heavy. Trials have demonstrated that it refuses to ignite
even when treated with flammable fluid unless perfectly dry.
Medicinal Uses: The fruits are considered beneficial to patients with liver ailments, diarrhea and
dysentery, as well as those with coughs or colds. The juice may be gargled to relieve sore throat.
Nance

Morton, J. 1987. Nance. p. 207209. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Nance
Byrsonima crassifolia HBK.
Byrsonima cubensis Juss.
Malpighia crassifolia L.
Description
Climate
Soil
Season
Keeping Quality
Food Uses
Other Uses
The fruits of a number of species of Byrsonima have been consumed by the Indians of Central
America and northern South America. The best-known of these is the nance, B. crassifolia HBK.
(syns. B. cubensis Juss.; Malpighia crassifolia L.), which has acquired many alternate vernacular
names: changugu, chi, nance agrio, nanche, nanchi, nancen, nanche de perro, nananche, and
nantzin in Mexico; nance verde in El Salvador; nancito or crabo in Honduras; craboo, crapoo and
wild craboo in Belize; doncela and maricao in the Dominican Republic; maricao cimaroon,
maricao verde, peralejo and peralejo blanco in Puerto Rico; peralejo de sabana in Cuba; tapal in
Guatemala; chaparro, chaparro manteca, maache, mantequera, nanzi, noro, peraleja hembra,
yaca or yuco in Colombia; chaparro de chinche, chaparro de sabana, manero manteco, manteco
merey or manteco sabanero in Venezuela; murici, mirixi, murici-do-campo, and muruci-da-praia
in Brazil; hori, sabana kwari moeleidan, and sabana mango in Surinam; huria in Guyana;
quinquina des savannes in Guateloupe; savanna serrette in Trinidad; sometimes wild cherry in
Panama; golden spoon in the former British West Indies.
Description
The nance is a slow-growing large shrub or tree to 33 ft (10 m) high, or, in certain situations, even
reaching 66 ft (20 m); varying in form from round-topped and spreading to narrow and compact;
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/nance.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:28 PM]
Nance
the trunk short or tall, crooked or straight.

Young branches are densely coated with
russet hairs. The opposite leaves, ovate to
elliptic or oblong-elliptic, may be 1 1/4 to 6
1/2 in (3.2-17 cm) long and 1 1/2 to 2 3/4 in
(4-7 cm) wide, rounded or pointed at the
apex, blunt or pointed at the base; leathery,
usually glossy on the upper surface and
more or less brown- or gray-hairy on the
underside. The flowers, borne in thinly or
conspicuously red-hairy, erect racemes 4 to
8 in (10-20 cm) long, are 1/2 to 3/4 in
(1.25-2 cm) wide; the 5 petals yellow at
first, changing to dull orange-red. The fruit
is peculiarly odorous, orange-yellow, round,
5/16 to 7/16 in (8-12 cm) wide, with thin
skin and white, juicy, oily pulp varying in
flavor from insipid to sweet, acid, or
cheese-like. There is a single, fairly large,
stone containing 1 to 3 white seeds.
The tree is native and abundant in the wild,
sometimes in extensive stands, in open pine
forests and grassy savannas, from southern
Mexico, through the Pacific side of Central
America, to Peru and Brazil; also occurs in
Trinidad, Barbados, Curacao, St. Martin,
Dominica, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Haiti,
the Dominican Republic and throughout
Cuba and the Isle of Pines.
Dr. David Fairchild brought seeds from
Panama to the United States Department of
Agriculture in 1899 (S.P.I. #2944). A few
specimens exist in special collections in
southern Florida. The species was
introduced into the Philippines in 1918.
Throughout its natural range, the nance is Fig. 54: The nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), though a minor
fruit, has culinary and beverage uses in tropical America. The
mainly consumed by children, birds, and
flowers furnish nectar for honeybees.
wild and domesticated animals. In some
regions, large quantities are sold in native markets at very low prices. There is some cultivation of
the tree for its fruits in Mexico and parts of Central America.
Climate
Nance
The nance is limited to tropical and subtropical climates. In Central and South America, the tree
ranges from sea-level to an altitude of 6,000 ft (1,800 m). It is highly drought-tolerant.
Soil
In Mexico, the tree is often found on rocky ground. It grows well in sandy and alkaline-sandy
soils. It is well suited for restoration of infertile and burned-over land.
Season
In Mexico, the tree blooms from April through July and the fruits are marketed in September and
October. In Puerto Rico, the tree blooms and fruits continuously from spring to fall; in Brazil from
December to April.
Keeping Quality
The fruits fall to the ground when fully ripe and are very perishable. However, they can be stored
in good condition for several months by merely keeping them submerged in water.
Food Uses
The fruits are eaten raw or cooked as dessert, or may be included in soup or in stuffing for meats.
J.N. Rose in 1899 wrote that he saw nances, olives and rice cooked with stewed chicken in
Mexico.
The fruits are often used to prepare carbonated beverages, or an acid, oily, fermented beverage
known by the standard term chicha applied to assorted beer-like drinks made of fruits or maize. By
distillation, there is produced in Costa Rica, a rum-like liquor called Crema de nance.
In Magdalena, Colombia, an edible fat is extracted from the fruits with boiling water.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
79.3-83.2 g
0.109-0.124 g
0.21-1.83 g
2.5-5.8 g
0.58-0.69 g
23.0-36.8 mg
12.6-15.7 mg
0.62-1.01 mg
0.002-0.060 mg
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.009-0.014 mg
0.015-0.039 mg
0.266-0.327 mg
90.0-192.0 mg
Nance
*According to analyses made in Guatemala and El Salvador. The fruit is high in tannin, especially
when unripe.
Other Uses
Fruit: Green fruits are sometimes used in dyeing. The fruit skin imparts a light-brown hue to
cotton cloth.
Bark: The bark yields a strong fiber, and is employed in tanning, giving the leather a light-yellow
tone. The bark contains 17.25-28.26% tannin and 2.73% oxalic acid.
Branches: Fresh branches are cut into small pieces and thrown into streams to stupefy fish; or
they are crushed at the edge of shallow waters so that the juice spills into the water, for the same
effect.
Wood: The sapwood is grayish; the heartwood reddish-brown, heavy, coarse-textured, tough, and
highly prized for boat ribs though it is brittle and only medium-durable. Usually available only in
small sizes, it serves for tool handles, turnery, cabinetwork and furniture and small-scale
construction. In Brazil, the wood is chosen for the hot fire over which the people smoke the
stimulant paste of guaran (Paullinia cupana HBK.) because the burning wood has a pleasant
odor. In some areas it is used for making charcoal.
Nectar: In Costa Rica, the nance provides one of the few sources of nectar for honeybees in the
month of June.
Medicinal Uses: The astringent bark infusion is taken to halt diarrhea; also as a febrifuge. It is
considered beneficial in pulmonary complaints, cases of leucorrhea, and allegedly tightens the
teeth where the gums are diseased. In Belize, it is taken as an antidote for snakebite. In Guyana,
the pounded bark is poulticed on wounds. Mexicans apply the pulverized bark on ulcers.
Emblic

Morton, J. 1987. Emblic. p. 213217. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Emblic
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
This member of the Euphorbiaceae, Phyllanthus emblica L. (syn. Emblica officinalis Gaertn.)
ranges in status from insignificant in the western world to highly prized in tropical Asia.
Alternative English names include emblic myrobalan, Malacca tree and Indian gooseberry, though
the last term is more frequently applied to the related but dissimilar Otaheite gooseberry, q.v. In
Malaya the emblic is called melaka, Asam melaka, or amlaka; in Thailand, it is ma-kham-pom; in
Laos, mak-kham-pom; in Cambodia, kam lam or kam lam ko; in southern Vietnam, bong ngot; in
North Vietnam, chu me. In the Philippines, it is called nelli.
Description
The tree is a graceful ornamental, normally reaching a height of 60 ft (18 m) and, in rare instances,
100 ft (30 m). Its fairly smooth bark is a pale grayish-brown and peels off in thin flakes like that of
the guava. While actually deciduous, shedding its branchlets as well as its leaves, it is seldom
entirely bare and is therefore often cited as an evergreen. The miniature, oblong leaves, only 1/8 in
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/emblic.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:35:30 PM]
Emblic
(3 mm) wide and 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm)

long, distichously disposed on very slender
branchlets, give a misleading impression of
finely pinnate foliage. Small,
inconspicuous, greenish-yellow flowers are
borne in compact clusters in the axils of the
lower leaves. Usually, male flowers occur at
the lower end of a growing branchlet, with
the female flowers above them, but
occasional trees are dioecious.
The nearly stemless fruit is round or oblate,
indented at the base, and smooth, though 6
to 8 pale lines, sometimes faintly evident as Fig. 56: The marble-like emblic (Phyllanthus emblica), hard
and sour, is valued in Asia as a thirst-quencher and for its
ridges, extending from the base to the apex, ascorbic acid content.
give it the appearance of being divided into
segments or lobes. Light-green at first, the fruit becomes whitish or a dull, greenish-yellow, or,
more rarely, brick-red as it matures. It is hard and unyielding to the touch. The skin is thin,
translucent and adherent to the very crisp, juicy, concolorous flesh. Tightly embedded in the center
of the flesh is a slightly hexagonal stone containing 6 small seeds. Fruits collected in South Florida
vary from 1 to 1 1/4 in (2.5-3.2 cm) in diameter but choice types in India approach 2 in (5 cm) in
width. Ripe fruits are astringent, extremely acid, and some are distinctly bitter.
The emblic tree is native to tropical southeastern Asia, particularly in central and southern India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Ceylon, Malaya, southern China and the Mascarene Islands. It is commonly
cultivated in home gardens throughout India and grown commercially in Uttar Pradesh. Many
trees have been planted in southern Malaya, Singapore, and throughout Malaysia. In India, and to a
lesser extent in Malaya, the emblic is important and esteemed, raw as well as preserved, and it is
prominent in folk medicine. Fruits from both wild and dooryard trees and from orchards are
gathered for home use and for market. In southern Thailand, fruits from wild trees are gathered for
marketing.
In 1901, the United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from the Reasoner Brothers,
noted nurserymen and plant importers of Oneco, Florida. Seeds were distributed to early settlers in
Florida and to public gardens and experimental stations in Bermuda, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad,
Panama, Hawaii and the Philippines. The fruits of these seedlings aroused no enthusiasm until
1945 when Mr. Claud Horn of the Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations in Washington, D.C.,
inspired by Indian ratings of the emblic as the "richest known natural source of vitamin C", asked
that analyses be made in Puerto Rico. A high level of ascorbic acid was found and confirmed in
Florida but interest quickly switched to the Barbados cherry (q.v.) which was casually assayed and
found to be as rich or richer when underripe. The emblic was soon forgotten. Some old trees still
exist in southern Florida; others have been removed in favor of housing or other developments. In
1954, the Campbell Soup Company in Camden, New Jersey, requested 5 lbs (2.25 kg) of the fruits
for study. They were sent, but no further interest was evidenced. In 1982, several individuals asked
for and were given seeds for planting in Australia. They did not reveal whether the tree was
Emblic
desired for its own sake or for its fruits.

Varieties
In India there are 3 named cultivars grown commercially:
'Banarsi'originated in Banarsi district of Uttar Pradesh; medium to large, the 6 segments paired,
giving the appearance of only 3; 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long, 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) wide; skin thin and
translucent, light-green, turning whitish as the fruit ripens; flesh slightly fibrous, medium juicy,
moderately astringent. Earliest in season. Tree is semi-spreading; not a heavy cropper; tends to
alternate bearing unless interplanted.
'Chakaiya'flattened at base and apex; may have 6, 7, or 8 segments; of medium size, 1 1/4 in
(3.2 cm) long, 3 1/4 in (8.25 cm) wide; flesh fibrous. Tree is spreading; prolific. This cultivar is
now preferred over the others because of its yield.
'Francis' ('Hathijhool')rounded-oval, bulged at the apex; has 6 segments; large, 1 5/8 in (4.3 cm)
long and 2 in (5 cm) wide. The tree is a regular producer of good crops, but prone to fruit necrosis.
The ordinary small fruits5/8 to 1 in (1.5-2.5 cm) wide, with reddish skin, rarely grown
commercially, are mainly used for medicinal purposes.
Pollination
Cross-pollination is desirable. 'Banarsi' bears better when interplanted with other varieties.
Growers in India are beginning to scatter a few seedling trees around in their groves. Honeybees
work the flowers in the morning and late evening. It is now known that lack of pollination is the
cause of up to 70% shedding of flowers in the first 3 weeks after onset of blooming.
Climate
The emblic is subtropical rather than strictly tropical. In India, it flourishes from sea-level up to an
altitude of 5,000 ft (1,800 m). Seeds were planted at the Agricultural Research and Education
Center in Homestead, Florida, in 1955 and the seedlings were set out in the field in 1956. They
survived unusually cold weather in the winter of 1957-58. That freeze damaged a tree with a trunk
1 ft (30 cm) thick at Laurel, Florida. It was set back again by cold in December 1962. It put out
many shoots which, by October 2, 1963 were 10 ft (3 m) high, showing a remarkable ability to
recover from cold injury. On the other hand, it is intolerant of excessive heat. In India, mature trees
can stand temperatures up to 115 F (46 C) in the summer but young plants must be shaded.
Soil
The emblic seems to grow equally well under both and and humid conditions. It is noted for being
able to thrive in regions too dry and soil too poor for most other fruit crops. For maximum
productivity, the tree requires deep soil ranging from sandy loam to clay, light or heavy, slightly
acidic to slightly alkaline. At high pH (as much as 8.0), nutritional deficiencies are evident.
Limestone is considered unsuitable but the large, old trees in southern Florida are all in oolitic
limestone. Good drainage is essential. A low degree of salinity seems to be fairly well tolerated.
Propagation
Emblic
The tree is often propagated by seeds taken from overripe fruits sun-dried to facilitate removal of
the stone, or cut in half right through the stone. The extracted seeds are given the float test and
100% of those that sink will germinate. In 4 months, seedlings will have a stem diameter of 1/3 in
(8 mm) and can be budded or grafted from June to September and in February and March in India.
The Forkert and patch techniques have given 85% to 100% success. Chip-budding, using seedlings
1 1/2 years old as rootstocks, is easier and 60% to 80% successful in September and October and
February and March. Inarching is sometimes practiced in India but survival rate may be only 25%
to 30% after separation from the stock and further losses may occur in the field. At the
Experimental Farm of the University of Miami in 1955, air-layers and cuttings were unsuccessful
but root sprouts grew well.
Emblic trees bearing fruits of inferior quality may be top-worked by cutting back to a height of 4 ft
(1.2 m) and applying coal tar to the cut surfaces. Trials at Saharanpur showed that this is best done
in March when the trees are not in active growth. Budding of the new shoots can be done
successfully any time from June to September.
Culture
While the emblic has long been established as an important and remunerative crop in India, the
systematic culture of high-quality fruit is a modern development actively promoted by the Indian
Government. It is recommended that the trees be spaced 30 to 40 ft (9-12 m) apart and planted in
well-prepared holes enriched with a composted manure and soil mixture, and well-watered.
Thereafter, watering is done only in the dry season. Seedlings in Florida have attained 8 to 9 ft
(2.4-2.7 m) in height in 5 years. They usually begin to bear when 5 to 6 years old and normally
bear for about 50 years.
There are no standard practices for fertilizing the emblic but 1 to 1 1/2 oz (28-42 g) of nitrogen per
tree for each year of age up to 10 years has been suggested. After 10 years the nitrogen is increased
and potash and superphosphate are added. Half of the fertilizer should be given after fruit-set and
the other half 4 months later.
The branches are brittle and judicious pruning to develop a strong framework is advocated to avoid
branch breakage from heavy loads of fruit.
The emblic is sensitive to day-length. In northern India, flowering takes place from March to May.
In Madras, the tree blooms in June-July and again in February-March, the second flowering
producing only a small crop. In Florida flowering occurs during the summer months, the main crop
maturing during the winter and early spring. A few fruits developed from late blooms are found in
summer and fall.
In India, people shake down the fruits that are ready to fall and gather from the ground those that
have already fallen, and take them to market. They stand handling well. The yield varies a great
deal as many young fruits are shed throughout the period of fruit development, and there is
considerable difference in the productivity of seedlings and cultivars. P.N. Bajpai, in a study of the
fruiting habits of four 15-year-old emblic trees, found an average yield of 415 fruits, which
weighed approximately 24 1/2 lbs (11 kg). 'Banarsi' trees 10 years old have yielded 35.2 lbs (16
kg). 'Chakaiya' trees of the same age have yielded 39.6 lbs (18 kg). Mature 'Chakaiya' trees may
Emblic
bear 55 lbs (25 kg) per year.

Pests and Diseases
The chief pest of this tree in India is the bark-eating caterpillar, Indarbela sp., which tunnels into
the branches and trunk. A secondary enemy produces shoot galls. A non-pathogenic problem,
especially in 'Francis', is called "fruit necrosis" in India. It is evidenced by internal browning which
gradually extends to the surface where dark spots become corky and gummy. It can be overcome
by bi-monthly sprays of borax in September and October. There are few serious diseases but the
fungi, Bestonea stylophora, Phakospora phyllanthi and Ravenelia emblicae, cause ring rust, leaf
rust and fruit rot.
Fresh emblics on the market or in storage are subject to blue mold and rotting caused by
Penicillium islandicum. Rinsing with very dilute borax or sodium chloride solutions helps retard
such spoilage. Emblic preserves on the market have been found contaminated with yeasts, molds
and bacteria. Pre-processing treatment with 0.01% sulfur dioxide or sodium benzoate prolongs
keeping quality.
Food Uses
Rural folk in India claim that the highly
acid, fresh, raw fruit, followed by water,
produces a sweet and refreshing aftertaste.
Wood-cutters in Southeast Asia eat the
emblic to avoid thirst, as the fruit stimulates
the flow of saliva. This is the one tree left
standing when forests are clear-cut in
Thailand, and busses stop along highways
to let thirsty travelers run to the tree to get
the fruits. The emblic is regarded as sacred
by many Hindus and the Hindu religion
Fig. 57: Emblics, heavily sugared, are sold in the native
prescribes that ripe fruits be eaten for 40
markets of Southeast Asia.
days after a fast in order to restore health
and vitality. It is a common practice in Indian homes to cook the fruits whole with sugar and
saffron and give one or two to a child every morning.
Fresh emblics are baked in tarts, added to other foods as seasoning during cooking, and the juice is
used to flavor vinegar. Both ripe and half-ripe fruits are candied whole and also made into jam and
other preserves, sweetmeats, pickles and relishes. They are combined with other fruits in making
chutney. In Indonesia, emblics; are added to impart acidity to many dishes, often as a substitute for
tamarinds.
When necessary, bitterness is overcome by soaking the fruits in a salt solution or by adding citrus
fruit, unripe mango or tamarind. In preserving emblics; whole, the fruit is first brined, washed and
pricked, blanched in an alum solution, layered with sugar until a sirup is formed, and then boiled.
It is finally packed in enameled cans or crystallized as a confection. In India, a sauce is made from
the dried, chipped flesh. In its preparation, the chips are cooked in water, mashed in a mortar with
caraway seeds, and further seasoned with salt and yogurt. This, also, is commonly eaten after
fasting. During World War II, emblic powder, tablets and candies were issued to Indian military
Emblic
personnel as vitamin C rations. Drs. Rama Rao, Balakushnan and Rajagopalan, of the Institute of
Science at Bangalore, describe a method of spray-drying emblic juice to produce a special powder
for fortifying salt as a means of increasing vitamin C intake.
In Thailand, where the tree is common in the forests, the fruits are favored by deer, especially the
tiny barking deer.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
77.1 g
0.07 g
0.2 g
21.8 g
1.9 g
0.5 g
12.5 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
Ascorbic Acid**
26.0 mg
0.48 mg
0.01 mg
0.03 mg
0.05 mg
0.18 mg
3.0 mg
2.1 mg
17.0 mg
625 mg
*As reported by the Finlay Institute Laboratory, Havana.

**The ascorbic acid ratings vary immensely. Analyses in Puerto Rico, showed 625 mg; fruits from
one tree in Avon Park, Florida, showed only 467 mg, while 2 adjacent trees in Homestead, Florida,
showed 1,130 and 1,325 mg; and Dr. Margaret Mustard reported an average of 1,561.0 and a high
of 1,814 mg in 7 samples analyzed.
The ascorbic acid in the emblic is considered highly stable, apparently protected by tannins (or
leucoanthocyanins) which retard oxidation. Biochemical studies at the Central Drug Research
Institute, Lucknow, India, show 13 tannins plus 3 or 4 colloidal complexes. In juice extracted from
the fresh fruit, the ascorbic acid is stable for at least a week. Fresh juice stored at 35.6 F (2 C)
loses only 14% ascorbic acid after 45 days. Only 30% is lost in evaporation over open flame at
149 F (65 C), but the product loses 40% during a week in a refrigerator and 100% in 20 days.
Efforts in India to prepare a stable ascorbic acid concentrate from the dried fruit have been
frustrating because sun-drying loses 65% ascorbic acid. Artificial drying at 185 F (85 C) loses
Emblic
34%; and at 212 F (100 C), 72%. Once dried, there is negligible loss. However, vacuum-drying
(27 in. Hg) at 140-176 F (60-80 C) retains the original ascorbic acid levels, the dried product
containing 2,000 to 3,500 mg per 100 g, depending on the content of the fresh fruit. Even after 14
months of refrigerated storage, there is a loss of only 15 to 20%.
Separation of tannins from expressed juice by precipitation with neutral lead acetate and ion
exchange chromatographic purification has yielded crystalline ascorbic acid amounting to 70-72%
of that in the juice.
The dry, powdered fruit contains 6.3% phyllembic acid, 6% fatty matter, 5% gallic acid, ellagic
acid, emblicol (a crystalline phenolic product) and other constituents. Phyllemblin (ethyl gallate)
isolated from dried fruit, acts as a mild CNS depressant and has spasmolytic activity.
Other Uses
Other uses of the fruit and parts of the tree are numerous:
Fruit: The dried fruit yields ink and hair-dye and, having detergent properties, is sometimes used
as a shampoo. A fixed oil derived from the fruit allegedly acts as a hair-restorer and is used in
shampoos in India. This oil is the main ingredient in an "Amla Conditioner" currently sold by
Shikai Products of Santa Rosa, California, by mail and through "health food" stores and other
"natural" product outlets. A most curious custom is the making of simulated pottery jars from a
paste of the boiled fruit, the surface being decorated with impressed colored seeds. Dyes from the
fruit and leaves impart an appealing light-brown or yellow-brown hue to silk and wool. When
sulfate of iron is added as a mordant, the color becomes black.
Bark: The tannin-rich bark, as well as the fruit and leaves, is highly valued and widely employed
in conjunction with other so-called myrobalans, especially fruits of various species of Terminalia.
The twig bark is particularly esteemed for tanning leather and is often used with leaves of Carissa
spinarum A. DC. and Anogeissus latifolia Wall.
Leaves: The foliage furnishes fodder for cattle and branches are lopped for green manure. They
are said to correct excessively alkaline soils.
Wood: The hard but flexible red wood, though highly subject to warping and splitting, is used for
minor construction, furniture, implements, gunstocks, hookas and ordinary pipes. Durable when
submerged and believed to clarify water, it is utilized for crude aqueducts and inner braces for
wells, and branches and chips of the wood are thrown into muddy streams for clarification and to
impart a pleasant flavor. The wood serves also as fuel and a source of charcoal.
Medicinal Uses: The emblic is of great importance in Asiatic medicine, not only as an
antiscorbutic, but in the treatment of diverse ailments, especially those associated with the
digestive organs. For such use, the fruit juice is prepared in the form of a sherbet or is fermented.
In the latter state, it is prescribed in jaundice, dyspepsia and coughs. The dried chips of flesh are
dispensed by apothecaries and often are mixed with grape juice and honey for dosage. The fruit is
considered diuretic and laxative. Triphala, a decoction of emblic with Terminalia chebula Retz.
and T. bellerica Roxb. is given for chronic dysentery, biliousness, hemorrhoids, enlarged liver, and
other disorders. A powder prepared from the dried fruit is an effective expectorant as it stimulates
the bronchial glands. The juice that exudes when the fruit is scored while still on the tree is valued
Emblic
as an eyewash and an application for inflamed eyes. An infusion made by steeping dried fruit
overnight in water also serves as an eyewash, as does an infusion of the seeds. A liquor made from
the fermented fruits is prescribed as a treatment for indigestion, anemia, jaundice, some cardiac
problems, nasal congestion and retention of urine.
Emblic leaves, too, are taken internally for indigestion and diarrhea or dysentery, especially in
combination with buttermilk, sour milk or fenugreek. The milky sap of the tree is applied on foul
sores. The plant is considered an effective antiseptic in cleaning wounds, and it is also one of the
many plant palliatives for snakebite and scorpion stings. A decoction of the leaves is used as a
mouthwash and as a lotion for sore eyes.
The flowers, considered refrigerant and aperient, and roots, emetic, are also variously employed.
The root bark, mixed with honey, is applied to inflammations of the mouth. The bark is strongly
astringent and used in the treatment of diarrhea and as a stomachic for elephants. The juice of the
fresh bark is mixed with honey and turmeric and given in cases of gonorrhea. It is clear that the
majority of the applications of the fruit and other parts are based on the astringent action of the
tannins they contain. The short-term effects of tannins appear beneficial, but habitual indulgence
can be highly detrimental, inasmuch as tannin is antinutrient and carcinogenic.
An ointment made from the burnt seeds and oil is applied to skin afflictions. The seeds are used in
treating asthma, bronchitis, diabetes and fevers. They contain proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes,
phosphatides and a small amount of essential oil. Approximately 16% consists of a
brownish-yellow fixed oil.
Otaheite Gooseberry

Morton, J. 1987. Otaheite Gooseberry. p. 217219. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Otaheite Gooseberry
Phyllanthus acidus Skeels
Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg.
Cicca acida Merr.
Cicca disticha L.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Pests
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
Totally unlike a gooseberry except for its acidity, the Otaheite gooseberry, Phyllanthus acidus
Skeels (syns. P. distichus Muell. Arg.; Cicca acida Merr.; C. disticha L.), is another of the few
members of the family Euphorbiaceae having edible fruit. It has been widely distributed and is
variously known as Malay gooseberry, country gooseberry, cheremai, chermela, chamin-chamin,
or kemangor (Malaya); cherme, tjerme, or tjareme (Java); cherimbillier, tam duot, chum ruot
(Vietnam); mayom (Thailand); mak-nhom (Laos); star gooseberry, West India gooseberry,
jimbling, chalmeri, harpharori (India.); iba (Philippines); ciruela cortea, manzana estrella
(Mexico), pimienta or guinda (El Salvador); grosella (Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Nicaragua);
groselha (Brazil); groseillier des Antilles (French West Indies); cereza amarilla, cerezo comun,
cerezo de la tierra (Puerto Rico); cerezo agrio (Venezuela); cerezo occidental (Cuba); wild plum
(Belize, Yucatan); cheramina, jimbling, short jimbelin (Jamaica).
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/otaheite_gooseberry.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:31 PM]
Otaheite Gooseberry
This is a curious and ornamental shrub or

tree, 6 1/2 to 30 ft (2-9 m) high, with
spreading, dense, bushy crown of thickish,
rough, main branches, in general aspect
resembling the Bilimbi (q.v.). At the branch
tips are clusters of deciduous, greenish or
pinkish branchlets 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm)
long, bearing alternate, short-petioled, ovate
or ovate-lanceolate, pointed leaves 3/4 to 3
in (2-7.5 cm) long, thin, green and smooth
on the upper surface, blue-green with a
bloom on the underside; altogether giving
Fig. 58: No fruit is borne in greater abundance than the crisp,
the impression of pinnate leaves with
numerous leaflets. There are 2 tiny, pointed sour, pale-yellow Otaheite gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus).
When cooked in sugar, the fruit and juice turn ruby-red. In: K.
stipules at the base of each leaf. Small,
& J. Morton, Fifty Tropical Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
male, female, and some hermaphrodite,
4-parted, rosy flowers, are borne together in little clusters arranged in panicles 2 to 5 in (5-12.5
cm) long, hanging directly from leafless lengths of the main branches and the upper trunk, and the
fruits develop so densely that they form spectacular masses. The fruit is oblate with 6 to 8 ribs; is
3/8 to 1 in (1-2.5 cm) wide; pale-yellow to nearly white when fully ripe; waxy, fleshy, crisp, juicy
and highly acid. Tightly embedded in the center is a hard, ribbed stone containing 4 to 6 seeds.
This species is believed to have originated in Madagascar and to have been carried to the East
Indies. Quisumbing says that it was introduced, into the Philippines in prehistoric times and is
cultivated throughout those islands but not extensively. It is more commonly grown in Indonesia,
South Vietnam and Laos, and frequently in northern Malaya, and in India in home gardens. The
tree is a familiar one in villages and on farms in Guam, where the fruit is favored by children, and
occurs in Hawaii and some other Pacific Islands.
It was introduced into Jamaica from Timor in 1793 and has been casually spread throughout the
Caribbean islands and to the Bahamas and Bermuda. It has long been naturalized in southern
Mexico and the lowlands of Central America, and is occasionally grown in Colombia, Venezuela,
Surinam, Peru and Brazil. Formerly an escape from cultivation in South Florida, there are now
only scattered specimens remaining here as curiosities.
Climate
The Otaheite gooseberry is subtropical to tropical, being sufficiently hardy to survive and fruit in
Tampa, Florida, where cold spells are more severe than in the southeastern part of the state. It
thrives up to an elevation of 3,000 ft (914 m) in El Salvador.
Soil
The tree grows on a wide range of soils but prefers rather moist sites.
Propagation
Otaheite Gooseberry
The tree is generally grown from seed but may also be multiplied by budding, greenwood cuttings,
or air-layers. Seedlings will produce a substantial crop in 4 years.
Pests
The Otaheite gooseberry is prone to attack by the phyllanthus caterpiller in Florida. This pest eats
the bark and also the young leaves, causing total defoliation in a few days if not controlled by
pesticides.
Season
The tree often bears two crops a year in South India, the first in April and May, and the second in
August and September. In other areas, the main crop is in January with scattered fruiting
throughout the year.
Food Uses
The flesh must be sliced from the stone, or the fruits must be cooked and then pressed through a
sieve to separate the stones. The sliced raw flesh can be covered with sugar and let stand in the
refrigerator for a day. The sugar draws out the juice and modifies the acidity so that the flesh and
juice can be used as a sauce. If left longer, the flesh shrivels and the juice can be strained off as a
clear, pale-yellow sirup. In Indonesia, the tart flesh is added to many dishes as a flavoring. The
juice is used in cold drinks in the Philippines. Bahamian cooks soak the whole fruits in salty water
overnight to reduce the acidity, then rinse, boil once or twice, discarding the water, then boil with
equal amount of sugar until thick, and put up in sterilized jars without removing seeds. The
repeated processing results in considerable loss of flavor. Fully ripe fruits do not really require this
treatment. If cooked long enough with plenty of sugar, the fruit and juice turn ruby-red and yield a
sprightly jelly. In Malaya, the ripe or unripe Otaheite gooseberry is cooked and served as a relish,
or made into a thick sirup or sweet preserve. It is also combined with other fruits in making
chutney and jam because it helps these products to "set". Often, the fruits are candied, or pickled in
salt. In the Philippines, they are used to make vinegar.
The young leaves are cooked as greens in India and Indonesia.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
91.9 g
0.155 g
0.52 g
0.8 g
0.51 g
5.4 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
17.9 mg
3.25 mg
0.019 mg
0.025 mg
Otaheite Gooseberry
Riboflavin
0.013 mg
Niacin
0.292 mg
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is light-brown, fine-grained, attractive, fairly hard, strong, tough, durable if
seasoned, but scarce, as the tree is seldom cut down.
Root bark: The root bark has limited use in tanning in India.
Medicinal Uses: In India, the fruits are taken as liver tonic, to enrich the blood. The sirup is
prescribed as a stomachic; and the seeds are cathartic. The leaves, with added pepper, are poulticed
on sciatica, lumbago or rheumatism. A decoction of the leaves is given as a sudorific. Because of
the mucilaginous nature of the leaves, they are taken as a demulcent in cases of gonorrhea.
The root is drastically purgative and regarded as toxic in Malaya but is boiled and the steam
inhaled to relieve coughs and headache. The root infusion is taken in very small doses to alleviate
asthma. Externally, the root is used to treat psoriasis of the soles of feet. The juice of the root bark,
which contains saponin, gallic acid, tannin and a crystalline substance which may be lupeol, has
been employed in criminal poisoning.
The acrid latex of various parts of the tree is emetic and purgative.
Mango

Morton, J. 1987. Mango. p. 221239. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Mango
Mangifera indica L.
Description
Varieties
Blooming and Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Dwarfing
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Ripening
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
Food Value
It is a matter of astonishment to many that the luscious mango, Mangifera indica L., one of the
most celebrated of tropical fruits, is a member of the family Anacardiaceaenotorious for
embracing a number of highly poisonous plants. The extent to which the mango tree shares some
of the characteristics of its relatives will be explained further on. The universality of its renown is
attested by the wide usage of the name, mango in English and Spanish and, with only slight
variations in French (mangot, mangue, manguier), Portuguese (manga, mangueira), and Dutch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html (1 of 30) [5/16/2004 1:35:37 PM]
Mango
(manja). In some parts, of Africa, it is called mangou, or mangoro. There are dissimilar terms only
in certain tribal dialects.
Description
The mango tree is erect, 30 to 100 ft
(roughly 10-30 m) high, with a broad,
rounded canopy which may, with age, attain
100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) in width, or a more
upright, oval, relatively slender crown. In
deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of
20 ft (6 in), the profuse, wide-spreading,
feeder root system also sends down many
anchor roots which penetrate for several
feet. The tree is long-lived, some specimens
being known to be 300 years old and still
fruiting.
Fig. 59: Some mangoes (Mangifera indica) more or less
grown in dooryards of southern Florida in the
Nearly evergreen, alternate leaves are borne commonly
mid-1940's.
mainly in rosettes at the tips of the branches
and numerous twigs from which they droop like ribbons on slender petioles 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm)
long. The new leaves, appearing periodically and irregularly on a few branches at a time, are
yellowish, pink, deep-rose or wine-red, becoming dark-green and glossy above, lighter beneath.
The midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves may
be 4 to 12.5 in (10-32 cm) long and 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.4 cm) wide. Hundreds and even as many as
3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25% to 98% male, the rest hermaphroditic, are
borne in profuse, showy, erect, pyramidal, branched clusters 2 1/2 to 15 1/2 in (6-40 cm) high.
There is great variation in the form, size, color and quality of the fruits. They may be nearly round,
oval, ovoid-oblong, or somewhat kidney-shaped, often with a break at the apex, and are usually
more or less lop-sided. They range from 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) in length and from a few
ounces to 4 to 5 lbs (1.8-2.26 kg). The skin is leathery, waxy, smooth, fairly thick, aromatic and
ranges from light-or dark-green to clear yellow, yellow-orange, yellow and reddish-pink, or more
or less blushed with bright-or dark-red or purple-red, with fine yellow, greenish or reddish dots,
and thin or thick whitish, gray or purplish bloom, when fully ripe. Some have a "turpentine" odor
and flavor, while others are richly and pleasantly fragrant. The flesh ranges from pale-yellow to
deep-orange. It is essentially peach-like but much more fibrous (in some seedlings excessively
so-actually "stringy"); is extremely juicy, with a flavor range from very sweet to subacid to tart.
There is a single, longitudinally ribbed, pale yellowish-white, somewhat woody stone, flattened,
oval or kidney-shaped, sometimes rather elongated. It may have along one side a beard of short or
long fibers clinging to the flesh cavity, or it may be nearly fiberless and free. Within the stone is
the starchy seed, monoembryonic (usually single-sprouting) or polyembryonic (usually producing
more than one seedling).
Native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands, the mango has
been cultivated, praised and even revered in its homeland since Ancient times. Buddhist monks are
Mango
believed to have taken the mango on voyages to Malaya and eastern Asia in the 4th and 5th
Centuries B.C. The Persians are said to have carried it to East Africa about the 10th Century A.D.
It was commonly grown in the East Indies before the earliest visits of the Portuguese who
apparently introduced it to West Africa early in the 16th Century and also into Brazil. After
becoming established in Brazil, the mango was carried to the West Indies, being first planted in
Barbados about 1742 and later in the Dominican Republic. It reached Jamaica about 1782 and,
early in the 19th Century, reached Mexico from the Philippines and the West Indies.
In 1833, Dr. Henry Perrine shipped seedling mango plants from Yucatan to Cape Sable at the
southern tip of mainland Florida but these died after he was killed by Indians. Seeds were imported
into Miami from the West Indies by a Dr. Fletcher in 1862 or 1863. From these, two trees grew to
large size and one was still fruiting in 1910 and is believed to have been the parent of the 'No. 11'
which was commonly planted for many years thereafter. In 1868 or 1869, seeds were planted south
of Coconut Grove and the resultant trees prospered at least until 1909, producing the so-called
'Peach' or 'Turpentine' mango which became fairly common. In 1872, a seedling of 'No. 11' from
Cuba was planted in Bradenton. In 1877 and 1879, W.P. Neeld made successful plantings on the
west coast but these and most others north of Ft. Myers were killed in the January freeze of 1886.
In 1885, seeds of the excellent 'Bombay' mango of India were brought from Key West to Miami
and resulted in two trees which flourished until 1909. Plants of grafted varieties were brought in
from India by a west coast resident, Rev. D.G. Watt, in 1885 but only two survived the trip and
they were soon frozen in a cold spell. Another unsuccessful importation of inarched trees from
Calcutta was made in 1888. Of six grafted trees that arrived from Bombay in 1889, through the
efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture, only one lived to fruit nine years later. The
tree shipped is believed to have been a 'Mulgoa' (erroneously labeled 'Mulgoba', a name unknown
in India except as originating in Florida). However, the fruit produced did not correspond to
'Mulgoa' descriptions. It was beautiful, crimson-blushed, just under 1 lb (454 g) with
golden-yellow flesh. No Indian visitor has recognized it as matching any Indian variety. Some
suggest that it was the fruit of the rootstock if the scion had been frozen in the freeze of 1894-95.
At any rate, it continued to be known as 'Mulgoba', and it fostered many off-spring along the
southeastern coast of the State and in Cuba and Puerto Rico, though it proved to be very
susceptible to the disease, anthracnose, in this climate. Seeds from this tree were obtained and
planted by a Captain Haden in Miami. The trees fruited some years after his death and his widow
gave the name 'Haden' to the tree that bore the best fruit. This variety was regarded as the standard
of excellence locally for many decades thereafter and was popular for shipping because of its
tough skin.
George B. Cellon started extensive vegetative propagation (patch-budding) of the 'Haden' in 1900
and shipped the fruits to northern markets. P.J. Wester conducted many experiments in budding,
grafting and inarching from 1904 to 1908 with less success. Shield-budding on a commercial scale
was achieved by Mr. Orange Pound of Coconut Grove in 1909 and this was a pioneer
breakthrough which gave strong impetus to mango growing, breeding, and dissemination.
Enthusiastic introduction of other varieties by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Bureau of
Plant Industry, by nurserymen, and other individuals followed, and the mango grew steadily in
popularity and importance. The Reasoner Brothers Nursery, on the west coast, imported many
mango varieties and was largely responsible for the ultimate establishment of the mango in that
Mango
area, together with a Mr. J.W. Barney of Palma Sola who had a large collection of varieties and
had worked out a feasible technique of propagation which he called "slot grafting".
Dr. Wilson Popenoe, one of the early Plant Explorers of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
became Director of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. For more than a
quarter of a century, he was a leader in the introduction and propagation of outstanding mangos
from India and the East Indies, had them planted at the school and at the Lancetilla Experiment
Station at Tela, Honduras, and distributed around tropical America.
In time, the mango became one of the most familiar domesticated trees in dooryards or in small or
large commercial plantings throughout the humid and semi-arid lowlands of the tropical world and
in certain areas of the near-tropics such as the Mediterranean area (Madeira and the Canary
Islands), Egypt, southern Africa, and southern Florida. Local markets throughout its range are
heaped high with the fragrant fruits in season and large quantities are exported to non-producing
countries.
Altogether, the U.S. Department of Agriculture made 528 introductions from India, the
Philippines, the West Indies and other sources from 1899 to 1937. Selection, naming and
propagation of new varieties by government agencies and individual growers has been going on
ever since. The Mango Form was created in 1938 through the joint efforts of the Broward County
Home Demonstration Office of the University of Florida's Cooperative Extension Service and the
Fort Lauderdale Garden Club, with encouragement and direction from the University of Florida's
Subtropical Experiment Station (now the Agricultural Research and Education Center) in
Homestead, and Mrs. William J. Krome, a pioneer tropical fruit grower. Meetings were held
annually, whenever possible, for the exhibiting and judging of promising seedlings, and
exchanging and publication of descriptions and cultural information.
Meanwhile, a reverse flow of varieties was going on. Improved mangos developed in Florida have
been of great value in upgrading the mango industry in tropical America and elsewhere.
With such intense interest in this crop, mango acreage advanced in Florida despite occasional
setbacks from cold spells and hurricanes. But with the expanding population, increased land values
and cost and shortage of agricultural labor after World War II, a number of large groves were
subdivided into real estate developments given names such as "Mango Heights" and "Mango
Terrace". There were estimated to be 7,000 acres (2,917 ha) in 27 Florida counties in 1954, over
half in commercial groves. There were 4,000 acres (1,619 ha) in 1961. Today, mango production
in Florida, on approximately 1,700 acres (688 ha), is about 8,818 tons (8,000 MT) annually in
"good" years, and valued at $3 million. Fruits are shipped not only to northern markets but also to
the United Kingdom, Netherlands, France and Saudi Arabia. In advance of the local season,
quantities are imported into the USA from Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and, throughout the
summer, Mexican sources supply mangos to the Pacific Coast consumer. Supplies also come in
from India and Taiwan.
A mango seed from Guatemala was planted in California about 1880 and a few trees have borne
fruit in the warmest locations of that state, with careful protection when extremely low
temperatures occur.
Mangos have been grown in Puerto Rico since about 1750 but mostly of indifferent quality. A
Mango
program of mango improvement began in 1948 with the introduction and testing of over 150
superior cultivars by the University of Puerto Rico. The south coast of the island, having a dry
atmosphere, is best suited for mango culture and substantial quantities of mangos are produced
there without the need to spray for anthracnose control. The fruits are plentiful on local markets
and shipments are made to New York City where there are many Puerto Rican residents. A study
of 16 cultivars was undertaken in 1960 to determine those best suited to more intense commercial
production. Productivity evaluations started in 1965 and continued to 1972.
The earliest record of the mango in Hawaii is the introduction of several small plants from Manila
in 1824. Three plants were brought from Chile in 1825. In 1899, grafted trees of a number of
Indian varieties, including 'Pairi', were imported. Seedlings became widely distributed over the six
major islands. In 1930, the 'Haden' was introduced from Florida and became established in
commercial plantations. The local industry began to develop seriously after the importation of a
series of monoembryonic cultivars from Florida. But Hawaiian mangos are prohibited from entry
into mainland USA, Australia, Japan and some other countries, because of the prevalence of the
mango seed weevil in the islands.
In Brazil, most mangos are produced in the state of Minas, Gerais where the crop amounts to
243,018 tons (22,000 MT) annually on 24,710 acres (10,000 ha). These are mainly seedlings, as
are those of the other states with major mango cropsCear, Paraib, Goias, Pernambuco, and
Maranhao. Sao Paulo raises about 63,382 tons (57,500 MT) per year on 9,884 acres (4,000 ha).
The bulk of the crop is for domestic consumption. In 1973, Brazil exported 47.4 tons (43 MT) of
mangos to Europe.
Mango growing began with the earliest settlers in North Queensland, Australia, with seeds brought
casually from India, Ceylon, the East Indies and the Philippines. In 1875, 40 varieties from India
were set out in a single plantation. Over the years, selections have been made for commercial
production and culture has extended to subtropical Western Australia.
There is no record of the introduction of the mango into South Africa but a plantation was set out
in Durban about 1860. Production today probably has reached about 16,535 tons (15,000 MT)
annually, and South Africa exports fresh mangos by air to Europe.
Kenya exports mature mangos to France and Germany and both mature and immature to the
United Kingdom, the latter for chutney-making. Egypt produces 110,230 tons (100,000 MT) of
mangos annually and exports moderate amounts to 20 countries in the Near East and Europe.
Mango culture in the Sudan occupies about 24,710 acres (10,000 ha) producing a total of 66,138
tons (60,000 MT) per year.
India, with 2,471,000 acres (1,000,000 ha) of mangos (70% of its fruit-growing area) produces
65% of the world's mango crop9,920,700 tons (9,000,000 MT). In 1985, mango growers around
Hyderabad sought government protection against terrorists who cut down mango orchards unless
the owners paid ransom (50,000 rupees in one case). India far outranks all other countries as an
exporter of processed mangos, shipping 2/3 of the total 22,046 tons (20,000 MT). Mango
preserves go to the same countries receiving the fresh fruit and also to Hong Kong, Iraq, Canada
and the United States. Following India in volume of exports are Thailand, 774,365 tons (702,500
MT), Pakistan and Bangladesh, followed by Brazil. Mexico ranks 5th with about 100,800 acres
(42,000 ha) and an annual yield of approximately 640,000 tons (580,000 MT). The Philippines
Mango
have risen to 6th place. Tanzania is 7th, the Dominican Republic, 8th and Colombia, 9th.
Leading exporters of fresh mangos are: the Philippines, shipping to Hong Kong, Singapore and
Japan; Thailand, shipping to Singapore and Malaysia; Mexico, shipping mostly 'Haden' to the
United States, 2,204 tons (2,000 MT), annually, also to Japan and Paris; India, shipping mainly
'Alphonso' and 'Bombay' to Europe, Malaya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Indonesia, shipping to
Hong Kong and Singapore; and South Africa shipping (60% 'Haden' and 'Kent') by air to Europe
and London in mid-winter.
Chief importers are England and France, absorbing 82% of all mango shipments. Mango
consumers in England are mostly residents of Indian origin, or English people who formerly lived
in India.
The first International Symposium on Mango and Mango Culture, of the International Society for
Horticultural Science, was held in New Delhi, India, in 1969 with a view to assembling a
collection of germplasm from around the world and encouraging cooperative research on
rootstocks and bearing behavior, hybridization, disease, storage and transport problems, and other
areas of study.
Varieties
The original wild mangos were small fruits
with scant, fibrous flesh, and it is believed
that natural hybridization has taken place
between M. indica and M. sylvatica Roxb.
in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher
quality has been carried on for 4,000 to
6,000 years and vegetative propagation for
400 years.
Over 500 named varieties (some say 1,000)
have evolved and have been described in
India. Perhaps some are duplicates by
Fig. 60: The tiny, colorful 'Azucar' mango of Santa Marta and
different names, but at least 350 are
Baranquilla, Colombia, is sweet and freestone.
propagated in commercial nurseries. In
1949, K.C. Naik described 82 varieties grown in South India. L.B. and R.N. Singh presented and
illustrated 150 in their monograph on the mangos of Uttar Pradesh (1956). In 1958, 24 were
described as among the important commercial types in India as a whole, though in the various
climatic zones other cultivars may be prominent locally. Of the 24, the majority are classed as
early or mid-season:
Early:
'Bombay Yellow' ('Bombai')high quality
'Malda' ('Bombay Green')
'01our' (polyembryonic)a heavy bearer.
'Pairi' ('Paheri', 'Pirie', 'Peter', 'Nadusalai', 'grape', 'Raspuri', 'Goha bunder')
Mango
'Safdar Pasand'
'Suvarnarekha' ('Sundri')
Early to Mid-Season:
'Langra'
'Rajapuri'
Mid-Season:
'Alampur Baneshan'high quality but shy bearer
'Alphonso' ('Badami', 'gundu', 'appas', 'khader')high quality
'Bangalora'('Totapuri', 'collection', 'kili-mukku', abu Samada' in the Sudan)of highest quality,
best keeping, regular bearer, but most susceptible to seed weevil.
'Banganapally' ('Baneshan', 'chaptai', 'Safeda')of high quality but shy bearer
'Dusehri' ('Dashehari aman', 'nirali aman', 'kamyab')high quality
'Gulab Khas'
'Zardalu'
'K.O. 11'
Mid- to Late-Season:
'Rumani' (often bearing an off-season crop)
'Samarbehist' ('Chowsa', 'Chausa', 'Khajri')high quality
'Vanraj'
'K.O. 7/5' ('Himayuddin' 'Neelum')
Late:
'Fazli' ('Fazli malda')high quality
'Safeda Lucknow'
Often Late:
'Mulgoa'high quality but a shy bearer
'Neelum' (sometimes twice a year)somewhat dwarf, of indifferent quality, and
anthracnose-susceptible.
Most of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000 crosses were made over a
period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids were raised and screened. Of these, 'Mallika', a cross
of 'Neelum' (female parent) with 'Dashehari' (male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972.
Mango
The hybrid tends toward regular bearing, the fruits are showier and are thicker of flesh than either
parent, the flavor is superior and keeping quality better. The season is nearly a month later than
'Dashehari'. Another new hybrid, 'Amrapali', of which 'Dashehari' was the female parent and
'Neelum' the male, is definitely dwarf, precocious, a regular and heavy bearer, and late in the
season. The fruit is only medium in size; flesh is rich orange, fiberless, sweet and 2 to 3 times as
high in carotene as either parent.
The Central Food Technological Research Institute Experiment Station in Hyderabad has
evaluated 9 "table varieties" (firm-fleshed), 4 "juicy" varieties, and 5 hybrids as to suitability for
processing. 'Baneshan', 'Suvarnarekha' and '5/5 Rajapuri' 'Langra' were deemed suitable for
slicing and canning. 'Baneshan', 'Navaneetam', 'Goabunder', 'Royal Special', 'Hydersaheb'
and '9/4 Neelum Baneshan', for canned juice; and 'Baneshan', 'Navaneetam', 'Goabunder', 'K.O.
7'and 'Sharbatgadi' for canned nectar.
It is interesting to note that all but four of
the leading Indian cultivars are
yellow-skinned. The exceptions are: two
yellow with a red blush on shoulders, one
red-yellow with a blush of red, and one
green. In Thailand, there is a popular mango
called 'Tong dum' ('Black Gold') marketed
when the skin is very dark-green and
usually displayed with the skin at the stem
end cut into points and spread outward to
show the golden flesh in the manner that red
radishes are fashioned into "radish roses" in
American culinary art.
Fig. 63: 'Black Cold' mangoes, dark-green externally when
ripe, are partly peeled like "radish roses" on the Bangkok
market to show their yellow, fiberless flesh.
European consumers prefer a deep-yellow

mango that develops a reddish-pink tinge.
In Florida, the color of the mango is an important factor and everyone admires a handsome mango
more or less generously overlaid with red. Red skin is considered a necessity in mangos shipped to
northern markets, even though the quality may be inferior to that of non-showy cultivars. Also,
dependable bearing and shippability are rated above internal qualities for practical reasons. And a
shipping mango must be one that can be picked 2 weeks before full maturity without appreciable
loss of flavor. Too, there must be several varieties to extend the season over at least 3 months.
Florida mangos are classed in 4 groups:
1Indian varieties, mainly monoembryonic, introduced in the past and maintained mostly in
collections; typically of somewhat "turpentine" character.
2Philippine and Indo-Chinese types, largely polyembryonic, non-turpentiney, fiberless, fairly
anthracnose-resistant. Scattered in dooryard plantings.
3West Indian/South American mangos, especially 'Turpentine' and 'No.11' and the superior 'Julie'
from Trinidad, 'Madame Francis' from Haiti, 'Itamaraca' from Brazil. These are non-commercial.
4Florida-originated selections or cultivars, of which many have risen and declined over the
Mango
decades.
In general, mangos from the Philippines ('Carabao') and Thailand ('Saigon', 'Cambodiana') behave
better in Florida's humidity than the Indian varieties.
The much-prized 'Haden' was being recognized in the late 1930's and early 1940's as
anthracnose-prone, a light and irregular bearer, and was being replaced by more disease-resistant
and prolific cultivars. The present-day leaders for commercial production and shipping are
'Tommy Atkins', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Van Dyke' and Jubilee'. The first 2 represent 50% of the
commercial crop.
'Tommy Atkins' (from a seed planted early
in the 1920's at Fort Lauderdale, Florida;
commercially adopted in the late 1950's);
oblong-oval; medium to large; skin thick,
orange-yellow, largely overlaid with brightto dark-red and heavy purplish bloom, and
dotted with many large, yellow-green
lenticels. Flesh medium- to dark-yellow,
firm, juicy, with medium fiber, of fair to
good quality; flavor poor if over-fertilized
and irrigated. Seed small. Season: mid-May
to early July, or late June through July,
depending on spring weather; can be picked
early, developing good color and usually
has long shelf-life. Sometimes there is an
open space in the flesh at the stem-end.
Interior softening near the seed occurs in
Plate XXVIII: MANGO, Mangifera indica'Kent', 'Tommy
some years. Anthracnose-resistant.
Atkins', and 'Irwin'
'Keitt'rounded-oval to ovate; large; skin

medium-thick, yellow with light-red blush and a lavender bloom; the many lenticels small, yellow
to red. Flesh orange-yellow, firm, fiberless except near the seed; of rich, sweet flavor; very good
quality. Seed small, or medium to large. Season: early July through August or August and
September, depending on spring weather. Tree small to medium, erect, open, rather scraggly but
very productive. For market acceptance, requires post-harvest ethylene treatment to enhance color.
'Kent'ovate, thick; large; skin greenish-yellow with dark-red blush and gray bloom; many small,
yellow lenticels. Flesh fiberless, juicy, sweet; very good to excellent. Seed small. Season: July and
August and often into September, but if left on too long the seed tends to sprout in the fruita
condition called ovipary. Subject to black spot. Tree is of erect, slender habit, of moderate size,
precocious; bears very well and fruit ships well, but, for the market, needs ethylene treatment to
enrich color.
'Van Dyke' and 'Jubilee' are relatively new cultivars maturing from late June through July. 'Van
Dyke' is of superior color and excellent quality but subject to anthracnose and may not hold its
place for long.
Two cultivars that have stood the test of time and have been shipped north on a lesser scale are:
Mango
'Sensation' (originated in North Miami; tree moved to Carmichael grove near Perrine and
propagated and grown commercially since 1949). Oval, oblique, and faintly beaked; medium to
medium-small; skin thin, adherent; basically yellow to yellow-orange overlaid with dark plum-red,
and with tiny, pale-yellow lenticels. Flesh pale-yellow, firm, with very little fiber, faintly aromatic,
of mild, slightly sweet flavor; of good quality. Monoembryonic. Tree bears heavily in August.
'Palmer'oblong-ovate, plump; large; skin medium-thick, orange-yellow with red blush and pale
bloom and many large lenticels. Flesh dull-yellow, firm, with very little or no fiber; of fair to good
quality. Seed long, of medium size. Season: July and August, sometimes into September. Tree is
medium to large; precocious; usually bears well.
The leading cultivar for local market at present is:
'Irwin' (a seedling of 'Lippens', planted by F.D. Irwin of Miami in 1939; bore its first fruits in
1945); oblong-ovate, one shoulder oblique; of medium size; skin orange to pink with extensive
dark-red blush and small, white lenticels. Seed of medium size. Flesh yellow, almost fiberless,
with mild, sweet flavor; good to very good quality. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July; or
June through July. Tree somewhat dwarf; bears heavy crops of fruits in clusters. Fruit no longer
shipped because if picked before full maturity ripens with a mottled appearance which is not
acceptable on the market.
Non-colorful or not high-yielding cultivars
of excellent quality recommended for
Florida homeowners include:
'Carrie' (somewhat dwarf); 'Edward'
('Haden' seedling); 'Florigon'; 'Jacquelin';
'Cambodiana'; 'Cecil'; 'Saigon'.
Among cultivars formerly commercial but
largely top-worked to others favored for
various reasons: 'Davis-Haden' (a 'Haden'
seedling); 'Fascell'; 'Lippens' (a 'Haden'
seedling); 'Smith' (a 'Haden' seedling);
'Spring-fels'; 'Dixon'; 'Sunset'; 'Zill' (a
'Haden' seedling).
Many cultivars that have lost popularity in
Florida have become of importance
elsewhere. 'Sandersha', for example, has
proved remarkably resistant to most mango
fruit diseases in South Africa.
Plate XXVII: MANGO, Mangifera indica'Cambodiana'
The histories and descriptions of 46 cultivars growing in Brazil were published in 1955. These
included 'Brooks', 'Cacipura', 'Cambodiana', 'Goa-Alphonso', 'Haden', 'Mulgoba', 'Pairi',
'Pico', 'Sandersha', 'Singapore', 'White Langra', all brought in from Florida. The rest are
mostly local seedlings. 'Haden' was introduced from Florida in 1931 and has been widely
cultivated. It is still included among the cultivars of major importance, the others being 'Extrema',
'Non-Plus-Ultra'. 'Carlota'; but in 1977 the leading cultivar in Brazil was reported to be
Mango
'Bourbon', also known as 'Espada'. It is found especially in northeastern Brazil but is

recommended for all other mango areas. A collection of 53 cultivars is maintained at Piricicaba
and another of 82 at Bahia.
Of Mexican mangos, 65% are Florida selections; 35% are of the type commonly grown in the
Philippines. Over a period of 3 years detailed studies have been made of the commercial cultivars
in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, with a view to determining the most profitable for export. Results
indicated that propagation of 'Purple Irwin', 'Red Irwin', 'Sensation' and 'Zill' should be
discontinued, and that 'Haden', 'Kent' and 'Keitt' will continue to be planted, the first two because,
of their color and quality, and the third in spite of its deficiency in color.
'Manila', a Philippine mango, early-ripening, is much grown in Veracruz. 'Manzanillo-Nunez', a
chance seedling first noticed in 1972, is gaining in popularity because of its regular bearing, skin
color (75% red), nearly fiberless flesh, good quality, high yield and resistance to anthracnose.
'Julie' is the main mango exported from the West Indies to Europe. The fruit is somewhat
flattened on one side, of medium size; the flesh is not completely fiberless but is of good flavor. It
came to Florida from Trinidad but has long been popular in Jamaica. The tree is somewhat dwarf,
has 30% to 50% hermaphrodite flowers; bears well and regularly. It is adaptable to humid
environments and disease-resistant and the fruit is resistant to the fruit fly. 'Julie' has been grown
in Ghana since the early 1920's. From 'Julie', the well-known mango breeder, Lawrence Zill,
developed 'Carrie', but 'Julie' has not been planted in Florida for many years.
Grafted plants of the 'Bombay Green', so popular in Jamaica, were brought there from India in
1869 by the then governor, Sir John Peter Grant, but were planted in Castleton gardens where the
trees flourished but failed to fruit in the humid atmosphere. Years later, a Director of Agriculture
had budwood from these trees transferred to rootstocks at Hope Gardens. The results were so
successful that the 'Bombay Green' became commonly planted on the island. The author brought
six grafted trees from Jamaica to Miami in 1951 and, after they were released from quarantine,
distributed them to the Subtropical Experiment Station in Homestead, the Newcomb Nursery, and
a private grower, but all succumbed to the cold in succeeding winters. The fruit is completely
fiberless and freestone so that it is frequently served cut in half and eaten with a spoon. The seed is
pierced with a mango fork and served also so that the luscious flesh that adheres to it may be
enjoyed as well.
One of the best-known mangos peculiar to the West Indies is 'Madame Francis' which is produced
abundantly in Haiti. It is a large, flattened, kidney-shaped mango, light-green, slightly yellowish
when ripe, with orange, low-fiber, richly flavored flesh. This mango has been regularly exported to
Florida in late spring after fumigation against the fruit fly.
Ghana received more than a dozen cultivars back in the early 1920's. In 1973, it was found that
only three of these'Julie', 'Jaffna' and 'Rupee'could be recognized with certainty. More than a
dozen other cultivars were brought in much later from Florida and India. An effort was begun in
1967 to classify the seedlings (from 10 to 50 years of age) in the Ejura district, the Ejura
Agricultural Station, and the plantation of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, in order to eliminate confusion and have identifiable cultivars marked for
future research. After checking with available published material on other cultivars for possible
resemblances, descriptions and photographs of 21 newly named cultivars were published in 1973.
Mango
Of these, 12 are fibrous and 9 fiberless. (See Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey and Arbutiste in the
Bibliography). One of the fibrous cultivars, named 'Tee-Vee-Dee', is so well flavored and aromatic
that it is locally extremely popular.
Until the mid-1960's mangos were grown only in dooryards in Surinam and the few varieties were
largely polyembryonic types from Indonesia, and these have given rise to many chance seedlings.
In order to discover the best for commercial planting, mango exhibits were sponsored and
budwood of the best selections has been grafted onto various rootstocks at the Paramaribo
Agricultural Experiment Station. The two most important local mangos are:
'Golek' (from Java; also grown in Queensland) long-oblong; skin dull-green or yellowish-green
even when ripe, leathery; flesh pale yellow, thick, fiberless, sweet, rich, of excellent quality. Keeps
well in cold storage for 3 weeks. Season: early (December in Queensland). Tree bears moderately
to heavily. This cultivar is considered the most promising for large-scale culture and export. In
Queensland it tends to crack longitudinally as it matures.
'Roodborstje'medium to large; skin deep-red; flesh sweet, juicy, with very little fiber. Not a
good keeper. Season: early to midseason. Tree is a heavy bearer.
In Venezuela, eleven cultivars were evaluated by food technologists for processing
suitability'Blackman', 'Glenn', 'Irwin', 'Kent', 'Lippens', 'Martinica', 'Sensation', 'Smith', 'Selection
80', 'Selection 85', and 'Zill'. The most appropriate, because of physicochemical characteristics and
productivity were determined to be: 'Glenn', 'Irwin', 'Kent' and 'Zill'.
In Hawaii, 'Haden' has represented 90% of all commercial production. 'Pairi' is more prized for
home use but is a shy bearer, a poor keeper, not as colorful as 'Haden', so it never attained
commercial status. In a search for earlier and later varieties of commercial potential, over 125
varieties were collected and tested between 1934 and 1969. In 1956, one of the winning entries in
a mango contest attracted much attention. After propagation and due observation it was named
'Gouveia' in 1969 and described as: ovate-oblong, of medium size, with medium-thick,
ochre-yellow skin blushed with blood-red over 2/3 of the surface. Flesh is orange, nearly fiberless,
sweet, juicy. Seed is small, slender, monoembryonic. Season: late. Tree is of medium size, a
consistent but not heavy bearer. In quality tests 'Gouveia' received top scoring over 'Haden', 'Pairi',
and several other cultivars. Florida mangos rated as promising for Hawaii were 'Pope', 'Kent',
'Keitt' and 'Brooks' (later than 'Haden') and 'Earlygold' and 'Zill' (earlier than 'Haden').
In Queensland, 'Kensington Pride' is the leading commercial cultivar in the drier areas. In humid
regions it is anthracnose-prone and requires spraying. It is thought to have been introduced by
traders in Bowen who were shipping horses for military use in India. It may be called 'Kensington',
'Bowen', or, because of its color, 'Apple' or 'Strawberry'. The fruit is distinctly beaked when
immature, with a groove extending from the stem to the beak. It is medium-large; the skin is bright
orange-yellow with red-pink blush overlying areas exposed to the sun. Flesh is orange, thick,
nearly fiberless, juicy, of rich flavor. This cultivar is classified as mid-season. The fruit matures
from early to mid-November at latitude 13S; 6 weeks later at Bowen (20S) and 1 week later for
each degree of latitude from Bowen to Brisbane. But at 17S and an altitude of 1,148 ft (350 m)
peak maturity is in mid- to late-January. Polyembryonic. The fruit ships well but the tree is not a
dependable nor heavy bearer. It has an oval crown and unusually sweet-scented leaves.
Mango
In 1981, after evaluating 43 accessions seeking to lengthen the mango season in Queensland, 9 that
mature between 2 weeks earlier and 4 weeks later than 'Kensington Pride' were chosen for
commercial testing. Only one, 'Banana-1', was a Queensland selection. The other 8 were
introductions from Florida'Smith', 'Palmer', 'Haden', 'Zill', 'Carrie', 'Irwin', 'Kent', 'Keitt'. 'Kent'
and 'Haden' have proved to be highly susceptible to blackspot in Queensland; 'Keitt', 'Smith', and
'Zill' less so; and 'Palmer' and 'Kensington Pride' resistant.
In the Philippines, the 'Carabao' constitutes 66% of the crop and 'Pico' 26%. These cultivars,
apparently of Southeast Asian origin have remained the most commonly grown and exported for
many years.
In Israel, 'Haden' has been popular for a long time though it is sensitive to low temperatures in
spring. An Egyptian introduction, 'Mabroka' is later in season and escapes the early frosts.
'Maya', a local seedling of 'Haden' has done well. Perhaps the most promising today is 'Nimrod',
a seedling of 'Maya', open pollinated, perhaps by 'Haden', planted in 1943, observed for 20 years
and budded progeny for another 9 years; named and released in 1970. The fruit is round-ovate,
large; skin is fairly thin, olive-green to yellow-green, blushed with red; attractive. Flesh is
deep-yellow, nearly fiberless, of fair flavor. Seed is large, monoembryonic. Matures in mid-season
(all August to mid-September in Israel). Tree is large, upright, very cold-resistant. Average yield is
480 lbs (218 kg) per tree over 10 years.
It is impressive to see how the early favorite, 'Haden', has influenced mango culture in many parts
of the world. Today, the Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and the Agricultural Research and Education Center of the University of Florida,
together maintain 125 mango cultivars as a resource for mango growers and breeders in many
countries.
Mango trees less than 10 years old may
flower and fruit regularly every year.
Thereafter, most mangos tend toward
alternate, or biennial, bearing. A great deal
of research has been done on this problem
which may involve the entire tree or only a
portion of the branches. Branches that fruit
one year may rest the next, while branches
on the other side of the tree will bear.
Blooming is strongly affected by weather,
dryness stimulating flowering and rainy
weather discouraging it. In most of India,
flowering occurs in December and January;
in northern India, in January and February
or as late as March. There are some varieties
called "Baramasi" that flower and fruit
irregularly throughout the year. The cultivar
'Sam Ru Du' of Thailand bears 3 crops a
Mango
yearin January, June and October. In the Fig. 65: Mango trees produce massive sprays of reddish or
drier islands of the Lesser Antilles, there are yellowish flowers but only a few fruits develop from each
spray.
mango trees that flower and fruit more or
less continuously all year around but never heavily at any time. Some of these are cultivars
introduced from Florida where they flower and fruit only once a year. In southern Florida, mango
trees begin to bloom in late November and continue until February or March, inasmuch as there
are early, medium, and late varieties. During exceptionally warm winters, mango trees have been
known to bloom 3 times in succession, each time setting and maturing fruit.
In the Philippines, various methods are employed to promote flowering: smudging (smoking),
exposing the roots, pruning, girdling, withholding nitrogen and irrigation, and even applying salt.
In the West Indies, there is a common folk practice of slashing the trunk with a machete to make
the tree bloom and bear in "off" years. Deblos-soming (removing half the flower clusters) in an
"on" year will induce at least a small crop in the next "off" year. Almost any treatment or condition
that retards vegetative growth will have this effect. Spraying with growth-retardant chemicals has
been tried, with inconsistent results. Potassium nitrate has been effective in the Philippines.
In India, the cultivar 'Dasheri', which is self incompatible, tends to begin blooming very early
(December and January) when no other cultivars are in flower. And the early particles show a low
percentage of hermaphrodite flowers and a high incidence of floral malformation. Furthermore,
early blooms are often damaged by frost. It has been found that a single mechanical deblossoming
in the first bud-burst stage, induces subsequent development of particles with less malformation,
more hermaphrodite flowers, and, as a result, a much higher yield of fruits.
There is one cultivar, 'Neelum', in South India that bears heavily every year, apparently because of
its high rate (16%) of hermaphrodite flowers. (The average for 'Alphonso' is 10%.) However,
Indian horticulturists report great tree-to-tree variation in seedlings of this cultivar; in some
surveys as much as 84% of the trees were rated as poor bearers. Over 92% of 'Bangalora' seedlings
have been found bearing light crops.
Mango flowers are visited by fruit bats, flies, wasps, wild bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, ants and
various bugs seeking the nectar and some transfer the pollen but a certain amount of
self-pollination also occurs. Honeybees do not especially favor mango flowers and it has been
found that effective pollination by honeybees would require 3 to 6 colonies per acre (6-12 per ha).
Many of the unpollinated flowers are shed or fail to set fruit, or the fruit is set but is shed when
very young. Heavy rains wash off pollen and thus prevent fruit setting. Some cultivars tend to
produce a high percentage of small fruits without a fully developed seed because of unfavorable
weather during the fruit-setting period.
Shy-bearing cultivars of otherwise desirable characteristics are hybridized with heavy bearers in
order to obtain better crops. For example: shy-bearing 'Himayuddin' heavy-bearing 'Neelum'.
Breeders usually hand-pollinate all the flowers that are open in a cluster, remove the rest, and
cover the inflorescence with a plastic bag. But researchers in India have found that there is very
little chance of contamination and that omitting the covering gives as much as 3.85% fruit set in
place of 0.23% to 1.57% when bagged. Thus large populations of hybrids may be raised for study.
One of the latest techniques involves grafting the male and female parents onto a chosen tree, then
covering the panicles with a polyethylene bag, and introducing house flies as pollinators.
Mango
Indian scientists have found that pollen for crossbreeding can be stored at 32 F (0 C) for 10
hours. If not separated from the flowers, it remains viable for 50 hours in a humid atmosphere at
65 to 75 F (18.33 -23.09 C). The stigma is receptive 18 hours before full flower opening and,
some say, for 72 hours after.
Climate
The mango is naturally adapted to tropical lowlands between 25N and 25S of the Equator and up
to elevations of 3,000 ft (915 m). It is grown as a dooryard tree at slightly cooler altitudes but is
apt to suffer cold damage. The amount of rainfall is not as critical as when it occurs. The best
climate for mango has rainfall of 30 to 100 in (75-250 cm) in the four summer months (June to
September) followed by 8 months of dry season. This crop is well suited to irrigated regions
bordering the desert frontier in Egypt. Nevertheless, the tree flourishes in southern Florida's
approximately 5 months of intermittent, scattered rains (October to February), 3 months of drought
(usually March to May) and 4 months of frequently heavy rains (June to September).
Rain, heavy dews or fog during the blooming season (November to March in Florida) are
deleterious, stimulating tree growth but interfering with flower production and encouraging fungus
diseases of the inflorescence and fruit. In Queensland, dry areas with rainfall of 40 in (100 cm),
75% of which occurs from January to March, are favored for mango growing because vegetative
growth is inhibited and the fruits are well exposed to the sun from August to December, become
well colored, and are relatively free of disease. Strong winds during the fruiting season cause many
fruits to fall prematurely.
Soil
The mango tree is not too particular as to soil type, providing it has good drainage. Rich, deep
loam certainly contributes to maximum growth, but if the soil is too rich and moist and too well
fertilized, the tree will respond vegetatively but will be deficient in flowering and fruiting. The
mango performs very well in sand, gravel, and even oolitic limestone (as in southern Florida and
the Bahamas)
A polyembryonic seedling, 'No. 13-1', introduced into Israel from Egypt in 1931, has been tested
since the early 1960's in various regions of the country for tolerance of calcareous soils and saline
conditions. It has done so well in sand with a medium (15%) lime content and highly saline
irrigation water (over 600 ppm) that it has been adopted as the standard rootstock in commercial
plantings in salty, limestone districts of Israel. Where the lime content is above 30%, iron chelates
are added.
Propagation
Mango trees grow readily from seed. Germination rate and vigor of seedlings are highest when
seeds are taken from fruits that are fully ripe, not still firm. Also, the seed should be fresh, not
dried. If the seed cannot be planted within a few days after its removal from the fruit, it can be
covered with moist earth, sand, or sawdust in a container until it can be planted, or kept in charcoal
dust in a dessicator with 50% relative humidity. Seeds stored in the latter manner have shown 80%
viability even after 70 days. High rates of germination are obtained if seeds are stored in
polyethylene bags but the seedling behavior may be poor. Inclusion of sphagnum moss in the sack
has no benefit and shows inferior rates of germination over 2- to 4-week periods, and none at all at
Mango
6 weeks.
The flesh should be completely removed. Then the husk is opened by carefully paring around the
convex edge with a sharp knife and taking care not to cut the kernel, which will readily slide out.
Husk removal speeds germination and avoids cramping of roots, and also permits discovery and
removal of the larva of the seed weevil in areas where this pest is prevalent. Finally, the husked
kernels are treated with fungicide and planted without delay. The beds must have solid bottoms to
prevent excessive taproot growth, otherwise the taproot will become 18 to 24 in (45-60 cm) long
while the top will be only one third to a half as high, and the seedling will be difficult to transplant
with any assurance of survival. The seed is placed on its ventral (concave) edge with 1/4
protruding above the sand. Sprouting occurs in 8 to 14 days in a warm, tropical climate; 3 weeks in
cooler climates. Seedlings generally take 6 years to fruit and 15 years to attain optimum yield for
evaluation.
However, the fruits of seedlings may not resemble those of the parent tree. Most Indian mangos
are monoembryonic; that is, the embryo usually produces a single sprout, a natural hybrid from
accidental crossing, and the resulting fruit may be inferior, superior, or equal to that of the tree
from which the seed came. Mangos of Southeast Asia are mostly polyembryonic. In these,
generally, one of the embryos in the seed is a hybrid; the others (up to 4) are vegetative growths
which faithfully reproduce the characteristics of the parent. The distinction is not absolute, and
occasionally a seed supposedly of one class may behave like the other.
Seeds of polyembryonic mangos are most convenient for local and international distribution of
desirable varieties. However, in order to reproduce and share the superior monoembryonic
selections, vegetative propagation is necessary. Inarching and approach-grafting are traditional in
India. Tongue-, saddle-, and root-grafting (stooling) are also common Indian practices. Shield- and
patch-grafting have given up to 70% success but the Forkert system of budding has been found
even more practical. After many systems were tried, veneer grafting was adopted in Florida in the
mid-1950's. Choice of rootstock is important. Use of seedlings of unknown parentage has resulted
in great variability in a single cultivar. Some have believed that polyembryonic rootstocks are
better than monoembryonic, but this is not necessarily so. In trials at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, 10-year-old trees of 'Neelum' grafted on polyembryonic 'Bapakkai' showed vigor and
spread of tree and productivity far superior to those grafted on 'Olour' which is also
polyembryonic. Those grafted on monoembryonic rootstock also showed better growth and yield
than those on 'Olour'. In 1981, experimenters at Lucknow, India, reported the economic advantage
of "stone-grafting", which requires less space in the nursery and results in greater uniformity.
Scions from the spring flush of selected cultivars are defoliated and, after a 10-day delay, are
cleft-grafted on 5-day-old seedlings which must thereafter be kept in the shade and protected from
drastic changes in the weather.
Old trees of inferior types are top-worked to better cultivars by either side-grafting or
crown-grafting the beheaded trunk or beheaded main branches. Such trees need protection from
sunburn until the graft affords shade. In South Africa, the trunks are whitewashed and bunches of
dry grass are tied onto cut branch ends. The trees will bear in 2 to 3 years. Attempts to grow 3 or 4
varieties on one rootstock may appear to succeed for a while but the strongest always outgrows the
others.
Mango
Cuttings, even when treated with growth regulators, are only 40% successful. Best results are
obtained with cuttings of mature trees, ringed 40 days before detachment, treated, and rooted under
mist. But neither cuttings nor air layers develop good root systems and are not practical for
establishing plantations. Clonal propagation through tissue culture is in the experimental stage.
In spite of vegetative propagation, mutations arise in the form of bud sports. The fruit may differ
radically from the others on a grafted tree-perhaps larger and superior-and the foliage on the
branch may be quite unlike that on other branches.
Dwarfing
Reduction in the size of mango trees would be a most desirable goal for the commercial and
private planter. It would greatly assist harvesting and also would make it possible for the
homeowner to maintain trees of different fruiting seasons in limited space.
In India, double-grafting has been found to dwarf mango trees and induce early fruiting. Naturally
dwarf hybrids such as 'Julie' have been developed. The polyembryonic Indian cultivars, 'Olour' and
'Vellai Colamban', when used as rootstocks, have a dwarfing effect; so has the polyembryonic
'Sabre' in experiments in Israel and South Africa.
In Peru, the polyembryonic 'Manzo de Ica', is used as rootstock; in Colombia, 'Hilaza' and 'Puerco'.
'Kaew' is utilized in Thailand.
Culture
About 6 weeks before transplanting either a seedling or a grafted tree, the taproot should be cut
back to about 12 in (30 cm). This encourages feeder-root development in the field. For a week
before setting out, the plants should be exposed to full morning sun.
Inasmuch as mango trees vary in lateral dimensions, spacing depends on the habit of the cultivar
and the type of soil, and may vary from 34 to 60 ft (10.5-18 m) between trees. Closer planting will
ultimately reduce the crop. A spacing of 34 x 34 ft (10.5 x l0.5 m) allows 35 trees per acre (86 per
ha); 50 x 50 ft (15.2 x l5.2 m) allows only 18 trees per acre (44.5 per ha). In Florida's limestone,
one commercial grower maintains 100 trees per acre (247 per ha), controlling size by hedging and
topping.
The young trees should be placed in prepared and enriched holes at least 2 ft (60 cm) deep and
wide, and 3/4 of the top should be cut off. In commercial groves in southern Florida, the trees are
set at the intersection of cross trenches mechanically cut through the limestone.
Mangos require high nitrogen fertilization in the early years but after they begin to bear, the
fertilizer should be higher in phosphate and potash. A 5-8-10 fertilizer mix is recommended and
applied 2 or 3, or possibly even 4, times a year at the rate of 1 lb (454 g) per year of age at each
dressing, Fertilizer formulas will vary with the type of soil. In sandy acid soils, excess nitrogen
contributes to "soft nose" breakdown of the fruits. This can be counteracted by adding calcium. On
organic soils (muck and peat), nitrogen may be omitted entirely. In India, fertilizer is applied at an
increasing rate until the tree is rather old, and then it is discontinued. Ground fertilizers are
supplemented by foliar nutrients including zinc, manganese and copper. Iron deficiency is
corrected by small applications of chelated iron.
Mango
Indian growers generally irrigate the trees only the first 3 or 4 years while the taproot is developing
and before it has reached the water table. However, in commercial plantations, irrigation of
bearing trees is withheld only for the 2 or 3 months prior to flowering. When the blooms appear,
the tree is given a heavy watering and this is repeated monthly until the rains begin. In Florida
groves, irrigation is by means of overhead sprinklers which also provide frost protection when
needed.
Usually no pruning is done until the 4th year, and then only to improve the form and this is done
right after the fruiting season. If topping is practiced, the trees are cut at 14 ft (4.25 m) to facilitate
both spraying and harvesting. Grafted mangos may set fruit within a year or two from planting.
The trees are then too weak to bear a full crop and the fruits should be thinned or completely
removed.
Harvesting
Mangos normally reach maturity in 4 to 5 months from flowering. Fruits of "smudged" trees ripen
several months before those of untreated trees. Experts in the Philippines have demonstrated that
'Carabao' mangos sprayed with ethephon (200 ppm) 54 days after full bloom can be harvested 2
weeks later at recommended minimum maturity. The fruits will be larger and heavier even though
harvested 2 weeks before untreated fruits. If sprayed at 68 days after full bloom and harvested 2
weeks after spraying, there will be an improvement in quality in regard to soluble solids and
titratable acidity.
When the mango is full-grown and ready for picking, the stem will snap easily with a slight pull. If
a strong pull is necessary, the fruit is still somewhat immature and should not be harvested. In the
more or less red types of mangos, an additional indication of maturity is the development of a
purplish-red blush at the base of the fruit. A long-poled picking bag which holds no more than 4
fruits is commonly used by pickers. Falling causes bruising and later spoiling. When low fruits are
harvested with clippers, it is desirable to leave a 4-inch (10 cm) stem to avoid the spurt of
milky/resinous sap that exudes if the stem is initially cut close. Before packing, the stem is cut off
1/4 in (6 mm) from the base of the fruit. In Queensland, after final clipping of the stem, the fruits
are placed stem-end-down to drain.
In a sophisticated Florida operation, harvested fruits are put into tubs of water on trucks in order to
wash off the sap that exudes from the stem end. At the packing house, the fruits are transferred
from the tubs to bins, graded and sized and packed in cartons ("lugs") of 8 to 20 each depending on
size. The cartons are made mechanically at the packing house and hold 14 lbs (6.35 kg) of fruit.
The filled cartons are stacked on pallets and fork-lifted into refrigerated trucks with temperature
set at no less than 55 F (12.78 C) for transport to distribution centers in major cities throughout
the USA and Canada.
Yield
The yield varies with the cultivar and the age of the tree. At 10 to 20 years, a good annual crop
may be 200 to 300 fruits per tree. At twice that age and over, the crop will be doubled. In Java,,
old trees have been known to bear 1,000 to 1,500 fruits in a season. Some cultivars in India bear
800 to 3,000 fruits in "on" years and, with good cultural attention, yields of 5,000 fruits have been
reported. There is a famous mango, 'Pane Ka Aam' of Maharashtra and Khamgaon, India, with
Mango
"paper-thin" skin and fiberless flesh. One of the oldest of these trees, well over 100 years of age,
bears heavily 5 years out of 10 with 2 years of low yield. Average annual yield is 6,500 fruits; the
highest record is 29,000.
Reported annual yields for 6 cultivars in Puerto Rico are:
'Lippens'
'Keitt'
'Earlygold'
'Parvin'
'Haden'
'Palmer'
67,079 lbs per acre

45,608 lbs per acre
42,310 lbs per acre
38,369 lbs per acre
32,732 lbs per acre
28,868 lbs per acre
The number of lbs per acre is roughly the equivalent of kg per hectare.
Average mango yield in Florida is said to be about 30,000 lbs/acre. One leading commercial
grower has reported his annual crop as 22,000 to 27,500 lbs/acre. One grower who has hedged and
topped trees close-planted at the rate of 100 per acre (41/ha) averages 14,000 to 19.000 lbs/acre.
Ripening
In India, mangos are picked quite green to avoid bird damage and the dealers layer them with rice
straw in ventilated storage rooms over a period of one week. Quality is improved by controlled
temperatures between 60 and 70 F (15 -21 C). In ripening trials in Puerto Rico, the 'Edward'
mango was harvested while deep-green, dipped in hot water at 124 F (51 C) to control
anthracnose, sorted as to size, then stored for 15 days at 70 F (21 C) with relative humidity of
85% to 90%. Those picked when more than 3 in (7.5 cm) in diameter ripened satisfactorily and
were of excellent quality.
Ethylene treatment causes green mangos to develop full color in 7 to 10 days depending on the
degree of maturity, whereas untreated fruits require 10 to 15 days. One of the advantages is that
there can be fewer pickings and the fruit color after treatment is more uniform. Therefore, ethylene
treatment is a common practice in Israel for ripening fruits for the local market. Some growers in
Florida depend on ethylene treatment. Generally, 24 hours of exposure is sufficient if the fruits are
picked at the proper stage. It has been determined that mangos have been picked prematurely if
they require more than 48 hours of ethylene treatment and are not fit for market.
Washing the fruits immediately after harvest is essential, as the sap which leaks from the stem
bums the skin of the fruit making black lesions which lead to rotting.
Some cultivars, especially 'Bangalora', 'Alphonso', and 'Neelum' in India, have much better
keeping quality than others. In Bombay, 'Alphonso' has kept well for 4 weeks at 52 F (11.11 C);
6 to 7 weeks at 45 F (7.22 C). Storage at lower temperatures is detrimental inasmuch as mangos
are very susceptible to chilling injury. Any temperature below 55.4 F (13 C) is damaging to
'Kent'. In Florida, this is regarded as the optimum for 2 to 3 weeks storage. The best ripening
Mango
temperatures are 70 to 75 F (21.11-23.89 C).

Experiments in Florida have demonstrated that 'Irwin', 'Tommy Atkins' and 'Kent' mangos, held
for 3 weeks at storage temperature of 55.4 F (13 C), 98% to 100% relative humidity and
atmospheric pressure of 76 or 152 mmHg, ripened thereafter with less decay at 69.8 F (21 C)
under normal atmospheric pressure, as compared with fruits stored at the same temperature with
normal atmospheric pressure. Those stored at 152 mmHg took 3 to 5 days longer to ripen than
those stored at 76 mmHg. Decay rates were 20% for 'Tommy Atkins' and 40% for 'Irwin'. Spoilage
from anthracnose has been reduced by immersion for 15 min in water at 125 F (51.67 C) or for 5
min at 132 F (55.56 C). Dipping in 500 ppm maleic hydrazide for 1 min and storing at 89.6 F
(32 C) also retards decay but not loss of moisture. In South Africa, mangos are submerged
immediately after picking in a suspension of benomyl for 5 min at 131 F (55 C) to control soft
brown rot.
In Australia, mature-green 'Kensington Pride' mangos have been dipped in a 4% solution of
calcium chloride under reduced pressure (250 mm Hg) and then stored in containers at 77 F (25
C) in ethylene-free atmosphere. Ripening was retarded by a week; that is, the treated fruits ripened
in 20 to 22 days whereas controls ripened in 12 to 14 days. Eating quality was equal except that
the calcium-treated fruits were found slightly higher in ascorbic acid.
Wrapping fruits individually in heat-shrinkable plastic film has not retarded decay in storage. The
only benefit has been 3% less weight loss. Coating with paraffin wax or fungicidal wax and storing
at 68 to 89.6 F (20 -32 C) delays ripening 1 to 2 weeks and prevents shriveling but interferes
with full development of color.
Gamma irradiation (30 Krad) causes ripening delay of 7 days in mangos stored at room
temperature. The irradiated fruits ripen normally and show no adverse effect on quality. Irradiation
has not yet been approved for this purpose.
In India, large quantities of mangos are transported to distant markets by rail. To avoid excessive
heat buildup and consequent spoilage, the fruits, padded with paper shavings, are packed in
ventilated wooden crates and loaded into ventilated wooden boxcars. Relative humidity varies
from 24% to 85% and temperature from 88 to 115 F (31.6-46.6 C). These improved conditions
have proved superior to the conventional packing of the fruits in Phoenix-palm-midrib or bamboo,
or the newer pigeonpea-stem, baskets padded with rice straw and mango leaves and transported in
steel boxcars, which has resulted in 20% to 30% losses from shriveling, unshapeliness and
spoilage.
Green seedling mangos, harvested in India for commercial preparation of chutneys and pickles as
well as for table use, are stored for as long as 40 days at 42 to 45 F (5.56-7.22 C) with relative
humidity of 85% to 99%. Some of these may be diverted for table use after a 2-week ripening
period at 62 to 65 F (16.67 -18.13 C).
Pests and Diseases
The fruit flies, Dacus ferrugineus and D. zonatus, attack the mango in India; D. tryoni (now
Strumeta tryoni) in Queensland, and D. dorsalis in the Philippines; Pardalaspis cosyra in Kenya;
and the fruit fly is the greatest enemy of the mango in Central America. Because of the presence of
the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa, in Florida, all Florida mangos for interstate shipment
Mango
or for export must be fumigated or immersed in hot water at 115 F (46.11 C) for 65 minutes.
In India, South Africa and Hawaii, mango seed weevils, Sternochetus (Cryptorhynchus)
mangiferae and S. gravis, are major pests, undetectable until the larvae tunnel their way out. The
leading predators of the tree in India are jassid hoppers (Idiocerus spp.) variously attacking trunk
and branches or foliage and flowers, and causing shedding of young fruits. The honeydew they
excrete on leaves and flowers gives rise to sooty mold.
The mango-leaf webber, or "tent caterpillar", Orthaga euadrusalis, has become a major problem in
North India, especially in old, crowded orchards where there is excessive shade. Around Lucknow,
'Dashehari' is heavily infested by this pest; 'Samarbehist' ('Chausa') less. In South Africa, 11
species of scales have been recorded on the fruits. Coccus mangiferae and C. acuminatus are the
most common scale insects giving rise to the sooty mold that grows on the honeydew excreted by
the pests. In some areas, there are occasional outbreaks of the scales, Pulvinaria psidii, P.
polygonata, Aulacaspis cinnamoni, A. tubercularis, Aspidiotus destructor and Leucaspis indica. In
Florida, pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria Pyrformis, and Florida wax scale, Ceroplastes floridensis,
are common, and the lesser snow scale, Pinnaspis strachani, infests the trunks of small trees and
lower branches of large trees. Heavy attacks may result in cracking of the bark and oozing of sap.
The citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii, blemishes the fruit in some mango-growing areas. The
red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus, at times heavily infests mango foliage in Florida,
killing young leaves and causing shedding of mature leaves. Mealybugs, Phenacoccus citri and P.
mangiferae, and Drosicha stebbingi and D. mangiferae may infest young leaves, shoots and fruits.
The mango stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata invades the trunk. Leaves and shoots are preyed on
by the caterpillars of Parasa lepida, Chlumetia transversa and Orthaga exvinacea. Mites feed on
mango leaves, flowers and young fruits. In Florida, the most common is the avocado red mite,
Paratetranychus yothersii.
Mistletoe (Loranthus and Viscum spp.) parasitizes and kills mango branches in India and tropical
America. Dr. B. Reddy, Regional Plant Production and Protection Officer, FAO, Bangkok,
compiled an extensive roster of insects, mites, nematodes, other pests, fungi, bacteria and
phanerogamic parasites in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region (1975).
One of the most serious diseases of the mango is powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), which is
common in most growing areas of India, occurs mostly in March and April in Florida. The fungus
affects the flowers and causes young fruits to dehydrate and fall, and 20% of the crop may be lost.
It is controllable by regular spraying. In humid climates, anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata) affects flowers, leaves, twigs, fruits, both young and
mature. The latter show black spots externally and the corresponding flesh area is affected. Control
measures must be taken in advance of flowering and regularly during dry spells. In Florida, mango
growers apply up to 20 sprayings up to the cut-off point before harvesting. The black spots are
similar to those produced by AIternaria sp. often associated with anthracnose in cold storage in
India. Inside the fruits attacked by AIternaria there are corresponding areas of hard, corky, spongy
lesions. Inasmuch as the fungus enters the stem-end of the fruit, it is combatted by applying
Fungicopper paste in linseed oil to the cut stem and also by sterilizing the storage compartment
with Formalin 1:20. A pre-harvest dry stem-end rot was first noticed on 'Tommy Atkins' in Mexico
in 1973, and it has spread to all Mexican plantings of this cultivar causing losses of 10-80%
Mango
especially in wet weather. Fusarium, Alternaria and Cladosporium spp. were prominent among
associated fungi.
Malformation of inflorescence and vegetative buds is attributed to the combined action of
Fusarium moniliforme and any of the mites, Aceria mangifera, Eriophyes sp., Tyrophagus
castellanii, or Typhlodromus asiaticus. This grave problem occurs in Pakistan, India, South Africa
and Egypt, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela, but not as yet in the
Philippines. It is on the increase in India. Removing and burning the inflorescence has been the
only remedy, but it has been found that malformation can be reduced by a single spray of NAA
(200 mg in 50 ml alcohol with water added to make 1 liter) in October, and deblooming in early
January.
There are 14 types of mango galls in India, 12 occurring on the leaves. The most serious is the
axillary bud gall caused by Apsylla cistellata of the family Psyllidae.
In Florida, leaf spot is caused by Pestalotia mangiferae, Phyllosticta mortoni, and Septoria sp.;
algal leaf spot, or green scurf by Cephaleuros virescens. In 1983, a new disease, crusty leaf spot,
caused by the fungus, Zimmermaniella trispora, was reported as common on neglected mango
trees in Malaya. Twig dieback and dieback are from infection by Phomopsis sp., Physalospora
abdita, and P. rhodina. Wilt is caused by Verticillium alboatrum; brown felt by Septobasidium
pilosum and S. pseudopedicellatum; wood rot, by Polyporus sanguineus; and scab by Elsinoe
mangiferae (Sphaceloma mangiferae). Cercospora mangiferae attacks the fruits in the Congo.
A number of organisms in India cause white sap, heart rot, gray blight, leaf blight, white pocket
rot, white spongy rot, sap rot, black bark and red rust. In South Africa, Asbergillus attacks young
shoots and fruit rot is caused by A. niger. Gloeosporium mangiferae causes black spotting of
fruits. Erwinia mangiferae and Pseudomonas mangiferaeindicae are sources of bacterial black
spot in South Africa and Queensland. Bacterium carotovorus is a source of soft rot. Stem-end rot
is a major problem in India and Puerto Rico from infection by Physalospora rhodina (Diplodia
natalensis). Soft brown rot develops during prolonged cold storage in South Africa.
Leaf tip burn may be a sign of excess chlorides. Manganese deficiency is indicated by paleness
and limpness of foliage followed by yellowing, with distinct green veins and midrib, fine brown
spots and browning of leaf tips. Inadequate zinc is evident in less noticeable paleness of foliage,
distortion of new shoots, small leaves, necrosis, and stunting of the tree and its roots. In boron
deficiency, there is reduced size and distortion of new leaves and browning of the midrib. Copper
deficiency is seen in paleness of foliage and severe tip-bum with gray-brown patches on old
leaves; abnormally large leaves; also die-back of terminal shoots; sometimes gummosis of twigs
and branches. Magnesium is needed when young trees are stunted and pale, new leaves have
yellow-white areas between the main veins and prominent yellow specks on both sides of the
midrib. There may also be browning of the leaf tips and margins. Lack of iron produces chlorosis
in young trees.
Food Uses
Mangos should always be washed to remove any sap residue, before handling. Some seedling
mangos are so fibrous that they cannot be sliced; instead, they are massaged, the stem-end is cut
off, and the juice squeezed from the fruit into the mouth. Non-fibrous mangos may be cut in half to
the stone, the two halves twisted in opposite directions to free the stone which is then removed,
Mango
and the halves served for eating as

appetizers or dessert. Or the two "cheeks"
may be cut off, following the contour of the
stone, for similar use; then the remaining
side "fingers" of flesh are cut off for use in
fruit cups, etc.
Most people enjoy eating the residual flesh
from the seed and this is done most neatly
by piercing the stem-end of the seed with
the long central tine of a mango fork,
commonly sold in Mexico, and holding the
seed upright like a lollypop. Small mangos
can be peeled and mounted on the fork and
Fig. 61: Low-fiber mangoes are easily prepared for the table
eaten in the same manner. If the fruit is
slightly fibrous especially near the stone, it by first cutting off the "cheeks" which can then be served for
eating by spooning the flesh from the "shell".
is best to peel and slice the flesh and serve it
as dessert, in fruit salad, on dry cereal, or in
gelatin or custards, or on ice cream. The
ripe flesh may be spiced and preserved in
jars. Surplus ripe mangos are peeled, sliced
and canned in sirup, or made into jam,
marmalade, jelly or nectar. The extracted
pulpy juice of fibrous types is used for
making mango halva and mango leather.
Sometimes corn flour and tamarind seed
jellose are mixed in. Mango juice may be
spray-dried and powdered and used in infant
and invalid foods, or reconstituted and
drunk as a beverage. The dried juice,
Fig. 64: A low-fiber, green-skinned mango on the market in
blended with wheat flour has been made
Merida, Yucatan, is mounted on a lollipop stick. The fruit
may be peeled and the flesh deeply cut to resemble the petals
into "cereal" flakes, A dehydrated mango
custard powder has also been developed in of a flower.
India, especially for use in baby foods.
Ripe mangos may be frozen whole or peeled, sliced and packed in sugar (1 part sugar to 10 parts
mango by weight) and quick-frozen in moisture-proof containers. The diced flesh of ripe mangos,
bathed in sweetened or unsweetened lime juice, to prevent discoloration, can be quick-frozen, as
can sweetened ripe or green mango puree. Immature mangos are often blown down by spring
winds. Half-ripe or green mangos are peeled and sliced as filling for pie, used for jelly, or made
into sauce which, with added milk and egg whites, can be converted into mango sherbet. Green
mangos are peeled, sliced, parboiled, then combined with sugar, salt, various spices and cooked,
sometimes with raisins or other fruits, to make chutney; or they may be salted, sun-dried and kept
for use in chutney and pickles. Thin slices, seasoned with turmeric, are dried, and sometimes
powdered, and used to impart an acid flavor to chutneys, vegetables and soup. Green or ripe
mangos may be used to make relish.
Mango
In Thailand, green-skinned mangos of a

class called "keo", with sweet, nearly
fiberless flesh and very commonly grown
and inexpensive on the market, are soaked
whole for 15 days in salted water before
peeling, slicing and serving with sugar.
Processing of mangos for export is of great
importance in Hawaii in view of the
restrictions on exporting the fresh fruits.
Hawaiian technologists have developed
methods for steam- and lye-peeling, also
devices for removing peel from unpeeled
fruits in the preparation of nectar. Choice of
suitable cultivars is an essential factor in
processing mangos for different purposes.
The Food Research Institute of the Canada
Department of Agriculture has developed
methods of preserving ripe or green mango
slices by osmotic dehydration,
The fresh kernel of the mango seed (stone)
constitutes 13% of the weight of the fruit,
55% to 65% of the weight of the stone. The
kernel is a major by-product of the
mango-processing industry. In times of food Fig. 62: The long center tine of the mango fork is designed for
scarcity in India, the kernels are roasted or piercing the base of the center section and right through the
boiled and eaten. After soaking to dispel the seed. With the strip of peel removed, the most flavorful flesh
astringency (tannins), the kernels are dried around the seed can be enjoyed like a lollipop.
and ground to flour which is mixed with wheat or rice flour to make bread and it is also used in
puddings.
The fat extracted from the kernel is white, solid like cocoa butter and tallow, edible, and has been
proposed as a substitute for cocoa butter in chocolate.
The peel constitutes 20% to 25% of the total weight of the fruit. Researchers in India have shown
that the peel can be utilized as a source of pectin. Average yield on a dry-weight basis is 13%.
Immature mango leaves are cooked and eaten in Indonesia and the Philippines.
Food Value Per 100 g of Ripe Mango Flesh*
Fruit
Calories
Moisture
Protein
62.1-63.7
78.9-82.8 g
0.36-0.40 g
Mango
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A (carotene)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.30-0.53 g
16.20-17.18 g
0.85-1.06 g
0.34-0.52 g
6.1-12.8 mg
5.5-17.9 mg
0.20-0.63 mg
0.135-1.872 mg
0.020-0.073 mg
0.025-0.068 mg
0.025-0.707 mg
7.8-172.0 mg
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
3-6 mg
4 mg
32-37 mg
*Minimum and maximum levels of food constituents derived from various analyses made in Cuba,
Central America, Africa and India.
Puerto Rican analyses of 30 cultivars showed b-carotene as ranging from a low of 4,171 I.U./100 g
in 'Stringless Peach' to a high of 7,900 I.U. in 'Carrie'. Ascorbic acid ranged from 3.43 mg/100 g in
'Keitt' to 62.96 in 'Julie'.
Seed Kernel**
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Starch
Sugar
Fiber
Ash
Silica
Iron
10.55-11.35%
4.76-8.5%
6-15%
40-72%
1.07%
1.17-2.6%
1.72-3.66%
0.41%
0.03%
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Sodium
0.11-0.23%
0.34%
0.21-0.66%
0.28%
Mango
Potassium
Sulfur
Carbonate
1.31%
0.23%
0.09%
**According to analyses made in India and Cuba.

Indian analyses of the mango kernel reveal the amino acidsalanine, arginine, aspartic acid,
cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
proline, serine, threonine, tyrosine, valine, at levels lower than in wheat and gluten. Tannin content
may be 0.12-0.18% or much higher in certain cultivars.
Kernel Flour*
Protein
5.56%
Fat
16.17%
Carbohydrates 69.2%
Ash (minerals) 0.35%
*It is said to be equal to rice in food value, if tannin-free.
Kernel Fat
Fully saturated glycerides
Mono-oleoglycerides
Di-oleoglycerides
Tri-unsaturated glycerides
Fatty Acids:
Mysristic
Palmitic
Stearic
Arachidic
Oleic
Linoleic
Linolenic
14.2%
24.2%
60.8%
0.8%
0.69%
4.4-8.83%
33.96-47.8%
2.7-6.74%
38.2-49.78%
4.4-5.4%
0.5%
Leaves (immature)
Moisture
78.2%
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
3.0%
0.4%
16.5%
1.6%
Mango
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A (carotene)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid**
1.9%
29 mg/100 g
72 mg
6.2 mg
1,490 I.U.
0.04 mg
0.06 mg
2.2 mg
53 mg/100g
**According to various analyses made in India.

Toxicity
The sap which exudes from the stalk close to the base of the fruit is somewhat milky at first, also
yellowish-resinous. It becomes pale-yellow and translucent when dried. It contains mangiferen,
resinous acid, mangiferic acid, and the resinol, mangiferol. It, like the sap of the trunk and
branches and the skin of the unripe fruit, is a potent skin irritant, and capable of blistering the skin
of the normal individual. As with poison ivy, there is typically a delayed reaction. Hypersensitive
persons may react with considerable swelling of the eyelids, the face, and other parts of the body.
They may not be able to handle, peel, or eat mangos or any food containing mango flesh or juice.
A good precaution is to use one knife to peel the mango, and a clean knife to slice the flesh to
avoid contaminating the flesh with any of the resin in the peel.
The leaves contain the glucoside, mangiferine. In India, cows were formerly fed mango leaves to
obtain from their urine euxanthic acid which is rich yellow and has been used as a dye. Since
continuous intake of the leaves may be fatal, the practice has been outlawed.
When mango trees are in bloom, it is not uncommon for people to suffer itching around the eyes,
facial swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there is no airborne pollen. The few pollen
grains are large and they tend to adhere to each other even in dry weather. The stigma is small and
not designed to catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the vaporized essential oil of the
flowers which contains the sesquiterpene alcohol, mangiferol, and the ketone, mangiferone.
Mango wood should never be used in fireplaces or for cooking fuel, as its smoke is highly irritant.
Other Uses
Seed kernels: After soaking and drying to 10% moisture content, the kernels are fed to poultry
and cattle. Without the removal of tannins, the feeding value is low. Cuban scientists declare that
the mineral levels are so low mineral supplementation is needed if the kernel is used for poultry
feed, for which purpose it is recommended mainly because it has little crude fiber.
Seed fat: Having high stearic acid content, the fat is desirable for soap-making. The seed residue
after fat extraction is usable for cattle feed and soil enrichment.
Mango
A mango stone decorticator has been designed and successfully operated by the Agricultural
Engineering Department of Pantnagar University, India.
Wood: The wood is kiln-dried or seasoned in saltwater. It is gray or greenish-brown,
coarse-textured, medium-strong, hard, durable in water but not in the ground; easy to work and
finishes well. In India, after preservative treatment, it is used for rafters and joists, window frames,
agricultural implements, boats, plywood, shoe heels and boxes, including crates for shipping tins
of cashew kernels. It makes excellent charcoal.
Bark: The bark possesses 16% to 20% tannin and has been employed for tanning hides. It yields a
yellow dye, or, with turmeric and lime, a bright rose-pink.
Gum: A somewhat resinous, red-brown gum from the trunk is used for mending crockery in
tropical Africa. In India, it is sold as a substitute for gum arabic.
Medicinal Uses: Dried mango flowers, containing 15% tannin, serve as astringents in cases of
diarrhea, chronic dysentery, catarrh of the bladder and chronic urethritis resulting from gonorrhea.
The bark contains mangiferine and is astringent and employed against rheumatism and diphtheria
in India. The resinous gum from the trunk is applied on cracks in the skin of the feet and on
scabies, and is believed helpful in cases of syphilis.
Mango kernel decoction and powder (not tannin-free) are used as vermifuges and as astringents in
diarrhea, hemorrhages and bleeding hemorrhoids. The fat is administered in cases of stomatitis.
Extracts of unripe fruits and of bark, stems and leaves have shown antibiotic activity. In some of
the islands of the Caribbean, the leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diarrhea, fever, chest
complaints, diabetes, hypertension and other ills. A combined decoction of mango and other leaves
is taken after childbirth.
Related Species
Of approximately 40 other species of Mangifera, a few are cultivated for their fruits and several
have been employed as rootstocks for the mango in Malaya.
M. sylvatica Roxb., is a large tree to 150 ft (45 m) growing wild in the eastern Himalayas, Nepal
and the Andaman Islands, from 980 to 4,200 ft (300-1,300 m). The elliptic fruit, 3 1/4 to 4 in (8-10
cm) long, has yellow skin and fiberless, though rather thin, flesh. It is mostly utilized while still
unripe for pickles and other preserves. The tree is valued mainly for its timber which is largely
sapwood, light in weight and easily worked but medium-hard and strong.
M. foetida Lour., the horse mango, is a handsome, well-formed tree, 60 to 80 ft (18-24 m) tall with
very stiff leaves and showy particles of pink-red, odorless flowers. The fruit is oblong, 3 to 5 1/2 in
(7.5-16 cm) long, plump, with yellowish- or grayish-green skin when ripe. The flesh is variable, in
some types orange, acid, strongly turpentine-scented; in others, pale-yellow, sweet in flavor and
mildly aromatic. All types are fibrous and the stone has much fiber. Sweet types are eaten raw
when ripe; others are used for pickles, chutneys and in curries. The sap of the tree and the
immature fruit is highly irritating.
Mango
M. caesia Jack, ranging from 65 to 150 ft (20-45 m) at low altitudes in Malaysia and the
Philippines, is frequently cultivated in Indonesia. The flowers are blue or lavender. Strongly and,
to some people, unpleasantly aromatic, the fruit is oval to pear-shaped, 4 1/4 to 6 in (11-15 cm)
long, with thin, pale-green or light-brown, scurfy skin which clings to the white or pale-yellow,
juicy, fibrous flesh. Quality is highly variable; some types being subacid to sweet and agreeable
and these are commonly eaten in Malaya. The seed is large and pink, enclosed in matted fibers;
edible; monoembryonic. Young leaves are eaten raw. The sap of the tree and immature fruits is
exceedingly irritant.
M. odorata Griff. is a medium to large tree, 60 to 80 ft (15-24 m) high, better suited than the
mango to humid regions and much cultivated from Malaya to the Philippines where it is more
familiar than the mango in eastern Mindanao. The flowers are whitish to yellowish and very
fragrant. The fruit is round-oblique, somewhat oblate; to 5 in (12.5 cm) long, plump, with green or
yellow-green, thick, tough skin. When ripe the flesh is pale-orange or yellowish, fibrous and
resinous but juicy and sweet, though most types are distinctly turpentine -flavored. Nevertheless,
all types are popular for curries and pickles. The stone is large with many coarse fibers. The sap of
this tree is said to be fairly mild, but the milky sap of the immature fruit extremely acrid.
In addition to the above, Malayan villagers occasionally cultivate some lesser-known species: M.
longipetiolata King, M. maingayi Hook f., M. kemanga Blume, and M. pentandra Hook f.
The gandaria, Plate XXIX, Bouea gandaria Blume (syn. B. macrophylla Griff.), is also called
kundangan, kundang, setar, star and rumia in Malaya; gandareed in Java; ma-prang in Thailand.
The tree, usually to 30 ft (9 m), sometimes to 60 ft (18 m), is short-trunked with resinous sap,
drooping branches and evergreen, opposite, resinous, leathery, downward-pointing leaves 4 to 12
in (10-30 cm) long, 2 to 4 1/2 in (5-11.25 cm) wide. They are purple-red and silky when they first
appear. Small, greenish flowers are borne in pendent panicles to 5 in (12.5 cm) in length. The fruit,
like a miniature mango, is oval, round or oblong-ovoid, 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) long, with
thin, smooth, brittle, edible skin, yellow or apricot-colored when ripe. The yellow or orange pulp is
juicy, varies from acid to sweet, and adheres to the leathery, whiskered stone. There is great
variation in the fruits of seedling trees, especially in the degree of "turpentine" odor. The tree is
native to Malaya and Sumatra; is frequently cultivated, either from seed or air-layers, in its natural
range and also rather widely through Malaysia and the fruits are sold in markets. They are made
into jam and chutney. When still immature, they are pickled in brine and used in curries. In
Indonesia, the young leaves are marketed and eaten raw with rice. Budwood of a cultivar named
'Wan', meaning "sweet", was obtained by William F. Whitman from an orchard near Bangkok in
1967. His resulting grafted tree, in a protected location in South Florida, fruited in 1974. Earlier
introductions (1935, 1936 and 1938) by the Agricultural Research and Education Center in
Homestead failed to survive.
A lesser species, B. oppositifolia Adelb. (syn. B. microphylla Griff.), is called plum mango,
rembunia, gemis, or rumia in Malaya; ma-pring in Thailand. The tree is similar but deciduous,
smaller in all its parts, and the fruit is orange or yellow and only 1 in (2.5 cm) long, acid and
usually cooked when half-ripe. This species is abundant wild in lowland forests of Malaya and
much cultivated as a shade tree. The wood is hard and very heavy, sinks in water, and is used for
houseposts.
Mango
Food Value
Fruits from a 20-year-old gandaria tree (Bouea gandaria Blume) in the Lancetilla Experimental
Garden, Tela, Honduras, were analyzed in 1950 and the following values were reported:
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
85.2 g
0.112 g
0.04g
0.6 g
0.23 g
6.0 mg
10.8 mg
0.31 mg
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.043 mg
0.031 mg
0.025 mg
0.286 mg
75.0 mg
Cashew Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Cashew Apple. p. 239240. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Cashew Apple
Anacardium occidentale L.
This pseudofruit (or "false fruit") is a
by-product of the cashew nut industry. The
cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale L., is
called maraon in most Spanish-speaking
countries, but merey in Venezuela; and caju
or cajueiro in Portuguese. It is generally
bushy, low-branched and spreading; may
reach 35 ft (10.6 m) in height and width. Its
leaves, mainly in terminal clusters, are
oblong-oval or obovate, 4 to 8 in (10-20
cm) long and 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) wide, and
leathery. Yellowish-pink, 5-petalled flowers
are borne in 6 to 10-in (15-25 cm) terminal
Plate XXX: CASHEW APPLE, Anacardium occidentale
panicles of mixed male, female and
bisexual. The true fruit of the tree is the
cashew nut resembling a miniature
boxing-glove; consisting of a double shell
containing a caustic phenolic resin in
honeycomb-like cells, enclosing the edible
kidney-shaped kernel. An interesting feature
of the cashew is that the nut develops first
and when it is full-grown but not yet ripe,
its peduncle or, more technically,
receptacle, fills out, becomes plump, fleshy,
pear-shaped or rhomboid-to-ovate, 2 to 4
1/2 in (5-11.25 cm) in length, with waxy,
yellow, red, or red-and-yellow skin and
spongy, fibrous, very juicy, astringent, acid
to subacid, yellow pulp. Thus is formed the Fig. 66: The so-called "cashew apple", a pseudofruitactually
conspicuous, so-called cashew apple.
the swollen stalk of the true fruit of Anacardium occidentale,
the cashew nutis fibrous but juicy and locally popular
The cashew is native to and northeast Brazil preserved in sirup.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cashew_apple.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:35:40 PM]
Cashew Apple
and, in the 16th Century, Portuguese traders

introduced it to Mozambique and coastal
India, but only as a soil retainer to stop
erosion on the coasts. It flourished and ran
wild and formed extensive forests in these
locations and on nearby islands, and
eventually it also became dispersed in East
Africa and throughout the tropical lowlands
of northern South America, Central
America and the West Indies. It has been
more or less casually planted in all warm
regions and a few fruiting specimens are
found in experimental stations and private
gardens in southern Florida.
The production and processing of cashew
nuts are complex and difficult problems.
Fig. 67: Food technologists in Mysore, India, developed a
Because of the great handicap of the toxic candied cashew apple product, more appealing than the
shell oil, Latin Americans and West Indians canned. A similar confection is made and sold in the
over the years have been most enthusiastic Dominican Republic.
about the succulent cashew apple and have generally thrown the nut away or processed it crudely
on a limited scale, except in Brazil, where there is a highly developed cashew nut processing
industry, especially in Ceara. In Mozambique, also, the apple reigned supreme for decades.
Attention then focused on the nut, but, in 1972, the industrial potential of the juice and sirup from
the estimated 2 million tons of surplus cashew apples was being investigated. In India, on the other
hand, vast tonnages of cashew apples have largely gone to waste while that country pioneered in
the utilization and promotion of the nut.
The apple and nut fall together when both are ripe and, in commercial nut plantations, it is most
practical to twist off the nut and leave the apple on the ground for later grazing by cattle or pigs.
But, where labor costs are very low, the apples may be gathered up and taken to markets or
processing plants. In Goa, India, the apples are still trampled by foot to extract the juice for the
locally famous distilled liquor, feni. In Brazil, great heaps are displayed by fruit vendors, and the
juice is used as a fresh beverage and for wine.
In the field, the fruits are picked up and chewed for refreshment, the juice swallowed, and the
fibrous residue discarded. In the home and, in a limited way for commercial purposes, the cashew
apples are preserved in sirup in glass jars. Fresh apples are highly perishable. Various species of
yeast and fungi cause spoilage after the first day at room temperature. Food technologists in India
have found that good condition can be maintained for 5 weeks at 32 to 35 F (0-1.67 C) and
relative humidity of 85% to 90%. Inasmuch as the juice is astringent and somewhat acrid due to
35% tannin content (in the red: less in the yellow) and 3% of an oily substance, the fruit is
pressure-steamed for 5 to 15 minutes before candying or making into jam or chutney or extracting
the juice for carbonated beverages, sirup or wine. Efforts are made to retain as much as possible of
the ascorbic acid. Food technologists in Costa Rica recently worked out an improved process for
producing the locally popular candied, sun-dried cashew apples. Failure to remove the tannin from
the juice may account for the nutritional deficiency in heavy imbibers of cashew apple wine in
Cashew Apple
Mozambique, for tannin prevents the body's full assimilation of protein.

Food Value Per 100 g of Fresh Cashew Apple*
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
84.4-88.7 g
0.101-0.162 g
0.05-0.50 g
9.08-9.75 g
0.4-1.0 g
0.19-0.34 g
0.9-5.4 mg
6.1-21.4 mg
0.19-0.71 mg
0.03-0.742 mg
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.023-0.03 mg
0.13-0.4 mg
0.13-0.539 mg
146.6-372.0 mg
*Analyses made in Central America and Cuba.

Medicinal Uses: Cashew apple juice, without removal of tannin, is prescribed as a remedy for sore
throat and chronic dysentery in Cuba and Brazil. Fresh or distilled, it is a potent diuretic and is said
to possess sudorific properties. The brandy is applied as a liniment to relieve the pain of
rheumatism and neuralgia.
Ambarella

Morton, J. 1987. Ambarella. p. 240242. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Ambarella
Spondias dulcis Forst.
Spondias cytherea Sonn.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Related Species
An under-appreciated member of the Anacardiaceae, but deserving of improvement, is the

ambarella, Spondias dulcis Forst. (syn. S. cytherea Sonn.). Among various colloquial names are
Otaheite apple, Tahitian quince, Polynesian plum, Jew plum and golden apple. In Malaya it is
called great hog plum or kedondong; in Indonesia, kedongdong; in Thailand, ma-kok-farang; in
Cambodia, mokak; in Vietnam, coc, pomme cythere or Pommier de cythere. In Costa Rica, it is
known as jupln; in Colombia, hobo de racimos; in Venezuela, jobo de la India, jobo de Indio, or
mango jobo; in Ecuador, manzana de oro; in Brazil, caja-manga.
Description
The tree is rapid-growing, attaining a height of 60 ft (18 m) in its homeland; generally not more
than 30 or 40 ft (9-12 m) in other areas. Upright and rather rigid and symmetrical, it is a stately
ornamental with deciduous, handsome, pinnate leaves, 8 to 24 in (20-60 cm) in length, composed
of 9 to 25 glossy, elliptic or obovate-oblong leaflets 2 1/2 to 4 in (6.25-10 cm) long, finely toothed
toward the apex. At the beginning of the dry, cool season, the leaves turn bright-yellow and fall,
but the tree with its nearly smooth, light gray-brown bark and graceful, rounded branches is not
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/ambarella_ars.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:35:42 PM]
Ambarella
unattractive during the few weeks that it

remains bare. Small, inconspicuous, whitish
flowers are borne in large terminal panicles.
They are assorted, male, female and perfect
in each cluster. Long-stalked fruits dangle
in bunches of a dozen or more; oval or
somewhat irregular or knobby, and 2 1/2 to
3 1/2 in (6.25-9 cm) long, with thin but
tough skin, often russetted. While still green
and hard, the fruits fall to the ground, a few
at a time, over a period of several weeks. As
they ripen, the skin and flesh turn
golden-yellow. While the fruit is still firm,
the flesh is crisp, juicy and subacid, and has
a somewhat pineapple-like fragrance and
flavor. If allowed to soften, the aroma and
flavor become musky and the flesh difficult
to slice because of conspicuous and tough
fibers extending from the rough ridges of
the 5-celled, woody core containing 1 to 5 Plate XXXI: AMBARELLA, Spondias dulcis
flat seeds. Some fruits in the South Sea
Islands weigh over 1 lb (0.45 kg) each.
The ambarella is native from Melanesia through Polynesia and has been introduced into tropical
areas of both the Old and New World. It is common in Malayan gardens and fairly frequent in
India and Ceylon. The fruits are sold in markets in Vietnam and elsewhere in former Indochina. It
first fruited in the Philippines in 1915. It is cultivated in Queensland, Australia, and grown on a
small scale in Gabon and Zanzibar.
It was introduced into Jamaica in 1782 and again 10 years later by Captain Bligh, probably from
Hawaii where it has been grown for many years. It is cultivated in Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican
Republic, and from Puerto Rico to Trinidad; also in Central America, Venezuela, and Surinam; is
rare in Brazil and other parts of tropical America. Popenoe said there were only a few trees in the
Province of Guayas, Ecuador, in 1924.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Liberia in 1909, though Wester
reported at that time that the tree had already been fruiting for 4 years in Miami, Florida. In 1911,
additional seeds reached Washington from Queensland, Australia. A number of specimens are
scattered around the tip of Florida, from Palm Beach southward, but the tree has never become
common here. Some that were planted in the past have disappeared.
Climate
The tree flourishes in humid tropical and subtropical areas, being only a trifle tenderer than its
close relative, the mango. It succeeds up to an altitude of 2,300 ft (700 m). In Israel, the tree does
not thrive, remaining small and bearing only a few, inferior fruits.
Ambarella
Soil
The ambarella grows on all types of soil, including oolitic limestone in Florida, as long as they are
well-drained.
Propagation
The tree is easily propagated by seeds, which germinate in about 4 weeks, or by large hardwood
cuttings, or air-layers. It can be grafted on its own rootstock, but Firminger says that in India it is
usually grafted on the native S. pinnata Kurz (see below). Wester advised: "Use non-petioled,
slender, mature, but green and smooth budwood; cut large buds with ample wood-shield, 1 1/2 to 1
3/4 in (4-4.5 cm) long; insert the buds in the stock at a point of approximately the same age and
appearance as the scion."
Culture
Seedlings may fruit when only 4 years old. Ochse recommends that the young trees be given light
shade. Mature trees are somewhat brittle and apt to be damaged by strong winds; therefore,
sheltered locations are preferred.
Season
In Hawaii, the fruit ripens from November to April; in Tahiti, from May to July. In Florida, a
single tree provides a steady supply for a family from fall to midwinter, at a time when mangos
and many other popular fruits are out of season.
Pests and Diseases
Ochse says that in Indonesia the leaves are severely attacked by the larvae of the kedongdong
spring-beetle, Podontia affinis. In Costa Rica, the bark is eaten by a wasp ("Congo"), causing
necrosis which leads to death. No particular insects or diseases have been reported in Florida. In
Jamaica, the tree is subject to gummosis and is consequently short-lived.
Food Uses
The ambarella has suffered by comparison with the mango and by repetition in literature of its
inferior quality. However, taken at the proper stage, while still firm, it is relished by many
out-of-hand, and it yields a delicious juice for cold beverages. If the crisp sliced flesh is stewed
with a little water and sugar and then strained through a wire sieve, it makes a most acceptable
product, much like traditional applesauce but with a richer flavor. With the addition of cinnamon
or any other spices desired, this sauce can be slowly cooked down to a thick consistency to make a
preserve very similar to apple butter. Unripe fruits can be made into jelly, pickles or relishes, or
used for flavoring sauces, soups and stews.
Young ambarella leaves are appealingly acid and consumed raw in southeast Asia. In Indonesia,
they are steamed and eaten as a vegetable with salted fish and rice, and also used as seasoning for
various dishes. They are sometimes cooked with meat to tenderize it.
Calories
157.30
Ambarella
Total Solids
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Sugar (sucrose)
Acid
Crude Fiber
Ash
14.53-40-35%
59.65-85.47%
0.50-0.80%
0.28-1.79%
8.05-10-54%
0.47%
0.85-3-60%
0.44-0.65%
*According to analyses made in the Philippines and Hawaii. I

Miller, Louis and Yanazawa in Hawaii reported an ascorbic acid content of 42 mg per 100 g of
raw pulp. It is a good source of iron. Unripe fruits contain 9.76% of pectin.
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is light-brown and buoyant and in the Society Islands has been used for canoes.
Medicinal Uses: In Cambodia, the astringent bark is used with various species of Terminalia as a
remedy for diarrhea.
Related Species
The amra, S. pinnata Kurz (syns. Mangifera pinnata L. f.; Pourpartia pinnata Blanco), which
some botanists consider merely a wild form of S. dulcis, is wild and cultivated from the Himalayas
of northern India to the Andaman Islands and is commonly cultivated throughout southeast Asia
and Malaysia. The twigs are smooth and the leaves are not toothed; the fruit is smaller than the
ambarella and inferior in quality but has the same uses. The aromatic, acidulous leaves and flowers
are employed as flavoring and consumed raw or cooked, especially in curries. The wood is used
for making boats, floats, matches, etc. There are several medicinal applications of the bark, root,
and the gum that exudes from the trunk.
Purple Mombin

Morton, J. 1987. Purple Mombin. p. 242245. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Purple Mombin
Spondias purpurea L.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation and Culture
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
One of the most popular small fruits of the American tropics, the purple mombin, Spondias
Purpurea L., has acquired many other colloquial names: in English, red mombin, Spanish plum,
hog plum, scarlet plum; purple plum in the Virgin Islands; Jamaica plum in Trinidad; Chile plum
in Barbados; wild plum in Costa Rica and Panama; red plum, as well as noba and makka pruim in
the Netherlands Antilles. Spanish names include: ajuela ciruela; chiabal; cirguelo; ciruela;
ciruela agria; ciruela calentana; ciruela campechana; ciruela colorada; ciruela de coyote;
ciruela de hueso; ciruela del pas; ciruela de Mexico; ciruela morada; ciruela roja; ciruela
sanjuanera; hobo; hobo colorado; ismoyo; jobillo; jobito; jobo; jobo colorado; jobo francs;
jocote; jocote agrio; jocote amarillo (yellow form); jocote comn; jocote de corona; jocote de
iguana; jocote iguanero; jocote tronador; jocotillo; pitarillo; sineguelas (Philippines); sismoyo. In
Portuguese, it is called ambu; ambuzeiro; ameixa da Espanha; caj vermelha (yellow form);
ciriguela; ciroela; imbu; imbuzeiro; umbu, or umbuzeiro. In French, it is cirouelle, mombin rouge,
prune du Chili, prune d'Espagne, prune jaune (yellow form) or prune rouge.
Description
The purple mombin may be a shrub or low-branched small tree in lowlands, or a spreading,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/purple_mombin.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:35:44 PM]
Purple Mombin
thick-trunked tree reaching 25 or even 50 ft

(7.5-15 m) in highlands. The branches are
thickish and brittle. The deciduous,
alternate, compound leaves bright-red or
purple when young; 4 3/4 to 10 in (12-25
cm) long when mature; have 5 to 19 nearly
sessile, obovate to lanceolate or
oblong-elliptic leaflets 3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4
cm) long; oblique toward the base and
faintly toothed toward the apex. The tiny, 4to 5-petalled flowers, male, female and
bisexual, are red or purple and borne in
short, hairy panicles along the branches
Fig. 68: The purple, or red, mombin (Spondias Purpurea),
despite its large seed, is popular for casual nibbling. In: K. &
before the leaves appear. Somewhat
J. Morton, Fifty Tropical Fruits of Nassau, 1946.
plumlike, the fruits, borne singly or in
groups of 2 or 3, may be purple, dark- or bright-red, orange, yellow, or red-and-yellow. They vary
from 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) in length and may be oblong, oval, obovoid or pear-shaped, with small
indentations and often a knob at the apex. The skin is glossy and firm; the flesh aromatic, yellow,
fibrous, very juicy, with a rich, plum-like, subacid to acid flavor, sometimes a trifle turpentiney;
and it adheres to the rough, fibrous, hard, oblong, knobby, thick, pale stone, which is 1/2 to 3/4 in
(1.25-2 cm) long and contains up to 5 small seeds.
The purple mombin is native and common both wild and cultivated from southern Mexico through
northern Peru and Brazil, particularly in and zones. There are some recent commercial plantings in
Mexico and Venezuela. It is commonly planted in most of the islands of the West Indies and the
Bahamas. Everywhere the fruits are sold along the roads and streets as well as in the native
markets. Spanish explorers carried this species to the Philippines, where it has been widely
adopted. The tree is naturalized throughout much of Nigeria and occasionally cultivated for its
fruit. It has been infrequently planted in southern Florida, mainly as a curiosity.
Varieties
The fruit is highly variable. The yellow
form (uncommon) has been identified by
some botanists as S. purpurea forma lutea
F. & R., or even as a separate species, S.
cirouella Tassac. It has been confused with
the true yellow mombin, S. mombin L. (syn.
S. lutea L.), q.v.
In Guatemala, the variety called jocote de
corona, which is flattened and somewhat
shouldered at the apex, is said to be of
superior quality, and jocote tronador is
nearly its equal.
Fig. 69: The yellow form of the purple mombin, which has
been called S. purpurea var. lutea, is smaller, less irregular in
form.
Purple Mombin
Climate
The tree is tropical, ranging from sea-level to 5,500 or 6,000 ft (1,700-1,800 m) in Mexico and
Central America; to 2,500 ft (760 m) in Jamaica, in either dry or humid regions. It flowers but does
not fruit in Israel; is cold-sensitive in Florida.
Soil
The tree is found growing naturally on a great diversity of soils throughout Latin America-sand,
gravel, heavy clay loam, or limestone.
The purple mombin, including its yellow form, is grown very easily and quickly by setting large
cuttings upright in the ground. It is one of the trees most used to create "living fences". It grows
very slowly from seed.
Season
There are flowers and fruits of the red form nearly all year in Jamaica, but mainly in July and
August, while the yellow variant fruits only from September to November. In the Bahamas, the
fruiting season of the red type is brief, just May and June; the yellow ripens from August to early
October.
Pests and Diseases
Fruit flies commonly infest the ripe fruits. In Florida, the foliage is subject to spot anthracnose
caused by Sphaceloma spondiadis.
Food Uses
The ripe fruits are commonly eaten out-of-hand. While not of high quality, they are popular with
people who have enjoyed them from childhood, and they serve a useful purpose in the absence of
"snackbars". In the home, they are stewed whole, with sugar, and consumed as dessert. They can
be preserved for future use merely by boiling and drying, which keeps them in good condition for
several months. The strained juice of cooked fruits yields an excellent jelly and is also used for
making wine and vinegar. It is a pleasant addition to other fruit beverages.
In Mexico, unripe fruits are made into a tart, green sauce, or are pickled in vinegar and eaten with
salt and chili peppers.
The new shoots and leaves are acid and eaten raw or cooked as greens in northern Central
America.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
65.9-86.6 g
0.096-0.261 g
0.03-0.17 g
0.2-0.6 g
Purple Mombin
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.47-1.13 g
6.1-23.9 mg
31.5-55.7 mg
0.09-1.22 mg
0.004-0.089 mg
0.033-0.103 mg
0.014-0.049 mg
0.540-1.770 mg
26.4-73.0 mg
Amino Acids** (mg per g nitrogen [N = 6.25])

Lysine
316 mg
Methionine
178 mg
Threonine
Tryptophan
219 mg
57 mg
*Analyses made in Central America and Ecuador.

**Brazilian analyses.
Toxicity
In the Philippines, it is said that eating a large quantity of the fruits on an empty stomach may
cause stomachache.
Other Uses
Gum: The tree exudes a gum that has served in Central America as a glue.
Wood: The wood is light and soft; has been found to be suitable for paper pulp in Brazil. It is
sometimes burned to ashes which are employed in making soap.
Leaves and fruits: The leaves are readily grazed by cattle and the fruits are fed to hogs.
Lac: Lac insects have been raised on the red mombin in Mexico.
Medicinal Uses: in Mexico, the fruits are regarded as diuretic and antispasmodic. The fruit
decoction is used to bathe wounds and heal sores in the mouth. A sirup prepared from the fruit is
taken to overcome chronic diarrhea. The astringent bark decoction is a remedy for mange, ulcers,
dysentery and for bloating caused by intestinal gas in infants. In the Philippines, the sap of the bark
is used to treat stomatitis in infants.
The juice of the fresh leaves is a remedy for thrush. A decoction of the leaves and bark is
employed as a febrifuge. In southwestern Nigeria, an infusion of shredded leaves is valued for
washing cuts, sores and burns. Researchers at the University of Ife have found that an aqueous
extract of the leaves has antibacterial action, and an alcoholic extract is even more effective. The
Purple Mombin
gum-resin of the tree is blended with pineapple or soursop juice for treating jaundice. Most of the
other uses indicate that the fruits, leaves and bark are fairly rich in tannin.
Yellow Mombin

Morton, J. 1987. Yellow Mombin. p. 245248. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Yellow Mombin
Spondias mombin L.
Spondias lutea L.
Description
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Season
Pests
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
The true yellow mombin, S. mombin L. (syn. S. lutea L.) is most often called hog plum in the
Caribbean Islands. In Jamaica, it is also known as Spanish plum, or gully plum. In Malaya, it is
distinguished as thorny hog plum; in Ghana, it is hog plum or Ashanti plum. Among its Spanish
names are caimito, chupandilla, ciruela agria, ciruela amarilla, ciruela de jobo, ciruela del pais,
ciruela de monte, ciruela loca, cirueld mango, ciruela obo, cuajo, guama zapotero, hobo de
monte, hubu, jobillo, jobito, jobo, jobo arisco, joboban, jobo blanco, jobo de Castilla, Jobo de
perro, jobo de puerco, jobo espino, jobo espinoso, jobo gusanero, jobo hembra, jobo jocote, jobo
negro, jobo rooso, jobo vano, jocote, jocote amarillo, jocote de chanche, jocote dejobo, jocote
jobo, jocote montanero, jocote montero, jovo, marapa, obo de zopilote, palo de mulato, noma,
tobo de montana, obo and uvo. In Portuguese, it is called acaiba, acaimiri, acaja, acajaiba, caja,
caja mirim, caja pequeno, cajazeiro, and caja miudo. In French, it is mombin franc, mombin fruits
jaunes, mombinier, myrobalane, prune mombin, prune myrobalan, or prunier mombin. Local
names in Surinam are hoeboe, mompe, monbe, mop and mopp. Amazonian Indians call it
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/yellow_mombin_ars.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:35:47 PM]
Yellow Mombin
taperiba or tapiriba (fruit of the tapir).

Description
The yellow mombin tree, unlike that of the
purple mombin, is erect, stately, to 65 ft (20
m) tall, with trunk to 2 or 2 1/2 ft (60-75
cm) in diameter, somewhat buttressed, and
thick, fissured bark, often, in young trees,
bearing many blunt-pointed spines or knobs
up to 3/4 in (2 cm) long. Generally, its
lower branches are whorled. Its deciduous,
alternate, pinnate leaves, 8 to 18 in (20-45
cm) long, have hairy, often pinkish, petioles
and 9 to 19 sub-opposite, ovate or
lanceolate, pointed leaflets, 2 to 6 in (5-15 Fig. 70: The true yellow mombin (Spondias mombin) is borne
in dangling clusters. It is eaten mostly by children and
cm) long, inequilateral and oblique at the
base. Small, fragrant, whitish, male, female livestock.
and bisexual flowers are borne, after the new leaves, in panicles 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) long. The
fruit, hanging in numerous, branched, terminal clusters of a dozen or more, is aromatic, ovoid or
oblong, 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 in (3.2-4 cm) long and up to 1 in (2.5 cm) wide; golden-yellow; with thin,
tough skin, and scant, medium-yellow, translucent, fibrous, very juicy pulp, somewhat musky,
very acid, often with a hint of turpentine, clinging to the white, fibrous or "corky" stone.
The tree is native and common in moist lowland forests from southern Mexico to Peru and Brazil,
and in many of the West Indies. It has been planted in Bermuda; is grown to a limited extent in
India and Indonesia; is rare in Malaya, but widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical Africa.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Colombia in 1914 (S.P.I.
#39563); more seeds arrived in 1917 (S.P.I. #45086); and Dr. David Fairchild collected seeds in
Panama in 1921 (S.P.I. #54632). Still, only a few specimens exist in special collections in southern
Florida.
Climate
This is a strictly tropical tree, not growing above an elevation of 3,200 ft (1,000 m) in South
America. It is well-adapted to arid as well as humid zones.
Propagation
The tree may be propagated by seeds but it is usually grown from large cuttings which root
quickly.
Culture
The tree is fast-growing in full sun and in the American tropics and Africa is extensively planted
as a living fence-post, as well as for shade and for its fruits.
Yellow Mombin
Season
In Costa Rica, the tree blooms in November and December and again in March, and the fruits
ripen in August, and in December/January. Blooming occurs in Jamaica in April, May and June
and the crop matures in July and August. The fruits are in season in Mexico from July to October;
in Florida from August to November, They fall to the ground when fully ripe, but children throw
sticks up into the trees to bring them down sooner.
Pests
The fruits are commonly infested with fruit-fly larvae.
Food Uses
The yellow mombin is less desirable than the purple mombin and is appreciated mostly by children
and way-farers as a means of alleviating thirst. Ripe fruits are eaten out-of-hand, or stewed with
sugar. The extracted juice is used to prepare ice cream, cool beverages and jelly. Some people
make those of fair quality into jam and various other preserves.
In Amazonas, the fruit is used mainly to produce wine sold as " Vinho de Taperiba". In Guatemala,
the fruit is made into a cider-like drink.
Mexicans pickle the green fruits in vinegar and eat them like olives with salt and chili, as they do
with the unripe purple mombin.
Young leaves are cooked as greens.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Iron
Thiamine
Riboflavin
21.8-48.1
72.8-88.53 g
1.28-1.38 g
0.1-0.56 g
1.16-1.18 g
8.70-10.0 g
0.65-0.66 g
31.4 mg
2.8 mg
71 I.U.
95 mcg
50 mcg
Ascorbic Acid
46.4 mg
*Analyses made in Guatemala, Africa and the Philippines.

Toxicity
Yellow Mombin
According to Altschul, E.L. Little recorded on an herbarium specimen collected in Colombia: ". . .
fruit edible, but said to be bad for the throat." In tropical Africa, excessive indulgence in the fruits
is said to cause dysentery.
Other Uses
Fruits: The fruits are widely valued as feed for cattle and pigs.
Gum: The tree exudes a gum that is used as a glue.
Wood: The wood is yellow or yellowish-brown with darker markings; light in weight, buoyant,
flexible, strong; prone to attack by termites and other pests. It is much used in carpentry, also for
matchsticks, match-boxes, physician's spatulas, sticks for sweetmeats, pencils, pen-holders,
packing cases, interior sheathing of houses and boats and as a substitute for cork. It is not suited
for turnery and does not polish well. In Brazil, the woody tubercles on the trunk are cut off and
used for bottle stoppers and to make seals for stamping sealing wax. In tropical Africa, saplings
serve as poles for huts; branches for garden poles and for axe and hoe handles. In Costa Rica and
Puerto Rico the wood is employed only as fuel. Ashes from the burned wood are utilized in
indigo-dyeing in Africa.
Bark: The bark, because of its tannin content, is used in tanning and dyeing. It is so thick that it is
popular for carving amulets, statuettes, cigarette holders, and various ornamental objects.
Roots: Potable water can be derived from the roots in emergency.
Nectar: The flowers are worked intensively by honeybees early in the morning.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit juice is drunk as a diuretic and febrifuge. The decoction of the
astringent bark serves as an emetic, a remedy for diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids and a treatment
for gonorrhea and leucorrhea; and, in Mexico, it is
believed to expel calcifications from the
bladder. The powdered bark is applied on
wounds. A tea of the flowers and leaves is
taken to relieve stomachache, biliousness,
urethritis, cystitis and eye and throat
inflammation. In Belize, a decoction of the
young leaves is a remedy for diarrhea and
dysentery. The juice of crushed leaves and
the powder of dried leaves are used as
poultices on wounds and inflammations.
The gum is employed as an expectorant and
to expel tapeworms.
Fig. 71: The imbu. (Spondias tuberosa) of northeastern Brazil
is an appreciated wild source of juice in that semi-arid land.
Photo'd by the plant explorer, P.H. Dorsett in 1914, for the
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Yellow Mombin
Related Species
The imbu, or umbu, S. tuberosa Arruda, is a
low-branching tree to 13 or 16 ft (4-5 m)
high, spreading to a width of 30 ft (9 m). It
has a shallow system of soft, tuberous roots
called cunca, which store much water. The
pinnate leaves have 5 to 9 oblong-ovate
leaflets, 1 to 1 3/4 in (2.5-4.5 cm) long,
sometimes faintly toothed. Flowers, small,
white and 4- to 5-petalled, are produced in
panicles 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) in length. The
fruit, borne in great abundance, exhibits
minor seedling variations; is usually more
or less oval, 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long, with
greenish-yellow, fairly thick, tough skin and
tender, melting pulp, acid unripe, sweet
when ripe, and adherent to the single stone,
3/4 in (2 cm) long.
Fig. 72: The imbu (Spondias tuberosa) from The Navel

Orange of Bahia, with notes on some little-known Brazilian
fruits, by P.H. Dorsett, A.D. Shamel and W. Popenoe. Bull.
445, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 1917.
The tree thrives in very dry soil, gravelly loam, sandy or partly clay, throughout much of
subtropical, semi-arid northeastern Brazil. It is rarely cultivated. It is a much-appreciated,
bountiful, wild food resource of rural people. The fruits are gathered from the ground and sold in
village markets. They are eaten out-of-hand, or the juice is blended with boiled milk and sugar, or
made into ice cream or jelly. The roots have been consumed in emergency and they readily yield
potable water.
Introductions into Florida and Malaya have been unsuccessful.
Lychee

Morton, J. 1987. Lychee. p. 249259. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Lychee
Litchi chinensis Sonn.
Nephelium litchi Cambess
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality, Storage and Shipping
Drying of Lychees
Pests
Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
The lychee is the most renowned of a group of edible fruits of the soapberry family, Sapindaceae.
It is botanically designated Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Nephelium litchi Cambess) and widely known
as litchi and regionally as lichi, lichee, laichi, leechee or lychee. Professor G. Weidman Groff, an
influential authority of the recent past, urged the adoption of the latter as approximating the
pronunciation of the local name in Canton, China, the leading center of lychee production. I am
giving it preference here because the spelling best indicates the desired pronunciation and helps to
standardize English usage. Spanish and Portuguese-speaking people call the fruit lechia; the
French, litchi, or, in French-speaking Haiti, quenepe chinois, distinguishing it from the quenepe,
genip or mamoncillo of the West Indies, Melicoccus bijugatus, q.v. The German word is litschi.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lychee.html (1 of 20) [5/16/2004 1:35:51 PM]
Lychee
Description The lychee tree is handsome,

dense, round-topped, slow-growing, 30 to
100 ft (9-30 m) high and equally broad. Its
evergreen leaves, 5 to 8 in (12.5-20 cm)
long, are pinnate, having 4 to 8 alternate,
elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, abruptly
pointed, leaflets, somewhat leathery,
smooth, glossy, dark-green on the upper
surface and grayish-green beneath, and 2 to
3 in (5-7.5 cm) long. The tiny petalless,
greenish-white to yellowish flowers are
borne in terminal clusters to 30 in (75 cm)
long. Showy fruits, in loose, pendent
clusters of 2 to 30 are usually
strawberry-red, sometimes rose, pinkish or
amber, and some types tinged with green.
Most are aromatic, oval, heart-shaped or
nearly round, about 1 in (2.5 cm) wide and
1 1/2 in (4 cm) long; have a thin, leathery,
rough or minutely warty skin, flexible and Plate XXXII: LYCHEE, Litchi chinensis
easily peeled when fresh. Immediately
beneath the skin of some varieties is a small amount of clear, delicious juice. The glossy,
succulent, thick, translucent-white to grayish or pinkish fleshy aril which usually separates readily
from the seed, suggests a large, luscious grape. The flavor of the flesh is subacid and distinctive.
There is much variation in the size and form of the seed. Normally, it is oblong, up to 3/4 in (20
mm) long, hard, with a shiny, dark-brown coat and is white internally. Through faulty pollination,
many fruits have shrunken, only partially developed seeds (called "chicken tongue") and such
fruits are prized because of the greater proportion of flesh. In a few days, the fruit naturally
dehydrates, the skin turns brown and brittle and the flesh becomes dry, shriveled, dark-brown and
raisin-like, richer and somewhat musky in flavor. Because of the firmness of the shell of the dried
fruits, they came to be nicknamed "lychee, or litchi, nuts" by the uninitiated and this erroneous
name has led to much misunderstanding of the nature of this highly desirable fruit. It is definitely
not a "nut", and the seed is inedible.
The lychee is native to low elevations of the provinces of Kwangtung and Fukien in southern
China, where it flourishes especially along rivers and near the seacoast. It has a long and illustrious
history having been praised and pictured in Chinese literature from the earliest known record in
1059 A.D. Cultivation spread over the years through neighboring areas of southeastern Asia and
offshore islands. Late in the 17th Century, it was carried to Burma and, 100 years later, to India. It
arrived in the West Indies in 1775, was being planted in greenhouses in England and France early
in the 19th Century, and Europeans took it to the East Indies. It reached Hawaii in 1873, and
Florida in 1883, and was conveyed from Florida to California in 1897. It first fruited at Santa
Barbara in 1914. In the 1920's, China's annual crop was 30 million lbs (13.6 million kg). In 1937
(before WW II) the crop of Fukien Province alone was over 35 million lbs (16 million kg). In time,
Lychee
India became second to China in lychee production, total plantings covering about 30,000 acres
(12,500 ha). There are also extensive plantings in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, former Indochina,
Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines, Queensland, Madagascar, Brazil and South Africa. Lychees are
grown mostly in dooryards from northern Queensland to New South Wales, but commercial
orchards have been established in the past 20 years, some consisting of 5,000 trees.
Madagascar began experimental refrigerated shipments of lychees to France in 1960. It is recorded
that there were 2 trees about 6 years old in Natal, South Africa, in 1875. Others were introduced
from Mauritius in 1876. Layers from these latter trees were distributed by the Durban Botanical
Gardens and lychee-growing expanded steadily until in 1947 there were 5,000 bearing trees on one
estate and 5,000 newly planted on another property, a total of 40,000 in all.
In Hawaii, there are many dooryard trees but commercial plantings are small. The fruit appears on
local markets and small quantities are exported to the mainland but the lychee is too undependable
to be classed as a crop of serious economic potential there. Rather, it is regarded as a combination
ornamental and fruit tree.
There are only a few scattered trees in the West Indies and Central America apart from some
groves in Cuba, Honduras and Guatemala. In California, the lychee will grow and fruit only in
protected locations and the climate is generally too dry for it. There are a few very old trees and
one small commercial grove. In the early 1960's, interest in this crop was renewed and some new
plantings were being made on irrigated land.
At first it was believed that the lychee was not well suited to Florida because of the lack of winter
dormancy, exposing successive flushes of tender new growth to the occasional periods of low
temperature from December to March. The earliest plantings at Sanford and Oviedo were killed by
severe freezes. A step forward came with the importation of young lychee trees from Fukien,
China, by the Rev. W.M. Brewster between 1903 and 1906. This cultivar, the centuries-old
'Chen-Tze' or 'Royal Chen Purple', renamed 'Brewster' in Florida, from the northern limit of the
lychee-growing area in China, withstands light frost and proved to be very successful in the Lake
Placid areathe "Ridge" section of Central Florida.
Layered trees were available from Reasoner's Royal Palm Nurseries in the early 1920's, and the
Reasoner's and the U.S. Department of Agriculture made many new introductions for trial. But
there were no large plantings until an improved method of propagation was developed by Col.
William R. Grove who became acquainted with the lychee during military service in the Orient,
retired from the Army, made his home at Laurel (14 miles south of Sarasota, Florida) and was
encouraged by knowledgeable Prof. G. Weidman Groff, who had spent 20 years at Canton
Christian College. Col. Grove made arrangements to air-layer hundreds of branches on some of the
old, flourishing 'Brewster' trees in Sebring and Babson Park and thus acquired the stock to
establish his lychee grove. He planted the first tree in 1938, and by 1940 was selling lychee plants
and promoting the lychee as a commercial crop. Many small orchards were planted from Merritt's
Island to Homestead and the Florida Lychee Growers' Association was founded in 1952, especially
to organize cooperative marketing. The spelling "lychee" was officially adopted by the association
upon the strong recommendation of Professor Groff.
In 1960, over 6,000 lbs (2,720 kg) were shipped to New York, 4,000 lbs (1,814 kg) to California,
nearly 6,000 lbs (2,720 kg) to Canada, and 3,900 lbs (1, 769 kg) were consumed in Florida, though
Lychee
this was far from a record year. The commercial lychee crop in Florida has fluctuated with weather
conditions, being affected not only by freezes but also by drought and strong winds. Production
was greatly reduced in 1959, to a lesser extent in 1963, fell drastically in 1965, reached a high of
50,770 lbs (22,727 kg) in 1970, and a low of 7,200 lbs (3,273 kg) in 1974. Some growers lost up to
70% of their crop because of severe cold in the winter of 1979-80. Of course, there are many
bearing trees in home gardens that are not represented in production figures. The fruit from these
trees may be merely for household consumption or may be purchased at the site by Chinese
grocers or restaurant operators, or sold at roadside stands.
Though the Florida lychee industry is small, mainly because of weather hazards, irregular bearing
and labor of hand-harvesting, it has attracted much attention to the crop and has contributed to the
dissemination of planting material to other areas of the Western Hemisphere. Escalating land
values will probably limit the expansion of lychee plantings in this rapidly developing state.
Another limiting factor is that much land suitable for lychee culture is already devoted to citrus
groves.
Varieties
Professor Groff, in his book, The lychee and the lungan, tells us that the production of superior
types of lychee is a matter of great family pride and local rivalry in China, where the fruit is
esteemed as no other. In 1492, a list of 40 lychee varieties, mostly named for families, was
published in the Annals of Fukien. In the Kwang provinces there were 22 types, 30 were listed in
the Annals of Kwangtung, and 70 were tallied as varieties of Ling Nam. The Chinese claim that
the lychee is highly variable under different cultural and soil conditions. Professor Groff
concluded that one could catalog 40 or 50 varieties as recognized in Kwangtung, but there were
only 15 distinct, widely-known and commercial varieties grown in that province, half of them
marketed in season in the City of Canton. Some of these are classed as "mountain" types; the
majority are "water types" (grown in low, well-irrigated land). There is a special distinction
between the kinds of lychee that leak juice when the skin is broken and those that retain the juice
within the flesh. The latter are called "dry- and -clean" and are highly prized. There is much
variation in form (round, egg-shaped or heart-shaped), skin color and texture, the fragrance and
flavor and even the color, of the flesh; and the amount of "rag" in the seed cavity; and, of prime
importance, the size and form of the seed.
The following are the 15 cultivars recognized by Professor Groff:
'No Mai Tsze', or 'No mi ts 'z' (glutinous rice) is the leading variety in China; large, red,
"dry-and-clean"; seeds often small and shriveled. It is one of the best for drying, and is late in
season. It does best when grafted onto the 'Mountain' lychee.
'Kwa Iuk' or 'Kua lu' (hanging green) is a famous lychee; large, red with a green tip and a typical
green line; "dry-and-clean"; of outstanding flavor and fragrance. It was, in olden times, a special
fruit for presentation to high officials and other persons in positions of honor. Professor Groff was
given a single fruit in a little red box!
'Kwai mi' or 'Kuei Wei', (cinnamon flavor) which came to be called 'Mauritius' is smaller,
heart-shaped, with rough red skin tinged with green on the shoulders and usually having a thin line
running around the fruit. The seed is small and the flesh very sweet and fragrant. The branches of
Lychee
the tree curve upward at the tips and the leaflets curl inward from the midrib.
'Hsiang li', or 'Heung lai' (fragrant lychee) is home by a tree with distinctive erect habit having
upward-pointing leaves. The fruit is small, very rough and prickly, deep-red, with the smallest
seeds of all, and the flesh is of superior flavor and fragrance. It is late in season. Those grown in
Sin Hsing are better than those grown in other locations.
'Hsi Chio tsu', or 'Sai kok tsz' (rhinoceros horn) is borne by a large-growing tree. The fruit is
large, rough, broad at the base and narrow at the apex; has somewhat tough and fibrous, but
fragrant, sweet, flesh. It ripens early.
'Hak ip', or 'Hei yeh', (black leaf) is borne by a densely-branched tree with large, pointed, slightly
curled, dark-green leaflets. The fruit is medium-red, sometimes with green tinges,
broad-shouldered, with thin, soft skin and the flesh, occasionally pinkish, is crisp and sweet. This
is rated as "one of the best 'water' lychees."
'Fei tsu hsiao', or 'Fi tsz siu' (imperial concubine's laugh, or smile) is large, amber-colored,
thin-skinned, with very sweet, very fragrant flesh. Seeds vary from large to very small. It ripens
early.
'T' ang po', or 'T' ong pok' (pond embankment) is from a small-leaved tree. The fruit is small, red,
rough, with thin, juicy acid flesh and very little rag. It is a very early variety.
'Sheung shu wai' or'Shang hou huai', (President of a Board's embrace) is borne on a small-leaved
tree. The fruit is large, rounded, red, with many dark spots. It has sweet flesh with little scent and
the seed size is variable. It is rather late in season.
'Ch'u ma lsu', or 'Chu ma lsz' (China grass fiber) has distinctive, lush foliage. The leaves are
large, overlapping, with long petioles. The fruits are large with prominent shoulders and rough
skin, deep red inside. While very fragrant, the flesh is of inferior flavor and clings to the seed
which varies from large to small.
'Ta tsao', or 'Tai tso' (large crop) is widely grown around Canton; somewhat egg-shaped; skin
rough, bright-red with many small, dense dots; flesh firm, crisp, sweet, faintly streaked with
yellow near the large seed. The juice leaks when the skin is broken. The fruit ripens early.
'Huai chih', or 'Wai chi' (the Wai River lychee) has medium-sized, blunt leaves. The fruit is round
with medium-smooth skin, a rich red outside, pink inside; and leaking juice. This is not a high
class variety but the most commonly grown, high yielding, and late in season.
'San yueh hung', or 'Sam ut hung' (third month red), also called 'Ma yuen', 'Ma un', 'Tsao kuo',
'Tso kwo', 'Tsao li', or 'Tsoli' (early lychee) is grown along dykes. The branches are brittle and
break readily; the leaves are long, pointed, and thick. The fruit is very large, with red, thick, tough
skin and thick, medium-sweet flesh with much rag. The seeds are long but aborted. This variety is
popular mainly because it comes into season very early.
'Pai la li chih', or 'Pak lap lai chi' (white wax lychee), also called 'Po le tzu', or 'Pak lik tsz (white
fragrant plant), is large, pink, rough, with pinkish, fibrous, not very sweet flesh and large seeds. It
ripens very late, after 'Huai chih'.
Lychee
'Shan chi', or 'Shan chih' (mountain lychee), also called 'Suan chih', or 'Sun chi' (sour lychee)
grows wild in the hills and is often planted as a rootstock for better varieties. The tree is of erect
habit with erect twigs and large, pointed, short-petioled leaves. The fruit is bright-red, elongated,
very rough, with thin flesh, acid flavor and large seed.
'T'im ngam', or 'T'ien yeh' (sweet cliff) is a common variety of lychee which Professor Groff
reported to be quite widely grown in Kwantung, but not really on a commercial basis.
In his book, The Litchi, Dr. Lal Behari Singh wrote that Bihar is the center of lychee culture in
India, producing 33 selected varieties classified into 15 groups. His extremely detailed descriptions
of the 10 cultivars recommended for large-scale cultivation I have abbreviated (with a few
bracketed additions from other sources):
'Early Seedless', or 'Early Bedana'. Fruit 1 1/3 in (3.4 cm) long, heart-shaped to oval; rough, red,
with green interspaces; skin firm and leathery; flesh [ivory] to white, soft, sweet; seed shrunken,
like a dog's tooth. Of good quality. The tree bears a moderate crop, early in season.
'Rose-scented'. Fruit 1 1/4 in (3.2 cm) long; rounded-heart-shaped; slightly rough, purplish-rose,
slightly firm skin; flesh gray-white, soft, very sweet. Seed round-ovate, fully developed. Of good
quality. [Tree bears a moderate crop] in midseason.
'Early Large Red'. Fruit slightly more than 1 1/3 in (3.4 cm) long, usually obliquely
heart-shaped; crimson [to carmine], with green interspaces; very rough; skin very firm and
leathery, adhering slightly to the flesh. Flesh grayish-white, firm, sweet and flavorful. Of very
good quality. [Tree is a moderate bearer], early in season.
'Dehra Dun', [or 'Dehra Dhun']. Fruit less than 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long; obliquely heart-shaped to
conical; a blend of red and orange-red; skin rough, leathery; flesh gray-white, soft, of good, sweet
flavor. Seed often shrunken, occasionally very small. Of good quality; midseason. [This is grown
extensively in Uttar Pradesh and is the most satisfactory lychee in Pakistan.]
'Late Long Red', or 'Muzaffarpur'. Fruit less than 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long; usually oblong-conical;
dark-red with greenish interspaces; skin rough, firm and leathery, slightly adhering to the flesh;
flesh grayish-white, soft, of good, sweet flavor. Seed cylindrical, fully developed. Of good quality.
[Tree is a heavy bearer], late in season.
'Pyazi'. Fruit 1 1/3 in (3.4 cm) long; oblong-conical to heart-shaped; a blend of orange and
orange-red, with yellowish-red, not very prominent, tubercles. Skin leathery, adhering; flesh
gray-white, firm, slightly sweet, with flavor reminiscent of "boiled onion". Seed cylindrical, fully
developed. Of poor quality. Early in season.
'Extra Early Green'. Fruit 1 1/4 in (3.2 cm) long; mostly heart-shaped, rarely rounded or oblong;
yellowish-red with green interspaces; skin slightly rough, leathery, slightly adhering; flesh
creamy-white, [firm, of good, slightly acid flavor]; seed oblong, cylindrical or flat. Of indifferent
quality. Very early in season.
'Kalkattia', ['Calcuttia', or 'Calcutta']. Fruit 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long; oblong or lopsided; rose-red with
darker tubercles; skin very rough, leathery, slightly adhering; flesh grayish ivory, firm, of very
sweet, good flavor. Seed oblong or concave. Of very good quality. [A heavy bearer; withstands hot
Lychee
winds]. Very late in season.

'Gulabi'. Fruit 1 1/3 in (3.4 cm) long; heart-shaped, oval or oblong; pink-red to carmine with
orange-red tubercles; skin very rough, leathery, non-adherent; flesh gray-white, firm, of good
subacid flavor; seed oblong-cylindrical, fully developed. Of very good quality. Late in season.
'Late Seedless', or 'Late Bedana'. Fruit less than 1 3/8 in (3.65 cm) long; mainly conical, rarely
ovate; orange-red to carmine with blackish-brown tubercles; skin rough, firm, non-adherent; flesh
creamy-white, soft; very sweet, of very good flavor except for slight bitterness near the seed. Seed
slightly spindle-shaped, or like a dog's tooth; underdeveloped. Of very good quality. [Tree bears
heavily. Withstands hot winds.] Late in season.
There are numerous lychee orchards in the submontane region of the Punjab. The leading variety
is:
'Panjore common'. Fruit is large, heart-shaped, deep-orange to pink; skin is rough, very thin, apt
to split. Tree bears heavily and has the longest fruiting season-for an entire month beginning near
the end of May. Six other varieties commonly grown there are: 'Rose-scented', 'Bhadwari',
'Seedless No. 1', 'Seedless No. 2', 'Dehra Dun', and 'Kalkattia'.
In South Africa, only one variety is produced commercially. It is the 'Kwai Mi' but it is locally
called 'Mauritius' because nearly all of the trees are descendants of those brought in from that
island. In South Africa, the fruit is of medium size, nearly round but slightly oval, reddish-brown.
Flesh is firm, of good quality and usually contains a medium-sized seed, but certain fruits with
broad, flat shoulders and shortened form tend to have "chicken-tongue" seeds.
There have been many other introductions into South Africa from China and India but most failed
to survive. In 1928, 16 varieties from India were planted at Lowe's Orchards, Southport, Natal, but
the records were lost and they remained unnamed. A Litchi Variety Orchard of 26 cultivars from
India, China, Taiwan and elsewhere was established at the Subtropical Horticulture Research
Station in Nelspruit. Tentative classifications grouped these into 3 distinct types'Kwai Mi'
['Mauritius'], 'Hak Ip' (of high quality and small seed but a shy bearer in the Low-veld), and the
'Madras', a heavy bearer of choice fruits, bright-red, very rough, and with large seeds, but very
sweet, luscious flesh.
The first lychee introduced into Hawaii was the 'Kwai Mi', as was the second introduction several
years later. The high quality of this variety (sometimes locally called 'Charlie Long') caused the
lychee to become extremely popular and widely planted. The Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment
Station imported 3 'Brewster' trees in 1907, and various efforts were made to bring other types
from China but not all survived. A total of 16 varieties became well established in Hawaii,
including 'Hak Ip' which has become second to 'Kwai Mi' in importance.
In 1942, the Agricultural Experiment Station set out a collection of 500 seedlings of 'Kwai Mi',
'Hak Ip' and 'Brewster' with a view to selecting the trees showing the best performance. One tree of
outstanding character (a seedling of 'Hak Ip') was first designated H.A.E.S. Selection 1-18-3 and
was given the name 'Groff' in 1953. It is a consistent bearer, late in season. The fruit is of medium
size, dark rose-red with green or yellowish tinges on the apex of each tubercle. The flesh is white
and firm; there is no leaking juice; the flavor is excellent, sweet and subacid; most of the fruits
have abortive, "chicken-tongue" seeds and, accordingly have 20% more flesh than if the seeds
Lychee
were fully developed.

'No Mai Tsze' has been growing in Hawaii for over 40 years but has produced very few fruits. 'Pat
Po Heung' (eight precious fragrances), erroneously called 'Pat Po Hung' (eight precious red),
somewhat resembles 'No Mai Tsze' but is smaller; the skin is purplish-red, thin and pliable; the
juice leaks when the skin is broken; the flesh is soft, juicy, sweet even when slightly unripe; the
seed varies from medium to large. The tree is slow-growing and of weak, spreading habit; it bears
well in Hawaii. Nevertheless, it is not commonly planted.
'Kaimana', or 'Poamoho', an open-pollinated seedling of 'Hak Ip', developed by Dr. R.A.
Hamilton at the Poamoho Experiment Station of the University of Hawaii, was released in 1982.
The fruit resembled 'Kwai Mi' but is twice as large, deep-red, of high quality, and the tree is a
regular bearer.
'Brewster' is large, conical or wedge-shaped, red, with soft flesh, more acid than that of 'Kwai mi',
and the seeds are very often fully formed and large. The leaflets are flat with slightly recurved
margins and taper to a sharp point.
There were many other introductions of seeds, seedlings, cuttings or air-layers into the United
States, from 1902 to 1924, mostly from China; also from India and Hawaii, and a few from Java,
Cuba, and Trinidad; and these were distributed to experimenters in Florida and California, and
some to botanical gardens in other states, and to Cuba, Puerto Rico, Panama, Honduras, Costa
Rica and Brazil. Many were killed by cold weather in California and Florida.
In 1908, the United States Department of Agriculture brought in 27 plants of 'Kwai mi'. At the
same time, 20 plants of 'Hak Ip' were imported and these were sent to George B. Cellon in Miami
in 1918. A tree of the 'Bedana' was introduced from India in 1913. In 1920, Professor Groff
obtained seedlings of 'Shan Chi' (mountain lychee) from Kwantung Province, together with
air-layers of 'Sheung shu wai', 'No mai ts 'z', and 'T' im ngam' (sweet cliff). The latter was found to
bear more regularly than 'Brewster' but exhibited nutritional deficiencies in limestone soil.
Most of the various plants and rooted cuttings from them were distributed for trial; the rest were
kept in U.S. Department of Agriculture greenhouses in Maryland.
'Bengal'In 1929, the U.S. Department of Agriculture received a small lychee plant, supposedly a
seedling of 'Rose-scented', from Calcutta. It was planted at the Plant Introduction Station in Miami
and began bearing in 1940. The fruits resembled 'Brewster' but were more elongated, were home in
large clusters, and the flesh was firm, not leaking juice when peeled. All the fruits had fully
developed seeds but smaller in proportion to flesh than those of 'Brewster'. The habit of the tree is
more spreading than that of 'Brewster'; it has larger, more leathery, darker green leave's, and the
bark is smoother and paler. The original tree and its air-layered progeny have shown no chlorosis
on limestone in contrast to 'Brewster' trees growing nearby.
'Peerless', believed to be a seedling of 'Brewster', originated at the Royal Palm Nursery at Oneco;
was transplanted to the T.R. Palmer Estate in Belleair where C.E. Ware noticed from 1936 to 1938
that it bore fruit of larger size, brighter color and higher percentage of abortive seed than
'Brewster'. In 1938, Ware air-layered and removed 200 branches, purchased the tree and moved it
to his property in Clearwater. It resumed fruiting in 1940 and annual crops recorded to 1956
showed good productivity-averaging 383.4 lbs (174 kg) per year, and the rate of abortive seeds
Lychee
ranged from 62% to 85%. The 200 air-layers were planted out by Ware in 1942 and began bearing
in 1946. Most of the fruits had fully developed seeds but the rate of abortive seeds increased year
by year and in 1950 was 61% to 70%. The cultivar was named with the approval of the Florida
Lychee Growers Association. Two seedling selections by Col. Grove, 'Yellow Red' and 'Late
Globe', Prof. Groff believed to be natural hybrids of 'Brewster' 'Mountain'.
In northern Queensland, 'Kwai Mi' is the earliest cultivar grown, and about 10% of the fruits have
"chicken tongue" seeds. 'Brewster' bears in mid-season and is important though the seed is nearly
always fully formed and large. 'Hak Ip' is also midseason and large-seeded there. 'Bedana' is grown
only in home gardens and the fruits have large seeds unlike the usual "chicken tongue" seeds of the
fruits of this cultivar borne in India i
'Wai Chi' is late in season (December), has small, round fruits, basically yellow overlaid with red;
the seed is small and oval. The tree is very compact with upright branches, and prefers a cooler
climate than that of coastal north Queensland where it does not fruit heavily. The leaflets are
concave like those of 'Kwai Mi'.
A very similar, perhaps identical, cultivar called 'Hong Kong' is grown in South Queensland. 'No
Mai' bears poorly in Queensland and seems better adapted to cooler areas.
There are 3 types of flowers appearing in irregular sequence or, at times, simultaneously, in the
lychee inflorescence: a) male; b) hermaphrodite, fruiting as female (about 30% of the total); c)
hermaphrodite fruiting as male. The latter tend to possess the most viable pollen. Many of the
flowers have defective pollen and this fact probably is the main cause of the abortive seeds and
also the common problem of shedding of young fruits. The flowers require transfer of pollen by
insects.
In India, L.B. Singh recorded 11 species of bees, flies, wasps and other insects as visiting lychee
flowers for nectar. But honeybees, mostly Apis cerana indica, A. dorsata and A. florea, constitute
78% of the lychee-pollinating insects and they work the flowers for pollen and nectar from sunrise
to sundown. A. cerana is the only hive bee and is essential in commercial orchards for maximum
fruit production.
A 6-week survey in Florida revealed 27 species of lychee-flower visitors, representing 6 different
insect Orders. Most abundant, morning and afternoon, was the secondary screw-worm fly
(Callitroga macellaria), an undesirable pest. Next was the imported honeybee (Apis mellifera)
seeking nectar daily but only during the morning and apparently not interested in the pollen. No
wild bees were seen on the lychee flowers, though wild bees were found in large numbers
collecting pollen in an adjacent fruit-tree planting a few weeks later. Third in order, but not
abundant, was the soldier beetle (Chauliognathus marginatus). The rest of the insect visitors were
present only in insignificant number. Maintenance of bee hives in Florida lychee groves is
necessary to enhance fruit set and development. The fruits mature 2 months after flowering.
In India and Hawaii, there has been some interest in possible cross-breeding of the lychee and
pollen storage tests have been conducted. Lychee pollen has remained viable at room temperature
for 10 to 30 days in petri dishes; for 3 to 5 months in desiccators; 15 months at 32 F (0 C) and
25% relative humidity in desiccators; and 31 months under deep-freeze, -9.4 F (-23 C). There is
Lychee
considerable variation in the germination rates of pollen from different cultivars. In India, 'Rose
Scented' has shown mean viability of 61.99% compared with 42.52% in 'Khattl'.
Climate
Groff provided a clear view of the climatic requirements of the lychee. He said that it thrives best
in regions "not subject to heavy frost but cool and dry enough in the winter months to provide a
period of rest." In China and India, it is grown between 15 and 30 N. "The Canton delta ... is
crossed by the Tropic of Cancer and is a subtropical area of considerable range in climate. Great
fluctuations of temperature are common throughout the fall and winter months. In the winter
sudden rises of temperature will at times cause the lychee ... to flush forth ... new growth. This new
growth is seldom subject to a freeze about Canton. On the higher elevations of the mountain
regions which are subject to frost the lychee is seldom grown . . . The more hardy mountainous
types of the lychee are very sour and those grown near salt water are said to be likewise. The
lychee thrives best on the lower plains where the summer months are hot and wet and the winter
months are dry and cool."
Heavy frosts will kill young trees but mature trees can withstand light frosts. Cold tolerance of the
lychee is intermediate between that of the sweet orange on one hand and mango and avocado on
the other. Location, land slope, and proximity to bodies of water can make a great difference in
degree of damage by freezing weather. In the severe low temperature crisis during the winter of
1957-58, the effects ranged from minimal to total throughout central and southern Florida. A grove
of 12-to 14-year-old trees south of Sanford was killed back nearly to the ground; on Merritt Island
trees of the same age were virtually undamaged, while a commercial mango planting was totally
destroyed. L.B. Singh resists the common belief that the lychee needs winter cold spells that
provide periods of temperature between 30 and 40 F (-1.11 and 4.44 C) because it does well in
Mauritius where the temperature is never below 40 F (-1.11 C). However, lychee trees in
Panama, Jamaica, and other tropical areas set fruit only occasionally or not at all.
Heavy rain or fog during the flowering period is detrimental, as are hot, dry, strong winds which
cause shedding of flowers, also splitting of the fruit skin. Splitting occurs, too, during spells of
alternating rain and hot, dry periods, especially on the sunny side of the tree. Spraying with
Ethephon at 10 ppm reduced splitting in 'Early Large Red' in experiments in Nepal.
Soil
The lychee grows well on a wide range of soils. In China it is cultivated in sandy or clayey loam,
"river mud", moist sandy clay, and even heavy clay. The pH should be between 6 and 7. If the soil
is deficient in lime, this must be added. However, in an early experiment in a greenhouse in
Washington, D.C., seedlings planted in acid soil showed superior growth and the roots had many
nodules filled with mycorrhizal fungi. This caused some to speculate that inoculation might be
desirable. Later, in Florida, profuse nodulation was observed on roots of lychee seedlings that had
not been inoculated but merely grown in pots of sphagnum moss and given a well-balanced
nutrient solution.
The lychee attains maximum growth and productivity on deep alluvial loam but flourishes in
extreme southern Florida on oolitic limestone providing it is put in an adequate hole and irrigated
in dry seasons.
Lychee
The Chinese often plant the lychee on the banks of ponds and streams. In low, wet land, they dig
ditches 10 to 15 ft (3-4.5 m) wide and 30 to 40 ft (9-12 m) apart, using the excavated soil to form
raised beds on which they plant lychee trees, so that they have perfect drainage but the soil is
always moist. Though the lychee has a high water requirement, it cannot stand water-logging. The
water table should be at least 4 to 6 ft (1.2-1.8 m) below the surface and the underground water
should be moving inasmuch as stagnant water induces root rot. The lychee can stand occasionally
brief flooding better than citrus. It will not thrive under saline conditions.
Propagation
Lychees do not reproduce faithfully from seed, and the choicest have abortive, not viable, seed.
Furthermore, lychee seeds remain viable only 4 to 5 days, and seedling trees will not bear until
they are 5 to 12, or even 25, years old. For these reasons, seeds are planted mostly for selection
and breeding purposes or for rootstock.
Attempts to grow the lychee from cuttings have been generally discouraging, though 80% success
has been claimed with spring cuttings in full sun, under constant mist and given weekly liquid
nutrients. Ground-layering has been practiced to some extent. In China, air-layering (marcotting,
or gootee) is the most popular means of propagation and has been practiced for ages. By their
method, a branch of a chosen tree is girdled, allowed to callus for 1 to 2 days and then is enclosed
in a ball of sticky mud mixed with chopped straw or dry leaves and wrapped with burlap. With
frequent watering, roots develop in the mud and, in about 100 days, the branch is cut off, the ball
of earth is increased to about 12 in (30 cm) in width, and the air-layer is kept in a sheltered nursery
for a little over a year, then gradually exposed to full sun before it is set out in the orchard. Some
air-layers are planted in large clay pots and grown as ornamentals.
The Chinese method of air-layering has many variations. In fact, 92 modifications have been
recorded and experimented with in Hawaii. Inarching is also an ancient custom, selected cultivars
being joined to 'Mountain' lychee rootstock.
In order to make air-layering less labor-intensive, to eliminate the watering, and also to produce
portable, shippable layers, Colonel Grove, after much experimentation, developed the technique of
packing the girdle with wet sphagnum moss and soil, wrapping it in moisture-proof clear plastic
that permits exchange of air and gasses, and tightly securing it above and below. In about 6 weeks,
sufficient roots are formed to permit detaching of the layer, removal of the plastic wrap, and
planting in soil in nursery containers. It is possible to air-layer branches up to 4 in (10 cm) thick,
and to take 200 to 300 layers from a large tree.
Studies in Mexico have led to the conclusion that, for maximum root formation, branches to be
air-layered should not be less than 5/8 in (15 mm) in diameter, and, to avoid undue defoliation of
the parent tree, should not exceed 3/4 in (20 mm). The branches, of any age, around the periphery
of the canopy and exposed to the sun, make better air-layers with greater root development than
branches taken from shaded positions on the tree. The application of growth regulators, at various
rates, has shown no significant effect on root development in the Mexican experiments. In India,
certain of the various auxins tried stimulated root formation, forced early maturity of the layers,
but contributed to high mortality. South African horticulturists believe that tying the branch up so
that it is nearly vertical induces vigorous rooting.
Lychee
The new trees, with about half of the top trimmed off and supported by stakes, are kept in a
shadehouse for 6 weeks before setting out. Improvements in Colonel Grove's system later included
the use of constant mist in the shadehouse. Also, it was found that birds pecked at the young roots
showing through the transparent wrapping, made holes in the plastic and caused dehydration. It
became necessary to shield the air-layers with a cylinder of newspaper or aluminum foil. As time
went on, some people switched to foil in place of plastic for wrapping the air-layers.
The air-layered trees will fruit in 2 to 5 years after planting, Professor Groff said that a lychee tree
is not in its prime until it is 20 to 40 years old; will continue bearing a good crop for 100 years or
longer. One disadvantage of air-layering is that the resultant trees have weak root systems. In
China, a crude method of cleft-grafting has long been employed for special purposes, but,
generally speaking, the lychee has been considered very difficult to graft. Bark, tongue, cleft, and
side-veneer grafting, also chip-and shield-budding, have been tried by various experimenters in
Florida, Hawaii, South Africa and elsewhere with varing degrees of success. The lychee is peculiar
in that the entire cambium is active only during the earliest phases of secondary growth. The use of
very young rootstocks, only 1/4 in (6 mm) in diameter and wrapping the union with strips of vinyl
plastic film, have given good results. A 70% success rate has been achieved in splice-grafting in
South Africa. Hardened-off, not terminal, wood of young branches 1/4 in (6 mm) thick is first
ringed and the bark-ring removed. After a delay of 21 days, the branch is cut off at the ring,
defoliated but leaving the base of each petiole, then a slanting cut is made in the rootstock 1 ft (30
cm) above the soil, at the point where it matches the thickness of the graftwood (scion), and
retaining as many leaves as possible. The cut is trimmed to a perfectly smooth surface 1 in (2.5
cm) long; the scion is then trimmed to 4 in (10 cm) long, making a slanting cut to match that on
the rootstock. The scion should have 2 slightly swollen buds. After joining the scion and the
rootstock, the union is wrapped with plastic grafting tape and the scion is completely covered with
grafting strips to prevent dehydration. In 6 weeks the buds begin to swell, and the plastic is slit just
above the bud to permit sprouting. When the new growth has hardened off, all the grafting tape is
removed. The grafting is performed in a moist, warm atmosphere. The grafted plants are
maintained in containers for 2 years or more before planting out, and they develop strong taproots.
In India, a more recent development is propagation by stooling, which has been found "simpler,
quicker and more economical" there than air-layering. First, air-layers from superior trees are
planted 4 ft (1.2 m) apart in "stool beds" where enriched holes have been prepared and left open
for 2 weeks. Fertilizer is applied when planting (at the beginning of September) and the air-layers
are well established by mid-October and putting out new flushes of growth in November. Fertilizer
is applied again in February-March and June-July. Shallow cultivation is performed to keep the
plot weed-free. At the end of 2 1/2 years, in mid-February, the plants are cut back to 10 in (25 cm)
from the ground. New shoots from the trunk are allowed to grow for 4 months. In mid-June, a ring
of bark is removed from all shoots except one on each plant and lanolin paste containing IBA
(2,500 ppm) is applied to the upper portion of the ringed area. Ten days later, earth is heaped up to
cover 4 to 6 in (10-15 cm) of the stem above the ring. This causes the shoots to root profusely in 2
months. The rooted shoots are separated from the plant and are immediately planted in nursery
beds or pots. Those which do not wilt in 3 weeks are judged suitable for setting out in the field.
The earth around the parent plants is leveled and the process of fertilization, cultivation, ringing
and earthing-up and harvesting of stools is repeated over and over for years until the parent plants
have lost their vitality. It is reported that the transplanted shoots have a survival rate of 81-82% as
Lychee
compared with 40% to 50% in air-layers.

Culture
Spacing: For a permanent orchard, the trees are best spaced 40 ft (12 m) apart each way. In India,
a 30 ft spacing is considered adequate, probably because the drier climate limits the overall
growth. Portions of the tree shaded by other trees will not bear fruit. For maximum productivity,
there must be full exposure to light on all sides.
In the Cook Islands, the trees are planted on a 40 x 20 ft (12 x 6 m) spacing56 trees per acre (134
per ha)but in the 15th year, the plantation is thinned to 40 x 40 ft (12 x l2 m).
Wind protection: Young trees benefit greatly by wind protection. This can be provided by placing
stakes around each small tree and stretching cloth around them as a windscreen. In very windy
locations, the entire plantation may be protected by trees planted as windbreaks but these should
not be so close as to shade the lychees. The lychee tree is structurally highly wind-resistant, having
withstood typhoons, but shelter may be needed to safeguard the crop. During dry, hot months,
lychee trees of any age will benefit from overhead sprinkling; they are seriously retarded by water
stress.
Fertilization: Newly planted trees must be watered but not fertilized beyond the enrichment of the
hole well in advance of planting. In China, lychee trees are fertilized only twice a year and only
organic material is used, principally night soil, sometimes with the addition of soybean or peanut
residue after oil extraction, or mud from canals and fish ponds. There is no great emphasis on
fertilization in India. It has been established that a harvest of 1,000 lbs (454.5 kg) removes
approximately 3 lbs (1,361 g) K2O, 1 lb (454 g) P2O5, 1 lb (454 g) N, 3/4 lb (340 g) CaO, and 1/2
lb (228 g) MgO from the soil. It is judged, therefore, that applications of potash, phosphate, lime
and magnesium should be made to restore these elements.
Fertilizer experiments on fine sand in central Florida have shown that medium rates of N (either
sulfate of ammonia or ammonium nitrate), P2O5, K2O, and MgO, together with one application of
dolomite limestone at 2 tons/acre (4.8 tons/ha) are beneficial in counteracting chlorosis and
promoting growth, flowering and fruit-set and reducing early fruit shedding. Excessive use of
nitrogen suppresses growth and interferes with the uptake of other nutrients. If vegetative
dormancy is to be encouraged in bearing trees, fertilizer should be withheld in fall and early
winter.
In limestone soil, it may be necessary to spread chelated iron 2 or 3 times a year to avoid chlorosis.
Zinc deficiency is evidenced by bronzing of the leaves. It is corrected by a foliar spray of 8 lbs (3.5
kg) zinc sulphate and 4 lbs (1.8 kg) hydrated lime in 48 qts (45 liters) of water. Because of the
very shallow root system of the lychee, a surface mulch is very beneficial in hot weather.
Pruning: Ordinarily, the tree is not pruned after the judicious shaping of the young plant, because
the clipping off of a branch tip with each cluster of fruits is sufficient to promote new growth for
the next crop. Severe pruning of old trees may be done to increase fruit size and yield for at least a
few years.
Girdling: The Indian farmer may girdle the branches or trunk of his lychee trees in September to
enhance flowering and fruiting. Tests on 'Brewster' in Hawaii confirmed the much higher yield
Lychee
obtained from branches girdled in September. Girdling of trees that begin to flush in October and
November is ineffective. Similar trials in Florida showed increased yield of trees that had poor
crops the previous year, but there was no significant increase in trees that had been heavy bearers.
Furthermore, many branches were weakened or killed by girdling. Repeated girdling as a regular
practice would probably seriously interfere with overall growth and productivity.
Indian horticulturists warn that girdling in alternate years, or girdling just half of the tree, may be
preferable to annual girdling and that, in any case, heavy fertilization and irrigation should precede
girdling. Fall spraying of growth inhibitors has not been found to increase yields.
Harvesting
For home use or for local markets, lychees are harvested when fully colored; for shipment, when
only partly colored. The final swelling of the fruit causes the protuberances on the skin to be less
crowded and to slightly flatten out, thus an experienced picker will recognize the stage of full
maturity. The fruits are rarely picked singly except for immediate eating out-of-hand, because the
stem does not normally detach without breaking the skin and that causes the fruit to spoil quickly.
The clusters are usually clipped with a portion of stem and a few leaves attached to prolong
freshness. Individual fruits are later clipped from the cluster leaving a stub of stem attached.
Harvesting may need to be done every 3 to 4 days over a period of 3-4 weeks. It is never done
right after rain, as the wet fruit is very perishable. The lychee tree is not very suitable for the use of
ladders. High clusters are usually harvested by metal or bamboo pruning poles. A worker can
harvest 55 lbs (25 kg) of fruits per hour.
Yield
The yield varies with the cultivar, age, weather, presence of pollinators, and cultural practices. In
India, a 5-year-old tree may produce 500 fruits, a 20-year-old tree 4,000 to 5,000 fruits160 to 330
lbs (72.5-149.6 kg). Exceptional trees have borne 1,000 lbs (455 kg) of fruit per year. One tree in
Florida has borne 1,200 lbs (544 kg). In China, there are reports of 1,500 lb crops (680 kg). In
South Africa, trees 25 years old have averaged 600 lbs (272 kg) each in good years; and an
average yield per acre is approximately 10,000 lbs annually (roughly equivalent to 10,000 kg per
hectare).
Keeping Quality, Storage and Shipping
Freshly picked lychees keep their color and quality only 3 to 5 days at room temperature. If
pre-treated with 0.5% copper sulphate solution and kept in perforated polyethylene bags, they will
remain fresh somewhat longer.
Fresh fruits, picked individually by snapping the stems and later de-stemmed during grading, and
packed in shallow, ventilated cartons with shredded-paper cushioning, have been successfully
shipped by air from Florida to markets throughout the United States and also to Canada. In South
Africa, freshly picked lychees have been placed on trays in ventilated sheds, dusted with sulphur
and left overnight, and then allowed to "wilt" in lugs for 24 to 48 hours to permit any infested or
injured fruits to become conspicuous before grading and packing. It is said that fruits so treated
retain their fresh color and are unaffected by fungi or pests for several weeks.
In China and India, lychees are packed in baskets or crates lined with leaves or other cushioning.
Lychee
The clusters or loose fruits are best packed in trays with protective sheets between the layers and
no more than 5 single layers or 3 double layers are joined together. The pack should not be too
tight. Containers for stacked trays or fruits not so arranged, must be fairly shallow to avoid too
much weight and crushing. Spoilage may be retarded by moistening the fruits with a salt solution.
In the Cook Islands, the fruits are removed from the clusters, dipped in Benlate to control fungal
growth, dried on racks, then packed in cartons for shipment to New Zealand. South African
shippers immerse the fruits for 10 minutes in a suspension of 0.375 dicloran 50% wp plus 0.625 g
benomyl 50% wp per liter of water warmed to 125.6 F (52 C). Tests at CSIRO, Div. of Food
Research, New South Wales, Australia, in 1982, showed good color retention, retardation of
weight loss and fungal spoilage in lychees dipped in hot benomyl 0.05% at 125.6 F (52 C) for
two minutes and packed in trays with PVC "skrink" film covering. The chemical treatment had not
yet been approved by health authorities.
Lychee clusters shipped to France by air from Madagascar have arrived in fresh condition when
packed 13 lbs (6 kg) to the carton and cushioned with leaves of the traveler's tree (Ravenala
madagascariensis Sonn.).
Boat shipment requires hydrocooling at the plantation at 32-35.6 F (0-2 C), packing in sealed
polyethylene bags, storing and conveying to the port at -4 to -13 F (-20--25 C) and shipping at
32 to 35.6 F (0-2 C).
In Florida, fresh lychees in sealed, heavy-gauge polyethylene bags keep their color for 7 days in
storage or transit at 35 to 50 F (1.67-10 C). Each bag should contain no more than 15 lbs (6.8
kg) of fruit.
Lychees placed in polyethylene bags with moss, leaves, paper shavings or cotton packing have
retained fresh color and quality for 2 weeks in storage at 45 F (7.22 C); for a month at 40 F
(4.44 C). At 32 to 35 F(0-1.67 C) and 85% to 90% relative humidity, untreated lychees, can be
stored for 10 weeks; the skin will turn brown but the flesh will be virtually in fresh condition but
sweeter.
Frozen, peeled or unpeeled, lychees in moisture-vapor-proof containers keep for 2 years.
Drying of Lychees
Lychees dehydrate naturally. The skin loses
its original color, becomes
cinnamon-brown, and turns brittle. The
flesh turns dark-brown to nearly black as it
shrivels and becomes very much like a
raisin. The skin of 'Kwai Mi' becomes very
tough when dried; that of 'Madras' less so.
The fruits will dry perfectly if clusters are
merely hung in a closed, air-conditioned
room.
In China, lychees are preferably dried in the
sun on hanging wire trays and brought
Lychee
inside at night and during showers. Some

are dried by means of brick stoves during
humid weather.
When exports of dried fruits from China to
the United States were suspended, India
welcomed the opportunity to supply the
market. Experimental drying involved
preliminary disinfection by immersing the
fruits in 0.5% copper sulphate solution for 2
minutes. Sun-drying on coir-mesh trays
took 15 days and the results were good
except that thin-skinned fruits tended to
crack. It was found that shade-drying for 2
days before full exposure to the sun
prevented cracking.
Electric-oven drying of single layers
arranged in tiers, at 122 to 140 F (50-65
C), requires only 4 days. Hot-air-blast at
Plate XXXIII: LYCHEE, Litchi chinensis: dried
160 F(70 C) dries seedless fruits in 48
hours. Fire-oven and vacuum-oven drying were found unsatisfactory. Florida researchers have
demonstrated the feasibility of drying untreated lychees at 120 F (48.8 C) with free-stream air
flow rates above 35 CMF/f2. Drying at higher temperatures gave the fruits a bitter flavor.
The best quality and light color of flesh instead of dark-brown is achieved by first blanching in
boiling water for 5 minutes, immersing in a solution of 2% potassium metabisulphite for 48 hours,
and dipping in citric acid prior to drying.
Dried fruits can be stored in tins at room temperature for about a year with no change in texture or
flavor.
Pests
In most areas where lychees are grown, the most serious foliage pest is the erinose, or leaf-curl,
mite, Aceria litchii, which attacks the new growth causing hairy, blister-like galls on the upperside
of the leaves, thickening, wrinkling and distorting them, and brown, felt-like wool on the
underside. The mite apparently came to Florida on plants from Hawaii in 1953 but has been
effectively eradicated. A leaf-webber, Dudua aprobola, attacks the new growth of all lychee trees
in the Punjab.
The most destructive enemy of the lychee in China is a stinkbug (Tessaratoma papillosa) with
bright-red markings. It sucks the sap from young twigs and they often die; at least there is a high
rate of fruit-shedding. This pest is combatted by shaking the trees in winter, collecting the bugs
and dropping them into kerosene. Without such efforts, it works havoc. A stinkbug (Banasa
lenticularis) has been found on lychee foliage in Florida. The leaf-eating false-unicorn caterpillar
(Schizura ipomeae), which is parasitized by a tachinid fly (Thorocera floridensis) feeds on the
leaves. The foliage is sometimes infested with red spider mites (Paratetranychus hawaiiensis).
Lychee
The citrus aphid (Toxoptera aurantii) preys on flush foliage. Two leaf rollers, Argyroploce
leucaspis, and A. aprobola, are active on lychee trees in India. Thrips (Dolicothrips idicus) attack
the foliage and Megalurothrips (Taeniothrips) distalis and Lymantria mathura damage the
flowers.
A twig-pruner, Hypermallus villosus, has damaged lychee trees in Florida and a twig borer,
Proteoteras implicata, has killed twigs of new growth on Florida lychees. The larvae of a native
leaf beetle, Exema nodulosa, has been found puncturing and girdling lychee branchlets 1/8 to 1/4
in (3-6 mm) thick. Ambrosia beetles bore into the stems of young trees and fungi enter through
their holes. A shoot-borer, Chlumetia transversa, is found on lychee trees all over India. Two
bark-boring caterpillars, Indarbela quadrinotata and I. tetraonis, bore rings around the trunk
underneath the bark of older trees. The larvae of a small moth, Acrocerops cramerella, eat
developing seeds and the pith of young twigs. A small parasitic wasp helps to control this predator,
as does the sanitary practice of burning the fallen lychee leaves.
The aphid (Aphis spiraecola) occurs on young plants in shaded nurseries, as does the armored
scale, or lychee bark scale, Pseudaulacaspis major, and white peach scale, P. pentagona. The
Florida red scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum, has been seen on lychee trees, also the banana-shaped
scale, Coccus acutissimus, and green-shield scale, Pulvinaria psidii. The latter is the second most
serious pest in Florida. Others are the six-spotted mite, Eotetranychus sexmaculatus, the
leaf-footed bug, Leptoglossus phyllopus, and less troublesome creatures such as the several species
of Scarabaeidae (related to June bugs) which attack leaves and flower buds.
In South Africa, the parasitic nematode Hemicriconemoides mangiferae and Xiphinema brevicolle
cause die-back, decline and ultimately death of lychee trees, sometimes devastating orchards. The
root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica, also attacks the lychee in South Africa but is less
prevalent.
In Florida, the southern green stinkbug, Nezara viridula, and the larvae of the cotton square borer,
Strymon metinus, attack the fruit. Seed-feeding Lepidoptera, especially Cryptophlebia ombrodelta
and Lobesia sp. cause much fruit damage and falling in northern Queensland. Carbaryl sprays
considerably reduce the losses. In South Africa, a moth, Argyroploce peltastica, lays eggs on the
surface of the fruit and the larvae may penetrate weak areas of the skin and infest the flesh. The
fruit flies, Ceratites capitata and Pterandrus rosa make minute holes and cracks in the skin and
cause internal decay. These pests are so detrimental that growers have adopted the practice of
enclosing bunches of clusters (with most of the leaves removed) in bags made of "wet-strength"
paper or unbleached calico 6 to 8 weeks before harvest-time. The Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha
suspensa, has attacked lychee fruits in Florida.
Birds, bats and bees damage ripe fruits on the trees in China and sometimes a stilt house is built
beside a choice lychee tree for a watchman to keep guard and ward off these predators, or a large
net may be thrown over the tree. In Florida, birds, squirrels, raccoons and rats are prime enemies.
Birds have been repelled by hanging on the branches thin metallic ribbons which move, gleam and
rattle in the wind. Grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids may, at times, feed heavily on the foliage.
Diseases
Few diseases have been reported from any lychee-growing locality. The glossy leaves are very
Lychee
resistant to fungi. In Florida, lychee trees are occasionally subject to green scurf, or algal leaf spot
(Cephaleuros virescens), leaf blight (Gleosporium sp.), die-back, caused by Phomopsis sp., and
mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens) which is most likely to attack lychee trees planted where
oak trees formerly stood. Old oak roots and stumps have been found thoroughly infected with the
fungus.
In India, leaf spot caused by Pestalotia pauciseta may be prevalent in December and can be
controlled by lime-sulphur sprays. Leaf spots caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae and
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which begin at the tip of the leaflet, were first noticed in India in
1962.
Lichens and algae commonly grow on the trunks and branches of lychee trees.
The main post-harvest problem is spoilage by the yeast-like organism, which is quick to attack
warm, moist fruits. It is important to keep the fruits dry and cool, with good circulation of air.
When conditions favor rotting, dusting with fungicide will be necessary.
Food Uses
Lychees are most relished fresh,
out-of-hand. Peeled and pitted, they are
commonly added to fruit cups and fruit
salads. Lychees stuffed with cottage cheese
are served as salad topped with dressing and
pecans. Or the fruit may be stuffed with a
blend of cream cheese and mayonnaise, or
stuffed with pecan meats, and garnished
with whipped cream. Sliced lychees,
congealed in lime gelatin, are served on
lettuce with whipped cream or mayonnaise.
The fruits may be layered with pistachio ice
cream and whipped cream in parfait glasses,
as dessert. Halved lychees have been placed
on top of ham during the last hour of
baking, or grilled on top of steak. Pureed
lychees are added to ice cream mix. Sherbet
is made by extracting the juice from fresh, Fig. 73: Peeled, seeded, lychees (Litchi chinensis) are canned
seeded lychees and adding it to a mixture of in sirup in the Orient and exported to the United States and
other countries.
prepared plain gelatin, hot milk, light
cream, sugar and a little lemon juice, and freezing.
Peeled, seeded lychees are canned in sugar sirup in India and China and have been exported from
China for many years. Browning, or pink discoloration, of the flesh is prevented by the addition of
4% tartaric acid solution, or by using 30 Brix sirup containing 0.1% to 0.15% citric acid to
achieve a pH of about 4.5, processing for a maximum of 10 minutes in boiling water, and chilling
immediately.
Lychee
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Fresh
63-64
81.9-84.83%
0.68-1.0 g
0.3-0.58 g
13.31-16.4 g
0.23-0.4 g
0.37-0.5 g
8-10 mg
30-42 mg
0.4 mg
3 mg
Dried
277
17.90-22.3%
2.90-3.8 g
0.20-1.2 g
70.7-77.5 g
1.4 g
1.5-2.0 g
33 mg
Potassium
Thiamine
Nicotinic Acid
Riboflavin
Ascorbic Acid
170 mg
28 mcg
0.4 mg
0.05 mg
24-60 mg
1,100 mg
1.7 mg
3 mg
0.05 mg
42 mg
*According to analyses made in China, India and the Philippines.

The lychee is low in phenols and non-astringent in all stages of maturity.
To a small extent, lychees are also spiced or pickled, or made into sauce, preserves or wine.
Lychee jelly has been made from blanched, minced lychees and their accompanying juice, with
1% pectin, and combined phosphoric and citric acid added to enhance the flavor.
The flesh of dried lychees is eaten like raisins. Chinese people enjoy using the dried flesh in their
tea as a sweetener in place of sugar.
Whole frozen lychees are thawed in tepid water. They must be consumed very soon, as they
discolor and spoil quickly.
Other Uses
In China, great quantities of honey are harvested from hives near lychee trees. Honey from bee
colonies in lychee groves in Florida is light amber, of the highest quality, with a rich, delicious
flavor like that of the juice which leaks when the fruit is peeled, and the honey does not granulate.
Medicinal Uses: Ingested in moderate amounts, the lychee is said to relieve coughing and to have
a beneficial effect on gastralgia, tumors and enlargements of the glands. One stomach-ulcer patient
in Florida, has reported that, after eating several fresh lychees he was able to enjoy a large meal
that, ordinarily, would have caused great discomfort. Chinese people believe that excessive
consumption of raw lychees causes fever and nosebleed. According to legends, ancient devotees
Lychee
have consumed from 300 to 1,000 per day.

In China, the seeds are credited with an analgesic action and they are given in neuralgia and
orchitis. A tea of the fruit peel is taken to overcome smallpox eruptions and diarrhea. In India, the
seeds are powdered and, because of their astringency, administered in intestinal troubles, and they
have the reputation there, as in China, of relieving neuralgic pains. Decoctions of the root, bark
and flowers are gargled to alleviate ailments of the throat. Lychee roots have shown activity
against one type of tumor in experimental animals in the United States Department of
Agriculture/National Cancer Institute Cancer Chemotherapy Screening Program.
Longan

Morton, J. 1987. Longan. p. 259262. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Longan
Dimocarpus longan Lour.
Euphoria longan Steud.
Euphoria longana Lam.
Nephelium longana Cambess.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Closely allied to the glamorous lychee, in the family Sapindaceae, the longan, or lungan, also
known as dragon's eye or eyeball, and as mamoncillo chino in Cuba, has been referred to as the
"little brother of the lychee", or li-chihnu, "slave of the lychee". Botanically, it is placed in a
separate genus, and is currently designated Dimocarpus longan Lour. (syns. Euphoria longan
Steud.; E. longana Lam.; Nephelium longana Cambess.). According to the esteemed scholar, Prof.
G. Weidman Groff, the longan is less important to the Chinese as an edible fruit, more widely used
than the lychee in Oriental medicine.
Description
The longan tree is handsome, erect, to 30 or 40 ft (9-12 m) in height and to 45 ft (14 m) in width,
with rough-barked trunk to 2 1/2 ft (76.2 cm) thick and long, spreading, slightly drooping, heavily
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/longan.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:35:53 PM]
Longan
foliaged branches. The evergreen, alternate,

paripinnate leaves have 4 to 10 opposite
leaflets, elliptic, ovate-oblong or lanceolate,
blunt-tipped; 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm) long and
1 3/8 to 2 in (3.5-5 cm) wide; leathery,
wavy, glossy-green on the upper surface,
minutely hairy and grayish-green beneath.
New growth is wine-colored and showy.
The pale-yellow, 5- to 6-petalled,
hairy-stalked flowers, larger than those of
the lychee, are borne in upright terminal
panicles, male and female mingled. The
fruits, in drooping clusters, are globose, 1/2
to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) in diameter, with thin, Fig. 74: The brown-skinned longan (Euphoria longan), less
brittle, yellow-brown to light reddish-brown luscious than the lychee, is hardier, bears heavily and later in
the year,
rind, more or less rough (pebbled), the
protuberances much less prominent than those of the lychee. The flesh (aril) is mucilaginous,
whitish, translucent, somewhat musky, sweet, but not as sweet as that of the lychee and with less
"bouquet". The seed is round, jet-black, shining, with a circular white spot at the base, giving it the
aspect of an eye.
The longan is native to southern China, in the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Schezwan and
Fukien, between elevations of 500 and 1,500 ft (150-450 m). Groff wrote: "The lungan, not so
highly prized as the lychee, is nevertheless usually found contiguous to it .... It thrives much better
on higher ground than the lychee and endures more frost. It is rarely found growing along the
dykes of streams as is the lychee but does especially well on high ground near ponds .... The
lungan is more seldom grown under orchard conditions than is the lychee. There is not so large a
demand for the fruit and the trees therefore more scattered although one often finds attractive
groups of lungan." Groff says that the longan was introduced into India in 1798 but, in Indian
literature, it is averred that the longan is native not only to China but also to southwestern India
and the forests of upper Assam and the Garo hills, and is cultivated in Bengal and elsewhere as an
ornamental and shade tree. It is commonly grown in former Indochina (Thailand, Cambodia, Laos
and Vietnam and in Taiwan). The tree grows but does not fruit in Malaya and the Philippines.
There are many of the trees in Renion and Mauritius.
The longan was introduced into Florida from southern China by the United States Department of
Agriculture in 1903 and has flourished in a few locations but never became popular. There was a
young tree growing at the Agricultural Station in Bermuda in 1913. A tree planted at the Federal
Experiment Station in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, was 10 ft (3 m) high in 1926, 23 ft (7 m) in 1929. A
longan tree flourished in the Atkins Garden in Cuba and seedlings were distributed but found to
fruit irregularly and came to be valued mostly for their shade and ornamental quality. In Hawaii,
the longan was found to grow faster and more vigorously than the lychee but the fruit is regarded
there as less flavorful than the lychee.
Varieties
Longan
It seems that the type of longan originally brought to the New World was not one of the best,
having aroused so little interest in the fruit. Groff stated that the leading variety of Fukien was the
round-fruited 'Shih hsa', the "Stone Gorge Lungan" from P'ing Chou. There were 2 types, one,
'Hei ho shih hsia', black-seeded, and 'Chin ch' i ho shih hsia', brown-seeded. This variety did not
excel in size but the flesh was crisp, sweeter than in other varieties, the seed small and the dried
flesh, after soaking in water, was restored almost to fresh condition.
None of the other 4 varieties described by Groff has any great merit.
'Wu Yuan' ("black ball") has small, sour fruit used for canning. The tree is vigorous and seedlings
are valued as rootstocks. 'Kao Yuan' is believed to be a slightly better type of this variety and is
widely canned.
'Tsao ho' ('Early Rice') is the earliest variety and a form called 'Ch'i chin tsao ho' precedes it by 2
weeks. In quality, both are inferior to 'Wu Yuan'.
'She p' i' ('Snake skin') has the largest fruit, as big as a small lychee and slightly elongated. The
skin is rough, the seed large, some of the juice is between the rind and the flesh, and the quality is
low. Its only advantage is that it is very late in season.
'Hua Kioh' ('Flower Skin'), slightly elongated, has thin, nearly tasteless flesh, some of the juice is
between the rind and the flesh, and the overall quality is poor. It is seldom propagated
vegetatively.
There are no "chicken- tongue" (aborted seed) varieties in China.
There are 2 improved cultivars grown extensively in Taiwan'Fukien Lungan' ('Fukugan') was
introduced from Fukien Province in mainland China. The other, very similar and possibly a mutant
of 'Fukien', is 'Lungan Late', which matures a month later than 'Fukien'.
In 1954, William Whitman of Miami introduced a superior variety of longan, the 'Kohala', from
Hawaii. It began to bear in 1958. The fruit is large for the species, the seed is small, and the flesh
is aromatic, sweet and spicy. The tree produces fairly good crops in midsummer. One hundred or
more air-layers have been brought by air from Hawaii and planted at various locations in southern
Florida and in the Bahamas. A seedling planting and selection program was started in 1962 at the
USDA Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit, Miami. The plants were all open-pollinated
seedlings of the canning variety, 'Wu Yuan', brought in from Canton in 1930 as P.I. #89409. Some
set fruit in 1966 and 1967 but more of them in 1968. Evaluation of these and other acquisitions
continues. Included in the study are M-17886, 'Chom Poo Nuch', and M-17887, 'E-Haw'.
Climate
Professor Groff wrote that "the lungan . . . is found growing at higher latitudes and higher altitudes
than the lychee." Also: "On the higher elevations of the mountainous regions which are subject to
frost the lychee is seldom grown. The longan appears in these regions more often but it, too,
cannot stand heavy frosts." The longan's range in Florida extends north to Tampa on the west coast
and to Merritt Island on the east coast. Still, small trees suffer leaf-and twig-damage if the
temperature falls to 31 or 30 F (-0.56--l.11 C) and are killed at just a few degrees lower. Larger
trees show leaf injury at 27 to 28 F (-2.78--2.22 C), small branch injury at 25 to 26 F
Longan
(-3-89--3.33 C), large branch and trunk symptoms at 24 F (-4.44 C) and sometimes fail to
recover.
On the other hand, after a long period of cool weather over the 3 winter months, with no frost,
longan trees bloom well. Blooming is poor after a warm winter.
Soil
The longan thrives best on a rich sandy loam and nearly as well on moderately acid, somewhat
organic, sand. It also grows to a large size and bears heavily in oolitic limestone. In organic muck
soils, blooming and fruiting are deficient.
Propagation
Most longan trees have been grown from seed. The seeds lose viability quickly. After drying in the
shade for 4 day, they should be planted without delay, but no more than 3/4 in (2 cm) deep,
otherwise they may send up more than one sprout. Germination takes place within a week or 10
days. The seedlings are transplanted to shaded nursery rows the following spring and set in the
field 2-3 years later during winter dormancy.
In Kwangtung Province, when vegetative propagation is undertaken, it is mostly by means of
inarching, nearly always onto 'Wu Yuan' trees 3-5 years old and 5 to 6 ft (1.5-1.8 m) high. The
union is made no less than 4 ft (1.2 m) from the ground because it is most convenient.
Nevertheless, the point of attachment remains weak and needs to be braced with bamboo to avoid
breaking in high winds.
Grafting is uncommon and when it is done, it is a sandwich graft on longan rootstock, 3 or 4 grafts
being made successively, one onto the beheaded top of the preceding one, in the belief that it
makes the graft wind-resistant and that it induces better size and quality in the fruit.
Conventional modes of grafting have not been successful in Florida, but whip-grafting has given
80% success in Taiwan. Air-layering is frequently done in Fukien Province and was found a
feasible means of distributing the 'Kohala' from Hawaii. Air-layers bear in 2 to 3 years after
planting. A tree can be converted to a preferred cultivar by cutting it drastically back and
veneer-grafting the new shoots.
Culture
In China, if the longan is raised on the lowlands it is always put on the edges of raised beds. On
high ground, the trees are placed in pre-enriched holes on the surface. The trees are fertilized after
the fruit harvest and during the blooming season, at which time the proportion of nitrogen is
reduced. Fresh, rich soil is added around the base of the trees year after year. The longan needs an
adequate supply of water and can even stand brief flooding, but not prolonged drought. Irrigation
is necessary in dry periods.
An important operation is the pruning of many flower-bearing twigs3/4 of the flower spikes in
the cluster being removed. Later, the fruit clusters are also thinned, in order to increase the size and
quality of the fruits.
Generally, the trees are planted too close together, seriously inhibiting productivity when they
Longan
become overcrowded. In China, full-grown trees given sufficient roomat least 40 ft (12 m)
apartmay yield 400 to 500 lbs (180-225 kg) in good years. Crops in Florida from trees 20 ft (6 m)
tall and broad, have varied from light50-100 lbs (22.5-45 kg)to medium150-250 lbs (68-113
kg), and heavy300-500 lbs (135-225 kg). Rarely such trees may produce 600-700 lbs (272-317
kg). Larger trees have larger crops but if the trees become too tall harvesting is too difficult, and
they should be topped. Harvesters, working manually from ladders, or using pruning poles cut the
entire cluster of fruit with leaves attached.
A serious problem with the longan is its irregular bearingoften one good year followed by 1 or 2
poor years. Another handicap is the ripening seasonearly to mid-August in China, which is the
time of typhoons; August and September in Florida which is during the hurricane season. Rain is a
major nuisance in harvesting and in conveying the fruit to market or to drying sheds or processing
plants.
Keeping Quality
At room temperature, longans remain in good condition for several days. Because of the firmer
rind, the fruit is less perishable than the lychee.
Preliminary tests in Florida indicate that the fruit can be frozen and will not break down as quickly
as the lychee when thawed.
Pests and Diseases
The longan is relatively free of pests and diseases. At times, there may be signs of mineral
deficiency which can be readily corrected by supplying minor elements in the fertilization
program.
Food Uses
Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that the fruit is improved by
cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly
shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong
and Taiwan.
For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate peeling of the rind. Then the
seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The dried product is black, leathery and
smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment.
A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol.
Calories
Fresh
61
Dried
286
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
82.4 g
1.0 g
0.1 g
15.8 g
17.6 g
4.9 g
0.4 g
74.0 g
Longan
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Thiamine
Ascorbic Acid
0.4 g
0.7 g
10 mg
42 mg
1.2 mg
2.0 g
3.1 g
45 mg
196 mg
5.4 mg
0.04 mg
6 mg (possibly) 28 mg
Other Uses
Seeds and rind: The seeds, because of their saponin content, are used like soapberries (Sapindus
saponaria L.) for shampooing the hair. The seeds and the rind are burned for fuel and are part of
the payment of the Chinese women who attend to the drying operation.
Wood: While the tree is not often cut for timber, the wood is used for posts, agricultural
implements, furniture and construction. The heartwood is red, hard, and takes a fine polish. It is
not highly valued for fuel.
Medicinal Uses: The flesh of the fruit is administered as a stomachic, febrifuge and vermifuge,
and is regarded as an antidote for poison. A decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic and
treatment for insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis. In both North and South Vietnam, the "eye" of
the longan seed is pressed against a snakebite in the belief that it will absorb the venom.
Leaves and flowers are sold in Chinese herb markets but are not a part of ancient traditional
medicine. The leaves contain quercetin and quercitrin. Burkill says that the dried flowers are
exported to Malaysia for medicinal purposes. The seeds are administered to counteract heavy
sweating and the pulverized kernel, which contains saponin, tannin and fat, serves as a styptic.
Rambutan

Morton, J. 1987. Rambutan. p. 262265. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Rambutan
Nephelium lappaceum L.
Euphoria nephelium DC.
Dimocarpus crinita Lour.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the
Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns.
Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called
rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India,
ramboostan. To the Chinese it is shao tzu, to Vietnamese, chom chom or vai thieu; to
Kampucheans, ser mon, or chle sao mao. There are other local names in the various dialects of
southeast Asia and the East Indies.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/rambutan.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:35:56 PM]
Rambutan
The rambutan tree reaches 50 to 80 ft

(15-25 m) in height, has a straight trunk to 2
ft (60 cm) wide, and a dense, usually
spreading crown. The evergreen leaves are
alternate, pinnately compound, 2 3/4 to 12
in (7-30 cm) long, with reddish rachis, hairy
when young, and 1 to 4 pairs of leaflets,
subopposite or alternate, elliptic to
oblong-elliptic, or rather obovate,
sometimes oblique at the base; slightly
leathery; yellowish-green to dark-green and
somewhat dull on the upper surface,
yellowish or bluish-green beneath; 2 to 8 in
(5-20 cm) long, 1 to 4 1/3 in (2.5-11 cm)
wide, the 6 to 15 pairs of principal veins
prominent on the underside. The small,
petalless flowers, of three kinds: males,
hermaphrodite functioning as males, and
hermaphrodite functioning as females, are
borne in axillary or pseudo-terminal, much
branched, hairy panicles. The fruit is ovoid,
or ellipsoid, pinkish-red, bright-or deep-red,
orange-red, maroon or dark-purple,
yellowish-red, or all yellow or
orange-yellow; 1 1/3 to 3 1/8 in (3.4-8 cm)
long. Its thin, leathery rind is covered with
tubercles from each of which extends a soft,
fleshy, red, pinkish, or yellow spine 1/5 to Plate XXXIV: RAMBUTAN, Nephelium lappaceum Painted
3/4 in (0.5-2 cm) long, the tips deciduous in by Dr. M.J. Dijkman
some types. The somewhat hairlike covering is responsible for the common name of the fruit,
which is based on the Malay word "rambut", meaning "hair". Within is the white or rose-tinted,
translucent, juicy, acid, subacid or sweet flesh, 1/6 to 1/3 in (0.4-0.8 cm) thick, adhering more or
less to the ovoid or oblong, somewhat flattened seed, which is 1 to 1 1/3 in (2.5-3.4 cm) long and
2/5 to 3/5 in (1-1.5 cm) wide. There may be 1 or 2 small undeveloped fruits nestled close to the
stem of a mature fruit.
The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and
southeast Asia. Many years ago, Arab traders introduced it into Zanzibar and Pemba. There are
limited plantings in India, a few trees in Surinam, and in the coastal lowlands of Colombia,
Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Trinidad and Cuba. Some fruits are being marketed in Costa Rica.
The rambutan was taken to the Philippines from Indonesia in 1912. Further introductions were
made in 1920 (from Indonesia) and 1930 (from Malaya), but until the 1950's its distribution was
rather limited. Then popular demand brought about systematic efforts to improve the crop and
resulted in the establishment of many commercial plantations in the provinces of Batangas, Cavite,
Davan, Iloilo, Laguna, Oriental Mindoro and Zamboanga. Seeds were imported into the United
Rambutan
States from Java in 1906 (SPI #17515) but the species is not grown in this country.
Varieties
Popular varieties in Malaya include 'Chooi Ang', 'Peng Thing Bee', 'Ya Tow', 'Azimat', and 'Ayer
Mas'. Dr. J.J. Ochse described 6 named varieties in Indonesia:
'Lebakbooloos'a broad-topped tree with dark-red fruits having uncrowded spines 3/5 in (1.5 cm)
long, and grayish-white, tough, subacid flesh 1/5 in (0.5 cm) thick, frequently difficult to separate
from the seed and often takes pieces of the testa with it. Ships well over long distances. (Cultivated
also in India).
'Seematjan'Tree has an open crown and long, flexible branches. Fruits are dark-red with spines
to 3/4 in (2 cm) long. In Java the tree is especially prone to attack by various insects. It is
cultivated also in India and in the Philippines where it has averaged 16 lbs/acre (16 kg/ha). There
are 2 forms: 1) 'Seematjan besar' with small fruit, thin rind, spines fairly far apart; very sweet,
somewhat coarse, fairly juicy flesh to which the coarse, fibrous testa tightly adheres; 2) 'Seematjan
ketjil' (or 'Koombang')the fruit has soft, tough, and less sweet flesh to which the seed coat does
not tightly adhere.
'Seenjonja'Tree low-growing; has a drooping crown. Fruit nearly ovoid, about 1 1/2 in (4 cm)
long and 1 1/5 in (3 cm) wide; dark wine-red with slender, flexible spines about 2/5 in (1 cm) long.
Flesh clings firmly to the seed. In the Philippines has yielded on the average 41 lbs/acre (41
kg/ha).
'Sectangkooweh'Tree broad-topped. Fruit flattened ellipsoid, about 2 in (5 cm) long, 1 1/2 in (4
cm) wide with slim spines 2/5 in (1 cm) long. Rind is thin, pliable, tough. Flesh yellowish-white,
sweet, clings tightly to the thick testa which separates from the seed. Fruits stand long-distance
shipment.
'Seelengkeng'Tree low-growing with drooping crown. Fruit ovoid, 1 1/5 in (3 cm) long, 3/4 in (2
cm) wide, with very fine, soft spines. Flesh slightly glossy, tough, moderately sweet, and separates
from the seed with a few particles of testa clinging to it. Air-layers are unsatisfactory, so it is rare
in cultivation and expensive on the market. Much favored by Chinese because of its resemblance
to the lychee. (Cultivated also in India.)
'Seekonto'Tree has broad crown; is fast-growing. Fruits ellipsoid, faintly flattened, about 2 in (5
cm) long, 1 1/2 in (4 cm) wide. Spines are thick and short. Flesh is dull, grayish-white, somewhat
coarse and dry; clings to the testa which separates readily from the seed.
'Maharlika' (no description available) has yielded 21 lbs/ acre (21 kg/ha) in the Philippines.
Yellow-fruited rambutans are called 'Atjeh koonig' in Batavia. In Malaya, 'Rambutan gading'
indicates a yellow type.
Among the many "races" of rambutan in Malaya, the best "freestone" types are found in Penang.
One race with a partly free stone is known as 'rambutan lejang'. Burkill says that some rambutans
are so sour that monkeys are reluctant to eat them.
In 1950, Philippine agriculturists undertook a program of selection and the creation of a Testing
Plot at the Provincial Nursery, Victoria, Oriental Mindoro. There they assembled 360 trees of
which 140 were found to be bearing in 1960 and 196 (mostly males) were non-bearing.
Observations of the bearing trees there and at the Arago Farm not far away, resulted in the
selection of 21 clones which they classified into 4 groups according to fruit size: 1) very large, 14
or less per lb (31 or less/kg); 2) large, 15 to 16 per lb (32-36/kg); 3) medium, 17 to 19 per lb
(37-41/kg); 4) small, 20 or more per lb (42 or more/kg).
Rambutan
The main characteristics of the 21 named selections are here summarized:

'Queen Zaida'Dark-red, oblong, medium-size; flesh thick (38.76% of fruit), sweet, juicy;
freestone; 60% of fruits kept well for 2 weeks in cold storage. Yield: 275 lbs (125 kg) per tree at
20 years of age.
'Baby Eulie'Light-red, very large, flesh thick (39.92% of fruit), soft, freestone. Kept well only 1
week at 60 F (15.56 C). Yield: 352 lbs (160 kg) per tree at 8 years of age.
'Princess Caroline'Dark-red, small, rind pliable; flesh thick (44.14% of fruit); seeds small. Kept
well for 2 weeks at 60 F (15.56 C). Yield; 440 lbs (200 kg) per tree at 8 years of age.
'Quezon'Yellowish- red, small to medium; rind pliable; flesh thick (38.24% of fruit); sweet,
slightly acid, juicy. Yield: 343 lbs (156 kg) per tree at 8 years of age.
'Roxas'Dark-red; medium-sized; flesh thick (42.97% of fruit); juicy, sweet, adheres to seed.
Yield: 429 lbs (195 kg) per tree at 8 years of age.
'Zamora'Yellowish rind with pale-pink spines; oblong; small; rind hard; flesh thick (38.29% of
fruit), juicy and sweet. Yield: 330 lbs (150 kg) per tree at 7 years of age. Ripens mid-to late
October. After 2 weeks of refrigeration at 60 F (15.56 C) 80% of the fruits were still in good
condition.
'Quirino'Yellowish with pinkish-red spines; small; flesh thick (32.78 % of fruit), juicy and
sweet. Borne in large clusters of up to 85 fruits each.
'Magsaysay'Dark-red to near-black with dark-red spines; oblong, large; rind pliable; flesh thick
(42.68% of fruit); juicy, sweet; freestone. Yield: 176 lbs (80 kg) per tree at 6 years of age.
'Santo Tomas'Yellowish-pink with reddish-pink, soft spines. Nearly round; rind hard; flesh thick
(43.25% of fruit); seed small. Yield: 352 lbs (160 kg) per tree at 8 years of age.
'Victoria'Yellowish with red spines; rind thick; flesh thick, juicy, sweet, freestone. Yield: 132 lbs
(60 kg) per tree at 6 years of age. Early in season (mid-July).
'Baby Christie'Yellowish-red with soft, silvery-pink spines; large. Flesh thick (36.41% of fruit).
'Governor Infantada'Oblong, very large; rind pliable; flesh thick (39.28% of fruit), juicy, sweet
and slightly acid; adheres tightly to seed. Yield: 330 lbs (150 kg) per tree at 6 years of age. Fruits
keep only 1 week at 60 F (15.56 C).
'Laurel, Sr.'Pinkish-red, small; flesh thick (39.76% of fruit). Tree very low-growing, spreading.
'Fortich'Yellowish-red; medium-sized; flesh thick (40.95% of fruit); juicy, sweet; freestone.
Early in season.
'Osmea, Sr.'Purple-red; medium-sized; flesh thick (38.90% of fruit); juicy, sweet; freestone.
Ripens late in season.
'Ponderosa Ferreras' (from Arago, Farm)Crimson red with very prominent spines; very large;
flesh thick (35.73% of fruit); juicy, sweet, freestone. Early in season. Yield: 303 lbs (138 kg) per
tree at 6 years of age.
'Rodrigas' (from Arago Farm)Medium-sized; flesh thick (38.46% of fruit).
'Manahan' (from Arago Farm)Medium-sized; flesh thick (37.37% of fruit).
'Santan' (from Arago Farm)Flesh thick (34.26% of fruit).
'Arago' (from Arago Farm)flesh very thick (41.42% of fruit).
'Cruz' or 'Cruzas' (from Arago Farm)flesh medium-thick (26.15% of fruit).
About 1960, 10 outstanding rambutans were selected in an evaluation of 100 seedling trees of the
unsurpassed Indonesian 'Seematjan', also 'Seenjonja', 'Maharlika', 'Divata', 'Marikit', 'Dalisay',
'Marilag', 'Bituin', 'Alindog', and 'Paraluman'.
Rambutan
Climate
The rambutan flourishes from sea-level to 1,600 or even 1,800 ft (500-600 m), in tropical, humid
regions having well-distributed rainfall. In the ideal environment of Oriental Mindora Philippines,
the average temperature year-round is about 81 F (27.3 C), relative humidity is 82%, rainfall 71
in (180 cm)-about 165 rainy days. The dry season should not last much over 3 months.
Soil
The tree does best on deep, clay-loam or rich sandy loam rich in organic matter, or in deep peat. It
needs good drainage.
Propagation
Rambutan seeds, after removal from the fruit and thorough washing, should be planted
horizontally with the flattened side downward in order that the seedling will grow straight and
have a normal, strong root system. Seeds will germinate in 9 to 25 days, the earlier, the more vigor
in the seedling. The rate of germination of 2-day-old seeds is 87% to 95%. A week after seed
removal from the fruit, there may be only 50% to 65% germination. Sun-drying for 8 hours and
oven-drying at 86 F (30 C) kills seeds within a week. Washed seeds will remain viable in moist
sawdust, sphagnum moss or charcoal for 3-4 weeks, and some will even sprout in storage. The
juice of the flesh inhibits germination. Accordingly, unwashed seeds or seeds treated with the juice
can be held for a month in moist sawdust without sprouting.
Rambutan seedlings bear in 5-6 years, but the ratio of female to male trees is 4 or 5 to 7. One
Philippine seedling orchard was found to have 67% male trees. Then, too, hardly 5% of female
trees give a profitable yield. Vegetative propagation is essential.
Cuttings have been rooted experimentally under mist and with the use of growth-promoting
hormones, but this technique is not being practiced. Air-layering may at first appear successful, but
many air-layers die after being transplanted into 5-gal containers, or, later, in the field, long after
separation from the mother tree.
Marching is very effective onto 5- to 9-month-old seedlings of rambutan or of pulasan (N.
mutabile L.) or N. intermedium Radlk., but is a rather cumbersome procedure. After 2 or 3 months,
the scion is notched 3 times over a period of 2 weeks and then severed from the parent tree. Cleft-,
splice-, and side-grafting are not too satisfactory. Patch-budding is preferred as having a much
greater rate of success. Seedlings for use as rootstocks are taken from the seedbed after 45 days
and transplanted into 1-quart cans with a mixture of 50% cured manure and later transferred to 5
gal containers. In Oriental Mindoro Province, if the budding is done in the month of May, they can
achieve 83.6% success; if done in June and July, 82%. Budded trees flower 2 1/2 to 3 years after
planting in the field.
Culture
In the Philippines, it is recommended that the trees be planted at least 33 ft (10 m) apart each way,
though 40 ft (12 m) is not too much in rich soil. If the trees are set too close to each other, they will
become overcrowded in a few years and production will be seriously affected.
Philippine agronomists apply 2.2 lbs (1 kg) ammonium sulfate together with 2.2 lbs (1 kg)
complete fertilizer (12-24-12) per tree immediately after harvest and give the same amount of
ammonium sulfate to each tree near the end of the rainy season. Studies in Malaya show that a
harvest of 6,000 lbs/acre (6,720 kg/ha) of rambutan fruits removes from the soil 15 lbs/acre
(approximately 15 kg/ha) nitrogen, 2 lbs/acre (2 kg/ha) phosphorus, 11.5 lbs/acre (11.5 kg/ha)
potassium, 5.9 lbs/acre (5.9 kg/ha) calcium, and 2.67 lbs/acre (2.67 kg/ha) magnesium.
Rambutan
Irrigation is given as needed in dry seasons. Light pruning is done only to improve the form of the
tree and strengthen it. Rambutan trees should be sheltered from strong winds which do much
damage during the flowering and fruiting periods.
Harvesting
In Malaya, the rambutan generally fruits twice a year, the first, main crop in June and a lesser one
in December. In the Philippines, flowering occurs from late March to early May and the fruits
mature from July to October or occasionally to November.
The entire fruit cluster is cut from the branch by harvesters. If single fruits are picked, they should
be snapped off with a piece of the stem attached, so as not to rupture the rind. The fruits must be
handled carefully to avoid bruising and crushing, and kept dry, cool, and well-ventilated to delay
spoilage.
Yield
Generally, shoots that bear fruit one year will put out new growth and will bloom and fruit the next
year, so that biennial bearing is rare in the rambutan. However, yield may vary from year to year.
Individual trees 8 years old or older have borne as much as 440 lbs (200 kg) one season and only
132 lbs (60 kg) the next. In the Philippines, the average production per tree of 21 selections was
264 lbs (120 kg) over a 4-year period, while the general average is only 106 lbs (48 kg).
From 1965 to 1967, agronomists at the College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines,
studied the growth, flowering habits and yield of the Indonesian cultivars, 'Seematjan', 'Seenjonja',
and 'Maharlika'. They found that all the 'Seematjan' flowers were hermaphrodite functioning as
female (h.f.f.) and that it is necessary to plant male trees with this cultivar. 'Seenjonja' and
'Maharlika' flowers were mostly h.f.f. with a very few hermaphrodite functioning as males (h.f.m.)
in the same panicles, and concluded that, though self-pollination is possible, planting of male trees
with these cultivars should improve production.
Keeping Quality
Ordinarily, the fruits must be gotten to local markets within 3 days of picking before shriveling
and decay begin. Fungicidal applications and packing in perforated polyethylene bags have
extended fresh life somewhat. Weight loss has been reduced by packing in sawdust, or coating
with a wax emulsion. Storing in sealed polyethylene bags at 40 F (10 C) and 95% relative
humidity has preserved the fruits in fresh condition for 12 days. Some cultivars, as noted, keep
better than others.
Pests and Diseases
Few pests or diseases have been reported by rambutan growers. Leaf-eating insects, the mealybug,
Pseudococcus lilacinus, and the giant bug, Tessaratoma longicorne, may require control measures.
The mango twig-borer, Niphonoclea albata, occasionally appears on rambutan trees. The Oriental
fruit fly attacks very ripe fruits. Birds and flying foxes (fruit-eating bats) consume many of the
fruits, probably considerably reducing yield figures.
There are several pathogens that attack the fruits and cause rotting under warm, moist conditions.
Powdery mildew, caused by Oidium sp., may affect the foliage or other parts of the tree. A serious
disease, stem canker, caused by Fomes lignosus in the Philippines and Ophioceras sp. in Malaya,
can be fatal to rambutan trees if not controlled at the outset.
Food Uses
Rambutan
Rambutans are most commonly eaten out-of-hand after merely tearing the rind open, or cutting it
around the middle and pulling it off. It does not cling to the flesh. The peeled fruits are
occasionally stewed as dessert. They are canned in sirup on a limited scale. In Malaya a preserve is
made by first boiling the peeled fruit to separate the flesh from the seeds. After cooling, the testa is
discarded and the seeds are boiled alone until soft. They are combined with the flesh and plenty of
sugar for about 20 minutes, and 3 cloves may be added before sealing in jars. The seeds are
sometimes roasted and eaten in the Philippines, although they are reputedly poisonous when raw.
Moisture
Protein
Total Carbohydrates
Reducing Sugars
Sucrose
82.3 g
0.46 g
16.02 g
2.9 g
5.8 g
Fiber
Calcium
Phosphorus
Ascorbic Acid
0.24g
10.6 mg
12.9 mg
30 mg
*Analyses made in Ceylon.

Toxicity
There are traces of an alkaloid in the seed, and the testa contains saponin and tannin. The seeds are
said to be bitter and narcotic. The fruit rind also is said to contain a toxic saponin and tannin.
Other Uses
Seed fat: the seed kernel yields 37-43% of a solid, white fat or tallow resembling cacao butter.
When heated, it becomes a yellow oil having an agreeable scent. Its fatty acids are: palmitic, 2.0%;
stearic, 13.8%; arachidic, 34.7%; oleic, 45.3%; and ericosenoic, 4.2%. Fully saturated glycerides
amount to 1.4%. The oil could be used in making soap and candles if it were available in greater
quantity.
Wood: The tree is seldom felled. However, the woodred, reddish-white, or brownishis suitable
for construction though apt to split unless carefully dried.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit (perhaps unripe) is astringent, stomachic; acts as a vermifuge, febrifuge,
and is taken to relieve diarrhea and dysentery. The leaves are poulticed on the temples to alleviate
headache. In Malaya the dried fruit rind is sold in drugstores and employed in local medicine. The
astringent bark decoction is a remedy for thrush. A decoction of the roots is taken as a febrifuge.
Pulasan

Morton, J. 1987. Pulasan. p. 265266. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Pulasan
Nephelium mutabile Blume
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The pulasan, or poolasan, Nephelium mutabile Blume (family, Sapindaceae), is closely allied to
the rambutan and sometimes confused with it. One of its local names in Malaya is rambutan-kafri
(negro's rambutan); another is rambutan paroh. In Malacca it is sometimes called
pening-pening-ramboetan. The Dutch name in Java is kapoelasan. In the Philippines it is mostly
known as bulala. There are numerous tribal names for this species throughout Malaysia.
Description
The pulasan tree is a handsome ornamental; attains 33 to 50 ft (10-15 m); has a short trunk to 12 to
16 in (30-40 cm) thick; and the branchlets are brown-hairy when young. The alternate leaves,
pinnate or odd-pinnate, and 6 3/4 to 18 in (17-45 cm) long, have 2 to 5 pairs of opposite or nearly
opposite leaflets, oblong-or elliptic-lanceolate, 2 1/2 to 7 in (6.25-17.5 cm) long and up to 2 in (5
cm) wide; slightly wavy, dark-green and barely glossy on the upper surface; pale, somewhat
bluish, with a few short, silky hairs on the underside. Very small, greenish, petalless flowers with
4-5 hairy sepals, are borne singly or in clusters on the branches of the erect, axillary or terminal,
panicles clothed with fine yellowish or brownish hairs. The fruit is ovoid, 2 or 3 in (5-7.5 cm)
long, dark- or light-red, or yellow, its thick, leathery rind closely set with conical, blunt-tipped
tubercles or thick, fleshy, straight spines, to 3/8 in (1 cm) long. There may be 1 or 2 small,
undeveloped fruits nestled close to the stem. Within is the glistening, white or yellowish-white
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pulasan.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:35:57 PM]
Pulasan
flesh (aril) to 3/8 in (1 cm) thick, more or less clinging to the thin, grayish-brown seedcoat (testa)
which separates from the seed. The flavor is generally much sweeter than that of the rambutan.
The seed is ovoid, oblong or ellipsoid, light-brown, somewhat flattened on one side, 3/4 to 1 1/3 in
(2-3.5 cm) long.
The pulasan is native to Western Malaysia. Wild trees are infrequent in lowland forests around
Perak, Malaya but abundant in the Philippines at low elevations from Luzon to Mindanao. The tree
has long been cultivated in Malaya and Thailand; is rarely domesticated in the Philippines. Ochse
reported that there were extensive plantings in Java only around Bogor and the villages along the
railway between Boger and Djakarta.
The tree was planted at the Trujillo Plant Propagation Station in Puerto Rico in 1926 and young
trees from Java were sent to the Lancetilla Experimental Garden, Tela, Honduras, in 1927. The
latter were said in 1945 to be doing well at Tela and fruiting moderately. The pulasan is
little-known elsewhere in the New World except in Costa Rica where it is occasionally grown and
the fruits sometimes appear on the market.
Varieties
Ochse refers to 2 forms of pulasan in Java: in one group, distinguished as "Seebabat' or
'Kapoolasan seebabat', the fruit is mostly dark-red, the tubercles are crowded together, the flesh is
very sweet and juicy and separates easily from the seed. In the other group, the fruit is light-red
and smaller, the tubercles are not so closely set, and the flesh adheres firmly to the seed.
Wester mentions a fine variety growing in Jolo. The plants introduced into Honduras were 2
superior varieties called 'Asmerah Tjoplok' and 'Kapoelasan mera tjoplok'. There are some trees in
Malaya and in Thailand that bear seedless fruits and these are being vegetatively propagated.
Climate
The pulasan is ultra-tropical and thrives only in very humid regions between 360 and 1,150 ft
(110-350 in) of altitude. In Malaya, it is said that the tree bears best after a long, dry season.
Soil
There is little information on the soil requirements of the pulasan but Ochse says it must be
constantly moist. He was of the opinion that the richer soil around Bogor contributed to the
superior quality of the fruits grown in that area.
Propagation
Planting of seeds is not favored because the seedlings may be male or female. As with the
rambutan, air-layers are very short-lived. Budding is successful if it is done in the rainy season on
rootstocks already set out in the field so that they will not be subject to transplanting which causes
many fatalities, particularly during dry weather.
Culture
The trees require less space than rambutan trees and can be 26 to 33 ft (8 to 10 m) apart each way.
Pulasan
As a rule, they receive little or no fertilizer or other cultural attention.

Food Uses
The flesh of ripe fruits is eaten raw or made into jam. Boiled or roasted seeds are used to prepare a
cocoa-like beverage.
Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Fat
Ash
Calcium
84.54-90.87 g
0.82 g
12.86 g
0.14 g
0.55 g
0.43-0.45 g
0.01-0.05 mg
Iron
0.002 mg
*Analyses made in the Philippines.

Toxicity
Hydrocyanic acid has been detected in the bark and leaves.
Other Uses
Oil: The dried seed kernels yield 74.9% of a solid, white fat, melting at 104 to 107.6 F (40-42
C), to a faintly perfumed oil. Presumably, this could be utilized in soap-making.
Wood: The wood is light-red, harder and heavier than that of the rambutan and of excellent quality
but rarely available.
Medicinal Uses: The leaves and roots are employed in poultices. The root decoction is
administered as a febrifuge and vermifuge. Burkill says that the roots are boiled with Gleichenia
linearis Clarke, and the decoction is used for bathing fever patients.
Mamoncillo

Morton, J. 1987. Mamoncillo. p. 267269. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Mamoncillo
Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.
Melicocca bijuga L.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Seed Hazard
Other Uses
One of the minor fruits of the family Sapindaceae, the mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.,
syn. Melicocca bijuga L.) has, nevertheless acquired an assortment of regional names, such as:
ackee (Barbados only; not to be confused with Blighia sapida, q.v.); genip, ginep, ginepe,
guenepa, guinep (Barbados, Jamaica, Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago); grosella de
miel (Mexico); guayo (Mexico); honeyberry (Guyana); Jamaica bullace plum, kanappy (Puerto
Rico); kenet (French Guiana); knepa (Surinam); knepe (French West Indies); knippa (Surinam);
limoncillo (Dominican Republic); macao (Colombia, Venezuela); maco (Venezuela); mamon
(Colombia, Venezuela, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Argentina); mamon de
Cartagena (Costa Rica); marmalade box (Guyana); mauco (Venezuela); muco (Colombia,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mamoncillo.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:35:58 PM]
Mamoncillo
Venezuela); quenepa (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia); quenepe (Haiti); quenett
(French Guiana); sensiboom (Surinam); Spanish lime (Florida); tapaljocote (El Salvador).
Description
The mamoncillo tree is slow-growing, erect,
stately, attractive; to 85 ft (25 m) high, with
trunk to 5 1/2 ft (1.7 m) thick; smooth, gray
bark, and spreading branches. Young
branchlets are reddish. The leaves are
briefly deciduous, alternate, compound,
having 4 opposite, elliptic, sharp-pointed
leaflets 2 to 5 in (5-12.5 cm) long and 1 1/4
to 2 1/2 in (3.25-6.25 cm) wide, the rachis
frequently conspicuously winged as is that
of the related soapberry (Sapindus
saponaria L.). The flowers, in slender
racemes 2 1/3 to 4 in (6-10 cm) long, often
clustered in terminal panicles, are fragrant, Fig. 75: The mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus), with its
white, 1/5 to 1/3 in (5-8 mm) wide, with 4 large seeds and thin layer of adhering flesh, provides little but
petals and 8 stamens. Male and female are juice.
usually borne on separate trees but some trees are partly polygamous. The fruit clusters are
branched, compact and heavy with nearly round, green fruits tipped with a small protrusion, and
suggesting at first glance small unripe limes, but there the resemblance ends. The skin is smooth,
thin but leathery and brittle. The glistening pulp (aril) is salmon-colored or yellowish, translucent,
gelatinous, juicy but very scant and somewhat fibrous, usually clinging tenaciously to the seed.
When fully ripe, the pulp is pleasantly acid-sweet but if unripe acidity predominates. In most fruits
there is a single, large, yellowish-white, hard-shelled seed, while some have 2 hemispherical seeds.
The kernel is white, crisp, starchy, and astringent.
The mamoncillo is native to Colombia, Venezuela, and the island of Margarita, also French
Guiana, Guyana and Surinam. It is commonly cultivated and spontaneous in those countries, also
in coastal Ecuador, the lowlands of Central America, the West Indies and in the Bahamas. In
Florida, it is occasionally grown as far north as Ft. Myers on the West Coast and Palm Beach on
the east; is much more plentiful in Key West, especially as a street tree. There are some specimens
in California and in botanical gardens in the Philippines, Zanzibar, Hawaii and elsewhere.
According to Britton, there was a tree about 30 ft (9 m) tall in Bermuda in 1914 but it had never
bloomed. There are a few trees in Israel but none has flowered before 10 years of age.
Varieties
Little horticultural attention has been given this fruit. In the 1950's, a large-fruited, sweet type was
found in Key West. Air-layers and inarchings were made in order to permit trial of this type on the
mainland. In the 1960's, horticulturist George Jackson evaluated the fruits of 54 trees in southern
Puerto Rico. Fruits with less than 45% edible pulp and 20% total sugars were disregarded. He
rated 9 trees as meriting further testing. Of these, 4 were selected as having the most desirable
Mamoncillo
qualities. Their main characters were listed as follows:

'Puerto Rico #1'round, of medium size, 28 to the lb (62/kg); flesh firm, semi-dry, separating
easily from the seed; sweet, with 26.0% sugars.
'Puerto Rico #2'round, of medium size, 27 to the pound (60/kg); rind medium-thick; flesh firm,
semi-dry, separating easily from seed; sweet, 24.1% total sugars.
'Puerto Rico #3'round -oblong, small, 49 to the pound (108/kg); rind thin, pliable; flesh firm,
semi-dry, separating easily from the seed; very sweet, 24.1% total sugars.
'Puerto Rico #4'round, medium-small, 40 to the lb (88/kg); rind medium-thin, flesh firm,
semi-dry, separating easily from seed; agreeably acid and slightly sweet; 22.7% total sugar.
The percentage of edible matter by fruit-weight ranged from 46.6% to 48.6%.
In 1976, Dr. Carl Campbell of the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education
Center in Homestead, Florida, reported on his comparison of 3 selections made by interested
individuals and an ordinary seedling growing at the Center. The latter, labeled 'No. 1', was graded
as: small, 49.1% pulp, but of only fair flavor, and poor annual yield.
'No. 2', or 'Queen', brought by W.F. Whitman from Key West; large, 55.6% pulp, only fair in
flavor, and medium in yield.
'No. 3', brought by R.G. Newcomb from Key West; of good size, 48.2% pulp; of good flavor and
borne heavily in most years.
'No. 4', or 'Montgomery', from the Montgomery (later, Jennings) Estate in Coral Gables; large,
with sometimes 18% of crop having 2 seeds; 51.5% pulp; of good flavor, and borne heavily in
most years.
Pollination
Generally, the presence of a male tree is necessary to pollinate the flowers of trees that are
predominantly female (or hermaphrodite functioning as female). However, in Cuba, some trees
have sufficient numbers of flowers of both sexes to yield regularly large crops without
interplanting.
Climate
The mamoncillo is not strictly tropical, for it ascends up to 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea-level in
South America. It can stand several degrees of frost in Florida. Nevertheless, it is too tender to
fruit in California though it has been planted there on various occasions. It is well adapted to areas
of low rainfall. That of Key West ranges from 30 to 50 in (75-125 cm) annually. The tree can
tolerate long periods of drought.
Soil
In Cuba, the tree is said to flourish in nearly all types of terrain but particularly in deep, rich soil of
calcareous origin. It seems perfectly at home in the oolitic-limestone of southern Florida and the
Florida Keys. In Colombia, it has been observed to grow on such poor soils that it has been
Mamoncillo
adopted for planting in soil reclamation efforts. It is spontaneous especially in dry, coastal districts.
Propagation
The mamoncillo is usually grown from seed but superior types should be vegetatively reproduced.
Air-layering of fairly large branches, at least 2 in (5 cm) in diameter, is successful in the summer
and there will be adequate root development in 5 to 6 weeks. Approach-grafting is feasible
provided the rootstocks are raised in a lightweight medium, in plastic bags to facilitate attachment
to the selected tree. Attempts to veneer-graft or chip-bud have generally failed.
Culture
Ordinarily, the mamoncillo, tree is given no care except for watering and fertilizing when first
planted. Vegetatively propagated trees bear earlier than seedlings.
In Florida, the fruits ripen from June to September. In the Bahamas, the season extends from July
to October. Ladders and picking poles equipped with cutters are necessary in harvesting fruits
from tall trees. The entire cluster is clipped from the branch when sampling indicates that the fruits
are fully ripe. At this stage, the rind becomes brittle but does not change color. If picked
prematurely, the rind turns blackish, a sign of deterioration.
Keeping Quality
Because of the leathery skin, the fruit remains fresh for a long time and ships and markets well.
The tropical horticulturist, David Sturrock, related that horsemen in Cuba often hung branches of
mamoncillos on the saddle horn to enjoy and relieve thirst during long rides.
Pests and Diseases
The tree is a host of the Citrus black fly, Aleurocanthus woglumi. There are several parasites
(Prospaltella spp., Eretmocerus serius, and Amitus hesperidium) which provide effective control
of this pest. In Florida, Armillariella (Clitocybe) tabescens causes mushroom root rot; Fusarium
and Phyllosticta cause leaf spot; and Cephaleuros virescens, algal leaf spot and green scurf.
Food Uses
For eating out-of-hand, the rind is merely torn open at the stem end and the pulp-coated seed is
squeezed into the mouth, the juice being sucked from the pulp until there is nothing left of it but
the fiber. With fruits that have non-adherent pulp, the latter may be scraped from the seed and
utilized to make pie-filling, jam, marmalade or jelly, but this entails much work for the small
amount of edible material realized. More commonly, the peeled fruits are boiled and the resulting
juice is prized for cold drinks. In Colombia, the juice is canned commercially.
The seeds are eaten after roasting. Indians of the Orinoco consume the cooked seeds as a substitute
for cassava.
Calories
58.11-73
Mamoncillo
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
68.8-82.5 g
0.50-1.0 g
0.08-0.2 g
13.5-19.2 g
0.07-2.60 g
0.34-0.74g
3.4-15 mg
9.8-23.9 mg
0.47-1.19 mg
0.02-0.44 mg (70 I.U.)
0.03-0.21 mg
0.01-0.20 mg
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Tannin
Amino Acids
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
0.15-0.90 mg
0.8-10 mg
1.88 g
14 mg
0
17 mg
*Analyses made in Cuba, Central America and Colombia.

Seed Hazard
It has been said that the pulp fibers coat the lining of the stomach, adversely affecting the health,
but this has been denied by the Government Chemist of the Department of Science and Agriculture
in Jamaica who declares that fatalities in children are the result of choking on the seed. When
coated with pulp, it is very slippery, is accidentally swallowed and, because of its size, lodges in
the throat, causing suffocation or strangulation.
Other Uses
Juice: A dye has been experimentally made from the juice of the raw fruit which makes an
indelible stain.
Flowers: The flowers are rich in nectar and highly appealing to hummingbirds and honeybees.
The honey is somewhat dark in color but of agreeable flavor. The tree is esteemed by Jamaican
beekeepers though the flowering season (March/April) is short.
Leaves: In Panama, the leaves are scattered in houses where there are many fleas. It is claimed
that the fleas are attracted to the leaves and are cast out with the swept-up foliage. Some believe
that the leaves actually kill the fleas.
Mamoncillo
Wood: The heartwood is yellow with dark lines, compact, hard, heavy, fine-grained; inclined to
decay out of doors, but valued for rafters, indoor framing, and cabinetwork.
Medicinal Uses: In Venezuela, the astringent roasted seed kernels are pulverized, mixed with
honey and given to halt diarrhea. The astringent leaf decoction is given as an enema for intestinal
complaints.
Akee

Morton, J. 1987. Akee. p. 269271. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Akee
Blighia sapida K. Konig
Cupania sapida Voigt.
Description
Climate
Soil
Season
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
More widely known for its poisonous properties than as an edible fruit, the akee, Blighia sapida K.
Konig (syn. Cupania sapida Voigt.), of the family Sapindaceae, is sometimes called ackee, akee
apple, or vegetable brain (seso vegetal in Spanish). Other Spanish names are arbol de seso, palo de
seso (Cuba); huevo vegetal and fruto de huevo (Guatemala and Panama); arbor del huevo and pera
roja (Mexico); merey del diablo (Venezuela); bien me sabe or pan y quesito (Colombia); ak
(Costa Rica). In Portuguese, it is castanha or castanheiro de Africa. In French, it is arbre fricass
or arbre a fricasser (Haiti); yeux de crabe or ris de veau (Martinique). In Surinam it is known as
akie. On the Ivory Coast of West Africa, it is called kaka or finzan; in the Sudan, finza. Elsewhere
in Africa it is generally known as akye, akyen or ishin, though it has many other dialectal names.
In the timber trade, the wood is marketed as achin.
It should be noted that the name "akee" may refer to the mamoncillo, q.v., in Barbados. As a
colloquial term for the mamoncillo it may be a corruption of the Mayan "acche" which was applied
to several plants whose flowers attract honeybees.
Description
The tree, reaching 33 to 40 ft (10-12 m), is rather hand some, usually with a short trunk to 6 ft ( 1.8
m) in circumference, and a dense crown of spreading branches. Its bark is gray and nearly smooth.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/akee.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:36:00 PM]
Akee
The evergreen (rarely deciduous), alternate

leaves are compound with 3 to 5 pairs of
oblong, obovate-oblong, or elliptic leaflets,
6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) long, rounded at the
base, short-pointed at the apex; bright-green
and glossy on the upper surface, dull and
paler and finely hairy on the veins on the
under side. Bisexual and male flowers,
borne together in simple racemes 3 to 7 in
(7.5-17.5 cm) long, are fragrant, 5 petalled,
white and hairy. The fruit is a leathery, pear
shaped, more or less distinctly 3-lobed
capsule 2 3/4 to 4 in (7-10 cm) long;
basically yellow, more or less flushed with Fig. 76: The akee (Blighia sapida) from Africa is a favorite in
Jamaica but the fleshy arils are poisonous until fully exposed
bright-scarlet. When it is fully mature, it
to light. The seeds are always poisonous.
splits open revealing 3 cream-colored,
fleshy, glossy arils, crisp, somewhat nutty-flavored, attached to the large, black, nearly round,
smooth, hard, shining seedsnonnally 3; often 1 or 2 may be aborted. The base of each aril is
attached to the inside of the stem-end of the "jacket" by pink or orange-red membranes.
The akee is indigenous to the forests of the Ivory Coast and Gold Coast of West tropical Africa
where it is little eaten but various parts have domestic uses. In Ghana, the fruiting tree is admired
as an ornamental and is planted in villages and along streets for shade. The akee was brought to
Jamaica in 1793 by the renowned Captain Bligh to furnish food for the slaves. It was readily
adopted and became commonly grown in dooryards and along roadsides and, to some extent,
naturalized. The arils still constitute a favorite food of the island and the fruit is featured in a
calypso despite the health hazards associated with it. Canned arils are exported to the United
Kingdom where they are welcomed byJamaican immigrants. Importation has been banned by the
United States Food and Drug Administration.
The akee was planted also in Trinidad and Haiti and some other islands of the West Indies and the
Bahamas and apparently was carried by Jamaican slaves to Panama and the Atlantic Coast of
Guatemala and Costa Rica. In 1900 it was outlawed in Trinidad after it had caused some fatalities.
There are scattered trees in Surinam, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil, quite a number
maintained as curiosities in southern Florida; and some planted around Calcutta, India. The tree
has been tried in the warm, moist climate of Guyana and Malaya but has never survived. At Lamao
in the Philippines it first bore fruit in 1919.
Climate
The akee tree is tropical to subtropical; flourishes from sea-level to an elevation of 3,000ft (900 m)
in Jamaica. It does not bear fruit in Guatemala City; fruits heavily in southern Florida where young
trees have been killed by winter cold but mature trees have escaped serious injury during brief
periods of 26 F (-3.33 C).
Soil
Akee
The tree does very well on oolitic limestone and on sand in southern Florida and the Bahamas,
though it grows faster in more fertile soils.
Akee trees are grown from seeds or by shield-budding, and show very little variation. In European
greenhouses, cuttings of ripe shoots are rooted in sand and raised in a mixture of peat and loam. In
warm climates, the tree grows fast and requires little cultural attention.
Season
There is some flowering and fruiting all year in Jamaica. In Florida, flowers appear in spring and
the fruits in mid summer and there may be a light blooming period in the fall. In the Bahamas,
there are 2 distinct crops a year, one from February through April and the second from July to
October.
Food Uses
The akee must be allowed to open fully or at least partly before it is detached from the tree. When
it has "yawned", the seeds are discarded and the arils, while still fresh and firm, are best parboiled
in salted water or milk and then lightly fried in butter. Then they are really delicious. In Jamaica,
they are often cooked with codfish, onions and tomatoes. After parboiling, they are added to a stew
of beef, salt-pork and scallions, thyme and other seasonings. Sometimes they are curried and eaten
with rice. They are served, not only in the home, but also in hotel dining rooms and other
restaurants. In Africa, they may be eaten raw or in soup, or after frying in oil.
Food Value Per 100 g of Raw Arils*
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
57.60 g
8.75 g
18.78 g
3.45 g
9.55 g
1.87 g
83 mg
98 mg
5.52 mg
-0.10 mg
Riboflavin
0.18 mg
Niacin
3.74 mg
Ascorbic Acid 65 mg
*Analyses made in Mexico.
Akee
Toxicity
The toxicity of the akee was long misunderstood and believed to reside in the membranes
attaching the arils to the jacket, or only in the overripe and decomposing arils. There have been
intensive clinical and chemical studies of the akee and its effects since 1940, and it is now known
that the unripe arils contain hypoglycin, a-amino-B-(2-methylenecyclopropyl) propionic acid,
formerly called hy poglycin A. This toxic property is largely dispelled by light as the jacket opens.
When fully ripe, the arils still possess 1/12 of the amount in the unripe. The seeds are always
poisonous. They contain hypoglycin and its y-glutamyl derivative, y-L-glutamyl
a-amino-B-(2-methylene cyclopropyl) propionic acid, formerly called hypoglycin B. The latter is
1/2 as toxic as the former.
In feeding experiments at the University of Miami, Dr. Edward Larson found that the membrane of
open fruits was harmless; rabbits were readily killed by the unripe arils; rats were resistant and had
to be force fed to be fatally poisoned. I have found that squirrels will make holes in the unopened
fruits on the tree to consume the unripe arils but they leave the seeds untouched.
Akee poisoning in humans is evidenced by acute vomiting, sometimes repeated, without diarrhea
(called "vomiting sickness" in Jamaica), followed by drowsiness, convulsions, coma and, too
often, death. Because of hypoglycaemic effects, administration of sugar solutions have been found
helpful. Most cases occur in winter in Jamaica when 30% to 50% of the arils have small,
underdeveloped seeds, often not apparent externally. Ingestion of such arils, raw or cooked, is
hazardous. For more information on the toxicity of the akee, one may consult Kean, Hypoglycin
(1975), and Morton, Forensic Medicine, Vol. III, Chap. 71 (1977).
Other Uses
Fruit: In West Africa, the green fruits, which produce lather in water, are used for laundering.
Crushed fruits are employed as fish poison. The seeds, because of their oil content, and the jacket
because of its potash content, are burned and the ashes used in making soap.
Flowers: In Cuba an extract of the flowers is appreciated as cologne.
Bark: On the Gold Coast, a mixture of the pulverized bark and ground hot peppers is rubbed on
the body as a stimulant.
Wood: The sapwood is white or light greenish-brown. The heartwood is reddish-brown, hard,
coarse-grained, durable, immune to termites. It is used locally for construction and pilings and has
been recommended for railway sleepers. It is also fashioned into oars, paddles and casks.
Medicinal Uses: In Brazil, repeated small doses of an aqueous extract of the seed has been
administered to expel parasites. The treatment is followed by a saline or oily purative. Cubans
blend the ripe arils with sugar and cinnamon and give the mixture as a febrifuge and as a treatment
for dysentery. On the Ivory Coast, the bark is mixed with pungent spices in an ointment applied to
relieve pain. The crushed new foliage is applied on the forehead to relieve severe headache. The
leaves, crushed with salt, are poulticed on ulcers. The leaf juice is employed as eye drops in
ophthalmia and conjunctivitis. In Colombia, the leaves and bark are considered stomachic. Various
preparations are made for treatment of epilepsy and yellow fever.
Akee
Indian Jujube

Morton, J. 1987. Indian Jujube. p. 272275. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Indian Jujube
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
Ziziphus jujuba L.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
While the better-known, smooth-leaved Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) of the family
Rhamnaceae, is of ancient culture in northern China and is widely grown in mild-temperate, rather
dry areas, of both hemispheres, the Indian jujube, Z. mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba L.) is adapted
to warm climates. It is often called merely jujube, or Chinese date, which leads to confusion with
the hardier species. Other English names are Indian Plum, Indian cherry and Malay jujube. In
Jamaica it may be called coolie plum or crabapple; in Barbados, dunk or mangustine; in Trinidad
and Tropical Africa, dunks; in Queensland, Chinee apple. In Venezuela it is ponsigne or yuyubo;
in Puerto Rico, aprin or yuyubi; in the Dominican Republic, perita haitiana; in the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/indian_jujube.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:36:03 PM]
Indian Jujube
French-speaking West Indies, pomme malcadi, pomme surette, petit pomme, liane croc chien,
gingeolier or dindoulier. In the Philippines it is called manzana or manzanita ("apple" or "little
apple"); in Malaya, bedara; in Indonesia and Surinam, widara; in Thailand, phutsa or ma-tan; in
Cambodia, putrea; in Vietnam, tao or tao nhuc. In India it is most commonly known as ber, orbor.
Description
The plant is a vigorous grower and has a
rapidly-developing taproot. It may be a
bushy shrub 4 to 6 ft (1.2-1.8 m) high, or a
tree 10 to 30 or even 40 ft (3-9 or 12 m) tall;
erect or wide-spreading, with gracefully
drooping branches and downy, zigzag
branchlets, thornless or set with short, sharp
straight or hooked spines. It may be
evergreen, or leafless for several weeks in
hot summers. The leaves are alternate,
ovate- or oblong-elliptic, 1 to 2 1/2 in
(2.5-6.25 cm) long, 3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4 cm)
wide; distinguished from those of the
Chinese jujube by the dense, silky, whitish
or brownish hairs on the underside and the
short, downy petioles. On the upper surface,
they are very glossy, dark-green, with 3
conspicuous, depressed, longitudinal veins,
and there are very fine teeth on the margins. Plate XXXV: INDIAN JUJUBE, Zizyphus mauritiana
The 5-petalled flowers are yellow, tiny, in 2's or 3's in the leaf axils. The fruit of wild trees is 1/2 to
1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) long. With sophisticated cultivation, the fruit reaches 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) in
length and 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) in width. The form may be oval, obovate, round or oblong; the skin
smooth or rough, glossy, thin but tough, turns from light-green to yellow, later becomes partially
or wholly burnt-orange or red-brown or all-red. When slightly underripe, the flesh is white, crisp,
juicy, acid or subacid to sweet, somewhat astringent, much like that of a crabapple. Fully ripe
fruits are less crisp and somewhat mealy; overripe fruits are wrinkled, the flesh buff-colored, soft,
spongy and musky. At first the aroma is applelike and pleasant but it becomes peculiarly musky as
the fruit ages. There is a single, hard, oval or oblate, rough central stone which contains 2 elliptic,
brown seeds, 1/4 in (6 mm) long.
The Indian jujube is native from the Province of Yunnan in southern China to Afghanistan,
Malaysia and Queensland, Australia. It is cultivated to some extent throughout its natural range but
mostly in India where it is grown commercially and has received much horticultural attention and
refinement despite the fact that it frequently escapes and becomes a pest. It was introduced into
Guam about 1850 but is not often planted there or in Hawaii except as an ornamental. Specimens
are scattered about the drier parts of the West Indies, the Bahamas, Colombia and Venezuela,
Guatemala, Belize, and southern Florida. In Barbados, Jamaica and Puerto Rico the tree is
naturalized and forms thickets in uncultivated areas. In 1939, 6 trees from Malaysia were
Indian Jujube
introduced into Israel and flourished there. They bore very light crops of fruit heavily infested with
fruit flies and were therefore destroyed to protect other fruit trees.
Varieties
In India, there are 90 or more cultivars differing in the habit of the tree, leaf shape, fruit form, size,
color, flavor, keeping quality, and fruiting season. Among the important cultivars, eleven are
described in the encyclopaedic Wealth of India: 'Banarasi (or Banarsi) Pewandi', 'Dandan',
'Kaithli' ('Patham'), 'Muria Mahrara', 'Narikelee', 'Nazuk', 'Sanauri 1', 'Sanauri 5',
'Thornless' and 'Umran' ('Umri'). The skin of most is smooth and greenish-yellow to yellow.
At Haryana Agricultural University, a study was made of 70 cultivars collected from all
jujube-growing areas of northern India and set out in an experimental orchard in 1967-68. In 1980,
16 midseason selections from these were evaluated. 'Banarasi Karaka' (poor-flavored) gave the
highest yield-286 lbs (130 kg) per tree-followed by 'Mudia Murhara' and 'Kaithli' (both of good
flavor), and 'Sanauri 5' and 'Desi Alwar' (both of medium flavor). It was decided that 'Mudia
Murhara', 'Kaithli' and 'Sanauri 5' were worthy of commercial cultivation. For breeding purposes,
'Banarasi Karaka' and 'Desi Alwar' could contribute high pulp content; 'Mudia Murhara', total
soluble solids; 'Kaithli', high ascorbic acid content and good flavor, in efforts to develop a superior
midseason cultivar.
In 1982, 4 were singled-out as the most promising cultivars:
'Umran'large, golden-yellow turning chocolate-brown when fully ripe; sweet; 19% TSS; 0.12%
acidity; average fruit weight, 30-89 g; yield, 380-440 lbs (150-200 kg) per tree; late-ripening; of
good keeping and shipping quality.
'Gola'medium to large (average, 14-17 g); 17-19% TSS; 0.46-0.51% acidity; golden-yellow,
juicy, of good flavor; yield, 175-220 lbs (80-100 kg) per tree. Earliest to ripen; sells at a high price.
'Kaithli'of medium size (average 180.0 g); 18% TSS; 0.5% acidity; pulp soft and sweet. Average
yield, 220-330 lbs (100-150 kg).
'Katha phal'small to medium (average 10.0 g); greenish blushed on one cheek with
reddish-yellow; 23% TSS; 0.77% acidity; yield, medium, 175-220 lbs (80- 100 kg) per tree. Late
in season.
In addition to these, 5 cultivars have been described at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi. All are grown in Delhi, the southeastern Punjab and neighboring Uttar Pradesh. Their
special features are, briefly, as follows:
'Dandan'non-spiny; fruit medium to large; of fairly good quality; keeps well. Late in season.
'Gular Bashi'fruit of medium size, juicy, sweet, nonacrid; of excellent quality when fresh,
musky after storage. TSS 18.8% when yellow, 22.4% after turning brown. Stone medium to thin,
funnel-shaped, easily separated from the flesh. Late in season. Keeps well.
'Kheera'medium to large, oval with a beak; pulp soft, juicy, of good, sweet flavor. TSS 19.8%.
Late; a heavy bearer; of fairly good keeping quality.
Indian Jujube
'Nazuk'medium to small, elliptic-oblong; pulp slimy, fairly juicy; of good, sweet flavor, nearly
without astringency. TSS 17.4%. Midseason. A moderate bearer. Of poor keeping quality.
'Seo ber' ('Seb')medium to large; skin thick; pulp moderately juicy, astringent unless peeled or
not eaten until light-brown, when it is very sweet and excellent. TSS 19%. Stone large, thick,
pitted. Late in season. Keeps very well.
In Assam 5 wild or cultivated types, collected from various parts of the state, have been described
by S. Dutta:
'Var. 1'a very thorny wild shrub, with small, round, inferior fruits; grown as a fence to protect
crops.
'Var. 2'a wild, thorny tree to 30 ft (9 m) with red-brown, tough-skinned fruit having slimy,
acid-sweet pulp. Much eaten by children and rural folk. Commonly used in cooking and
preserving.
'Var. 3'a very thorny, spreading tree. Fruit dark-red or brown, with sour pulp. Bears heavily.
Planted for shade.
'Var. 4' ('Bali bogri')a wild, thornless tree, with greenish-yellow fruits blushed with red; pulp
slightly slimy, mealy, sweet-and-acid, of good flavor. Bears heavily.
'Var. 5' ('Tenga-mitha-bogri')A wild, thorny tree, with oblong, brownish fruit; pulp slightly
slimy, sweet-and-acid, with very pleasant flavor. Bears heavily. A choice jujube recommended for
vegetative propagation and commercial cultivation.
Pollination
Pollen of the Indian jujube is thick and heavy. It is not airborne but is transferred from flower to
flower by honeybees (Apis spp.), a yellow wasp (Polister hebraeus), and the house fly (Musca
domestica).
The cultivars 'Banarasi Karaka', 'Banarasi Pewandi' and 'Thornless' are self-incompatible. 'Banarasi
Karaka' and 'Thornless' are reciprocally cross-incompatible.
Climate
In China and India, wild trees are found up to an elevation of 5,400 ft (1,650 m) but commercial
cultivation extends only up to 3,280 ft (1,000 m). In northern Florida, it is sensitive to frost. Young
trees may be frozen to the ground but will recover. Mature trees have withstood occasional short
periods of freezing temperatures without damage. In India, the minimum shade temperature for
survival is 44.6 to 55.4 F (7-13 C); the maximum, 98.6 to 118 F (37-48 C). The tree requires
a fairly dry climate with an annual rainfall of 6 to 88.5 in (15-225 cm), being unsuited to the lower,
wetter parts of Malaysia. For high fruit production, the tree needs full sun.
Soil
In India, the tree does best on sandy loam, neutral or slightly alkaline. It also grows well on
laterite, medium black soils with good drainage, or sandy, gravelly, alluvial soil of dry river-beds
where it is vigorously spontaneous. Even moderately saline soils are tolerated. The tree is
Indian Jujube
remarkable in its ability to tolerate water-logging as well as drought.

Propagation
The Indian jujube is widely grown from seeds, which may remain viable for 2 1/2 years but the
rate of germination declines with age. Superior selections are grafted or budded onto seedlings of
wild types. Vegetative propagation of highly prized varieties was practiced near Bombay about
1835 but kept secret until 1904, and then was quickly adopted by many people. Ring-budding has
been popular in the past but has been largely superseded by shield-budding or T-budding. Grafted
plants are less thorny than seedlings.
To select seeds for growing rootstocks, the stones must be taken from fruits that have fully ripened
on the tree. They are put into a 17 to 18% salt solution and all that float are discarded. The stones
that sink are dipped in 500 ppm thiourea for 4 hours, then cracked and the separated seeds will
germinate in 7 days. Seeds in uncracked stones require 21 to 28 days. If seeds are sown in spring,
the seedlings will be ready for budding in 4 months. Great care must be taken in transplanting
nursery stock to the field because of the taproot. Therefore, the rootstocks may be raised directly in
the field and budding done in situ. Inferior seedling trees, including wild trees, can be topworked
to preferred cultivars in June and some fruit will be borne a year later. From 1935 to 1939, the
Punjab Department of Agriculture top-worked 50,000 trees without cost to the growers. Air-layers
will root if treated with IBA and NAA at 5,000 to 7,500 ppm and given 100 ppm boron. Cuttings
of mature wood at least 2 years old can be rooted and result in better yields than those taken at a
younger stage.
At Punjab University, horticulturists have experimented with stooling as a means of propagation.
They transplanted one-year-old seedlings into stool beds, cut them back to 4 in (10 cm), found that
the shoots would root only if ringed and treated with IBA, preferably at 12,000 ppm.
Culture
Untrimmed trees must be spaced at 36 to 40 ft (11-12 m), but carefully pruned trees can be set at
23 to 26 ft (7-8 m). Pruning should be done during the first year of growth to reduce the plant to
one healthy shoot, and branches lower than 30 in (75 cm) should be removed. At the end of the
year, the plant is topped. During the 2nd and 3rd years, the tree is carefully shaped. Thereafter, the
tree should be pruned immediately after harvesting at the beginning of dormancy and 25 to 50% of
the previous year's growth may be removed. Sometimes a second lighter pruning is performed just
before flowering. There will be great improvement in size, quality and number of fruits the
following season.
In India, it has been traditional to apply manure and ash as fertilizer, but, in recent years, each tree
has been given annual treatments of 22 lbs (10 kg) manure with 1.1 lbs (0.5 kg) ammonium
sulphate for every year of age up to the 5th year. More advanced farmers utilize only commercial
fertilizer (NPK) in larger amounts, twice annually, the first at the rate of 110 lbs/acre (about 110
kg/ha) and the second at 172 lbs/acre (about 172 kg/ha). Growth regulators are now being utilized
to bring about early and heavier blooming, enhance fruit setting, prevent fruit drop, and increase
fruit size, and promote uniform ripening. These practices have demonstrated that an improved crop
can bring in 2 to 3 times the revenue of that achieved by conventional practices.
During hot weather and also in the period of fruit development, irrigation is highly beneficial.
Indian Jujube
Water-stress will cause immature fruit drop. In India, water has been applied as many as 35 times
during the winter months. Zinc and boron sprays are sometimes applied to enhance glossiness of
the fruits.
In India, some types ripen as early as October, others from mid-February to mid-March, others in
March, or mid-March, to the end of April. In the Assiut Governorate, there are 2 crops a year, the
main in early spring, the second in the fall. In India, 2 or 3 pickings are done by hand from ladders,
a worker being capable of manually harvesting about 110 lbs (50 kg) per day. The fruits remaining
on the tree are shaken down. After wrapping in white cloth, the fruits are put into paper-lined
burlap bags holding 110 lbs (50 kg) for long trips to markets throughout the country.
Yield
Seedling trees bear 5,000 to 10,000 small fruits per year in India. Superior grafted trees may yield
as many as 30,000 fruits. The best cultivar in India, with fruits normally averaging 30 to the lb (66
to the kg), yields 175 lbs (77 kg) annually. Special cultural treatment increases both fruit size and
yield.
Keeping Quality
The Indian jujube stands handling, shipment and marketing very well. Storage experiments in
India showed that slightly underripe fruits ripen and keep for 8 days under wheat straw, 7 days
under leaves, and 4 days in carbide (50 to 60 g).
Pests and Diseases
The greatest enemies of the jujube in India are fruit flies, Carpomyia vesuviana and C. incompleta.
Some cultivars are more susceptible than others, the flies preferring the largest, sweetest fruits,
100% of which may be attacked while on a neighboring tree, bearing a smaller, less-sweet type,
only 2% of the crop may be damaged. The larvae pupate in the soil and it has been found that
treatment of the ground beneath the tree helps reduce the problem. Control is possible with regular
and effective spraying of insecticide.
A leaf-eating caterpillar, Porthmologa paraclina, and the green slug caterpillar, Thosea sp., attack
the foliage. A mite, Larvacarus transitans, forms scale-like galls on twigs retarding growth and
reducing the fruit crop.
Lesser pests include a small caterpillar, Meridarches scyrodes, that bores into the fruit; the
gray-hairy caterpillar, Thiacidas postica, also Tarucus theophrastus, Myllocerus transmarinus, and
Xanthochelus superciliosus.
The tree is subject to shrouding by a parasitic vine (Cuscuta spp.). Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.)
causes defoliation and fruit-drop. Sooty mold (Cladosporium zizyphi) causes leaves to fall.
Leafspot results from infestation by Cercospora spp. and Isariopsis indica var. zizyphi. In 1973, a
witches'-broom disease caused by a mycoplasma-like organism was found in jujube plants near
Poona University. It proved to be transmitted by grafting or budding diseased scions onto healthy
Z. mauritiana seedlings. Leaf rust, caused by Phakopsora zizyphivulgaris, ranges from mild to
severe on all commercial cultivars in the Punjab.
Indian Jujube
Fruits on the tree are attacked by Alternaria chartarum, Aspergillus nanus, A. parasiticus,
Helminthosporium atroolivaceum, Phoma hessarensis, and Stemphyliomma valparadisiacum.
Twigs and branches may be affected by Entypella zizyphi, Hypoxylon hypomiltum, and Patellaria
atrata. In storage, the fruits may be spotted by the fungi, Alternaria brassicicola, Phoma spp.,
Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum. Fruit rots are caused by Fusarium spp., Nigrospora
oryzae, Epicoccum nigrum, and Glomerella cingulata.
Food Uses
In India, the ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. Slightly underripe
fruits are candied by a process of pricking, immersing in a salt solution gradually raised from 2 to
8%, draining, immersing in another solution of 8% salt and 0.2% potassium metabisulphite,
storing for 1 to 3 months, rinsing and cooking in sugar sirup with citric acid. Residents of
Southeast Asia eat the unripe fruits with salt. Ripe fruits crushed in water form a very popular cold
drink. Ripe fruits are preserved by sun-drying and a powder is prepared for out-of-season
purposes. Acid types are used for pickling or for chutneys. In Africa, the dried and fermented pulp
is pressed into cakes resembling gingerbread.
Young leaves are cooked and eaten in Indonesia. In Venezuela, a jujube liqueur is made and sold
as Crema de ponsigue. Seed kernels are eaten in times of famine.
*Fruits, fresh:
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Total Sugars
Reducing Sugars
Non-Reducing Sugars
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
81.6-83.0 g
0.8 g
0.07 g
0.60 g
17.0 g
5.4-10.5 g
1.4-6.2 g
3.2-8.0 g
0.3-0.59 g
25.6 mg
26.8 mg
0.76-1.8 mg
0.021 mg
0.02-0.024 mg
Riboflavin
Niacin
Citric Acid
Ascorbic Acid
0.02-0.038 mg
0.7-0.873 mg
0.2-1.1 mg
65.8-76.0 mg
Indian Jujube
Fluoride
Pectin (dry basis)
The fresh fruits also contain some malic and
* *Fruits, dried:
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Sugar
Fiber
0.1-0.2 ppm
2.2-3.4%
oxalic acid and quercetin.
473/lb (1,041/kg)
68.10 g
1.44 g
0.21 g
2.47 g
21.66 g
1.28 g
*Analyses made in India and Honduras.

**Analyses made in the Philippines.
Toxicity
In Ethiopia, the fruits are used to stupefy fish (possibly there is sufficient saponin for this purpose).
The leaves contain saponin because they are known to produce lather if rubbed in water.
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is reddish, close-grained, fine-textured, hard, tough, durable, planing and
polishing well. It has been used to line wells, to make legs for bedsteads, boat ribs, agricultural
implements, house poles, tool handles, yokes, gunstocks, saddle trees, sandals, golf clubs,
household utensils, toys and general turnery. It is also valued as firewood; is a good source of
charcoal and activated carbon. In tropical Africa, the flexible branches are wrapped as retaining
bands around conical thatched roofs of huts, and are twined together to form thorny corral walls to
retain livestock.
Leaves: The leaves are readily eaten by camels, cattle and goats and are considered nutritious.
Analyses show the following constituents (% dry weight): crude protein, 12.9-16.9; fat, 1.5-2.7;
fiber, 13.5-17.1; N-free extract, 55.3-56.7; ash, 10.2-11.7; calcium, 1.42-3.74; phosphorus,
0.17-0.33; magnesium, 0.46-0.83; potassium, 0.47-1.57; sodium, 0.02-0.05; chlorine, 0.14-0.38;
Sulphur, 0.13-0.33%. They also contain ceryl alcohol and the alkaloids, protopine and berberine.
The leaves are gathered as food for silkworms.
Dye: In Burma, the fruit is used in dyeing silk. The bark yields a non-fading, cinnamon-colored
dye in Kenya.
Nectar: In India and Queensland, the flowers are rated as a minor source of nectar for honeybees.
The honey is light and of fair flavor.
Lac: The Indian jujube is one of several trees grown in India as a host for the lac insect, Kerria
Indian Jujube
lacca, which sucks the juice from the leaves and encrusts them with an orange-red resinous
substance. Long ago, the lac was used for dyeing, but now the purified resin is the shellac of
commerce. Low grades of shellac are made into sealing wax and varnish; higher grades are used
for fine lacquer work, lithograph-ink, polishes and other products. The trees are grown around
peasant huts and heavily inoculated with broodlac in October and November every year, and the
resin is harvested in April and May. The trees must be pruned systematically to provide an
adequate number of young shoots for inoculation.
Medicinal Uses: The fruits are applied on cuts and ulcers; are employed in pulmonary ailments
and fevers; and, mixed with salt and chili peppers, are given in indigestion and biliousness. The
dried ripe fruit is a mild laxative. The seeds are sedative and are taken, sometimes with buttermilk,
to halt nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains in pregnancy. They check diarrhea, and are
poulticed on wounds. Mixed with oil, they are rubbed on rheumatic areas.
The leaves are applied as poultices and are helpful in liver troubles, asthma and fever and, together
with catechu, are administered when an astringent is needed, as on wounds. The bitter, astringent
bark decoction is taken to halt diarrhea and dysentery and relieve gingivitis. The bark paste is
applied on sores. The root is purgative. A root decoction is given as a febrifuge, taenicide and
emmenagogue, and the powdered root is dusted on wounds. Juice of the root bark is said to
alleviate gout and rheumatism. Strong doses of the bark or root may be toxic. An infusion of the
flowers serves as an eye lotion.
Phalsa

Morton, J. 1987. Phalsa. p. 276277. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Phalsa
Grewia subinaequalis DC.
syn. Grewia asiatica Mast.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Sundry Chemistry
In the family Tiliaceae, only one genus, Grewia, yields edible fruit. The only species of any
importance is G. subinaequalis DC. (syns. G. asiatica Mast. in part, NOT L.; G. hainesiana Hole),
long referred to in literature as G. asiatica L. Phalsa is the most used vernacular name in India
where there are a number of dialectal names. The plant is called falsa in Pakistan.
Description
A large, scraggly shrub or small tree to 15 ft (4.5 m) or more, the phalsa has long, slender,
drooping branches, the young branchlets densely coated with hairs. The alternate, deciduous,
widely spaced leaves are broadly heart-shaped or ovate, pointed at the apex, oblique at the base, up
to 8 in (20 cm) long and 6 1/2 in (16.25 cm) wide, and coarsely toothed, with a light, whitish
bloom on the underside. Small, orange-yellow flowers are borne in dense cymes in the leaf axils.
The round fruits, on 1-in (2.5 cm) peduncles are produced in great numbers in open, branched
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/phalsa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:36:05 PM]
Phalsa
clusters. Largest fruits are 1/2 to 5/8 in

(1.25-1.6 cm) wide. The skin turns from
green to purplish-red and finally dark-purple
or nearly black. It is covered with a thin,
whitish bloom and is thin, soft and tender.
The soft, fibrous flesh is greenish-white
stained with purplish-red near the skin and
becoming suffused with this color as it
progresses to overripeness. The flavor is
pleasantly acid, somewhat grapelike. Large
fruits have 2 hemispherical, hard,
buff-colored seeds 3/16 in (5 mm) wide.
Small fruits are single-seeded.
The phalsa is indigenous throughout much Fig. 77: The phalsa (Grewia asiatica) is primarily a beverage
fruit in India. Uneven ripening requires many pickings.
of India and Southeast Asia. It is cultivated
commercially mainly in the Punjab and around Bombay. It was introduced into the Philippines
before 1914 and is naturalized at low elevations in dry zones of the island of Luzon. Only a few
specimens have been planted in the New World, for example, at the former Federal Experiment
Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, and the Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead,
Florida.
Varieties
The tall-growing wild plants bear acid fruits which are not relished. The dwarf, shrubby type, with
a blend of sweet-and-acid in the best fruits, is cultivated.
Climate
In India, the phalsa grows well up to an elevation of 3,000 ft (914 m). It can stand light frosts
which cause only shedding of leaves.
Soil
The phalsa grows in most any soilsand, clay or limestonebut rich loam improves fruit
production, as does irrigation during the fruiting season and in dry periods, even though the tree is
drought-tolerant. Generally, it is grown in marginal land close to city markets.
Propagation
Seeds are the usual means of propagation and they germinate in 15 days. Ground-layers, treated
with hormones, have been 50% successful; air-layers, 85%. Cuttings are difficult to root. Only
20% of semi-hardwood cuttings from spring flush, treated with 1,000 ppm NAA, and planted in
July (in India) rooted and grew normally.
Culture
Seedlings are transplanted from seedbeds into well-prepared holes when a year old and are usually
Phalsa
spaced 10 to 15 ft (3-4.5 m) apart, though some experiments have favored 6 x 6 ft (1.8 x 1.8 m) or
8 x 8 ft (2.4 x 2.4 m) to maximize efficiency in harvesting. Fruiting will commence in 13 to 15
months. Annual pruning to a height of 3 to 4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) encourages new shoots and better
yields than more drastic trimming.
Sprays of 10 ppm gibberellic acid have increased fruit-set. At 40 ppm, there is increased fruit size
but decreased fruit-set. In fertilizer experiments, the plant has shown good vegetative response to
applications of nitrogen. High levels of phosphorus increase sugar content, while potassium
decreases sugar and elevates acidity.
Summer is the fruiting season. Only a few fruits in a cluster ripen at any one time, so continuous
harvesting is necessary. The fruits keep poorly and must be marketed within 24 hours. Average
yield per plant is 20 to 25 lbs (9-11 kg) in a season.
Pests and Diseases
Leaf-cutting caterpillars attack the foliage at night. A blackish caterpillar causes galls on the
growing shoots. Termites often damage the roots. In some areas, leaf spot is caused by Cercospora
grewiae.
Food Uses
The fruits are eaten fresh as dessert, are made into sirup, and extensively employed in the
manufacture of soft drinks. The juice ferments so readily that sodium benzoate must be added as a
preservative.
Food Value
Analyses made long ago in the Philippines show the following values: calories, 329 per lb (724 per
kg); moisture, 81.13%; protein, 1.58%; fat, 1.82%; crude fiber, 1.77%; sugar, 10.27%.
Other Uses
Leaves: The fresh leaves are valued as fodder.
Bark: The bark is used as a soap substitute in Burma. A mucilaginous extract of the bark is useful
in clarifying sugar. Fiber extracted from the bark is made into rope.
Wood: The wood is yellow-white, fine-grained, strong and flexible. It is used for archers' bows,
spear handles, shingles and poles for carrying loads on the shoulders. Stems that are pruned off
serve as garden poles and for basket-making.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit is astringent and stomachic. When unripe, it alleviates inflammation
and is administered in respiratory, cardiac and blood disorders, as well as in fever.
An infusion of the bark is given as a demulcent, febrifuge and treatment for diarrhea. The root bark
is employed in treating rheumatism. The leaves are applied on skin eruptions and they are known
to have antibiotic action.
Sundry Chemistry
Phalsa
The flowers have been found to contain grewinol, a long chain keto alcohol,
tetratricontane-22-ol-13-one. The seeds contain 5% of a bright-yellow oil containing 8.3% palmitic
acid, 11.0% stearic acid, 13.4% oleic acid, 64.5% linoleic acid; 2.8% unsaponifiable.
Jamaica Cherry

Morton, J. 1987. Jamaica Cherry. p. 6569. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Jamaica Cherry
Muntingia calabura L.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
This is a minor but well-known and wholesome fruit, borne by a multipurpose tree and therefore
merits inclusion. The Jamaica cherry, Muntingia calabura L., is a member of the family
Elaeocarpaceae. It has acquired a wide assortment of vernacular names, among them capuli or
capulin which are better limited to Prunus salicifolia (q.v.). In Florida, it has been nicknamed
strawberry tree because its blooms resemble strawberry blossoms, but strawberry tree is a
well-established name for the European ornamental and fruit tree, Arbutus unedo L., often
cultivated in the western and southern United States, and should not be transferred to the Jamaica
cherry.
In Mexico, local names for the latter are capolin, palman, bersilana, jonote and puan; in
Guatemala and Costa Rica, Muntingia calabura is called capulin blanco; in El Salvador, capulin
de comer; in Panama, pasito or majagillo; in Colombia, chitat, majagito, chirriador, acuruco,
tapabotija and nigua; in Venezuela, majagua, majaguillo, mahaujo, gucimo hembra, cedrillo,
niguo, niguito; in Ecuador, nigito; in Peru, bolina, iumanasa, yumanaza, guinda yunanasa, or
mullacahuayo; in Brazil, calabura or pau de seda; in Argentina, cedrillo majagua; in Cuba,
capulina, chapuli; in Haiti, bois d' orme; bois de soie marron; in the Dominican Republic, memiso
or memizo; in Guadeloupe, bois ramier or bois de soie; in the Philippines, datiles, ratiles, latires,
cereza or seresa; in Thailand, takop farang or ta kob farang; in Cambodia, kakhop; in Vietnam,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/jamaica_cherry.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:36:07 PM]
Jamaica Cherry
cay trung ca; in Malaya, buah cheri; kerukup siam or Japanese cherry; in India, Chinese cherry or
Japanese cherry; in Ceylon, jam fruit.
Description
This is a very fast-growing tree of slender
proportions, reaching 25 to 40 ft (7.5-12 in)
in height, with spreading, nearly horizontal
branches. The leaves are evergreen,
alternate, lanceolate or oblong, long-pointed
at the apex, oblique at the base; 2 to 5 in
(5-12.5 cm) long, dark-green and minutely
hairy on the upper surface, gray- or
brown-hairy on the underside; and
irregularly toothed. The flowers, borne
singly or in 2's or 3's in the leaf axils, are
1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) wide with 5 green Fig. 78: The Jamaica cherry (Muntingia calabura) is a
sepals and 5 white petals and many
fast-growing, useful tree and the sweet fruit is popular in
prominent yellow stamens. They last only tropical America and Southeast Asia.
one day, the petals falling in the afternoon. The abundant fruits are round, 3/8 to 1/2 in (1-1.25 cm)
wide, with red or sometimes yellow, smooth, thin, tender skin and light-brown, soft, juicy pulp,
with very sweet, musky, somewhat fig-like flavor, filled with exceedingly minute, yellowish seeds,
too fine to be noticed in eating.
The Jamaica cherry is indigenous to southern Mexico, Central America, tropical South America,
the Greater Antilles, St. Vincent and Trinidad. The type specimen was collected in Jamaica. It is
widely cultivated in warm areas of the New World and in India, southeast Asia, Malaya,
Indonesia, and the Philippines, in many places so thoroughly naturalized that it is thought by the
local people to be native.
Macmillan says that it was first planted in Ceylon about 1912. Several trees were introduced into
Hawaii by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1922. Dr. David Fairchild collected
seeds of a yellow-fruited form in the Peradeniya. Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, in 1926 (S.P.I.
#67936). The tree has been grown in southern Florida for its fruits and as quick shade for nursery
plants. It is seldom planted at present. Volunteers from bird-distributed seeds spring up in
disturbed hammocks and pinelands. The author supplied seeds requested by the Kenya Agriculture
Research Institute, Kihuyu, in 1982. The Jamaica cherry is said to grow better than any other tree
in the polluted air of Metropolitan Manila. It runs wild on denuded mountainsides and on cliffs and
is being evaluated for reforestation in the Philippines where other trees have failed to grow and
also for wildlife sanctuaries since birds and bats are partial to the fruits.
The fruits are sold in Mexican markets. In Brazil, they are considered too small to be of
commercial value but it is recommended that the tree be planted on river banks so that the
abundance of flowers and fruits falling into the water will serve as bait, attracting fish for the
benefit of fishermen. In Malaya, the tree is considered a nuisance in the home garden because
fruit-bats consume the fruits and then spend the day under the eaves of houses and disfigure the
Jamaica Cherry
porch and terrace with their pink, seedy droppings.

Climate
The Jamaica cherry is tropical to near-tropical. The mid-19th Century botanist, Richard Spruce
saw it in Ecuador "in the plains on both sides of the Cordillera" growing "abundantly by the Rio
San Antonio, up to 2,500 ft" (760 m). It is found up to 4,000 ft (1,300 m) in Colombia. When
well-established, it is not harmed by occasional low winter temperatures in southern Florida.
Soil
The tree has the reputation of thriving with no care in poor soils and it does well in both acid and
alkaline locations, and even on old tin tailings in Malaya. It is drought-resistant but not
salt-tolerant.
Propagation
Brazilian planters sow directly into the field fresh seeds mixed with the sweet juice of the fruit. To
prepare seeds for future planting, water is added repeatedly to the squeezed-out seeds and juice
and, as the seeds sink to the bottom of the container, the water is poured off several times until the
seeds are clean enough for drying in the shade.
Culture
The planting hole is prepared with a mixture of organic fertilizer and soil and with a fungicidal
solution to prevent the young seedlings from damping-off. To assure good distribution of the
seeds, they are mixed with water and sown with a sprinkling can. When well fertilized and
watered, the seedlings will begin fruiting in 18 months and will be 13 ft (4 m) high in 2 years.
Season
Wherever it grows, fruits are borne nearly all year, though flowering and fruiting are interrupted in
Florida and Sao Paulo, Brazil, during the 4 coolest months. Ripe fruits can easily be shaken from
the branches and caught on cloth or plastic sheets.
Pests and Diseases
In Florida, in recent years, the fruits are infested with the larvae of the Caribbean fruit fly and are
accordingly rarely fit to eat.
The foliage is subject to leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta sp. and Pseudocercospora muntingiae
(formerly Cercospora muntingiae), and the tree is subject to crown gall caused by Agrobacterium
tumefaciens.
Food Uses
The Jamaica cherry is widely eaten by children out-of-hand, though it is somewhat sticky to
handle. It is often cooked in tarts and made into jam.
The leaf infusion is drunk as a tea-like beverage.
Jamaica Cherry
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
77.8 g
0.324 g
1.56 g
4.6 g
1.14 g
124.6 mg
84.0 mg
1.18 mg
0.019 mg
0.065 mg
0.037 mg
0.554 mg
Ascorbic Acid
80.5 mg
*Analyses made in El Salvador.

Other Uses
Wood: The sapwood is yellowish, the heartwood red-dish-brown, firm, compact, fine-grained,
moderately strong, light in weight, durable indoors, easily worked, and useful for interior
sheathing, small boxes, casks, and general carpentry. It is valued mostly as fuel, for it ignites
quickly, burns with intense heat and gives off very little smoke. Jamaicans seek out trees blown
down by storms, let them dry for a while and then cut them up, preferring this to any other wood
for cooking. It is being evaluated in Brazil as a source of paper pulp.
Bark: The bark is commonly used for lashing together the supports of rural houses. It yields a
very strong, soft fiber for twine and large ropes.
Medicinal Uses: The flowers are said to possess antiseptic properties. An infusion of the flowers
is valued as an antispasmodic. It is taken to relieve headache and the first symptoms of a cold.
Roselle

Morton, J. 1987. Roselle. p. 281286. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Roselle
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Keeping Quality
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
True roselle is Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (family Malvaceae) and there are 2 main types. The more
important economically is H. sabdariffa var. altissima Wester, an erect, sparsely-branched annual
to 16 ft (4.8 m) high, which is cultivated for its jute-like fiber in India, the East Indies, Nigeria and
to some extent in tropical America. The stems of this variety are green or red and the leaves are
green, sometimes with red veins. Its flowers are yellow and calyces red or green, non-fleshy, spiny
and not used for food. This type at times has been confused with kenaf, H. cannabinus L., a
somewhat similar but more widely exploited fiber source.
The other distinct type of roselle, H. sabdariffa var. sabdariffa, embraces shorter, bushy forms
which have been described as races: bhagalpuriensi, intermedius, albus, and ruber, all breeding
true from seed. The first has green, red-streaked, inedible calyces; the second and third have
yellow-green edible calyces and also yield fiber. We are dealing here primarily with the race ruber
and its named cultivars with edible calyces; secondarily, the green-fruited strains which have
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/roselle.html (1 of 11) [5/16/2004 1:36:12 PM]
Roselle
similar uses and which may belong to race albus.

Vernacular names, in addition to roselle, in English-speaking regions are rozelle, sorrel, red sorrel,
Jamaica sorrel, Indian sorrel, Guinea sorrel, sour-sour, Queensland jelly plant, jelly okra, lemon
bush, and Florida cranberry. In French, roselle is called oseille rouge, or oseille de Guine; in
Spanish, quimbomb chino, sereni, rosa de Jamaica, flor de Jamaica, Jamaica, agria, agrio de
Guinea, quetmia cida, via and viuela; in Portuguese, vinagreira, azeda de Guin, curur
azdo, and quiabeiro azdo; in Dutch (Surinam), zuring. In North Africa and the Near East roselle
is called karkad or carcad and it is known by these names in the pharmaceutical and
food-flavoring trades in Europe. In Senegal, the common name is bisap. The names flor de
Jamaica and hibiscus flores (the latter employed by "health food" vendors), are misleading
because the calyces are sold, not the flowers.
Description
H. sabdariffa var. sabdariffa race ruber is
an annual, erect, bushy, herbaceous
subshrub to 8 ft (2.4 m) tall, with smooth or
nearly smooth, cylindrical, typically red
stems. The leaves are alternate, 3 to 5 in
(7.5-12.5 cm) long, green with reddish veins
and long or short petioles. Leaves of young
seedlings and upper leaves of older plants
are simple; lower leaves are deeply 3- to 5or even 7-lobed; the margins are toothed.
Flowers, borne singly in the leaf axils, are
up to 5 in (12.5 cm) wide, yellow or buff
with a rose or maroon eye, and turn pink as
they wither at the end of the day. At this
time, the typically red calyx, consisting of 5
large sepals with a collar (epicalyx) of 8 to
12 slim, pointed bracts (or bracteoles)
around the base, begins to enlarge, becomes
Plate XXXVI: ROSELLE, Hibiscus sabdariffa
fleshy, crisp but juicy, 1 1/4 to 2 1/4 in
(3.2-5.7 cm) long and fully encloses the velvety capsule, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) long, which is
green when immature, 5-valved, with each valve containing 3 to 4 kidney-shaped, light-brown
seeds, 1/8 to 3/16 in (3-5 mm) long and minutely downy. The capsule turns brown and splits open
when mature and dry. The calyx, stems and leaves are acid and closely resemble the cranberry
(Vaccinium spp.) in flavor.
A minor ornamental in Florida and elsewhere is the red-leaf hibiscus, H. acetosella Welw. (syn. H.
eetveldeanus Wildem. & Th.) of tropical Africa, which has red stems to 8 ft (2.4 m) high, 5-lobed,
red or bronze leaves, and mauve, or red-striped yellow, flowers with a dark-red eye, succeeded by
a hairy seed pod enclosed in a red, ribbed calyx bearing a basal fringe of slender, forked bracts.
This plant has been often confused with roselle, though its calyx is not fleshy and only the young
leaves are used for culinary purposesusually cooked with rice or vegetables because of their acid
flavor.
Roselle

Roselle is native from India to Malaysia,
where it is commonly cultivated, and must
have been carried at an early date to Africa.
It has been widely distributed in the Tropics
and Subtropics of both hemispheres, and in
many areas of the West Indies and Central
America has become naturalized.
The Flemish botanist, M. de L'Obel,
published his observations of the plant in
1576, and the edibility of the leaves was
recorded in Java in 1687. Seeds are said to Fig. 79: Seedpods of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), enclosed in
have been brought to the New World by
their red, fleshy, acid calyces, are piled high in the markets of
African slaves. Roselle was grown in Brazil Panama in January.
in the 17th Century and in Jamaica in 1707.
The plant was being cultivated for food use in Guatemala before 1840. J.N. Rose, in 1899, saw
large baskets of dried calyces in the markets of Guadalajara, Mexico.
In 1892, there were 2 factories producing roselle jam in Queensland, Australia, and exporting
considerable quantities to Europe. This was a short-lived enterprise. In 1909, there were no more
than 4 acres (1.6 ha) of edible roselle in Queensland. A Mr. Neustadt of San Francisco imported
seeds from Australia about 1895 and shared them with the California State Agricultural
Experiment Station for test plantings and subsequent seed distribution. It was probably about the
same time that Australian seeds reached Hawaii. In 1904, the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment
Station received seeds from Puerto Rico. In 1913 there was much interest in interplanting roselle
with Ceara rubber (Manihot glaziovii Muell. Arg.) on the island of Maui and there were some
plantations established also on the island of Hawaii, altogether totaling over 200 acres (81 ha). The
anticipated jelly industry failed to materialize and promotional efforts were abandoned by 1929.
P.J. Wester believed that roselle was brought to Florida from Jamaica about 1887. Plants were
grown by Dr. H.J. Webber at the United States Department of Agriculture's Subtropical
Laboratory at Eustis, Florida, in the early 1890's, but all the roselle was killed there by a severe
freeze in 1895. Cook and Collins reported that roselle was commonly cultivated in southern
Florida in 1903. In 1904, Wester acquired seeds from Mr. W.A. Hobbs of Coconut Grove and
planted them at the United States Department of Agriculture's Subtropical Garden in Miami. He
was enthusiastic about roselle's potential as a southern substitute for the cranberry. In 1907, he
stated that the fresh calyces were being sold by the quart in South Florida markets. He introduced
3 edible cultivars into the Philippines in 1905. In 1920, he declared: "No plant that has ever been
brought into the Philippines is more at home and few grow with so little care as the roselle, or are
so productive. Still, like so many other new introductions, the roselle has been slow to gain hold in
the popular taste though here and there it is now found in the provincial markets. "
In 1928, Paul C. Standley wrote: "roselle ... is grown in large quantities in Panama, especially by
the West Indians. So much of the plant is seen in the markets and on the roads that one would
think the market oversupplied." This situation has not changed. I saw great quantities of the whole
Roselle
fruits and the calyces in Panama markets in January of 1976.

Roselle became and remained a common home garden crop throughout southern and central
Florida until after World War II when this area began to develop rapidly and home gardening and
preserving declined. Mrs. Edith Trebell of Estero, Florida, was one of the last remaining suppliers
of roselle jelly. In February, 1961, I purchased the last 2 jars made from the small crop salvaged
following the 1960 hurricane and before frost killed all her plants.
In 1954, roselle was still being grown by individuals in the Midwest for its edible herbage. By
1959 and 1960, when there was widespread alarm concerning coal-tar food dyes, it was easy to
arouse interest in roselle as a coloring source but difficult to obtain seeds in Florida. At that time, I
purchased them from Gleckler's Seedsmen in Metamora, Ohio. Roselle had by then become nearly
extinct in Puerto Rico also. From time to time over the next dozen years I was able to obtain a few
seeds from old timers in Central Florida. In 1973, roselle was featured in the catalog of John
Brudy's Rare Plant House, Cocoa Beach (now John Brudy Exotics, Brandon, Florida and no longer
listing the seed). Reasoner's Tropical Nurseries in Bradenton was selling plants in containers and
giving to purchasers a sheet of recipes. From Lawrence Adams of Arcadia, I obtained seeds which
came from the Virgin Islands where this particular strain is said to mature its fruit a month early.
These seeds and seeds purchased by John G. Dupuis, Jr., from Brudy were the basis of a large
planting at DuPuis' Bar D Ranch in Martin County. Many packets of seeds were distributed to
home growers during the following winter.
Today, roselle is attracting the attention of food and beverage manufacturers and pharmaceutical
concerns who feel it may have exploitable possibilities as a natural food product and as a colorant
to replace some synthetic dyes.
In 1962, Sharaf referred to the cultivation of roselle as a "recent" crop in Egypt, where interest is
centered more on its pharmaceutical than its food potential. In 1971, it was reported that roselle
calyces, produced and dried in Senegal, particularly around Bambey, were being shipped to
Europe (Germany, Switzerland, France and Italy) at the rate of 10 to 25 tons annually.
Varieties
In 1920, Wester described 3 named, edible cultivars as being grown at that time in the Philippines:
'Rico' (named in 1912)plant relatively low-growing, spreading, with simple leaves borne over a
long period and the lobed leaves mostly 3-parted. Flower has dark-red eye and golden-yellow
pollen. Mature calyx to 2 in (5 cm) long and to 1 1/4 in (3.2 cm) wide; bracts plump and stiffly
horizontal. Highest yielder of calyces per plant. Juice and preserves of calyx and herbage rich-red.
'Victor'a superior selection from seedlings grown at the Subtropical Garden in Miami in 1906.
Plant tallerto 7 ft (2.13 m), more erect and robust. Flower has dark-red eye and golden-brown
pollen. It blooms somewhat earlier than 'Rico'. Calyces as long as those of 'Rico' but slenderer and
more pointed at apex; bracts longer, slenderer and curved upward. Juice and preserves of calyx and
herbage rich-red.
'Archer' (sometimes called "white sorrel") resulted from seed sent to Wester by A.S. Archer of
the island of Antigua. It is believed to be of the race albus. Edward Long referred to "white" as
well as red roselle as being grown in most gardens of Jamaica in 1774. Plant is as tall and robust as
Roselle
'Victor' but has green stems. Flower is yellow with deeper yellow eye and pale-brown pollen.
Calyx is green or greenish-white and smaller than in the 2 preceding, but the yield per plant is
much greater. Juice and other products are nearly colorless to amber. Green-fruited roselle is
grown throughout Senegal, but especially in the Cape Vert region, mainly for use as a vegetable.
Another roselle selection which originated in 1914 at the Lamao experiment station and was
named 'Temprano' because of its early flowering, Wester reported as no longer grown, the plant
being less robust and less productive than the others.
A strain with dark-red, plump but stubby calyces (the sepals scarcely longer than the seed capsule)
is grown in the Bahamas.
Climate
Roselle is very sensitive to frost. It succeeds best in tropical and subtropical regions from sea-level
up to 3,000 ft (900 m) with a rainfall of about 72 in (182 cm) during its growing season. Where
rainfall is inadequate, irrigation has given good results. It can be grown as a summer crop in
temperate regions. The fruits will not ripen, but the herbage is usable.
Soil
While deep, fairly fertile sandy loam is preferable, roselle grew and produced well over many
years in the olitic limestone of Dade County. Wester observed that the high pinelands were far
more suitable than low-lying muck soils. The plants tended to reseed themselves and on some
properties they spread so extensively they became a nuisance and were eradicated.
Propagation
Roselle is usually propagated by seed but grows readily from cuttings. The latter method results in
shorter plants preferred in India for interplanting with tree crops but the yield of calyces is
relatively low.
Culture
Seedlings may be raised in nursery beds and transplanted when 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm) high, but
seeds are usually set directly in the field, 4 to 6 to a hill, the hills 3 to 6 ft (0.9-1.8 m) apart in rows
5 to 10 ft (1.5-3 m) apart. When 2 or 3 leaves have developed, the seedlings are thinned out by
50%. If grown mainly for herbage, the seed can be sown as early as March, and no early thinning
is done.
Roselle is a short-day plant and photoperiodic. Unlike kenaf, roselle crops cannot be grown
successively throughout the year.
If intended solely for the production of calyces, the ideal planting time in southern Florida is
mid-May. Blooming will occur in September and October and calyces will be ready to harvest in
November and December. Harvesting causes latent buds to develop and extends the flowering life
of the plant to late February. When the fruit is not gathered but left to mature, the plants will die in
January.
Rolfs recommended whatever fertilizer would be ordinarily used for vegetables but warned that
Roselle
only 1/4 to 1/2 the usual amount should be applied. He wryly remarked: "As a whole, the plants
are rather more vigorous than need be; consequently no attention need be paid in the direction of
vigor." An excess of ammonia encourages vegetative growth and reduces fruit production.
Commercial fertilizer of the formula 4-6-7 NPK has proved satisfactory.
Weeding is necessary at first, but after the plants reach 1 1/2 to 2 ft (45-60 cm) in height, weeds
will be shaded out and no longer a problem. Early pruning will increase branching and
development of more flowering shoots.
Harvesting
For herbage purposes, the plants may be cut off 6 weeks after transplanting, leaving only 3 to 4 in
(7.5-10 cm) of stem in the field. A second cutting is made 4 weeks later and a third after another 4
weeks. Then the shorn plants are thinned out2 of every 3 rows removedand the remaining plants
left to grow and develop fruit as a second product.
The fruits are harvested when full-grown but still tender and, at this stage, are easily snapped off
by hand. They are easier to break off in the morning than at the end of the day. If harvesting is
overdue and the stems have toughened, clippers must be used.
The fruits of roselle ripen progressively from the lowest to the highest. Harvesting of seeds takes
place when the lower and middle tiers of the last of the fruits are allowed to mature, at which time
the plants are cut down, stacked for a few days, then threshed between canvas sheets.
Yield
Calyx production per plant has ranged from 3 lbs (1.3 kg) in California to 4 lbs (1.8 kg) in Puerto
Rico and 16 lbs (7.25 kg) in southern Florida. In Hawaii, roselle intercropped with rubber yielded
16,800 lbs per acre (roughly 16,800 kg/ha) when planted alone. Dual-purpose plantings can yield
19,000 lbs (17,000 kg) of herbage in 3 cuttings and, later, 13,860 lbs (6,300 kg) of calyces.
Pests and Diseases
Roselle's major enemy is the root-knot nematode, Heterodera rudicicola. Mealybugs may be very
troublesome. In Australia, 3 beetles, Nisotra breweri, Lagris cyanea, and Rhyparida
discopunctulata, attack the leaves. The "white" roselle has been found heavily infested with the
cocoa beetle, Steirastoma breve in Trinidad, with a lighter infestation of the red roselle in an
intermixed planting. Occasional minor pests are scales, Coccus hesperidum and Hemichionaspis
aspidistrae, on stems and branches; yellow aphid, Aphis gossypii, on leaves and flower buds; and
the cotton stainer, Dysdercus suturellus, on ripening calyces.
In Florida, mildew (Oidium) may require control. Late in the season, leaves on some Philippine
plants have appeared soft and shriveled; and Phoma sabdariffae has also done minimal damage.
Keeping Quality
Rolfs, in 1929, reported that fresh roselle calyces, as harvested, were successfully shipped by rail
to Washington for retail sale and he judged that they could stand rail transport to any markets east
of the Mississippi.
Food Uses
Roselle
Roselle fruits are best prepared for use by

washing, then making an incision around
the tough base of the calyx below the bracts
to free and remove it with the seed capsule
attached. The calyces are then ready for
immediate use. They may be merely
chopped and added to fruit salads. In Africa,
they are frequently cooked as a side-dish
eaten with pulverized peanuts. For stewing
as sauce or filling for tarts or pies, they may
be left intact, if tender, and cooked with
sugar. The product will be almost
indistinguishable from cranberry sauce in
taste and appearance. For making a
finer-textured sauce or juice, sirup, jam,
marmalade, relish, chutney or jelly, the
calyces may be first chopped in a wooden
bowl or passed through a meat grinder. Or
the calyces, after cooking, may be pressed Plate XXXVII: ROSELLE, Hibiscus sabdariffa (calyces raw
through a sieve. Some cooks steam the
and cooked)
roselle with a little water until soft before
adding the sugar, then boil for 15 minutes.
Roselle sauce or sirup may be added to
puddings, cake frosting, gelatins and salad
dressings, also poured over gingerbread,
pancakes, waffles or ice cream. It is not
necessary to add pectin to make a firm jelly.
In fact, the calyces possess 3.19% pectin
and, in Pakistan, roselle has been
recommended as a source of pectin for the
fruit-preserving industry.
Juice made by cooking a quantity of calyces
with 1/4 water in ratio to amount of calyces,
is used for cold drinks and may be frozen or
bottled if not for immediate needs. In
sterilized, sealed bottles or jars, it keeps
well providing no sugar has been added. In
the West Indies and tropical America,
roselle is prized primarily for the cooling, Fig. 80: Dried roselle calyces are sold in plastic bags in
Mexico, labeled "Flor de Jamaica", leading many to believe
lemonade-like beverage made from the
that they are flower petals. Actually, the flower falls before
calyces. This is still "one of the most
the red calyx enlarges and becomes fit for food use.
popular summer drinks of Mexico", as Rose
observed in 1899. In Egypt, roselle "ade" is consumed cold in the summer, hot in winter. In
Jamaica, a traditional Christmas drink is prepared by putting roselle into an earthenware jug with a
Roselle
little grated ginger and sugar as desired, pouring boiling water over it and letting it stand
overnight. The liquid is drained off and served with ice and often with a dash of rum. A similar
spiced drink has long been made by natives of West Tropical Africa. The juice makes a very
colorful wine.
John Ripperton of the Hawaiian Experiment Station maintained that, for jelly and wine-making, it
is unnecessary to take out the seed capsule, but neglecting to do so may result in a "stringy"
product which would be contaminated with the minute hairs from the surface of the capsule and
these hairs are quite likely to be injurious unless carefully filtered out.
The calyces are either frozen or dried in the sun or artificially for out-of-season supply, marketing
or export. In Mexico today, the dried calyces are packed for sale in imprinted, plastic bags. It is
calculated that 11 lbs (5 kg) of fresh calyces dehydrate to 1 lb (0.45 kg) of dried roselle, which is
equal to the fresh for most culinary purposes. However, dried calyces as sold for "tea" do not yield
high color and flavor if merely steeped; they must be boiled.
For retailing in Africa, dried roselle is pressed into solid cakes or balls. In Senegal, the dried
calyces are squeezed into great balls weighing 175 lbs (80 kg) for shipment to Europe, where they
are utilized to make extracts for flavoring liqueurs. In the United States, Food and Drug
Administration regulations permit the use of the extracts in alcoholic beverages.
The young leaves and tender stems of roselle are eaten raw in salads or cooked as greens alone or
in combination with other vegetables or with meat or fish. They are also added to curries as
seasoning. The leaves of green roselle are marketed in large quantities in Dakar, West Africa. The
juice of the boiled and strained leaves and stems is utilized for the same purposes as the juice
extracted from the calyces. The herbage is apparently mostly utilized in the fresh state though
Wester proposed that it be evaporated and compressed for export from the Philippines.
The seeds are somewhat bitter but have been ground to a meal for human food in Africa and have
also been roasted as a substitute for coffee. The residue remaining after extraction of oil by
parching, soaking in water containing ashes for 3 or 4 days, and then pounding the seeds, or by
crushing and boiling them, is eaten in soup or blended with bean meal in patties. It is high in
protein.
Food Value
Nutritionists have found roselle calyces as sold in Central American markets to be high in calcium,
niacin, riboflavin and iron.
Calyces, fresh*
Moisture
9.2 g
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
1.145 g
2.61 g
12.0 g
6.90 g
Roselle
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
1,263 mg
273.2 mg
8.98 mg
0.029 mg
0.117 mg
0.277 mg
3.765 mg
6.7 mg
*Analyses made in Guatemala.

Leaves, fresh**
Moisture
86.2%
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Malic Acid
1.7-3.2%
1.1%
10%
1%
0.18%
0.04%
0.0054%
1.25%

Seeds
Moisture
Protein
Fatty Oil
Cellulose
Pentosans
Starch
12.9%
3.29%
16.8%
16.8%
15.8%
11.1%
Amino acids (N = 16 p. 100 According to Busson)*

Arginine
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
3.6
1.3
1.5
3.0
5.0
Roselle
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
Aspartic Acid
Glutamic Acid
Alanine
Glycine
Proline
3.9
1.0
3.2
3.0
2.2
3.8
16.3
7.2
3.7
3.8
5.6
Serine
3.5
*Calyces, fresh
The dried calyces contain the flavonoids gossypetine, hibiscetine and sabdaretine. The major
pigment, formerly reported as hibiscin, has been identified as daphniphylline. Small amounts of
delphinidin 3-monoglucoside, cyanidin 3-monoglucoside (chrysanthenin), and delphinidin are also
present. Toxicity is slight.
Other Uses
The seeds are considered excellent feed for chickens. The residue after oil extraction is valued as
cattle feed when available in quantity.
Medicinal Uses: In India, Africa and Mexico, all above-ground parts of the roselle plant are
valued in native medicine. Infusions of the leaves or calyces are regarded as diuretic, cholerectic,
febrifugal and hypotensive, decreasing the viscosity of the blood and stimulating intestinal
peristalsis. Pharmacognosists in Senegal recommend roselle extract for lowering blood pressure. In
1962, Sharaf confirmed the hypotensive activity of the calyces and found them antispasmodic,
anthelmintic and antibacterial as well. In 1964, the aqueous extract was found effective against
Ascaris gallinarum in poultry. Three years later, Sharaf and co-workers showed that both the
aqueous extract and the coloring matter of the calyces are lethal to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In
experiments with domestic fowl, roselle extract decreased the rate of absorption of alcohol and so
lessened its effect on the system. In Guatemala, roselle "ade" is a favorite remedy for the
aftereffects of drunkenness.
In East Africa, the calyx infusion, called "Sudan tea", is taken to relieve coughs. Roselle juice,
with salt, pepper, asafetida and molasses, is taken as a remedy for biliousness.
The heated leaves are applied to cracks in the feet and on boils and ulcers to speed maturation. A
lotion made from leaves is used on sores and wounds. The seeds are said to be diuretic and tonic in
action and the brownish-yellow seed oil is claimed to heal sores on camels. In India, a decoction of
Roselle
the seeds is given to relieve dysuria, strangury and mild cases of dyspepsia and debility. Brazilians
attribute stomachic, emollient and resolutive properties to the bitter roots.
Durian

Morton, J. 1987. Durian. p. 287291. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Durian
Durio zibethinus L.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
The family Bombacaceae is best known for showy flowers and woody or thin-shelled pods filled
with small seeds and silky or cottonlike fiber. The durian, Durio zibethinus L., is one member that
differs radically in having large seeds surrounded by fleshy arils. Apart from variants of the word
"durian" in native dialects, there are few other vernacular names, though the notorious odor has
given rise to the unflattering terms, "civet cat tree", and "civet fruit" in India and "stinkvrucht " in
Dutch. Nevertheless the durian is the most important native fruit of southeastern Asia and
neighboring islands.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/durian_ars.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:36:14 PM]
Durian
The durian tree, reaching 90 to 130 ft (27-40

m) in height in tropical forests, is usually
erect with short, straight, rough, peeling
trunk to 4 ft (1.2 m) in diameter, and
irregular dense or open crown of rough
branches, and thin branchlets coated with
coppery or gray scales when young. The
evergreen, alternate leaves are
oblong-lance-olate, or elliptic-obovate,
rounded at the base, abruptly pointed at the
apex; leathery, dark-green and glossy above,
silvery or pale-yellow, and densely covered
with gray or reddish-brown, hairy scales on
the underside; 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) Plate XXXVIII: DURIAN, Durio zibethinus
long, 1 to 3 1/2 in (2.5-9 cm) wide.
Malodorous, whitish to golden-brown,
3-petalled flowers, 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm)
wide, with 5-lobed, bell-shaped calyx, are
borne in pendant clusters of 3 to 30 directly
from the old, thick branches or trunk.
The fruits are ovoid or ovoid-oblong to
nearly round, 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) long, 5
to 6 in (12.5-15 cm) wide, and up to 18 lbs
(8 kg) in weight. The yellow or
yellowish-green rind is thick, tough,
semi-woody, and densely set with stout,
sharply pointed spines, 3- to 7-sided at the Fig. 81: The heavy, spiny durian (Durio zibethinus) is prized
base. Handling without gloves can be
in Southeast Asia and Malaysia for its custard-like, odorous
flesh.
painful. Inside there are 5 compartments
containing the creamy-white, yellowish, pinkish or orange-colored flesh and 1 to 7 chestnut-like
seeds, 3/4 to 2 1/4 in (2-6 cm) long with glossy, red-brown seedcoat. In the best fruits, most seeds
are abortive. There are some odorless cultivars but the flesh of the common durian has a powerful
odor which reminded the plant explorer, Otis W. Barrett, of combined cheese, decayed onion and
turpentine, or "garlic, Limburger cheese and some spicy sort of resin" but he said that after eating a
bit of the pulp "the odor is scarcely noticed." The nature of the flesh is more complex-in the words
of Alfred Russel Wallace (much-quoted), it is "a rich custard highly flavored with almonds . . . but
there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream cheese, onion-sauce, sherry wine and
other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else
possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acid, nor sweet, nor juicy; yet it wants none
of these qualities, for it is in itself perfect. It produces no nausea or other bad effect, and the more
you eat of it the less you feel inclined to stop." (The Treasury of Botany, Vol. 1, p. 435). Barrett
described the flavor as "triplex in effect, first a strong aromatic taste, followed by a delicious sweet
flavor, then a strange resinous or balsam-like taste of exquisite but persistent savor." An American
chemist working at the U.S. Rubber Plantations in Sumatra in modem times, was at first reluctant
to try eating durian, was finally persuaded and became enthusiastic, declaring it to be "absolutely
Durian
delicious", something like "a concoction of ice cream, onions, spices, and bananas, all mixed
together."
Some fruits split into 5 segments, others do not split, but all fall to the ground when mature.
The durian is believed to be native to Borneo and Sumatra. It is found wild or semi-wild in South
Tenasserim, Lower Burma, and around villages in peninsular Malaya, and is commonly cultivated
along roads or in orchards from southeastern India and Ceylon to New Guinea. Four hundred years
ago, there was a lively trade in durians between Lower Burma to Upper Burma where they were
prized in the Royal Palace. Thailand and South Vietnam are important producers of durians. The
Association of Durian Growers and Sellers was formed in 1959 to standardize quality and
marketing practices. The durian is grown to a limited extent in the southern Philippines,
particularly in the Provinces of Mindanao and Sulu. The tree grows splendidly but generally
produces few fruits in the Visayas Islands and on the island of Luzon. There are many bearing
trees in Zanzibar, a few in Pemba and Hawaii. The durian is not included in the latest Flora of
Guam (1970) which covers both indigenous and exotic species. It has been introduced into New
Guinea, Tahiti, and Ponape.
The durian is rare in the New World. Seeds from Java were planted at the Federal Experiment
Station in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico in 1920. The single resulting tree bloomed heavily in February
and March in 1944 but only one fruit matured in July and it had but 3 normal carpels.
Nevertheless, there were 6 fully developed seeds which germinated and were planted. The tree has
fruited in Dominica and Jamaica. There have been specimens in the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Port-au-Spain, Trinidad, for many years though they are not very much at home there. Young trees
and seeds were introduced into Honduras from Java in 1926 and 1927, and the trees have grown
well at the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela, but they bear poorly to moderately. Seedlings
have lived only briefly in southern Florida.
Varieties
Much variation occurs in seedlings. There are over 300 named varieties of durian in Thailand.
Only a few of these are in commercial cultivation. In Malaysia, 100 types are graded for size and
quality. In peninsular Malaya, there are 44 clones with small differences in time and extent of
flowering, floral and fruit morphology, productivity and edible quality.
Pollination
There is no evidence that the durian is wind-pollinated and it is believed that bats (mainly
Eoncyteris spelea) transfer pollen when they visit the flowers for nectar. Honeybees are seen on
the flowers too early in the afternoon to serve as pollinators. Natural pollination is possible only at
night, the heavily fragrant flowers opening in late afternoon and being receptive from 5 P.M. until
6 A.M., but pollen begins to shed at 7 P.M. and other floral parts gradually fall, only the pistil
remaining at 11 P.M.
The durian has a high rate of self-incompatibility. In peninsular Malaya, the norm is 20% to 25%
fruit-set, and it is realized that cross-pollination is essential to obtaining good crops.
Hand-pollination performed during the day on buds that would open in 24 to 36 hours gives a
Durian
much higher percentage of fruit-set than pollination of opened flowers. In unopened flowers the
style is 1/3 as long as in fully opened flowers and the pollen reaches the ovules more quickly.
Climate
The durian is ultra-tropical and cannot be grown above an altitude of 2,000 ft (600 m) in Ceylon;
2,300 ft (700 m) in the Philippines, 2,600 ft (800 m) in Malaysia. The tree needs abundant rainfall.
In India, it flourishes on the banks of streams, where the roots can reach water.
Soil
Best growth is achieved on deep alluvial or loamy soil.
Propagation
Durian seeds lose viability quickly, especially if exposed even briefly to sunlight. Even in cool
storage they can be kept only 7 days. Viability can be maintained for as long as 32 days if the
seeds are surface-sterilized and placed in air-tight containers and held at 68 F (20 C).
They have been successfully shipped to tropical America packed in a barely moist mixture of
coconut husk fiber and charcoal. Ideally, they should be planted fresh, flat-side down, and they
will then germinate in 3 to 8 days. Seeds washed, dried for 1 or 2 days and planted have shown
77-80% germination. It is reported that, in some countries, seedling durian trees have borne fruit at
5 years of age. In India, generally, they come into bearing 9 to 12 years after planting, but in South
India they will not produce fruit until they are 13 to 21 years old. In Malaya, seedlings will bloom
in 7 years; grafted trees in 4 years or earlier.
Neither air-layers nor cuttings will root satisfactorily. Inarching can be accomplished with 50%
success but is not a popular method because the grafts must be left on the trees for many months.
Selected cultivars are propagated by patch-budding (a modified Forkert method) onto rootstocks 2
months old and pencil-thick, and the union should be permanent within 25 to 30 days. The plants
can be set out in the field within 14 to 16 months. Grafted trees never grow as tall as seedlings;
they are usually between 26 to 32 ft (8-10 m) tall; rarely 40 ft (12 m).
Culture
Generally, durian trees receive little or no horticultural attention in the Far East. Young grafted
plants, however, need good care. They should be staked, irrigated daily in the dry season, given
monthly feedings of about 1/5 oz (5 g) of a 6-6-6 fertilizer formula, and the rootstock should be
pruned gradually as leaves develop on the scion. When set out in the field, the trees should be 30
to 40 ft (9 to 12 m) apart each way.
Studies in Malaya have shown that a harvest of 6,000 lbs of fruits from an acre (6,720 kg from a
hectare) removes the following nutrients from the soil: N, 16.1 lbs/acre (roughly equal kg/ha); P,
2.72 lbs/acre (roughly equal kg/ha); K, 27.9 lbs/acre (roughly equal kg/ha); Ca, 1.99 lbs/acre
(roughly equal kg/ha); Mg, 3.26 lbs/ acre (roughly equal kg/ha).
Season
In Ceylon, the durian generally blooms in March and April and the fruits mature in July and
Durian
August, but these periods may shift considerably, with the weather. Malaya has two fruiting
seasons: early, in March and April; late, in September and October. Nearly all cultivars mature
within the very short season during which the fruits are present in great numbers in local markets.
Harvesting
In rural areas, villagers clear the ground beneath the durian tree. They build grass huts nearby at
harvest time and camp there for 6 or 8 weeks in order to be ready to collect each fruit as soon as it
falls. Caution is necessary when approaching a durian tree during the ripening season, for the
falling fruits can cause serious injury. Hunters place traps in the surrounding area because the
fallen fruits attract game animals and all kinds of birds. The fruit is also placed as bait for game in
the forests.
Yield
Durians mature in 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 months from the time of fruit-set. Seedling trees in India may bear
40 to 50 fruits annually. Well-grown, high-yielding cultivars should bear 6,000 lbs of fruit per acre
(6,720 kg/ha).
Keeping Quality
Durians are highly perishable. They are fully ripe 2 to 4 days after falling and lose eating quality in
5 or 6 days.
Pests and Diseases
Minor pests in the Philippines are the white mealybug (Pseudococcus lilacinus) and the giant
mealybug (Drosicha townsendi) which infest young and developing fruits.
Very few diseases have been reported. In West Malaysia, patch canker caused by Phytophthora
palmivora was first noted in 1934. It is becoming increasingly common on roots and stems of
durian seedlings. Infection in the field begins at the collar with oozing of brownish-red gum and
extends up the trunk and down to the roots. Sometimes a tree is completely girdled at the base and
dies. Testing of 13 clones showed that all but 2 were susceptible. The 2 resistant clones succumbed
after the stems were wounded and inoculated. It is evident that pruning injuries have provided
access for the organism. The disease is encouraged by close-planting which shades the soil and
promotes dampness. Weeds, grass and mulch around the collar are also contributing factors.
Budded trees are particularly susceptible because of their habit of putting forth low branches and
the occurrence of cracks where these join the main stem. When these low branches are pruned, the
wound must be immediately treated with a fungicide.
Food Uses
Durians are sold whole, or cut open and divided into segments, which are wrapped in clear plastic.
The flesh is mostly eaten fresh, often out-of-hand. It is best after being well chilled in a
refrigerator. Sometimes it is simply boiled with sugar or cooked in coconut water, and it is a
popular flavoring for ice cream. Javanese prepare the flesh as a sauce to be served with rice; they
also combine the minced flesh with minced onion, salt and diluted vinegar as a kind of relish; and
they add half-ripe arils to certain dishes. Arabian residents prefer to mix the flesh with ice and
sirup. In Palembang, the flesh is fermented in earthen pots, sometimes smoked, and eaten as a
Durian
special sidedish.
Durian flesh is canned in sirup for export. It
is also dried for local use and export. Blocks
of durian paste are sold in the markets. In
Bangkok much of the paste is adulterated
with pumpkin. Malays preserve the flesh in
salt in order to keep it on hand the year
around to eat with rice, even though it
acquires a very strong and, to outsiders,
most disagreeable odor. The unripe fruit is
boiled whole and eaten as a vegetable.
The seeds are eaten after boiling, drying,
and frying or roasting. In Java, the seeds
may be sliced thin and cooked with sugar as
a confection; or dried and fried in coconut
oil with spices for serving as a side-dish.
Young leaves and shoots are occasionally
cooked as greens. Sometimes the ash of the
burned rind is added to special cakes.
Fig. 82: Blocks of preserved durian paste are sold in the
Bangkok market.
Fresh Arils
Calories
144
Moisture
58.0-62.9 g
Protein
2.5-2.8 g
Fat
3.1-3.9 g
Sugars
(approx.) 12.0 g
Starch
(approx.) 12.0 g
Total Carbohydrates 30.4-34.1 g
Fiber
1.7 g
Ash
1.1-1.2 g
Calcium
7.6-9.0 mg
Phosphorus
37.8-44.0 mg
Iron
0.73-1.0 mg
Carotene
(as Vitamin A)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Dried Arils
18.0 g
3.0-6.0 g
37.0-43.0 g
8.0-13.0 g
3.0 g
0.018 mg
20-30 I.U.
0.24-0.352 mg
0.20 mg
Durian
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Vitamin E
0.683-0.70 mg
23.9-25.0 mg
"high"
*Analyses made in Malaya, Honduras and elsewhere.

Toxicity
The seeds are believed to possess a toxic property that causes shortness of breath.
Other Uses
Rind: The dried or half-dried rinds are burned as fuel and fish may be hung in the smoke to
acquire a strong flavor. The ash is used to bleach silk.
Wood: The sapwood is white, the heartwood light red-brown, soft, coarse, not durable nor
termite-resistant. It is used for masts and interiors of huts in Malaya.
Medicinal Uses: The flesh is said to serve as a vermifuge. In Malaya, a decoction of the leaves
and roots is prescribed as a febrifuge. The leaf juice is applied on the head of a fever patient. The
leaves are employed in medicinal baths for people with jaundice. Decoctions of the leaves and
fruits are applied to swellings and skin diseases. The ash of the burned rind is taken after
childbirth. The leaves probably contain hydroxy-tryptamines and mustard oils.
The odor of the flesh is believed to be linked to indole compounds which are bacteriostatic. Eating
durian is alleged to restore the health of ailing humans and animals. The flesh is widely believed to
act as an aphrodisiac. In the late 1920's, Durian Fruit Products, Inc., of New York City, launched a
product called "Dur-India" as a "health-food accessory" in tablet form, selling at $9 for a dozen
bottles, each containing 63 tabletsa 3-months' supply. The tablets reputedly contained durian and
a species of Allium from India, as well as a considerable amount of vitamin E. They were claimed
to provide "more concentrated healthful energy in food form than any other product the world
affords"to keep the body vigorous and tireless; the mind alert with faculties undimmed; the spirit
youthful.
A toothpaste flavored with durian is currently marketed for durian fanciers.
Related Species
There are estimated to be 28 species in the genus Durio in Malaysia. Only 5 species in addition to
the durian bear edible fruits. These are D. dulcis Becc., in Sabah and Indonesian Borneo; D.
grandiflorus Kost., in Sabah, Sarawak, and Indonesian Borneo; D. graveolens Becc., in peninsular
Malaya and all of Borneo and Sumatra; D. kutejensis Becc., all over Borneo, and ranked second to
the durian in edibility; and D. oxleyanus Griff., in peninsular Malaya and all of Borneo and
Sumatra. All five are cultivated in Brunei and a few to some extent in Malaysian Borneo.
It is believed that some of the other species, especially D. malaccensis Planch. and D.
Durian
Wyatt-Smithii Kost., which are very closely allied to D. zibethinus, may be useful in breeding for
pest- and disease-resistance and other characters.
There is evidence that natural interspecific cross-pollination is going on because a hybrid of D.
zibethinus and D. graveolens has been found in northeastern Indonesian Borneo, and some trees of
normally white-flowered D. malaccensis have been discovered in Johore State with reddish
flowers, perhaps from cross-pollination by the pink or red-flowered D. lowianus King and D.
pinangianus.
Chupa-Chupa

Morton, J. 1987. Chupa-Chupa. p. 291292. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Chupa-Chupa
Quararibea cordata Vischer
Matisia cordata Humb. & Bonpl.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Little-known outside its natural range, this member of the Bombacaceae has nomenclatural
problems. Its current botanical designation is Quararibea cordata Vischer (syn. Matisia cordata
Humb. & Bonpl.), though it still is being dealt with in Brazil and Colombia under the latter
binomial, and there are taxonomists who prefer not to merge Matisia with Quararibea. In addition,
there is no generally accepted vernacular name. "Sapote" and "zapote" predominate in native
countries but these terms, derived from the Nahuatl word for "soft, sweet", are applied to several
other fruits and to one in particular, the sapote, Pouteria sapota, q.v. To distinguish Quararibea
cordata, one writer proposed "South American sapote", and this has been repeated, but it is
cumbersome and strictly artificial, not a name in use in any country of origin. Therefore, I have
chosen chupa-chupa, which is a valid colloquial name in Colombia and Peru, certainly euphonius,
and, as Dr. Victor Patino has stated, descriptive of the manner in which the flesh is chewed from
the large seeds. In Peru and Colombia, the species may also be called zapote chupachupa, zapote
chupa, sapote de monte, or sapotillo. In Brazil, it is known as sapota, sapote-do-peru, or
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/chupa-chupa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:36:22 PM]
Chupa-Chupa
sapota-do-solimes, in reference to the Solimes River.

Description
The chupa-chupa tree is fast-growing, erect,
to 130 or even 145 ft (40-45 m) high in the
wild, though often no more than 40 ft (12
m) in cultivation. It is sometimes buttressed;
has stiff branches in tiered whorls of 5; and
copious gummy yellow latex. The
semi-deciduous, alternate, long-petioled
leaves, clustered in rosettes near the ends of
the branches, are broadly heart-shaped,
normally 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) long and
nearly as wide. Short-stalked,
yellowish-white or rose-tinted, 5-petalled
Plate XXXIX: CHUPA-CHUPA, Quararibea cordata
flowers, about 1 in (2.5 cm) wide, with 5
conspicuous, protruding stamens and pistil, are borne in masses along the lesser branches and on
the trunk. The fruit is rounded, ovoid or elliptic with a prominent, rounded knob at the apex and is
capped with a 2- to 5-lobed, velvety, leathery, strongly persistent calyx at the base; 4 to 5 3/4 in
(10-14.5 cm) long and to 3 3/16 in (8 cm) wide, and may weigh as much as 28 oz (800 g). The rind
is thick, leathery, greenish-brown, and downy. The flesh, orange-yellow, soft, juicy, sweet and of
agreeable flavor surrounds 2 to 5 seeds, to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long and 1 in (2.5 cm) wide, from which
long fibers extend through the flesh.
The tree grows wild in lowland rainforests of Peru, Ecuador and adjacent areas of Brazil,
especially around the mouth of the Javari River. It is common in the western part of Amazonas,
southwestern Venezuela, and in the Cauca and Magdalena Valleys of Colombia. It flourishes and
produces especially well near the sea at Tumaco, Colombia. The fruits are plentiful in the markets
of Antioquia, Buenaventura and Bogot, Colombia; Puerto Viejo, Ecuador; the Brazilian towns of
Tef, Esperanca, Sao Paulo de Olivenca, Tabetinga, Benjamin Constant and Atalaia do Norte; and
elsewhere.
There were only 3 trees in gardens in Belm in 1979. The Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da
Amazonia had 150 fruits sent there for evaluation and 80 to 90% of the samplers rated them as of
excellent flavor and expressed interest in obtaining trees. However, it is recognized that there is
need for horticultural improvement. In 1964, William Whitman obtained seeds from Iquitos, Peru,
raised seedlings; planted one on his own property at Bal Harbour, Florida, and distributed the rest
to private experimenters. The first to fruit was that grown by B.C. Bowker, Miami, in 1973.
Whitman's tree and several others have also borne fruit.
Varieties
Some of the fruits borne in Florida appear to be of better than average quality. In northern Peru,
there is reportedly a type with little fiber and superior flavor.
Pollination
Chupa-Chupa
The flowers are pollinated by hummingbirds, bees and wasps. In the afternoon some trees become
self-compatible.
Climate
The chupa-chupa is a tropical to subtropical species. In Ecuador, it ranges from sea-level to 4,000
or even 6,500 ft (1,200-2,000 m). In Florida, young trees need protection from winter cold. For
best performance, the tree needs full sun and plenty of moisture.
Soil
The tree attains maximum dimensions in the low, wet, deep soils of South American forests, yet it
does well in cultivation on the slopes of the Andes and seems to tolerate the dry, oolitic limestone
of South Florida's coastal ridge when enriched with topsoil and fertilizer.
Propagation
The tree is commonly grown from seed but superior types should be vegetatively propagated.
Side-veneer grafting can be easily done. Budding is not feasible.
In Brazil, the tree blooms from August to November and fruits mature from February to May.
Trees in Florida bloom in midwinter and ripen their fruits in November. The fruit will stay on the
tree until it rots. It must be harvested with a knife or a long cutting-pole. Light color around the
edge of the calyx is a sign of ripeness.
Yield
Whitman's tree bore 58 fruits in 1976. A normal crop may be 3,000. One tree in Tef, Brazil,
produced an estimated crop of 6,000 or more fruits in a season.
Pests and Diseases
The chupa-chupa is very prone to attack by fruit flies and in some locations in South America is
commonly infested with their larvae. In Florida, the Keys whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus, and the
Cuban May beetle, Phyllophaga bruneri, attack the foliage.
Food Uses
This is a fruit that has always been eaten out-of-hand. Those that have the least fibrous flesh may
be utilized for juice or in other ways.
Moisture
85.3 g
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
0.129 g
0.10 g
0.5 g
0.38 g
Chupa-Chupa
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
18.4 mg
28.5 mg
0.44 mg
1.056 mg
0.031 mg
0.023 mg
0.33 mg
9.7 mg
*Analyses made in Ecuador.
Kiwifruit

Morton, J. 1987. Kiwifruit. p. 293300. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Kiwifruit
Actinidia deliciosa
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Pollination
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting and Packing
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Medicinal Uses
Related Species
A late-comer on the international market, the kiwifruit long identified as (Actinidia chinensis
Planch.), was formerly placed in the family Dilleniaceae; is now set apart in Actinidiaceae which
includes only two other genera. In the August 1986 issue of HortScience (Vol. 21 #4: 927), there
appears an announcement that China's leading authority on this fruit has renamed the stiff-haired
form (which includes the kiwifruit) A. deliciosa (A. Chevalier) C.F. Liang et A.R. Ferguson var.
deliciosa, and has retained A. chinensis for the smooth-skinned form. The Chinese name, yang tao,
meaning "strawberry peach", was replaced by Europeans with the descriptive term, Chinese
gooseberry (because of the flavor and color of the flesh). In 1962, New Zealand growers began
calling it "kiwifruit" to give it more market appeal, and this name has been widely accepted and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kiwifruit_ars.html (1 of 14) [5/16/2004 1:36:26 PM]
Kiwifruit
publicized despite the fact that it is strictly artificial and non-traditional. It was commercially
adopted as the trade name in 1974. There are a few little-used colloquial names such as Ichang
gooseberry, monkey peach and sheep peach.
Description
The kiwifruit is borne on a vigorous,
woody, twining vine or climbing shrub
reaching 30 ft (9 m). Its alternate,
long-petioled, deciduous leaves are oval to
nearly circular, cordate at the base, 3 to 5 in
(7.5-12.5 cm) long. Young leaves and
shoots are coated with red hairs; mature
leaves are dark-green and hairless on the
upper surface, downy-white with prominent,
light-colored veins beneath. The fragrant,
dioecious or bisexual flowers, borne singly
or in 3's in the leaf axils, are 5- to
Plate XL: KIWIFRUIT, Actinidia chinensis
6-petalled, white at first, changing to
buff-yellow, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) broad, and both sexes have central tufts of many stamens though
those of the female flowers bear no viable pollen. The oval, ovoid, or oblong fruit, up to 2 1/2 in
(6.25 cm) long, with russet-brown skin densely covered with short, stiff brown hairs, is capped at
the base with a prominent, 5-pointed calyx when young but this shrivels and dehisce from the
mature fruit while 5 small sepals persist at the apex. The flesh, firm until fully ripe, is glistening,
juicy and luscious, bright-green, or sometimes yellow, brownish or off-white, except for the white,
succulent center from which radiate many fine, pale lines. Between these lines are scattered minute
dark-purple or nearly black seeds, unnoticeable in eating. Cross-sections are very attractive. In
some inferior types, the central core is fibrous or even woody. The flavor is subacid to quite acid,
somewhat like that of the gooseberry with a suggestion of strawberry.
This interesting species is native to the provinces of Hupeh, Szechuan, Kiangsi and Fukien in the
Yangtze Valley of northern Chinalatitude 31 Nand Zhejiang Province on the coast of eastern
China. It was cultivated on a small scale at least 300 years ago, but still today most of the
1,000-ton crop is derived from wild vines scattered over 33 of the 48 counties of Zhejiang. The
plants may be seen climbing tall trees or, near Lung to ping, Hupeh, sprawling over low scrub or
rocks exposed to strong northeast winds and bearing heavily. The Chinese have never shown much
interest in exploiting the fruit. Because of the dense population, there is little room for expansion
of the industry. Nevertheless, trial shipments of canned fruits were made to West Germany in
1980.
Specimens of the plant were collected by the agent for the Royal Horticultural Society, London, in
1847 and described from his dried material, In 1900, seeds gathered in Hupeh were sent to
England by E.H. Wilson. The resulting plants flourished and bloomed in 1909. When both male
and female vines were planted together, fruits were produced but usually only solitary vines were
grown as ornamentals. Seeds from China were introduced into New Zealand in 1906 and some
vines bore fruits in 1910. Several growers raised numerous seedlings (many of which were males)
Kiwifruit
and selected the best fruiting types, which were propagated around 1930. By 1940 there were
many plantings, one with 200 vines, especially on the eastern coast of the North Island. The fruits
were being marketed and were very popular with American servicemen stationed in New Zealand
during World War II, Commercial exporting was launched in 1953, the fruits going mainly to
Japan, North America and Europe, with small quantities to Australia, the United Kingdom and
Scandinavia. In 1981, a survey of small holders in the Auckland suburbs revealed that the great
majority of them intended to plant kiwifruit for the local market. Today, West Germany is New
Zealand's biggest customer for kiwifruit. Production in 1983 was reportedly 40,000 tons as
compared with 300 tons in 1937. New Zealand supplies 99% of the world production of kiwifruit
and 95% of the crop is harvested within 35 miles (56 km) of the little town of Te Puke, Bay of
Plenty38 S latitude. The small industry was greatly assisted in 1971 by an arrangement with the
Bay of Plenty Co-operative Dairy Company for the use of cool storage facilities and the
construction of a cooperative central packing house. In 1984, there were 2,500 growers, more than
400 packing sheds and 200 "coolstores" with a capacity of 1.9 million tons. A $10,000 prize was
offered for the design of a new package for export that would accommodate fruits of varying
shapes and sizes.
Plants and seeds have been distributed from New Zealand to the United States of America
(including Hawaii), and to Australia, South Africa, Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark. In
1981, plant exports amounted to $430,000 NZ. But in 1982 the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority
issued an appeal to cease exporting plants to reduce the likelihood of competition for foreign
markets.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Consul-General Wilcox in
Hankow in 1904 (P.I. 11629, 11630) and the resulting vines were fruiting at the Plant Introduction
Field Station at Chico, California in 1910. In 1905, a Rev. Hugh White sent in seeds from Kiangsi
(P.I. 18535). E.H. Wilson supplied seeds from western Hupeh and Szechuan (P.I. 21781). In 1917,
the agricultural explorer, Frank Meyer, sent back to Washington seeds from fruits he found
growing near Lung to ping, Hupeh, ranging in size from "that of a gooseberry to a good-sized
plum" (P.I. 45946). A plant from this introduction was given to Mr. William Hertrich of San
Gabriel, California. It had perfect flowers and bore fruit "of good size and quality." Mr. Hertrich
reproduced it by cuttings and in 1919 supplied some of the plants to the Station at Chico (P.I.
46864). In 1935, a New Zealand grower sent plants of a large-fruited kiwifruit (later named
'Hayward' in New Zealand). One of the plants was reported as still flourishing and fruiting400 lbs
(160 kg) annuallyin 1982. After cultural techniques were developed in the 1960's, two California
growers imported several thousands of plants from New Zealand. Special kiwifruit nurseries were
established in 1966 and, by 1970, there were 40 acres (20.25 ha) devoted to this crop. By 1977
there were over 2,000 acres (800 ha) planted with kiwifruit vines but only 10% of the plants had
reached bearing age. In 1982, there were about 1,000 small commercial farms in the state. In 1984,
kiwifruit groves in California totalled 6,000 acres (2,040 ha). Most of the crop, worth $18,000,000
to the growers, is sold locally, but some has been shipped to Japan and to the Netherlands. The
trade association, Kiwi Growers of California, was organized in 1972 and incorporated in 1975 to
sponsor research and exchange and publish information. Nationwide publicity and marketing is
handled by Blue Anchor, Inc., the California Fruit Exchange, greatly stimulating demand despite
the high retail price of the fruits. The California Kiwifruit Administration Committee has set rigid
quality standards, preventing the shipping of "unclassified" grade.
Kiwifruit
The Fruit and Fruit Technology Research Institute of Stellenbosch, South Africa, obtained
budwood of New Zealand cultivars in 1960 and experimental plantings were made in a number of
areas around the country. The success of the vines in the northeastern Transvaal inspired the
installment of a large plantation of mostly seedlings, some plants from cuttings, at Chiremba in the
lower Vumba based on New Zealand and California selections. At this location, the altitude is
3,280 ft (1,000 m) and the annual rainfall is 60 in (152 cm). The mean temperatures in southern
Cape areas are close to those at Sacramento, California. However, there are great extremes in
South African weather and occasionally very high day temperatures which may cause sunburn on
exposed fruits. Nevertheless, the South African Kiwifruit Association was formed in 1981 at the
University of Natal with expectations of developing successful cultivation.
The kiwifruit was already being grown in Cambodia, Vietnam and southern Laos, France, Spain,
Belgium, and Italy where plantings were first made in the late 1960's and commercial growing
started in the late 1970's. Italy advanced to third place in world production by 1983, with a crop of
6,000 tons from 4,800 acres (2,000 ha). Over one-half of Italy's crop is exported to France and
other European countries.
French interest in the kiwifruit has been stimulated by the low returns from apple-growing. By
1971, there were small plantings scattered around southwestern and southeastern areas of the
countryvalleys of the Garonne, Dordogne, Rhone and Loire riverstotalling about 123 acres (50
ha). Greece is now producing kiwifruits for export to other European countries, filling the seasonal
gap when fruits from New Zealand are not available. A recent development is the raising of
kiwifruits in greenhouses in the Channel Islands, especially as an alternative to tomatoes suffering
from European competition.
The vine was introduced into the Philippines at Baguio in 1923. It succeeds there only above 3,280
ft (1,000 m) and has not been exploited. Large plantings are being made in Chile, not far from
Santiago.
Varieties
There are 4 main Chinese classes of kiwifruit:
1) 'Zhong Hua' ("Chinese gooseberry")round to oval, or oblate; weight varies from 6.5 to 80 g,
averaging 30 to 40 g. Sugar content is 4.6 to 13.1%; ascorbic acid, 25.5 to 139.7 mg per 100 g.
This is the most commonly grown.
Three subvarieties are: "Yellow flesh"average weight, 30.2 g; sugar content, 9.0%; ascorbic acid
101.9 mg per 100 g. "Green flesh"average weight 18.4 g; sugar content, 5.4 %; ascorbic acid,
55.7 mg per 100 g. "Yellow-green" and "Green-yellow"average weight 31 to 48 g; sugar content
5.4%; ascorbic acid 85.5 mg per 100 g. Not suitable for canning sliced or for jam.
2) 'Jing Li' ("northern pear gooseberry")elongated oval with green flesh. Leaves usually hairless.
3)'Ruan Zao' ("Soft date gooseberry")small, with green flesh; quite sweet. Good for jam.
Usually grows in the hills.
4) 'Mao Hua'may be tight- or loose-haired; has green, sweet flesh. The leaves are elongated oval,
relatively broad and thick.
Kiwifruit
Selections made by growers for fresh fruit market:

1) 'Qing Yuan #17'fruit weighs a maximum of 70.3 g; skin is yellow-brown, smooth, thin; flesh
is juicy and of excellent flavor; sugar content 8.2%; ascorbic acid, 169.7 mg per 100 g. Rated as of
superior quality.
2) 'Qing Yuan #22'fruit has maximum weight of 67 g, average is 47.3 g; skin is yellow-brown,
smooth, thin; sugar content 7.9%; ascorbic acid, 11.42 mg per 100 g. Of high quality.
3) 'Qing Yuan #28'fruit cylindrical; weighs a maximum of 46 g; averages 40.6 g. Skin is
smooth; flesh fine-textured and juicy. Sugar content 9.1%; ascorbic acid 103.2 mg per 100 g. Of
medium quality.
4) 'Qing Yuan #18'fruit cylindrical; maximum weight 56 g, average 36 g; flesh very tender,
medium juicy, of good flavor. Ascorbic acid content 178.9 mg per 100 g. Good fresh and for
processing.
5) 'Qing Yuan #20'small, elongated cylindrical; maximum weight 26 g; average 21.5 g. Sugar
content 12.4%; ascorbic acid, 189.2 mg per 100 g. Excellent quality.
6) 'Long Quan #3'oblate; average weight 31 g. Flesh yellow, fine-textured, juicy, and of good
flavor. Sugar content, 9.5%; ascorbic acid, 99.7 mg per 100 g. Above average quality.
Selections made by growers for processing because of uniform shape and size, yellow or
reddish-brown flesh, minimum woodiness at base, high ascorbic acid content:
1) 'Qing Yuan #27'cylindrical; average weight, 27.9 g; flesh yellow, fine-textured; seeds few;
core small. Good for processing.
2) 'Qing Yuan #29'average weight, 27 g; flesh yellow, fine-textured, with small core.
3) 'Qing Yuan #6'average weight 27.3 g. Flesh pale-yellow and fine-textured. Sugar content
7.6%; ascorbic acid 140 mg per 100 g. Of superior quality for processing.
4) 'Huang Yan'yellow-skinned, cylindrical; average weight 21.9 g; flesh yellow-white,
fine-textured, and of good flavor, with medium-large core. Sugar content 7.4%; ascorbic acid
170.8 mg per 100 g. Above average quality for processing.
The leading cultivars in New Zealand are:
'Abbott' ('Green's'; 'Rounds')a chance seedling, discovered in the 1920's; introduced into
cultivation in the 1930's. Fruit oblong, of medium size, with brownish skin and especially dense,
long, soft, hairs; flesh is light-green and of good flavor. Of good keeping quality. Resembles
'Allison'. Ripens in early May. Vine is vigorous, precocious, productive. Petals do not overlap;
styles are horizontal. Most exports to the United Kingdom have been of this cultivar.
'Allison' ('Large-fruited')a chance seedling discovered in 1920's; introduced in early 1930's. Fruit
oblong, slightly broader than 'Abbott'; of medium size, with densely hairy, brownish-skin; flesh is
light-green, of good flavor. Fruit is of good keeping quality. Vine very vigorous, prolific; blooms
later than 'Abbott'; fruits ripen early May. Flowers have broader, more overlapping petals than
'Abbott' and they are crinkled on the margins. Styles elevate to 30 or 60 angle as flower ages.
Kiwifruit
Formerly very popular but has lost ground to 'Hayward'.

'Bruno' ('McLoughlin'; Longs'; 'Long-fruited'; 'Te puke')a chance seedling; discovered in the
1920's; introduced in the 1930's. Fruit large, elongated cylindrical, broadest at apex; has
darker-brown skin than other cultivars and dense, short, bristly hairs. Flesh is light-green, of good
flavor. Ripens in early May. Vine is vigorous and productive, blooms with or slightly after
'Allison'. Sometimes exported. Flowers borne singly or sometimes in pairs. Petals narrower and
overlap less; styles longer and stouter than those of 'Abbott', more regularly arranged than those of
'Allison'.
'Hayward' ('Giant'; 'Hooper's Giant'; 'McWhannel's')chance seedling in Auckland; discovered in
1920's; introduced into cultivation in early 1930's; introduced into the United States as P.I. 112053
before being named in New Zealand and was called 'Chico' in California. Fruit exceptionally large,
broad-oval, with slightly flattened sides; skin light greenish-brown with dense, fine, silky hairs.
Flesh light green; of superior flavor and fruit is of good keeping quality. Ripens in early May. Vine
is moderately vigorous, blooms very late; is moderately prolific, partly because of scanty
pollination and late-blooming males must be planted with it. Flowers borne singly or, rarely, in
pairs. The petals are broad, overlapping, cupped, and the styles more erect than those of other
cultivars though they vary from horizontal to vertical. This is the leading cultivar in New Zealand;
the only commercial cultivar in California; produces 72% of Italy's crop.
'Monty' ('Montgomery')a chance seedling in New Zealand, discovered in the early 1950's;
introduced into cultivation about 1957. Fruit oblong, somewhat angular, widest at apex; of
medium size; skin brownish with dense hairs. Flesh is light-green. Fruit ripens in early May. Vine
is highly vigorous and productive, sometimes excessively so. Petals overlap only slightly at the
base.
'Greensill'a more recent selection; it is the most cylindrical of all, flattened on both ends, slightly
wider at base than at apex; a little shorter than 'Allison' but thicker. Petals narrow, constricted, do
not overlap at the base; styles are mostly erect.
Plant breeders are endeavoring to develop an acceptable hairless kiwifruit and several thousand
seedlings of a promising clone were set out in an experimental plot in Pukekohe, New Zealand, in
1980.
Male plants commonly used for pollination are:
'Matua', with short hairs on peduncles and flowers in groups of 1 to 5, usually 3.
'Tomuri', with long hairs on peduncles, flowers in groups of 1 to 7, usually 5.
Climate
The kiwifruit vine grows naturally at altitudes between 2,000 and 6,500 ft (600-2,000 m). The
Kwangsi latitude is approximately that of Galveston, Texas; the climate has been likened to that of
Virginia or North Carolina, with heavy rainfall and an abundance of snow and ice in the winter.
In the Bay of Plenty region the winter mean minimum daily temperatures are from 40 to 42 F
(4.44-5.56 C); mean maximum, 57 to 60 F (13.89-15.56 C); in summer, mean minimum is 56
to 57 F (13.33-13.89 C); mean maximum, 75 to 77 F (23.89-25 C). Annual rainfall is 51 to 64
Kiwifruit
in (130-163 cm) and relative humidity 76 to 78%.

In California, the kiwifruit is an appropriate crop wherever citrus fruits, peaches and almonds are
successful, though the leaves and flowers are more sensitive to cold than those of orange and
peach trees. Autumn frosts retard new growth and kill developing flower buds, or, if they occur
after the flowers have opened, will prevent the setting of fruits. Late winter frosts are said to
improve the flavor of full-grown fruits.
Kiwifruit vines in leaf are killed by drops in temperature below 29 F (-1.67 C), while dormant
mature vines can survive temperatures down to 10 F (-12.22 C). In France, 1-year-old plants
have been killed to the ground by frosts. California growers report that the kiwifruit requires a
temperature drop to 32 F (0 C) to cause it to drop its leaves and then 400 hours of dormancy, or
40 days of 40 F (4.44 C), in order to set fruit properly. At Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, where
there are only 150 to 200 hours of chilling weather, the vines are slow to put out new spring
leaves.
Alternating warm and cold spells during the winter will reduce flowering. A seedling selection at
the Citrus and Subtropical Fruit Research Institute, Nelspruit, has borne well and appears to be
more tolerant of mild winters than other cultivars which are not successful in this warm region of
the eastern Transvaal. There have been several attempts to grow kiwifruits in northern and central
Florida, and a few vines are growing experimentally in the southern part of the state and even on
the Florida Keys but, so far, only the plants at Tallahassee have fruited to any extent.
Soil
For good growth, the vine needs deep, fertile, moist but well-drained soil, preferably a friable,
sandy loam. Heavy soils subject to water logging are completely unsuitable. In Kiangsi Province,
China, the wild plants flourish in a shallow layer of "black wood earth" on top of stony, red
subsoil.
Pollination
The flowers are mostly insect-pollinated. For small, single-row plantings, one male vine to every 5
females is necessary. In commercial plantings, 10 to 12% of the vines must be males, that is, about
1 male for every 8 or 9 female vines, and the males should be staggered evenly throughout the
block plantations. The time of flowering must be ascertained so that the male and female plants
will coincide. The female plants yield no nectar. It is recommended that there be 3 1/3 beehives
per acre (8 per ha) when 10 to 15% of the flowers are open in order to assure adequate pollination.
In anticipation of a shortage of hives for expanding culture, work was begun in New Zealand about
1980 to perfect means of collecting and drying pollen and preparing a suspension for spraying onto
the blooming vines by tractor-drawn equipment. Pollen is commercially available in California
also for artificial pollination.
Propagation
Inasmuch as seedlings show great variation, it is not recommended that the vine be grown from
seed except in experimental plots for clone selection or to produce rootstocks for budding or
grafting. To obtain the small seeds, ripe fruits are pulped in an electric blender and then the pulp is
strained through a fine screen. The seeds, mixed with moist sand, are placed in a plastic bag,
Kiwifruit
plastic box or other covered container, and kept in a refrigerator (below freezing temperature) for 2
weeks. Then the seed/sand mixture can be planted in nursery flats of sterilized soil, or directly in
the garden or field, no deeper than 1/8 in (3 mm) and kept moist. Germination will take 2 to 3
weeks. The seedlings should be thinned out to prevent overcrowding and can be successfully
transplanted when 3 in (7.5 cm) high if the soil is taken up with the root system intact. If intended
for rootstocks, they should be set 12 to 15 in (30-45 cm) apart in nursery rows. When 1-year-old,
the plants are ready for budding.
Budwood is taken from the current season's growth and defoliated, leaving only 1/2 in (1.25 cm)
of the petiole of each leaf, and is inserted in the rootstock about 4 in (10 cm) above the ground,
using the "T" or shield method. When the buds have "taken", the stock is cut back to just above the
union.
For grafting, scions are taken from a parent vine while it is dormant and should be trimmed at both
ends, leaving 2 or 3 buds. The scion is joined to the stock by either the whip or tongue process
about 4 in (10 cm) from the ground.
Soft-wood cuttings, trimmed to leave only 2 leaves, are treated with hormones and rooted under
intermittent mist. Dormant cuttings have a low percentage of success. In New Zealand, cuttings are
not popular because they do not develop a strong root system and are prone to attack by
crown-gall. Root-grafting was formerly practiced but abandoned because of susceptibility to
crown-gall at the graft union.
Old vines bearing inferior fruits can be reworked by budding or, preferably cleft-grafting, Which
must be done before new growth begins or the vine will bleed sap. Some growers graft a branch of
a compatible male onto a female vine to promote pollination. The increasing demand for plants of
cv. 'Hayward' in South Africa has led to in vitro propagation using vegetative buds of female
plants.
Culture
The kiwifruit is alleged to be a difficult crop to establish, and many new plantations in California
have been costly failures. The soil should be well worked to a fine tilth for easy penetration by the
shallow, fibrous root system. It is important to fumigate in advance of planting. The land should be
level to give all plants equal moisture. There should be good drainage and protection from strong
winds which severely damage tender spring shoots. The vines are set not opposite each other but
alternated and a generally used spacing has been 18 to 20 ft (5.56-6 m) apart in rows 15 ft (4.5 m)
apart. In 1983 it was announced that between-plant spacing was being reduced to 8.2 ft (2.5 m). It
has been customary to train the vines to grow on strong horizontal trellises with wood "T" supports
6 to 7 ft (1.8-2.1 m) high, holding 3 wires 2 ft (60 cm) apart. One New Zealand grower has
developed a metal arch system which provides headroom under the canopy for pruning and
harvesting, and also provides frost protection by allowing cold air to flow downward and settle on
the ground, and this air movement helps reduce the frequency of disease. Also, it has been found
that A-frame pergolas are producing 3 times as much fruit as the traditional flat trellises.
By the common method, the plants are staked until they reach the wire and, as they develop, they
must be kept under control, otherwise a tangled mass of unwieldy vegetation will result. Training
of the vines is very important. There should be a single leader and fruiting arms every 18 to 28 in
Kiwifruit
(45-71 cm). Summer pruning is for the purpose of heading the fruiting arms and suppressing
shoots. Shoots from summer pruning will not bear fruit until the following year after dormancy.
Male plants will yield more pollen in the spring if new shoots are topped to leave 5 to 7 buds
during the summer. Renewing of fruiting arms is done every 4 years, in the winter. The vines
should be trained to fruit above the foliage instead of beneath it because excessive shading from
the canopy results in poor shoot development, delayed blooming, dehydration and dying of
flowerbuds, reduced size of fruits. This is more critical in New Zealand than in California where
the light is more intense and penetrating.
The mature plants require a minimum of 150 lbs nitrogen per acre (about 150 kg/ha). In New
Zealand, they are usually fertilized twice a year, once in spring and once in early summer, using a
total of 500 lbs (225 kg) nitrogen, 220 lbs (100 kg) P2O5, 121 lbs (55 kg) K2O, per
hectareequivalent to 202 lbs (92 kg) nitrogen, 89 lbs (4.5 kg) P2O5, 49 lbs (22.2 kg) K2O per
acre.
Apart from land cost, it takes a minimum of $3,500 to bring each acre into production. The first 2
years are the most critical, coping with the variable growth habits of individual plants, but the
vines become more manageable with age. One producer in California, who also raises and sells
grafted plants, believes that many people have set out plants that are too young. He sells only
2-year-old vines, bare-root for planting in the dormant season, which gives the roots maximum
freedom unlike those which develop in containers. In France, where cuttings from New Zealand
are kept in cool storage during the winter and planted out in the spring, vines have made 5 to 6 ft
(1.5-1.8 m) of growth in the first 2 months.
Kiwifruit vines can stand wet seasons that destroy peach orchards. Drip irrigation is now being
used in California plus overhead sprinklers which have the additional value of plant protection
during cold spells and protection from heat in dry seasons. A mature orchard is said to require 40
in (1,000 mm) of water during the 8-month growing season, more than 1/2 of it in the 3 summer
months. Some growers plant a permanent cover crop of inoculated clover to control dust, aid water
penetration and provide additional nitrogen for the kiwifruit crop. However, clover must be
mowed at pollinating time to prevent the flowers from attracting the bees away from the kiwi
vines.
Season
New Zealand production begins in May and the fresh or stored fruits are exported through
November. In California, the vines put out new leaves in mid-March, bloom in early May and the
fruit ripens in November after the leaves have fallen. The marketing season extends from
November through April because the fruits hold so well in storage. The French season corresponds
to that of California.
In New Zealand, a minimum picking-maturity standard is 6.25% soluble solids. California
kiwifruits are harvested when they attain 6.5 to 8% soluble solids. They are picked by hand, either
by breaking the stalk at its natural abscission point or are clipped very close to the base of the fruit
to avoid stem punctures. They are carried in field boxes to packing stations. In well-equipped
packing plants, the fruits are mechanically conveyed across a brushing machine that removes the
Kiwifruit
hairs and, in some plants, the styles and

sepals as well. The fruits are graded for size
(25 to 54 per flat). For shipment, about 7 lbs
(3 1/4 kg) of fruits are arranged in a plastic
tray covered with perforated polyethylene
and packed in a fiberboard or wooden box.
Yield
In California, 4-year-old vines have yielded
14,000 lbs per acre (15.7 MT/ha). Vines 8
years old have yielded 18,000 lbs per acre
(20 MT/ha), which is nearly the maximum
for mature plants (8 to 10 years old).
The bearing habits of the vine are variablea
light crop one season is likely to be
followed by a heavy crop the next season,
and vice versa.
Keeping Quality
Firm fruits can be kept 8 weeks at room
temperature, 65 to 70 F (18.33-21.11 C).
Fully ripe fruits can be kept for a week or
more in the home refrigerator. Fruits
harvested at the firm stage will keep for
long periods at 31 to 32 F (-0.56-0 C)
and at least 90% relative humidity, wrapped
in unsealed polyethylene in containers.
Lower relative humidity, even 85%, will
cause a weight loss of as much as 4.5% in 6
weeks. Fruits that are cooled to a
temperature of 32 F (0 C) within 12 hours
after harvesting, will keep in good condition
for as long as 6 months under commercial
refrigeration. Experiments have shown that
an atmosphere modified with 10 to 14%
CO2 will increase cold storage life by 2
months, providing the fruits enter storage
within a week after harvest and are removed Fig. 83: Kiwifruits on the vine and harvested fruits en route to
from the controlled atmosphere shortly in packing house. Courtesy Blue Anchor, Inc., Sacramento,
California.
advance of marketing. Some studies by
Arpaia et al., indicate that optimum storage atmosphere may be obtained with 5% CO2 and 2%
O2, with C2H4 excluded and/or removed to keep it below 0.05 mcg per liter. Kiwifruits; freeze at
storage temperatures between 28 and 30 F (-1.8 and -2.1 C).
For consumption fresh or for processing, kiwifruits are customarily kept refrigerated for at least 2
Kiwifruit
weeks to induce softening and then allowed to further soften at room temperature to improve
flavor. The fruits will ripen too rapidly and lose quality if stored with other fruits, such as apples,
pears, peaches, Plums, etc., because of the ethylene these fruits emit.
Pests and Diseases
Kiwifruit vines are subject to attack by rootknot nematodesMeloidogyne hapla and, to a lesser
extent, Heterodera marioniin New Zealand. Because of the surface hairs, the fruit is not damaged
by fruit flies. The leaf roller, Ctenopseustis obliquana, which scars the surface of the fruit,
sometimes eats holes where 2 or more fruits touch each other. In New Zealand, crawlers of the
greedy scale insect, Hemiberlesia repac, have been conveyed to the plants by wind. This pest
infests the leaves and fruit and kills the growing tips of the vines. The passionvine hopper sucks
the sap of the vine and deposits honeydew on the fruit, and sooty mold growing on this sticky
substance renders the fruit unmarketable. A small moth native to New ZealandStathmopoda
skellonemay occur in abundance some seasons and do damage to the fruit under the sepals or
where fruits touch each other. Silvering and browning of the leaves may occur in late summer or
early fall because of infestation by thrips, (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis). Other pests in New
Zealand include the salt marsh caterpillar and mites. In Chiremba, South Africa, red scale has been
observed but it is easily controlled by spraying. In 1984, the New Zealand Pesticides Board
approved Ivon Watkins-Dow's Lorsban insecticides for spraying on kiwifruit crops for export, and
also cleared 4 herbicides for kiwifruit orchards.
A major disease of the vine is crown gall caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, but many
suspected cases have turned out to be merely natural callousing. Crown gall can be avoided in
budded or grafted plants by leaving the upper roots exposed. The roots may be attacked by
Phytophthora cactorum and P. cinnamomi, and also by oak root fungus (Armillaria mellea) which
is fatal. In humid climates, Botrytis cinerea infects the flowers and contaminates the young fruits.
New Zealand growers may apply 8 or 9 sprays during the dormant period to achieve control of
pests and diseases.
Post-harvest fruit decay is caused by Alternaria spp. and Botrytis spp. The greatest enemy is gray
mold rot arising from Botrytis cinerea which enters through even minute scratches on the skin
during storage at high humidity. Alternaria alternata mold is superficial and can be avoided if
styles and sepals are completely removed during the brushing operation. Alternaria-caused hard,
dry rot often is found on stored fruits that have been sunburned in the orchard. Such fruits should
be culled during grading. Blue mold, resulting from infection by Penicillium expansum, may occur
on injured fruits.
Leaf scorch results from hot dry winds in summer and early fall.
Food Uses
The Chinese have never been overly fond of the kiwifruit, regarding it mainly as a tonic for
growing children and for women after childbirth. It is ripe for eating when it yields to slight
pressure. For home use, the fruits are hand-picked. In addition to eating out-of-hand, they are
served as appetizers, in salads, in fish, fowl and meat dishes, in pies, puddings, and prepared as
cake-filling. Ice cream may be topped with kiwifruit sauce or slices, and the fruit is used in breads
and various beverages. Kiwifruit cannot be blended with yogurt because an enzyme conflicts with
Kiwifruit
the yogurt process. A cookbook, Kiwifruit Recipes, is published by the Kiwi Growers of
California.
For commercial canning, the partly softened fruits are peeled by a mechanical steam peeler or by
immersing in a boiling 15% lye solution for 90 seconds. Then they are washed in cold water,
trimmed by hand, rinsed, and cooked in sirup in standard #2 1/2 vacuum-sealed cans.
For preservation by freezing, the fruits are similarly peeled, sliced and immersed for 3 minutes in a
solution of 12% sucrose, 1% ascorbic acid, and 0.25% malic acid, quick-frozen, then put into
polyethylene bags and stored at 0 F (-17.78 C). Experiments have shown drying to be practical if
the lye-peeled whole fruits are first dipped in a sugar solution to improve flavor, then dehydrated
at temperatures below 150 F (65.56 C).
Only overripe or poorly shaped fruits are utilized for flavoring ice cream and for commercial juice
production blended with apple to reduce acidity. The fruits so used are not peeled but put through
a processing machine that removes the hairs, skin and seeds. In 1983, 2,378 gals (9,000 liters) of
kiwifruit concentrate from 1,000,000 fruits were sold in Germany, and 13,210 gals (50,000 liters)
were to be provided in 1984.
Slightly underripe fruits, which are high in pectin, must be chosen for making jelly, jam and
chutney. Freeze-dried kiwifruit slices are shipped to health food outlets in Sweden and Japan. In
the latter country, they are sometimes coated with chocolate. The peeled whole fruits may be
pickled with vinegar, brown sugar and spices. Cull fruits can be made into wine. The Kiwifruit
Wine Company of New Zealand, Ltd., has a contract to sell "Durham Light", a medium-sweet
wine, throughout Japan. The Gibson Wine Company in Elk Grove, California, is making kiwifruit
wine with an 11.5% alcohol content.
In the home kitchen, meat can be tenderized by placing slices of kiwifruit over it or by rubbing the
meat with the flesh. After 10 minutes the fruit must be lifted or scraped off, otherwise the
enzymatic action will be excessive. The meat should then be cooked immediately.
Fresh
Calories
66
Moisture
81.2 g
Protein
0.79 g
Fat
0.07 g
Carbohydrates 17.5 g
Ash
0.45 g
Calcium
16 mg
Canned Frozen
66
73.0 g 80.7 g
0.89 g 0.95 g
0.06 g 0.08 g
25.5 g 17.6 g
0.45 g 0.53 g
23 mg 18 mg
Iron
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Thiamine
0.40 mg
30 mg
48 mg
0.02 mg
0.51 mg
30 mg
64 mg
0.02 mg
0.51 mg
27 mg
67 mg
0.01 mg
Kiwifruit
Niacin
Riboflavin
Vitamin A
Ascorbic Acid
0.50 mg
0.05 mg
175 I.U.
105 mg
0.40 mg
0.02 mg
155 I.U.
103 mg
0.22 mg
0.03 mg
117 I.U.
218 mg
(natural and
added by
pre-dip)
*Analyses made at the University of California.

Quinic acid predominates in young fruits, disappears with the formation of ascorbic acid. Boiling
for 2 hours reduces ascorbic acid content by 20%. The same amount is lost when frozen fruits are
thawed at room temperature.
Kiwifruits, even when ripe, contain the proteolytic enzyme actinidin, which is said to aid
digestion. It can be extracted and purified as a powder for tenderizing meat. The tannin content is
low, 0.95%, in mature fruits. According to a recent report from New Zealand, the kiwifruit is rich
in folic acid, potassium, chromium and Vitamin E.
Toxicity
The hairs on the skin can cause throat irritation if ingested. It might be wise to avoid excessive
consumption of raw kiwifruits until more is known of the body's reaction to actinidin.
Medicinal Uses
The branches and leaves are boiled in water and the liquid used for treating mange in dogs. In
China, the fruit and the juice of the stalk are esteemed for expelling "gravel". The scraped stems of
the vine are used as rope in China, and paper has been made from the leaves and bark. If the bark
at the base of the vine, close to the roots, is removed in one piece and placed in hot ashes, it will
roll into a firm tube which can be used as a pencil.
Related Species
The United States Department of
Agriculture has, in the past, made various
introductions of other species, especially A.
arguta Planch. ex Miq., A. kolomikta
Maxim., and A. polygama Maxim., which
are often grown as ornamental vines in the
northern states.
A. arguta, KOKUWA, or TARA VINE,
from Japan, Korea and Manchuria, has
greenish-yellow fruit, or sometimes
Kiwifruit
dark-green blushed with red; oblong or

oval, about 1 in (2.5 cm) long, tipped with
the persistent style. The skin is smooth and
very thin; the flesh is green and sweet when
fully ripe, and the seeds are minute. The
fruits are edible but somewhat purgative.
Fig. 83-a: A by-product of kiwifruit culture: California

growers have found the vine trimmings unsuitable for mulch
or disposal by burning. They are shipping them to florists.
Being naturally coiled and curiously twisted, they are
attractive and useful in enhancing flower arrangements. Some
that are fairly fresh may put out a temporary flurry of downy
green leaves and tendrils. (Stems courtesy Flower Wagon,
Miami, FL).
The vine was growing in a private garden in

Marblehead, Massachusetts, in 1888. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds
from that vine in 1908; but had been sent seeds from Germany in 1901; and more seeds came from
Korea in 1909. This species has been cultivated as an ornamental and screening vine in
subtemperate zones of this country since these early dates. Currently, Henry Field's Seed and
Nursery Company, Shenandoah, Iowa, is glamorizing the "Hardy Kiwi" as a new "tropical fruit ...
surviving down to 25 below zero". The Richard Owen Nursery in Bloomington, Illinois, is
advertising "A. arguta annasnaja" as a "Hardy Kiwi" 3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4 cm) in diameter, ripening
in late September or early October.
It is true that the wild fruits of A. arguta are gathered and sold in northern China, and the success
of the kiwifruit has aroused some interest in the fruits of A. arguta in cool areas of the United
States. However, most seedlings are non-fruiting males, and female or bisexual specimens are rare
and may be unreliable bearers. Much experimental work may be necessary to determine whether
or not the kokuwa can be developed into a practical fruit source.
In June, 1923, Dr. David Fairchild applied pollen of the kiwifruit on the flowers of a vine of A.
arguta in a garden in Maryland and he harvested some fruits in October of that year. He had hopes
for the future of his hybrid and distributed cuttings and seeds. Later, he sadly reported that all his
"hybrid plants made poor growths and never bore. "
A. kolomikta, ranging from Japan to Manchuria and western China, has blue, oblong-ovoid fruits,
of sweet flavor. Cats are very partial to the plant.
A. polygama, SILVER VINE, is native from Japan to western China. It has beaked, yellow, bitter
fruits to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long. The Japanese eat the salted fruits and the leaves. This species is
prized in horticulture for the silvery tone of the young growth of male plants. The bark, twigs and
leaves contain actinidine and also metatabilacetone, similar to catnip oil, and they lure and
intoxicate cats. They are said to be used for taming lions and tigers in captivity.
Mangosteen

Morton, J. 1987. Mangosteen. p. 301304. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Mangosteen
Garcinia mangostana L.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
One of the most praised of tropical fruits, and certainly the most esteemed fruit in the family
Guttiferae, the mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L., is almost universally known or heard of by
this name. There are numerous variations in nomenclature: among Spanish-speaking people, it is
called mangostan; to the French, it is mangostanier, mangoustanier, mangouste or mangostier; in
Portuguese, it is mangostao, mangosta or mangusta; in Dutch, it is manggis or manggistan; in
Vietnamese, mang cut; in Malaya, it may be referred to in any of these languages or by the local
terms, mesetor, semetah, or sementah; in the Philippines, it is mangis or mangostan. Throughout
the Malay Archipelago, there are many different spellings of names similar to most of the above.
Description
The mangosteen tree is very slow-growing, erect, with a pyramidal crown; attains 20 to 82 ft (6-25
m) in height, has dark-brown or nearly black, flaking bark, the inner bark containing much yellow,
gummy, bitter latex. The evergreen, opposite, short-stalked leaves are ovate-oblong or elliptic,
leathery and thick, dark-green, slightly glossy above, yellowish-green and dull beneath; 3 1/2 to 10
in (9-25 cm) long, 1 3/4 to 4 in (4.5-10 cm) wide, with conspicuous, pale midrib. New leaves are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mangosteen.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:36:30 PM]
Mangosteen
rosy. Flowers, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) wide

and fleshy, may be male or hermaphrodite
on the same tree. The former are in clusters
of 3-9 at the branch tips; there are 4 sepals
and 4 ovate, thick, fleshy petals, green with
red spots on the outside, yellowish-red
inside, and many stamens though the
aborted anthers bear no pollen. The
hermaphrodite are borne singly or in pairs at
the tips of young branchlets; their petals
may be yellowish-green edged with red or
mostly red, and are quickly shed.
The fruit, capped by the prominent calyx at
the stem end and with 4 to 8 triangular, flat
remnants of the stigma in a rosette at the
apex, is round, dark-purple to red-purple
and smooth externally; 1 1/3 to 3 in (3.4-7.5
cm) in diameter. The rind is 1/4 to 3/8 in
(6-10 mm) thick, red in cross-section,
purplish-white on the inside. It contains
bitter yellow latex and a purple, staining
juice. There are 4 to 8 triangular segments
of snow-white, juicy, soft flesh (actually the
arils of the seeds). The fruit may be seedless
or have 1 to 5 fully developed seeds,
ovoid-oblong, somewhat flattened, 1 in (2.5
cm) long and 5/8 in (1.6 cm) wide, that
cling to the flesh. The flesh is slightly acid Plate XLI: MANGOSTEEN, Garcinia mangostanaPainted
by Dr. M.J. Dijkman
and mild to distinctly acid in flavor and is
acclaimed as exquisitely luscious and delicious.
The place of origin of the mangosteen is unknown but is believed to be the Sunda Islands and the
Moluccas; still, there are wild trees in the forests of Kemaman, Malaya. Corner suggests that the
tree may have been first domesticated in Thailand, or Burma. It is much cultivated in
Thailandwhere there were 9,700 acres (4,000 ha) in 1965also in Kampuchea, southern Vietnam
and Burma, throughout Malaya and Singapore. The tree was planted in Ceylon about 1800 and in
India in 1881. There it succeeds in 4 limited areasthe Nilgiri Hills, the Tinnevelly district of
southern Madras, the Kanya-kumani district at the southernmost tip of the Madras peninsula, and
in Kerala State in southwestern India. The tree is fairly common only in the provinces of
Mindanao and Sulu (or Jolo) in the Philippines. It is rare in Queensland, where it has been tried
many times since 1854, and poorly represented in tropical Africa (Zanzibar, Ghana, Gabon and
Liberia). There were fruiting trees in greenhouses in England in 1855. The mangosteen was
introduced into Trinidad from the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, England, between 1850 and 1860
and the first fruit was borne in 1875. It reached the Panama Canal Zone and Puerto Rico in 1903
Mangosteen
but there are only a few trees in these areas, in Jamaica, Dominica and Cuba, and some scattered
around other parts of the West Indies. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds
from Java in 1906 (S.P.I. #17146). A large test block of productive trees has been maintained at
the Lancetilla Experimental Station at Tela, Honduras, for many years. Quite a few trees
distributed by the United Fruit Company long ago have done well on the Atlantic coast of
Guatemala. In 1924, Dr. Wilson Popenoe saw the mangosteen growing at one site in Ecuador. In
1939, 15,000 seeds were distributed by the Canal Zone Experiment Gardens to many areas of
tropical America. It is probable that only a relatively few seedlings survived. It is known that many
die during the first year. Dr. Victor Patio has observed flourishing mangosteen trees at the site of
an old mining settlement in Mariquita, Colombia, in the Magdalena Valley and the fruits are sold
on local markets. Dierberger Agricola Ltda., of Sao Paulo, included the mangosteen in their
nursery catalog in 1949.
Despite early trials in Hawaii, the tree has not become well acclimatized and is still rare in those
islands. Neither has it been successful in California. It encounters very unfavorable soil and
climate in Florida. Some plants have been grown for a time in containers in greenhouses. One tree
in a very protected coastal location and special soil lived to produce a single fruit and then
succumbed to winter cold.
Despite the oft-repeated Old World enthusiasm for this fruit, it is not always viewed as worth the
trouble to produce. In Jamaica, it is regarded as nice but overrated; not comparable to a good
field-ripe pineapple or a choice mango.
Varieties
According to Corner, the fruit from seedling trees is fairly uniform; only one distinct variation is
known and that is in the Sulu Islands. The fruit is larger, the rind thicker than normal, and the flesh
more acid; the flavor more pronounced. In North Borneo, a seemingly wild form has only 4
carpels, each containing a fully-developed seed, and this is probably not unique.
Climate
The mangosteen is ultra-tropical. It cannot tolerate temperatures below 40 F (4.44 C), nor above
100 F (37.78 C). Nursery seedlings are killed at 45 F (7.22 C).
It is limited in Malaya to elevations below 1,500 ft (450 m). In Madras it grows from 250 to 5,000
ft (76-1,500 m) above sea-level. Attempts to establish it north of 200 latitude have all failed.
It ordinarily requires high atmospheric humidity and an annual rainfall of at least 50 in (127 cm),
and no long periods of drought. In Dominica, mangosteens growing in an area having 80 in (200
cm) of rain yearly required special care, but those in another locality with 105 in (255 cm) and soil
with better moisture- holding capacity, flourished.
Soil
The tree is not adapted to limestone and does best in deep, rich organic soil, especially sandy loam
or laterite. In India, the most productive specimens are on clay containing much coarse material
and a little silt. Sandy alluvial soils are unsuitable and sand low in humus contributes to low yields.
The tree needs good drainage and the water table ought to be about 6 ft (1.8 m) below ground
Mangosteen
level. However, in the Canal Zone, productive mangosteen groves have been established where it
is too wet for other fruit treesin swamps requiring drainage ditches between rows and in
situations where the roots were bathed with flowing water most of the year, in spite of the fact that
standing water in nursery beds will kill seedlings. The mangosteen must be sheltered from strong
winds and salt spray, as well as saline soil or water.
Propagation
Technically, the so-called "seeds" are not true seeds but adventitious embryos, or hypocotyl
tubercles, inasmuch as there has been no sexual fertilization. When growth begins, a shoot
emerges from one end of the seed and a root from the other end. But this root is short-lived and is
replaced by roots which develop at the base of the shoot. The process of reproduction being
vegetative, there is naturally little variation in the resulting trees and their fruits. Some of the seeds
are polyembryonic, producing more than one shoot. The individual nucellar embryos can be
separated, if desired, before planting.
Inasmuch as the percentage of germination is directly related to the weight of the seed, only
plump, fully developed seeds should be chosen for planting. Even these will lose viability in 5
days after removal from the fruit, though they are viable for 3 to 5 weeks in the fruit. Seeds packed
in lightly dampened peat moss, sphagnum moss or coconut fiber in airtight containers have
remained viable for 3 months. Only 22% germination has been realized in seeds packed in ground
charcoal for 15 days. Soaking in water for 24 hours expedites and enhances the rate of
germination. Generally, sprouting occurs in 20 to 22 days and is complete in 43 days.
Because of the long, delicate taproot and poor lateral root development, transplanting is
notoriously difficult. It must not be attempted after the plants reach 2 ft (60 cm). At that time the
depth of the taproot may exceed that height. There is greater seedling survival if seeds are planted
directly in the nursery row than if first grown in containers and then transplanted to the nursery.
The nursery soil should be 3 ft (1 m) deep, at least. The young plants take 2 years or more to reach
a height of 12 in (30 cm), when they can be taken up with a deep ball of earth and set out. Fruiting
may take place in 7 to 9 years from planting but usually not for 10 or even 20 years.
Conventional vegetative propagation of the mangosteen is difficult. Various methods of grafting
have failed. Cuttings and air-layers, with or without growth-promoting chemicals, usually fail to
root or result in deformed, short-lived plants. Inarching on different rootstocks has appeared
promising at first but later incompatibility has been evident with all except G. xanthochymus
Hook. f. (G tinctoria Dunn.) or G. lateriflora Bl., now commonly employed in the Philippines.
In Florida, approach-grafting has succeeded only by planting a seed of G. xanthochymus about 1
1/4 in (3 cm) from the base of a mangosteen seedling in a container and, when the stem of the G.
xanthochymus seedling has become 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, joining it onto the 3/16 to 1/4 in (5-6 mm)
thick stem of the mangosteen at a point about 4 in (10 cm) above the soil. When the graft has
healed, the G. xanthochymus seedling is beheaded. The mangosteen will make good progress
having both root systems to grow on, while the G. xanthochymus rootstock will develop very little.
Culture
A spacing of 35 to 40 ft (10.7-12 m) is recommended. Planting is preferably done at the beginning
of the rainy season. Pits 4 x 4 x 4 1/2 ft (1.2 x l.2 x l.3 m) are prepared at least 30 days in advance,
Mangosteen
enriched with organic matter and topsoil and left to weather. The young tree is put in place very
carefully so as not to injure the root and given a heavy watering. Partial shading with palm fronds
or by other means should be maintained for 3 to 5 years. Indian growers give each tree regular
feeding with well-rotted manure100 to 200 lbs (45-90 kg)and peanut meal10 to 15 lbs (4.5-6.8
kg) total, per year.
Some of the most fruitful mangosteen trees are growing on the banks of streams, lakes, ponds or
canals where the roots are almost constantly wet. However, dry weather just before blooming time
and during flowering induces a good fruit-set. Where a moist planting site is not available,
irrigation ditches should be dug to make it possible to maintain an adequate water supply and the
trees are irrigated almost daily during the dry season.
In Malaya and Ceylon, it is a common practice to spread a mulch of coconut husks or fronds to
retain moisture. A 16-in (40-cm) mulch of grass restored trees that had begun dehydrating in
Liberia. It has been suggested that small inner branches be pruned from old, unproductive trees to
stimulate bearing. In Thailand, the tree is said to take 12 to 20 years to fruit. In Panama and Puerto
Rico trees grown from large seed and given good culture have borne in six years.
At low altitudes in Ceylon the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July and
August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the
monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun
fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December.
Cropping is irregular and the yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season. The first
crop may be 200 to 300 fruits. Average yield of a full-grown tree is about 500 fruits. The yield
steadily increases up to the 30th year of bearing when crops of 1,000 to 2,000 fruits may be
obtained. In Madras, individual trees between the ages of 20 and 45 years have borne 2,000 to
3,000 fruits. Productivity gradually declines thereafter, though the tree will still be fruiting at 100
years of age.
Ripeness is gauged by the full development of color and slight softening. Picking may be done
when the fruits are slightly underripe but they must be fully mature (developed) or they will not
ripen after picking. The fruits must be harvested by hand from ladders or by means of a cutting
pole and not be allowed to fall.
Keeping Quality
In dry, warm, closed storage, mangosteens can be held 20 to 25 days. Longer periods cause the
outer skin to toughen and the rind to become rubbery; later, the rind hardens and becomes difficult
to open and the flesh turns dry.
Ripe mangosteens keep well for 3 to 4 weeks in storage at 40 to 55 F (4.44-12.78 C). Trials in
India have shown that optimum conditions for cold storage are temperatures of 39 to 42 F
(3.89-5.56 C) and relative humidity of 85 to 90%, which maintain quality for 49 days. It is
recommended that the fruits be wrapped in tissue paper and packed 25-to-the-box in light wooden
crates with excelsior padding. Fruits picked slightly unripe have been shipped from Burma to the
United Kingdom at 50 to 55 F (10-12.78 C). From 1927 to 1929, trial shipments were made
Mangosteen
from Java to Holland at 37.4 F (approximately 2.38 C) and the fruits kept in good condition for
24 days.
Pests and Diseases
Few pests have been reported. A leaf-eating caterpillar in India may perhaps be the same as that
which attacks new shoots in the Philippines and which has been identified as Orgyra sp. of the
tussock moth family, Lymantridae. A small ant, Myrnelachista ramulorum, in Puerto Rico,
colonizes the tree, tunnels into the trunk and branches, and damages the new growth. Mites
sometimes deface the fruits with small bites and scratches. Fully ripe fruits are attacked by
monkeys, bats and rats in Asia.
In Puerto Rico, thread blight caused by the fungus, Pellicularia koleroga, is often seen on
branchlets, foliage and fruits of trees in shaded, humid areas. The fruits may become coated with
webbing and ruined. In Malaya, the fungus, Zignoella garcineae, gives rise to "canker"tuberous
growths on the branches, causing a fatal dying-back of foliage, branches and eventually the entire
tree. Breakdown in storage is caused by the fungi Diplodia gossypina, Pestalotia sp., Phomopsis
sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Rhizopus nigricans.
A major physiological problem called "gamboge" is evidenced by the oozing of latex onto the
outer surface of the fruits and on the branches during periods of heavy and continuous rains. It
does not affect eating quality. Fruit-cracking may occur because of excessive absorption of
moisture. In cracked fruits the flesh will be swollen and mushy. Bruising caused by the force of
storms may be an important factor in both of these abnormalities. Fruits exposed to strong sun may
also exude latex. Mangosteens produced in Honduras often have crystal-like "stones" in the flesh
and they may render the fruit completely inedible.
Food Uses
To select the best table fruits, choose those with the highest number of stigma lobes at the apex,
for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and accordingly the fewest seeds. The
numbers always correspond. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert. One need only hold
the fruit with the stem-end downward, take a sharp knife and cut around the middle completely
through the rind, and lift off the top half, which leaves the fleshy segments exposed in the colorful
"cup"the bottom half of the rind. The segments are lifted out by fork.
The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in
canning, especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use
a 40% sirup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make
jam, in Malaya, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for
15 to 20 minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by simply
boiling the segments in brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavor.
The seeds are sometimes eaten alone after boiling or roasting.
The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to eliminate astringency, the
rind is made into a purplish jelly.
Mangosteen
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Total Carbohydrates
Total Sugars
(sucrose, glucose and fructose)
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
60-63
80.2-84.9 g
0.50-0.60 g
0.1-0.6 g
14.3-15.6 g
16.42-16.82 g
Thiamine
Ascorbic Acid
0.03 mg
1.0-2.0 mg
5.0-5.1 g
0.2-0.23 g
0.01-8.0 mg
0.02-12.0 mg
0.20-0.80 mg
*Minimum/maximum values from analyses made in the Philippines and Washington, D.C.
Phytin (an organic phosphorus compound) constitutes up to 0.68% on a dry-weight basis. The
flesh amounts to 31% of the whole fruit.
Other Uses
Mangosteen twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. The fruit rind contains 7 to 14% catechin
tannin and rosin, and is used for tanning leather in China. It also yields a black dye.
Wood: In Thailand, all non-bearing trees are felled, so the wood is available but usually only in
small dimensions. It is dark-brown, heavy, almost sinks in water, and is moderately durable. It has
been used to make handles for spears, also rice pounders, and is employed in construction and
cabinetwork.
Medicinal Uses: Dried fruits are shipped from Singapore to Calcutta and to China for medicinal
use. The sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to overcome dysentery. Made into an
ointment, it is applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The rind decoction is taken to relieve
diarrhea and cystitis, gonorrhea and gleet and is applied externally as an astringent lotion. A
portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion given as a remedy for chronic
diarrhea in adults and children. Filipinos employ a decoction of the leaves and bark as a febrifuge
and to treat thrush, diarrhea, dysentery and urinary disorders. In Malaya, an infusion of the leaves,
combined with unripe banana and a little benzoin is applied to the wound of circumcision. A root
decoction is taken to regulate menstruation. A bark extract called "amibiasine", has been marketed
for the treatment of amoebic dysentery.
The rind of partially ripe fruits yields a polyhydroxy-xanthone derivative termed mangostin, also
-mangostin. That of fully ripe fruits contains the xanthones, gartanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and
normangostin. A derivative of mangostin, mangostin-e, 6-di-O-glucoside, is a central nervous
Mangosteen
system depressant and causes a rise in blood pressure.
Mamey

Morton, J. 1987. Mamey. p. 304307. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Mamey
Mammea americana L.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The mamey stands almost midway between "major" and "minor" tropical fruits and is unique in
remaining virtually static in the past 40 years, receiving little attention at home or abroad.
Botanically, it is identified as Mammea americana L., of the family Guttiferae, and therefore
related to the mangosteen, q.v. Among alternative names in English are mammee, mammee apple,
St. Domingo apricot and South American apricot. To Spanish-speaking people, it is known as
mamey de Santo Domingo, mamey amarillo, mamey de Cartagena, mata serrano, zapote mamey,
or zapote de Santo Domingo. In Portuguese it is called abricote, abrico do Par, abrico selvagem,
or pecego de Sao Domingos. In French, it is abricot d' Amerique, abricot des Antilles, abricot
pays, abricot de Saint-Dominque or abricotier sauvage.
This species is often confused with the sapote, or mamey colorado, Pouteria sapota, q.v., which is
commonly called mamey in Cuba; and reports of its occurring wild in Africa are due to confusion
with the African mamey, M. africana Sabine (syn. Ochrocarpus africana Oliv.).
Description
The mamey tree, handsome and greatly resembling the southern magnolia, reaches 60 to 70 ft
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mamey.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:36:33 PM]
Mamey
(18-21 m) in height, has a short trunk which

may attain 3 or 4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) in diameter,
and ascending branches forming an erect,
oval head, densely foliaged with evergreen,
opposite, glossy, leathery, dark-green,
broadly elliptic leaves, up to 8 in (20 cm)
long and 4 in (10 cm) wide. The fragrant
flowers, with 4 to 6 white petals and with
orange stamens or pistils or both, are 1 to 1
1/2 in (2.5-4 cm) wide when fully open and
borne singly or in groups of 2 or 3 on short
stalks. They appear during and after the
fruiting season: male, female and
hermaphrodite together or on separate trees.
The fruit, nearly round or somewhat
irregular, with a short, thick stem and a
more or less distinct tip or merely a
bristle-like floral remnant at the apex,
Plate XLII: MAMEY, Mammea americana
ranges from 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm) in
diameter, is heavy and hard until fully ripe when it softens slightly. The skin is light-brown or
grayish-brown with small, scattered, warty or scurfy areas, leathery, about 1/8 in (3 mm) thick and
bitter. Beneath it, a thin, dry, whitish membrane, or "rag", astringent and often bitter, adheres to
the flesh. The latter is light- or golden-yellow to orange, non-fibrous, varies from firm and crisp.
and sometimes dry to tender, melting and juicy. It is more or less free from the seed though bits of
the seed-covering, which may be bitter, usually adhere to the immediately surrounding wall of
flesh. The ripe flesh is appetizingly fragrant and, in the best varieties, pleasantly subacid,
resembling the apricot or red raspberry in flavor. Fruits of poor quality may be too sour or
mawkishly sweet. Small fruits are usually single-seeded; larger fruits may have 2, 3 or 4 seeds.
The seed is russet-brown, rough, ovoid or ellipsoid and about 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) long. The juice of
the seed leaves an indelible stain.
The mamey is native to the West Indies and northern South America. It was recorded as growing
near Darin, Panama, in 1514, and in 1529 was included by Oviedo in his review of the fruits of
the New World. It has been nurtured as a specimen in English greenhouses since 1735. It grows
well in Bermuda and is quite commonly cultivated in the Bahama Islands and the Greater and
Lesser Antilles. In St. Croix it is spontaneous along the roadsides where seeds have been tossed. In
southern Mexico and Central America, it is sparingly grown except in the lowlands of Costa Rica,
El Salvador and in Guatemala where it may be seen planted as a windbreak and ornamental shade
tree along city streets, and is frequently grown for its fruit on the plains and foothills of the Pacific
coast. Cultivation is scattered in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana,
Ecuador and northern Brazil.
Introduced into the tropics of the Old World, it is of very limited occurrence in West Africa
(particularly Sierra Leone), Zanzibar, southeastern Asia, Java, the Philippines, and Hawaii. All
Mamey
seedlings planted in Israel have died in the first or second year. From time to time, seedlings have
been planted in California, but most have succumbed the first winter. Dr. Robert Hodson, of the
University of California, stated in 1940: "I know of only one large and old tree of Mammea
americana growing out of doors in southern California, and it has never fruited."
The mamey may have been brought to Florida first from the Bahamas, but the United States
Department of Agriculture received seeds from Ecuador in 1919 (S.P.I. #47425). One of the
largest fruiting specimens in Florida is at the Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, standing on a site
formerly part of an early nursery, and thought to be over 60 years of age. Another, as old or older,
on a private estate in Palm Beach, was fruiting heavily before 1940. The most northerly reached 30
feet (9 m) and fruited in Dr. Talmadge Wilson's garden at Stuart but was killed by lightning about
1956. There was a 35-foot (10.5 m) fruiting tree in the Edison Botanical Garden at Fort Myers, its
trunk at least 20 in (50 cm) thick, but it was removed after severe hurricane damage in 1960 and
replaced by a young one. A number of fruiting trees on private property in the Miami area have
been destroyed to make room for construction. The Fairchild Tropical Garden has distributed
numerous seedlings from their large tree but most apparently fail to survive the winter in the hands
of new owners Many seeds were planted as nursery stock by Robert Newcomb of Homestead who
offered grafted plants for sale from 1953 to 1956 and then, discouraged by winter-killing, gave his
remaining plants to a garden club on Key Largo. Hurricane "Donna" of 1960 doubtless eliminated
most of these.
Climate
The mamey is limited to tropical or near-tropical climates. In Central America, it thrives from near
sea-level to 3,300 ft (1,000 m). Three trees at the Agricultural Research and Education Center,
Homestead, in southern Florida, were killed by a temperature drop to 28 F (-2.22 C) in January
1940.
Soil
The mamey tree favors deep, rich, well-drained soil, but is apparently quite adaptable to even
shallow, sandy terrain, and it grows naturally in limestone areas of Jamaica, also does well in the
oolitic limestone of the Bahamas and southeastern Florida.
Propagation
Seeds are the usual means of dissemination and they germinate in 2 months or less and sprout
readily in leaf-mulch under the tree. Seedlings bear in 6 to 8 years in Mexico, 8 to 10 years in the
Bahamas. Vegetative propagation is preferable to avoid disappointment in raising male trees and
to achieve earlier fruiting. In English greenhouse culture, half-ripe cuttings with lower leaves
attached are employed. Both Robert Newcomb and Albert Caves of Palm Lodge Tropical Grove,
Homestead, successfully grafted the mamey onto self-seedlings.
Culture
The mamey generally receives little or no cultural attention, apart from protection from cold
during the first few winters in other than strictly tropical climates. It seems remarkably resistant to
pests and diseases.
Mamey
Season
In Barbados, the fruits begin to ripen in April and continue for several weeks. The season extends
from May through July in the Bahamas, some fruits being offered in the Nassau native market and
on roadside stands. In southern Florida, mameys ripen from late June through July and August. In
Puerto Rico, some trees produce two crops a year. Central Colombia has two crops occurring in
June and December.
Harvesting
Ripeness may be indicated by a slight yellowing of the skin or, if this is not apparent, one can
scratch the surface very lightly with a fingernail. If green beneath, the fruit should not be picked,
but, if yellow, it is fully mature. If fruits are allowed to fall when ripe, they will bruise and spoil.
They should be clipped, leaving a small portion of stem attached.
Yield
The productivity of individual trees varies considerably. In Puerto Rico, high-yielding trees may
bear 150 to 200 fruits per crop, totalling 300 to 400 fruits per year.
Food Uses
To facilitate peeling, the skin is scored from the stem to the apex and removed in strips. The rag
must be thoroughly scraped from the flesh which is then cut off in slices, leaving any part which
may adhere to the seed, and trimming off any particles of seed-covering from the roughened inner
surface of the flesh.
The flesh of tender varieties is delicious raw, either plain, in fruit salads, or served with cream and
sugar or wine. In Jamaica, it may be steeped in wine and sugar for a while prior to eating. In the
Bahamas, some prefer to let the flesh stand in lightly salted water "to remove the bitterness" before
cooking with much sugar to a jam-like consistency. I have often stewed the flesh, without
pretreatment, adding a little sugar and possibly a dash of lime or lemon juice. Once, some of the
pulp, stewed without citrus juice, was left in a covered plastic container in a refrigerator for one
month. At the end of this time, there was no loss of flavor, no fermentation or other evidence of
spoilage; and the fruit was eaten with no ill effect. In this connection, it is interesting to note that
an antibiotic principle in the mamey was reported by the Agricultural Experiment Station, Rio
Piedras, Puerto Rico, in 1951.
Sliced mamey flesh may also be cooked in pies or tarts, and may be seasoned with cinnamon or
ginger. Canned, sliced mamey has in the past been exported from Cuba. The mamey is widely
made into preserves such as spiced marmalade and pastes (resembling guava paste) and used as a
filler for products made of other fruits. Slightly under-ripe fruits, rich in pectin, are made into jelly.
Wine is made from the fruit and fermented "toddy" from the sap of the tree in Brazil.
In the Dominican Republic, the uncooked flesh, blended with sugar, is made into frozen sherbet.
The juice or sirup of stewed flesh, is seasoned with sugar and lemon juice to make "ade". When
cooking the flesh for any purpose, one is advised to skim off any foam that forms on the surface of
the water, as this is usually bitter.
Food Value Per 100 g of Fresh Pulp*
Mamey
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Total Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin A (-Carotene)
Thiamine
44.5-45.3
85.5-87.6 g
0.470-0.088 g
0.15-0.99 g
11.52-12.67 g
0.80-1.07 g
0.17-0.29 g
4.0-19.5 mg
7.8-14.5 mg
0.15-2.51 mg
0.043-0.37 mg
0.017-0.030 mg
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
0.025-0.068 mg
0.160-0.738 mg
10.2-22.0 mg
5 mg
5-6 mg
14-35 mg
*Analyses made in Cuba and Central America.

Toxicity
Rural folk in the Dominican Republic have some doubt of the wholesomeness of mamey flesh. In
the Description and History of Vegetable Substances Used in the Arts and Domestic Economy,
published in London in 1829, it is stated: "To people with weak stomachs, it is said to be more
delicious than healthful." The Bahamian practice of soaking the pulp in salted water may be a
safety precaution inasmuch as bitterness is not only disliked but distrusted. The old Jamaican
custom of steeping in wine might also be considered a safeguard. Kennard and Winters observe
that, in Puerto Rico, "Although the fruit is widely eaten, it is recommended that only moderate
amounts be consumed." A former Spanish professor at the University of Miami related that, when
he was about 19 in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, he ate half of a large mamey from a tree in his home
yard, after peeling and scraping off the rag but not removing any adherent seed-covering. Then he
ate the pulp of one star apple. An hour later, he had stomach cramps and, later, his abdomen was
reddened and oddly reticulated. He attributed this reaction to the mamey and was convinced there
was "something poisonous about it."
Morris et al. (1952) commented that, while the delicious mamey "has formed part of the diet of the
inhabitants of the Caribbean Islands for many generations, it is well known that this fruit produces
discomfort, especially in the digestive system, in some persons." They reported also that "a
Mamey
concentrated extract of the fresh fruit" proved fatally toxic to guinea pigs, and was also found
poisonous to dogs and cats. The extract was made from the edible portion only. The authors
likened the mamey to the akee (Blighia sapida), q.v., as a human hazard, and Djerassi, et al., aver
that "reports of poisoning in humans are known."
Other Uses
Insecticidal value: That various parts of the mamey tree contain toxic properties has been long
recognized and was first reported by Grosourdy in El Mdico Botanico Criollo in 1864. A
Colombian decoction of mamey resin was displayed at the Paris Exposition in 1867. It is
significant that in the United States Department of Agriculture's record of mamey seed
introduction from Ecuador in 1919, only the insecticidal and medicinal uses of the species were
noted. There was no comment on edible uses of the fruit.
In Puerto Rico, there, is a time-honored practice of wrapping a mamey leaf like a collar around
young tomato plants when setting them in the ground to protect them from mole crickets and
cutworms. The leaf must be placed at just the right height, half above ground and half below.
In Mexico and Jamaica, the thick, yellow gum from the bark is melted with fat and applied to the
feet to combat chiggers and used to rid animals of fleas and ticks. A greenish-yellow, gummy resin
from the skin of immature fruits, and an infusion of half-ripe fruits are similarly employed. The
bark is strongly astringent and a decoction is effective against chiggers. In El Salvador, a paste
made of the ground seeds is used against poultry lice, mites and head lice. In the Dominican
Republic, mamey seeds, avocado seeds, and Zamia seeds fried in oil, are mashed and applied to
the head as a "therapeutic shampoo", probably to eliminate lice.
At the Federal Experiment Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, the insecticidal activity of various
parts of the mamey tree and the fruit have been under active investigation. The seed kernel, most
potent, was found, in feeding experiments and when tested as a contact poison applied as a dust or
spray, to be effective in varying degree against armyworms, melonworms, cockroaches, ants,
drywood termites, mosquitoes and their larvae, flies, larvae of diamond-back moth, and aphids. In
certain tests, mamey seeds appeared to be 1/5 as toxic as pyrethrum and less toxic to plant pests
than nicotine sulfate and DDT. When powdered seeds and sliced unripe fruit infusions, 1 lb (0.45
kg) in a gallon (3.78 liters) of water, were tested on dogs, both products were as effective as DDT
and faster in killing fleas and ticks but not as long-lasting in regard to reinfestation. None of the
dogs was poisoned despite the presence of healing sores and minor abrasions of the skin, but, after
similar trials on mice, 4 out of 70 died. The active ingredients of the infusion are the resin from the
unripe skin and the developing seeds. In Ecuador, animals with mange or sheep ticks are washed
with a decoction made by boiling the seed but, in one instance, a dog with mange and ulcers died
48 hours after two applications.
The dried and powdered immature fruit, the bark, wood, roots and flowers have shown poor
insecticidal activity; the seed hulls appeared inert. The powdered leaves were found 59% effective
against fall armyworms and 75% against the melonworm. Various extracts from the fruit, bark,
leaves or roots are toxic to webbing clothes moths, black carpet beetle larvae and also to milkweed
bugs.
In fish-poisoning experiments, Pagan and Morris reported mamey seed extracts to be 1/30 as toxic
Mamey
as rotenone; 1/60 to 1/80 as potent as powdered dried derris root. Feeding trails have shown the
seeds to be very toxic to chicks and they are considered a hazard to hogs in the Virgin Islands.
The crude resinous extract from powdered mamey seeds, given orally, has produced symptoms of
poisoning in dogs and cats and a dose of 200 mg per km weight has caused death in guinea pigs
within 8 hours. The crystalline insecticidal principle from the dried and ground seeds, potent even
after several months of storage, has been named mammein and assigned the formula C22H28O5.
The stability of this principle was demonstrated by M.P. Morris who found no significant
difference in toxicity of powdered fresh mamey fruit and mamey powder stored for 6 years in steel
drums. Neither was the potency of mamey extract destroyed by subjection to 392 F (200 C).
Extensive chemical experiments with the extracted compound are reported by S.P. Marfey who
considered the mamey a potential substitute for pyrethrum and rotenone.
The main constituent of a wax isolated from the seed oil is the symmetrical C48 homolog,
tetracosanyl tetracosanoate.
Wood: In Central America, the tree is protected because the fruit is valued. Elsewhere, if the
mamey is common, it may be felled for its timber. The heartwood is reddish- or purple-brown; the
sapwood much lighter in color. The wood is heavy, hard, but not difficult to work, fine-grained
and strong; has an attractive grain and polishes well. It is useful in cabinetwork, valued for pillars,
rafters, decorative features of fine houses, interior sheathing, turnery and for fenceposts since it is
fairly decay-resistant. It is, however, highly susceptible to termites. Some of the wood is consumed
as fuel.
Bark: The tannin from the bark is sometimes used for home treatment of leather in the Virgin
Islands.
Medicinal Uses: In Venezuela, the powdered seeds are employed in the treatment of parasitic skin
diseases. In Brazil, the ground seeds, minus the embryo, which is considered convulsant, are
stirred into hot water and the infusion employed as an anthelmintic for adults only.
In the French West Indies, an aromatic liqueur called Eau de Creole, or Creme de Creole, is
distilled from the flowers and said to act as a tonic or digestive.
An infusion of the fresh or dry leaves (one handful in a pint [0.47 liter] of water) is given by the
cupful over a period of several days in cases of intermittent fever and it is claimed to have been
effective where quinine has failed.
Ketembilla

Morton, J. 1987. Ketembilla. p. 311315. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Ketembilla
Dovyalis hebecarpa Warb.
Aberia gardneri Clos.
Roumea hebecarpa Gard.
Description
Climate
Soil
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
Related Species
Somewhat better-known than the kei apple, q.v., the ketembilla, Dovyalis hebecarpa Warb. (syns.
Aberia gardneri Clos.; Roumea hebecarpa Gard.), is often called Ceylon gooseberry; sometimes
ketambilla, or kitembilla; and it is known as aberia in Cuba and Central America.
Description
The shrub or small tree reaches no more
than 15-20 ft (4.5-6 m) in height but its
long, slender, arching, wide-spreading
branches may cover 30 ft (9 m) of ground.
Sharp spines to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long, are
plentiful on the trunk and lower branches.
The alternate leaves are elliptical to ovate,
pointed, 2 3/4 to 4 in (7-10 cm) long,
wavy-margined, gray-green, finely velvety,
with pinkish, woolly petioles, and thin in
texture. Male, female and hermaphrodite
flowers are borne on separate trees. They
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/ketembilla_ars.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:36:37 PM]
Ketembilla
are petalless, greenish-yellow, nearly 1/2 in Fig. 84: Ripe fruits of the ketembilla are furry-skinned,
extremely acid and slightly bitter.
(1.25 cm) wide and clustered in the leaf
axils. The fruit, borne in great abundance, is
globose, 1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) wide. Its
thin, bitter skin turns from somewhat orange
to dark purple on ripening and is coated
with short, grayish-green, velvety hairs,
unpleasant in the mouth. The pulp is very
juicy, extremely acid, purple-red, enclosing
9 to 12 hairy seeds about 1/4 in (6 mm)
long.
The ketembilla is native to Ceylon. It was
introduced into the United States by Dr.
David Fairchild and was one of the few
fruits he admitted he never liked very much.
The first fruiting specimens in the western
hemisphere were apparently those growing
in southern Florida. P.J. Wester carried
seeds to the northern islands of the
Philippines where it began fruiting in 1916. Fig. 85: Formerly grown for jelly-making, the too-vigorous,
From Florida, also, the plant was introduced productive ketembilla or Ceylon gooseberry (Dotyalis
into the Atkins Garden of Harvard
hebecarpa) is no longer planted in southern Florida.
University at Cienfuegos, Cuba. Seeds from
the Garden were shipped to the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association in 1920, and to the
Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela, Honduras, in 1927. Seeds from Florida were supplied to
the Mayaguez and Trujillo Experimental Stations in Puerto Rico where the plants were 16 ft (5 in)
high by 1929 and 1930. Plants were distributed widely throughout the Hawaiian Islands and use of
the fruits was officially encouraged.
Florida pioneers grew the species and utilized the fruits until the plants took up too much space.
When South Florida began to develop rapidly after World War II, most people had no room for
such an aggressive plant. One enthusiast maintained a small commercial plot in West Palm Beach
for juice production.
In 1935, horticulturists in Israel imported seeds from Ceylon and plants grew and fruited well in a
variety of locations. Commercial exploitation was anticipated but was suspended during World
War II because of the shortage of sugar for preserving.
Climate
In the Philippines, the ketembilla flourishes from sea-level to 2,600 ft (800 m). In Malaya, it is
found from near-sea-level up to 4,000 ft (1,200 m). It has never survived at Singapore. Fruiting is
not consistent at Tela, Honduras. However, it does do well planted at appropriate elevations in
either dry or moist climates.
Ketembilla
Soil
In Florida, the plant grows entirely too vigorously on sand or limestone, but a rich soil is best for
maximum fruit production and plenty of water is desirable during fruit development.
Season
In Israel, fruit ripens from winter to spring. In Florida, there are two crops a yearspring and fall,
but the fruits may be infested with the larvae of the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa, and
unusable.
Food Uses
In Florida, in the past, the ketembilla was used primarily for jelly. Recipes developed in Hawaii
include juice, spiced jelly, ketembilla-papaya jam, ketembilla-guava jelly, and ketembilla-apple
butter. In Israel, the fruit is valued mainly as a source of jelly for export
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Crude Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
81.9-83.6 g
0.174-0.206 g
0.64-1.02 g
1.7-1.9 g
0.61-0.63 g
12.6-13.3 mg
24.5-26.8 mg
0.91-1.41 mg
0.125-0.356 mg
0.017 mg
0.033-0.042 mg
0.261-0.316 mg
91.7-102.5 mg
(Slightly unripe fruits are high in pectin.)

*Analyses made in Honduras.
Other Uses
In the West Indies and Central America, honeybees are seen to work the blossoms eagerly from
July to December.
Ketembilla
Related Species
The Abyssinian gooseberry, D. abyssinica
Warb. (syns. D. engleri Gilg; Aberia
abyssinica Clos.) is a bushy, more or less
thorny, shrub or tree to 30 ft (9 in) high,
with alternate leaves, ovate-lanceolate to
oblong, 1 to 3 1/2 in (2.5-9 cm) long, 3/4 to
1 1/2 in (2-4 cm) wide; glabrous or slightly
hairy, light-green, glossy, wavy, and
sometimes finely toothed. Male and female
flowers are borne on separate plants. They
are small, greenish-white, and emerge at the
leaf axils, the male clustered, the female
singly. The fruits are oblate, 1/2 to 1 in
Fig. 86: The Abyssinian gooseberry (Dovyalis abyssinica),
(1.25-2.5 cm) wide, with thin, tender,
more attractive in color and of more pleasing flavor than the
apricot-colored skin and concolorous,
ketembilla, is still too astringent to be popular.
apricot-flavored, juicy, melting, astringent,
acid pulp containing several flat seeds.
This species is native and common in
forests of East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya,
Uganda) at elevations between 6,000 and
8,000 ft (1,800-2,400 m). Seeds were
obtained by the United States Department of
Agriculture from the Atkins Garden in Cuba
in 1935 (S.P.I. #112086) and planted at the
then Plant Introduction Station in Miami.
Three seedlings were supplied to the
University of Florida's experiment station in
Homestead, two of which died and the
survivor was a male. Two plants remaining Fig. 87: An apparent chance cross between the ketembilla and
at the United States Department of
the Abyssinian gooseberry, known only as "Dovyalis hybrid",
Agriculture showed considerable hardiness was briefly promoted in southern Florida. The fruits are large
but astringent.
with only minor injury in cold spells just
below freezing. Some die-back was attributed to infestation by scale insects or root damage by
nematodes. These plants had female flowers but never bore fruit until there occurred accidental
pollination by a ketembilla 50 to 60 ft (15-18 m) distant. A heavy crop of fruits was borne in 1951.
A dozen seedlings were sent to Homestead. A scion from one of the 2 female plants was grafted
onto the male plant at the Homestead station and bore fruit less than a year later. The attractive
fruits caused considerable interest, grafted plants were sold by nurseries and someone proceeded to
invent the frivolous term, "Florida apricot".
The seedlings from the 1951 crop planted at Homestead fruited in October 1953. Both foliage and
fruit suggest that hybridization had taken place between the ketembilla and the Abyssinian
gooseberry. One of the seedlings bore perfect flowers in small clusters.
Ketembilla
The hybrid fruit is oblate, 3/4 to 1 3/8 in (2-3.5 cm) across, with a velvety skin, brownish-orange
or burnt-orange, dappled with many flecks of yellow. The flesh is burnt-orange or orange-yellow,
juicy, very sour, more or less acrid, the flavor modifying somewhat when the fruit becomes
extra-ripe and dark-red in color. There are 3 to 9 flat, pointed, nearly white seeds to 5/16 in (8 mm)
long, mostly underdeveloped and not very noticeable when the fruit is eaten. Plants reproduced by
cuttings or air-layers (though producing strong, spiny shoots) were soon being offered by local
nurserymen as "Dovyahs hybrid", no other name having been adopted. In 1960, 1 proposed
"ketcot" as concisely representing its 2 parents and Dr. George H. Lawrence, then Director of the
Bailey Hortorium wanted to record this in Hortus as soon as it became popularized, which it never
was.
The hybrid proved to be remarkably hardy, more stalwart and vigorous than either parent, forming
massive, formidable mounds to 15 ft (4.5 m) high, the branches weighed down with excessive
crops. One practical disadvantage is that the green, 6-pointed calyx, 3/8 in (1 cm) wide, remains on
the plant as the fruit is picked, leaving a cavity in the base of the fruit. It is, therefore, not
marketable as a fresh fruit but can be used to make sirup, jam or other preserves.
I was informed in 1962 that a hybrid of D. abyssinica and the ketembilla had originated in the
Kitchen Door Nursery, North Miami. It was given the name "Kandy" after a village in Ceylon, and
had survived several winters in Winter Haven.
Despite productivity and hardiness and the promotion of less-spiny, less rampant plants grafted on
ketembilla, few homeowners have welcomed the "Dovyahs hybrid" and its position has remained
static over the past 25 years.
Kei Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Kei Apple. p. 315319. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Kei Apple
Dovyalis caffra Warb.
Aberia caffra Harv. & Sond.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Season
Food Uses
Food Value
Related Species
The kei apple, Dovyalis caffra Warb. (syn. Aberia caffra Harv. & Sond.) is also known as
umkokolo in Africa and this is abbreviated to umkolo in the Philippines. The generic name has
been rendered Doryalis by many writers but botanists now agree that this form was not the original
spelling.
Description
The shrub or small tree, growing to a height
of 30 ft (9 m) with a spread of 25 ft (7.5 m),
usually has many sharp spines 1 to 3 in
(2.5-7.5 cm) long, though it is often entirely
spineless if not trimmed. The leaves, often
clustered on short spurs, are
oblong-obovate, 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5 cm) long,
glossy and short-petioled. Pale-yellow male
and female flowers are usually borne on
separate trees. They are small, petalless, and
clustered in the leaf axils. The aromatic fruit
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kei_apple_ars.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:36:40 PM]
Kei Apple
is oblate or nearly round, 1 to 1 1/2 in (2.5-4 Fig. 88: The kei apple tree (Dovyalis caffra) is
drought-tolerant, salt-resistant and strikingly fruitful, but the
cm) long, with bright-yellow, smooth but
minutely downy, somewhat tough skin, and fruit is intensely acid.
mealy, apricot-textured, juicy, highly acid flesh. There are 5 to 15 seeds arranged in double rings
in the center. They are flat, pointed and surrounded by threadlike fibers. The tree is spectacular
when its branches are laden with these showy fruits.
The kei apple is native to the Kei River area of southwest Africa and abundant in the wild around
the eastern Cape, Kaffraria and Natal. It is cultivated in the Transvaal. In 1838, it was introduced
into England and from there distributed to Egypt, Algeria, southern France and Italy, the
Philippines, northwestern Australia, Jamaica, southern California and Florida. The United States
Department of Agriculture obtained plants from Reasoner Bros., Oneco, Florida in 1901 (S.P.I.
#6857); seeds from South Africa in 1901 (S.P.I. #7955 & #7956); seeds from the Cape Town
Public Gardens in 1906 (S.P.I. #18667); seeds from the Middle Egypt Botanic Gardens in 1912
(S.P.I. #34250); and seeds from Hubert Buckley, St. Petersburg, Florida (S.P.I. #145592) and the
resulting seedlings were being distributed from the Plant Introduction Garden, Coconut Grove, in
1942 and 1943. A few specimens were planted in experimental stations in Puerto Rico and St.
Croix, and in private gardens in southern and central Florida, and the plant was adopted as a
coastal, rough hedge in southern California. It has been grown as a hedge and for its fruit in some
parts of Costa Rica. It was in the past extensively cultivated as a hedge around citrus groves in
Israel, but the fruits were not liked, they accumulated on the ground and became breeding places
for the Mediterranean fruit fly. Therefore, nearly all the plants were destroyed.
Climate
The kei apple is subtropical; does poorly at sea-level in the Philippines but thrives at and above
2,600 ft (800 m). Introductions have failed to survive in Malaya. In Florida, the plant has been
grown in a small way as far north as Gainesville, enduring brief drops in temperature to 20 F
(-6.67 C) but descents to 16 F (-8.80 C) have been lethal in this state and in California.
Soil
The kei apple does well in almost any soil that does not have a high water table. It is extremely
drought-resistant and tolerates saline soil and salt spray and is accordingly valued as a coastal
hedge in the Mediterranean region and in California.
Propagation
Propagation is ordinarily by seeds, though layering is successfully done in Australia. Seeds
germinate readily when fresh and seedlings begin to bear in 4 or 5 years. For fruit production,
Wilson Popenoe recommended a spacing of no less than 12 to 15 ft (3.5-4.5 m). Hedge plants can
be set 3 to 5 ft (0.9-1.5 m) apart. According to Popenoe there should be 1 male for every 20 or 30
females. However, certain female trees have borne profusely in the absence of male pollinators. A
kei apple hedge must be trimmed twice a year. If neglected and allowed to become leggy, it can be
cut to the ground and given a new start. Weeding should not be a problem, for the kei apple
exhibits allelopathy, that is, its roots excrete growth inhibitors which prevent the occurrence of
other plants in its vicinity. Investigators in Egypt have demonstrated that the roots, stem and fruit,
Kei Apple
but not the leaves and branches, possess antibiotic properties.

Season
Generally, the plants bloom in spring and the fruits ripen from August to October. The thorns
make harvesting difficult. The top may have to be thinned out in order to facilitate fruit-picking.
Food Uses
Most people consider the fruit too acid for eating out-of-hand even when fully ripe. It is best cut in
half, peeled, seeded, sprinkled with sugar and allowed to stand for a few hours before serving as
dessert or in fruit salads. The halves can stand only a few minutes of cooking before they turn into
sauce. Simmered briefly in sirup, they make excellent shortcake. Kei apples are customarily made
into jam and jelly, and, when underripe, pickles.
Food Value
Fresh ripe fruits contain 83 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g and 3.7% pectin. Scientists in Egypt have
reported 15 amino acids: alanine, 0.41%; arginine, 0.36%; aspartic acid, 0.96%; glutamic acid,
2.00%; glycine, 0.39%; histidine, 0.10%; isoleucine, 0.25%; leucine, 0.75%; lysine, 0.36%;
methionine + valine, 0.28%; phenylalanine, 0.40%; proline, trace; serine, 0.48%; threonine,
0.34%.
Related Species
In the family Flacourtiaceae, there are several species of Flacourtia that have been distributed as
fruit producers. None has any great merit, and four shall be treated as minor subjects here.
The louvi, F. inermis Roxb., is called rukam masam, rokam masam, lovi-lovi, lobeh-lobeh, tomi
and thornless rukam in Malaya. The tree is short-trunked, bushy, to 25 or 30 ft (7.6-9 in) tall, and
thornless. The evergreen, alternate leaves, bright-red when young, are glossy on the upper surface,
dull beneath; 3 1/2 to 10 in (9-25 cm) long and 2 to 5 in (5-12.5 cm) wide. Unlike other species,
the tree has bisexual flowers. They are petalless with green sepals and many yellow stamens and
borne in small clusters along the branches. The fruit is round but slightly flattened at the apex, 3/4
to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) wide, smooth, bright-red, thin-skinned. The flesh is whitish tinged with pink,
astringent, acid or occasionally sweet. There are 4 to 14 hard, sharp, irregular seeds under 1/4 in (6
mm) wide. The tree is of unknown origin; cultivated in Ceylon, Malaya and Indonesia. Its lifespan
is said to be about 20 years. It is propagated by seed in Malaya, by air-layering or budding in Java.
Flowering occurs several times a year. Yield from dooryard trees varies from 81 to 241 lbs
(36.8-109.5 kg) a year. Those given good cultural attention may bear a total of 374-576 lbs
(170-261.8 kg). The fruits are not favored raw but are seeded and cooked with apples to add color,
or are made into pie, jam, jelly, sirup, chutney and pickles.
The paniala, F. jangomas Raeusch. (syn. F. cataphracta Roxb.) is also called puneala, puneala
plum, jaggam, Chinese plum, Indian plum; in Malaya, kerkup, kerkup besar, kerkup bakoh; in
Thailand, ta-khop-thai; in Vietnam, mu cuon, mung quan, bo quan, and prunier malgache. The
shrub or erect, low-branched tree, 20 to 40 ft (6-12 in) high, has flaking bark and sharp spines on
Kei Apple
the trunk. The leaves are alternate,

deciduous, pale pink when young, spirally
arranged, oval-lanceolate, long-pointed,
toothed, very thin, glossy on both surfaces;
2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) long, 1/2 to 2 in (1.25-5
cm) wide. Male and female flowers are on
separate trees. They are greenish, heavily
fragrant, borne in small clusters on new
branchlets. The fruits are round or slightly
oval, 3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) long,
dark-maroon to nearly black; the flesh
greenish to white or amber, varying from
acid to sweet, and containing 7 to 12 flat,
hard, pale-yellow seeds.
Fig. 89: The paniala (Flacourtia jangomas) of southern Asia
and the Philippines, has wine-red, plumlike fruits,
The tree is native to North Bengal, East
Bengal and Chittagong in India; commonly unfortunately very astringent.
cultivated throughout Southeast Asia, eastern Malaya, and also in the Philippines. It has been
planted in a very limited way in Surinam, Trinidad, Puerto Rico and southern Florida. The seeds
are slow to germinate, therefore propagation is usually by inarching or budding onto
self-seedlings.
For eating out-of-hand, the fruit is rolled between the hands to reduce astringency, and is
better-liked than that of other species. It is stewed as dessert, made into juice, sirup, jam,
marmalade and pickles and also used in chutneys. When slightly underripe, it is used to make jelly.
The acid young shoots are eaten in Indonesia.
Philippine analyses show: moisture, 78.28%; protein, 0.03%; fat, 0.39%; sugar, 4.86%; ash,
0.94%; acidity, 1.16%. The fruit is fairly rich in pectin; contains 9.9% tannin on a dry-weight
basis.
The wood, red or scarlet, is close-grained, hard, brittle, durable and polishes well. It is used for
agricultural implements.
The fruits are eaten to overcome biliousness, nausea and diarrhea. The leaf decoction is taken to
halt diarrhea. Powdered, dried leaves are employed to relieve bronchitis and coughs. The leaves
and bark are applied on bleeding gums and aching teeth, and the bark infusion is gargled to
alleviate hoarseness. Pulverized roots are poulticed on sores and skin eruptions and held in the
mouth to soothe toothache.
The ramontchi is F. ramontchi L'Her. F. indica has been frequently recorded as a synonym but
Indian botanists disagree and treat F. indica Merr. as a distinct species. The common name for the
ramontchi in India is governor's plum; in Malaya, it is kerkup kechil or lesser kerkup; in Thailand,
ta-khop-pa; in the Philippines, bitongol, bolong, or palutan; in Africa, it is called kokowi,
Madagascar plum or Indian plum.
The tree is bushy and spreading but may reach 50 ft (15 m) and usually has sharp spines on the
trunk and on main branches which tend to arch and droop at the tips. The evergreen, alternate
leaves, red when young, are obovate to oblong-obovate, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) long and finely
Kei Apple
toothed. Male and female flowers are borne

on separate trees. They are white, about
3/16 in (5 mm) wide, and appear singly or
paired in the leaf axils. The fruit is round,
1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) thick, smooth,
glossy, dark red-purple, with light-brown,
acid to sweet, astringent, slightly bitter,
flesh and 6 to 10 small, flat seeds.
The ramontchi is native to tropical Africa,
Madagascar, India, parts of Malaya and
Southeast Asia, and much of Malaysia
including the Philippines. It has been
planted in Florida, Puerto Rico, Trinidad,
Guatemala, Honduras and Venezuela and Fig. 90: The ramontchi, or governor's plum (F. ramontchi),
advocated as a source of fruit. It has never closely resembles the paniala. The fruit is sweet but astringent
become popular anywhere, but jelly can be and slightly bitter. The leaves are useful as fodder.
made from it by not squeezing the jelly bag
and thus avoiding excessive astringency. The fruit is usually infested by fruit flies. Analyses made
in the Philippines show: moisture, 66.42%; protein, 0.69%; fat, 1.67%; sugar, 7.68%; ash, 1.09%;
acidity, 1.78%.
In Florida, birds scatter the seeds and volunteers invade natural areas. In Puerto Rico, the tree is
considered useful as a tall barrier hedge or windbreak. Farmers in India lop the branches for
fodder. The wood is used only for fuel.
The leaves and roots are believed to be effective against snakebite and the pulverized bark, mixed
with sesame oil, is applied on rheumatic parts. Filipinos use the bark infusion as a gargle. A root
infusion is taken in cases of pneumonia. The leaf juice is given as a febrifuge and remedy for
coughs, dysentery and diarrhea. The dried leaves are regarded as carminative, expectorant, tonic
and astringent.
The rukam, F. rukam Zoll. & Mor., also called rukam manis, rukam gajah and Indian prune in
Malaya; khropdong in Thailand, is a much-branched, crooked tree to 40 or even 65 ft (12-20 m),
sometimes thornless in cultivation but usually heavily armed with forked, woody spines on the
trunk and old branches. The leaves are evergreen, spiralled, red when young, elliptic-oblong, 3 to 6
in (7.5-15 cm) long, 1 1/4 to 2 1/2 in (3.2-6.25 cm) wide, coarsely toothed, slightly shiny. Flowers
are in small clusters in the leaf axils. Male and female are usually on separate trees; occasionally
both occur on the same plant. There are no petals; the male have many stamens.
The fruits, borne on old branches or on the trunk, are nearly round, slightly flattened at the apex,
1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) wide, dark purple-red, smooth, with whitish, juicy, acid flesh. There are 4
to 7 flat seeds.
The tree is native to India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Oceania; cultivated in southern Malaya
and Indonesia. It is adapted to elevations up to 5,200 ft (1,600 m). Seeds came to the USDA from
Bangkok in 1920 (S.P.I. #51772). A few specimens have been grown in Florida.
Kei Apple
The fruits are eaten raw, especially after rolling them between the palms to reduce astringency.
They are also cooked, made into pie, jam and chutney. The young shoots are marketed and eaten
raw in Java.
Analyses made in the Philippines show: calories 82.80 per 100 g; moisture, 76.93%; protein,
1.72%; fat, 1.26%; reducing sugars, 4.32%; fiber, 3.71%; other carbohydrates, 11.29%; ash,
0.771%; acidity, 1.29%.
The heavy, strong wood is made into rice pounders in Java; pestles in the Philippines; and clubs in
Samoa.
The juice of immature fruit is taken to halt diarrhea and dysentery. Leaf juice is applied on
inflamed eyelids, and dried, pulverized leaves are spread on wounds. The root decoction is given
to women after childbirth. The inner bark is used against filariasis in Samoa.
Passionfruit

Morton, J. 1987. Passionfruit. p. 320328. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Passionfruit
Passiflora edulis Sims
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Seasons and Harvesting
Yield
Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Of the estimated 500 species of Passiflora, in the family Passifloraceae, only one, P. edulis Sims,
has the exclusive designation of passionfruit, without qualification. Within this species, there are
two distinct forms, the standard purple, and the yellow, distinguished as P. edulis f. flavicarpa
Deg., and differing not only in color but in certain other features as will be noted further on.
General names for both in Spanish are granadilla, parcha, parchita, parchita maracuy, or ceibey
(Cuba); in Portuguese, maracuja peroba; in French, grenadille, or couzou. The purple form may
be called purple, red, or black granadilla, or, in Hawaii, lilikoi; in Jamaica, mountain sweet cup; in
Thailand, linmangkon. The yellow form is widely known as yellow passionfruit; is called yellow
lilikoi in Hawaii; golden passionfruit in Australia; parcha amarilla in Venezuela.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/passionfruit.html (1 of 15) [5/16/2004 1:36:44 PM]
Passionfruit
The passionfruit vine is a shallow-rooted,

woody, perennial, climbing by means of
tendrils. The alternate, evergreen leaves,
deeply 3-lobed when mature, are finely
toothed, 3 to 8 in (7.5-20 cm) long,
deep-green and glossy above, paler and dull
beneath, and, like the young stems and
tendrils, tinged with red or purple,
especially in the yellow form. A single,
fragrant flower, 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) wide, is
borne at each node on the new growth. The
bloom, clasped by 3 large, green, leaflike
bracts, consists of 5 greenish-white sepals, 5
white petals, a fringelike corona of straight,
white-tipped rays, rich purple at the base,
Fig. 91: Purple passionfruit (Passiflora edulis) is subtropical,
also 5 stamens with large anthers, the ovary, important in some countries, while the more tropical yellow
passionfruit excels in others. Both yield delicious juice.
and triple-branched style forming a
prominent central structure. The flower of the yellow is the more showy, with more intense color.
The nearly round or ovoid fruit, 1 1/2 to 3 in (4-7.5 cm) wide, has a tough rind, smooth, waxy,
ranging in hue from dark-purple with faint, fine white specks, to light-yellow or pumpkin-color. It
is 1/8 in (3 mm) thick, adhering to a 1/4 in (6 mm) layer of white pith. Within is a cavity more or
less filled with an aromatic mass of double-walled, membranous sacs filled with orange-colored,
pulpy juice and as many as 250 small, hard, dark-brown or black, pitted seeds. The flavor is
appealing, musky, guava-like, subacid to acid.
The purple passionfruit is native from southern Brazil through Paraguay to northern Argentina. It
has been stated that the yellow form is of unknown origin, or perhaps native to the Amazon region
of Brazil, or is a hybrid between P. edulis and P. ligularis (q.v.). Cytological studies have not
borne out the hybrid theory. Speculation as to Australian origin arose through the introduction of
seeds from that country into Hawaii and the mainland United States by E.N. Reasoner in 1923.
Seeds of a yellow-fruited form were sent from Argentina to the United States Department of
Agriculture in 1915 (S.P.I. No. 40852) with the explanation that the vine was grown at the Guemes
Agricultural Experiment Station from seeds taken from fruits purchased in Covent Garden,
London. Some now think the yellow is a chance mutant that occurred in Australia. However, E.P.
Killip, in 1938, described P. edulis in its natural range as having purple or yellow fruits.
Brazil has long had a well-established passionfruit industry with large-scale juice extraction plants.
The purple passionfruit is there preferred for consuming fresh; the yellow for juice processing and
the making of preserves.
In Australia, the purple passionfruit was flourishing and partially naturalized in coastal areas of
Queensland before 1900. Its cultivation, especially on abandoned banana plantations, attained
great importance and the crop was considered relatively disease-free and easily managed. Then,
about 1943, a widespread invasion of Fusarium wilt killed the vines and forced the undertaking of
research to find fungus-resistant substitutes. It was discovered that the neglected yellow
Passionfruit
passionfruit is both wilt-and nematode-resistant and does not sucker from the roots. It was adopted
as a rootstock and plants propagated by grafting were soon made available to planters in
Queensland and northern New South Wales.
The Australian taste is strongly prejudiced in favor of the purple passionfruit and growers have
been reluctant to relinquish it altogether. Only in the last few decades have they begun to adopt
hybrids of the purple and yellow which have shown some ability to withstand the serious virus
disease called "woodiness".
New Zealand, in the early 1930's, had a small but thriving purple passionfruit industry in Auckland
Province but in a few years the disease-susceptibility of this type brought about its decline. Good
local marketing and export prospects have brought about a revival of efforts to control infestations
and increase acreage, mostly in the Bay of Plenty region. Today, fruits and juice are exported. A
profitable purple passionfruit industry has developed also in New Guinea.
In Hawaii, seeds of the purple passionfruit, brought from Australia, were first planted in 1880 and
the vine came to be popular in home gardens. It quickly became naturalized in the lower forests
and, by 1930, could be found wild on all the islands of the Hawaiian chain. In the 1940's, a Mr.
Haley attempted to market canned passionfruit juice in a small way but the product was
unsatisfactory and his effort was terminated by World War II. A processor on Kauai produced a
concentrate in glass jars and this project, though small, proved successful. In 1951, when Hawaiian
passionfruit plantings totalled less than 5 acres (2 ha), the University of Hawaii chose this fruit as
the most promising crop for development and undertook to create an industry based on
quick-frozen passionfruit juice concentrate. From among Mr. Haley's vines, choice strains of
yellow passionfruit were selected. These gave four times the yield of the purple passionfruit and
had a higher juice content. By 1958, 1,200 acres (486 ha) were devoted to yellow passionfruit
production and the industry was firmly established on a satisfactory economic level.
Commercial culture of purple passionfruit was begun in Kenya in 1933 and was expanded in 1960,
when the crop was also introduced into Uganda for commercial production. In both countries, the
large plantations were devastated several times by easily-spread diseases and pests. It became
necessary to abandon them in favor of small and isolated plantings which could be better
protected.
South Africa in 1947 produced 2,000 tons of purple passionfruit for domestic consumption.
Production was doubled by 1950. In 1965, passionfruit plantations were initiated over large areas
of the Transvaal to meet the market demand and apparently there have been no serious setbacks as
yet, from disease or other causes.
India, for many years, has enjoyed a moderate harvest of purple passionfruit in the Nilgiris in the
south and in various parts of northern India. In many areas, the vine has run wild. The yellow form
was unknown in India until just a few decades ago when it was introduced from Ceylon and
proved well adapted to low elevations around Madras and Kerala. It was quickly approved as
having a more pronounced flavor than the purple and producing within a year of planting heavier
and more regular crops.
The purple passionfruit was introduced into Israel from Australia early in the 20th Century and is
commonly grown in home gardens all around the coastal plain, with small quantities being
Passionfruit
supplied to processing factories.

Passionfruit vines are found wild and cultivated to some extent in many other parts of the Old
Worldincluding the highlands of Java, Sumatra, Malaya, Western Samoa, Norfolk Islands, Cook
Islands, Solomon Islands, Guam, the Philippines, the Ivory Coast, Zimbabwe and Taiwan. From
several of these sources, considerable quantities of yellow passionfruit juice and pulp are exported
to Australia, causing some protests from Queensland growers. The yellow passionfruit was
introduced into Fiji from Hawaii in 1950, was distributed to farmers in 1960 and became the basis
of a small juice-processing industry. Fiji has exported to Australia, New Zealand, and Canada as
well as to nearby islands.
In South America, interest in yellow passionfruit culture intensified in Colombia and Venezuela in
the mid-1950's and in Surinam in 1975. In Colombia, there are commercial plantations mainly in
the Cauca Valley.
Since the introduction of the yellow passionfruit from Brazil into Venezuela in 1954, it has
achieved industrial status and national popularity. Much effort is being devoted to improving the
yield to better meet the demand for the extracted juice, passionfruit ice cream, and other appealing
products such as bottled passionfruit-and-rum cocktail.
The purple passionfruit was naturalized in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica by 1913, and both the
purple and the yellow are planted to some extent in Puerto Rico.
Various species of Passiflora have reached the United States Plant Introduction Station (now the
Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit) in Miami, Florida, in the routine course of plant
accession. Some vines were known to exist and bear fruit year after year here and there in the
southern and central areas of the state since 1887 or earlier. In 1953, I requested seeds of good
strains of the purple and yellow forms from the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock
and gave seeds to experimenters. In 1955, one yellow-fruited vine from these seeds was
flourishing at Pinecrest and, from the reports of hunters camping beyond that locality, it appears
that bird-transported seeds have produced fruiting vines in outlying Everglades hammocks. In
1957, a very fruitful specimen was thriving at the home of Benjamin Blumberg in Coconut Grove,
and an escape was bearing unusually large fruits in the treetops of a natural hammock a few miles
away. At this time, the purple passionfruit was being grown successfully by a homeowner further
north, at Land O'Lakes, Pasco County, and the seeds were advertised for sale. There were small
plantations of purple passionfruit in San Diego County, California, the fruits being sold on the
fresh fruit market and also processed for juice. However, there was little interest in developing
either form as a crop in the United States. At the University of Florida's Subtropical Experiment
Station in Homestead, Florida, limited trials with the purple and yellow forms resulted in words of
discouragement, the purple vine in particular having proved so susceptible to disease. Certain
vines at the Plant Introduction Station had died from Fusarium attack and the survivors showed
poor fruiting performance.
Dr. Robert Knight and Harold F. Winters of the United States Department of Agriculture prepared
two reports on the pollination of the yellow passionfruit and the problems affecting yield. They
expressed a dim view of economical juice production and the need for extensive field studies.
They offered plant material to anyone qualified to undertake such work. The Minute Maid
Company established a test plot of the yellow form at Indiantown in 1965. They found the fruit
Passionfruit
entirely satisfactory for processing but abandoned the project 2 years later, stating: "The yields are
not as large as in more tropical areas where the plant remains productive all year round. Our plants
went out of production during the winter season. During the windy spring months of March and
April, the vines are badly damaged and no flowers are set until sometime in May. We also found
that the passionfruit were expensive to harvest. The fruit has to fall on the ground and sometimes it
gets hung up in the vines. There is a continual collection of small quantities of fruit throughout the
[bearing] year * Special equipment is needed to obtain the juice from the fruit without bits of the
calyx showing up as objectionable black specks. This equipment is costly and can only be justified
when a large volume of fruit is being processed."
In 1965, the Laboratorie de Recherche des Produits Nestl, Vevey, Switzerland, placed the
passionfruit among the three insufficiently-known tropical fruits having the greatest potential for
nectar processing for the European market. It is obvious, then, that in spite of the handicaps of
passionfruit culture, the crop offers revenue-earning opportunities for developing countries with
low labor costs.
Varieties
The yellow form has a more vigorous vine and generally larger fruit than the purple, but the pulp
of the purple is less acid, richer in aroma and flavor, and has a higher proportion of juice-35-38%.
The purple form has black seeds, the yellow, brown seeds.
The following are some of the older cultivars as well as some of the more recent:
'Australian Purple', or 'Nelly Kelly'a purple selection of mild, sweet flavor, grown in Australia
and Hawaii.
'Common Purple'the form growing naturalized in Hawaii; thick-skinned, with small seed cavity,
but of fine flavor and low acidity.
'Kapoho Selection'a cross of 'Sevcik' and other yellow strains in Hawaii. A heavy bearer of large
fruits but subject to brown rot; many fruits contain little or no pulp and the juice has the off-flavor
of 'Sevcik' though not as pronounced.
'Pratt Hybrid'apparently a natural cross between the 'Common Purple' and a yellow strain;
subject to rot, but juice is of fine color and flavor, low in acid.
'Sevcik Selection'a golden form of the yellow selected in Hawaii; a heavy bearer, but subject to
brown rot and the juice has a peculiar woody flavor.
'University Round Selection'Hawaiian crosses of 'Waimanalo' and 'Yee'fruit smaller than
'Yee'; not as attractive but yields 10% more juice of very good flavor.
'University Selection No. B-74'a Hawaiian hybrid between 'Pratt' and 'C-77', usually yellow,
occasionally with red tinges; resembles 'Waimanalo'; has good juice yield and very good flavor.
'Waimanalo Selection'consists of 4 strains: 'C-54', 'C-77', 'C-80', of similar size, shape, color
and very good flavor, and 'C-39' as pollinator.
'Yee Selection'yellow, round, very attractive, highly disease-resistant, but fruit has thick rind and
Passionfruit
low yield of juice which is of very good flavor.

What may be a great improvement over any of the above is the cultivar known as 'Noel's Special'.
It is a yellow passionfruit selected in 1968 from open-pollinated seedlings of a vine discovered at
an abandoned farm on Hilo, Hawaii, by Noel Fujimoto in the early 1950's. The fruit is round,
averages 3.17 oz (90 g); the cavity is filled with dark-orange pulp yielding 43 to 56%
bright-orange, richly flavored juice. The vine is vigorous, begins to bear in one year, and is
tolerant to brown spot. It produces 88% marketable fruit in a seasona higher proportion than any
other cultivar.
In 1967, two purple X yellow hybrids'3-1' and '3-26', developed at the Redlands Horticulture
Research Station, Queensland, had nearly replaced the purple passionfruit in commercial
plantations on the coast of southern Queensland and New South Wales. They have a longer
fruiting season than the purple, are high-yielding, with high pulp content, keep very well, and meet
with little market resistance. Australian breeders continued to strive for a type that would have the
needed characteristics and reproduce true from seed. Hybrid '23-E' followed. By 1981, hybrid '3-1'
had succumbed to a new, more virulent strain of "woodiness" virus and had to be abandoned.
Other popular hybrids are 'Lacey' and 'Purple-gold'.
In early 1980, several purple passionfruit hybrids, all insect-pollinated, were introduced into the
island of Niue, as possible substitutes for the yellow form cultivated commercially there for export
since 1955, with the view of eliminating the labor of hand-pollination required by the yellow for
top production. However, the hybrids are more susceptible to mealybug infestation.
One New Zealand grower has exported purple passionfruits to the United States under the trade
name of 'Bali Hai'.
Commercial cultivars of the purple form in Brazil include 'Ouropretano', 'Muico', 'Peroba', and
'Pintado'; of the yellow form, 'Mirim' or 'Redondo', and 'Guassu' or 'Grande'.
In the Cauca Valley of Colombia, the best-performing yellow passionfruit is the 'Hawaiiana'.
Venezuelan growers favor the 'Hawaiiana', 'Brasilera amarilla', and the purple-fruited 'Brasilera
rosada'.
A highly promising hybrid, 'M-21471A' has been developed by Dr. R.J. Knight at the United
States Department of Agriculture's Subtropical Horticulture Research Station, Miami. The fruit is
maroon, weighs about 3 oz (85 g); is close to the purple parent in quality; is self-compatible and
resists soil-borne diseases like its yellow parent. F1 hybrids may be reddish-purple with more
conspicuous white dots than on the purple parent, and sometimes there is a tinge of yellow in the
background. F2 hybrids show three variations of purple and are difficult to distinguish from the
purple parent.
Pollination
Yellow passionfruit flowers are perfect but self-sterile. In controlled pollination studies at the
College of Agriculture of Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo, Brazil, it was found that the yellow passionfruit
has three types of flowers according to the curvature of the style: TC (totally curved), PC (partially
curved), and SC (upright-styled). TC flowers are most prevalent. Carpenter bees (Xylocopa
megaxylocopa frontalis and X. neoxylocopa) efficiently pollinated TC and PC flowers. Honey bees
Passionfruit
(Apis mellifera adansonii) were much less

efficient. Wind is ineffective because of the
heaviness and stickiness of the pollen. SC
flowers have fertile pollen but do not set
fruit. To assure the presence of carpenter
bees, it is wise to have decaying logs among
the vines to provide nesting places.
Carpenter bees will not work the flowers if
the nectary is wet. If rain occurs in 1 1/2 hrs
after pollination, there will be no fruit set,
but if 2 hrs pass before rain falls, it will
have no detrimental effect. In the absence of
carpenter bees in Fiji, farmers
Fig. 92: Flowers of the purple passionfruit are fragrant and
cross-pollinate by hand, treating 600
lovely, though those of the yellow are richer in color.
flowers an hour, with 70% fruit set and 60%
of fruit reaching maturity.
The purple form blooms in spring and early summer (July-November) in Queensland and again for
a shorter period in fall and early winter (February-April). In Florida, blooming occurs from
mid-March through April. The flowers open early in the morning (about dawn) and close before
noon, and are self-compatible. The yellow form has one flowering season in Queensland
(October-June). In Florida, blooming has occurred from mid-April to mid-November. The flowers
open around noon and close about 9 to 10 PM and are self-incompatible.
In crossing the yellow and purple forms, it is necessary to use the purple as the seed parent because
the flowers of the yellow are not receptive to the pollen of the purple, and an early-blooming
yellow must be utilized in order to have a sufficient overlapping period for pollen transfer. Dr. R.J.
Knight has suggested lengthening the overlap by exposing the yellow to artificial light for 6 weeks
before the normal flowering season. However, despite the seasonal and hourly differences, natural
hybrids between the two forms occur in South Africa, Queensland and in Hawaii. Growers of
purple passionfruit in South Africa are warned not to take seed from any vine in proximity to a
planting of yellow passionfruit, otherwise the seedlings are apt to produce hybrid fruit of inferior
quality.
In some areas, trellis-grown vines of the yellow passionfruit require hand-pollination to assist fruit
set. In the home garden, at least two vines of different parentage should be planted and allowed to
intertwine for cross-pollination.
Climate
The purple passionfruit is subtropical. It grows and produces well between altitudes of 2,000 and
4,000 ft (650-1,300 m) in India. In Java, it grows well in lowlands but will flower and fruit only
above 3,200 ft (1,000 m). In west-central Florida, at 28 N latitude and slightly above sea-level,
3-year-old vines have survived freezing temperatures with the lower 3 ft (.9 m) of the stems
wrapped in fiberglass 4 in (10 cm) thick. The upper parts suffered cold injury, were cut back, the
vines were heavily fertilized, recovered rapidly and fruited heavily the second summer thereafter.
The yellow passionfruit is tropical or near-tropical. In Western Samoa, it is grown from near
Passionfruit
sea-level up to an elevation of 2,000 ft (600 m).

Both forms need protection from wind. Generally, annual rainfall should be at least 35 in (90 cm),
but in the Northern Transvaal, in South Africa, there is reduced transpiration because of high
atmospheric humidity and commercial culture is carried on with precipitation of only 24 in (60
cm). It is reported that annual rainfall in passionfruit-growing areas of India ranges between 40 and
100 in (100-250 cm).
Soil
Passionfruit vines are grown on many soil types but light to heavy sandy loams, of medium texture
are most suitable, and pH should be from 6.5 to 7.5. If the soil is too acid, lime must be applied.
Good drainage is essential to minimize the incidence of collar rot.
Propagation
Passionfruit vines are usually grown from
seeds. With the yellow form, seedling
variation provides cross-pollination and
helps overcome the problem of self-sterility.
Some say that the fruits should be stored for
a week or two to allow them to shrivel and
become perfectly ripe before seeds are
extracted. If planted soon after removal
from the fruit, seeds will germinate in 2 to 3
weeks. Cleaned and stored seeds have a
lower and slower rate of germination.
Sprouting may be hastened by allowing the
pulp to ferment for a few days before
separating the seeds, or by chipping the
seeds or rubbing them with fine sandpaper.
Soaking, often recommended, has not
proved helpful. Seeds are planted 1/2 in
Plate XLIII: YELLOW PASSIONFRUIT, Passiflora edulis
(1.25 cm) deep in beds, and seedlings may var. flavicarpa
be transplanted when 10 in (25 cm) high. If
tallerup to 3 ft (.9 in)the tops should be cut back and the plants heavily watered.
Some growers prefer layers or cuttings of matured wood with 3 to 4 nodes. Cuttings should be
well rooted and ready for setting out in 90 days. Rooting may be hastened by hormone treatment.
Grafting is an important means of perpetuating hybrids and reducing nematode damage and
diseases by utilizing the resistant yellow passionfruit rootstock. If seeds are available in the early
spring, seedlings for rootstocks can be raised 4 in (10 cm) apart in rows 24 in (60 cm) apart and the
grafted plants will be ready to set out in late summer. If seeds cannot be obtained until late
summer, the seedlings are raised and grafted in pots and set out in the spring. Scions from healthy
young vines are preferred to those from mature plants. The diameter of the selected scion should
match that of the rootstock. Either a cleft graft, whip graft, or side-wedge graft may be made.
If approach-grafting is to be done, a row of potted scions must be placed close alongside the row
of rootstocks so that the union can be made at about 3/4 of the height of the plant.
Passionfruit
Culture
Root-pruning should precede transplanting of seedlings by 2 weeks. Transplanting is best done on
a cool, overcast day. The soil should be prepared and enriched organically a month in advance if
possible. Grafted vines must be planted with the union well above ground, not covered by soil or
mulch, otherwise the disease resistance will be lost. Mounding of the rows greatly facilitates fruit
collection.
In plantations, the vines are set at various distances, but studies in Venezuela indicate that highest
yields in yellow passionfruit are obtained when the vines are set 10 ft (3 m) apart each way. In
South Africa, purple passionfruit vines are set 8 ft (2 1/2 m) apart in cool areas, and 12 to 15 ft (3
1/2-4 1/2 m) apart in warm areas. Spacing of purple passionfruit in Kenya has been 10 ft (3 m)
between vines and 6 ft (1.8 m) between rows. Recent 3-year trials of 4 ft (1.2 m) between rows,
with light pruning the 2nd and 3rd years, resulted in the highest yield (50% of the crop being home
the first year). But it is recognized that such close planting can lead to disease problems and
replanting after the 3rd year.
Commercially, vines are trained to strongly-supported wire trellises at least 7 ft (2.13 m) high.
However, for the benefit of the homeowner, it should be pointed out that the yellow passionfruit is
more productive and less subject to pests and diseases if allowed to climb a tall tree.
After a vine of either the yellow or purple passionfruit attains 2 years of age, pruning once a year
will stimulate new growth and consequently more flower and fruit production. The average life of
a plantation in Fiji is only 3 years. Judicious pruning of lateral branches after fruiting aids in
disease control and can extend plantation life to 5 or 6 years. In South Africa, at elevations
between 4,000 and 4,800 ft (1,200-1,460 m), plantations are kept in full production for as long as 8
years.
Regular watering will keep a vine flowering and fruiting almost continuously. Least flowers
develop during the winter season due to short day length. Water requirement is high when fruits
are approaching maturity. If soil is dry, fruits may shrivel and fall prematurely. Fertilizer (10-5-20
NPK) should be applied at the rate of 3 lbs (1.36 kg) per plant 4 times a year, under normal
conditions. In India, trials of purple passionfruit on red sandy loam with a pH of 6.5 and high
organic content, the optimum fertilizer treatment was found to be 290 lbs (132 kg) N and 69 1/2
lbs (31.6 kg) P per ha per year. French horticulturists have reported that, in plantations on the
Ivory Coast, annual supplements of 8 oz (220 g) urea and 7 1/2 oz (210 g) potassium sulfate per
plant per year of age will have a highly favorable effect on production. It is said that 32 to 36 oz
(900-1,000 g) of nitrogen are required to produce 66 lbs (30 kg) of fruits, but excessive nitrogen
will cause premature fruit drop. Passionfruit vines should always be watched for deficiencies,
particularly in potassium and calcium, and of less importance, magnesium.
The passionfruit vine, especially the yellow, is fast-growing and will begin to bear in 1 to 3 years.
Ripening occurs 70 to 80 days after pollination. Injuries to the base of the vine, which allow
entrance of disease organisms, can be avoided by hand-weeding or the application of herbicides
around the main stems. These practices will also protect the shallow root system. In Surinam, good
weed control under trellises has been achieved by covering the soil with black plastic.
Seasons and Harvesting
Passionfruit
The different flowering seasons of the

purple and yellow passionfruits have been
mentioned under "Pollination". In some
areas, as in India, the vines bear throughout
the year but peak periods are, first, August
to December, and, second, March to May.
At the latter time, the fruits are somewhat
smaller, with less juice. In Hawaii,
passionfruits mature from June through
January, with heaviest crops in July and
August and October and November. With
variations according to cultivar, and with
commercial cultivation both above and
below the Equator, there need never be a
shortage of raw material for processing.
Ripe fruits fall to the ground and will roll in
between mounded rows. They do not attract
flies or ants but should be collected daily to
avoid spoilage from soil organisms. In
Plate XLIV: YELLOW PASSIONFRUIT, Passiflora edulis
var. flavicarpa
South Africa, they are subject to sunburn
damage on the ground and, for that reason,
are picked from the vines 2 or 3 times a week in the summertime before they are fully ripe, that is,
when they are light-purple. At this stage, they will reach the fresh fruit market before they wrinkle.
In winter, only one picking per week is necessary. For juice processing, the fruit is allowed to
attain a deep-purple color. In India and Israel the fruits are always picked from the vine rather than
being allowed to fall. It has been found that fallen fruits are lower in soluble solids, sugar content,
acidity and ascorbic acid content.
The fruits should be collected in lugs or boxes, not in bags which will cause "sweating". If not sent
immediately to processing plants, the fruits should be spread out on wire racks where there will be
good air circulation.
Yield
Many factors influence the yield of passionfruit vines. In general, yields of commercial plantations
range from 20,000 to 35,000 lbs per acre (roughly the same number of kg per ha). In Fiji, with
hand pollination, 173 acres (70 ha) will yield 33 tons (30 MT) of fruits. Hybrids in Australia have
raised yields far beyond those obtained with the purple passionfruit.
On the average, a bushel of passionfruits in Australia weighs 36 lbs (16 kg); yields 13 1/3 lbs (6
kg) of pulp from which is obtained 1 gal (3.785 liters)that is 10.7 lbs (4.5 kg) of juice, and 2.6 lbs
(1.18 kg) of seeds. With some strains, the juice yield is much higher.
Storage
Underripe yellow passionfruits can be ripened and stored at 68 F (20 C) with relative humidity of
85 to 90%. Ripening is too rapid at 86 F (30 C). Ripe fruits keep for one week at 36 to 45 F
Passionfruit
(2.22-7.22 C). Fruits stored in unperforated, sealed, polyethylene bags at 74 F (23.1 C), have
remained in good condition for 2 weeks. Coating with paraffin and storing at 41 to 44.6 F (5 to
7 C) and relative humidity of 85 to 90%, has prevented wrinkling and preserved quality for 30
days.
Pests and Diseases
In Hawaii and Australia, infestations of the passion vine mite (Brevipalpus phoenicis) occur during
dry weather in the warm season, defoliate the younger portions of the vines but not the terminus,
and make brown blemishes on the fruits. The passion vine bug (Leptoglossus australis) feeds on
flowers and young, green fruits in Queensland. The green vegetable bug, or stinkbug, (Nezara
viridula) is a similar but lesser menace to the plant and young fruits. Both the immature and the
adult stages suck the sap of the growing tips, as do the brown stinkbug (Boerias maculata), the
large black stinkbug (Anoplocnemis sp.) and the small black stinkbug (Leptoglossus
membranaceus). In Florida, the yellow passionfruit is commonly found to be superficially
punctured by a stinkbug (Chrondrocera laticornis), affecting only its appearance. Thrips
(Thysanoptera sp.) injure and cause stunting of young seedlings in nurseries. In dry weather, they
also feed on leaves and fruits, leaving them defaced and prone to shrivel and fall prematurely. In
East Africa, injury from the tobacco white fly (Bemisia tabaci) may lead to galls on the leaves.
Leaf beetles (Haltica sp.) and weevils (Systates spp.) chew the foliage, and cutworms behead
seedlings in nurseries. Two lepidopterous pests, Dione, or Agraulis, vanillae and Mechanitis
variabilis are common in Colombia.
Among scales attacking the vine and petioles, white peach scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona) is
most troublesome in Queensland. Not as prevalent are round purple scale (Chrysomphalus ficus)
and granadilla purple scale (Parasaissetia nigra). These pests may cause dieback of the entire
plant if not controlled. Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) is common on mature passion vines in
Queensland. Soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum) is occasionally troublesome. The passion vine
leaf hopper (Scolypopa australis) requires protective measures. The citrus mealybug (Planococcus
citri) is a major Queensland pest in summer. Spraying, unfortunately, kills its chief predator, the
mealybug ladybird, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri. The aphids, Aphis gossypii and Myzus Persicae,
transmit the virus which causes "woodiness" (see below).
There has been no report of attack by the Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa) in Florida,
though Anastrepha infestation was on one occasion observed by Curtis Dowling in Passflora fruits
in Costa Rica. In Brazil, fruit flies of the genus Anastrepha, and in Hawaii the Oriental fruit fly
and the melon fly, deposit eggs in the very young, tender fruits. In these, the larvae seem able to
develop and cause the immature fruits to shrivel and fall. If fruits are punctured when nearly
mature, the only effect is an external scar. The same is reported concerning the dominant
Queensland fruit fly (Dacus tryoni) and the less common Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis
capitata) in Australia.
In South Africa, purple passionfruit vines are damaged by several species of nematodes. The most
important, which causes extreme thickening of the roots, is the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne
javanica. Others include the spiral nematode (Scutellonema truncatum and Helicotylenchus sp.),
and the lesion nematode (Pratylenchus sp.). The yellow passionfruit is nematode-resistant.
The main diseases of purple passion fruit in Australia are brown spot, Septoria spot and base rot,
Passionfruit
Phytophthora blight, Fusarium wilt, woodiness, and damping-off. Brown spot, caused by
Alternaria passiflorae in warm weather, is a major affliction of the purple passionfruit also in New
Zealand and East Africa. In Hawaii, brown spot is the leading disease of the yellow passionfruit
and A. tenuis was found to be the dominant species associated with the disease in 1969. A.
macrospora has occasioned severe leaf spot and branch lesions in India. A similar disease causing
spotting and crinkling of leaves and fruit first appeared in Ceylon in 1970. Septoria spot, from the
fungus Septoria passiflorae, most common in summer and fall, is evidenced by more numerous
and smaller spots than brown spot, on all parts of the vine and on the fruits, and it is spread by
rain, dew and overhead irrigation. Some believe this fungus to be also the source of base rot, often
induced by injury from mowers or other mechanical equipment.
Phytophthora cinnamoni, the source of collar rot in Fiji, makes it necessary to replace yellow
passionfruit plantings there every 30 to 35 months. P. nicotinae var. parasitica has been linked to
fatal blight, or stem rot, and fruit rot in purple passionfruit vine, but not in the yellow, in wet
periods of summer and fall in Queensland and South Africa. P. cinnamoni and P. nicotinae are
responsible for root rot in New Zealand and Western Australia, and the latter is identified with wilt
in South Africa and Sarawak, and with damping-off and leaf blight in both the purple and the
yellow passionfruits in India.
Fusarium wilt, arising from the soil-borne fungus, Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. passiflorae, can be
reduced only by grafting the purple, or, better still, purple-yellow hybrids, onto the
Fusarium-resistant yellow passionfruit rootstock. However, Bedoya et al. have reported that, in the
zones of Palmira, Cerrito and Ginebra of the Cauca Valley of Colombia, but not in the zone of
Unin, collar rot limits the life of yellow passionfruit plantations to 3 years, and they found, in
inoculation experiments, that Fusarium solani produced the symptoms. The first signs are
chlorosis, necrosis and defoliation; next there is splitting of the trunk and separation of the bark.
The root becomes progressively discolored and red rays extend to the surface of the soil.
Nectria haematococca, or Hypomyces solani, the ascogenous state of Fusarium solani, has been
determined to be the organism girdling the collar zone and bringing on sudden wilt of the purple
passionfruit vine in Uganda.
The virus disease, "woodiness", or "bullet", appearing as small misshapen fruits with thick rind
and small pulp cavity, has been the most serious plague of the purple passionfruit in Australia and
East Africa, but it has little effect on the yellow form. The "woodiness" virus (PWV) is also the
source of tip blight in the coastal districts of central Queensland. This virus has a wide host range,
not only in the genus Passiflora, but also weedy species in the families Amaranthaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae.
There are a number of different strains of the "woodiness" virus. For many years, inoculation of
passionfruit vines with mild strains protected them from further infection, and commercial hybrids
containing small doses of mild strains were released to farmers. But, in 1978, a new, more virulent,
strain of virus appeared and overcame the "mild strain protection". The New South Wales
Passionfruit Growers Association, in response to this new threat, established, in 1979, a
Passionfruit Scion Accreditation Scheme to "improve the quality of planting material by field
selection and provide scionwood free of the severe strain of woodiness virus", for a standard fee.
Generally, 100 scions can be taken from each accredited vine in a season. By 1981, 16,000 scions
Passionfruit
had been supplied to commercial growers.

In 1973, two mosaic virusesPPMV-K and PFMVMYsaid to differ from other reported
Passiflora viruses, were found to be prevalent in commercial plantings of the yellow passionfruit
in the Bantung district of Selangor, Malaya. Damping-off is caused by Rhizoctonia solani and
Pythium spp. in Queensland. Thread blight of yellow passionfruit vine in Fiji and Western Samoa,
seen as patches of black, papery, shredded leaves with gray to tan layer of merged "threads"
beneath, has been attributed to Rhizoctonia solani (also called Thanatephorus cucumeris). It may
invade the entire vine.
Food Uses
The fruit is of easy preparation. One needs only cut it in half lengthwise and scoop out the seedy
pulp with a spoon. For home use, Australians do not trouble to remove the seeds but eat the pulp
with cream and sugar or use it in fruit salads or in beverages, seeds and all. Elsewhere it is usually
squeezed through two thicknesses of cheesecloth or pressed through a strainer to remove the seeds.
Mechanical extractors are, of course, used industrially. The resulting rich juice, which has been
called a natural concentrate, can be sweetened and diluted with water or other juices (especially
orange or pineapple), to make cold drinks. In South Africa, passionfruit juice is blended with milk
and an alginate; in Australia the pulp is added to yogurt. After primary juice extraction, some
processors employ an enzymatic process to obtain supplementary "secondary" juice from the
double juice sacs surrounding each seed. The high starch content of the juice gives it exceptional
viscosity. To produce a freeflowing concentrate, it is desirable to remove the starch by centrifugal
separation in the processing operation.
Passionfruit juice can be boiled down to a sirup which is used in making sauce, gelatin desserts,
candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in
cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making
jam. The flavor of passionfruit juice is impaired by heat preservation unless it is done by agitated
or "spin" pasteurization in the can. The frozen juice can be kept without deterioration for 1 year at
0 F (-17.78 C) and is a very appealing product. The juice can also be "vacuum-puff" dried or
freeze-dried. Swiss processors have marketed a passionfruit-based soft drink called "Passaia" for a
number of years in Western Europe. Costa Rica produces a wine sold as "Parchita Seco."
Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion (Purple passionfruit, pulp and seeds)*
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
90
75.1 g
2.2 g
0.7 g
21.2 g
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
?
0.8g
13 mg
64 mg
Passionfruit
Iron'
Sodium
Potassium
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
1.6 mg
28 mg
348 mg
700 I.U.
Trace
0.13 mg
1.5 mg
30 mg
*According to U.S. Dept. Agr., ARS.

The yellow passionfruit has somewhat less ascorbic acid than the purple but is richer in total acid
(mainly citric) and in carotene content. It is an excellent source of niacin and a good source of
riboflavin. Free amino acids in purple passionfruit juice are: arginine, aspartic acid, glycine,
leucine, lysine, proline, threonine, tyrosine and valine. Carotenoids in the purple form constitute
1.160%; in the yellow, 0.058%; flavonoids in the purple, 1.060%; in the yellow, 1.000%; alkaloids
in the purple, 0.012%; in the yellow, 0.700% (mainly harman), and the juice is slightly sedative.
Starch content of purple passionfruit juice is 0.74%; of the yellow, 0.06%.
Toxicity
A cyanogenic glycoside is found in the pulp of passionfruits at all stages of development, but is
highest in very young, unripe fruits and lowest in fallen, wrinkled fruits, the level in the latter
being so low that it is of no toxicological significance.
Other Uses
Commercial processing of the yellow passionfruit yields 36% juice, 51% rinds, and 11% seeds.
Rind: The rinds have a very low pectin contentonly 2.4% (14% on a dry weight basis).
Nevertheless, it has been determined in Fiji that extraction of pectin from the rindsup to 5 tons
(4.5 MT) annuallyreduces the otherwise burdensome problem of waste disposal. The rind residue
contains about 5 to 6% protein and could be used as a filler in poultry and stock feed. In Brazil,
pectin is extracted from the purple form which has a better quality pectin than that in the yellow. In
Hawaii, the pectin is not extracted. Instead, the rinds are chopped, dried, and combined with
molasses as cattle or pig feed. They can also be converted into silage.
Seeds: The seeds yield 23% oil which is similar to sunflower and soybean oil and accordingly has
edible as well as industrial uses. Up to 3,400 gallons (13,000 liters) can be obtained per year in
Fiji. The seed meal contains about 12% protein and 50 to 55% fiber. It has been judged unsuitable
for cattle feed.
Analyses of the fresh rind show: moisture, 78.43-85.24%; crude protein, 2.04-2.84%; fat,
0.05-0.16%; crude starch, 0.75-1.36%; sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose), 1.64%; crude fiber,
4.57-7.13%; phosphorus, 0.03-0.06%; silica, 0.01-0.04%; potassium, 0.60-0.78 %; organic acids
(citric and malic), 0.15%; ascorbic acid, 78.3-166.2%. The outer skin of the purple form contains
Passionfruit
1.4 mg per 100 g of the anthocyanin pigment, pelargonidin 3-diglucoside. There is also some
tannin.
The composition of the air-dried seeds is reported as: moisture, 5.4%; fat, 23.8%; crude fiber,
53.7%; protein, 11.1%; N-free extract, 5.1%; total ash, 1.84%; ash insoluble in HC1, 0.35%;
calcium, 80 mg; iron, 18 mg; phosphorus, 640 mg per 100 g.
The seed oil contains 8.90% saturated fatty acids; 84.09% unsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acids
consist of: palmitic, 6.78%; stearic, 1.76%; arachidic, 0.34%; oleic, 19.0%; linoleic, 59.9%;
linolenic, 5.4%.
Medicinal Uses: There is currently a revival of interest in the pharmaceutical industry, especially
in Europe, in the use of the glycoside, passiflorine, especially from P. incarnata L., as a sedative
or tranquilizer. Italian chemists have extracted passiflorine from the air-dried leaves of P. edulis.
In Madeira, the juice of passionfruits is given as a digestive stimulant and treatment for gastric
cancer.
Giant Granadilla

Morton, J. 1987. Giant Granadilla. p. 328330. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Giant Granadilla
Passiflora quadrangularis L.
Passiflora macrocarpa M.T. Mast.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Medicinal Uses
The largest fruit in its genus, the giant granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis L. (syn. P.
macrocarpa M.T. Mast.), is often called merely granadilla, or parcha, Spanish names loosely
applied to various related species; or it may be distinguished as granadilla real, grandadilla
grande, parcha granadina or parcha de Guinea. In El Salvador, it is known as granadilla de
fresco or granadilla para refrescos; in parts of Colombia, it is badea or corvejo; in the State of
Tachira, Venezuela, badea; in Bolivia, granadilla real or sanda de Pasin. In Brazil, it is
maracuya-acu, maracuja-assu, maracuja silvestre, maracuya grande, maracuja suspiro, maracuja
mamao, or maracuja de caiena. In Surinam, it is grote or groote markoesa; in Peru and Ecuador,
tumbo or tambo. In the Philippines, its local names are parola, kasaflora, and square-stemmed
passion flower. To Indonesians, it is familiar as markiza, markoesa, markeesa, or manesa, and to
the Malays, timun belanda, marquesa or mentimun. In Thailand, it is su-khontha-rot; in Vietnam,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/giant_granadilla.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:36:46 PM]
Giant Granadilla
dua gan tay, or barbadine, the French name.

Description
The vine is fast-growing, large, coarse,
herbaceous but woody at the base, arising
from a fleshy root that becomes enlarged
with age, and climbing trees to a height of
33 to 50 ft (10-15 m) or even 150 ft (45 m)
in Java. It has thick 4-angled stems
prominently winged on the angles, and
axillary tendrils to 12 in (30 cm) long,
flanked by leaflike, ovate or
ovate-lanceolate stipules 3/4 to 1 3/8
in(2-3.5 cm) long, sometimes faintly
toothed. The alternate leaves are
broad-ovate or oblong-ovate, 3 1/4 to 6 in
(8.25-15 cm) wide, 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm)
long; rounded or cordate at the base,
abruptly pointed at the apex, sometimes
toothed near the base; thin, with
conspicuous veins sunken on the upper
Plate XLV: GIANT GRANADILLA, Passiflora
quadrangularis
surface, prominent beneath. The solitary,
fragrant flowers, up to 4 3/4 or 5 in (12-12.5
cm) wide, have a bell-shaped calyx, the 5 sepals greenish or reddish-green on the outside, white,
pink or purple inside; the 5 petals, to 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) long, white-and-pink; the corona filaments
2-ranked, to 2 3/8 in (6 cm) long, purple-and-white below, blue in the middle, and pinkish-blue
above, around the typical complex of pistil, style and stigmas.
The pleasantly aromatic, melon-like fruit is oblong-ovoid, 4 3/4 to 6 in (12-15 cm) wide, and 8 to
12 in (10-30 cm) long; may be faintly ribbed or longitudinally 3-lobed; has a thin, delicate skin,
greenish-white to pale- or deep-yellow, often blushed with pink. Beneath it is a layer of firm,
mealy, white or pink flesh, 1 to 1 1/2 in (2.5-4 cm) thick, of very mild flavor, and coated with a
parchment-like material on the inner surface. The central cavity contains some juice and masses of
whitish, yellowish, partly yellow or purple-pink, sweet-acid arils (commonly referred to as the
pulp), enclosing flattened-oval, purplish-brown seeds to 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long.
The giant granadilla is generally agreed to be a native of tropical America, though the actual place
of origin is unknown. It was growing in Barbados in 1750 and is present in several other
Caribbean Islands and in Bermuda. It is commonly cultivated, and sometimes an escape from
cultivation or truly wild, from Mexico to Brazil and Peru. At some point in the 18th Century, it
was introduced into Malaya, where it thrives in both the north and the south. In Vietnam, it is
limited to the southern half of the country. Perhaps it had reached Indonesia earlier, for it is more
common and even naturalized there. It is also cultivated in the lowlands of India, Ceylon and the
Philippines; in tropical Africa, and throughout Queensland, Australia. In tropical North
Queensland it has run wild, growing lushly in jungle areas. It flourishes and fruits heavily
Giant Granadilla
especially in the Cairns district. It was being grown in Hawaii in 1888 and by 1931 had become
naturalized in moist places. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from
Trinidad in 1909 and the vine is very occasionally planted in southern Florida, but is too
cold-sensitive to survive in California.
Varieties
There are various strains producing fruits of different sizes and quality. Wester stated that some are
insipid, while one of superior flavor had originated at Cotabato. One strain with especially large
fruits and good flavor was formerly considered a separate species (P. macrocarpa), but it
hybridizes readily with smaller strains and there are intermediate types. An ornamental form,
'Variegata', has leaves splashed with yellow.
Pollination
The vine may produce few or no fruits in a dry atmosphere, or in the absence of insect pollinators.
Also the pollen may ripen before the stigma is ready to receive it, and, at times, bees may steal the
pollen too early in the morning. Hand-pollination is regularly practiced in Queensland and has
been successful in limited experiments in Florida. It should be done in the late morning, no later
than 4 to 6 hours after the flowers open.
Climate
The ideal climate for the giant granadilla is one that is truly tropical, warm both day and night,
with little fluctuation, and with high humidity. It is grown between 700 and 1,500 ft (213 and 457
m) elevations in Jamaica and Hawaii, and up to 3,000 ft (914 m) in India; to 5,000 or, at most,
7,200 ft (1,800 or 2,200 m) in Ecuador. Vines several years old have been killed by winter cold on
the Riviera.
Soil
For maximum growth and productivity, the vine requires deep, fertile, moist but well-drained soil.
Australians have observed good growth on volcanic, alluvial, and sandy soil, and even
decomposed granite. Vines planted in highly alkaline situations in Israel have died after
evidencing acute chlorosis.
Propagation
The giant granadilla grows readily from seeds, which germinate in 2 to 3 weeks and the seedlings
can be set out when 6 to 12 in (15-30 cm) high. Cuttings of mature wood 10 to 12 in (25-30 cm) or
even 2 to 3 ft (.6-.9 m) long, are partially defoliated and deeply planted in well-watered sand.
There will be sufficient vegetative growth and root development to permit transplanting in 30
days. Air- or ground-layers are also satisfactory.
Culture
In commercial plantings in Indonesia, the vines are set 6.5 to 10 ft (2-3 m) apart each way. When
the plants reach about 6.5 ft (2 m) in height, they must be trained to a strong, horizontal trellis.
Pruning may be necessary if the growth becomes too dense. Regular applications of fertilizer high
in organic matter, and copious watering are necessary.
Giant Granadilla

In Indonesia and Queensland, a productive vine will fruit more or less continually all year and the
annual yield may range from 25 to 35 fruits in the larger types to 70 to 120 fruits in medium to
small types. Venezuelan horticulturists report that their main blooming period is May to October
and the fruits ripen in 62 to 85 days from flower-opening, the crop being harvested mainly from
July through October. The yield of 2- to 3-year-old vines varies from 16 to 50 fruits. The fruits are
ready for harvesting when the skin becomes translucent and glossy and is beginning to turn
yellowish at the apex. It is clipped from the vine. Very careful handling and packing are essential.
Pests and Diseases
Young plants in nurseries may be severely defoliated by Disonycha glabrata in Venezuela.
In Queensland, the principal pest of the giant granadilla is the green vegetable bug, Nezara
viridula, which punctures young fruits and sucks out the juice, causing them to wither and fall; or
hard lumps will form in the flesh. To avoid damage by fruit flies, the fruits are sometimes bagged.
Leaf spot, from fungal infection, occurs occasionally in Queensland but it is considered of little
importance. Stem-end rot in East Africa has been attributed to the fungus, Botryodiplodia
theobromae.
Food Uses
The flesh of the ripe fruit, with the inner skin removed, is cut up and added to papaya, pineapple
and banana slices in fruit salads, seasoned with lemon or lime juice. It is cooked with sugar and
eaten as dessert, or is canned in sirup; sometimes candied; but it is so bland that it needs added
flavoring. In Indonesia, the flesh and arils are eaten together with sugar and shaved ice. Australians
add a little orange juice and usually serve the dish with cream. They also use the stewed flesh and
raw arils together as pie filling. The whole arils can be eaten raw without removing the seeds.
Jelly can be made from the unpeeled flesh boiled for 2 hours and the pulp simmered separately.
The juice strained from both is combined and, with added sugar and lemon juice, is boiled until it
jells.
The pulp (arils) yields a most agreeable juice for cold drinks. It is bottled in Indonesia and served
in restaurants. Wine is made in Australia by mashing several of the whole ripe fruits, adding sugar
and warm water and allowing the mix to ferment for 3 weeks, adding 2 pints of brandy, and letting
stand for 9 to 12 months.
The young, unripe fruit may be steamed or boiled and served as a vegetable, or may be cut up,
breaded and cooked in butter with milk, pepper and nutmeg. In Java ripe fruits are scarce because
of squirrels and other predators.
The root of old vines is baked and eaten in Jamaica as a substitute for yam.
Moisture
Thick Flesh Arils and Seeds

94.4 g
78.4 g
Giant Granadilla
Protein
Fat
Crude Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.112 g
0.15 g
0.7 g
0.41 g
13.8 mg
17.1 mg
0.80 mg
0.004 mg
0.033 mg
0.378 mg
14.3 mg
0.299 g
1.29 g
3.6 g
0.80 g
9.2 g
39.3 mg
2.93 mg
0.019 mg
0.003 mg
0.120 mg
15.3 mg

Toxicity
The leaves, skin and immature seeds contain a cyanogenic glycoside. The pulp contains
passiflorine and, if indulged in excessively, causes lethargy and somnolence. The raw root is said
to be emetic, narcotic and poisonous.
Medicinal Uses
The fruit is valued in the tropics as antiscorbutic and stomachic. In Brazil, the flesh is prescribed as
a sedative to relieve nervous headache, asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, neurasthenia and insomnia.
The seeds contain a cardiotonic principle, are sedative, and, in large doses, narcotic. The leaf
decoction is a vermifuge and is used for bathing skin afflictions. Leaf poultices are applied in liver
complaints. The root is employed as an emetic, diuretic and vermifuge. Powdered and mixed with
oil, it is applied as a soothing poultice.
Sweet Granadilla

Morton, J. 1987. Sweet Granadilla. p. 330331. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Sweet Granadilla
Passiflora ligularis Juss.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Season and Keeping Quality
Pests
Food Uses
Ranking close to Passiflora edulis in popular appeal and potential, the sweet granadilla, P.
ligularis Juss., is also known as granadilla (Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru);
granadilla comn (Guatemala); granadilla de China or parchita amarilla (Venezuela); and
granaditta (Jamaica).
Description
The vine is a vigorous, strong grower,
woody at the base, climbing by tendrils,
topping the highest trees, shading out and
killing the understory. Its leaves are broadly
heart-shaped, pointed at the apex, 3 3/16 to
8 in (8-20 cm) long, 2 3/8 to 6 in (6-15 cm)
wide, conspicuously veined, medium-green
on the upper surface, pale-green with a
bloom on the underside. Spaced along the
petiole, are 3 pairs of hairlike glands about
3/8 in (1 cm) long. At the leaf axils, there
are paired, leaflike stipules, ovate-oblong
and about 1 in (2.5 cm) long and a little
over 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide; more or less
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sweet_granadilla.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:36:47 PM]
Sweet Granadilla
finely toothed.
The flowers, sweet and musky in odor,
usually 2 to a node, may be 4 in (10 cm)
across, on a 1 1/2 in (4 cm) peduncle
bearing 3 leaflike, ovate-oblong, pointed
bracts, 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long and 1 in (2.5
cm) wide, faintly toothed. The sepals are
greenish-white, lanceolate; the petals
pinkish white; the filaments, in 2 rows,
white, horizontally striped with purple-blue.
The fruit is broad-elliptic, 2 3/8 to 3 in
(6-7.5 cm) long, green with purple blush on
sunny side and minutely dotted when
unripe, orange-yellow with white specks
when ripe. The rind is smooth, thin, hard
and brittle externally, white and soft on the
inside. The pulp (arils) is whitish-yellow or
more or less orange, mucilaginous, very
Plate XLV: GIANT GRANDADILLA, Passiflora
juicy, of sprightly, aromatic flavor, and
quadrangularis
encloses numerous black, flat, pitted, crisp
but fairly tender seeds.
The sweet granadilla is the common species of Passiflora ranging from central Mexico through
Central America and western South America, through western Bolivia to south-central Peru.
Throughout this region, it is popular and abundant in the markets.
It has been grown in Hawaii since late in the 19th Century. In 1916, the United States Department
of Agriculture received seeds from Quito, Ecuador. The vine is not suited to California, has been
grown in greenhouses in Florida but has never survived for long. Northern gardeners sometimes
plant it as a summer ornamental. It is not reported in Guam; may be grown to some extent in New
Guinea. Trial plantings in Israel were killed by cold weather. It is cultivated and naturalized in
Jamaica and, in recent years, has been blooming and fruiting prolifically in mountainous Haiti.
Climate
The sweet granadilla is subtropical, not tropical. In its natural range, it is wild and cultivated at
elevations of 3,000 to 8,850 ft (900-2,700 m). In Hawaii, it finds sufficiently cool temperatures at
3,000 ft (900 m). In Jamaica, the vine volunteers freely at altitudes between 3,500 and 4,000 ft
(1,000-1,200 m). At 5,000 to 8,200 ft (1,500-2,500 m) in Colombia, the vine fruits well. At higher
altitudes, it flourishes and blooms but will not fruit. An elevation of 6, 000 ft (1,828 m), where the
clouds descend on peaks in the afternoon, has proven ideal in Haiti. The vine is intolerant of heat.
It will do well over the winter in Florida but declines with the onset of hot weather.
Soil
Sweet Granadilla
Thin, volcanic soils do not discourage the sweet granadilla, providing they are moist. It is naturally
adapted to high rainforests.
Propagation
The sweet granadilla can be grown from seeds or cuttings.
Season and Keeping Quality
There is but one crop per year. In Bolivia, the fruits ripen in May and June. The fruit, despite its
hard shell, has poor keeping quality, deteriorating soon after the harvest.
Pests
In Haiti, the planted seeds are often devoured by rodents, though the seeds of P. edulis in the same
situation have never been disturbed. Squirrels ravage the crop in the forests of Ecuador.
Food Uses
Usually, the fruit is cracked open and the pulp and seeds consumed out-of-hand. For the table, the
fruit is cut in half and the contents are eaten with a spoon. The strained juice is much used for
making cold drinks and sherbet (ice).
Pulp and Seeds Combined
Moisture
69.9-79.1 g
Protein
0.340-0.474 g
Fat
1.50-3.18 g
Crude Fiber 3.2-5.6 g
Ash
0.87-1.36 g
Calcium
5.6-13.7 mg
Phosphorus 44.0-78.0 mg
Iron
0.58-1.56 mg
Carotene
0.00-0.035 mg
Thiamine
0.00-0.002 mg
Riboflavin
0.063-0.125 mg
Niacin
1.42-1.813 mg
Ascorbic Acid 10.8-28.1 mg
*Analyses made in Ecuador, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Guatemala.
Water Lemon

Morton, J. 1987. Water Lemon. p. 331332. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Water Lemon
Passiflora laurifolia L.
Description
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Pests
Food Uses
Food Value
Toxicity
One of the best of the lesser-known passionfruit relatives, the water lemon, Passiflora laurifolia
L., is also known as bell-apple, sweet cup, yellow granadilla, Jamaica honeysuckle, vinegar pear,
golden apple, where English is spoken; as pomme d'or, pomme liane, or pomme de liane,
Marie-Tambour, or maritambou, in the French West Indies; as parcha, parcha de culebra, or
pasionaria con hojas de laurel in Spanish. In the Portuguese language, in Brazil, it is called
maracuja comum or maracuja laranja. It is paramarkoesa in Surinam. In Malaya, it is markusa
leutih, buah susu, buah belebar, or buah selaseh; in Thailand, sa-wa-rot; in Vietnam, guoi tay.
Description
The water lemon vine is a moderately vigorous climber, to 32 ft (10 m) or more, its twining, more
or less woody or wiry stems longitudinally grooved and bearing slender, tough tendrils in the leaf
axils flanked by 2 slim, green stipules. The alternate leaves are oblong-ovate or elliptical, rounded
at the base, abruptly pointed at the apex; 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) long, 1 1/3 to 3 1/8 in (3.4-8 cm)
wide; thick and leathery. The fragrant, solitary, 5-petalled flowers, 3 to 4 in (7.4-10 cm) across,
have a bell-shaped calyx, oblong, red or purple-red sepals and petals, and corona filaments
6-ranked, banded with red, blue, purple and white. The fruit is ellipsoidal or ovoid, 2 to 3 1/8 in
(5-8 cm) long, 1 1/2 to 2 3/8 in (4-6 cm) wide; orange-yellow; clasped at the base by 3 large,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/water_lemon.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:36:48 PM]
Water Lemon
green, leaflike bracts, toothed and edged with conspicuous glands. The rind is leathery, to 1/8 in (3
mm) thick, white and spongy within; becomes hard when dry. Pleasantly rose-scented, the
translucent, nearly white pulp is juicy, mucilaginous and of agreeable, subacid flavor, and encloses
numerous seeds, flat and minutely ribbed.
The water lemon is native to tropical America and common, wild and cultivated from southern
Venezuela, Surinam, Guyana and French Guiana down through the Amazon region of Brazil to
Peru. In the dry season, the fruits are regularly sold in local markets. The vine is cultivated and
naturalized from Trinidad and Barbados to Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and Cuba. In
Bermuda, it is only occasionally grown. It was introduced into Malaya in the 18th Century; is
commonly cultivated in the lowlands and naturalized in Singapore and Penang. According to
Petelot, the water lemon is grown in Thailand and throughout the southern half of Vietnam. In
India, Ceylon and Hawaii, the vine is grown as an ornamental but rarely fruits except in hot, dry
situations where the pollen is dry enough to be naturally transmitted. There are only a few
specimens in Florida.
Pollination
The water lemon flowers open only in the afternoon, and apparently are not self-pollinated, or only
slightly so. Cross-pollination is required for good crops. If carpenter bees are not present at the
right time, the pollen must be transferred by hand.
Climate
A warm, dry atmosphere is essential for early ripening of the stigmas. On Oahu, Hawaii, best
yields have been obtained at sea-level, though the vine grows vigorously up to 1,500 ft (457 m).
Soil
The vine has grown and flowered well on sand and on limestone in Florida.
Propagation
The water lemon grows readily from seeds or cuttings.
Pests
Trials have shown that the vine is fairly resistant to rootknot nematodes in Florida.
Food Uses
Children and adults make a hole in one end of the fruit and suck out the pulp and seeds for
refreshment. The juice of the strained pulp makes an excellent beverage.
Food Value
The pulp contains 1.55 mg of pantothenic acid per 100 g; the rind, 1.87 mg. This element belongs
to the vitamin B complex group and is sometimes called vitamin B5.
Toxicity
Water Lemon
The rind, leaves and seeds contain a cyanogenic glycoside. On the other hand, the leaves possess
387 mg, per 100 g, ascorbic acid. The leaf decoction is taken as a vermifuge. The seeds have a
sedative action on the nervous system and heart and, in strong doses, are hypnotic. The root acts as
a very potent vermifuge.
Sweet Calabash

Morton, J. 1987. Sweet Calabash. p. 334335. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Sweet Calabash
Passiflora maliformis L.
Description
Climate
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
Of minor status among the cultivated species of Passiflora, the sweet calabash, P. maliformis L.,
has been called water lemon (Bermuda); ceibey cimarron (Cuba), callebassie (Haiti), calabacito
de Indio (Dominican Republic); sweet cup, conch apple, conch nut (Jamaica); parcha cimarrona
(Puerto Rico); Pomme calabas, liane a agouti (Guadeloupe); pomme-liane de la Guadeloupe
(Martinique); culupa, granadilla, curuba or kuruba (Colombia); granadilla de hueso or granadilla
de mono (Ecuador); guerito (Cuba).
Description
The vine is woody but slender, climbing to
33 ft (10 m) or more by means of tendrils in
the leaf axils, and draping trees, walls and
small buildings. The evergreen leaves are
ovate-cordate, or ovate-oblong, with a short,
recurved point at the apex; fairly thin,
light-green; 2 3/8 to 6 in (6-15 cm) long,
with 2 round, flat glands at about the middle
of the petiole. The peduncle bears 3 thin,
ovate, pointed bracts, to 2 in (5 cm) long
which enclose the unopened bud and form
an ivory-hued background for the opened Fig. 93: The sweet calabash (Passiflora maliformis) is
flower, which is fragrant, 2 to 2 3/8 in (5-6 light-yellow with a very hard shell. Photographed at the
experimental station, Palmira, Colombia, in 1969.
cm) wide, with keeled, green,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sweet_calabash.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:36:50 PM]
Sweet Calabash
maroon-dotted sepals and 5 small petals, greenish-white, dotted with red or purple. The corona is
3-ranked and variegated white, purple and blue.
The fruit is oblate to nearly round-oval, the specific name implying "apple-shaped", being derived
from Malus, the apple genus. It is 1 3/4 to 2 in (4.5-5 cm) long, 1 3/8 to 1 1/2 in (3.5-4 cm) wide.
The rind is yellow to brownish when fully ripe, thin; varies from rather flexible and leathery to
hard and brittle. The pulp is grayish or pale orange-yellow, juicy, sweet or subacid and pleasingly
aromatic, containing many black, flat, ovate, pitted seeds.
This species is native and common in the wild in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic,
Jamaica, and from Saba to Barbados and Trinidad; also Venezuela, Colombia and northern
Ecuador. It is cultivated in Jamaica, Brazil and Ecuador for its fruits, and in Hawaii as an
ornamental in private gardens and in experimental stations for use in breeding work. The United
States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Trinidad in 1909 (P.I. No. 26269); seeds of
4 varieties from Colombia in September 1914 (P.I. Nos. 39223-226); and more seeds from
Colombia in November 1914 (P.I. No. 39383). However, the species has not been successful in
Florida or California.
Climate
The vine grows and fruits at cool altitudesup to 5,500 ft (1,700 m)in South America; in Jamaica,
between 500 and 1,200 ft (152-366 m). Lefroy saw it in Bermuda in 1871 but the climate
apparently did not favor survival.
Season
The fruits ripen from September to December in Jamaica.
Pests and Diseases
This species is noted for its resistance to pests and diseases that affect its relatives.
Food Uses
The fruit, whether leathery or hard-shelled, is difficult to open but the seedy pulp is much enjoyed
locally. In Jamaica, it is scooped from the shell and served with wine and sugar. The strained juice
is excellent for making cold drinks.
Other Uses
Snuff boxes have been made of the shell of the hard type.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sweet_calabash.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:36:50 PM]
Papaya

Morton, J. 1987. Papaya. p. 336346. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Papaya
Carica papaya L.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Variable Season
Spacing
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Renovation of Plantings
Postharvest Treatment
Pests
Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Papain
Folk Uses
Antibiotic Activity
Papaya Allergy
Related Species
The papaya, Carica papaya L., is a member of the small family Caricaceae allied to the
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/papaya_ars.html (1 of 20) [5/16/2004 1:36:55 PM]
Papaya
Passifloraceae. As a dual- or multi-purpose, early-bearing, space-conserving, herbaceous crop, it is

widely acclaimed, despite its susceptibility to natural enemies.
In some parts of the world, especially Australia and some islands of the West Indies, it is known as
papaw, or pawpaw, names which are better limited to the very different, mainly wild Asimina
triloba Dunal, belonging to the Annonaceae. While the name papaya is widely recognized, it has
been corrupted to kapaya, kepaya, lapaya or tapaya in southern Asia and the East Indies. In
French, it is papaye (the fruit) and papayer (the plant), or sometimes figuier des Iles.
Spanish-speaking people employ the names meln zapote, lechosa, payaya (fruit), papayo or
papayero (the plant), fruta bomba, mamn or mamona, depending on the country. In Brazil, the
usual name is mamao. When first encountered by Europeans it was quite naturally nicknamed "tree
melon".
Description
Commonly and erroneously referred to as a
"tree", the plant is properly a large herb
growing at the rate of 6 to 10 ft (1.8-3 m)
the first year and reaching 20 or even 30 ft
(6-9 m) in height, with a hollow green or
deep-purple stem becoming 12 to 16 in
(30-40 cm) or more thick at the base and
roughened by leaf scars. The leaves emerge
directly from the upper part of the stem in a
spiral on nearly horizontal petioles 1 to 3
1/2 ft (30-105 cm) long, hollow, succulent,
green or more or less dark purple. The
blade, deeply divided into 5 to 9 main
segments, each irregularly subdivided,
varies from 1 to 2 ft (30-60 cm) in width
and has prominent yellowish ribs and veins.
The life of a leaf is 4 to 6 months. Both the
stem and leaves contain copious white
milky latex.
The 5-petalled flowers are fleshy, waxy and
slightly fragrant. Some plants bear only
short-stalked pistillate (female) flowers,
waxy and ivory-white; or hermaprodite
(perfect) flowers (having female and male
organs), ivory-white with bright-yellow
anthers and borne on short stalks; while
Fig. 94: A healthy papaya (Carica papaya) in Homestead,
Florida, in 1946, when virus diseases were not prevalent.
others may bear only staminate (male)
flowers, clustered on panicles to 5 or 6 ft
(1.5-1.8 m) long. There may even be monoecious plants having both male and female flowers.
Some plants at certain seasons produce short-stalked male flowers, at other times perfect flowers.
This change of sex may occur temporarily during high temperatures in midsummer. Some
Papaya
"all-male" plants occasionally bear, at the tip of the spray, small flowers with perfect pistils and
these produce abnormally slender fruits. Male or hermaphrodite plants may change completely to
female plants after being beheaded.
Generally, the fruit is melon-like, oval to nearly round, somewhat pyriform, or elongated
club-shaped, 6 to 20 in (15-50 cm) long and 4 to 8 in (10-20 cm) thick; weighing up to 20 lbs (9
kg). Semi-wild (naturalized) plants bear miniature fruits 1 to 6 in (2.5-15 cm) long. The skin is
waxy and thin but fairly tough. When the fruit is green and hard it is rich in white latex. As it
ripens, it becomes light- or deep-yellow externally and the thick wall of succulent flesh becomes
aromatic, yellow, orange or various shades of salmon or red. It is then juicy, sweetish and
somewhat like a cantaloupe in flavor; in some types quite musky. Attached lightly to the wall by
soft, white, fibrous tissue, are usually numerous small, black, ovoid, corrugated, peppery seeds
about 3/16 in (5 mm) long, each coated with a transparent, gelatinous aril.
Though the exact area of origin is unknown, the papaya is believed native to tropical America,
perhaps in southern Mexico and neighboring Central America. It is recorded that seeds were taken
to Panama and then the Dominican Republic before 1525 and cultivation spread to warm
elevations throughout South and Central America, southern Mexico, the West Indies and Bahamas,
and to Bermuda in 1616. Spaniards carried seeds to the Philippines about 1550 and the papaya
traveled from there to Malacca and India. Seeds were sent from India to Naples in 1626. Now the
papaya is familiar in nearly all tropical regions of the Old World and the Pacific Islands and has
become naturalized in many areas. Seeds were probably brought to Florida from the Bahamas. Up
to about 1959, the papaya was commonly grown in southern and central Florida in home gardens
and on a small commercial scale. Thereafter, natural enemies seriously reduced the plantings.
There was a similar decline in Puerto Rico about 10 years prior to the setback of the industry in
Florida. While isolated plants and a few commercial plots may be fruitful and long-lived, plants in
some fields may reach 5 or 6 ft, yield one picking of undersized and misshapen fruits and then are
so affected by virus and other diseases that they must be destroyed.
In the 1950's an Italian entrepreneur, Albert Santo, imported papayas into Miami by air from Santa
Marta, Colombia, Puerto Rico and Cuba for sale locally as well as shipping fresh to New York,
and he also processed quantities into juice or preserves in his own Miami factory.
Since there is no longer such importation, there is a severe shortage of papayas in Florida. The
influx of Latin American residents has increased the demand and new growers are trying to fill it
with relatively virus-resistant strains selected by the University of Florida Agricultural Research
and Education Center in Homestead.
Successful commercial production today is primarily in Hawaii, tropical Africa, the Philippines,
India, Ceylon, Malaya and Australia, apart from the widespread but smaller scale production in
South Africa, and Latin America.
Annual papaya consumption in Hawaii is 15 lbs (6.8 kg) per capita, yet 26 million lbs (11,838,700
kg) of fresh fruits were shipped by air freight to mainland USA in 1974, mainly direct from Hilo or
via Honolulu.
Puerto Rican production does not meet the local demand and fruits are imported from the
Papaya
Dominican Republic for processing.

The papaya is one of the leading fruits of southern Mexico and 40% of that country's crop is
produced in the state of Veracruz on 14,800 acres (6,000 ha) yielding 120,000 tons annually.
Fruits from bisexual plants are usually cylindrical or pyriform with small seed cavity and thick
wall of firm flesh which stands handling and shipping well. In contrast, fruits from female flowers
are nearly round or oval and thin-walled. In some areas, bisexual types are in greatest demand. In
South Africa, round or oval papayas are preferred.
Varieties
Despite the great variability in size, quality
and other characteristics of the papaya, there
were few prominent, selected and named
cultivars before the introduction into Hawaii
of the dioecious, small-fruited papaya from
Barbados in 1911. It was named 'Solo' in
1919 and by 1936 was the only commercial
papaya in the islands. 'Solo' produces no
male plants; just female (with round,
shallowly furrowed fruits) and bisexual
(with pear-shaped fruits) in equal
proportions. The fruits weigh 1.1 to 2.2 lbs
Fig. 95: Papaya fruits vary in form, size, thickness, color and
(1/2-1 kg) and are of excellent quality.
flavor of flesh. Favored types have little, if any, muskiness of
When the fruit is fully ripe the thin skin is odor.
orange-yellow and the flesh golden-orange
and very sweet.
'Kapoho Solo' or 'Puna Solo' was discovered and became popular with growers on Kauai before
1950. In 1955 a 'Dwarf Solo' (a back-cross of Florida's 'Betty' and 'Solo') was introduced to aid
harvesting, and this became the leading commercial papaya on the island of Oahu. It was, up to
1974, the only export cultivar. It is pear-shaped, 14 to 28 oz (400-800 g) in weight in high rainfall
areas, and has yellow skin and pale-orange flesh.
'Waimanalo' (formerly 'Solo' Line 77) was selected in 1960 and released by the Hawaii
Agricultural Experiment Station in 1968 and soon superseded Line 8 'Solo' on Oahu for the fresh
fruit market because of its firmness and quality, but there it is usually too large for export. It has
long storage life and is recommended for sale fresh and for processing. Since 1974 this cultivar has
been produced commercially on the low-rainfall island of Maui where it ripens at a greener color
than on the island of Hawaii and is exported to cities in the northwestern and central USA. The
growers raised only bisexual plants; they say that the fruits of female plants are too rough in
appearance.
'Higgins' (formerly Line 17A), the result of crosses in 1960, was introduced to Hawaiian growers
in 1974. It is of high quality, pear-shaped, with orange-yellow skin, deep-yellow flesh, and
averages 1 lb (0.45 kg) when grown under irrigation. In and territory or seasons of low rainfall, the
fruit is undersized.
Papaya
'Wilder' (formerly Line 25) is a cultivar admired for its uniformity of size, firmness and small
cavity and it is now popular for export.
'Hortus Gold', a South African cultivar, launched in the early 1950's, is dioecious, early-maturing,
with round-oval, golden-yellow fruits, 2 to 3 lbs (0.9-1.36 kg) in weight. From 200 female 'Hortus
Gold' seedlings planted at the University of Natal's Ukulinga Research Farm in 1960, selections
were made of the plants showing the highest yield. Of these, one clone having the best sugar
content and disease resistance was chosen and named 'Honey Gold' in 1976. This cultivar has a
slight beak at the apex, golden-yellow skin; is of sweet flavor and good texture but becomes
mushy when overripe. It averages 2.2 lbs (1 kg) per fruit except for those at the end of the season
which are much smaller. It does not reproduce true from seed and is therefore propagated by
cuttings. It is late in season and late-maturing (10 months from fruit set to maturity) and therefore
brings nearly double the price of other cultivars.
'Bettina' and 'Petersen', long-standing cultivars in Queensland, Australia, were inbred for several
generations to obtain pure lines. 'Bettina', a hybrid of Florida's 'Betty' and a Queensland strain, is a
low, shrubby, dioecious plant producing well-colored, round-oval fruits weighing 3 to 5 lbs
(1.36-2.27 kg).
'Improved Petersen', of local origin, is dioecious, tall-growing, with fruits deficient in external
color and indifferent as to keeping quality but noted for the fine color and flavor of the flesh. In
1947 'Bettina 100A' was crossed with 'Petersen 170' to produce the superior, semi-dwarf 'Hybrid
No. 5', smooth, yellow, rounded-oval, 3 lbs (1.36 kg) in weight, thick-fleshed, of excellent flavor
and prized for marketing fresh and for canning. It bore more heavily than either of its parents and
remained a preferred cultivar for more than 20 years. 'Solo' and 'Hortus Gold' are often grown but
most plantations are open-pollinated mixtures.
In Western Australia, after trials of 9 cultivars'Hybrid No. 5', 'Petersen', 'Yarwun Yellow',
'Gold Cross', 'Goldy', 'Hong Kong', 'Guinea Gold', 'Golden Surprise' and 'Sunnybank'only
'Sunnybank' and 'Guinea Gold' were chosen as having sufficient yield and quality to be worth
cultivating commercially. 'Sunnybank' fruits average 1.39 lbs (0.63 kg), and ripen over 11 months.
'Guinea Gold' averages 2.4 lbs (a little over 1 kg) and ripens over a period of 18 months.
The Universidad Agraria, La Molina, Peru, began to assemble papaya strains in 1964, collecting
40 from various parts of the country and introducing 3 from Brazil, 1 from Puerto Rico, 3 from
Mexico and 2 lines of 'Solo' from Hawaii, and embarked on an evaluation and breeding program
and the creation of a germplasm bank.
In Ghana, dioecious cultivars such as 'Solo', 'Golden Surprise', 'Hawaii', and 'No. 5595', were
introduced and commonly cultivated by farmers but they hybridized with local types and lost their
identities after several generations. A number of types were collected at the Agricultural Research
Station at Kade from 1966 to 1970 and classified according to sex type, fruit form, weight, skin
and flesh color, flesh thickness, texture and flavor, number of seeds, and various plant factors. It
was determined that preference should be given female plants with short, stout stems, early
maturing, and bearing heavily all year medium-size fruits of bright color, thick-flesh and with few
seeds.
The Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, at Palmira, Colombia, began a papaya breeding program
Papaya
in 1963 by bringing together Colombian-grown cultivars'Campo Grande', 'Tocaimera',

'Zapote', 'Solo',with some from Brazil'Betty', 'Bettina' and '43-A-3'South Africa'Hortus
Gold'and Puerto Rico, and representatives of related species: C. candamarcensis Hook. F., C.
pentagona Heilborn, C. goudotiana Tr. & Pl. (one type yellow with green peduncles and another
red with purple peduncles), C. cauliflora Jacq. of Colombia and C. monoica Desf. and Jacaratia
dodecaphylla A. DC. from Peru.
The first two of these species were not suited to conditions at Palmira.
The progeny of crosses with C. caulfliora were the only hybrids showing some virus resistance but
they were unfruitful when attacked. There were no viable seeds and 30% of the fruits were
seedless. C. monoica proved well adapted to Palmira, bore small, yellow fruits, but succumbed to
virus. The introductions from Brazil were by far the most promising. 'Zapote', with rich, red flesh
is much grown on the Atlantic coast of Colombia.
In India, papaya breeding and selection work has been carried on for over 30 years beginning with
100 introduced strains and 16 local variations. A well-known cultivar is 'Coorg Honey Dew', a
selection from 'Honey Dew' at Chethalli Station of the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research.
There are no male plants; female and bisexual occur in equal proportions. The plant is low-bearing
and prolific. The fruit is long to oval, weighs 4.4 to 7.7 lbs (2-3 1/2 kg); has yellow flesh with a
large cavity, and keeps fairly well. 'Washington', popular in Bombay, has dark-red petioles and
yellow flowers. The fruits are of medium size with excellent, sweet flavor. 'Burliar Long' is
prolific, bearing as many as 103 fruits the first year, mostly in pairs densely packed along the stem
down to 18 in (45 cm) from the ground. Seedlings are 70% females and bloom 3 months after
transplanting.
'Co. 1' and 'Co. 2' were developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Both are dioecious and
dwarf, the first fruits being borne 3 ft (1 m) from the ground. 'Co. 1' is valued for eating fresh; 'Co.
2' is grown for table use and for papain extraction. The fruits are of medium size3.3 to 5.5 lbs (1
1/2-2 1/2 kg), with yellow, sweet flesh.
The Regional Research Station at Pusa has introduced some promising selections:
'Pusa Delkious' ('Pusa 1-15')medium size; flesh deep-orange, of excellent flavor; female and
hermaphrodite plants; high-yielding.
'Pusa Majesty' ('Pusa 22-3')round, of medium size; flesh yellowish, solid; keeps well and ships
well; vinis resistant; hermaphrodite plants higher-yielding than the female.
'Pusa Giant' ('Pusa 1-45V')large fruits suitable for marketing ripe, or green for use as a
vegetable, also for canning. Plant dioecious, fast-growing; tall; trunk thick, wind-resistant.
'Pusa Dwarf' ('Pusa 1-45')fruit oval, of medium size. Plant is dwarf; begins bearing fruit at 10 to
12 in (25-30 cm) above the ground. In much demand for home and commercial culture; suitable
for high-density plantings.
In 1965, a program of papaya improvement was undertaken in Trinidad and Tobago utilizing
promising selections from local types, including 'Santa Cruz Grant', a vigorous plant mainly
bisexual (having both male and female flowers), very large fruits weighing 10 to 15 lbs (4.5-6.8
Papaya
kg), with firm, yellow flesh of agreeable flavor. The fruit is too large for marketing fresh but is
processed both green and ripe. 'Cedro' is dioecious, rarely bisexual, a heavy bearer and highly
resistant to anthracnose. The fruits weigh from 3 to 8 lbs (1.37-3.6 kg) but average 6 lbs (2.7 kg);
have firm, yellow, melon-like flesh and are suitable for sale fresh or for processing.
In 'Singapore Pink', the plants are mainly bisexual, producing cylindrical fruit. The minority are
female with round fruit. Average weight of fruit is 5 lbs (2.27 kg) though there is variation from 2
to 7 lbs (1-3 kg). The flesh is pink. The fruit surface is prone to anthracnose in rainy periods, so, at
such times, the fruits must be picked and sold in the green state. Two smaller-fruited types, 2 to 3
lbs (1-1.37 kg) in weight, with bright-yellow skin and thick, firm flesh, were selected for
marketing fresh.
The 'Solo' of Hawaii has performed unsatisfactorily in Florida, producing low yields of small
fruits. Scott Stambaugh, a papaya specialist, began his papaya breeding with a strain designated
USDA Bureau of Plant Industry #28533 obtained from the then Plant Introduction Station in
Miami. From offspring of this he made a selection which he named 'Norton'. When he acquired
seed of a type called 'Purplestem'; later 'Bluestem', he crossed it with 'Norton' and the hybrid
yielded fruits 10 lbs (4.5 kg) in weight and was named 'Big Bluestem'. The latter was crossed with
'Solo' and the hybrid was called 'Bluestem Solo' or 'Blue Solo'. The 'Blue Solo' has been well
regarded in Florida for its low growth, dependable yields of good quality fruits, 2 to 4 lbs (1-2 kg)
in weight, orange-fleshed and rich in flavor.
'Cariflora' is a new cultivar developed at the recently renamed Tropical Research and Education
Center of the University of Florida at Homestead. It is nearly round, about the size of a cantaloupe,
with thick, dark-yellow to light-orange flesh; tolerant of papaya ringspot virus, but not resistant to
papaya mosaic virus or papaya apical necrosis virus. Yield is good in southern Florida and warm
lowlands of tropical America but not at elevations above 2625 ft (800 m).
'Sunrise Solo' (formerly HAES 63-22) was introduced from Hawaii into Puerto Rico. The fruit
has pink flesh with high total solid content. In Puerto Rican trials, seeds were planted in
mid-November, seedlings were transplanted to the field 2 months later, flowering occurred in
April and mature fruits were harvested from early August to January. Recent selections from
Puerto Rican breeding programs are 'P.R. 6-65' (early), 'P.R. 7-65' (late), and 'P.R. 8-65'.
Venezuelan papayas are usually long and large, ranging in weight from 2 to 13 lbs (1-6 kg) and
mostly for domestic consumption or shipment by boat to nearby islands.
Pollination
If a papaya plant is inadequately pollinated, it will bear a light crop of fruits lacking uniformity in
size and shape. Therefore, hand-pollination is advisable in commercial plantations that are not
entirely bisexual.
Bags are tied over bisexual blossoms for several days to assure that they are self-pollinated. The
progeny of self-pollinated bisexual flowers are 67% bisexual, the rest being female.
To cross-pollinate, one or 2 stamens from a bisexual flower are placed on the pistil of a female
flower about to open and a bag is tied over the flower for a few days. Most of such cross-pollinated
blooms should set fruit. Resulting seeds will produce 1/2 female and 1/2 bisexual plants.
Papaya
By another method, all but the apical female flower bud are removed from a stalk and the apical
bud is bagged 1-2 days before opening. At full opening, the stigma is dusted with pollen from a
selected male bloom and the bag quickly resealed and it remains so for 7 days.
Plants from female flowers crossed with male flowers are 50-50 male and female. Bisexual
flowers pollinated by males give rise to 1/3 female, 1/3 bisexual and 1/3 male plants.
South African growers have long been urged to practice hand-pollination in order to maintain a
selected strain and, in breeding, to incorporate factors such as purple stem, yellow flowers and
reddish flesh so that the improved selection will be distinguishable from ordinary strains with
non-purple stems, white flowers and yellow flesh.
Climate
The papaya is a tropical and near-tropical species, very sensitive to frost and limited to the region
between 32 north and 32 south of the Equator. It needs plentiful rainfall or irrigation but must
have good drainage. Flooding for 48 hours is fatal. Brief exposure to 32 F (-0.56 C) is damaging;
prolonged cold without overhead sprinkling will kill the plants.
Soil
While doing best in light, porous soils rich in organic matter, the plant will grow in scarified
limestone, marl, or various other soils if it is given adequate care. Optimum pH ranges from 5.5 to
6.7. Overly acid soils are corrected by working in lime at the rate of 1-2 tons/acre (2.4-4.8 tons/ha).
On rich organic soils the papaya makes lush growth and bears heavily but the fruits are of low
quality.
Propagation
Papayas are generally grown from seed. Germination may take 3 to 5 weeks. It is expedited to 2 to
3 weeks and percentage of germination increased by washing off the aril. Then the seeds need to
be dried and dusted with fungicide to avoid damping-off, a common cause of loss of seedlings.
Well-prepared seeds can be stored for as long as 3 years but the percentage of germination declines
with age. Dipping for 15 seconds in hot water at 158 F (70 C) and then soaking for 24 hrs in
distilled water after removal from storage will improve the germination rate. If germination is slow
at some seasons, treatment with gibberellic acid may be needed to get quicker results.
To reproduce the characteristics of a preferred strain, air-layering has been successfully practiced
on a small scale. All offshoots except the lowest one are girdled and layered after the parent plant
has produced the first crop of fruit. Later, when the parent has grown too tall for convenient
harvesting the top is cut off and new buds in the crown are pricked off until offshoots from the
trunk appear and develop over a period of 4 to 6 weeks. These are layered and removed and the
trunk cut off above the originally retained lowest sprout which is then allowed to grow as the main
stem. Thereafter the layering of offshoots may be continued until the plant is exhausted.
Rooting of cuttings has been practiced in South Africa, especially to eliminate variability in certain
clones so that their performance can be more accurately compared in evaluation studies. Softwood
cuttings made in midsummer rooted quickly and fruited well the following summer. Cuttings taken
in fall and spring were slow to root and deficient in root formation. The commercial cultivar
Papaya
'Honey Gold' is grown entirely from cuttings. Once rooted, the cuttings are planted in plastic bags
and kept under mist for 10 days, and then put in a shade house for hardening before setting in the
field.
Hawaiian workers have found that large branches 2-3 ft (60-90 cm) long rooted more readily than
small cuttings. Planted 1 ft (30 cm) deep in the rainy season, they began fruiting in a few months
very close to the ground.
In budding experiments both Forkert and chip methods have proved satisfactory in Trinidad.
However, it is reported that a vegetatively propagated selected strain deteriorates steadily and is
worthless after 3 or 4 generations.
In Hawaii, 'Solo' grafted onto 'Dwarf Solo' was reduced in vigor and productivity, but 'Dwarf Solo'
grafted onto 'Solo' showed improved performance.
In recent years, the potential of rapid propagation of papaya selections by tissue culture is being
explored and promises to be feasible even for the establishment of commercial plantations of
superior strains.
Efforts have been made to determine the sex of seedlings in the nursery, Indian scientists making
colorimetric tests of leaf extracts have had 87% success in identifying seedlings as female; 67% in
classifying males/bisexuals grouped together.
Variable Season
Planting may be done at any time of year and local conditions determine when it is best for the
crop to come in. Papayas mature in 6 to 9 months from seed in the hotter areas of South Africa; in
9 to 11 months where it is cooler, providing an opportunity to supply markets in the off-season
when prices are high. Seeds planted in early summer or midsummer will produce the first crop in
the second winter. Thereafter, the same plants will mature fruit from spring to early summer.
Spring fruits are apt to be sunburned because of winter leaf loss; are also subject to fruit spot and
have a low sugar content. Sunburn can be avoided by advance whitewashing of sides exposed to
the afternoon sun. Some growers manipulate the harvest season by stripping off 6 of the newly set
fruits, thus forcing the plant to bloom again and produce fruits 6 to 8 weeks later than they
normally would.
In southern Florida, plants set out in March or April will ripen their fruits in November and
December and have the advantage of a "tourist" market. July plantings will be slowed down by
winter and will not fruit for 10 months or more. Some growers advocate planting in September and
October so that the crop will be ready for harvest before the onset of the main hurricane season.
Further north in the state, papayas must be set out in March or April in order to have the required
growing season before frost.
Spacing
Puerto Rican trials have shown that papaya plants set in the field on 6 ft (1.8 m) centers made
stronger, stouter growth and were more fruitful than those at closer spacings. Some growers insist
on an 8 x 8 ft (2.4 x 2.4 m) area per plant. In India, 'Co. 1' and 'Co. 2' and 'Solo' are set on 6 ft (1.8
m) centers; 'Coorg Honey Dew' and 'Washington' on 8 ft (2.4 m) centers. Princess Orchards on
Papaya
Maui, Hawaii, plant in double rows with an alley between each pair providing room for cultural
and harvesting operations. In Queensland, plants may be set only 3 ft (1 m) apart on level ground
and then thinned out by removal of unwanted plants after flowering.
Culture
Seeds may be planted directly in the field, or seedlings raised in beds or pots may be transplanted
when 6 weeks old or even up to 6 months of age, though there must be great care in handling and
the longer the delay the greater the risk of dehydrated or twisted roots; also, transplanting often
results in trunk-curvature in windy locations.
Experiments in Hawaii indicate that direct seeding results in deeper tap-roots, erect and more
vigorous growth, earlier flowering and larger yields.
In Puerto Rico, it is customary to set 2 plants per hole. In El Salvador planters place 5 to 6 seeds,
separated from each other, in each hole at a depth of 3/8 in (1 cm). When the plants bloom, 90% of
the males are removed, preferably by cutting off at ground level. Pulling up disturbs the roots of
the remaining plants. If the plantation is isolated and there is no chance of cross-pollination by
males, all the seed will become female or hermaphrodite plants. Fruits should mature 5 to 8
months later.
In India, seeds are usually treated with fungicide and planted in beds 6 in (15 cm) above ground
level that have been organically enriched and fumigated. The seeds are sown 2 in (5 cm) apart and
3/4 to 1 1/8 in (2-3 cm) deep in rows 6 in (15 cm) apart. They are watered daily and transplanted in
2 1/2 months when 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) high. Transplanting is more successful if polyethylene
bags of enriched soil are used instead of raised beds. Two seeds are planted in each bag but only
the stronger seedling is maintained. Transplanting is best done in the evening or on cloudy, damp
days. On hot, dry days, each plant must be protected with a leafy branch or palm leaf stuck in the
soil. Except for 'Coorg Honey Dew' and 'Solo', the plants are set out in 3's, 6 in (15 cm) apart in
enriched pits. After flowering, one female or hermaphrodite plant is retained, the other two
removed. But one male is kept for every 10 females. 'Coorg Honey Dew' and 'Solo' are planted one
to a pit and no males are necessary. Watering is done every day until the plants are well
established, but overwatering is detrimental to young plants. Double rows of Sesbania aegyptiaca
are planted as a windbreak.
The installation of constant drip irrigation (12 gals per day) has made possible papaya cultivation
on mountain slopes on the relatively dry island of Maui which averages 10 in (25 cm) of rain
annually.
Papaya plants require frequent fertilization for satisfactory production. In India, best results have
been obtained by giving 9 oz (250 g) of nitrogen, 9 oz (250 g) of phosphorus, and 18 oz (500 g)
potash to each plant each year, divided into 6 applications.
Because of the need to expedite growth and production before the onslaught of diseases, Puerto
Rican agronomists recommend treating the predominantly clay soil with a nematicide before
planting, giving each plant 4 oz (113 g) of 15-15-15 fertilizer at the end of the first week, and each
month thereafter increasing the dose by 1 oz (28 g) until the beginning of flowering, then applying
.227 g per plant as a final treatment. In trials, this program has permitted 6 harvests of green fruits
for processing, each over 1 lb (1/2 kg) in weight, spanning a period of 13 months. The roots
Papaya
usually extend out beyond the leaves and it is advisable to spread fertilizer over the entire root
area.
In late fertilizer applications of a crop destined for canning, nitrogen should be omitted because it
renders the fruit undesirable for processing. High nitrate content in canned papaya (as with several
common vegetables) removes the tin from the can. To avoid nitrogen deficiency at the beginning
of flowering for the next crop, 1 or 2% urea sprays can be applied.
In southern Florida, on oolitic limestone, experts have prescribed liquid fertilizer weekly for the
first 10 weeks and then 1 lb (1/2 kg) of 4-8-6 dry fertilizer mixture (with added minor elements)
per plant weekly until flowering. Here a heavy organic mulch is desirable to conserve moisture,
control weeds, keep the soil cool, and help repel nematodes.
Mechanical cultivation between rows is apt to disturb the shallow roots. judicious use of herbicides
is preferable.
Overcrowded fruits should be thinned out when young to provide room for good form
development and avoid pressure injury. Cold weather may interfere with pollination and cause
shedding of unfertilized female flowers. Spraying the inflorescence with growth regulators stops
flower drop and significantly enhances fruit set. After the first crop, the terminal growth may be
nipped off to induce branching which tends to dwarf the plant and facilitates harvesting. However,
unless the plants are strong growers, fruiting branches may need to be propped to avoid collapse.
Harvesting
Studies in Hawaii have shown that papaya flavor is at its peak when the skin is 80% colored. For
the local market, in winter months, papayas may be allowed to color fairly well before picking, but
for local market in summer and for shipment, only the first indication of yellow is permissible. The
fruits must be handled with great care to avoid scratching and leaking of latex which stains the
fruit skin. Home growers may twist the fruit to break the stem, but in commercial operations it is
preferable to use a sharp knife to cut the stem and then trim it level with the base of the fruit.
However, to expedite harvesting of high fruits, most Hawaiian growers furnish their pickers with a
bamboo pole with a rubber suction cup (from the well-known "plumber's helper") at the tip. With
the cup held against the lower end of the fruit, the pole is thrust upward to snap the stem and the
falling fruit is caught by hand. One man can thus gather 800-1,000 lbs (363-454 kg) daily.
In Hawaii, it has been calculated that manual picking and field sorting constitute 40% of the labor
cost of the crop (1,702 man-hours per acre to pick and pack). Therefore, in 1970, an experimental
mechanical aid was tested and results indicated that a machine with one operator and 2 pickers
could harvest 1,000 lbs (454 kg) of fruit per hour, the equivalent of 8 men hand-picking. Many
factors, such as investment, operation and repair costs, useful life, and so forth must be considered
before such a machine could be determined to be feasible. On the island of Maui, harvesting is
aided by hydraulic lifts, each operated by a single worker. Picking starts when the plants are 11
months of age and continues for 48 months when the trees are 25 ft (7.5 m) high, too tall for
further usefulness.
The fruits are best packed in single layers and padded to avoid bruising. The latex oozing from the
stem may irritate the skin and workers should be required to wear gloves and protective clothing.
Papaya
Yield
In the usual papaya plantation, each plant may ripen 2 to 4 fruits per week over the fruiting season.
Healthy plants, if well cared for, may average 75 lbs (34 kg) of fruit per plant per year, though
individual plants have borne as much as 300 lbs (136 kg). In South Africa, branched 'Honey Gold'
plants set 20 ft (6 m) apart in rows 10 ft (3 m) apart have produced 45 lbs (100 kg) of fruit each in
their 4th year. A field of 1,000 plants occupying 2 1/2 acres (1 ha) gave 30 tons of fruit. In the Hilo
area of the island of Hawaii, production averages 15 tons per acre (37 tons/ha). From 250 acres
(100 ha), Princess Orchards on Maui harvests 150,000 lbs (68,180 kg) weekly during the season.
In the Kapoho region of the island of Hawaii, yields average 38,000 lbs/acre (roughly 38,000
kg/ha) the first year, 25,000 lbs (11,339 kg) the second year. Papaya plants bear well for 2 years
and then productivity declines and commercial plantings are generally replaced after 3-4 years. By
that time they have attained heights which make harvesting difficult.
Renovation of Plantings
In Trinidad and Tobago, plants that have become too tall are cut to the ground and side shoots are
allowed to grow and bear. In El Salvador, after the 3rd year of bearing, the main stem is cut off
about 3 ft (1 m) from the ground at the beginning of winter and is covered with a plastic bag to
protect it from rain and subsequent rotting. Several side shoots will emerge within a few days.
When these reach 8 in to 1 ft (20-30 cm) in height, all are cut off except the most vigorous one
which replaces the original top.
Postharvest Treatment
Fruits can be held at 85 F (29.64 C) and high atmospheric humidity for 48 hours to enhance
coloring before packing. Standard decay control has been a 20-minute submersion in water at 120
F (49 C) followed by a cool rinse. In India, dipping in 1,000 ppm of aureofungin has been shown
to be effective in controlling postharvest rots. In Philippine trials, thiabendazole reduced fruit rot
by 50%. In 1979, Hawaiian workers demonstrated that spreading an aqueous solution of carnauba
wax and thiabendazole over harvested fruits gives good protection from postharvest diseases and
can eliminate the hot-water bath.
In Puerto Rico, fruits of 'P.R. 8-65', picked green, were ripened successfully by 6-7 days treatment
with ethylene gas in airtight chambers at 77 F (25 C) and 85 to 95% humidity, following the
hot-water bath.
Hawaiian papayas must be sanitized before shipment to the mainland USA to avoid introduction of
fruit flies. Fruits picked 1/4 ripe are prewarmed in water at 110 F (43.33 C) for about 40 min,
then quickly immersed for 20 min at 119 (48.33 C). This double-dipping maybe replaced by
irradiation. One little-used method is a vapor-heat treatment following dry heat at 110 F (43.33
C) and 40% relative humidity.
Fruits that have had hot water treatment and EDB fumigation and then have been stored in 1.5%
oxygen at 55 F (13 C) for 12 days will have a shelf life of about 3 1/2 days at room temperature.
Fruits that have had hot water treatment when 1/4 colored, followed by irradiation at 75-100 krad,
and storage at 2-4% oxygen and 60 F (16 C) for 6 days will have a market life of 8 days. Those
held for 12 days will be saleable thereafter for 5 days.
Papaya
In Puerto Rico, gamma irradiation (25-50 krads) delayed ripening up to 7 days. Treatment at 100
krads slightly accelerated ripening in storage. Even at the lowest level irradiation inhibited fungal
growth. Carotenoid content was unaffected but ascorbic acid was slightly reduced at all exposures.
Partly ripe papayas stored below 50 F (10 C) will never fully ripen. This is the lowest
temperature at which ripe papayas can be held without chilling injury.
'Solo 62/3' fruits harvested in Trinidad at the first sign of yellow, treated with fungicide, placed in
perforated polyethylene bags and packed in individual compartments in cartons, have been shipped
to England by air (2 days' flight), ripened at 68 F (20 C), and found to be of excellent quality and
flavor.
The same cultivar, similarly handled, withstood transport in the refrigerated hold of a ship for 21
days. Immediately ripened on arrival, the fruits were well accepted on the London market. Sea
shipment proved to be the more economical.
Hypobaric (low pressure) containers have made possible satisfactory sea shipment (18-21 days) of
hot-water treated and fungicidal-waxed papayas from Hilo, Hawaii, to Los Angeles and New
York.
Pests
A major hazard to papayas in Florida and Venezuela is the wasp-like papaya fruit fly, Toxotrypana
curvicauda. The female deposits eggs in the fruit which will later be found infested with the
larvae. Only thick-fleshed fruits are safe from this enemy. Control on a commercial scale is very
difficult. Home gardeners often protect the fruit from attack by covering with paper bags, but this
must be done early, soon after the flower parts have fallen, and the bags must be replaced every 10
days or 2 weeks as the fruits develop. Rolled newspaper may be utilized instead of bags and is
more economical. India has no fruit fly with ovipositor long enough to lay eggs inside papayas.
An important and widespread pest is the papaya web-worm, or fruit cluster worm, Homolapalpia
dalera, harbored between the main stem and the fruit and also between the fruits. It eats into the
fruit and the stem and makes way for the entrance of anthracnose. Damage can be prevented if
spraying is begun at the beginning of fruit set, or at least at the first sign of webs.
The tiny papaya whitefly, Trialeuroides variabilis, is a sucking insect and it coats the leaves with
honeydew which forms the basis for sooty mold development. Shaking young leaves will often
reveal the presence of whiteflies. Spraying or dusting should begin when many adults are noticed.
Hornworms (immature state of the sphinx mothErinnyis obscura in Jamaica, E. ello in
Venezuela, E. alope in Florida) feed on the leaves, as do the small, light-green leafhoppers.
Mention is made later on of the aphids that transmit virus diseases and other infections.
Other pests requiring control measures in Australia include the red spider, or red spider mite,
Tetranychus seximaculatus, which sucks the juice from the leaves. In India and on the island of
Maui, plant and fruit infestation by red spider has been a major problem. This pest and the
cucumber fly and fruit-spotting bugs feed on the very young fruits and cause them to drop. In
Hawaii, the red-and-black-flat mite feeds on the stem and leaves and scars the fruit. The broad
mite damages young plants especially during cool weather.
Papaya
In the Virgin Islands scale has been most troublesome, apart from rats and fruit-bats that attack
ripe fruits. In Australia, 5 species of scale insects have been found on papayas, the most serious
being oriental scale, Aonidiella orientalis, which occurs on both the fruit and the stem. So far, it is
confined to limited areas. In Florida, the scale insects Aspidiotus destructor and Coccus
hesperidium may infest bagged fruit more than unbagged fruit. Another scale, Philaphedra sp., has
recently been reported here.
Indian scientists have observed that immature earthworms, Megascolex insignis, are attracted by
and feed on rotting tissue of papaya plants. They hasten the demise of plants afflicted with stem rot
from Pythium aphanidermatum and may act as vectors for this fungus.
Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, and reniforin nematodes, Rotylenchulus
reniformis, are detrimental to the growth and productivity of papaya plants and should be
combatted by pre-planting soil fumigation if the nematode population is high.
Diseases
Hawaii, partly because of its distance from other papaya-growing areas, is less afflicted with
disease problems than Florida and Puerto Rico, but still has to combat a number of major and
minor maladies. Most serious of all is the mosaic virus, on plant and fruit, which is common in
Florida, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and first seen in Hawaii in 1959. It is transmitted
mechanically or by the green peach aphid, Myzus Persicae, and other aphids including the green
citrus aphid, Aphis spiraecola, in Puerto Rico. Two forms of mosaic virus are reported in Puerto
Rico: the long-known "southern coast papaya mosaic virus", the symptoms of which include
extreme leaf deformation, and the relatively recent "Isabela mosaic virus" on the northern coast
which is similar but without leaf distortion. Both forms occur in some northcoast plantations.
There is no remedy, but measures to avoid spread include the destruction of affected plants,
control of aphids by pesticides, and elimination of all members of the Cucurbitaceae from the
vicinity. Mosaic is sporadic and scattered and not of great concern in Queensland.
Papaya ringspot virus, prevalent in Florida, the Dominican Republic and Venezuela, is
occasionally serious in the Waianae area on the dry leeward side of Oahu. It is transmitted by the
same vectors. Mosaic and ringspot viruses are the main limiting factors in papaya production in
the Cauca Valley of Colombia.
In Florida, virus diseases were recognized as the greatest threat to the papaya industry in the early
1950's. The first signs are irregular mottling of young leaves, then yellowing with transparent
areas, leaf distortion, and rings on the fruit. If affected plants are not removed, the condition
spreads throughout the plantation. Fruits borne 2 or 3 months after the first symptoms will have a
disagreeable, bitter flavor.
At the Agricultural Research and Education Center of the University of Florida in Homestead, the
late Dr. Robert Conover established a test plot of papayas grown from seed of 95 accessions from
a number of countries and 94 collections in Florida in the hope of finding some virus-free strains.
Most of the introductions were highly susceptible to papaya ringspot virus; local strains showed
some resistance. Highest tolerance was shown by a dioecious, round-fruited, yellow-fleshed strain
brought from Colombia by Dr. S.E. Malo several years ago. The fruits weigh 3-5 lbs (1.36-2.27
kg).
Papaya
It is thought that at least 3 virus diseases are involved in papaya decline in East Africa and it has
been suggested that the diseases are spread in part by the tapping of green fruits for their latex (the
source of papain).
Bunchy top is a common, controllable mycoplasma disease transmitted by a leafhopper, Empoasca
papayae in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Jamaica; by that species and E.
dilitara in Cuba; and by E. stevensi in Trinidad. Bunchy top can be distinguished from boron
deficiency by the fact that the tops of affected plants do not ooze latex when pricked.
In the subtropical part of Queensland, but not in the tropical, wet climate of northern Queensland,
papaya plants are subject to die-back, a malady of unknown origin, which begins with shortening
of the petioles and bunching of inner crown leaves. Then the larger crown leaves quickly turn
yellow. Affected plants can be cut back at the first sign of the disease and if the cut stem is covered
to avoid rotting, the top will be replaced by healthy side branches. The problem occurs mainly in
the hot, dry spring after a season of heavy rains.
Anthracnose, which usually attacks the ripe fruits and is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides, was formerly the most important papaya disease in Hawaii, Mexico and India,
but it is controllable by spraying every 10 days, or every week in hot, humid seasons, and hotwater
treatment of harvested fruits. A strain of this fungus produces "chocolate spot" (small, angular,
superficial lesions). A disease resembling anthracnose but which attacks papayas just beginning to
ripen, was reported from the Philippines in 1974 and the causal agent was identified as Fusarium
solani.
A major disease in wet weather is phytophthora blight. Phytophthora parasitica attacks and rots
the stem and roots of the plant and infects and spoils the fruit surface and the stem-end, inducing
fruit fall and mummification. Fungicidal sprays and removal of diseased plants and fruits will
reduce the incidence. P. Palmivora has been identified as the chief cause of root-rot in Hawaii and
Costa Rica. In Hawaii, the strains, 'Waimanalo-23' and -24, 'Line 8' and 'Line 40', are resistant to
this fungus. 'Kapoho Solo' and '45-T22' are moderately resistant, and 'Higgins' is susceptible.
Root-rot by Pythium sp. is very damaging to papayas in Africa and India. P. ultimum causes trunk
rot in Queensland. Collar rot in 8- to 10-month old seedlings, evidenced by stunting,
leaf-yellowing and shedding, and total loss of roots, was first observed in Hawaii in 1970, and was
attributed to attack by Calonectria sp. Collar rot is sometimes so severe in India as to cause
growers to abandon their plantations.
Powdery mildew, caused by Oidium caricae (the imperfect state of Erysiphe cruciferarum the
source of mildew in the Cruciferae) often affects papaya plants in Hawaii and both plants and
fruits elsewhere. Sulfur, judiciously applied, is an effective control. Powdery mildew is caused by
Sphaerotheca humili in Queensland and by Ovulariopsis papayae in East Africa. Angular leaf
spot, a form of powdery mildew, is linked in Queensland to the fungus Oidiopsis taurica.
Corynespora leaf spot, or brown leaf spot, greasy spot or "papaya decline" (spotting of leaves and
petioles and defoliation) in St. Croix, Puerto Rico, Florida and Queensland, is caused by
Corynespora cassiicola, which is controllable with fungicides.
A new papaya disease, yellow strap leaf, similar to YSL of chrysanthemums, appeared in Florida
Papaya
during the summer in 1978 and 1979.

Black spot, resulting from infection by Cercospora papayae, has plagued Hawaiian growers since
the winter of 1952-53. It causes defoliation, reduces yield, blemishes the fruit, and is unaffected by
the hot-water dip. It can be prevented by field use of fungicides.
Rhizopus oryzae is most commonly linked with rotting fruits on Pakistan markets. R. nigricans is
the usual source of fruit rot in Queensland. Injured fruits are prone to fungal rotting caused by R.
stolonifer and Phytophthora palmivora. Stem-end rot occurs when fruits are pulled, not cut, from
the plant and the fungus, Ascochyta caricae, is permitted entrance. This fungus attacks very young
and older fruits in Queensland and also causes trunk rot. In South Africa, it affects cv 'Honey Gold'
which is also subject to spotting by Asperisporium caricae on the fruits and leaves. Both of these
diseases are controllable by fungicidal sprays.
Infection at the apex by Cladospoiium sp. is manifested by internal blight. A pre-harvest fruit rot
caused by Phomopsis caricae papayae is troublesome in Queensland and was announced from
India in 1971. A new disease, papaya apical necrosis, caused by a rhabdovirus, was reported in
Florida in 1981.
Papayas are frequently blemished by a condition called "freckles", of unknown origin; and
mysterious hard lumps of varying size and form may be found in ripe fruits. Star spot
(grayish-white, star-shaped superficial markings) appears on immature fruits in Queensland after
exposure to cold winter winds. In Uttar Pradesh, an alga, Cephaleuros mycoidea, often disfigures
the fruit surface.
In Brazil, Hawaii and other areas, a fungus, Botryodiplodia theobromae, causes severe stem rot
and fruit rot. Trichothecium rot (T. roseum) is evidenced by sunken spots soon covered by pink
mold on fruits in India. Charcoal rot, Macrophomina phaseoli, is reported in Pakistan.
Young papaya seedlings are highly susceptible to damping-off, a disease caused by soil-borne
fungiPythium aphanidermatum, P. ultimum, Phytophthorap palmivora, and Rhizoctonia
sp.,especially in warm, humid weather. Pre-planting treatment of the soil is the only means of
prevention.
Papayas generally do poorly on land previously planted with papayas and this is usually the result
of soil infestation by Pythium aphanidernwtum and Phytophthora palmivora. Plant refuse from
previous plantings should never be incorporated into the soil. Soil fumigation is necessary before
replanting papayas in the same field.
Food Uses
Ripe papayas are most commonly eaten fresh, merely peeled, seeded, cut in wedges and served
with a half or quarter of lime or lemon. Sometimes a few seeds are left attached for those who
enjoy their peppery flavor but not many should be eaten. The flesh is often cubed or shaped into
balls and served in fruit salad or fruit cup. Firm-ripe papaya may be seasoned and baked for
consumption as a vegetable. Ripe flesh is commonly made into sauce for shortcake or ice cream
sundaes, or is added to ice cream just before freezing; or is cooked in pie, pickled, or preserved as
marmalade or jam. Papaya and pineapple cubes, covered with sugar sirup, may be quick-frozen for
later serving as dessert. Half-ripe fruits are sliced and crystallized as a sweetmeat.
Papaya
Papaya juice and nectar may be prepared

from peeled or unpeeled fruit and are sold
fresh in bottles or canned. In Hawaii,
papayas are reduced to puree with sucrose
added to retard gelling and the puree is
frozen for later use locally or in mainland
USA in fruit juice blending or for making
jam.
Unripe papaya is never eaten raw because
of its latex content. Even for use in salads, it
must first be peeled, seeded, and boiled
until tender, then chilled. Green papaya is
frequently boiled and served as a vegetable.
Cubed green papaya is cooked in mixed
vegetable soup. Green papaya is commonly
canned in sugar sirup in Puerto Rico for
local consumption and for export. Green
papayas for canning in Queensland must be
checked for nitrate levels. High nitrate
Plate XLVII: PAPAYA, Carica papaya
content causes detinning of ordinary cans,
and all papayas with over 30 ppm nitrate must be packed in cans lacquered on the inside.
Australian growers are hopeful that the papaya can be bred for low nitrate uptake.
A lye process for batch peeling of green papayas has proven feasible in Puerto Rico. The fruits
may be immersed in boiling 10% lye solution for 6 minutes, in a 15% solution for 4 minutes, or a
20% solution for 3 minutes. They are then rapidly cooled by a cold water bath and then sprayed
with water to remove all softened tissue. Best proportions are 1 lb (.45 kg) of fruit for every gallon
(3.8 liters) of solution.
Young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach in the East Indies. Mature leaves are bitter and
must be boiled with a change of water to eliminate much of the bitterness. Papaya leaves contain
the bitter alkaloids, carpaine and pseudocarpaine, which act on the heart and respiration like
digitalis, but are destroyed by heat. In addition, two previously undiscovered major 1-piperideine
alkaloids, dehydrocarpaine I and II, more potent than carpaine, were reported from the University
of Hawaii in 1979. Sprays of male flowers are sold in Asian and Indonesian markets and in New
Guinea for boiling with several changes of water to remove bitterness and then eating as a
vegetable. In Indonesia, the flowers are sometimes candied. Young stems are cooked and served in
Africa. Older stems, after peeling, are grated, the bitter juice squeezed out, and the mash mixed
with sugar and salt.
In India, papaya seeds are sometimes found as an adulterant of whole black pepper. Collaborating
chemists in Italy and Somalia identified 18 amino acids in papaya seeds, principally, in descending
order of abundance, glutamic acid, arginine, proline, and aspartic acid in the endosperm; and
proline, tyrosine, lysine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid in the sarcotesta. A yellow to brown,
faintly scented oil was extracted from the sundried, powdered seeds of unripe papayas at the
Papaya
Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India. White seeds yielded 16.1% and
black seeds 26.8% and it was suggested that the oil might have edible and industrial uses.
Food Value
The papaya is regarded as a fair source of iron and calcium; a good source of vitamins A, B and G
and an excellent source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). The following figures represent the minimum
and maximum levels of constituents as reported from Central America and Cuba.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Crude Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
Magnesium
Phosphoric Acid
Fruit
23.1-25.8
85.9-92.6 g
.081-.34 g
.05-.96 g
Leaves*
6.17-6.75 g
0.5-1.3 g
.31-.66 g
12.9-40.8 mg
5.3-22.0 mg
0.25-0.78 mg
.0045-.676 mg
.021-.036 mg
.024-058 mg
.227-555 mg
35.5-71.3 mg
4-5 mg
1 mg
15-16 mg
8.3%
1.0%
1.4%
0.406% (CO)
83.3%
5.6%
0.4%
0.00636%
28,900 I.U.
38.6%
0.035%
0.225%
*Analyses made in Malaya.

Carotenoid content of papaya (13.8 mg/100 g dry pulp) is low compared to mango, carrot and
tomato. The major carotenoid is cryptoxanthin.
Papain
The latex of the papaya plant and its green fruits contains two proteolytic enzymes, papain and
chymopapain. The latter is most abundant but papain is twice as potent. In 1933, Ceylon (Sri
Papaya
Lanka) was the leading commercial source of papain but it has been surpassed by East Africa
where large-scale production began in 1937.
The latex is obtained by making incisions on the surface of the green fruits early in the morning
and repeating every 4 or 5 days until the latex ceases to flow. The tool is of bone, glass,
sharp-edged bamboo or stainless steel (knife or raxor blade). Ordinary steel stains the latex.
Tappers hold a coconut shell, clay cup, or glass, porcelain or enamel pan beneath the fruit to catch
the latex, or a container like an "inverted umbrella" is clamped around the stem. The latex
coagulates quickly and, for best results, is spread on fabric and oven-dried at a low temperature,
then ground to powder and packed in tins. Sun-drying tends to discolor the product. One must tap
1,500 average-size fruits to gain 1 1/2 lbs (.68 kg) of papain.
The lanced fruits may be allowed to ripen and can be eaten locally, or they can be employed for
making dried papaya "leather" or powdered papaya, or may be utilized as a source of pectin.
Because of its papain content, a piece of green papaya can be rubbed on a portion of tough meat to
tenderize it. Sometimes a chunk of green papaya is cooked with meat for the same purpose.
One of the best known uses of papain is in commercial products marketed as meat tenderizers,
especially for home use. A modern development is the injection of papain into beef cattle a
half-hour before slaughtering to tenderize more of the meat than would normally be tender.
Papain-treated meat should never be eaten "rare" but should be cooked sufficiently to inactivate
the enzyme. The tongue, liver and kidneys of injected animals must be consumed quickly after
cooking or utilized immediately in food or feed products, as they are highly perishable.
Papain has many other practical applications. It is used to clarify beer, also to treat wool and silk
before dyeing, to de-hair hides before tanning, and it serves as an adjunct in rubber manufacturing.
It is applied on tuna liver before extraction of the oil which is thereby made richer in vitamins A
and D, It enters into toothpastes, cosmetics and detergents, as well as pharmaceutical preparations
to aid digestion.
Papain has been employed to treat ulcers, dissolve membranes in diphtheria, and reduce swelling,
fever and adhesions after surgery. With considerable risk, it has been applied on meat impacted in
the gullet. Chemopapain is sometimes injected in cases of slipped spinal discs or pinched nerves.
Precautions should be taken because some individuals are allergic to papain in any form and even
to meat tenderized with papain.
Folk Uses
In tropical folk medicine, the fresh latex is smeared on boils, warts and freckles and given as a
vermifuge. In India, it is applied on the uterus as an irritant to cause abortion. The unripe fruit is
sometimes hazardously ingested to achieve abortion. Seeds, too, may bring on abortion. They are
often taken as an emmenagogue and given as a vermifuge. The root is ground to a paste with salt,
diluted with water and given as an enema to induce abortion. A root decoction is claimed to expel
roundworms. Roots are also used to make salt.
Crushed leaves wrapped around tough meat will tenderize it overnight. The leaf also functions as a
vermifuge and as a primitive soap substitute in laundering. Dried leaves have been smoked to
relieve asthma or as a tobacco substitute. Packages of dried, pulverized leaves are sold by "health
Papaya
food" stores for making tea, despite the fact that the leaf decoction is administered as a purgative
for horses in Ghana and in the Ivory Coast it is a treatment for genito-urinary ailments. The dried
leaf infusion is taken for stomach troubles in Ghana and they say it is purgative and may cause
abortion.
Antibiotic Activity
Studies at the University of Nigeria have revealed that extracts of ripe and unripe papaya fruits and
of the seeds are active against gram-positive bacteria. Strong doses are effective against
gram-negative bacteria. The substance has protein-like properties. The fresh crushed seeds yield
the aglycone of glucotropaeolin benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) which is bacteriostatic, bactericidal
and fungicidal. A single effective does is 4-5 g seeds (25-30 mg BITC).
In a London hospital in 1977, a post-operative infection in a kidney-transplant patient was cured
by strips of papaya which were laid on the wound and left for 48 hours, after all modern
medications had failed.
Papaya Allergy
Mention has already been made of skin irritation in papaya harvesters because of the action of
fresh papaya latex, and of the possible hazard of consuming undercooked meat tenderized with
papain. It must be added that the pollen of papaya flowers has induced severe respiratory reactions
in sensitive individuals. Thereafter, such people react to contact with any part of the plant and to
eating ripe papaya or any food containing papaya, or meat tenderized with papain.
Related Species
The mountain papaya (C. candamarcencis Hook. f.), is native to Andean regions from Venezuela
to Chile at altitudes between 6,000 and 10,000 ft (1,800-3,000 m). The plant is stout and tall but
bears a small, yellow, conical, 5-angled fruit of sweet flavor. It is cultivated in climates too cold
for the papaya, including northern Chile where it thrives mainly in and around the towns of
Coquimbo and La Serena at near-sea-level. The fruit (borne all year) is too rich in papain for
eating raw but is popular cooked, and is canned for domestic consumption and for export. The
plant grows on mountains in Ceylon and South India; does well at 1800 ft (549 m) in Puerto Rico.
Its high resistance to papaya viruses is of great interest to plant breeders there and elsewhere.
The babaco, or chamburo (C. pentagona Heilborn), is commonly cultivated in mountain valleys of
Ecuador. The plant is slender and no more than 10 ft (3 m) high, but the 5-angled fruits reach a
foot (30 cm) in length. Usually seedless, or with only a few seeds at most, the fruits are locally
eaten only after cooking. The plant is not known in the wild and botanists have suggested that it
may be a hybrid. It is propagated by cuttings and is grown on a small scale in Australia and New
Zealand primarily for export.
Strawberry Pear

Morton, J. 1987. Strawberry Pear. p. 347348. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Strawberry Pear
Hylocereus undatus Britt. & Rose
Cereus undatus Haw.
Description
Varieties
Food Uses
Food Value
Medicinal Uses
Related Species
This is one of the most beautiful and widespread members of the family Cactaceae, with one
common name for its fruit, strawberry pear, and another for the plant, night-blooming cereus.
Hylocereus undatus Britt. & Rose (syn. Cereus undatus Haw.), has been often misnamed H.
triangularis, a binomial restricted today to a very similar cactus, H. triangularis Britt. & Rose
(syns. Cereus triangularis Haw.; Cactus triangularis L.), endemic in Jamaica.
The Spanish terms pitaya, pitajaya, pitahaya, are applied to the strawberry pear in Latin America,
in common with the edible fruits of several other species of cacti; but pitahqya roja and pitahaya
blanca are applied specifically to H. undatus in Mexico; pitahaya de cardn in Guatemala.
Description
This cactus may be terrestrial or epiphytic. Its heavy, 3-sided, green, fleshy, much-branched stems
with flat, wavy wings having horny margins, may reach 20 ft (6 m) in length. They arch over rocks
or bushes, climb and form dense masses in trees, and cling to walls, by means of numerous, strong
aerial roots. There are 2 to 5 short, sharp spines at each areole. The magnificent, night-blooming,
very fragrant, bell-shaped, white flowers, up to 14 in (35 cm) long and 9 in (22.5 cm) wide, have a
thick tube bearing several linear, green scales 1 1/2 to 3 in (4-7.5 cm) long, above which is a circle
of recurved, greenish-yellow, linear segments 4 3/8 in (11 cm) long and 3/8 to 5/8 in (1-1.6 cm)
wide, and an inner circle of about 20 white, oblong-lanceolate segments 4 in (10 cm) long and 1
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/strawberry_pear_ars.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:36:57 PM]
Strawberry Pear
1/4 to l 1/2 in (3.2-4 cm) wide. Very

numerous, cream-colored stamens form a
showy fringe in the center and at the apex of
the thick perianth tube. The non-spiny fruit
is oblong-oval, to 4 in (10 cm) long, 2 1/2 in
(6.25 cm) thick, coated with the bright-red,
fleshy or yellow, ovate bases of scales.
Within is white, juicy, sweet pulp
containing innumerable tiny black, partly
hollow seeds.
The strawberry pear is believed native to
Fig. 96: The strawberry pear is the fruit of the much-admired
southern Mexico, the Pacific side of
climbing cactus (Hylocereus undatus), one of several species
Guatemala and Costa Rica, and El Salvador. called "night-blooming cereus".
It is commonly cultivated and naturalized
throughout tropical American lowlands, the West Indies, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern Florida
and the tropics of the Old World.
Degener tells how this species reached Hawaii in 1830 in a shipment of plants loaded at a Mexican
port aboard a ship en route from Boston to Canton, China. He says most of the plants died and
were being discarded during a stopover in Hawaii, but the Captain noticed that the strawberry pear
was still partly alive. Cuttings were planted and flourished and the cactus became a common
ornamental in the islands. It blooms there spectacularly but rarely sets fruit. This species is often
used as a rootstock on which to graft various ornamental cacti including Zygocactus, Epiphyllum
and Rhipsalis.
It blooms and fruits mainly in August and September.
Varieties
It is not clear whether the pitahaya amarilla of Colombia is the same as the yellow form of H.
undatus which occurs in Mexico. Perez-Arbelaez describes it under Cereus triangularis Haw. but
expresses doubt as to its true identity. The attractive and delicious fruit is served whole or halved
as dessert in hotels in Bogot. (see Plate XLVIII).
Food Uses
The ripe strawberry pear is much appreciated, especially if chilled and cut in half so that the flesh
can be eaten with a spoon. The juice is enjoyed as a cool drink. A sirup made of the whole fruit is
used to color pastries and candy. The unopened flowerbud can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable.
Food Value
We have only Aguilar Giron's assay of the pulp: water, 92.20; protein, 0.48-0.50; carbohydrates,
4.33-4.98; fat, 0.17-0.18; fiber, 1.12; ash, 1.10%.
Analyses made in Guatemala were published under the heading "Hylocereus undatus". However,
the pulp is described in accompanying notes as being "a bright, clear cerise", and the fruits
Strawberry Pear
analyzed were accordingly those of H. guatemalensis Britt. & Rose which is very much like H.
undatus, but has smaller, red-fleshed fruits instead of white-fleshed. A large vine of the
Guatemalan species has festooned a tree at the Agricultural Research and Education Center,
Homestead, Florida, for many years. The composition of this species, analyzed by Munsell, et al.
(1950), is tabulated here in lieu of comparable data on H. undatus.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Crude Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
82.5-83.0 g
0.159-0.229 g
0.21-0.61 g
0.7-0.9 g
0.54-0.68 g
6.3-8.8 mg
30.2-36.1 mg
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.55-0.65 mg
0.005-0.012 mg
0.28-0.043 mg
0.043-0.045 mg
0.297-0.430 mg
8.0-9.0 mg
*Analyses of H. guatemalensis.
Medicinal Uses
The sap of the stems of H. undatus has been utilized as a vermifuge but it is said to be caustic and
hazardous. The air-dried, powdered stems contain B-sitosterol.
Related Species
H. ocamponis Britt. & Rose (syn. Cereus ocamponis Salm-Dyck) is a similar cactus cultivated in
Guatemala, Colombia, Bolivia and Puerto Rico. It has more deeply undulate wings bordered with
brown, and longer spines. The fruit is wine-red outside and inside and the pulp is sweet.
The so-called apple cactus is Cereus Peruvianus Mill., a striking, large, erect, multiple-stemmed,
ribbed, spiny columnar species from South America, much grown as an ornamental in southern
Florida and Hawaii. The fruit is oval, to 4 in (10 cm) long, deep-pink externally and white
internally, sweet, juicy and desirable.
Pomegranate

Morton, J. 1987. Pomegranate. p. 352355. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Pomegranate
Punica granatum L.
Description
Cultivars
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Steeped in history and romance and almost in a class by itself, the pomegranate, Punica granatum
L., belongs to the family Punicaceae which includes only one genus and two species, the other
one, little-known, being P. protopunica Balf. peculiar to the island of Socotra.
Despite its ancient background, the pomegranate has acquired only a relatively few commonly
recognized vernacular names apart from its many regional epithets in India, most of which are
variations on the Sanskrit dadima or dalim, and the Persian dulim or dulima. By the French it is
called grenade; by the Spanish, granada (the fruit), granado (the plant); by the Dutch,
granaatappel, and Germans, granatapfel; by the Italians, melogranato, melograno granato, pomo
granato, or pomo punico. In Indonesia, it is gangsalan; in Thailand, tab tim; and in Malaya,
delima. Brazilians know it as roma, romeira or romazeira. The Quecchi Indian name in Guatemala
is granad. The Samoan name is limoni. The generic term, Punica, was the Roman name for
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pomegranate.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:36:59 PM]
Pomegranate
Carthage from whence the best pomegranates came to Italy.

Description
An attractive shrub or small tree, to 20 or 30
ft (6 or 10 m) high, the pomegranate is
much-branched, more or less spiny, and
extremely long-lived, some specimens at
Versailles known to have survived two
centuries. It has a strong tendency to sucker
from the base. The leaves are evergreen or
deciduous, opposite or in whorls of 5 or 6,
short-stemmed, oblong-lanceolate, 3/8 to 4
in (1-10 cm) long, leathery. Showy flowers
are home on the branch tips singly or as
many as 5 in a cluster. They are 1 1/4 in (3
cm) wide and characterized by the thick,
tubular, red calyx having 5 to 8 fleshy,
pointed sepals forming a vase from which
emerge the 3 to 7 crinkled, red, white or
variegated petals enclosing the numerous
stamens. Nearly round, but crowned at the
base by the prominent calyx, the fruit, 2 1/2 Plate XLIX: POMEGRANATE, Punica granatum
to 5 in (6.25-12.5 cm) wide, has a tough,
leathery skin or rind, basically yellow more or less overlaid with light or deep pink or rich red. The
interior is separated by membranous walls and white spongy tissue (rag) into compartments
packed with transparent sacs filled with tart, flavorful, fleshy, juicy, red, pink or whitish pulp
(technically the aril). In each sac, there is one white or red, angular, soft or hard seed. The seeds
represent about 52% of the weight of the whole fruit.
The pomegranate tree is native from Iran to the Himalayas in northern India and has been
cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region of Asia, Africa and Europe.
The fruit was used in many ways as it is today and was featured in Egyptian mythology and art,
praised in the Old Testament of the Bible and in the Babylonian Talmud, and it was carried by
desert caravans for the sake of its thirst-quenching juice. It traveled to central and southern India
from Iran about the first century A.D. and was reported growing in Indonesia in 1416. It has been
widely cultivated throughout India and drier parts of southeast Asia, Malaya, the East Indies and
tropical Africa. The most important growing regions are Egypt, China, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Iran, Iraq, India, Burma and Saudi Arabia. There are some commercial orchards in
Israel on the coastal plain and in the Jordan Valley.
It is rather commonly planted and has become naturalized in Bermuda where it was first recorded
in 1621, but only occasionally seen in the Bahamas, West Indies and warm areas of South and
Central America. Many people grow it at cool altitudes in the interior of Honduras. In Mexico it is
frequently planted, and it is sometimes found in gardens in Hawaii. The tree was introduced in
California by Spanish settlers in 1769. It is grown for its fruit mostly in the dry zones of that state
Pomegranate
and Arizona. In California, commercial pomegranate cultivation is concentrated in Tulare, Fresno

and Kern counties, with small plantings in Imperial and Riverside counties. There were 2,000
acres (810 ha) of hearing trees in these areas in the 1920's. Production declined from lack of
demand in the 1930's but new plantings were made when demand increased in the 1960's.
Cultivars
There is little information available on the types grown in the Near East, except that the cultivars
'Ahmar', 'Aswad', 'Halwa' are important in Iraq, and 'Mangulati' in Saudi Arabia. 'Wonderful'
and 'Red Loufani' are often grown in the Jewish sector of Israel, while the sweeter, less tangy
'Malissi' and 'Ras el Baghl', are favored in the Arab sector.
In India there are several named cultivars. Preference is usually given those with fleshy, juicy pulp
around the seeds. Types with relatively soft seeds are often classed as "seedless". Among the best
are 'Bedana' and 'Kandhari'. 'Bedana' is medium to large, with brownish or whitish rind, pulp
pinkish-white, sweet, seeds soft. 'Kandhari' is large, deep-red, with deep-pink or blood-red,
subacid pulp and hard seeds. Others include:
'Alandi' ('Vadki')medium-sized, with fleshy red or pink, subacid pulp, very hard seeds.
'Dholka'large, yellow-red, with patches of dark-pink and purple at base, or all-over
greenish-white; thick rind, fleshy, purplish-white or white, sweet, pulp; hard seeds. The plant is
evergreen, non-suckering, desirable for commercial purposes in Delhi.
'Kabul'large, with dark-red and pale-yellow rind; fleshy, dark-red, sweet, slightly bitter pulp.
'Muscat Red'small to medium, with thin or fairly thick rind, fleshy, juicy, medium-sweet pulp,
soft or medium-hard seeds. The plant is a moderately prolific bearer.
'Paper Shell'round, medium to large, pale-yellow blushed with pink; with very thin rind, fleshy,
reddish or pink, sweet, very juicy pulp and soft seeds. Bears heavily.
'Poona'large, with dark-red, gray or grayish-green rind, sometimes spotted, and orange-red or
pink-and-red pulp.
'Spanish Ruby'round, small to medium or large; bright-red, with thin rind, fleshy, rose-colored,
sweet, aromatic pulp, and small to medium, fairly soft seeds. Considered medium in quality.
'Vellodu'medium to large, with medium-thick rind, fleshy, juicy pulp and medium-hard seeds.
'Muscat White'large, creamy-white tinged with pink; thin rind; fleshy, cream-colored, sweet
pulp; seeds medium-hard. Bears well. Desirable for commercial planting in Delhi.
'Wonderful'originated as a cutting in Florida and propagated in California in 1896. The fruit is
oblate, very large, dark purple-red, with medium-thick rind; deep-red, juicy, winey pulp;
medium-hard seeds. Plant is vigorous and productive.
In California, 'Spanish Ruby' and 'Sweet Fruited' were the leading cultivars in the past century, but
were superseded by 'Wonderful'. In recent years 'Wonderful' is losing ground to the more colorful
'Grenada'.
Pomegranate
Mexicans take especial pride in the pomegranates of Tehuacan, Puebla. Many cultivars are grown,
including 'Granada de China' and 'Granada Agria'.
The Japanese dwarf pomegranate, P. granatum var. nana, is especially hardy and widely grown as
an ornamental in pots. The flowers are scarlet, the fruit only 2 in (5 cm) wide but borne
abundantly. Among other ornamental cultivars are 'Multiplex' with double, creamy white blooms;
'Chico', double, orange-red; 'Pleniflora', double, red; 'Rubra Plena', double, red; 'Mme.
Legrelle' and 'Variegata', double, scarlet bordered and streaked with yellowish-white.
Pollination
The pomegranate is both self-pollinated and cross-pollinated by insects. There is very little wind
dispersal of pollen. Self-pollination of bagged flowers has resulted in 45% fruit set.
Cross-pollination has increased yield to 68%. In hermaphrodite flowers, 6 to 20% of the pollen
may be infertile; in male, 14 to 28%. The size and fertility of the pollen vary with the cultivar and
season.
Climate
The species is primarily mild-temperate to subtropical and naturally adapted to regions with cool
winters and hot summers, but certain types are grown in home dooryards in tropical areas, such as
various islands of the Bahamas and West Indies. In southern Florida, fruit development is
enhanced after a cold winter. Elsewhere in the United States, the pomegranate can be grown
outdoors as far north as Washington County, Utah, and Washington, D.C., though it doesn't fruit in
the latter locations. It can be severely injured by temperatures below 12 F (-11.11 C). The plant
favors a semi-arid climate and is extremely drought -tolerant.
Soil
The pomegranate thrives on calcareous, alkaline soil and on deep, acidic loam and a wide range of
soils in between these extremes. In northern India, it is spontaneous on rockstrewn gravel.
Propagation
Pomegranate seeds germinate readily even when merely thrown onto the surface of loose soil and
the seedlings spring up with vigor. However, to avoid seedling variation, selected cultivars are
usually reproduced by means of hardwood cuttings 10 to 20 in (25-50 cm) long. Treatment with 50
ppm. indole-butyric acid and planting at a moisture level of 15.95% greatly enhances root
development and survival. The cuttings are set in beds with 1 or 2 buds above the soil for 1 year,
and then transplanted to the field. Grafting has never been successful but branches may be
air-layered and suckers from a parent plant can be taken up and transplanted.
Culture
Rooted cuttings or seedlings are set out in pre-fertilized pits 2 ft (60 cm) deep and wide and are
spaced 12 to 18 ft (3.5-5.5 m) apart, depending on the fertility of the soil. Initially, the plants are
cut back to 24 to 30 in (60-75 cm) in height and after they branch out the lower branches are
pruned to provide a clear main stem. Inasmuch as fruits are borne only at the tips of new growth, it
is recommended that, for the first 3 years, the branches be judiciously shortened annually to
encourage the maximum number of new shoots on all sides, prevent straggly development, and
Pomegranate
achieve a strong, well-framed plant. After the 3rd year, only suckers and dead branches are
removed.
For good fruit production, the plant must be irrigated. In Israel, brackish water is utilized with no
adverse effect. In California, irrigation water is supplied by overhead sprinklers which also provide
frost protection during cold spells. The pomegranate may begin to bear in 1 year after planting out,
but 2 1/2 to 3 years is more common.
The fruits ripen 6 to 7 months after flowering. In Israel, cultivar 'Wonderful' is deemed ready for
harvest when the soluble solids (SSC) reach 15%. In California, maturity has been equated with
1.8% titratable acidity (TA) and SSC of 17% or more. The fruit cannot be ripened off the tree even
with ethylene treatment. Growers generally consider the fruit ready for harvest if it makes a
metallic sound when tapped. The fruit must be picked before over maturity when it tends to crack
open if rained upon or under certain conditions of atmospheric humidity, dehydration by winds, or
insufficient irrigation. Of course, one might assume that ultimate splitting is the natural means of
seed release and dispersal.
The fruits should not be pulled off but clipped close to the base so as to leave no stem to cause
damage in handling and shipping. Appearance is important, especially in the United States where
pomegranates may be purchased primarily to enhance table arrangements and other fall
(harvest-time) decorations. Too much sun exposure causes sunscaldbrown, russeted blemishes
and roughening of the rind.
The fruit ships well, cushioned with paper or straw, in wooden crates or, for nearby markets, in
baskets. Commercial California growers grade the fruits into 8 sizes, pack in layers, unwrapped
but topped with shredded plastic, in covered wood boxes, precool rapidly, and ship in refrigerated
trucks.
The pomegranate is equal to the apple in having a long storage life. It is best maintained at a
temperature of 32 to 41 F (0-5 C). The fruits improve in storage, become juicier and more
flavorful; may be kept for a period of 7 months within this temperature range and at 80 to 85%
relative humidity, without shrinking or spoiling. At 95% relative humidity, the fruit can be kept
only 2 months at 41 F (5 C); for longer periods at 50 F (10 C). After prolonged storage, internal
breakdown is evidenced by faded, streaky pulp of flat flavor. 'Wonderful' pomegranates, stored in
Israel for Christmas shipment to Europe, are subject to superficial browning ("husk scald").
Control has been achieved by delaying harvest and storing in 2% O2 at 35.6 F (2 C). Subsequent
transfer to 68 F (20 C) dispels off-flavor from ethanol accumulation.
Pests and Diseases
The pomegranate butterfly, Virachola isocrates, lays eggs on flower-buds and the calyx of
developing fruits; in a few days the caterpillars enter the fruit by way of the calyx. These fruit
borers may cause loss of an entire crop unless the flowers are sprayed 2 times 30 days apart. A
stem borer sometimes makes holes right through the branches. Twig dieback may be caused by
either Pleuroplaconema or Ceuthospora Phyllosticta. Discoloration of fruits and seeds results
Pomegranate
from infestation by Aspergillus castaneus. The fruits may be sometimes disfigured by Sphaceloma
punicae. Dry rot from Phomopsis sp. or Zythia versoniana may destroy as much as 80% of the
crop unless these organisms are controlled by appropriate spraying measures. Excessive rain
during the ripening season may induce soft rot. A post-harvest rot caused by Alternaria solani was
observed in India in 1974. It is particularly prevalent in cracked fruits.
Minor problems are leaf and fruit spot caused by Cercospora, Gloeosporium and Pestalotia sp.;
also foliar damage by whitefly, thrips, mealybugs and scale insects; and defoliation by Euproctis
spp. and Archyophora dentula. Termites may infest the trunk. In India, paper or plastic bags or
other covers may be put over the fruits to protect them from borers, birds, bats and squirrels.
Food Uses
For enjoying out-of-hand or at the table, the fruit is deeply scored several times vertically and then
broken apart; then the clusters of juice sacs can be lifted out of the rind and eaten. Italians and
other pomegranate fanciers consider this not a laborious handicap but a social, family or group
activity, prolonging the pleasure of dining.
In some countries, such as Iran, the juice is a very popular beverage. Most simply, the juice sacs
are removed from the fruit and put through a basket press. Otherwise, the fruits are quartered and
crushed, or the whole fruits may be pressed and the juice strained out. In Iran, the cut-open fruits
may be stomped by a person wearing special shoes in a clay tub and the juice runs through outlets
into clay troughs. Hydraulic extraction of juice should be at a pressure of less than 100 psi to avoid
undue yield of tannin. The juice from crushed whole fruits contains excess tannin from the rind (as
much as .175%) and this is precipitated out by a gelatin process. After filtering, the juice may be
preserved by adding sodium benzoate or it may be pasteurized for 30 minutes, allowed to settle for
2 days, then strained and bottled. For beverage purposes, it is usually sweetened. Housewives in
South Carolina make pomegranate jelly by adding 7 1/2 cups of sugar and 1 bottle of liquid pectin
for every 4 cups of juice. In Saudi Arabia, the juice sacs may be frozen intact or the extracted juice
may be concentrated and frozen, for future use. Pomegranate juice is widely made into grenadine
for use in mixed drinks. In the Asiatic countries it may be made into a thick sirup for use as a
sauce. It is also often converted into wine.
In the home kitchen, the juice can be easily extracted by reaming the halved fruits on an ordinary
orange-juice squeezer.
In northern India, a major use of the wild fruits is for the preparation of "anardana"the juice sacs
being dried in the sun for 10 to 15 days and then sold as a spice.
Calories
63-78
Moisture
72.6-86.4 g
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
0.05-1.6 g
Trace only to 0.9 g
15.4-19.6 g
3.4-5.0 g
Pomegranate
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Citric Acid
0.36-0.73 g
3-12 mg
8-37 mg
0.3-1.2 mg
3 mg
259 mg
None to Trace
0.003 mg
0.012-0.03 mg
0.180-0.3 mg
4-4.2 mg
0.46-3.6 mg
Boric Acid
0.005 mg
*Analyses of fresh juice sacs made by various investigators.

Toxicity
A tannin content of no more than 0.25% in the edible portion is the desideratum. Many studies
have shown that tannin is carcinogenic and excessive ingestion of tannin from one or more
sources, over a prolonged period, is detrimental to health. (See also "Medicinal Uses" regarding
overdoses of bark.)
Other Uses
All parts of the tree have been utilized as sources of tannin for curing leather. The trunk bark
contains 10 to 25% tannin and was formerly important in the production of Morocco leather. The
root bark has a 28% tannin content, the leaves, 11%, and the fruit rind as much as 26%. The latter
is a by-product of the "anardana" industry. Both the rind and the flowers yield dyes for textiles.
Ink can be made by steeping the leaves in vinegar. In Japan, an insecticide is derived from the
bark. The pale-yellow wood is very hard and, while available only in small dimensions, is used for
walking-sticks and in woodcrafts.
Medicinal Uses: The juice of wild pomegranates yields citric acid and sodium citrate for
pharmaceutical purposes. Pomegranate juice enters into preparations for treating dyspepsia and is
considered beneficial in leprosy.
The bark of the stem and root contains several alkaloids including isopelletierine which is active
against tapeworms. Either a decoction of the bark, which is very bitter, or the safer, insoluble
Pelletierine Tannate may be employed. Overdoses are emetic and purgative, produce dilation of
pupila, dimness of sight, muscular weakness and paralysis.
Because of their tannin content, extracts of the bark, leaves, immature fruit and fruit rind have
been given as astringents to halt diarrhea, dysentery and hemorrhages. Dried, pulverized flower
Pomegranate
buds are employed as a remedy for bronchitis. In Mexico, a decoction of the flowers is gargled to
relieve oral and throat inflammation. Leaves, seeds, roots and bark have displayed hypotensive,
antispasmodic and anthelmintic activity in bioassay.
Guava

Morton, J. 1987. Guava. p. 356363. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Guava
Psidium guajava L.
Description
Cultivars
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Control of Wild Trees
Cropping and Yield
Handling and Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
One of the most gregarious of fruit trees, the guava, Psidium guajava L., of the myrtle family
(Myrtaceae), is almost universally known by its common English name or its equivalent in other
languages. In Spanish, the tree is guayabo, or guayavo, the fruit guayaba or guyava. The French
call it goyave or goyavier; the Dutch, guyaba, goeajaaba; the Surinamese, guave or goejaba; and
the Portuguese, goiaba or goaibeira. Hawaiians call it guava or kuawa. In Guam it is abas. In
Malaya, it is generally known either as guava or jambu batu, but has also numerous dialectal
names as it does in India, tropical Africa and the Philippines where the corruption, bayabas, is
often applied. Various tribal namespichi, posh, enandi, etc.are employed among the Indians of
Mexico and Central and South America.
Description
A small tree to 33 ft (10 in) high, with spreading branches, the guava is easy to recognize because
of its smooth, thin, copper-colored bark that flakes off, showing the greenish layer beneath; and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/guava.html (1 of 14) [5/16/2004 1:37:02 PM]
Guava
also because of the attractive, "bony" aspect

of its trunk which may in time attain a
diameter of 10 in (25 cm). Young twigs are
quadrangular and downy. The leaves,
aromatic when crushed, are evergreen,
opposite, short-petioled, oval or
oblong-elliptic, somewhat irregular in
outline; 2 3/4 to 6 in (7-15 cm) long, I 'A to
2 in (3-5 cm) wide, leathery, with
conspicuous parallel veins, and more or less
downy on the underside. Faintly fragrant,
the white flowers, borne singly or in small
clusters in the leaf axils, are 1 in (2.5 cm)
wide, with 4 or 5 white petals which are
quickly shed, and a prominent tuft of
perhaps 250 white stamens tipped with
pale-yellow anthers.
The fruit, exuding a strong, sweet, musky
odor when ripe, may be round, ovoid, or
pear-shaped, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) long, with Plate L: GUAVA, Psidium guajava
4 or 5 protruding floral remnants (sepals) at the apex; and thin, light-yellow skin, frequently
blushed with pink. Next to the skin is a layer of somewhat granular flesh, 1/8 to 1/2 in (3-12.5
mm) thick, white, yellowish, light- or dark-pink, or near-red, juicy, acid, subacid, or sweet and
flavorful. The central pulp, concolorous or slightly darker in tone, is juicy and normally filled with
very hard, yellowish seeds, 1/8 in (3 min) long, though some rare types have soft, chewable seeds.
Actual seed counts have ranged from 112 to 535 but some guavas are seedless or nearly so.
When immature and until a very short time before ripening, the fruit is green, hard, gummy within
and very astringent.
The guava has been cultivated and distributed by man, by birds, and sundry 4-footed animals for
so long that its place of origin is uncertain, but it is believed to be an area extending from southern
Mexico into or through Central America. It is common throughout all warm areas of tropical
America and in the West Indies (since 1526), the Bahamas, Bermuda and southern Florida where it
was reportedly introduced in 1847 and was common over more than half the State by 1886. Early
Spanish and Portuguese colonizers were quick to carry it from the New World to the East Indies
and Guam. It was soon adopted as a crop in Asia and in warm parts of Africa. Egyptians have
grown it for a long time and it may have traveled from Egypt to Palestine. It is occasionally seen in
Algeria and on the Mediterranean coast of France. In India, guava cultivation has been estimated at
125,327 acres (50,720 ha) yielding 27,319 tons annually.
Apparently it did not arrive in Hawaii until the early 1800's. Now it occurs throughout the Pacific
islands. Generally, it is a home fruit tree or planted in small groves, except in India where it is a
major commercial resource. A guava research and improvement program was launched by the
Guava
government of Colombia in 1961. In 1968, it was estimated that there were about 10 million wild
trees (around Santander, Boyac, Antioquia, Palmira, Buga, Cali and Cartago) bearing, 88 lbs (40
kg) each per year and that only 10% of the fruit was being utilized in processing. Bogot absorbs
40% of the production and preserved products are exported to markets in Venezuela and Panama.
Brazil's modern guava industry is based on seeds of an Australian selection grown in the botanical
garden of the Sao Paulo Railway Company at Tatu. Plantations were developed by Japanese
farmers at Itaquera and this has become the leading guava-producing area in Brazil. The guava is
one of the leading fruits of Mexico where the annual crop from 36,447 acres (14,750 ha) of
seedling trees totals 192,850 tons (175,500 MT). Only in recent years has there been a research
program designed to evaluate and select superior types for vegetative propagation and large-scale
cultivation.
In Florida, the first commercial guava planting was established around 1912 in Palma Sola. Others
appeared at Punta Gorda and Opalocka. A 40-acre (16 ha) guava grove was planted by Miami
Fruit Industries at Indian-town in 1946. There have been more than two dozen guava jelly
manufacturers throughout the state. A Sarasota concern was processing 250 bushels of guavas per
day and a Pinellas County processor was operating a 150-bushel capacity plant in 1946. There has
always been a steady market for guava products in Florida and the demand has increased in recent
years with the influx of Caribbean and Latin American people.
The guava succumbs to frost in California except in a few favorable locations. Even if summers
are too coola mean of 60 F (15.56 C)in the coastal southern part of the state, the tree will die
back and it cannot stand the intense daytime heat of interior valleys.
In many parts of the world, the guava runs wild and forms extensive thicketscalled "guayabales"
in Spanishand it overruns pastures, fields and roadsides so vigorously in Hawaii, Malaysia, New
Caledonia, Fiji, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Cuba and southern Florida that it is classed
as a noxious weed subject to eradication. Nevertheless, wild guavas have constituted the bulk of
the commercial supply. In 1972, Hawaii processed, for domestic use and export, more than 2,500
tons (2,274 MT) of guavas, over 90% from wild trees. During the period of high demand in World
War II, the wild guava crop in Cuba was said to be 10,000 tons (9,000 MT), and over 6,500 tons
(6,000 MT) of guava products were exported.
Cultivars
Formerly, round and pear-shaped guavas were considered separate speciesP. pomiferum L. and P.
pyriferum L.but they are now recognized as mere variations. Small, sour guavas predominate in
the wild and are valued for processing.
'Redland', the first named cultivar in Florida, was developed at the University of Florida
Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, and described in 1941. Very large, with
little odor, white-fleshed and with relatively few seeds, it was at first considered promising but
because of its excessively mild flavor, low ascorbic acid content, and susceptibility to algal
spotting, it was abandoned in favor of better selections.
'Supreme' came next, of faint odor, thick, white flesh, relatively few, small seeds, high ascorbic
acid content and ability to produce heavy crops over a period of 8 months from late fall to early
spring.
Guava
'Red Indian', of strong odor, medium to large size, round but slightly flattened at the base and
apex, yellow skin often with pink blush; with medium thick, red flesh of sweet flavor; numerous
but small seeds; agreeable for eating fresh; fairly productive in fall and early winter.
'Ruby', with pungent odor, medium to large size; ovate; with thick, red flesh, sweet flavor,
relatively few seeds. An excellent guava for eating fresh and for canning; fairly productive, mainly
in fall and early winter.
'Blitch' (a seedling which originated in West Palm Beach and was planted at Homestead)of
strong odor, medium size, oval, with light-pink flesh, numerous, small seeds; tart, pleasant flavor;
good for jelly.
'Patillo' (a seedling selection at DeLand propagated by a root sucker and from that by air-layer
and planted at Homestead)of very mild odor, medium size, ovate to obovate, with pink flesh,
moderate number of small seeds; subacid, agreeable flavor; good for general cooking. (As grown
in Hawaii it is highly acid and best used for processing).
'Miami Red' and 'Miami White', large, nearly odorless and thick-fleshed, were released by the
University of Miami's Experimental Farm in 1954.
In early 1952, Dr. J.J. Ochse imported into Florida air-layers of a seedless guava from Java. All
died. In September 1953, the writer received air-layers from Saharanpur, India. One survived and
was turned over to the Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead. Four more were
ordered from Coimbatore but arrived dead. Willim Whitman brought in a grafted plant from Java
in 1954 which grew well, fruited and was the source of propagating material. In 1955, Whitman
obtained a plant of a seedless guava from Cuba and it bore its first fruit in 1957. Seedless guavas
are the result of low fertility of pollen grains and self-incompatibility. The fruits tend to be
malformed and the trees are scant bearers. Applications of gibberellic acid increase fruit size,
weight and ascorbic acid content but induce prominent ridges on the surface.
Among early California cultivars were:
'Webber' (formerly 'Riverside'), of medium-large size, pale-yellowish flesh, good flavor and 9.5%
sugar.
'Rolfs', of medium size with pink flesh; of good quality and containing 9% sugar.
'Hart', fairly large, with pale-yellow flesh, and 8% sugar content.
Currently, some rare fruit fanciers grow the Florida-developed 'Red Indian' and 'White Indian';
also 'Detwiler' and 'Turnbull'.
In 1975, a guava trial project was undertaken at the Maroochy Horticultural Research Station in
southeastern Queensland, beginning with 5 strains from Hawaii. By 1981, 4 selections
(GA9-39R1T2', 'GA11-56T7', GA11-56R5T2' and 'GA11-564T1') seemed to hold promise for
processing and 2 selections ('GA11-56T3' and 'GA11-56R1T1') for marketing fresh. They were all
vegetatively propagated and tested as to performance. The green-skinned, acid, 'GA11-56' and
another Hawaiian selection, '1050', yellow-skinned and mild in flavor and odor, are being grown
commercially for processing in New South Wales.
Guava
In India much attention is given the characteristics of local and introduced guava cultivars and
their suitability for various purposes. Among common white-fleshed cultivars are:
'Apple Colour'of medium size, slightly oblate; deep-pink skin, creamy-white flesh, moderate
amount of seeds, very sweet flavor (0.34-2.12% acid, 9 to 11.36% sugar); heavy bearer; good
keeping quality; good for canning.
'Behat Coconut'large, with thick white flesh, few seeds; poor for canning.
'Chittidar'medium to large, round-ovate, white-fleshed, mild acid-sweet flavor; bears
moderately well; keeps well; good for canning.
'Habshi'of medium size with thick, white flesh, few seeds; halves good for canning.
'Lucknow 42'of medium size, roundish, with creamy-white, soft flesh; sweet, pleasant flavor;
very few seeds; good quality; bears heavily; keeps fairly well; not suitable for canning.
'Lucknow 49'medium-large with cream-white, thick flesh, few seeds; acid-sweet; good quality;
heavy bearer; high in pectin and good for jelly; halves good for canning.
'Safeda'of medium size, with very thin skin, thick, white flesh, few seeds. Outstanding quality
for canning. A famous guava, widely planted, but susceptible to wilt and branches are brittle and
break readily.
'Smooth Green'of medium size, with thick white flesh, few, small, hard seeds. Halves are firm,
good for canning.
'Allahabad'large, white-fleshed, with few, medium-sized, fairly hard seeds.
'Karela'medium-large, pear-shaped, furrowed, rough-skinned, with soft, granular, white flesh;
sweet, rich, pleasant flavor. Poor bearer. Not popular.
'Nagpur Seedless'small to medium, often irregular in shape; white-fleshed.
'Seedless' (from Allahabad)medium to large, pear-shaped to ovoid; with thick white flesh, firm to
soft, sweet. Light bearer; poor keeper.
A seedless type at Poona, India, was found to be a triploid with 33 chromosomes in place of the
usual 22.
Other white-fleshed guavas with poor canning qualities are: 'Dharwar', 'Mirzapuri', 'Nasik',
'Sindh', and 'White Supreme X Ruby'.
Among red-fleshed cultivars in India there are:
'Anakapalle'small, with thin, red flesh, many seeds; not suitable for canning.
'Florida Seedling'small, with thin, red, acid flesh; many seeds; not suitable for canning.
'Hapi'medium to large, with red flesh.
'Hybrid Red Supreme'large, with thin, red, acid flesh; moderate amount of seeds; not suitable
for canning.
Guava
'Kothrud'of medium size with medium thick, red flesh; moderate amount of seeds; not suitable
for canning.
'Red-fleshed'of medium size with many (about 567) fairly soft seeds; high in pectin and good for
jelly; not suitable for canning.
Among other Indian cultivars are: 'Banaras', 'Dholka', 'Hasijka', 'Kaffree', and
'Wickramasekara'. The latter is a small fruit and poor bearer.
Indian breeders have crossed the guava with its dwarf, small-fruited relative, P. guineense Sw.,
with a view to reducing tree size and enhancing hardiness and yield.
In Egypt, a cultivar named 'Bassateen El Sabahia' has long been the standard commercial guava.
Efforts have been made to improve quality and yield and to this end selections were made from
300 seedlings. The most promising selection was tested and introduced into cultivation in 1975
under the name 'Bassateen Edfina'. It is pear-shaped, of medium size, sometimes pink-blushed,
with thick, white flesh, few seeds, good flavor and higher ascorbic acid content than the parent. It
bears well over a long season.
In Puerto Rico, over 100 promising selections were under observation in 1963.
Numerous cultivated clones identified only by number have been evaluated for processing
characters. Others have been tested and rated for resistance to Glomerella disease. Among the few
named cultivars are 'Corozal Mixta', 'Corriente', and 'Seedling 57-6-79'.
In Trinidad, a large, white-fleshed type is known as 'Cayenne'.
In 1967, French horticulturists made a detailed evaluation of 11 guava cultivars grown at the
Neufchateau Station in Guadeloupe:
'Elisabeth'large, round, pink-fleshed, very acid; good for processing.
'Red' X 'Supreme' X 'Ruby'large, ovoid, with deep-pink flesh; agreeable for eating fresh.
'Large White'large, round, white-fleshed; low sugar content, astringent; can be useful as filler in
preserves.
'Acid Speer'large, round, with pale-yellow flesh; acid; recommended only as source of pectin.
'Red' X 'Supreme' X 'Ruby' X 'White'large to very large, pear-shaped, with creamy-white
flesh; good for eating fresh and for juice and nectar.
'Pink Indian'of medium size, red-fleshed; agreeably acid; good for eating fresh and for
processing.
'Red Hybrid'medium, sub-ovoid, red-fleshed; medium quality.
'Supreme' X 'Ruby'medium, sub-ovoid, white-fleshed; unremarkable except for high
productivity.
'Stone'small, ovoid, with deep-pink flesh; attractive and of agreeable flavor for eating fresh.
Guava
'Supreme'small, ovoid, with pale-yellow, pink-tinged flesh; sweet; good for sherbet and paste;
very productive.
'Patricia'very small, ovoid, salmon-fleshed; attractive; good to eat fresh but quickly loses its
distinct strawberry flavor; good for sirup; very productive.
Between 1948 and 1969, 21 guava cultivars from 7 countries were introduced into Hawaii. Some
have been test planted and evaluated at the Waimanalo Experimental Farm. Four sweet,
white-fleshed, thick-walled cultivars were rated as commercially desirable: 'Indonesian White',
'Indonesian Seedless', 'Lucknow 49', and 'No. 6363' (a 'Ruby' X 'Supreme' hybrid from Florida).
Lower ratings were given four others of this group: 'Apple' (too musky and seedy); 'Allahabad
Safeda' (too bumpy of surface); 'Burma' (too seedy) and 'Hong Kong White' (too seedy). Of the
sweet, pink-fleshed, thick-walled cultivars examined, 'Hong Kong Pink' was preferred. Second
choice was 'No. 6362' (a seedling of a 'Ruby' X' Supreme' cross in Florida). 'No. 7199', a seedling
of a 'Stone Acid' X 'Ruby' cross in Florida, was considered too musky. Among acid, non-musky,
thick-walled guavas, 'Beaumont', a Hawaiian selection, is large and pink-fleshed. 'Pink Acid'
(#7198), from a Florida cross of 'Speer' and 'Stone Acid', has dark-pink flesh and few seeds. These
cultivars are employed in breeding programs in Hawaii. In 1978, a new cultivar, 'Ka Hua Kula',
selected from 1,200 seedlings of 'Beaumont', was released and recommended for commercial
guava puree. The fruit is large, with thick, deep-pink flesh, and fewer seeds than 'Beaumont', and is
less acid. It is also a heavier bearer.
In Colombia, the cultivars 'Puerto Rico', 'Rojo Africano', and 'Agrio', all yield over 2,200 fruits
annually. Other high-yielding cultivars being evaluated are 'White', 'Red', 'D-13', 'D-14', and
'Trujillo 2'.
Collecting guava cultivars is a hobby of Mr. Arthur Stockdale, Finca Catalina, Zitacuaro, Mexico.
He is said to have some very superior selections in his grove.
Pollination
The chief pollinator of guavas is the honeybee (Apis mellifera). The amount of cross-pollination
ranges from 25.7 to 41.3%.
Climate
The guava thrives in both humid and dry climates. In India, it flourishes up to an altitude of 3,280
ft (1,000 m); in Jamaica, up to 3,906 ft (1,200 m); in Costa Rica, to 4,590 ft (1,400 m); in Ecuador,
to 7,540 ft (2,300 m). It can survive only a few degrees of frost. Young trees have been damaged
or killed in cold spells at Allahabad, India, in California and in Florida. Older trees, killed to the
ground, have sent up new shoots which fruited 2 years later. The guava requires an annual rainfall
between 40 and 80 in (1,000-2,000 mm); is said to bear more heavily in areas with a distinct
winter season than in the deep Tropics.
Soil
The guava seems indiscriminate as to soil, doing equally well on heavy clay, marl, light sand,
gravel bars near streams, or on limestone; and tolerating a pH range from 4.5 to 9.4. It is somewhat
salt-resistant. Good drainage is recommended but guavas are seen growing spontaneously on land
Guava
with a high water tabletoo wet for most other fruit trees.
Propagation
Guava seeds remain viable for many months. They often germinate in 2 to 3 weeks but may take
as long as 8 weeks. Pretreatment with sulfuric acid, or boiling for 5 minutes, or soaking for 2
weeks, will hasten germination. Seedlings are transplanted when 2 to 30 in (5-75 cm) high and set
out in the field when 1 or 2 years old. Inasmuch as guava trees cannot be depended upon to come
true from seed, vegetative propagation is widely practiced.
In Hawaii, India and elsewhere, the tree has been grown from root cuttings. Pieces of any roots
except the smallest and the very large, cut into 5 to 10 in (12.5-20 cm) lengths, are placed flat in a
prepared bed and covered with 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) of soil which must be kept moist. Or one can
merely cut through roots in the ground 2 to 3 ft (0.6-0.9 m) away from the tree trunk; the cut ends
will sprout and can be dug up and transplanted.
By another method, air-layers of selected clones are allowed to grow 3 to 5 years and are then
sawn off close to the ground. Then a ring of bark is removed from each new shoot; root-inducing
chemical is applied. Ten days later, the shoots are banked with soil to a height 4 to 5 in (10-12.5
cm) above the ring. After 2 months, the shoots are separated and planted out.
Pruned branches may serve as propagating material. Cuttings of half-ripened wood, 1/4 to 1/2 in
(6-12.5 mm) thick will root with bottom heat or rooting-hormone treatment. Using both, 87%
success has been achieved. Treated softwood cuttings will also root well in intermittent mist. In
Trinidad, softwood, treated cuttings have been rooted in 18 days in coconut fiber dust or sand in
shaded bins sprayed 2 or 3 times daily to keep humidity above 90%. Over 100,000 plants were
produced by this method over a 2-year period. Under tropical conditions (high heat and high
humidity), mature wood 3/4 to 1 in (2-2.5 cm) thick and 1 1/2 to 2 ft (45-60 cm) long, stuck into
1-ft (30-cm) high black plastic bags filled with soil, readily roots without chemical treatment.
In India, air-layering and inarching have been practiced for many years. However, trees grown
from cuttings or air-layers have no taproot and are apt to be blown down in the first 2 or 3 years.
For this reason, budding and grafting are preferred.
Approach grafting yields 85 to 95% success. Trials have been made of the shield, patch and
Forkert methods of budding. The latter always gives the best results (88 to 100%). Vigorous
seedlings 1/2 to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) thick are used as rootstocks. The bark should slip easily to
facilitate insertion of the bud, which is then tightly bound in place with a plastic strip and the
rootstock is beheaded, leaving only 6 to 8 leaves above the bud. About a month later, an incision is
made halfway through 2 or 3 in (5-7.5 cm) above the bud and the plant is bent over to force the
bud to grow. When the bud has put up several inches of growth, the top of the rootstock is cut off
immediately above the bud. Sprouting of the bud is expedited in the rainy season.
At the Horticultural Experiment and Training Center, Basti, India, a system of patch budding has
been demonstrated as commercially feasible. A swollen but unsprouted, dormant bud is taken as a
3/4 x 3/8 in (2 x l cm) patch from a leaf axil of previous season's growth and taped onto a space of
the same size cut 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) above the ground on a 1-year-old, pencil-thick seedling
during the period April-June. After the bud has "taken", 1/3 is cut from the top of the seedling; 2-3
weeks later, the rest of the top is cut off leaving only 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm) of stem above the
Guava
bud. This method gives 80 to 90% success. If done in July, only 70%. In Hawaii, old seedling
orchards have been topworked to superior selections by patch budding on stump shoots.
Culture
Guava trees are frequently planted too close. Optimum distance between the trees should be at
least 33 ft (10 m). Planting 16 1/2 ft (5 m) apart is possible if the trees are "hedged". The yield per
tree will be less but the total yield per land area will be higher than at the wider spacing. Some
recommend setting the trees 8 ft (2.4 m) apart in rows 24 ft (7.3 m) apart and removing every other
tree as soon as there is overcrowding. Where mass production is not desired and space is limited,
guava trees can be grown as cordons on a wire fence. Rows should always run north and south so
that each tree receives the maximum sunlight. Exudates from the roots of guava trees tend to
inhibit the growth of weeds over the root system.
Light pruning is always recommended to develop a strong framework, and suckers should also be
eliminated around the base. Experimental heading-back has increased yield in some cultivars in
Puerto Rico. In Palestine, the trees are cut back to 6 1/2 ft (2 m) every other spring to facilitate
harvesting without ladders. Fruits are borne by new shoots from mature wood. If trees bear too
heavily, the branches may break. Therefore, thinning is recommended and results in larger fruits.
Guava trees grow rapidly and fruit in 2 to 4 years from seed. They live 30 to 40 years but
productivity declines after the 15th year. Orchards may be rejuvenated by drastic pruning.
The tree is drought-tolerant but in dry regions lack of irrigation during the period of fruit
development will cause the fruits to be deficient in size. In areas receiving only 15 to 20 in (38-50
cm) rainfall annually, the guava will benefit from an additional 2,460 cm (2 acre feet) applied by
means of 8 to 10 irrigations, one every 15-20 days in summer and one each month in winter.
Guava trees respond to a complete fertilizer mix applied once a month during the first year and
every other month the second year (except from mid-November to mid-January) at the rate of 8 oz
(227 g) per tree initially with a gradual increase to 24 oz (680 g) by the end of the second year.
Nutritional sprays providing copper and zinc are recommended thrice annually for the first 2 years
and once a year thereafter. In India, flavor and quality of guavas has been somewhat improved by
spraying the foliage with an aqueous solution of potassium sulfate weekly for 7 weeks after fruit
set.
Control of Wild Trees
Large trees that have overrun pastures are killed in Fiji with 2,4-D dicamba or 2,4,5-T in diesel
fuel or old engine oil. Extensive wild stands of young trees are best burned. Cutting results in
regrowth with multiple stems.
Cropping and Yield
The fruit matures 90 to 150 days after flowering. Generally, there are 2 crops per year in southern
Puerto Rico; the heaviest, with small fruits, in late summer and early fall; another, with larger
fruits, in late winter and early spring. In northern India, the main crop ripens in mid-winter and the
fruits are of the best quality. A second crop is home in the rainy season but the fruits are less
abundant and watery. Growers usually withhold irrigation after December or January or root-prune
Guava
the trees in order to avoid a second crop. The trees will shed many leaves and any fruits set will
drop. An average winter crop in northern India is about 450 fruits per tree. Trees may bear only
100-300 fruits in the rainy season but the price is higher because of relative scarcity despite the
lower quality. Of course, yields vary with the cultivar and cultural treatment. Experiments have
shown that spraying young guava trees with 25% urea plus a wetting agent will bring them into
production early and shorten the harvest period from the usual 15 weeks to 4 weeks.
Handling and Keeping Quality
Ripe guavas bruise easily and are highly perishable. Fruits for processing may be harvested by
mechanical tree-shakers and plastic nets. For fresh marketing and shipping, the fruits must be
clipped when full grown but underripe, and handled with great care. After grading for size, the
fruits should be wrapped individually in tissue and packed in 1 to 4 padded layers with extra
padding on top before the cover is put on. They have been successully shipped from Miami to
wholesalers in major northern cities in refrigerated trucks at temperatures of 45 to 55 F
(7.22-12.78 C). It is commonly said that guavas must be tree-ripened to attain prime quality, but
the cost of protecting the crop from birds makes early picking necessary. It has been demonstrated
that fruits picked when yellow-green and artificially ripened for 6 days in straw at room
temperature developed superior color and sugar content.
Guavas kept at room temperature in India are normally overripe and mealy by the 6th day, but if
wrapped in pliofilm will keep in good condition for 9 days. In cold storage, pliofilm-wrapped
fruits remain unchanged for more than 12 days. Wrapping checks weight loss and preserves
glossiness. Unwrapped 'Safeda' guavas, just turned yellow, have kept well for 4 weeks in cold
storage at 47 to 50 F (8.33-10 C) and relative humidity of 85-95%, and were in good condition
for 3 days thereafter at room temperature of 76 to 87 F (24-44 C).
Fruits coated with a 3% wax emulsion will keep well for 8 days at 72 to 86 F (22.2-30 C) and
40 to 60% relative humidity, and for 21 days at 47 to 50 F (8.3-10 C) and relative humidity of
85-90%. Storage life of mature green guavas is prolonged at 68 F (20 C), relative humidity of
85%, less than 10% carbon dioxide, and complete removal of ethylene.
Researchers at Kurukshetra University, India, have shown that treatment of harvested guavas with
100 ppm morphactin (chlorflurenol methyl ester 74050) increases the storage life of guavas by
controlling fungal decay, and reducing loss of color, weight, sugars, ascorbic acid and non-volatile
organic acids. Combined fungicidal and double-wax coating has increased marketability by 30
days.
Australian workers report prolonged life and reduced rotting in storage after a hot water dip, but
better results were achieved by dipping in an aqueous benomyl suspension at 122 F (50 C).
Higher temperatures cause some skin injury, as does a guazatine dip which is also a less effective
fungicide.
Fruits sprayed on the tree with gibberellic acid 20-35 days before normal ripening, were retarded
nearly a week as compared with the untreated fruits. Also, mature guavas soaked in gibberellic
acid off the tree showed a prolonged storage life.
Trials at Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, India, showed that weekly spraying with 1.0%
potassium sulfate1.6 gals (6 liters) per treebeginning 7 days after fruit set and ending just before
Guava
harvesting at the pale-green stage, delays yellowing, retains firmness and flavor beyond normal
storage life.
Food technologists in India found that bottled guava juice (strained from sliced guavas boiled 35
minutes), preserved with 700 ppm SO2, lost much ascorbic acid but little pectin when stored for 3
months without refrigeration, and it made perfectly set jelly.
Pests and Diseases
Guava trees are seriously damaged by the citrus flat mite, Brevipa1pus californicus in Egypt. In
India, the tree is attacked by 80 insect species, including 3 bark-eating caterpillars (Indarbella
spp.) and the guava scale, but this and other scale insects are generally kept under control by their
natural enemies. The green shield scale, Pulvinaria psidii, requires chemical measures in Florida,
as does the guava white fly, Trialeurodes floridensis, and a weevil, Anthonomus irroratus, which
bores holes in the newly forming fruits.
The red-banded thrips feed on leaves and the fruit surface. In India, cockchafer beetles feed on the
leaves at the end of the rainy season and their grubs, hatched in the soil, attack the roots. The
larvae of the guava shoot borer penetrates the tender twigs, killing the shoots. Sometimes aphids
are prevalent, sucking the sap from the underside of the leaves of new shoots and excreting
honeydew on which sooty mold develops.
The guava fruit worm, Argyresthia eugeniella, invisibly infiltrates hard green fruits, and the citron
plant bug, Theognis gonagia, the yellow beetle, Costalimaita ferruginea, and the fruit-sucking
bug, Helopeltis antonii, feed on ripe fruits. A false spider mite, Brevipalpus phoenicis, causes
surface russeting beginning when the fruits are half-grown. Fruit russeting and defoliation result
also from infestations of red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus. The coconut mealybug,
Pseudococcus nipae, has been a serious problem in Puerto Rico but has been effectively combatted
by the introduction of its parasitic enemy, Pseudaphycus utilis.
Soil-inhabiting white grubs require plowing-in of an approved and effective pesticide during field
preparation in Puerto Rico. There are other minor pests, but the great problems wherever the guava
is grown are fruit flies.
The guava is a prime host of the Mediterranean, Oriental, Mexican, and Caribbean fruit flies, and
the melon flyCeratitis capitata, Dacus dorsalis, Anastrepha ludens, A. suspensa, and Dacus
cucurbitae. Ripe fruits will be found infested with the larvae and totally unusable except as feed
for cattle and swine. To avoid fruit fly damage, fruits must be picked before full maturity and this
requires harvesting at least 3 times a week. In Brazil, choice, undamaged guavas are produced by
covering the fruits with paper sacks when young (the size of an olive). Infested fruits should be
burned or otherwise destroyed. In recent years, the Cooperative Extension Service in Dade County,
Florida, has distributed wasps that attack the larvae and pupae of the Caribbean fruit fly and have
somewhat reduced the menace.
In Puerto Rico, up to 50% of the guava crop (mainly from wild trees) may be ruined by the
uncontrollable fungus, Glomerella cingulata, which mummifies and blackens immature fruits and
rots mature fruits. Diplodia natalensis may similarly affect 40% of the crop on some trees in South
India.
Guava
Fruits punctured by insects are subject to mucor rot (caused by the fungus, Mucor hiemalis) in
Hawaii. On some trees, 80% of the mature green fruits may be ruined.
Algal spotting of leaves and fruits (caused by Cephaleuros virescens) occurs in some cultivars in
humid southern Florida but can be controlled with copper fungicides. During the rainy season in
India, and the Province of Sancti Spiritus, Cuba, the fungus, Phytophthora parasitica, is
responsible for much infectious fruit rot. Botryodiplodia sp. and Dothiorella sp. cause stem-end rot
in fruits damaged during harvesting. Macrophomina sp. has been linked to fruit rot in Venezuela
and Gliocladium roseum has been identified on rotting fruits on the market in India.
In Bahia, Brazil, severe deficiency symptoms of guava trees was attributed to nematodes and
nematicide treatment of the soil in a circle 3 ft (0.9 in) out from the base restored the trees to
normal in 5 months. Zinc deficiency may be conspicuous when the guava is grown on light soils. It
is corrected by two summer sprayings 60 days apart with zinc sulphate.
Wilt, associated with the fungi Fusarium solani and Macrophomina phaseoli, brings about gradual
decline and death of undernourished 1-to 5-year-old guava trees in West Bengal. A wilt disease
brought about by the wound parasite, Myxosporium psidii, causes the death of many guava trees,
especially in summer, throughout Taiwan. Wilt is also caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. psidii
which invades the trunk and roots through tunnels bored by the larvae of Coelosterna beetles.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) may attack the fruits in the rainy season. Pestalotia
psidii sometimes causes canker on green guavas in India and rots fruits in storage.
Severe losses are occasioned in India by birds and bats and some efforts are made to protect the
crop by nets or noisemakers.
Food Uses
Raw guavas are eaten out-of-hand, but are preferred seeded and served sliced as dessert or in
salads. More commonly, the fruit is cooked and cooking eliminates the strong odor. A standard
dessert throughout Latin America and the Spanish-speaking islands of the West Indies is stewed
guava shells (cascos de guayaba), that is, guava halves with the central seed pulp removed,
strained and added to the shells while cooking to enrich the sirup. The canned product is widely
sold and the shells can also be quick-frozen. They are often served with cream cheese. Sometimes
guavas are canned whole or cut in half without seed removal.
Bars of thick, rich guava paste and guava cheese are staple sweets, and guava jelly is almost
universally marketed. Guava juice, made by boiling sliced, unseeded guavas and straining, is much
used in Hawaii in punch and ice cream sodas. A clear guava juice with all the ascorbic acid and
other properties undamaged by excessive heat, is made in South Africa by trimming and mincing
guavas, mixing with a natural fungal enzyme (now available under various trade names), letting
stand for 18 hours at 120 to 130 F (49-54 C) and filtering. It is made into sirup for use on
waffles, ice cream, puddings and in milkshakes. Guava juice and nectar are among the numerous
popular canned or bottled fruit beverages of the Caribbean area. After washing and trimming of the
floral remnants, whole guavas in sirup or merely sprinkled with sugar can be put into plastic bags
and quick-frozen.
There are innumerable recipes for utilizing guavas in pies, cakes, puddings, sauce, ice cream, jam,
butter, marmalade, chutney, relish, catsup, and other products. In India, discoloration in canned
Guava
guavas has been overcome by adding 0.06% citric acid and 0.125% ascorbic acid to the sirup. For
pink sherbet, French researchers recommend 2 parts of the cultivar 'Acid Speer' and 6 parts 'Stone'.
For white or pale-yellow sherbet, 2 parts 'Supreme' and 4 parts 'Large White'. In South Africa, a
baby-food manufacturer markets a guava-tapioca product, and a guava extract prepared from small
and overripe fruits is used as an ascorbic-acid enrichment for soft drinks and various foods.
Dehydrated guavas may be reduced to a powder which can be used to flavor ice cream,
confections and fruit juices, or boiled with sugar to make jelly, or utilized as pectin to make jelly
of low-pectin fruits. India finds it practical to dehydrate guavas during the seasonal glut for
jelly-manufacture in the off-season. In 1947, Hawaii began sea shipment of frozen guava juice and
puree in 5-gallon cans to processors on the mainland of the United States. Since 1975, Brazil has
been exporting large quantities of guava paste, concentrated guava pulp, and guava shells not only
to the United States but to Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Japan.
Canned, frozen guava nectar is an important product in Hawaii and Puerto Rico but may be
excessively gritty unless stone cells from the outer flesh and skin are reduced by use of a stone
mill or removed by centrifuging.
In South Africa, guavas are mixed with cornmeal and other ingredients to make breakfast-food
flakes.
Green mature guavas can be utilized as a source of pectin, yielding somewhat more and higher
quality pectin than ripe fruits.
Calories
Moisture
Crude Fiber
Protein
Fat
Ash
Carbohydrates
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Thiamine
Riboflavin
36-50
77-86 g
2.8-5.5 g
0.9-1.0 g
0.1-0.5 g
0.43-0.7 g
9.5-10 g
9.1-17 mg
17.8-30 mg
0.30-0.70 mg
200-400 I.U.
0.046 mg
0.03-0.04 mg
Niacin
Vitamin B3
Vitamin G4
0.6-1.068 mg
40 I.U.
35 I.U.
*Analyses of whole ripe guavas.

Guava
Ascorbic acidmainly in the skin, secondly in the firm flesh, and little in the central pulpvaries
from 56 to 600 mg. It may range up to 350-450 mg in nearly ripe fruit. When specimens of the
same lot of fruits are fully ripe and soft, it may decline to 50-100 mg. Canning or other heat
processing destroys about 50% of the ascorbic acid. Guava powder containing 2,500-3,000 mg
ascorbic acid was commonly added to military rations in World War II. Guava seeds contain 14%
of an aromatic oil, 15% protein and 13% starch. The strong odor of the fruit is attributed to
carbonyl compounds.
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is yellow to reddish, fine-grained, compact, moderately strong, weighs 650-750
kg per cubic meter; is durable indoors; used in carpentry and turnery. Though it may warp on
seasoning, it is much in demand in Malaya for handles; in India, it is valued for engravings.
Guatemalans use guava wood to make spinning tops, and in El Salvador it is fashioned into hair
combs which are perishable when wet. It is good fuelwood. and also a source of charcoal.
Leaves and bark: The leaves and bark are rich in tannin (10% in the leaves on a dry weight basis,
11-30% in the bark). The bark is used in Central America for tanning hides. Malayans use the
leaves with other plant materials to make a black dye for silk. In southeast Asia, the leaves are
employed to give a black color to cotton; and in Indonesia, they serve to dye matting.
Wood flowers: In Mexico, the tree may be parasitized by the mistletoe, Psittacanthus calyculatus
Don, producing the rosette-like malformations called "wood flowers" which are sold as ornamental
curiosities.
Medicinal Uses: The roots, bark, leaves and immature fruits, because of their astringency, are
commonly employed to halt gastroenteritis, diarrhea and dysentery, throughout the tropics.
Crushed leaves are applied on wounds, ulcers and rheumatic places, and leaves are chewed to
relieve toothache. The leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for coughs, throat and chest ailments,
gargled to relieve oral ulcers and inflamed gums; and also taken as an emmenagogue and
vermifuge, and treatment for leucorrhea. It has been effective in halting vomiting and diarrhea in
cholera patients. It is also applied on skin diseases. A decoction of the new shoots is taken as a
febrifuge. The leaf infusion is prescribed in India in cerebral ailments, nephritis and cachexia. An
extract is given in epilepsy and chorea and a tincture is rubbed on the spine of children in
convulsions. A combined decoction of leaves and bark is given to expel the placenta after
childbirth.
The leaves, in addition to tannin, possess essential oil containing the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
caryophyllene, -bisabolene, aromadendrene, -selinene, nerolidiol, caryophyllene oxide and
sel-11-en-4x -ol, also some triterpenoids and -sitosterol. The bark contains tannin, crystals of
calcium oxalate, ellagic acid and starch. The young fruits are rich in tannin.
Cattley Guava

Morton, J. 1987. Cattley Guava. p. 363364. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Cattley Guava
Psidium cattleianum Sabine
Psidium littorale Raddi
Psidium chinense Hort.
Description
Cultivars
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Cropping and Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Much more attractive in foliage and fruit than the common guava, the cattley guava, Psidium
cattleianum Sabine (syns. P. littorale Raddi; P. chinense Hort.), is also known as the strawberry or
purple guava, Chinese guava, Calcutta guava, araca da praia (Brazil), araza (Uruguay), cas dulce
(Costa Rica), guayaba japonesa (Guatemala), and guayaba peruana (Venezuela). In Hawaii, the
yellow-fruited is called waiawi, and the red-fruited waiawi ulaula.
Description
A fairly slow-growing shrub or small tree, the cattley guava generally ranges from 6.5 to 14 ft (2-4
m) tall but the yellow-fruited may attain 40 ft (12 m). Both have slender, smooth, brown-barked
stems and branches, and alternate, evergreen, obovate, dark, smooth, glossy, somewhat leathery
leaves 1 1/3 to 4 3/4 in (3.4-12 cm) long and 5/8 to 2 1/3 in (1.6-6 cm) wide. The fragrant flowers,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cattley_guava.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:05 PM]
Cattley Guava
5/8 to 2 1/3 in(1.5-6 cm) wide are white

with prominent stamens about 3/4 in (2 cm)
long, and are borne singly or in 3's in the
leaf axils. The fruit is round or obovoid, 1 to
1 1/2 in (2.5-4 cm) long, tipped with the
protruding 4- to 5-parted calyx;
thin-skinned, dark-red or purple-red or, in
variety lucidum, lemon-yellow.
Red-skinned fruits have white flesh more or
less reddish near the skin. Yellow-skinned
fruits have faintly yellowish flesh. In both
types, the flesh is aromatic, about 1/8 in (3
mm) thick, surrounding the central juicy,
somewhat translucent pulp filled with hard, Fig. 99: Red Cattley guava (Psidium cattleianum) (left) and
the yellow (var. lucidum) are flavorful but seedy. The trees
flattened-triangular seeds 3/32 in (2.5 mm) are very ornamental.
long. Free of the muskiness of the common
guava, the flavor is somewhat strawberry-like, spicy, subacid.
The cattley guava is believed native to the lowlands of eastern Brazil, especially near the coast. It
is cultivated to a limited extent in other areas of South America and Central America and in the
West Indies, Bermuda, the Bahamas, southern and central Florida and southern California. A
commercial planting of about 3,000 trees was established at La Mesa, California, around 1884 and
the trees were still producing heavily a half century later. Today there is much more use of the
cattley guava as an ornamental hedge than as a fruit tree. It is grown occasionally in subtropical
Africa, and in highlands of the Philippines at elevations up to 5,000 ft (1,500 m), India, Ceylon
and Malaya. It was introduced into Singapore in 1877 and at various times thereafter but failed to
survive at low altitudes. In Hawaii, it has become naturalized in moist areas, forming dense, solid
stands, and is subject to eradication in range lands. It is one of the major "weed trees" of Norfolk
Island; has escaped into pastures and woods at elevations between 1,500 and 3,000 ft (457-914 m)
in Jamaica.
Cultivars
No named cultivars are reported but there is considerable variation, apart from the distinct
botanical variety lucidum. Types with pubescent foliage are seen in cultivation in tropical
America.
Climate
The red cattley guava is hardier than the common guava and can survive temperatures as low as
22 F (-5.56 C). It can succeed wherever the orange is grown without artificial heating. The
yellow is tenderer and its climatic requirements are similar to those of the lemon. Both kinds
flourish in full sun.
Soil
The cattley guava does well in limestone and poor soils that would barely support other fruit trees.
Cattley Guava
It is shallow-rooted but the red type is fairly drought tolerant. The yellow is able to endure
flooding for short periods.
Propagation
The tree is not easily multiplied by budding or grafting because of its thin bark. It can be
propagated by layering or rooting of soft tip cuttings or root cuttings, but is usually grown from
seed even though seedlings of the red type vary in habit of growth, fruit size and seediness, also
bearing season. The yellow comes fairly true from seed.
Culture
Cultural information is scant except that irrigation is necessary to obtain full-size fruits on poor
soil, and the tree benefits from mulching when grown in limestone. Seedlings are set out 10 ft (3
m) apart in rows 10 ft (3 m) apart.
Cropping and Yield
On good soil and under irrigation, the cattley guava has yielded 30 tons from 5 acres (2 ha). In
India, it bears two crops a year, one in July and August and another in January and February. Near
the coast in California, fruits ripen continuously from August to March; inland the season is
shorter, October to December.
Keeping Quality
The fresh fruit is very perishable when fully ripe and can be kept only 3 to 4 days at room
temperature. For shipping, the fruit must be picked slightly unripe, handled carefully and
refrigerated during transit. Generally it is sent to local processors instead of to fresh fruit markets.
Hawaiian-grown fruits, slightly underripe, were stored at 32 to 36 F (0-2.22 C) for a month and
were found shriveled and decomposed. Accordingly, much higher temperatures are recommended.
Pests and Diseases
The cattley guava is usually reported as disease- and pest-free. In California, there are occasional
infestations of the greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis). The Caribbean fruit fly attacks
the fruits in southern Florida and wherever this pest abounds. In India, birds compete with humans
for the ripe fruits.
Food Uses
Cattley guavas are eaten out-of-hand without preparation except the removal of the calyx. A
delicious puree or tart-filling can be made by trimming and cooking 6 cups of red cattleys with 1
cup water and 2 cups granulated sugar and pressing through a sieve. The resulting 3 cups of puree
will be subacid, spicy and a dull, old-rose in color. Commercial growers ship to, factories which
convert the fruits into jelly, jam, butter, paste and sherbet. In Hawaii, either half-ripe or full-ripe
cattleys are cut in half, boiled, and the juice strained to make ade or punch.
Food Value
Analyses of ripe fruits in the Philippines, Hawaii and Florida have shown the following
constituents:
Cattley Guava
Red: seeds, 6%; water, 81.73-84.9%; ash, 0.74-1.50%; crude fiber, 6.14%; protein, 0.75-1-03%;
fat, 0.55%; total sugar, 4.42-4.46%.
Yellow: seeds, 10.3%; water, 84.2%; ash, 0.63-0.75%; crude fiber, 3.87%; protein, 0.80%; fat,
0.42%; total sugar, 4.32-10.01%.
Red or Yellow: ascorbic acid, 22-50 mg/100 g. Calories per 2.2 lbs (1 kg), 268.
Costa Rican Guava

Morton, J. 1987. Costa Rican Guava. p. 365. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Costa Rican Guava

Psidium friedrichsthalianum Ndz.
Description
Distribution
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Perhaps the most noteworthy of the lesser species of Psidium is P. friedrichsthalianum Ndz.,
known variously in Latin America as cas or cas cida (Costa Rica), guayaba cida (Guatemala),
guayaba agria (Colombia), guayaba de danto (Honduras), guayaba de agua (Panama), guayaba
del Choco (Ecuador), guayaba montes (Mexico), guayaba (Nicaragua), and arrayan (El Salvador).
Description
An attractive, shapely tree, 20 to 35 ft (6-10 m) high, it has wiry, quadrangular, or 4-winged,
branchlets which are dark reddish and minutely hairy. The trunk bark is red-brown with grayish
patches. The evergreen leaves are 2 to 4 3/4 in (5-12 cm) long, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) wide, elliptic or
oval, pointed, gland-dotted, thin; dark and smooth above, pale beneath. Flowers, usually borne
singly, are fragrant, white, 1 in (2.5 cm) wide, with 5 waxy petals and about 300 stamens up to 1/2
in (1.25 cm) long. The fruit is round or oval, 1 1/4 to 2 1/2 in (3-6 cm) long, with yellow skin and
soft, white, very acid flesh, and a few flattened seeds 3/16 in (5 mm) long. There is no musky
odor.
Distribution
This tree grows naturally in Colombia (especially in the Cauca and Magdalena valleys),
throughout Central America and around Oaxaca in southern Mexico, usually bordering streams
and in swampy woods along the coast and inland. It is commonly cultivated in home gardens in
temperate highlands of Costa Rica, occasionally in El Salvador, Guatemala and northern Ecuador.
It thrives in the Philippines at medium and low elevations. Introductions into California and
Florida have not been very successful, the tree bearing poorly and eventually succumbing to cold
spells.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/costa_rican_guava.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:05 PM]
Costa Rican Guava
Food Uses
Because of its acidity, the fruit is mostly used for ade, jelly and jam. It makes fine filling for pies.
Early Spaniards complained that eating the raw fruits "set the teeth on edge".
Food Value
Analyses in Guatemala show: moisture, 83.15%; protein, 0.78-0.88%; carbohydrates, 5.75-6.75%;
fat, 0.39-0.52%; fiber, 7.90%; ash, 0.80%. The fruit is rich in pectin even when fully ripe.
Other Uses
The wood is fine-grained and durable, with specific gravity of 0.650-0.700. Weight per cubic
meter is 650-700 kg.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/costa_rican_guava.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:05 PM]
Feijoa

Morton, J. 1987. Feijoa. p. 367370. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Feijoa
Feijoa sellowiana Berg.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season and Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Few fruit bearers have received as much initial high-level attention and yet have amounted to so
little as this member of the Myrtaceae, Feijoa sellowiana Berg. It is the best known of only 3
species in the genus which the German botanist, Ernst Berger, named after Don da Silva Feijoa, a
botanist of San Sebastian, Spain. The specific name honors F. Sellow, a German who collected
specimens in the province of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. The paucity of vernacular
names is indicative of its lack of popularity. In Uruguay, it is called, in Spanish, guayabo del pais.
It has been nicknamed "pineapple guava", "Brazilian guava" and "fig guava". The term
"guavasteen" has been adopted in Hawaii. The most unlikely term, "New Zealand banana", has
shown up in agricultural literature from that country.
Description
The plant is a bushy shrub 3 to 20 ft (0.9-6 m) or more in height with pale gray bark; the spreading
branches swollen at the nodes and white-hairy when young. The evergreen, opposite,
short-petioled, bluntly elliptical leaves are thick, leathery, 1 1/8 to 2 1/2 in (2.8-6.25 cm) long, 5/8
to 1 1/8 in (1.6-2.8 cm) wide; smooth and glossy on the upper surface, finely veiny and
silvery-hairy beneath. Conspicuous, bisexual flowers, 1 1/2 in (4 cm) wide, borne singly or in
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/feijoa.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:37:07 PM]
Feijoa
clusters, have 4 fleshy, oval, concave petals,

white outside, purplish-red inside; 5/8 to 3/4
in (1.6-2 cm) long, and a cluster of
numerous, erect, purple stamens with round,
golden-yellow anthers. The fruit is oblong
or ovoid or slightly pear-shaped, 1-1 1/2 to
2 1/2 in (4-6 cm) long and 1 1/8 to 2 in
(2.8-5 cm) wide, with the persistent calyx
segments adhering to the apex. The thin
skin is coated with a "bloom" of fine
whitish hairs until maturity, when it remains
dull-green or yellow-green, sometimes with
a red or orange blush. The fruit emits a
strong long-lasting perfume, even before it Fig. 100: The feijoa, or pineapple guava (Feijoa sellowiana)
which thrives best in areas too cool for the common guava, is
is fully ripe. The thick, white, granular,
watery flesh and the translucent central pulp not fully ripe until it falls to the ground.
enclosing the seeds are sweet or subacid, suggesting a combination of pineapple and guava or
pineapple and strawberry in flavor. There are usually 20 to 40, occasionally as many as 100, very
small, oblong seeds hardly noticeable when the fruit is eaten.
The feijoa is native to extreme southern Brazil, northern Argentina, western Paraguay and
Uruguay where it is common wild in the mountains. It is believed that the plant was first grown in
Europe by M. de Wette in Switzerland and, a little later, about 1887, it was known to be in the
Botanic Garden at Basle. In 1890, the renowned French botanist and horticulturist, Dr. Edouard
Andre, brought an air-layered plant from La Plata, Brazil and planted it in his garden on the
Riviera. It fruited in 1897. Dr. Andre published a description with color plates of the leaves,
flowers and fruit, in the Revue Horticole in 1898, praising the fruit and recommending cultivation
in southern France and all around the Mediterranean area.
A nurseryman in Lyons distributed air-layers from the Andre plant in 1899 and many were planted
on the Riviera, some in Italy and Spain and some in greenhouses further north. That same year, the
prominent nurserymen, Besson Freres, obtained seeds from Montevideo and raised thousands of
plants which were widely sold and proved to be of a different type than Dr. Andre's plant. Seeds
were imported by one or two other French nurserymen, and then, in 1901, seedlings from Dr.
Andre's plant were obtained by Dr. F. Franceschi of Santa Barbara, California, from M. Naudin of
Antibes. These were planted at several different California locations. In 1903, Dr. Franceschi
acquired, through F. Morel of Lyons, several air layers from Dr. Andre's plant. He planted 1 or 2 at
Santa Barbara and most of the rest were sent to Florida. The plant did not succeed in southern
Florida but became quite popular in northern Florida, primarily as an ornamental and particularly
as a clipped hedge. Dr. Henry Nehrling had two plants growing well in a shed in half-shade at
Gotha in central Florida, in 1911. They flowered and fruited but the fruit dropped before maturity
and rotted quickly. In recent years, the cultivar 'Coolidge', vegetatively propagated, has borne well
in Florida. In California, the feijoa is grown in a limited way for its fruit, especially in cool coastal
locations, mainly around San Francisco. At the Experimental Station in Honolulu a plant
flourished for 15 years without bearing fruit. Later plantings have succeeded at higher elevations.
Feijoa
The feijoa is sometimes cultivated in the highlands of Chile and other South American countries
and in the Caribbean area. Jamaica received a few plants from California in 1912 and planted them
at various altitudes. I have seen occasional plants on roadsides and in private gardens in the
Bahamas, but they do not fruit and often fail to flower. In southern India, the feijoa is grown for its
fruit in home gardens at temperate elevationsabout 3,500 ft (1,067 m).
Nowhere has the feijoa received more attention than in New Zealand. An Auckland nurseryman
introduced 3 cultivars from Australia'Coolidge', 'Choiceana', and 'Superba'about 1908. They
remained little known until 1930 when the feijoa was advertised as an ornamental plant. Later,
after improvement by selection and naming of types with large, superior fruits and their vegetative
propagation, small commercial plantings were made in citrus-growing areas of the North Island.
The New Zealand Feijoa Growers' Association was formed in 1983 and some fruit is being
exported to the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, France and Japan. New
Zealanders also plant the feijoa as a windbreak around wind-sensitive crops. It is planted as an
ornamental and for its fruit in southern Africa. Following WW II, feijoa plantations were
established in North Africa, the Caucasian region of southern Russia, as well as in Sicily, Portugal
and Italy.
In England, the feijoa is much appreciated as a wall shrub, though it flowers profusely only in
sunny locations. Planting of feijoas has been officially discouraged in New South Wales and
Victoria, Australia, because the fruit is a prime host of the fruit fly.
Varieties
As stated, right at the outset seedlings from different sources showed distinct characteristics. It is
reported that a man named H. Hehre of Los Angeles got seeds from Argentina and among the
seedlings he raised there was one that seemed superior to the others and was earlier bearing. It
became known as the 'Hehre' variety. The fruit is large, slender-pyriform, sometimes curved;
yellow-green, with thin skin, finely granular flesh, abundant, very juicy pulp, fairly numerous and
larger than ordinary seeds, sweet but not aromatic flavor; seedlings erect, compact, vigorous, with
lush foliage but only moderately fruitful.
'Andre' (the original air-layer from Brazil), has a medium to large, oblong to round fruit,
rough-surfaced, light-green, thick-fleshed, few-seeded; richly flavored and very aromatic.
Seedlings are upright, spreading to intermediate. Self-fertile; bears heavily.
Besson' (seeds from Uruguay in 1899) has small to medium, oval, smooth fruits with red or
maroon cheek; thin-skinned, with medium-thick, fine-grained flesh, very juicy pulp, numerous
seeds, and rich, aromatic flavor. Seedlings are upright or spreading. This is the type grown in
southern India. Both 'Andre' and 'Besson' have long been prominent in France.
'Coolidge', most commonly grown in California, has fruit varying from pyriform to oblong or
elongated, of medium size, with somewhat crinkled skin. It is of indifferent flavor but is a
dependable bearer being 100% self-fertile. The plant is upright and strong growing.
'Choiceana', next in favor, has round to oval, fairly smooth, medium sized to small fruit, 2 to 3
1/2 in (5-9 cm) long, of good flavor; almost always or no less than 42% self-fertile; the plant of
spreading habit and medium vigor.
Feijoa
'Superba' has round to slightly oval, medium smooth, medium to small fruits of good flavor; it is
partially (33%) self-incompatible. The plant is spreading, straggly in habit and of medium vigor.
The two leading New Zealand cultivars are selections made there from 'Choiceana' seedlings:
'Triumph' has oval, short, plump fruits, not as pointed as those of 'Coolidge'; medium to large;
smooth. The plant is upright, of medium vigor.
'Mammoth' has oval fruits resembling those of 'Coolidge'; large, to 8 1/2 oz (240 g); somewhat
wrinkled. The plant is of upright habit, and strong-growing. In 1979, 'Mammoth', 'Coolidge', and
'Triumph' grown from cuttings were being advertised in the New Zealand journal of Agriculture as
suitable for export.
Two new New Zealand cultivars, of which 20,000 plants had been sold in 1983, are 'Apollo', with
thin skin subject to bruising and purpling; and 'Gemini', having very small fruits with thin skin.
The Association recommends that growers plant the tried and true 'Triumph'.
Among Australian selections are 'Large Oval' and 'Chapman'.
'David' has round or oval fruits with skin of sweet and agreeable flavor; matures in November in
Europe.
'Roundjon' has oval or rounded fruits, somewhat rough-skinned and red-blushed; of agreeable
flavor; matures in November in Europe.
'Magnifica' is a selected seedling with very large fruits of inferior quality.
'Robert' has oval fruits with grainy flesh, and undesirable brownish leaves.
'Hirschvogel' is highly self-incompatible. 'Bliss' is partially self-incompatible.
The botanical variety variegata has variegated foliage.
Pollination
It has been said that feijoa pollen is transferred by birds that are attracted to and eat the flowers,
but bees are the chief pollinators. Most flowers pollinated with compatible pollen show 60 to 90%
fruit-set. Hand-pollination is nearly 100% effective. One should plant 2 or more bushes together
for cross-pollination unless the cultivar is known to be self-compatible. Poor bearing is usually the
result of inadequate pollination.
Climate
The feijoa needs a subtropical climate with low humidity. The optimum annual rainfall is 30 to 40
in (762-1,016 mm). The plant thrives where the weather is cool part of the year and it can
withstand temperatures as low as 12 to 15 F (-11.11-9.44 C). The flavor of the fruit is much
better in cool than in warm regions.
Soil
While the shrub is often said to be adapted to a wide range of soil types and in England does well
even where there is a high chalk content, it actually prefers rich organic soil and is not very thrifty
on light or sandy terrain. Some believe that an acid soil is best but the feijoa has done well on soil
Feijoa
with a pH of 6.2. It is drought-resistant but needs adequate water for fruit production. The site
must be well-drained. The feijoa can tolerate partial shade and slight exposure to salt spray.
Propagation
The feijoa is generally grown from seed and reproduces fairly, but not absolutely, true to type.
Seeds are separated by squeezing the seedy pulp into a container, covering with water, and letting
the liquid stand for 4 days to ferment. Seeds are then strained out and dried before sowing. The
seeds will retain viability for a year or more if kept dry. Germination takes place in 3 weeks. Soil
in nursery flats must be sterile, otherwise there will be much loss of seedlings from damping-off.
The young plants are transplanted to pots when they have produced their second leaves and later
transferred to the field without difficulty. The plant fruits in 3 to 5 years from seed. To reproduce a
special selection, vegetative propagation is, of course, necessary. In France and New
Zealand-ground-layering is practiced and rooting occurs in 6 months. Air-layering is usually
successful and the layers will fruit the second year.
Whip-, tongue-, and veneer-grafting on own rootstock the thickness of a pencil (about 2 years old)
gives a low percentage of "takes" but grafted plants will bear in 2 years. Feijoa cuttings are said to
be hard to root, but in England and Auckland cuttings are preferred. Young wood from branch tips
will root in 1 to 2 months with bottom heat. If placed in sand in a glass-covered box in full sun and
kept well watered, they will root in 10 days. In New Zealand, growers are advised to take 4 to 6 in
(10-15 cm) cuttings of side shoots in late summer, cutting close to the firm base or pulling off with
a heel of older wood which is then trimmed off; and a hormone rooting agent is applied.
Culture
A 20-year-old plant on the Riviera was reported to be 15 ft (4.5 m) high and 18 ft (5.5 m) in
diameter with a trunk 8 in (20 cm.) thick at the base. Because of the spreading habit of such types,
15 to 18 ft (4.5-5.5 m) should be allowed between plants for good fruit production. As the fruit is
borne on young wood, pruning reduces the crop, but all shoots below 12 in (30 cm) from the
ground should be removed. Some seedlings have a more erect habit and these should be chosen
where space is limited. The shrubs may be set 5 ft (1.5 m) apart to form a barrier hedge; 3 ft (1 m)
apart in a compact foundation planting. A 15 x 15 ft (4.5 x 4.5 m) spacing requires 190 plants per
acre (468 per hectare).
The feijoa requires little care beyond good soil preparation before planting. Subsequent cultivation
is inadvisable because of the plant's shallow, fibrous root system which should be left undisturbed.
If planted for its fruit, fertilizer should be low in nitrogen to avoid excessive vegetative growth. It
should be watered liberally during hot, dry spells.
Season and Yield
Flowering occurs in November in Uruguay, in late April in northern Florida, May in southern
California, early June in the San Francisco Bay area and July in England. In southern California
the fruits ripen 4 1/2 to 6 months after flowers appear, in the San Francisco Bay area, 5 1/2 to 7
months. In New Zealand fruits are borne from early February to May. The fruits fall when mature
and are collected daily from the ground and kept cool until slightly soft to the touch. Straw mulch
beneath the plants helps avoid bruising. If picked from the tree before they are ready to fall or if
eaten before they are fully ripe, the fruits will not have their full richness of flavor.
Feijoa
The 20-year-old Riviera plant referred to above is said to have borne a crop of 2,000 fruits. The
yield is poor in India where the maximum crop per season is 100 fruits per plant, probably due to
inadequate pollination or flower damage by birds.
New Zealand test plantings have given the following yields: 3rd year, 13.2 lbs (6 kg) per plant;
4,000 lbs/ acre, (4,000 kg/ha); 4th year, 26.5 lbs (12 kg) per plant; 8,000 lbs/acre, (8,000 kg/ha);
5th year, 39.7 lbs (18 kg) per plant; 12,000 lbs/acre (12,000 kg/ha). The growers now foresee 66
lbs (30 kg) per plant25 tons per hectare. In 1978, New Zealand produced 333 tons of feijoas149
tons to be sold fresh, and 184 tons to be processed.
In New Zealand, flat tomato boxes are employed for shipping feijoas. A case 4 1/2 in (11.25 cm)
deep and 12 in (30 cm) to 16 in (40 cm) long and wide holds about 20 lbs (9.07 kg).
Keeping Quality
If the atmosphere is too warm, the interior of the fruit turns brown and decays in 3 to 4 days even
though the fruit may appear intact on the surface. In cool storage, undamaged fruits will remain in
good condition for one month or longer. In France, fruits harvested in November and December
have been kept till spring at a cool temperature and with sufficient humidity. In the early days of
its introduction, feijoa shipments were successfully made from France to California despite being
30 days at sea. Today, air transport is essential for New Zealand feijoas en route to Europe. They
can be held 1 mo at 32 F (0 C) and then have only a week's life on the market.
Pests and Diseases
The shrub is remarkably pest-resistant. Occasionally it may be attacked by hard wax scale
(Ceroplastes sinensis) and associated sooty mold in New Zealand and Florida, also greedy scale in
New Zealand, by black scale (Saissetia oleae) in California and southern Europe. In New Zealand,
the larvae of a leaf-rolling caterpillar (Tortrix spp.) and of a bagworm moth may eat holes in the
leaves but they are effectively controlled with suitable sprays. Fruit flies attack the ripe fruits. A
leaf-spotting fungus (Sphaceloma sp.) occasionally requires control measures. In Florida, leaf spot
is caused by the fungi Cercospora sp., Cylindrocladium scoparium, and Phyllosticta sp.; algal leaf
spot by Cephaleuros virescens. Thread blight (Corticium stevensii Burt. and Rhizoctonia
ramicola), and mushroom root rot (Clytocybe tabescens).
Food Uses
When preparing feijoas for eating or preserving, peeling should be immediately followed by
dipping into a weak salt solution or into water containing fresh lemon juice. Both of these methods
will prevent the flesh from oxidizing (turning brown). The flesh and pulp (with seeds) are eaten
raw as dessert or in salads, or are cooked in puddings, pastry fillings, fritters, dumplings,
fruit-sponge-cake, pies or tarts, or employed as flavoring for ice cream or soft drinks. Surplus
fruits may be peeled, halved and preserved in sirup in glass jars, or sliced and crystallized, or made
into chutney, jam, jelly, conserve, relish, sauce or sparkling wine.
The thick petals are spicy and are eaten fresh by children and sometimes by adults. The petals may
be plucked without interfering with fruit set.
Feijoa
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates*
Ash
Minerals:
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Iron
84%
0.9%
0.2%
10%
0.5%
166 mg
5 mg
4 mg
8 mg
10 mg
0.05 mg
Ascorbic Acid 28-35 mg

*Analyses reported in the literature.
**Sugar 6% compared to 13% in the orange.
The fruit is rich in water-soluble iodine compounds. The percentage varies with locality and from
year to year but the usual range is 1.65 to 3.90 mg/kg of fresh fruit. Most types are high in pectin,
so that 3 lbs (1.4 kg) of jelly can be made from 1 lb (.45 kg) of fruit.
Jaboticabas

Morton, J. 1987. Jaboticabas. p. 371374. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Jaboticabas
Myrciaria cauliflora Berg.
Eugenia cauliflora DC.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Medicinal Uses
Little known outside their natural range, these members of the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, are
perhaps the most popular native fruit-bearers of Brazil. Generally identified as Myrciaria
cauliflora Berg. (syn. Eugenia cauliflora DC.), the names jaboticaba, jabuticaba or yabuticaba
(for the fruit; jaboticabeira for the tree) actually embrace 4 species of very similar trees and fruits:
M. cauliflora, sabar jaboticaba, also known as jabuticaba sabar, jabuticaba de Campinas,
guapuru, guaperu, hivapuru, or ybapuru; M. jaboticaba Berg., great jaboticaba, also known as
jaboticaba de Sao Paulo, jaboticaba do mato, jaboticaba batuba, jaboticaba grauda; M. tenella
Berg., Jaboticaba macia, also known as guayabo colorado, cambui preto, murta do campo,
camboinzinho; M. trunciflora Berg., long-stemmed jaboticaba, also called jaboticaba de Cabinho,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/jaboticabas.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:37:10 PM]
Jaboticabas
or jaboticaba do Par.
The word "jaboticaba" is said to have been derived from the Tupi term, jabotim, for turtle, and
means "like turtle fat", presumably referring to the fruit pulp.
Description
Jaboticaba trees are slow-growing, in M.
tenella, shrubby, 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 ft (1-1.35 m)
high; in M. trunciflora, 13 to 23 or rarely 40
ft (4-7 or 12 m); in the other species usually
reaching 35 to 40 ft (10.5-12 m). They are
profusely branched, beginning close to the
ground and slanting upward and outward so
that the dense, rounded crown may attain an
ultimate spread of 45 ft (13.7 m). The thin
outer bark, like that of the guava, flakes off,
leaving light patches. Young foliage and
branchlets are hairy.
The evergreen, opposite leaves, on very
short, downy petioles, are lanceolate or
elliptic, rounded at the base, sharply or
bluntly pointed at the apex; 1 to 4 in (2.5-10
cm) long, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) in width;
leathery, dark-green, and glossy.
Spectacularly emerging from the multiple Fig. 101: A jaboticaba tree in full bloom in Brazil is a striking
example of cauliflory (flowers arising from axillary buds on
trunks and branches in groups of 4, on very main trunks or older branches).
short, thick pedicels, the flowers have 4
hairy, white petals and about 60 stamens to 1/6 in (4 mm) long. The fruit, borne in abundance,
singly or in clusters, on short stalks, is largely hidden by the foliage and the shade of the canopy,
but conspicuous on the lower portions of the trunks. Round, slightly oblate, broad-pyriform, or
ellipsoid, with a small disk and vestiges of the 4 sepals at the apex, the fruits vary in size with the
species and variety, ranging from 1/4 in (6 mm) in M. tenella and from 5/8 to 1 1/2 in (1.6-4 cm)
in diameter in the other species. The smooth, tough skin is very glossy, bright-green, red-purple,
maroon-purple, or so dark a purple as to appear nearly black, slightly acid and faintly spicy in
taste; encloses a gelatinous, juicy, translucent, all-white or rose-tinted pulp that clings firmly to the
seeds. The fruit has an overall subacid to sweet, grapelike flavor, mildly to disagreeably resinous,
and is sometimes quite astringent. There may be 1 to 5 oval to nearly round but flattened, hard to
tender, light-brown seeds, 1/4 to 1/2 in (6-12.5 mm) long, but often some are abortive. The fruit
has been well likened to a muscadine grape except for the larger seeds.
M. cauliflora is native to the hilly region around Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil, also
around Santa Cruz, Bolivia, Asuncin, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina. M. jaboticaba grows
wild in the forest around Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; M. tenella occurs in the and zone of Bahia
and the mountains of Minas Gerais; in the states of Sao Paulo, Pernambuco and Rio Grande do
Jaboticabas
Sul; also around Yaguarn, Uruguay, and San Martin, Peru. M. trunciflora is indigenous to the
vicinity of Minas Gerais.
Jaboticabas are cultivated from the southern city of Rio Grande to Bahia, and from the seacoast to
Goyaz and Matto Grosso in the west, not only for the fruits but also as ornamental trees. They are
most common in parks and gardens throughout Rio de Janeiro and in small orchards all around
Minas Gerais. Many cultivated forms are believed to be interspecific hybrids.
An early "hearsay" account of the jaboticabas of Brazil was published in Amsterdam in 1658. The
jaboticaba was introduced into California (at Santa Barbara) about 1904. A few of the trees were
still living in 1912 but all were gone by 1939. In 1908, Brazil's National Society of Agriculture
sent to the United States Department of Agriculture plants of 3 varieties, 'Coroa', 'Murta', and
'Paulista'. The first 2 died soon but 'Paulista' lived until 1917. A Dr. W. Hentz bought 6 small
inarched plants in Rio Janeiro in 1911 and planted them in City Point, Brevard County, Florida.
Only one, variety 'Murta', survived and he moved it to Winter Haven in 1918. It began fruiting in
1932 and continued to bear in great abundance. Another introduction was made by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture in 1913 in the form of seeds collected by the plant explorers, P.H.
Dorsett, A.D. Shamel, and W. Popenoe from marketed fruits in Rio de Janeiro, the best of which
was described as 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) thick. In 1914, the U.S. Department of Agriculture received
seeds from 40 lbs (28 kg) of fruit purchased in the public market in Rio de Janeiro, which appeared
different from previous introductions being purple-maroon, round or slightly oblate, and, at most,
not quite 1 in (2.5 cm) in diameter. Plants grown from these seeds, believed to represent more than
one species, were distributed to Florida, California and Cuba. A seedling of M. trunciflora from
this lot was, up until 1928, grown at the Charles Deering estate, Buena Vista, Florida, and then
transferred to the then U.S.D.A. Plant Introduction Station (now the Subtropical Horticulture
Research Unit) on Old Cutler Road. It made poor growth in the limestone, but survived.
In 1918, seeds were presented to the U.S. Department of Agriculture by the Director of the Escola
Agricola de Lavras in Minas Gerais, and most of the resulting trees were growing at the Brickell
Avenue Garden until 1926 when they were killed by the 3 ft (1 m) of salt water pushed over the
garden by the disastrous hurricane of that year. Dr. David Fairchild rejoiced that, in 1923, he had
set out two of the seedlings at his home, "The Kampong", in Coconut Grove and these lived; one
fruiting for the first time in 1935. Seedlings of the same lot were successfully grown and fruited
heavily at the Atkins Garden of Harvard University at Soledad, near Cienfuegos, Cuba.
In 1920, Dr. Fairchild and P.H. Dorsett took several young trees to Panama and planted them at
Juan Mina at sea-level where they grew well and fruited for many years. Later, jaboticabas were
set out in the new Summit Botanic Garden. Between 1930 and 1940, plants presumably from the
Summit Garden, were installed at the Estacion Agrcola de Palmira, in southern Colombia.
Seeds were sent from Washington to the Philippines in 1924. Plants were sent to Puerto Arturo,
Honduras, and transferred to the Lancetilla Experimental Garden, at Tela, in 1926 and again in
1929. Other plants were transferred from the Summit Garden in 1928. The trees flourished and
fruited well in Honduras. Dr. Hamilton P. Traub, of the Orlando, Florida, branch of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, was establishing a 2 1/2 acre (nearly 1 ha) experimental block of
jaboticabas in 1940 for testing and study. At that time there were only a few bearing trees in the
state. Soon, nurseries began selling grafted trees and they began appearing in home gardens.
Jaboticabas
Varieties
M. cauliflora differs mainly from the other species in the large size of the tree and of the fruits.
The well-known variety 'Coroa' is believed to belong to this species, also 'Murta' which has
smaller leaves and larger fruits. The latter was among those sent to California in 1904.
Among commercial sorts in Brazil are:
'Sabar, a form of M. cauliflora, is the most prized and most often planted. The fruit is small,
thin-skinned and sweet. The tree is of medium size, precocious, and very productive. Early in
season; bears 4 crops a year. Susceptible to rust on flowers and fruits.
'Paulista'fruit is very large, with thick, leathery skin. The tree is a strong grower and highly
productive though it bears a single crop. Later in season than 'Sabar' Fruits are resistant to rust.
Was introduced into California in 1904.
'Rajada'fruit very large, skin green-bronze, thinner than that of 'Paulista'. Flavor is sweet and
very good. The tree is much like that of 'Paulista'. Midseason.
'Branca'fruit is large, not white, but bright-green; delicious. Tree is of medium size and prolific;
recommended for home gardens.
'Ponhema'fruit is turnip-shaped with pointed apex; large; with somewhat leathery skin. Must be
fully ripe for eating raw; is most used for jelly and other preserves. Tree is very large and
extremely productive.
'Rujada'fruit is striped white and purple.
'Roxa'an old type mentioned by Popenoe as being more reddish than purple, as the name
(meaning "red") implies.
'Sao Paulo' (probably M. jaboticaba)tree is large-leaved.
'Mineira'was introduced into California in 1904.
Pollination
It has been reported from Brazil that solitary jaboticaba trees bear poorly compared with those
planted in groups, which indicates that cross-pollination enhances productivity.
Climate
In Brazil, jaboticabas grow from sea-level to elevations of more than 3,000 ft (910 m). At Minas
Gerais, the temperature rarely falls below 33 F (0.56 C). Trees in central Florida have lived
through freezing weather. In 1917, one very young jaboticaba tree at Brooksville survived a drop
in temperature to 18 F (-7.78 C), only the foliage and branches being killed back. In southern
Florida, jaboticabas have not been damaged by brief periods of 26 F (-3.33 C).
Soil
Jaboticaba trees grow best on deep, rich, well-drained soil, but have grown and borne well on sand
in central Florida and have been fairly satisfactory in the southern part of the state on oolitic
Jaboticabas
limestone.
Propagation
Jaboticabas are usually grown from seeds in South America. These are nearly always
polyembryonic, producing 4 to 6 plants per seed. They germinate in 20 to 40 days.
Selected strains can be reproduced by inarching (approach-grafting) or air-layering. Budding is not
easily accomplished because of the thinness of the bark and hardness of the wood. Side-veneer
grafting is fairly successful. And experimental work has shown that propagation by tissue culture
may be feasible.
At the Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead, Florida, 6 related genera,
including 10 species, were tried as rootstocks in grafting experiments but none was successful.
However, M. cauliflora scions were satisfactorily joined to rootstock of the same species 1/8 to 1/4
in (3-6 mm) thick, bound with parafilm and grown in plastic bags under mist.
Culture
Jaboticaba trees in plantations should be spaced at least 30 ft (9 m) apart each way. Dr. Wilson
Popenoe wrote that in Brazil they were nearly always planted too closeabout 15 ft (4.5 m) apart,
greatly restricting normal development.
Growth is so slow that a seedling may take 3 years to reach 18 in (45 cm) in height. However, a
seedling tree in sand at Orlando, Florida, was 15 ft (4.5 m) high when 10 years old. Others on
limestone at the United States Department of Agriculture's Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit
were shrubby and only 5 to 6 ft (1.5-1.8 m) high when 10 and 11 years old. Seedlings may not bear
fruit until 8 to 15 years of age, though one seedling selection flowered in 4 to 5 years. Grafted trees
have fruited in 7 years. One planted near Bradenton, Florida, in bagasse-enriched soil started
bearing the 6th year. The fruit develops quickly, in 1 to 3 months, after flowering.
Traditionally, jaboticabas have not been given fertilizer in Brazil, the belief prevailing that it might
be prejudicial rather than beneficial because of the sensitivity of the root system. Some
agronomists have advocated digging a series of pits around the base of the tree and filling them
with organic matter enriched with 1 part ammonium sulfate, 2 parts superphosphate, and 1 part
potassium chlorate. The pits store and gradually release the nutrients and the water from the fall
rains.
In 1978, E.A. Ackerman of the Rare Fruit Council International, Inc., reported on fertilizer
experiments with 63 one-year-old and 48 two- and three-year-old seedlings in containers. Better
growth was obtained with plants in a mixture of equal amounts of acid sandy muck, vermiculite,
and peat, given feedings of 32 g of 14-14-14 slow-release fertilizer (Osmocote), roughly every 2
1/2 months, and 3 gallons (11.4 liters) of well water (pH 7.20) by a drip system every 2 days over
a period of 18 months, than plants given other treatments. The addition of chelated iron was of no
advantage; chelated zinc retarded growth rate, chelated manganese stopped growth and caused
defoliation. Abundant water was found to be essential to survival. Irrigation to promote flowering
in the dry season is recommended in Brazil to avoid the detrimental effects of flowering in the
rainy season.
Jaboticabas
Season
The time of fruiting varies with the species and/or cultivar and, of course, the locale. In Rio de
Janeiro, M. cauliflora fruits in May and M. jaboticaba in September. If the trees are heavily
irrigated in the dry season, they may bear several crops a year. Trees in southern Florida usually
produce 2 crops a year.
In Brazil, jaboticabas harvested in the interior are shipped crudely in second-hand wooden boxes
to urban markets. The toughness of the skin prevents serious bruising if the boxes are handled with
some care.
Keeping Quality
Jaboticabas, once harvested, ferment quickly at ordinary temperatures.
Pests and Diseases
If the jaboticaba blooms during a period of drought, many flowers desiccate. If blooming occurs
during heavy rains, many flowers will be affected by rust caused by a fungus. The variety 'Sabar'
is particularly susceptible to attacks of rust on the flowers and fruits. This is the most serious
disease of the jaboticaba in Brazil. The initial signs are circular spots, at first yellow then
dark-brown.
Fruit-eating birds are very troublesome to jaboticaba growers in Brazil. To protect the crop,
double-folded newspaper pages are placed around individual clusters and tied at the top. If birds
are very aggressive, or if there are high winds, the paper must be secured with string at the bottom
also. To facilitate this operation, it may be necessary in winter or early spring to do some pruning
to make it easier to climb the trees and this will result in protecting a larger portion of the crop.
Furthermore, reducing the number of fruits has the effect of increasing the size of those that
remain. In Florida, raccoons and opossums make raids on jaboticabas.
Food Uses
Jaboticabas are mostly eaten out-of-hand in
South America. By squeezing the fruit
between the thumb and forefinger, one can
cause the skin to split and the pulp to slip
into the mouth. The plant explorers, Dorsett,
Shamel and Popenoe, wrote that children in
Brazil spend hours "searching out and
devouring the ripe fruits." Boys swallow the
seeds with the pulp, but, properly, the seeds
should be discarded.
The fruits are often used for making jelly
and marmalade, with the addition of pectin.
It has been recommended that the skin be
Plate LI: JABOTICABA, Myrciaria cauliflora
removed from at least half the fruits to
Jaboticabas
avoid a strong tannin flavor. In view of the undesirability of tannin in the diet, it would be better to
peel most of them. The same should apply to the preparation of juice for beverage purposes, fresh
or fermented. The aborigines made wine of the jaboticabas, and wine is still made to a limited
extent in Brazil.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid*
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
45.7
87.1 g
0.11 g
0.01 g
12.58 g
0.08 g
0.20 g
6.3 mg
9.2 mg
0.49 mg
0.02 mg
0.02 mg
0.21 mg
22.7 mg
1 mg
7 mg
*Analyses made in 1955 at the Laboratories FIM de Nutricion, Havana, Cuba.

**Others have shown 30.7 mg.
Toxicity
Regular, quantity consumption of the skins should be avoided because of the high tannin content,
inasmuch as tannin is antinutrient and carcinogenic if intake is frequent and over a long period of
time.
Medicinal Uses
The astringent decoction of the sun-dried skins is prescribed in Brazil as a treatment for
hemoptysis, asthma, diarrhea and dysentery; also as a gargle for chronic inflammation of the
tonsils. Such use also may lead to excessive consumption of tannin.
Jambolan

Morton, J. 1987. Jambolan. p. 375378. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Jambolan
Syzygium cumini Skeels
Syzygium jambolanum DC.
Eugenia cumini Druce
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Fruiting Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
This member of the Myrtaceae is of wider interest for its medicinal applications than for its edible
fruit. Botanically it is Syzygium cumini Skeels (syns. S. jambolanum DC., Eugenia cumini Druce,
E. jambolana Lam., E. djouat Perr., Myrtus cumini L., Calyptranthes jambolana Willd.). Among
its many colloquial names are Java plum, Portuguese plum, Malabar plum, black plum, purple
plum, and, in Jamaica, damson plum; also Indian blackberry. In India and Malaya it is variously
known as jaman, jambu, jambul, jambool, jambhool, jamelong, jamelongue, jamblang, jiwat,
salam, or koriang. In Thailand, it is wa, or ma-ha; in Laos, va; Cambodia, pring bai or pring das
krebey; in Vietnam, voi rung; in the Philippines, duhat, lomboy, lunaboy or other dialectal
appelations; in Java, djoowet, or doowet. In Venezuela, local names are psjua extranjera or
guayabo psjua; in Surinam, koeli, jamoen, or druif (Dutch for "grape"); in Brazil, jambulo,
jalo, jamelo or jambol.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/jambolan.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 1:37:12 PM]
Jambolan
Description
The jambolan is fast-growing, reaching full
size in 40 years. It ranges up to 100 ft (30
m) in India and Oceania; up to 40 or 50 ft
(12-15 m) in Florida; and it may attain a
spread of 36 ft (11 m) and a trunk diameter
of 2 or 3 ft (0.6-0.9 m). It usually forks into
multiple trunks a short distance from the
ground. The bark on the lower part of the
tree is rough, cracked, flaking and
discolored; further up it is smooth and
light-gray. The turpentine-scented evergreen
leaves are opposite, 2 to 10 in (5-25 cm)
long, 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) wide;
oblong-oval or elliptic, blunt or tapering to a
point at the apex; pinkish when young;
when mature, leathery, glossy, dark-green
above, lighter beneath, with conspicuous,
yellowish midrib. The fragrant flowers, in Plate LII: JAMBOLAN, Syzygium cumini
1-to 4-in (2.5-10 cm) clusters, are 1/2 in
(1.25 cm) wide, 1 in (2.5 cm) or more in length; have a funnel-shaped calyx and 4 to 5 united
petals, white at first, then rose-pink, quickly shed leaving only the numerous stamens.
The fruit, in clusters of just a few or 10 to 40, is round or oblong, often curved; 1/2 to 2 in (1.25-5
m) long, and usually turns from green to light-magenta, then dark-purple or nearly black as it
ripens. A white-fruited form has been reported in Indonesia. The skin is thin, smooth, glossy, and
adherent. The pulp is purple or white, very juicy, and normally encloses a single, oblong, green or
brown seed, up to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) in length, though some fruits have 2 to 5 seeds tightly
compressed within a leathery coat, and some are seedless. The fruit is usually astringent,
sometimes unpalatably so, and the flavor varies from acid to fairly sweet.
The jambolan is native in India, Burma, Ceylon and the Andaman Islands. It was long ago
introduced into and became naturalized in Malaya. In southern Asia, the tree is venerated by
Buddhists, and it is commonly planted near Hindu temples because it is considered sacred to
Krishna. The leaves and fruits are employed in worshipping the elephant-headed god, Ganesha or
Vinaijaka, the personification of "Pravana" or "Om", the apex of Hindu religion and philosophy.
The tree is thought to be of prehistoric introduction into the Philippines where it is widely planted
and naturalized, as it is in Java and elsewhere in the East Indies, and in Queensland and New
South Wales, also on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and Mombasa and adjacent coast of
Kenya. In Ghana, it is found only in gardens. Introduced into Israel perhaps about 1940, it grows
vigorously there but bears scantily, the fruit is considered valueless but the tree is valued as an
ornamental and for forestry in humid zones. It is grown to some extent in Algiers.
By 1870, it had become established in Hawaii and, because of seed dispersal by mynah birds, it
Jambolan
occurs in a semiwild state on all the Hawaiian islands in moist areas below 2,000 ft (600 in). There
are vigorous efforts to exterminate it with herbicides because it shades out desirable forage plants.
It is planted in most of the inhabited valleys in the Marquesas. It was in cultivation in Bermuda,
Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, the French Islands of the Lesser Antilles and Trinidad in the early 20th
Century; was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1920; but still has remained little-known in the
Caribbean region. At the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela, Honduras, it grows and fruits
well. It is seldom planted elsewhere in tropical America but is occasionally seen in Guatemala,
Belize, Surinam, Venezuela and Brazil.
The Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture received jambolan
seeds from the Philippines in 1911, from Java in 1912, from Zanzibar and again from the
Philippines in 1920. The tree flourishes in California, especially in the vicinity of Santa Barbara,
though the climate is not congenial for production or ripening of fruit. In southern Florida, the tree
was rather commonly planted in the past. Here, as in Hawaii, fruiting is heavy, only a small
amount of the crop has been utilized in home preserving. The jambolan has lost popularity, as it
has in Malaya where it used to be frequently grown in gardens. Heavy crops litter streets,
sidewalks and lawns, attracting insects, rapidly fermenting and creating a foul atmosphere. People
are eager to have the trees cut down. Where conditions favor spontaneous growth, the seedlings
become a nuisance, as well.
Varieties
The common types of jambolan in India are: 1) Ra Jaman, with large, oblong fruits, dark-purple or
bluish, with pink, sweet pulp and small seeds; 2) Kaatha, with small, acid fruits. Among named
cultivars are, mainly, 'Early Wild', 'Late Wild', 'Pharenda'; and, secondarily, 'Small Jaman'
and 'Dabka' ('Dubaka'). In Java, the small form is called Djoowet kreekil; a seedless form is
Djoowet booten. In southern Malaya, the trees are small-leaved with small flower clusters. Farther
north, the variety called 'Krian Duat' has larger, thicker leaves and red inner bark. Fruits with
purple flesh are more astringent than the white-fleshed types.
Climate
The jambolan tree grows well from sea-level to 6,000 ft (1,800 m) but, above 2,000 ft (600 m) it
does not fruit but can be grown for its timber. It develops most luxuriantly in regions of heavy
rainfall, as much as 400 in (1,000 cm) annually. It prospers on river banks and has been known to
withstand prolonged flooding. Yet it is tolerant of drought after it has made some growth. Dry
weather is desirable during the flowering and fruiting periods. It is sensitive to frost when young
but mature trees have been undamaged by brief below-freezing temperatures in southern Florida.
Soil
Despite its ability to thrive in low, wet areas, the tree does well on higher, well-drained land
whether it be in loam, marl, sand or oolitic limestone.
Propagation
Jambolan seeds lose viability quickly. They are the most common means of dissemination, are
sown during the rainy season in India, and germinate in approximately 2 weeks. Semi-hardwood
cuttings, treated with growth-promoting hormones have given 20% success and have grown well.
Jambolan
Budding onto seedlings of the same species has also been successful. Veneer-grafting of scions
from the spring flush has yielded 31% survivors. The modified Forkert method of budding may be
more feasible. When a small-fruited, seedless variety in the Philippines was budded onto a seeded
stock, the scion produced large fruits, some with seeds and some without. Approach-grafting and
inarching are also practiced in India. Air-layers treated with 500 ppm indolebutyric acid have
rooted well in the spring (60% of them) but have died in containers in the summer.
Culture
Seedlings grow slowly the first year, rapidly thereafter, and may reach 12 ft (3.65 m) in 2 years,
and begin bearing in 8 to 10 years. Grafted trees bear in 4 to 7 years. No particular cultural
attention seems to be required, apart from frost protection when young and control measures for
insect infestations. In India, organic fertilizer is applied after harvest but withheld in advance of
flowering and fruiting to assure a good crop. If a tree does not bear heavily, it may be girdled or
root-pruned to slow down vegetative growth.
The tree is grown as shade for coffee in India. It is wind-resistant and sometimes is closely planted
in rows as a windbreak. If topped regularly, such plantings form a dense, massive hedge. Trees are
set 20 ft (6 m) apart in a windbreak; 40 ft (12 m) apart along roadsides and avenues.
Fruiting Season
The fruit is in season in the Marquesas in April; in the Philippines, from mid-May to mid-June. In
Hawaii, the crop ripens in late summer and fall. Flowering occurs in Java in July and August and
the fruits ripen in September and October. In Ceylon, the tree blooms from May to August and the
fruit is harvested in November and December. The main fruiting season in India and southern
Florida (where the tree blooms principally in February and March) extends through late May, June
and July. Small second crops from late blooms have been observed in October. Individual trees
may habitually bear later than others.
In India, the fruits are harvested by hand as they ripen and this requires several pickings over the
season. Indian horticulturists have reported a crop of 700 fruits from a 5-year-old tree. The
production of a large tree may be overwhelming to the average homeowner.
Pests and Diseases
In Florida, some jambolan trees are very susceptible to scale insects. The whitefly, Dialeurodes
eugeniae, is common on jambolans throughout India. Of several insect enemies in South India, the
most troublesome are leaf-eating caterpillars: Carea subtilis, Chrysocraspeda olearia, Phlegetonia
delatrbc, 0enospila flavifuscata, Metanastria hyrtaca, and Euproctis fraterna. These pests may
cause total defoliation. The leafminer, Acrocercops phaeospora, may be a major problem at times.
Idiocerus atkinsoni sucks the sap of flowering shoots, buds and flower clusters, causing them to
fall.
The fruits are attacked by fruit flies (Dacus diversus in India), and are avidly eaten by birds and
four-footed animals (jackals and civets). In Australia, they are a favorite food of the large bat
called "flying fox."
Jambolan
Diseases recorded as found on the jambolan by inspectors of the Florida Department of

Agriculture are: black leaf spot (Asterinella puiggarii); green scurf or algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros
virescens); mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens); anthracnose (Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides); and leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta eugeniae.
Food Uses
Jambolans of good size and quality, having a sweet or subacid flavor and a minimum of
astringency, are eaten raw and may be made into tarts, sauces and jam. Astringent fruits are
improved in palatability by soaking them in salt water or pricking them, rubbing them with a little
salt, and letting them stand for an hour. All but decidedly inferior fruits have been utilized for juice
which is much like grape juice. When extracting juice from cooked jambolans, it is recommended
that it be allowed to drain out without squeezing the fruit and it will thus be less astringent. The
white-fleshed jambolan has adequate pectin and makes a very stiff jelly unless cooking is brief.
The more common purple-fleshed yields richly colored jelly but is deficient in pectin and requires
the addition of a commercial jelling agent or must be combined with pectinrich fruits such as
unripe or sour guavas, or ketembillas.
Good quality jambolan juice is excellent for sherbet, sirup and "squash". In India, the latter is a
bottled drink prepared by cooking the crushed fruits, pressing out the juice, combining it with
sugar and water and adding citric acid and sodium benzoate as a preservative.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Crude Fiber
Carbohydrates
Ash
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Copper
Sulfur
83.7-85.8 g
0.7-0.129 g
0.15-0.3 g
0.3-0.9 g
14.0 g
0.32-0.4g
8.3-15 mg
35 mg
15-16.2 mg
1.2-1.62 mg
26.2 mg
55 mg
0.23 mg
13 mg
Chlorine
Vitamin A
Thiamine
Riboflavin
8 mg
80 I.U.
0.008-0.03 mg
0.009-0.01 mg
Jambolan
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Choline
Folic Acid
0.2-0.29 mg
5.7-18 mg
7 mg
3 mcg
*Values reported from Asian and tropical American analyses.

Also present are gallic acid and tannin and a trace of oxalic acid.
In Goa and the Philippines, jambolans are an important source of wine, somewhat like Port, and
the distilled liquors, brandy and "jambava" have also been made from the fermented fruit.
Jambolan vinegar, extensively made throughout India, is an attractive, clear purple, with a pleasant
aroma and mild flavor.
Virmani gives the following vinegar analysis: specific gravity, 1.0184; total acidity (as acetic
acid), 5.33 per 100 cc; volatile acid (as ascetic acid), 5.072 per 100 cc; fixed acidity, as citric,
.275%; total solids, 4.12 per 100 cc; ash, .42; alkalinity of ash, 32.5 (N/10 alkali); nitrogen, .6613
1; total sugars, .995; reducing sugars, .995; non-volatile reducing sugars, .995; alcohol, .159% by
weight; oxidation value, (K MnO1), 186.4; iodine value, 183.7; ester value, 40.42.
Other Uses
Nectar: The jambolan tree is of real value in apiculture. The flowers have abundant nectar and are
visited by bees (Apis dorsata) throughout the day, furnishing most of the honey in the Western
Ghats at an elevation of 4,500 ft (1,370 m) where the annual rainfall is 300 to 400 in (750-1,000
cm). The honey is of fine quality but ferments in a few months unless treated.
Leaves: The leaves have served as fodder for livestock and as food for tassar silkworms in India.
In Zanzibar and Pemba, the natives use young jambolan shoots for cleaning their teeth. Analyses
of the leaves show: crude protein, 9.1%; fat, 4.3%; crude fiber, 17.0%; ash, 6.0%; calcium, 1.3%;
phosphorus, 0.19%. They are rich in tannin and contain the enzymes esterase and galloyl
carboxylase which are presumed to be active in the biosynthesis of the tannins.
The essential oil distilled from the leaves is used to scent soap and is blended with other materials
in making inexpensive perfume. Its chemical composition has been reported by Craveiro et al. in
Brazil. It consists mainly of mono- or sesqui-terpene hydrocarbons which are "very common in
essential oils."
Bark: Jambolan bark yields durable brown dyes of various shades depending on the mordant and
the strength of the extract. The bark contains 8 to 19% tannin and is much used in tanning leather
and preserving fishing nets.
Wood: The wood is red, reddish-gray or brownish-gray, with close, straight grain. The very small,
oval pores are often connected by waxy belts of loose tissue. The medullary rays are so fine as to
be clearly visible only when greatly magnified. When fresh, the sapwood is attacked by powerpost
beetles, pinhole borers and ambrosia beetles. Both sapwood and heartwood are perforated by the
borer, Aeolesthes holosericea, if the bark is left on for as long as 10 months. Air-dried wood is apt
to crack and split. When kiln dried, the heartwood is hard, difficult to work but polishes well. It is
Jambolan
durable in water and resistant to borers and termites; tends to warp slightly. In India, it is
commonly used for beams and rafters, posts, bridges, boats, oars, masts, troughs, well-lining,
agricultural implements, carts, solid cart wheels, railway sleepers and the bottoms of railroad cars.
It is sometimes made into furniture but has no special virtues to recommend it for cabinetwork. It
is a fairly satisfactory fuel.
Medicinal Uses: The jambolan has received far more recognition in folk medicine and in the
pharmaceutical trade than in any other field. Medicinally, the fruit is stated to be astringent,
stomachic, carminative, antiscorbutic and diuretic. Cooked to a thick jam, it is eaten to allay acute
diarrhea. The juice of the ripe fruit, or a decoction of the fruit, or jambolan vinegar, may be
administered in India in cases of enlargement of the spleen, chronic diarrhea and urine retention.
Water-diluted juice is used as a gargle for sore throat and as a lotion for ringworm of the scalp.
The seeds, marketed in 1/4 inch (7 mm) lengths, and the bark are much used in tropical medicine
and are shipped from India, Malaya and Polynesia, and, to a small extent, from the West Indies, to
pharmaceutical supply houses in Europe and England. Extracts of both, but especially the seeds, in
liquid or powdered form, are freely given orally, 2 to 3 times a day, to patients with diabetes
mellitus or glycosuiria. In many cases, the blood sugar level reportedly is quickly reduced and
there are no ill effects. However, in some quarters, the hypoglycemic value of jambolan extracts is
disclaimed. Mercier, in 1940, found that the aqueous extract of the seeds, injected into dogs,
lowered the blood sugar for long periods, but did not do so when given orally. Reduction of blood
sugar was obtained in alloxan diabetes in rabbits. In experiments at the Central Drug Research
Institute, Lucknow, the dried alcoholic extract of jambolan seeds, given orally, reduced blood
sugar and glycosuria in patients.
The seeds are claimed by some to contain an alkaloid, jambosine, and a glycoside, jambolin or
antimellin, which halts the diastatic conversion of starch into sugar. The seed extract has lowered
blood pressure by 34.6% and this action is attributed to the ellagic acid content. This and 34 other
polyphenols in the seeds and bark have been isolated and identified by Bhatia and Bajaj.
Other reported constituents of the seeds are: protein, 6.3-8.5%; fat, 1.18%; crude fiber, 16.9%; ash,
21.72%; calcium, 0.41%; phosphorus, 0.17%; fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic);
starch, 41%; dextrin, 6.1%; a trace of phytosterol; and 6 to 19% tannin.
The leaves, steeped in alcohol, are prescribed in diabetes. The leaf juice is effective in the
treatment of dysentery, either alone or in combination with the juice of mango or emblic leaves.
Jambolan leaves may be helpful as poultices on skin diseases. They yield 12 to 13% tannin (by dry
weight).
The leaves, stems, flowerbuds, opened blossoms, and bark have some antibiotic activity. A
decoction of the bark is taken internally for dyspepsia, dysentery, and diarrhea and also serves as
an enema. The root bark is similarly employed. Bark decoctions are taken in cases of asthma and
bronchitis and are gargled or used as mouthwash for the astringent effect on mouth ulcerations,
spongy gums, and stomatitis. Ashes of the bark, mixed with water, are spread over local
inflammations, or, blended with oil, applied to bums. In modern therapy, tannin is no longer
approved on burned tissue because it is absorbed and can cause cancer. Excessive oral intake of
tannin-rich plant products can also be dangerous to health.
Jambolan
Malay Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Malay Apple. p. 378381. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Malay Apple
Syzygium malaccense Merr. & Perry
Eugenia malaccensis L.
Jambos malaccensis DC.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Season
Yield
Food Uses
Other Uses
A delight to the eye in every respect, the Malay apple is much admired for the beauty of the tree,
its flowers and its colorful, glistening fruits, without parallel in the family Myrtaceae. Botanically
identified as Syzygium malaccense Merr. & Perry (syns. Eugenia malaccensis L., Jambos
malaccensis DC.), this species has earned a few alternate English names including Malay
rose-apple, mountain apple, water apple, and, unfortunately, Otaheite apple, which is better limited
to the ambarella, Spondias dulcis Park., and cashew, or French cashew (Guyana) or Otaheite
cashew (India) because of its resemblance to the cashew apple, the pseudofruit or swollen
fruit-stalk of the cashew nut.
In Malaya there are many local names including jambu merah, jambu bar, jambu bol, jambu
melaka, jambu kling and jambu kapal. In Thailand, it is chom-phu-sa-raek or chom-phu-daeng; in
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/malay_apple.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:37:14 PM]
Malay Apple
Cambodia, chompuh kraham; in Vietnam, man hurong tau; in Indonesia, darsana, jambu tersana,
or djamboo bol; in the Philippines, makopang-kalabau or tersana; in Guam, makupa; in Tahiti,
ahia; in Hawaii, ohia. In the French language it is jambosier rouge, poire de Malaque, pomme
Malac (corrupted to pomerac), pomme de Malaisie, and pomme de Tahiti. Among Spanish names
are: pomarosa, or pomarrosa, Malaya (Puerto Rico); manzana (Costa Rica), maraon japons (EI
Salvador), pomarosa de Malaca (Colombia); pera de agua or pomags (Venezuela); and maraon
de Curacao (Panama), though the somewhat similar plant in Curacao is S. samarangense Merr. &
Perry, locally called cashu di Surinam, in Papiamento, Curacaose appel, in Dutch. The latter
species has yellowish-white flowers and light-red, greenish-white or cream-colored fruits. (See
Java apple pp. 381-2.)
Description
The Malay apple tree is rather fast-growing,
reaching 40 to 60 ft (12-18 m) in height, and
has an erect trunk to 15 ft (4.5 m) in
circumference and a pyramidal or
cylindrical crown. Its evergreen leaves are
opposite, short-petioled, elliptic-lanceolate
or oblanceolate; soft-leathery, dark-green
and fairly glossy on the upper surface, paler
beneath; 6 to 18 in (15-45 cm) long, 3 1/2 to
8 in (9-20 cm) wide. The veins are indistinct
above, but they and the pale midrib are
prominent on the underside. New growth is
wine-red at first, changing to pink-buff. The
abundant flowers, only mildly fragrant, and
borne on the upper trunk and along leafless Fig. 102: Glossy, red, juicy, Malay apples (Syzygium
portions of mature branches in short-stalked malaccense) are sold in markets and along streets in warm
areas of the Old and New World.
clusters of 2 to 8, are 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm)
wide, and composed of a funnel-like base topped by 5 thick, green sepals, 4 usually pinkish-purple
to dark-red (sometimes white, yellow or orange) petals, and numerous concolorous stamens to 1
1/2 in (4 cm) long tipped with yellow anthers. Though showy, the flowers are hidden by the
foliage until they fall and form a lovely carpet on the ground. The fruit, oblong, obovoid, or
bell-shaped, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm.) long, 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5 cm) wide at the apex, has thin, smooth,
waxy skin, rose-red or crimson or sometimes white with streaks of red or pink, and white, crisp or
spongy, juicy flesh of very mild, sweetish flavor. There may be a single oblate or nearly round
seed or 2 hemispherical seeds, 5/8 to 3/4 in (1.6-2 cm) in width, light-brown externally, green
internally and somewhat meaty in texture. The fruits of some trees are entirely seedless.
The Malay apple is presumed to be a native of Malaysia. It is commonly cultivated from Java to
the Philippines and Vietnam, also in Bengal and South India. Portuguese voyagers carried it from
Malacca to Goa and from there it was introduced into East Africa. It must have spread throughout
the Pacific Islands in very early times for it is featured in Fijian mythology and the wood was used
by ancient Hawaiians to make idols. Indeed, it has been recorded that, before the arrival of
Malay Apple
missionaries in Hawaii, there were no fruits except bananas, coconuts and the Malay apple. The
flowers are considered sacred to Pele, the fiery volcano goddess. Captain Bligh conveyed small
trees of 3 varieties from the islands of Timor and Tahiti to Jamaica in 1793. The tree was growing
under glass in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1839, and specimens were fruiting in Bermuda in
1878.
Eggers, who studied the flora of St. Croix, reported seeing naturalized trees in shaded valleys
during his stay on the island from 1870 to 1876. The Malay apple was unknown in Puerto Rico in
1903 but must have arrived soon after. Britton and Wilson observed 2 trees 43 ft (13 m) high at
Happy Hollow in 1924. Thereafter, the tree was rather frequently planted as an ornamental or
wind-break. Perhaps the Portuguese were responsible for its introduction into Brazil, for it is
cultivated there, as it is also in Surinam and Panama. Dr. David Fairchild sent seeds from Panama
to the United States Department of Agriculture in 1921. In 1929, young trees from the Canal Zone
were transported to the Lancetilla Experimental Gardens at Tela, Honduras, where they flourished
and fruited. The Malay apple is sometimes seen in other parts of Central America, including
Belize, El Salvador and Costa Rica, much more frequently in parks and gardens in Venezuela. The
fruits are sold in local markets and along the streets wherever the tree is grown.
Varieties
Ochse mentions an oblong to pear-shaped, white form called djamboo pootih, djamboo bodas, or
djamboo kemang, which, in Java, is less flavorful than the red type. He says that there are many
forms because of seedling variation. A large, especially sweet and juicy clone was introduced into
the Philippines from Hawaii in 1922.
Climate
The Malay apple is strictly tropical, too tender for Florida and California except under very
unusual conditions. It is naturalized and cultivated from sea-level to 9,000 ft (2,740 m) in valleys
and on mountain slopes of the lowest forest zone of the Hawaiian Islands, and is grown up to
2,000 ft (610 m) in Ceylon and Puerto Rico. The tree needs a humid climate, with an annual
rainfall of 60 in (152 cm) or more.
Soil
The tree grows vigorously on a range of soil types from sand to heavy clay. It tolerates moderately
acid soil, reacts unfavorably to highly alkaline situations. In India, it grows best on the banks of
ponds, lakes and streams where there is good drainage and no standing water. It is reported to be
one of the first trees to spring up in new lava flows in Hawaii.
Propagation
Malay apple seeds germinate readily. Many sprout on the ground under the tree. While seed
propagation is common, superior types are multiplied by budding onto their own seedlings.
Air-layering has been successful and cuttings have been rooted in sand in Hawaii. Seeds are
planted no more than 1 1/2 in (4 cm) deep in nurseries or directly in the field. They will germinate
in 2 to 4 weeks and, if in nurseries, the seedlings are transplanted to the field when 8 months old.
Cuttings are ready for transplanting in 6 weeks after rooting.
Malay Apple
Culture
In India, Malay apple trees are spaced 26 to 32 feet (8-10 m) apart in fields prepared and enriched
as for any other crop, and thereafter they require little care except for elimination of weeds and
periodic fertilization and plentiful irrigation in very dry weather.
Pests and Diseases
Young Malay apple trees are frequently attacked by termites in India. It is reported that
sap-feeders, defoliators, miners and borers have been found on the foliage and on dead stems.
Season
In Java, the tree flowers in May and June and the fruits ripen in August and September. The
fruiting season is about the same around Castleton Gardens in Jamaica but at the lower level of
Kingston it is earlier and ends during the first week of June. In India, the main crop occurs from
May to July and there is often a second crop in November and December. In Puerto Rico, the tree
may flower 2 or 3 times a year, in spring, summer and fall, the blooming season covering 40 to 60
days. The spring and fall flowering seasons produce the biggest crops. Fruits mature in 60 days
from the full opening of the flowers and they fall quickly after they become fully ripe and
deteriorate rapidly. For marketing, they must be hand-picked to avoid damage and to have longer
shelf-life.
Yield
The yield varies from 48 to 188 lbs (21-85 kg) per tree.
Food Uses
The ripe fruit is eaten raw though many people consider it insipid. It is best stewed with cloves or
other flavoring and served with cream as dessert. Asiatic people in Guyana stew the peeled fruit,
cooking the skin separately to make a sirup which they add to the cooked fruit. Malayan people
may add the petals of the red-flowered hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) to make the product
more colorful. Malay apples are often cooked with acid fruits to the benefit of both. They are
sometimes made into sauce or preserves. The slightly unripe fruits are used for making jelly and
pickles..
In Puerto Rico, both red and white table wines are made from the Malay apple. The fruits are
picked as soon as they are fully colored (not allowed to fall) and immediately dipped in boiling
water for one minute to destroy surface bacteria and fungi. The seeds are removed and, for red
wine, the fruits are passed through a meat grinder and the resulting juice and pulp weighed. To this
material, they add twice the amount of water and 1 1/2 lbs (680 g) of white sugar per gallon, and
pour into sterilized barrels with the mouth covered soon with cheesecloth. Yeast is added and a
coil inserted to maintain circulation of the water. The barrels are kept in the coolest place possible
for 6 months to 1 year, then the wine is filtered. It will be of a pale-rose color so artificial color is
added to give it a rich-red hue. In making white wine, the fruits are peeled, the only liquid is the
fruit juice, and less sugar is used, only 1 1/4 lbs (565 g) per gallon, so as to limit alcohol formation
over a fermenting period of 3 to 6 months.
In Indonesia, the flowers are eaten in salads or are preserved in sirup. Young leaves and shoots,
Malay Apple
before turning green, are consumed raw with rice or are cooked and eaten as greens.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
(Vitamin A)
90.3-91.6 g
0.5-0.7 g
0.1-0.2 g
0.6-0.8 g
0.26-0.39 g
5.6-5.9 mg
11.6-17.9 mg
0.2-0.82 mg
0.003-0.008 mg
3-10 I.U.
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
15-39 mcg
20-39 mcg
0.21-0.40 mg
6.5-17.0 mg
*According to analyses made in Hawaii, El Salvador and Ghana.

Other Uses
Wood: The timber is reddish, soft to hard, tough and heavy, but inclined to warp. It is difficult to
work, but is employed for construction, railway ties, and for fashioning bowls and poi-boards in
Hawaii.
Medicinal Uses: According to Akana's translation of Hawaiian Herbs of Medicinal Value, the
astringent bark has been much used in local remedies. It is pounded together with salt, the crushed
material is strained through coconut husk fiber, and the juice poured into a deep cut. "The patient
must exercise absolute self-control as the liquid bums its way into the flesh and nerves."
In the Molucca, or Spice, Islands, a decoction of the bark is used to treat thrush. Malayans apply a
powder of the dried leaves on a cracked tongue. A preparation of the root is a remedy for itching.
The root acts as a diuretic and is given to alleviate edema. The root bark is useful against
dysentery, also serves as an emmenagogue and abortifacient. Cambodians take a decoction of the
fruit, leaves or seeds as a febrifuge. The juice of crushed leaves is applied as a skin lotion and is
added to baths. In Brazil, various parts of the plant are used as remedies for constipation, diabetes,
coughs, pulmonary catarrh, headache and other ailments. Seeded fruits, seeds, bark and leaves
have shown antibiotic activity and have some effect on blood pressure and respiration.
Java Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Java Apple. p. 381382. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Java Apple
Syzygium samarangense Merr. & Perry
Syzygium javanicum Miq.
Eugenia javanica Lam.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Yield
Food Uses
Other Uses
Much less known than the Malay Apple, this member of the Myrtaceae is botanically identified as
Syzygium samarangense Merr. & Perry (syns. S. javanicum Miq.; Eugenia javanica Lam. in part;
E. alba Roxb.). Among its various vernacular names are: samarang rose apple, djamboe semarang
(Indonesia); jambu ayer rhio (Malaya); pini jambu (Ceylon);jumrool, jamrul, or amrool (India);
chom pu kao, or chom pu kio (Thailand); makopa (Philippines); cashu di Surinam, or Curacaose
appel (Curacao); wax apple, wax jambu and water apple, generally.
Description
The tree, 16 to 50 ft (5-15 m) tall, has a short trunk 10 to 12 in (25-30 cm) thick, and open,
widespreading crown, and pinkish-gray, flaking bark. The opposite leaves are nearly sessile,
elliptic-oblong, rounded or slightly cordate at the base; yellowish to dark bluish-green; 4 to 10 in
(10-25 cm) long and 2 to 4 3/4 in (5-12 cm) wide; very aromatic when crushed. Flowers, borne in
drooping panicles of 3 to 30 at the branch tips or in smaller clusters in the axils of fallen leaves, are
fragrant, yellowish-white, 3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4 cm) broad, 4-petalled, with numerous stamens 3/5 to
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/java_apple.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:37:17 PM]
Java Apple
1 in (1.5-2.5 cm) long. The waxy fruit,

usually light-red, sometimes greenish-white
or cream-colored, is pear-shaped, narrow at
the base, very broad, flattened, indented and
adorned with the 4 fleshy calyx lobes at the
apex; 1 1/3 to 2 in (3.4-5 cm) long, 1 3/4 to
2 1/8 in (4.5-5.4 cm) wide. The skin is very
thin, the flesh white, spongy, dry to juicy,
subacid and very bland in flavor. There may
be 1 or 2 somewhat rounded seeds 3/16 to
5/16 in (0.5-0.8 cm) wide, or none.
Plate LIII: JAVA APPLE, Syzygium samarangense
The tree is indigenous from Malaya to the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands where there are wild trees in the coastal forests. It was introduced
into the Philippines in prehistoric times and is widely grown throughout those islands. It is
common in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Taiwan, frequently cultivated in India and in
Zanzibar and Pemba, but primarily as an ornamental, seldom for its fruits which are little valued. It
was introduced into Jamaica before 1903 and also into Surinam and the islands of Curacao, Aruba
and Bonaire. A few trees have been grown in Israel but have borne sparsely.
Climate
The Java apple is extra-tropical, growing only at the lower altitudesup to 4,000 ft (1,220m)in
India. It does best in parts of the Philippines that have a long dry season.
Soil
The soil must be fertile, or the crops will be small and the fruit quality poor.
Propagation
The trees grow spontaneously from seed. Preferred types are reproduced by layering, budding onto
their own rootstocks, or onto seedlings of S. densiflorum A. DC., (the beautiful Wild Rose Apple
of Malaya, which has edible flowers, undesirable fruits, but is not attacked by termites).
Sometimes the Java apple is grafted onto the cultivated Rose Apple (q.v.).
Culture
If planted in orchards, the trees are spaced 26 to 32 ft (8-10 m) apart and are given a minimum of
attention.
Season
In Ceylon, the fruits are ripe from March to May; in India, the tree blooms in March and April and
the fruit ripens in May and June; in Java, flowering occurs from April to June and fruiting from
June to August.
Yield
Java Apple
The Java apple is a heavy bearer on good soil. When 5 years old it may yield a crop of 700 fruits.
Food Uses
In Malaya, the greenish fruits are eaten raw with salt or may be cooked as a sauce. They are also
stewed with true apples. The pink fruits are juicier and more flavorful and suitable for eating
out-of-hand or cooking without accompaniments except sugar.
Moisture
Protein
Sugar
Iron
Ash
Calcium
91.40-92.96 g
0.50 g
6.56 g
0.001 g
0.21-0.27 g
0.01 g
Phosphorus
Sulphuric Acid
Citric Acid
0.03 g
0.17%
0.15%

Other Uses
Wood: The wood is red, coarse, hard; used for constructing huts in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Medicinal Uses: The flowers are astringent and used in Taiwan to treat fever and halt diarrhea.
Investigators have found their principal constituent to be tannin. They also contain
desmethoxymatteucinol, 5-O-methyl-4'-desmethoxymatteucinol, oleanic acid and B-sitosterol.
They show weak antibiotic action against Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and
Candida albicans.
Water Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Water Apple. p. 382383. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Water Apple
Syzygium aqueum Alst.
Eugenia aquea Burm. f.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Propagation
Culture
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
The water apple is the least of the small group of somewhat similar fruits of the genus Syzygium
(family Myrtaceae). This species, S. aqueum Alst. (syn. Eugenia aquea Burm. f.), also known as
watery rose apple, is distinguished in Malaya as jambu chili, jambu ayer, jambu ayer mawar, or
jambu penawar; in Indonesia as djamboo aer, djamboo wer, or djamboo wir. In the Philippines, it
is called tambis; in Thailand, it is chom-phu-pa.
Description
The tree may reach 10 or even 32 ft (3-10 m); has a short, crooked trunk branching close to the
ground, and a nonsymmetrical, open crown. The opposite leaves, on very short, thick petioles, are
obovate- or elliptic-oblong, cordate at the base and clasping the twig; blunt and notched or
short-pointed at the apex; 2 to 10 in (5-25 cm) long, 1 to 6 3/8 in (2.5-16 cm) wide; dull,
light-green above, yellowish-green beneath; leathery; not aromatic or only slightly so when
crushed. Flowers, faintly fragrant, are home in loose terminal or axillary clusters of 3 to 7, mostly
hidden by the foliage. The 4-parted calyx and 4 petals are pale-yellow, yellowish-white or pinkish
and there are numerous concolorous stamens to 3/4 in (2 cm) long. Thin-skinned and shining, the
fruit varies from white, to light-red or red, is pear-shaped with a narrow neck and broad apex; 5/8
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/water_apple.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:37:17 PM]
Water Apple
to 3/4 in (1.6-2 cm) long, 1 to 1 1/3 in (2.5-3.4 cm) wide. The apex is concave; bears the thick
calyx segments and the protruding, slender, bristle-like style. The flesh is white or pink, mildly
fragrant, dry or juicy, crisp or spongy, and usually of sweetish but faint flavor. There may be 3 to 6
small seeds, frequently only 1 or 2, but generally the fruits are seedless.
The water apple occurs naturally from southern India to eastern Malaysia. It is commonly
cultivated in India, southeastern Asia, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, it grows as though wild in
the Provinces of Mindanao, Basilan, Dinagat and Samar. It has never been widely distributed but
is occasionally grown in Trinidad and Hawaii. It was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1927 but
survived only a few years.
Varieties
In Indonesia, two forms are recognizedone white-fruited and the other red, the color of the latter
developing from the base upward. Much variation is seen in the fruits from different trees in
Malaya and the flavor of some types is quite acid.
Climate
The water apple is suited only to low altitudes in the tropics and areas where there is rainfall fairly
well spaced throughout the year.
Propagation
The tree may be air-layered or budded onto rootstocks of Eugenia javanica Lam. or E. densiflora
A. DC. Experiments in Hawaii proved that cuttings can be successfully rooted.
Culture
Little cultural attention has been given the water apple. In Indonesia, when it is set out in orchards,
it is spaced at a 20 to 26 ft (6-8 m) distance from tree-to-tree.
Season
In Malaya there are two crops a year, one in the spring and a second in the fall. In Indonesia, the
tree frequently blooms in July and again in September, the fruits ripening in August and
November.
Food Uses
The water apple is mainly consumed by children, the appeal being largely its thirst-relieving
character. In Indonesia, the fruits are sold in markets in piles or skewered on slender bamboo
sticks. Superior types are sometimes served sliced in salads. According to early writings, a water
apple salad is a ceremonial dish for new mothers.
Other Uses
Wood: The wood is hard and is fashioned into small pieces of handicraft.
Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the astringent bark is a local application on thrush.
Water Apple
Rose Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Rose Apple. p. 383386. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Rose Apple
Syzyygium jambos Alston
Eugenia jambos L.
Jambosa jambos Millsp.
Description
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Like many other fruits to which the word "apple" has been attached, the rose apple in no way
resembles an apple, neither in the tree nor in its fruit. It is a member of the myrtle family,
Myrtaceae, and is technically known as Syzygium jambos Alston (syn. Eugenia jambos L.;
Jambosa jambos Millsp.; Jambosa vulgaris DC.; Caryophyllus jambos Stokes).
The term "rose apple" (in French, pomme rose, pommier rose; in Spanish, poma rosa, pomarrosa,
manzana rosa, or manzanita de rosa) is so widely employed that the species has few alternate
names apart from those in the many local dialects of Africa, India, Malaya, southeastern Asia, the
East Indies and Oceania. It is sometimes called jambosier by French-speaking people, plum rose
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/rose_apple.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:37:19 PM]
Rose Apple
or malabar plum in the English-speaking West Indies, pommeroos or appelroos in Surinam, and
jambeiro or jambo amarelo in Brazil; jaman in India, and yambo in the Philippines.
Description
The rose apple tree may be merely a shrub
but is generally a tree reaching 25 or even
40 ft (7.5-12 m) in height, and has a dense
crown of slender, wide-spreading branches,
often the overall width exceeding the
height. The evergreen leaves are opposite,
lanceolate or narrow-elliptic, tapering to a
point; 4 to 9 in (10-22 cm) long, and from 1
to 2 1/2 in (2.5-6.25 cm) wide; somewhat
leathery, glossy, dark-green when mature,
rosy when young. The flowers are
creamy-white or greenish-white, 2 to 4 in Fig. 103: The rose apple (Syzygium jambos) is a minor fruit,
(5-10 cm) wide, consisting mostly of about but the tree is a quick-growing source of fuel and other
300 conspicuous stamens to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) products.
long, a 4-lobed calyx, and 4 greenish-white, concave petals. There are usually 4 or 5 flowers
together in terminal clusters. Capped with the prominent, green, tough calyx, the fruit is nearly
round, oval, or slightly pear-shaped, 1 1/2 to 2 in (4-5 cm) long, with smooth, thin, pale-yellow or
whitish skin, sometimes pink-blushed, covering a crisp, mealy, dry to juicy layer of yellowish
flesh, sweet and resembling the scent of a rose in flavor. In the hollow center, there are 1 to 4
brown, rough-coated, medium-hard, more or less rounded seeds, 3/8 to 5/8 in (1-1.6 cm) thick,
which loosen from the inner wall and rattle when the fruit is shaken. Fragments of the seedcoat
may be found in the cavity.
The rose apple is native to the East Indies and Malaya and is cultivated and naturalized in many
parts of India, Ceylon and former Indochina and the Pacific Islands. It was introduced into Jamaica
in 1762 and became well distributed in Bermuda, the Bahamas, the West Indies and, at low and
medium elevations, from southern Mexico to Peru. In Guatemala, the tree may be planted as a
living fencepost or in hedgerows around coffee plantations. For this purpose, it is drastically
pruned to promote dense growth. It grows wild abundantly, forming solid stands and thickets, in
Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Honduras and Panama.
In 1825, eight young trees were taken from Rio de Janeiro to Hawaii by ship, and, in 1853, a
United States warship delivered avocado and rose apple trees from Central America to the island
of Hilo. The rose apple became naturalized on the islands of Kauai, Molokai, Oahu, Maui and
Hawaii. In 1893, it was reported as already cultivated in Ghana. It is semi-naturalized in some
areas of West Tropical Africa and on the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba and Reunion. It is believed to
have been first planted in Queensland, Australia, about 1896. A tree obtained from an Italian
nursery has grown and borne well on the coastal plain of Israel. However, it is not of interest there
as a fruit tree but rather as an ornamental.
The rose apple was introduced into Florida, at Jacksonville, before 1877, but, as a fruit tree, it is
Rose Apple
suited only to the central and southern parts of the state. In California, it is planted as far north as
San Francisco for its ornamental foliage and flowers. Because the tree occupies considerable space
and the fruit is little valued, the rose apple has not been planted in Florida in recent years, though
there are quite a number of specimens remaining from former times.
Climate
The rose apple flourishes in the tropical and near-tropical climates only. In Jamaica, it is
naturalized from near sea-level up to an altitude of 3,000 ft (915 m); in Hawaii, from sea-level to
4,000 ft (1,200 m). In India, it ranges up to 4,400 ft (1,350 m); in Ecuador, to 7,500 ft (2,300 m).
At the upper limits, as in California, the tree grows vigorously but will not bear fruit.
In India, it does best on the banks of canals and streams and yet tolerates semi-arid conditions.
Prolonged dry spells, however, are detrimental.
Soil
A deep, loamy soil is considered ideal for the rose apple but it is not too exacting, for it flourishes
also on sand and limestone with very little organic matter.
Propagation
Most rose apple trees are grown from seeds, which are polyembryonic (producing 1 to 3 sprouts),
but the seedlings are not uniform in character nor behavior. In India, vegetative propagation has
been undertaken with a view to standardizing the crop and also to select and perpetuate dwarf
types. Using cuttings, it was found that hardwood does not root even with chemical growth
promoters. Treated semihard wood gave 20% success. Air-layers taken in the spring and treated
with 1,000 ppm NAA gave 60% success. Air-layers did not root in the rainy season. In budding
experiments, neither chip nor "T" buds would take. Veneer grafting in July of spring-flush scions
on 1-year-old rootstocks was satisfactory in 31% of the plants. In West Bengal, air-layering is
commonly performed in July and the layers are planted in October and November. Fruiting can be
expected within 4 years. Sometimes the rose apple is inarched onto its own seedlings.
Culture
Rarely do rose apple trees receive any cultural attention. Some experimental work has shown that
seedless, thick-fleshed fruits can be produced by treating opened flowers with growth
regulatorsnaphthoxy acetic acid (NOA), 2,4,5-T, or naphthalene acetic acid.
Season
In Jamaica and Puerto Rico, the rose apple trees bloom and fruit sporadically nearly all year,
though somewhat less in summer than at other times. The main season in the Bahamas and in
Florida is May through July. The fruiting period varies in different parts of India. In South India,
blooming usually occurs in January, with fruit ripening in March and April, whereas in the Circars,
ripening takes place in April and May. In the central part of the country, flowering occurs in
February, March and April and the fruits ripen from June through July. Then again, it is reported
that there are varieties that produce fruit in February and March.
Yield
Rose Apple
In India, they say that a mature rose apple tree will yield 5 lbs (2 kg) of fruit each season. The
fruits are, of course, very light in weight because they are hollow, but this is a very small return for
a tree that occupies so much space.
Keeping Quality
Rose apples bruise easily and are highly perishable. They must be freshly picked to be crisp. Some
studies of respiration rate and ethylene production in storage have been made in Hawaii. The fruit
is non-climacteric.
Pests and Diseases
The rose apple tree has few insect enemies. In humid climates, the leaves are often coated with
sooty mold growing on the honeydew excreted by aphids. They are also prone to leaf spot caused
by Cercospora sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Phyllosticta eugeniae; algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros
virescens); black leaf spot (Asterinella puiggarii); and anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata). Root
rot caused by Fusarium sp., and mushroom root rot (Armillariella (Clitocybe) tabescens) attack the
tree.
Food Uses
Around the tropical world, rose apples are mostly eaten out-of-hand by children. They are seldom
marketed. In the home, they are sometimes stewed with some sugar and served as dessert.
Culinary experimenters have devised other modes of using the cuplike halved fruits. One stuffs
them with a rice-and-meat mixture, covers them with a tomato sauce seasoned with minced garlic,
and bakes them for about 20 minutes. Possible variations are limitless. The fruit is made into jam
or jelly with lemon juice added, or more frequently preserved in combination with other fruits of
more pronounced flavor. It is also made into a sirup for use as a sauce or to flavor cold drinks. In
Jamaica, the halved or sliced fruits are candied by stewing them in very heavy sugar sirup with
cinnamon.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
56
84.5-89.1 g
0.5-0.7 g
0.2-0.3 g
14.2 g
1.1-1.9 g
0.4-0.44 g
29-45.2 mg
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
4 mg
11.7-30 mg
0.45-1.2 mg
34.1 mg
Rose Apple
Potassium
Copper
Sulfur
Chlorine
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
50 mg
0.01 mg
13 mg
4 mg
123-235 I.U.
0.01-0.19 mg
0.028-0.05 mg
0.521-0.8 mg
3-37 mg
*Analyses made in Central America and elsewhere.

Toxicity
The seeds are said to be poisonous. An unknown amount of hydrocyanic acid has been reported in
the roots, stems and leaves. An alkaloid, jambosine, has been found in the bark of the tree and of
the roots, and the roots are considered poisonous.
Other Uses
Fruit: In 1849, it was announced in Bengal that the ripe fruits, with seeds removed, could be
distilled 4 times to make a "rosewater" equal to the best obtained from rose petals.
Branches: The flexible branches have been employed in Puerto Rico to make hoops for large
sugar casks, and also are valued for weaving large baskets.
Bark: The bark has been used for tanning and yields a brown dye.
Wood: The sapwood is white. The heartwood is dark-red or brown, fibrous, close-grained,
medium-heavy to heavy, strong; and has been used to make furniture, spokes for wheels, arms for
easy chairs, knees for all kinds of boats, beams for construction, frames for musical instruments
(violins, guitars, etc.), and packing cases. It is also popular for general turnery. It is not durable in
the ground and is prone to attack by drywood termites.
The tree grows back rapidly after cutting to a stump and consequently yields a continuous supply
of small wood for fuel. Rose apple wood makes very good charcoal.
Leaves: A yellow essential oil, distilled from the leaves, contains, among other properties, 26.84%
dl-a-pinene and 23.84% l-limonene, and can be resorted to as a source of these elements for use in
the perfume industry.
Flowers: The flowers are a rich source of nectar for honeybees and the honey is a good amber
color. Much comes from the San Cristobal River Valley in Cuba.
Medicinal Uses: In India, the fruit is regarded as a tonic for the brain and liver. An infusion of the
fruit acts as a diuretic.
Rose Apple
A sweetened preparation of the flowers is believed to reduce fever. The seeds are employed
against diarrhea, dysentery and catarrh. In Nicaragua, it has been claimed that an infusion of
roasted, powdered seeds is beneficial to diabetics. They say in Colombia that the seeds have an
anesthetic property.
The leaf decoction is applied to sore eyes, also serves as a diuretic and expectorant and treatment
for rheumatism. The juice of macerated leaves is taken as a febrifuge. Powdered leaves have been
rubbed on the bodies of smallpox patients for the cooling effect.
The bark contains 7-12.4% tannin. It is emetic and cathartic. The decoction is administered to
relieve asthma, bronchitis and hoarseness. Cuban people believe that the root is an effective
remedy for epilepsy.
Surinam Cherry

Morton, J. 1987. Surinam Cherry. p. 386388. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Surinam Cherry
Eugenia uniflora L.
Eugenia Michelii Lam.
Stenocalyx Michelii Berg
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The most widely known of the edible-fruited Eugenia species, because of its great adaptability, the
Surinam cherry, E. uniflora L. (syns. E. Michelii Lam.; Stenocalyx Michelii Berg; Plinia rubra
Vell.), is also called Brazil or Brazilian cherry, Cayenne cherry, pitanga, and, unfortunately,
Florida cherry. In Spanish it is generally cereza de cayena; but pendanga in Venezuela; guinda in
El Salvador; anga-pir in Argentina; cereza quadrada in Colombia. In Guadeloupe and
Martinique it is called cerese ctes or cerises-cotes; in French Guiana, cerise de Cayenne, cerise
de pays, or cerise care; in Surinam, Surinaamsche kersh, zoete kers, or monkie monkie kersie.
Description
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/surinam_cherry.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:37:21 PM]
Surinam Cherry
The shrub or tree, to 25 ft (7.5 m) high, has

slender, spreading branches and resinously
aromatic foliage. The opposite leaves,
bronze when young, are deep-green and
glossy when mature; turn red in cold, dry
winter weather. They are ovate to
ovate-lanceolate, blunt- to sharp-pointed, 1
1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) long.
Long-stalked flowers, borne singly or as
many as 4 together in the leaf axils, have 4
delicate, recurved, white petals and a tuft of
50 to 60 prominent white stamens with
pale-yellow anthers. The 7- to 8-ribbed
fruit, oblate, 3/4 to 1 1/2 in (2-4 cm) wide, Fig. 104: The Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora) is primarily
grown as a hedge, the showy fruits being eaten mainly by
turns from green to orange as it develops
children.
and, when mature, bright-red to deep-scarlet
or dark, purplish maroon ("black") when fully ripe. The skin is thin, the flesh orange-red, melting
and very juicy; acid to sweet, with a touch of resin and slight bitterness. There may be 1 fairly
large, round seed or 2 or 3 smaller seeds each with a flattened side, more or less attached to the
flesh by a few slender fibers.
The plant is native from Surinam, Guyana and French Guiana to southern Brazil (especially the
states of Rio de Janeiro, Paraa, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul), and to northern, eastern
and central Uruguay. It grows wild in thickets on the banks of the Pilcomayo River in Paraguay. It
was first described botanically from a plant growing in a garden at Pisa, Italy, which is believed to
have been introduced from Goa, India. Portuguese voyagers are said to have carried the seed from
Brazil to India, as they did the cashew. It is cultivated and naturalized in Argentina, Venezuela and
Colombia; also along the Atlantic coast of Central America; and in some islands of the West
Indiesthe Cayman Islands, Jamaica, St. Thomas, St. Croix, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, the
Dominican Republic, and in the Bahamas and Bermuda. In 1918, Britton wrote, in the Flora of
Bermuda, that ". . as it harbors the fruit fly, the tree has been largely cut out in recent years." It is
frequently grown in Hawaii, Samoa, India and Ceylon as an ornamental plant and occasionally in
tropical Africa, southern China and in the Philippines where it first fruited in 1911. It was long ago
planted on the Mediterranean coast of Africa and the European Riviera. The first Surinam cherry
was introduced into coastal Israel in 1922 and aroused considerable interest because it produced
fruit in May when other fruits are scarce, and it requires so little care; but over 10 years of
observation, the yields recorded were disappointingly small.
In Florida, the Surinam cherry is one of the most common hedge plants throughout the central and
southern parts of the state and the Florida Keys. The fruits are today mostly eaten by children. In
the past, many people allowed the tree to grow naturally and harvested the fruits for culinary use.
For a while, small quantities were sold in Miami markets. In temperate zones, the plant is grown in
pots for its attractive foliage and bright fruits.
Varieties
Surinam Cherry
There are 2 distinct types: the common bright-red and the rarer dark-crimson to nearly black,
which tends to be sweeter and less resinous.
Climate
The Surinam cherry is adapted to tropical and subtropical regions. In the Philippines, it thrives
from sea-level to 3,300 ft (1,000 m); in Guatemala, up to 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Young plants are
damaged by temperatures below 28 F (-2.22 C), but well-established plants have suffered only
superficial injury at 22 F (-5.56 C). The plant revels in full sun. It requires only moderate rainfall
and, being deep-rooted, can stand a long dry season.
Soil
The Surinam cherry grows in almost any type of soilsand, sandy loam, stiff clay, soft
limestoneand can even stand waterlogging for a time, but it is intolerant of salt.
Propagation
Seeds are the usual means of propagation. They remain viable for not much longer than a month
and germinate in 3 to 4 weeks. Volunteer seedlings can be taken up and successfully transplanted.
Layering has been successful in India. The seedlings can be topworked to superior selections by
side- or cleft-grafting but they tend to sucker below the graft.
Culture
Surinam cherry seedlings grow slowly; some begin to fruit when 2 years old; some may delay
fruiting for 5 or 6 years, or even 10 if in unfavorable situations. They are most productive if
unpruned, but still produce a great many fruits when close-clipped in hedges. Quarterly feeding
with a complete fertilizer formula promotes fruiting. The plant responds quickly to irrigation, the
fruit rapidly becoming larger and sweeter in flavor after a good watering.
The fruits develop and ripen quickly, only 3 weeks after the flowers open. In Brazil, the plants
bloom in September and fruits ripen in October; they bloom again in December and January. In
Florida and the Bahamas, there is a spring crop, March or April through May or June; and a
second crop, September through November, coinciding with the spring and fall rains.
The fruits should be picked only when they are so ripe as to fall into the hand at the lightest touch,
otherwise they will be undesirably resinous. Gathering must be done daily or even twice a day.
Yield
In India, pruned bushes yield an average of 6 to 8 lbs (2.7-3.6 kg) per plant. The highest yield
obtained in Israel was 2,700 fruits weighing about 24 lbs (11 kg) from one untrimmed plant.
Pests and Diseases
Surinam cherries are highly attractive to Caribbean and Mediterranean fruit flies, but the incidence
of infestation was found to vary greatly in Israel from location to location, some plants being
unmolested.
Surinam Cherry
The foliage is occasionally attacked by scale insects and caterpillars. A large, extensive hedge
along a canal in Dade County blew down in September 1982. Examination showed that the roots
had been chewed off and there were about a dozen white grubs up to 2 in (5 cm) long under each
plant. These were identified as the larvae of a sugar cane pest that is common in Haiti.
Among diseases encountered in Florida are leaf spot caused by Cercospora eugeniae,
Helminthosporium sp., and Phyllostica eugeniae; thread blight from infection by Corticium
stevensii; anthracnose from Colletotrichum gloeosporioides; twig dieback and root rot caused by
Rhizoctonia solani; and mushroom root rot, Armillariella (Clitocybe) tabescens.
Food Uses
Children enjoy the ripe fruits out-of-hand. For table use, they are best slit vertically on one side,
spread open to release the seed(s), and kept chilled for 2 or 3 hours to dispel most of their
resinously aromatic character. If seeded and sprinkled with sugar before placing in the refrigerator,
they will become mild and sweet and will exude much juice and serve very well instead of
strawberries on shortcake and topped with whipped cream. They are an excellent addition to fruit
cups, salads and custard pudding; also ice cream; and can be made into pie or sauce or preserved
whole in sirup. They are often made into jam, jelly, relish or pickles. Brazilians ferment the juice
into vinegar or wine, and sometimes prepare a distilled liquor.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
43-51 g
85.4-90.70 g
0.84-1.01 g
0.4-0.88 g
7.93-12.5 g
0.34-0.6g
0.34-0.5 g
9 mg
11 mg
0.2 mg
1,200-2,000 I.U.
0.03 mg
0.04 mg
0.03 mg
Ascorbic Acid**
20-30 mg
*A composite of analyses made in Hawaii, Africa, Florida.

**Dr. Margaret Mustard found 33.9-43.9 mg in ripe red fruits; 25.3 in the "black" type.
Toxicity
Surinam Cherry
The seeds are extremely resinous and should not be eaten. Diarrhea has occurred in dogs that have
been fed the whole fruits by children. The strong, spicy emanation from bushes being pruned
irritates the respiratory passages of sensitive persons.
Other Uses
The leaves have been spread over the floors of Brazilian homes. When walked upon, they release
their pungent oil which repels flies. The bark contains 20 to 28.5% tannin and can be used for
treating leather. The flowers are a rich source of pollen for honeybees but yield little or no nectar.
Medicinal Uses: In Brazil the leaf infusion is taken as a stomachic, febrifuge and astringent. In
Surinam, the leaf decoction is drunk as a cold remedy and, in combination with lemongrass, as a
febrifuge. The leaves yield essential oil containing citronellal, geranyl acetate, geraniol, cineole,
terpinene, sesquiterpenes and polyterpenes.
Rumberry

Morton, J. 1987. Rumberry. p. 388390. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Rumberry
Myrciaria floribunda Berg.
Myrciaria protracta Berg.
Eugenia floribunda West ex Willd.
Description
Varieties
Climate and Soil
Food Uses
Other Uses
Related Species
A tiny fruit, formerly in demand, the rumberry, Myrciaria floribunda Berg. (syns. M. protracta
Berg.; Eugenia floribunda West ex Willd.), is also called guavaberry, mirto or murta in Puerto
Rico; guaveberry in St. Martin and St. Eustatius; guayabillo in Guatemala; coco-carette,
merisier-cerise, or bois de basse batard in Guadeloupe and Martinique; cabo de chivo in El
Salvador; escobillo in Nicaragua; mije or mije colorado in Cuba; mijo in the Dominican Republic;
bois mulatre in Haiti; roode bosch guave, saitjaberan, or kakrioe hariraroe tataroe in Surinam. In
Venezuela the names guayabito and guayabillo blanco are applied to the related species, M.
caurensis Steyerm, as well as to some other plants.
Description
This is an attractive shrub or slender tree reaching 33 or even 50 ft (10-15 m) in height, with
reddish-brown branchlets, downy when young, and flaking bark. The evergreen, opposite leaves
are ovate, elliptical, or oblong-lanceolate, pointed at the apex; 1 to 3 3/16 in (2.5-8 cm) long, 1/3 to
1 3/16 in (0.8-3 cm) wide; glossy, slightly leathery, minutely dotted with oil glands. The flowers,
borne in small axillary or lateral clusters, are white, silky-hairy with about 75 prominent white
stamens. The fruit is round or oblate, 5/16 to 5/8 in (8-16 mm) in diameter; dark-red (nearly black)
or yellow-orange; highly aromatic and of bittersweet, balsam-like flavor; with one globular seed.
In Surinam, according to Pulle, there are sometimes deformed fruits, rounded, flattened, leathery,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/rumberry_ars.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 1:37:22 PM]
Rumberry
dehiscent, and to 3/4 in (2 cm) across.

The rumberry occurs wild over a broad
territoryCuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico (including Vieques), the Virgin
Islands, St. Martin, St. Eustatius, St. Kitts,
Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, southern
Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador to
northern Colombia; also Guyana, Surinam
and French Guiana, and eastern Brazil. It
has been occasionally cultivated in
Bermuda, rarely elsewhere, but, throughout
Plate LIV: RUMBERRY, Myrciaria floribunda
its natural range, when land is cleared for
pastures, the tree is left standing for the sake of its fruits. The plant was introduced into the
Philippines in the early 1900's and has been included in propagation experiments in Hawaii. There
is a healthy fruiting specimen at Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami.
Varieties
O.W. Barrett wrote in 1928: "There are 3 or 4 varieties in the dry hills of St. Croix; these vary as to
size and color, but all are intensely aromatic." In St. John, they say the fruits produced by wild
trees on Bordeaux Mountain and along Reef Bay Trail are "unusually good".
Climate and Soil
In Puerto Rico, the rumberry grows naturally in dry and moist coastal forests from sea-level to an
elevation of 700 ft (220 m). In Vieques and the Virgin Islands, it abounds in dry forests up to
1,000 ft (300 m). In South Florida it is growing well, but as a small tree, on oolitic limestone.
Food Uses
In Cuba, the fruits are relished out-of-hand and are made into jam, and the fermented juice is rated
as "una bebida exquisita" (an exquisite beverage). People on the island of St. John use the
preserved fruits in tarts. The local "guavaberry liqueur" is made from the fruits "with pure grain
alcohol, rum, raw sugar and spices" and it is a special treat at Christmastime. In the past, a strong
wine and a heavy liqueur were exported from St. Thomas to Denmark in "large quantities".
Other Uses
In Camaguey, Cuba, the rumberry is included among the nectar sources visited by honeybees.
Medicinal Uses: The fruits are sold by herbalists in Camaguey for the purpose of making a
depurative sirup; and the decoction is taken as a treatment for liver complaints.
Rumberry
Related Species
The camu-camu, Myrciaria dubia McVaugh (syns. M. paraensis Berg; M. spruceana Berg), is
also called camocamo in Peru and cacari in Brazil. It is a shrub, or bushy tree, to 43 ft (13 m) high
with minute prickly hairs on the young branchlets and petioles. The opposite leaves are broad- or
narrow-ovate, or elliptic, often lop-sided; 1 3/4 to 4 in (4.5-10 cm) long and 5/8 to 1 3/4 in (1.6-4.5
cm) wide, pointed at the apex, rounded at the base where the margins curve inward to the petiole,
forming winglike appendages. Fragrant flowers, nearly sessile, are borne in 4's in or near the leaf
axils; have tiny, white petals and about 125 stamens 1/4 to 3/8 in (6-10 mm) long. The fruit is
nearly round, 3/8 to 1 in (1-2.5 cm) wide, yellow at first, becoming maroon to purple-black and
soft and juicy when ripe. It is of acid or sweet flavor and contains 3 seeds. Locally it is considered
good fish food.
This species occurs abundantly wild in swamps along rivers and lakes, especially the Rio Mazn
near Iquitos, Peru, and in Amazonian Brazil and Venezuela, often with the base of the trunk under
water, and, during the rainy season, the lower branches are also submerged for long periods.
Seeds were brought to Florida by William F. Whitman in 1964, and plants were raised, he says, in
an "acid hammock sand soil" and regularly watered. One plant bore rather heavily in 1972, mainly
in late summer with a few scattered fruits the following winter. One plant was 12 ft (3.65 m) tall
and equally broad in 1974. In Brazil, the fruit is borne mainly from November to March.
Half-ripe fruits have been found to contain 1,950 to 2,700 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g edible
portion, values comparable to the high ranges of the Barbados cherry, q.v. These findings led to a
certain amount of exploitation of the fruit, which must be harvested by boat. There is a trial plot at
Manaus, Brazil, and some experimental plantings in Peru and the juice is frozen or bottled and
exported to the United States for the production of "vitamin C" tablets for the "health food"
market. In plantations, in non-flooded land a single plant may bear 400 to 500 fruits. On flooded
land, the per-plant harvest has been 1,000 fruits.
Though there are still people who can be persuaded to believe that "natural vitamin C" is superior
to synthetic, the commercial prospects for the camu-camu are no brighter than those for the
Barbados cherry. In 1969, V.L.S. Charley, Consultant to Beecham Products, Brentford, England,
in assessing prospects for the camu-camu, with its "very slight flavour characteristics", declared
that the idea that natural vitamin C, per se, had some magical quality is not now acceptable ... there
is little doubt that the presence of a full, clean, well-balanced flavour is more commercially
important than the possession of a high ascorbic acid content."
Grumichama

Morton, J. 1987. Grumichama. p. 390391. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Grumichama
Eugenia brasiliensis Lam.
Eugenia dombeyi Skeels
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Pests
Food Uses
Medicinal Uses
An often admired but still very minor fruiting member of the Myrtaceae, the grumichama, Eugenia
brasiliensis Lam. (syn. E. dombeyi Skeels), is also called grumixama, grumichameira, or
grumixameira in Brazil, and sometimes Brazil cherry elsewhere.
Description
The highly ornamental tree is slender, erect, usually to 25 or 35 ft (7.5-10.5 m) high, short-trunked
and heavily foliaged with opposite, oblong-oval leaves 3 1/2 to 5 in (9-16 cm) long, 2 3/8 in (5-6
cm) wide, with recurved margin; glossy, thick, leathery, and minutely pitted on both surfaces.
They persist for 2 years. New shoots are rosy. The flowers, borne singly in the leaf axils, are 1 in
(2.5 cm) wide; have 4 green sepals and 4 white petals, and about 100 white stamens with
pale-yellow anthers. The long-stalked fruit is oblate, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) wide; turns from
green to bright-red and finally dark-purple to nearly black as it ripens, and bears the persistent,
purple- or red-tinted sepals, to 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long, at its apex. The skin is thin, firm and exudes
dark-red juice. The red or white pulp is juicy and tastes much like a true subacid or sweet cherry
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/grumichama.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:24 PM]
Grumichama
except for a touch of aromatic resin. There

may be 1 more or less round, or 2 to 3
hemispherical, hard, light-tan or
greenish-gray seeds to 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide
and half as thick.
The grumichama is native and wild in
coastal southern Brazil, especially in the
states of Parana and Santa Catarina. It is
cultivated in and around Rio de Janeiro, also
in Paraguay. A specimen was growing in
Hope Gardens, Jamaica, in 1880 and a tree
was planted in the Botanical Gardens,
Singapore, in 1888, fruited in 1903. It has Fig. 105: The grumichama (Eugenia brasiliensis) is more
cherry-like than many so-called "cherries" but handicapped
long since vanished from both of these
by small size, apical sepals and large seeds.
locations. An attempt to grow it in the
Philippines in the early 1920's did not meet with success. Neither did a trial in Israel. An early
introduction, perhaps by Don Francisco de Paula Marin in 1791, was made in Hawaii and the tree
was adopted into numerous local gardens.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Mauritius in 1911 (S.P.I.
#30040); plants and seeds from Bahia, Brazil, in 1914 (S.P.I. #36968), and more seeds from
Mauritius in 1922 (S.P.I. #54797). Plants were set out at the Plant Introduction Station in Miami
and prospered. Other plantings were made in California where it seemed even better adapted but
has apparently disappeared. The United States Department of Agriculture raised seedlings at
Puerto Arturo, Honduras, and transferred some plants to the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at
Tela in 1926. They flourished there and flowered and fruited well.
Over the years there have been mild efforts to encourage interest in the virtues of the grumichama
in Florida, mainly because of the beauty and hardiness of the tree and the pleasant flavor of the
fruit but the sepals are a nuisance and there is too little flesh in proportion to seed for the fruit to be
taken seriously.
Varieties
Variety leucocarpus Berg. in Brazil becomes a large tree to 65 ft (20 m) high and has fruits with
white flesh. It is not as common as the red-fleshed type.
Climate
The grumichama is subtropical, surviving temperatures of 26 F (-3.33 C) in Brazil. It is better
suited to Palm Beach than to southern Florida. In Hawaii, the tree fruits best from sea-level to an
altitude of no more than 300 ft (90 m).
Soil
The grumichama does better on acid sand in Central Florida than it does on limestone in the south.
Grumichama
It is reported to prefer deep, fertile, sandy loam. Sturrock says it grows well in rich clay in Cuba
but is adversely affected by the long, dry season.
Propagation
Wilson Popenoe stated that propagation in Brazil is entirely by seeds which remain viable for
several weeks and germinate in about a month. Fenzi says that seeds, cuttings and air-layers are
employed, and Sturrock has mentioned that grafting is easy.
Culture
The grumichama is of slow growth when young unless raised in a mixture of peat moss and sand
and then given a thick layer of peat moss around the roots when setting out, and kept heavily
fertilized. In Hawaii, it has taken 7 years to reach 7 ft. Fruiting begins when the plants are 4 to 5
years old.
Season
The tree is regarded as remarkable for the short period from flowering to fruiting. In Florida, it has
been in full bloom in late April and loaded with fruits 30 days later. The crop ripens quickly over
just a few days. In Hawaii, the trees bloom and fruit from July to December, with the main crop in
the fall. Trees in Brazil vary considerably in time of flowering and fruiting so that the overall
season extends from November to February.
Pests
In Hawaii, the fruits are heavily attacked by the Mediterranean fruit fly.
Food Uses
Fully ripe grumichamas are pleasant to nibble out-of-hand. in Hawaii, half-ripe fruits are made
into pie, jam or jelly.
Moisture
Protein
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
83.5 g
0.102 g
0.6 g
0.43 g
39.5 mg
13.6 mg
0.45 mg
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.039 mg
0.044 mg
0.031 mg
0.336 mg
18.8 mg
Grumichama
*Analyses made in Honduras.

Medicinal Uses
The bark and leaves contain 1.5% of essential oil. The leaf or bark infusion1/3 oz (10 g) of plant
material in 10 1/2 oz (300 g) water-is aromatic, astringent, diuretic and taken as a treatment for
rheumatism at the rate of 2 to 4 cups daily, in Brazil.
Pitomba

Morton, J. 1987. Pitomba. p. 392. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Pitomba
Eugenia luschnathiana Klotzsch ex O. Berg.
Phyllocalyx luschnathianus Berg.
The pitomba, Eugenia luschnathiana

Klotzsch ex O. Berg. (syn. Phyllocalyx
luschnathianus Berg.) is also called uvalha
do campo, ubaid do campo, or uvalheira in
Brazil.
It is an attractive, slow-growing tree to 20
or 30 ft (6-9 m) high, with dense foliage.
The evergreen, opposite, short-petioled,
oblong-lanceolate leaves, 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5
cm) long, are glossy, dark-green on the
upper surface, paler beneath. New growth is
temporarily coated with bronze hairs on the
underside. The long-stalked, 4-petalled,
white flowers are borne singly in the leaf
Fig. 106: Little-known, the orange-yellow pitomba (Eugenia
axils.
luschnathiana) is of fair size and thick-fleshed when
well-irrigated and fertilized.
The fruit, broad-obovate, faintly 4-lobed, 1

to 1 1/4 in (2.5-3.2 cm) long, is bright orange-yellow with 4 or 5 green sepals 1/2 in (1.25 cm) long
protruding from the apex. The skin is thin, tender, and the pulp golden-yellow, apricot-like in
texture, soft, melting, juicy, aromatic and slightly acid, faintly resinous in flavor. In the central
cavity there may be one round seed or 2 to 4 irregular, angular seeds, light-tan and 3/8 to 5/8 in
(1-1.6 cm) in diameter.
This little-known species is native to the State of Bahia, Brazil, is cultivated to a limited extent
locally and is grown in the botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro. Seeds were brought to the United
States from Brazil by plant explorers for the federal Department of Agriculture in 1914 (S.P.I.
#37017). A very few specimens, scarcely more than shrubs, have been grown to the fruiting stage
in southern Florida. The pitomba was at first considered promising for this area but has made no
progress at all in the last 40 years.
When in good soil, well-fertilized and frequently and heavily watered, the tree begins to bear when
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pitomba.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:27 PM]
Pitomba
less than 3 1/2 ft (a little over 1 m) high. There is much variation in the size of fruits produced by
seedlings. Sturrock made some selections and grafted them successfully. Flowers appear in late
spring and early summer in Florida and the fruiting season is in midsummer. In Brazil the fruits
ripen in November and December. The fruits are there used mainly for jelly, preserves, and
carbonated beverages.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pitomba.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:27 PM]
Sapodilla

Morton, J. 1987. Sapodilla. p. 393398. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Sapodilla
Manilkara zapota van Royen
Manilkara achras Fosb.
Manilkara zapotilla Gilly
Description
Cultivars
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Toxicity
Other Uses
One of the most interesting and desirable of all tropical fruit trees, the sapodilla, a member of the
family Sapotaceae, is now known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras
Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.).
Among numerous vernacular names, some of the most common are: baramasi (Bengal and Bihar,
India); buah chiku (Malaya); chicle (Mexico); chico (Philippines, Guatemala, Mexico);
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sapodilla.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 1:37:29 PM]
Sapodilla
chicozapote (Guatemala, Mexico, Venezuela); chikoo (India); chiku (Malaya, India); dilly
(Bahamas; British West Indies); korob (Costa Rica); mespil (Virgin Islands); mispel, mispu
(Netherlands Antilles, Surinam); muy (Guatemala); muyozapot (El Salvador); naseberry (Jamaica;
British West Indies); neeseberry (British West Indies; nispero (Puerto Rico, Central America,
Venezuela); nispero quitense (Ecuador); sapodilla plum (India); sapota (India); sapot (Brazil);
sapotille (French West Indies); tree potato (India); Ya (Guatemala; Yucatan); zapota (Venezuela);
zapote (Cuba); zapote chico (Mexico; Guatemala); zapote morado (Belize); zapotillo (Mexico).
Description
The sapodilla is a fairly slow-growing,
long-lived tree, upright and elegant,
distinctly pyramidal when young; to 60 ft
(18 m) high in the open but reaching 100 ft
(30 m) when crowded in a forest. It is strong
and wind-resistant, rich in white, gummy
latex. Its leaves are highly ornamental,
evergreen, glossy, alternate, spirally
clustered at the tips of the forked twigs;
elliptic, pointed at both ends, firm, 3 to 4
1/2 in (7.5-11.25 cm) long and 1 to 1 1/2 in
(2.5-4 cm) wide. Flowers are small and
Fig. 107: The sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) is sweet, luscious,
bell-like, with 3 brown-hairy outer sepals
practical and borne abundantly by a handsome, drought- and
and 3 inner sepals enclosing the pale-green wind-resistant tree.
corolla and 6 stamens. They are borne on
slender stalks at the leaf bases. The fruit may be nearly round, oblate, oval, ellipsoidal, or conical;
varies from 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) in width. When immature it is hard, gummy and very astringent.
Though smooth-skinned it is coated with a sandy brown scurf until fully ripe. The flesh ranges in
color from yellowish to light- or dark-brown or sometimes reddish-brown; may be coarse and
somewhat grainy or smooth; becomes soft and very juicy, with a sweet flavor resembling that of a
pear. Some fruits are seedless, but normally there may be from 3 to 12 seeds which are easily
removed as they are loosely held in a whorl of slots in the center of the fruit. They are brown or
black, with one white margin; hard, glossy; long-oval, flat, with usually a distinct curved hook on
one margin; and about 1/4 in (2 cm) long.
The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as
well as northern Belize and Northeastern Guatemala. In this region there were once 100,000,000
trees. The species is found in forests throughout Central America where it has apparently been
cultivated since ancient times. It was introduced long ago throughout tropical America and the
West Indies, the Bahamas, Bermuda, the Florida Keys and the southern part of the Florida
mainland. Early in colonial times, it was carried to the Philippines and later was adopted
everywhere in the Old World tropics. It reached Ceylon in 1802.
Cultivation is most extensive in coastal India (Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madras and
Bengal States), where plantations are estimated to cover 4,942 acres (2,000 ha), while Mexico has
3,733.5 acres (1,511 ha) devoted to the production of fruit (mainly in the states of Campeche and
Sapodilla
Veracruz) and 8,192 acres (4,000 ha) primarily for extraction of chicle (see under "Other Uses") as
well as many dooryard and wild trees. Commercial plantings prosper in Sri Lanka, the Philippines,
the interior valleys of Palestine, as well as in various countries of South and Central America,
including Venezuela and Guatemala.
Cultivars
In most areas, types are distinguished merely by shape, as 'Round' and 'Oval' in Saharanpur, India.
Several named cultivars are grown for commercial or home use in western and southern India:
'Kalipatti', small, early, high quality; 'Calcutta Special', large, late; 'Pilipatti', small, midseason
to late; 'Bhuripatti', small, midseason; Jumakhia', small, in clusters, late; 'Mohan Gooti', small,
midseason, not very sweet; 'Kittubarti', very small, ridged, very sweet; 'Kittubarti Big', large,
but of inferior quality; 'Cricket Ball', very large, with crisp, granular, very sweet flesh but not
distinctive in flavor; 'Dwarapudi', similar, but not quite as big, sweet and very popular;
'Bangalore', large, ridged, and 'Vavivalasa' are oval and popular in the Circars but are only
medium-sweet and bear poorly.
Other prominent cultivars in India are 'Jonnavalosa-I', of medium size, pale-fleshed, sweet;
'Jonnavalosa-Il', of medium size, ridged, with yellowish-pink flesh, sweet but not agreeable in
flavor; 'Jonnavalosa Round', large, ridged, with cream-colored flesh, very sweet; 'Gauranga',
small, lop-sided, ridged, very sweet, bears heavily; 'Ayyangar', large, very thick-skinned, sweet,
rose-scented; 'Thagarampudi', of medium size, thin-skinned, very sweet; 'Oaka', small, rounded
to oval, of good flavor and popular. Among the lesser-known are 'Badam', 'Bhuri', 'Calcutta
Round', 'CO. 1' ('Cricket Ball' X 'Long Oval'), 'Dhola diwani', 'Fingar', 'Gavarayya', 'Guthi',
'Kali', and 'Vanjet'.
A dwarf type called 'Pot' bears early and can be maintained as a pot specimen for 10 years.
Henry Pittier, in 1914, described what he deemed a "remarkable variety" called nispero de monte
at Patio, Panama. The trees do not exceed 26 ft (8 m) in height and bear small, oblate fruits in
dense clusters.
In Indonesia, sapodillas are classed in two main groups: 1) Sawo maneela, normal-size trees
having narrow, pointed leaves; and 2) Sawo apel, low, shrublike trees, with oblong leaves broadest
above the middle. Belonging to group #1 are the common cultivars 'Sawo betawi' (fruit large, in
clusters of 2-4, popular, perishable, ripening in 3 days from picking); 'Sawo koolon' (fruit large,
solitary, thick skinned, with firm flesh, shipping well); 'Sawo madja' (large, with persistent scurf,
pulp of fine texture, sweet with an acid tang). Belonging to group #2 are 'Sawo apel bener' (fruits
small in clusters of 3-6, thick-skinned); 'Sawo apel klapa' (fruits medium-size, with persistent
scurf). Some others are little grown because the fruits are either very small, too sandy, too gummy,
or too dry.
In Mexico, some superior selections are known merely as 'SCH-02','SCH-03','SCH-07',
'SCH-08', and 'SCH-28'.
In Florida, seedling selections of high quality have been named and vegetatively reproduced. The
first of these was 'Russell' from Islamorada in the Florida Keys, named and propagated by R.H.
Fitzpatrick. It is nearly round, up to 4 in (10 cm) in diameter and length, brown-scurfy with gray
patches, and luscious, reddish flesh. It is not a dependable bearer. The second, 'Prolific', a
Sapodilla
seedling grown at the Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, and released in
1941, is round-conical, 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 in (6.25-9 cm) long and broad, with smooth, pinkish-tan
flesh. The skin is lighter than that of the 'Russell' and tends to lose much of the scurf as it ripens.
The tree bears early, consistently and heavily. Of later selection, 'Modello' is a good quality fruit
but not a heavy producer; 'Seedless' yields poorly; 'Brown Sugar' is a good, regular, high yielder;
handles and keeps well.
Some introduced cultivars being tested in Florida include: 'Boetzberg', 'Larsen', 'Morning Star',
'Jamaica 8', and 'Jamaica 10'. 'Tikal', a recent seedling selection, seems very promising. It is
light-brown, elliptic to conical, much smaller than 'Prolific', but of excellent flavor and comes into
season very early. Several cultivars not recommended because of low yield in southern Florida are
'Addley', 'Adelaide', 'Big Pine Key', 'Black', 'Jamaica No. 4', 'Jamaica No. 5', 'Martin' and
'Saunders'.
In 1951, in Jamaica, I visited an English gentleman who had a very special sapodilla tree which
bore great quantities of tiny sapodillas, no more than 1 1/2 in (4 cm) in diameter. They were all
seedless and he served them chilled, whole.
In the Philippines, selected cultivars, 'Ponderosa', 'Java', 'Sao Manila', 'Native', 'Formosa',
'Rangel', and the 'Prolific' from Florida are maintained by the Bureau of Plant Industry for
propagation and distribution to farmers. 'Sao Manila' fruits mature in 190 days and ripen 3 to 5
days after picking.
Hybridization studies have been conducted in India.
Climate
The sapodilla grows from sea level to 1,500 ft (457 m) in the Philippines, up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m)
in India, to 3,937 ft (1,200 in) in Venezuela, and is common around Quito, Ecuador, at 9,186 ft
(2,800 m). It is not strictly tropical, for mature trees can withstand temperatures of 26 to 28 F
(-3.33 to -2.2 C) for several hours. Young trees are tenderer and apt to be killed by 30 F (-1.11
C) unless the stem is banked with sand or wrapped with straw and burlap during the cold spell. A
number of sapodilia trees have lived for a few years in California without fruiting and then have
succumbed to cold. Cool nights are considered a constant limiting factor. However, I have learned
of one tree in a protected location in the Sacramento Valley that has survived for many years,
reaching a large size and fruiting regularly. The sapodilla seems equally at home in humid and
relatively dry atmospheres.
Soil
The sapodilla grows naturally in the calcareous marl and disintegrated limestone of its homeland,
therefore it should not be surprising that it is so well adapted to southern Florida and the Florida
Keys. Nevertheless, it flourishes also in deep, loose, organic soil, or on light clay, diabase, sand or
lateritic gravel. Good drainage is essential, the tree bearing poorly in low, wet locations. It is
highly drought-resistant, can stand salt spray, and approaches the date palm in its tolerance of soil
salinity, rated as ECe 14.20.
Propagation
Sapodilla
Seeds remain viable for several years if kept dry. The best seeds are large ones from large fruits.
They germinate readily but growth is slow and the trees take 5 to 8 years to bear. Since there is
great variation in the form, quality and yield of fruits from seedling trees, vegetative propagation
has long been considered desirable but has been hampered by the gummy latex. In India, several
methods are practiced: grafting, inarching, ground-layering and air-layering. Grafts have been
successful on several rootstocks: sapodilla, Bassia latifolia, B. longifolia, Sideroxylon dulcificum
and Mimusops hexandra. The last has been particularly successful, the grafts growing vigorously
and fruiting heavily.
In Florida, shield-budding, cleft-grafting and side-grafting were moderately successful but too
slow for large-scale production. An improved method of side-grafting was developed using
year-old seedlings with stems 1/4 in (6 mm) thick. The scion (young terminal shoot) was prepared
6 weeks to several months in advance by girdling and defoliating. Just before grafting the
rootstock was scored just above the grafting site and the latex "bled" for several minutes. After the
stock was notched and the scion set in, it was bound with rubber and given a protective coating of
wax or asphalt. The scion started growing in 30 days and the rootstock was then beheaded. Some
years later, further experiments showed that better results were obtained by omitting the
pre-conditioning of the scion and the bleeding of the latex. The operator must work fast and clean
his knife frequently. The scions are veneer-grafted and then completely covered with plastic,
allowing free gas exchange while preventing dehydration. Success is deemed most dependent on
season: the 2 or 3 months of late summer and early fall.
In the Philippines, terminal shoots are completely defoliated 2 to 3 weeks before grafting onto
rootstock which has been kept in partial shade for 2 months. However, inarching is there
considered superior to grafting, giving a greater percentage of success. Homeowners often find
air-layering easier and more successful than grafting, and air-layered trees often begin bearing
within 2 years after planting.
In India, 50% success has been realized in top-working 20-year-old trees--cutting back to 3 1/2 ft
(1 m) from the ground and inserting scions of superior cultivars.
Culture
Seedlings for grafting are best grown in full sun, kept moist and fertilized with 8-4-8 N P K every
45 days.
Trees set out in commercial groves should be spaced 30 to 45 ft (9-13.5 m) apart each way.
In India, the plants are placed in deep, pre-fertilized pits and manured twice a year, sometimes
with the addition of castor bean meal or residue of neem seed (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.), wood
ash and/or ammonium sulfate. In an experiment at Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani,
India, with 8-year-old trees planted at 12 m, application of 28 oz (800 g) N/tree increased trunk
size and number and weight of fruits. Combined application of this amount of N plus 6 1/4 oz (176
g) P and 5 3/4 oz (166 g) K/tree gave the highest fruit yield. Fertilizer experiments over a period of
25 years at Gujarat Agricultural University revealed that N alone increases yield by 70%, a
combination of N and P elevates yield by 90%, and combined N and K, 128%, over that of control
(unfertilized) trees. Of course, optimum nutrient formulas depend on the character of the soil. In
South Florida's limestone a mixed fertilizer of N, P, K, Mg in a 4-7-5-3 ratio is recommended in
Sapodilla
spring, summer and fall.

Most mature sapodilla trees receive no watering, but irrigation in dry seasons will increase
productivity. In some parts of India, brackish or saline water is sometimes used to reduce
vegetative growth and promote fruiting.
Season
The fruits mature 4 to 6 months after flowering. In the tropics, some cultivars bear almost
continuously. In India, the main season is from December to March. The trees bear from May to
September in Florida, with the peak of the crop in June and July. In Mexico, there are two peak
seasons: February-April and October-December.
Harvesting
Most people find it difficult to tell when a sapodilla is ready to pick. With types that shed much of
the "sand" on maturity, it is relatively easy to observe the slight yellow or peach color of the ripe
skin, but with other types it is necessary to rub the scurf to see if it loosens readily and then scratch
the fruit to make sure the skin is not green beneath the scurf. If the skin is brown and the fruit
separates from the stem easily without leaking of the latex, it is fully mature though still hard and
must be kept at room temperature for a few days to soften. It is best to wash off the sandy scurf
before putting the fruit aside to ripen. It should be eaten when firm-soft, not mushy.
In the Bahamas, children bury their "dillies" in potholes in the limestone to ripen, or the fruits may
be wrapped in sweaters or other thick material and put in drawers to hasten softening. Fruits
picked immature will shrivel as they soften and will be of inferior quality, sometimes with small
pockets of gummy latex.
In commercial groves, it is judged that when a few fruits have softened and fallen from the tree, all
the full-grown fruits may be harvested for marketing. If in any doubt, the grower should cut open a
few fruits to make sure the seeds are black (or very dark-brown). Pickers should use clippers or
picking poles with bag and sharp notch at the peak of the metal frame to cut the fruit stem.
In India, the fruits are spread out in the shade to allow any latex at the stem end to dry before
packing. The fruits ship well with minimal packing.
Yield
The 'Prolific' sapodilla yields 6 to 9 bushels per tree annually; or, 200 to 450 lbs (90 to 180 kg).
'Brown Sugar' yields 5 to 8 bushels. In India, it is said that a productive tree will bear 1,000 fruits
in its 10th year and the yield increases steadily. At 30-35 years of age, the tree should produce
2,500 to 3,000 fruits annually. A great deal depends on the cultivar. A 10-year-old 'Oval' tree gave
1,158 fruits weighing 184 lbs (128.8 kg), while a 10-year-old 'Cricket Ball' bore 353 fruits
weighing 112 lbs (50 kg). Hand-pollination has been found to increase fruit set.
Mature, hard sapodillas will ripen in 9 to 10 days and rot in 2 weeks at normal summer
temperature and relative humidity. More than 50 years ago, sapodillas were shipped from Java to
Holland, held at 40-50 F (4.44-10 C) for 3 days, and they ripened satisfactorily after arrival.
Sapodilla
They were smoked over burning straw for a few hours before packing. Storage trials in Malaya
demonstrated that mature, hard sapodillas stored at 68 F (20 C) win ripen in 10 days and remain
in good condition for another 5 days. In Venezuela, mature fruits held at 68 F (20 C) and 90%
relative humidity were in excellent condition at the end of 23 days. Lower temperatures, in efforts
to prolong storage life, seriously retard ripening and lower fruit quality. Low relative humidity
causes shriveling and wrinkling. Humid conditions promote sogginess. If long storage is
necessary, the fruits may be kept at 59-68 F (15-20 C) in a controlled atmosphere of 85-90%
relative humidity, 5-10% (v/v) CO2,with total removal Of C2H4 to delay ripening.
Firm-ripe sapodillas may be kept for several days in good condition in the home refrigerator. At
35 F (1.67 C), they can be kept for 6 weeks. Fully ripe fruits frozen at 32 F (0 C) keep perfectly
for 33 days.
Pests and Diseases
In general, the sapodilla tree remains supremely healthy with little or no care. In India, it is
sometimes attacked by a bark-borer, Indarbela (Arbela) tetraonis. Mealybugs may infest tender
shoots and deface the fruits. A galechid caterpillar (Anarsia) has caused flower buds and flowers to
dry up and fall. In Indonesia, caterpillars of Tarsolepis remicauda may completely defoliate the
tree. A caterpillar, Nephopteryx engraphella, feeds on the leaves, flower buds and young fruits in
parts of India. The ripening and overripe fruits are favorite hosts of the Mediterranean, Caribbean,
Mexican and other fruit flies.
Various scales, including Howardia biclavis, Pulvinaria (or Chloropulvinaria) psidii,
Rastrococcus iceryoides, and pustule scale, Asterolecanium pustulans Ckll., may lead to black
sooty mold caused by the fungus Capnodium sp. on stems, foliage and fruits. In some years,
during winter and spring in Florida, a rust (possibly Uredo sapotae) may affect the foliage of some
cultivars. A leaf spot (Septoria sp.) has caused defoliation in a few locations. The moth of a leaf
miner (Acrocercops gemoniella) is active on young leaves. Other minor enemies have been
occasionally observed.
In India, it may be necessary to spread nets over the tree to protect the fruits from fruit bats.
Food Uses
Generally, the ripe sapodilla, unchilled or preferably chilled, is merely cut in half and the flesh is
eaten with a spoon. It is an ideal dessert fruit as the skin, which is not eaten, remains firm enough
to serve as a "shell". Care must be taken not to swallow a seed, as the protruding hook might cause
lodging in the throat. The flesh, of course, may be scooped out and added to fruit cups or salads. A
dessert sauce is made by peeling and seeding ripe sapodillas, pressing the flesh through a colander,
adding orange juice, and topping with whipped cream. Sapodilla flesh may also be blended into an
egg custard mix before baking.
It was long proclaimed that the fruit could not be cooked or preserved in any way, but it is
sometimes fried in Indonesia and, in Malaya, is stewed with lime juice or ginger. I found that
Bahamians often crush the ripe fruits, strain, boil and preserve the juice as a sirup. They also add
mashed sapodilla pulp to pancake batter and to ordinary bread mix before baking. My own
experiments showed that a fine jam could be made by peeling and stewing cut-up ripe fruits in
Sapodilla
water and skimming off a green scum that rises to the surface and appears to be dissolved latex,
then adding sugar to improve texture and sour orange juice and a strip of peel to offset the
increased sweetness. Skimming until all latex scum is gone is the only way to avoid gumminess.
Cooking with sugar changes the brown color of the flesh to a pleasing red.
One lady in Florida developed a recipe for sapodilla pie. She peeled the ripe fruits, cut them into
pieces as apples are cut, and filled the raw lower crust, sprinkled 1/2 cup of raisins over the fruit,
poured over evenly 1/2 cup of 50-50 lime and lemon juice to prevent the sapodilla pieces from
becoming rubbery, and then sprinkled evenly 1/2 cup of granulated sugar. After covering with the
top crust and making a center hole to release steam, she baked for 40 minutes at 350 F (176.67
C). In India, it has been shown that ripe fruits can be peeled and sliced, packed in metal cans,
heated for 10 minutes at 158 F (70 C), then treated for 6 minutes at a vacuum of 28 in Hg,
vacuum double-seamed, and irradiated with a total dose of 4 x 105 rads at room temperature. This
process provides an acceptable canned product.
Ripe sapodillas have been successfully dried by pretreatment with a 60% sugar solution and
osmotic dehydration for 5 hours, and the product has retained acceptable quality for 2 months.
Mr. Edward Smith of Crescent Place, Trinidad, made sapodilla wine and told me that it was very
good. Young leafy shoots are eaten raw or steamed with rice in Indonesia, after washing to
eliminate the sticky sap.
Food Value
Immature sapodillas are rich in tannin (proanthocyanadins) and very astringent. Ripening
eliminates the tannin except for a low level remaining in the skin.
Analyses of 9 selections of sapodillas from southern Mexico showed great variation in total
soluble solids, sugars and ascorbic acid content. Unfortunately, the fruits were not peeled and
therefore the results show abnormal amounts of tannin contributed by the skin:
Moisture ranged from 69.0 to 75.7%; ascorbic acid from 8.9 to 41.4 mg/100 g; total acid, 0.09 to
0.15%; pH, 5.0 to 5.3; total soluble solids, 17.4 to 23.7 Brix; as for carbohydrates, glucose
ranged from 5.84 to 9.23%, fructose, 4.47 to 7.13%, sucrose, 1.48 to 8.75%, total sugars, 11.14 to
20.43%, starch, 2.98 to 6.40%. Tannin content, because of the skins, varied from 3.16 to 6.45%.
Toxicity
The seed kernel (50% of the whole seed) contains 1% saponin and 0.08% of a bitter principle,
sapotinin. Ingestion of more than 6 seeds causes abdominal pain and vomiting.
Other Uses
Chicle: A major by-product of the sapodilla tree is the gummy latex called "chicle", containing
15% rubber and 38% resin. For many years it has been employed as the chief ingredient in
chewing gum but it is now in some degree diluted or replaced by latex from other species and by
synthetic gums.
Chicle is tasteless and harmless and is obtained by repeated tapping of wild and cultivated trees in
Sapodilla
Yucatan, Belize and Guatemala. It is coagulated by stirring over low fires, then poured into molds
to form blocks for export. Processing consists of drying, melting, elimination of foreign matter,
combining with other gums and resins, sweeteners and flavoring, then rolling into sheets and
cutting into desired units.
The dried latex was chewed by the Mayas and was introduced into the United States by General
Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana about 1866 while he was on Staten Island awaiting clearance to enter
this country. He had a supply in his pocket for chewing and gave a piece to the son of Thomas
Adams. The latter at first considered the possibility of using it to make dentures, then decided it
was useful only as a masticatory. He found he could easily incorporate flavoring and thus soon
launched the chicle-based chewing-gum industry. In 1930, at the peak of production, nearly
14,000,000 lbs (6,363,636 kg) of chicle were imported.
Efforts have been made to extract chicle from the leaves and unripe fruit but the yield is
insufficient. It has been estimated that 3,200 leaves would be needed to produce one pound
(0.4535 kg) of gum.
Among miscellaneous uses: the latex is employed as birdlime, as an adhesive in mending small
articles in India; it has been utilized in dental surgery, and as a substitute for gutta percha. The
Aztecs used it for modeling figurines.
Timber: Sapodilla wood is strong and durable and timbers which formed lintels and supporting
beams in Mayan temples have been found intact in the ruins. It has also been used for railway
crossties, flooring, native carts, tool handles, shuttles and rulers. The red heartwood is valued for
archer's bows, furniture, bannisters, and cabinetwork but the sawdust irritates the nostrils. Felling
of the tree is prohibited in Yucatan because of its value as a source of chicle.
Bark: The tannin-rich bark is used by Philippine fishermen to tint their sails and fishing lines.
Medicinal Uses: Because of the tannin content, young fruits are boiled and the decoction taken to
stop diarrhea. An infusion of the young fruits and the flowers is drunk to relieve pulmonary
complaints. A decoction of old, yellowed leaves is drunk as a remedy for coughs, colds and
diarrhea. A "tea" of the bark is regarded as a febrifuge and is said to halt diarrhea and dysentery.
The crushed seeds have a diuretic action and are claimed to expel bladder and kidney stones. A
fluid extract of the crushed seeds is employed in Yucatan as a sedative and soporific. A combined
decoction of sapodilla and chayote leaves is sweetened and taken daily to lower blood pressure. A
paste of the seeds is applied on stings and bites from venomous animals. The latex is used in the
tropics as a crude filling for tooth cavities.
Sapote

Morton, J. 1987. Sapote. p. 398402. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Sapote
Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn
Pouteria mammosa (L.) Cronquist
Lucuma mammosa Gaertn.
Achradelpha mammosaCook
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Spacing
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
The word "sapote" is believed to have been derived from the Aztec "tzapotl", a general term
applied to all soft, sweet fruits. It has long been utilized as a common name for Pouteria sapota
(Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn (syns. P. mammosa (L.) Cronquist, Lucuma mammosa Gaertn.,
Achradelpha mammosa Cook, Vitellaria mammosa Radlk., Calocarpum mammosum Pierre, C.
sapota Merrill, Sideroxylon sapota Jacq.). Alternate vernacular names include sapota, zapote,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sapote_ars.html (1 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:37:33 PM]
Sapote
zapote colorado, zapote mamey, lava-zapote, zapotillo, mamey sapote, mamee sapote, mamee
zapote, mamey colorado, mamey rojo, mammee or mammee apple or red sapote. In El Salvador, it
is known as zapote grande, in Colombia as zapote de carne; in Cuba, it is mamey, which tends to
confuse it with Mammea americana L., a quite different fruit widely known by that name. The
usual name in Panama is mamey de la tierra; in Haiti, sapotier jaune d'oeuf, or grand sapotillier;
in Guadeloupe, sapote creme; in Martinique, grosse sapote; in Jamaica, it is marmalade fruit or
marmalade plum; in Nicaragua, it may be called guaicume; in Mexico, chachaas or chachalhaas
or tezonzapote; in Malaya and the Philippines, chico-mamei, or chico-mamey.
The sapote belongs to the family Sapotaceae, the same family as the sapodilla (Manilkara zapota
van Royen) which has also been called sapote, zapote, or zapote chico to distinguish it from the
larger fruit.
Description
The sapote tree is erect, frequently to 60 ft
(18 m) sometimes to 100 or 130 ft (30 or 40
m) with short or tall trunk to 3 ft (1 m)
thick, often narrowly buttressed, a narrow or
spreading crown, and white, gummy latex.
The evergreen or deciduous leaves,
clustered at the branch tips, on petioles 3/4
to 2 in (2-5 cm) long, are obovate, 4 to 12 in
(10-30 cm) long, and 1 1/2 to 4 in (4-10 cm)
wide, pointed at both ends. The small,
white, to pale-yellow 5-parted flowers
emerge in clusters of 6 to 12 in the axils of
fallen leaves along the branches. The fruit
may be round, ovoid or elliptic, often
bluntly pointed at the apex, varies from 3 to
9 in (7.5-22.8 cm) long, and ranges in
weight from 1/2 lb to 5 lbs (227 g-2.3 kg). It
has rough, dark-brown, firm, leathery,
Plate LV: SAPOTE, Pouteria sapota
semi-woody skin or rind to 1/16 in (1.5
mm) thick, and salmon-pink to deep-red,
soft flesh, sweet and pumpkin-like in flavor, enclosing 1 to 4 large, slick, spindle-shaped, pointed
seeds, hard, glossy-brown, with a whitish, slightly rough hilum on the ventral side. The large
kernel is oily, bitter, and has a strong bitter-almond odor.
The sapote occurs naturally at low elevations from southern Mexico to northern Nicaragua. It is
much cultivated and possibly also naturalized up to 2,000 ft (600 m) and occasionally found up to
5,000 ft (1,500 m) throughout Central America and tropical South America. It is abundant in
Guatemala. In the West Indies, it is planted to a limited extent from Trinidad to Guadeloupe, and
in Puerto Rico, Haiti and Jamaica, but mainly in Cuba where it is often grown in home gardens
and along streets and for shading coffee because it loses its leaves at the period when coffee plants
need sun, and the fruit is extremely popular. It is grown only occasionally in Colombia, Ecuador,
Sapote
Venezuela and Brazil. It was introduced into the Philippines by the early Spaniards but is grown
only around Cavite and Laguna on Luzon and Cagayan on Mindanao. From the Philippines, it was
carried to southern Vietnam where the fruit is eaten when very ripe.
The sapote has existed in Florida for at least a century. The prominent horticulturist, Pliny
Reasoner, included it in his report in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Pomological Bulletin in
1887. Subsequently, seeds were brought into the United States on various occasions. In 1914, the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction received seeds from the Costa Rican National
Museum, San Jos (P.I. #39357). Mr. Ramon Arias-Feraud supplied seeds from Panama in 1918
(P.I. #46236). In July, 1919, seeds from Laguna, Philippines, were sent by the Bureau of
Agriculture, Manila (P.I. #47516). More seeds from Costa Rica were presented by Mr. Carlos
Werckle in October, 1919 (P.I. #47956). Seeds of a superior selection were obtained and planted at
the Federal Experiment Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, in 1939.
Despite the favorable comments that accompanied these and other introductions, the sapote was
represented by only a few scattered trees in southern Florida for a long time. One of the
discouraging factors was the tree's slowness incoming into bearing. William J. Krome, a leading
pioneer, planted a seedling on his property in Homestead in 1907 and it bore its first fruits in 1949,
after having suffered repeated setbacks from freezes and hurricanes over the years, and it was then
only 18 ft (5 1/2 m) high. Other trees in more protected locations had fared much better.
The arrival of many Cubans in Dade County during the past 2 decades has created an active
demand for the fruits and for the trees for home planting, and some commercial orchards of 5 to 20
acres (2-8 1/3 ha) or more have been established. In 1983, one man with 15 trees in his backyard
was selling the fruits to Cuban people and bringing in seedlings 5 ft (1 1/2 in) high from the
Dominican Republic at $100 each. Such enthusiasm has spurred efforts to develop practical
methods of vegetative propagation and one expert propagator is now selling grafted trees at $10.50
each, wholesale. In the fall of 1984, a nursery had acquired a stock of 1,000 of these trees and one
customer bought them all. Thus has the status of the sapote risen dramatically in southern Florida
because of an ethnic change in the population.
Varieties
There is much seedling variation in the sapote. Superior selections have been made in Cuba,
Central America and in Florida in recent years. The following named cultivars are being cultivated
domestically or commercially, or merely being tested in Florida:
'AREC No. 3'Seed received from Isle of Pines, Cuba, 1940. Seedling grown at AREC,
Homestead. Grafted trees planted later. Fruit medium to large, 14 to 26 oz (400-740 g). Flesh pink;
of poor to good quality; contains 3-4 seeds. Ripens July-Sept. Tree of medium size, a fair bearer;
probably useful source of seeds for rootstocks.
'Cayo Hueso'A selection from the Dominican Republic; favored by Cubans.
'Chenox'Obtained by Lawrence Zill from Belize. Grafted trees being tested at AREC,
Homestead, and elsewhere.
'Copan' ('AREC No. 1')Seed received from Cuba in 1938. Seedling set out in field at AREC,
Homestead, 1940. Grafted trees planted out in 1975; later propagated by nurseries. Fruit of
Sapote
medium size; 15-32 oz (425-900 g). Flesh red, of excellent quality; contains 1 seed. Fruit ripens in
July-Aug. Tree is of spreading habit and medium in size. Leaves turn red in Dec., then become
brown and are shed in spring.
'Cuban No. 1'Believed to have originated in Cuba but introduced from El Salvador. Fruit large;
9 in (22.8 cm) long; weighs 2.2 lbs (1 kg).
'Flores'A Guatemalan selection introduced by Tom Economou of Miami and being tested at
AREC, Homestead.
'Francisco Fernandez'A Cuban selection named for the Miami man who introduced it into
Florida.
'Magana'Introduced from El Salvador in 1961. Seedling set in field at AREC, Homestead, in
1952. Grafted trees planted in 1975. Later propagated by nurseries. Fruit large to very large; 26 to
85 oz (740-2,400 g). Flesh pink, of good to excellent quality; contains 1 seed. Fruit matures in less
than 12 mos (Apr.-May). Tree is small, slow-growing; may fruit 1 yr. after planting. Bears poorly
in Puerto Rico; very well in Florida. Evergreen.
'Mayapan' ('AREC No. 2')Seed sent from Isle of Pines, Cuba, in 1940. Fruit a little above
medium size; 18 to 40 oz (510-1,135 g). Skin very scurfy. Flesh red, of good quality though
slightly fibrous; contains 1 seed. Tree is erect and tall. Grafted trees slow to fruit but produce well
after the lapse of a few years.
'Pantin'(or 'Key West')In 1956, Pantin family in Miami provided budwood from a seedling tree
in Key West. Fruit of medium size; 14 to 40 oz (400-1,130 g). Flesh pink to red, of excellent
quality, fiberless; contains 1 seed. Tree is tall. Grafted trees grow slowly at first, bear little or no
fruit for 2-3 years, then growth rate increases and yield is good. Leaves become brown in winter.
Grafted trees sold by nurseries.
'Progreso'Obtained by Lawrence Zill from Belize. Grafted trees being tested at AREC,
Homestead, and elsewhere.
'Tazumal'AREC, Homestead, received seedling tree from El Salvador in 1949. Grafted and
planted several trees in 1975. Fruit is of medium size, 14 to 30 oz (400-850 g). Flesh pink, of good
quality; contains 1-2 seeds. First crop ripens Jan.-Feb.; second crop, July-Aug. Tree is of medium
size, fast-growing, bears regularly and heavily. Grafted trees sold by nurseries. Usually evergreen.
In western Puerto Rico, there are some high-yielding trees producing large fruits 2.2 lbs (1 kg) or
more in weight having dark-red flesh.
Climate
The sapote tree is limited to tropical or near-tropical climates. In Central America, it flourishes
from sea-level up to 2,000 ft (610 m); it is less common at 3,000 ft (914 m); and rare at 4,000 ft
(1,220 m). Occasional trees have survived at 5,000 ft (1,500 m) but these grow slowly and fruit
maturity is considerably delayed. Young specimens are highly cold-sensitive and the large leaves
of the tree are subject to damage by cold winds. The sapote has been found too tender for
California. It thrives in regions of moderate rainfallabout 70 in (178 cm) annuallyand is
intolerant of prolonged drought. Even a short dry spell may induce shedding of leaves.
Sapote
Soil
The tree makes its best growth on the heavy soilsdeep clay and clay loamof Guatemala but it
does well on a wide range of soil types, even infertile, porous sand. It was originally believed
unsuited to the oolitic limestone soils of southern Florida. However, with adequate planting holes,
it has proved to be long-lived and fruitful in Dade County. The tree will not thrive where there is
poor drainage, a high water table, or impermeable subsoil restricting root development.
Propagation
Sapote seeds lose viability quickly and must be planted soon after removal from the fruit. They
normally germinate in 2 to 4 weeks. Removal of the hard outer coat will speed germination. The
seeds must be planted with the more pointed end upward and protruding 1/2 in (1.25 cm) above
the soil in order to assure good form in the seedling. Rodents are attracted to the seeds and cause
considerable losses in Cuba. Seedlings should be grown only in experimental plantings intended
for selection of desirable characters, or for use as rootstocks. Normally seedlings will not bear until
they are 8 to 10 years old and they do not necessarily come true from seed. In Cuba, seeds are
taken only from esteemed trees that are isolated from those of low quality in order to avoid any
detrimental influence through cross-pollination. For fruit production, the sapote is best propagated
vegetatively and it will then produce fruit in 1 to 4 years, depending on the cultivar. Air-layering is
seldom successful. Cuttings treated with indolebutyric acid fail to root. Various methods of
grafting have been tried. Approach-grafting has been commonly practiced in Cuba and is a reliable
but somewhat cumbersome technique. Chip-budding has given good results at times. Side-veneer
grafting is considered most feasible in Mexico and Florida. It has been achieved with 80 to 98%
success utilizing 1-yr-old defoliated trees in the February-May dry season, but still presents
difficulties. Ing. Filiberto Lazo, a horticulturist of long experience in Cuba, has provided detailed
instructions for tip-grafting which he proved to be practical. The seedlings for use as rootstocks are
first grown in 1-quart (.94 liter) containers and, when the first tender leaves appear, are
transplanted into gallon (3.8 liter) containers and kept in semi-shade until the leaves are full-grown
and dark-green. At this stage they are given more sun and are fertilized and watered faithfully.
Within a year the stem will be 3/4 in (2 cm) thick and ready for grafting. An important point is to
select budwood (scion) that is not as thick as the rootstock. The scion may be prepared by one of
two methods: a) select from a tree that you wish to propagate a branch that has flowered; cut off
the tip just below the leaves. About 10 to 12 days later the lateral buds of the beheaded branch
begin to swell and this is the time to clip off the scion, 8 in (20 cm) in length, wrap it in a damp
cloth, and proceed to graft as soon as possible; or b) clip off the terminal 8 in (20 cm) or more of a
branch that has flowered, then immediately cut off the apex with the leaves, wrap the decapitated
scion in a damp cloth and keep in the nursery until you see the lateral buds of the scion begin to
swell; then proceed to graft.
The first cut in the rootstock should be a transverse one with pruning shears, leaving the stem
about 1 ft (30 cm) high. Because of the copious latex, one must wait for it to drain out before
going ahead. When the flow stops, take the scion (prepared either way), clip off 2 in (5 cm) or
more from the base, leaving the scion about 6 in (15 cm) long. Using the budding knife, make a
diagonal cut from 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) below the tip downward, the slant terminating at the side
opposite the side where it was begun. A reverse cut of the same length is made in the tip of the
rootstock so that the base of the scion and the tip of the rootstock will fit together perfectly and the
Sapote
bark will match up. The scion must then be tightly bound to the rootstock with polyethylene
ribbon, leaving no air-space, and covering all of the scion up to 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) above the
rootstock. A rubber band is put around over the polyethylene to make sure the wrapping is
completely secure. When the scion has developed mature leaves, this is a sign that the graft has
taken. The plastic is removed from the scion except for the part covering the graft which is left on
until the scion has developed a quantity of leaves and displays distinct vigor. The grafted plant is
ready to set out in the field one year later. Inferior cultivars, or grafted trees that have been frozen
back, can be topworked by veneer-grafting mature or "juvenile-like" scions onto interstocks
(seedling tops prepared for the purpose).
Spacing
Planting distances may vary with the fertility of the soil and the form and growth habit of the
cultivar. On rich soil, sapote trees of spreading habit should be no less than 30 ft (9 m) apart each
way. Lazo preferred a spacing of 40 ft (12 m) on an equilateral triangle. Where the soil is less
fertile and the cultivar is fairly compact, the distance may be reduced to 25 ft (7.5 m).
Culture
Sapote trees do not require elaborate care, but should be given the advantage of adequate holes,
pre-enriched, and routine fertilizer applications, at first high in nitrogen to stimulate vegetative
growth. When nearing fruiting age, the tree will benefit from applications of a balanced fertilizer
in spring and fall, the amount increasing each year. In dry seasons, frequent watering is desirable
until the tree is well established. Grafted trees grow more slowly than seedlings and do not grow as
tall, which is a distinct advantage in harvesting.
it is not easy to determine when the sapote is sufficiently mature to harvest. Some say the fruits are
picked when they show a reddish tinge. Actually, in Cuba, 10 or 12 fruits from each tree are
sampled by removing a small part of the rind and judging the color of the flesh. If it has achieved
maximum color for that particular cultivar, the entire crop is deemed ready to pick. Fruits are not
harvested from trees in active vegetative growth (a state called "primavera"), because they will
never ripen completely. Harvesting of large trees requires a picking pole with a cutter and a basket
to catch the fruits; or workers must use ladders and twist the fruit until the stem breaks. Trees that
become too tall may be topped so that the crop will be within reach. After picking, the stem is
close-clipped and the fruits are packed in boxes or baskets to avoid injury. There are no available
figures on productivity but it is said in Cuba that trees on fertile soil will live for at least 100 years
and bear abundantly throughout their lives.
Keeping Quality
A fully mature sapote will ripen in a few days. If shipped right after picking, the fruits can be sent
to distant markets. In the past, they were exported from Mexico and Cuba to the United States.
Pests and Diseases
Sapote leaves and roots are attacked by the West Indian sugar cane root borer, Diaprepes
abbreviatus, in Puerto Rico. The red spider mite, Tetranychus bimaculatus, may infest the leaves.
Sapote
The fungus, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, causes anthracnose on the leaves and fruit stalks in
rainy seasons and causes fruits to fall prematurely. Leafspot resulting from attack by the fungus
Phyllosticta sapotae occurs in Cuba and the Bahamas but seldom in Puerto Rico. In addition, black
leaf spot (Phyllachora sp.) and root rot (Pythium sp.) may occur in Florida.
Food Uses
The sapote is credited with sustaining Cortez and his army in their historic march from Mexico
City to Honduras. The fruit is of such importance to the Indians of Central America and Mexico
that they usually leave this tree standing when clearing land for coffee plantations or other
purposes. They generally eat the fruit out-of-hand or spooned from the half-shell. In urban areas,
the pulp is made into jam or frozen as sherbet. In Cuba, fibrous types are set aside for processing.
A prominent dairy in Miami has for many years imported sapote pulp from Central America to
prepare and distribute commercially as "Spanish sherbet". In Cuba, a thick preserve called "crema
de mamey colorado "is very popular. The pulp is sometimes employed as a filler in making guava
cheese.
The decorticated seeds, called zapoyotas, sapuyules, or sapuyulos, strung on sticks or cords, are
marketed in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, and in Central America. The kernel is boiled,
roasted and mixed with cacao in making chocolatesome say to improve the flavor, others say to
increase the bulk, in which case it is actually an adulterant. In Costa Rica, it is finely ground and
made into a special confection. Around Oaxaca, in southern Mexico, the ground-up kernel is
mixed with parched corn, or cornmeal, sugar and cinnamon and prepared as a nutritious beverage
called "pozol".
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
114.5
55.3-73.1 g
0.188-1.97 g
0.09-0.25 g
1.41-29.7 g
1.21-3.20 g
0.89-1.32 g
28.2-121.0 mg
22.9-33.1 mg
0.52-2.62 mg
0.045-0.665 mg
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.002-0.025 mg
0.006-0.046 mg
1.574-2.580 mg
8.8-40.0 mg
Sapote
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
19 mg
Methionine
12 mg
Lysine
90 mg
Toxicity
De la Maza, in 1893, reported that the seed has stupefying properties, and this may be due to its
HCN content. One is cautioned not to rub the eyes after handling the green fruit because of the sap
exuding from the cut or broken stalk. The milky sap of the tree is highly irritant to the eyes and
caustic and vesicant on the skin. The leaves are reportedly poisonous.
Other Uses
Seeds: Early in the 19th Century, the seeds were used in Costa Rica to iron starched fine linen.
The seed kernel yields 45 to 60% of a white, semi-solid, vaseline-like oil which is edible when
freshly extracted and refined. It is sometimes used in soap and considered to have a greater
potential in the soap industry, in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. It was used in olden
times to fix the colors on painted gourds and other articles of handicraft. The seeds have served as
a source of Noyeau scent in perfumery. The nectar of the flowers is gathered by honeybees.
Trees: The trees are seldom cut for timber, unless they bear poor quality fruit. There is very little
sapwood. The heartwood is buff or brown when fresh, becoming reddish with age; sometimes
resembles mahogany but is redder and more or less mottled with darker tones. It is fine-grained,
compact, generally hard and fairly heavy, strong, easy to work and fairly durable. It is rated as
suitable for cabinetwork and is made into furniture, but mostly serves for building carts, and for
shelving and house frames.
Medicinal Uses: In Santo Domingo, the seed kernel oil is used as a skin ointment and as a hair
dressing believed to stop falling hair. In Mexico, 2 or 3 pulverized kernels are combined with 10
oz (300 g) castor oil for application to the hair. In 1970, clinical tests at the University of
California at Los Angeles failed to reveal any hair-growth promoting activity but confirmed that
the oil of sapote seed is effective in stopping hair-fall caused by seborrheic dermatitis. The oil is
employed as a sedative in eye and ear ailments. The seed residue after oil extraction is applied as a
poultice on painful skin afflictions.
A seed infusion is used as an eyewash in Cuba. In Mexico, the pulverized seed coat is reported to
be a remedy for coronary trouble and, taken with wine, is said to be helpful against kidney stones
and rheumatism. The Aztecs employed it against epilepsy. The seed kernel is regarded as a
digestive; the oil is said to be diuretic. The bark is bitter and astringent and contains lucumin, a
cyanogenic glycoside. A decoction of the bark is taken as a pectoral. In Costa Rica a "tea" of the
bark and leaves is administered in arteriosclerosis and hypertension. The milky sap is emetic and
anthelmintic and has been used to remove warts and fungal growths on the skin.
Sapote
Related Species
The green sapote, Pouteria viridis Cronq., (syns. Calocarpum viride Pitt.; Achradelpha viridis
O.F. Cook), is called injerto, injerto verde or raxtul in Guatemala; zapote injerto in Costa Rica;
white faisan or red faisan in Belize. The tree is erect, to 40 or even 80 ft (12-24 m) in height, its
young branches densely brown-hairy. It possesses an abundance of white, gummy latex. The
leaves are clustered at the tips of flowering branches and irregularly alternate along non-fruiting
limbs. They are oblanceolate, pointed, 4 to 10 in (10-25 cm) long, 2 to 2 3/4 in (5-7 cm) wide;
hairy on the upper midrib and downy-white beneath. Flowers, borne in groups of 2 to 5 in the leaf
axils and massed along leafless branches, are tubular, 5-lobed, pinkish or ivory and silky-hairy.
The fruit varies from nearly round to ovoid, pointed at the apex and sometimes at the base; may be
3 1/2 to 5 in (9-12.5 cm) long and 2 1/2 to 3 in (6.25-7.5 cm) thick, with thin, olive-green or
yellow-green skin dotted with red-brown and clinging tightly to the flesh. The flesh is light-russet,
of fine texture, melting, fairly juicy and sweet; of better flavor than the sapote. There may be 1 or 2
dark-brown, shiny, elliptic or ovate seeds to 2 in (5 cm) long, with a large, dull, grayish hilum on
one surface. The fruit is picked while hard and held until soft. The flesh is generally eaten raw,
spooned from the skin, but a preserve is made from it in Guatemala.
The tree is native and common in the wild in Guatemala and Honduras; rarer in Costa Rica and
southward to Panama; at elevations between 3,000 and 7,000 ft (900-2,100 in). The fruits are
commonly marketed.
In 1916, 50 seeds from fruits on the market in Guatemala were introduced by the United States
Department of Agriculture (S.P.I. #43788). Experimental plantings were made in California and
Florida. More seeds were sent by Dr. Wilson Popenoe from the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at
Tela, Honduras, in 1929 (S.P.I. #80383). Other introductions followed. There were no survivors in
California or Florida in 1940. Trees 8 to 10 ft (2.4-3 m) high at the Agricultural Research and
Education Center, Homestead, Florida, were killed by a flood in 1948. A private experimenter,
William Whitman, obtained budwood from Honduras in 1954 and grafted it onto sapote rootstock.
Other such grafts were made by a commercial fruit grower and the first fruits were borne in 1961.
Subsequently, grafted trees were offered for sale by the Brooks-Tower Nursery and various
seedlings have been distributed to private growers. The tree seems to flourish with little care on
rich hammock soil but needs regular fertilizing on limestone. The Cuban May beetle feeds on the
leaves. Seedlings begin to bear when 8 to 10 years old. The crop ripens in fall and winter.
Moisture
68.1-69.5 g
Protein
0.152-0.283 g
Fat
0.24-0.28 g
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
1.2-1.6 g
0.69-1.38 g
18.6-35.7 mg
22.1-23.6 mg
0.57-0.74 mg
Sapote
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
0.031-0.069 mg
0.009-0.011 mg
0.027 mg
1.88-1.189 mg
49.9-62.3 mg
*Analyses made in Guatemala.

The latex (chicle) has been commercially collected and marketed like that from the sapodilla for
use in chewing gum. The wood is reddish, fine-grained, compact, strong, durable; occasionally
used in construction, carpentry, turnery, and for furniture and paneling in Guatemala.
Canistel

Morton, J. 1987. Canistel. p. 402405. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Canistel
Pouteria campechiana Baehni
Pouteria campechiana var. nervosa Baehni
Pouteria campechiana var. palmeri Baehni
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Pests and Diseases
Fruiting Season and Harvesting
Storage and Shipment
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
The canistel, Pouteria campechiana Baehni, has been the subject of much botanical confusion as
is evidenced by its many synonyms: P. campechiana var. nervosa Baehni; P. campechiana var.
palmeri Baehni; P. campechiana var. salicifolia Baehni; Lucuma campechiana HBK.; L. Heyderi
Standl.; L. laeteviridis Pittier; L. multiflora Millsp. NOT A. DC.; L. nervosa A. DC.; L. palmeri
Fernald; L. rivicoa Gaertn.; L. rivicoa var. angustifolia Miq.; L. salicifolia HBK.; Richardella
salicifolia Pierre; Sideroxylon campestre T.S. Brandeg.; Vitellaria campechiana Engl.; V.
salicfolia Engl.
It is the showiest fruit of the family Sapotaceae but generally underevaluated in horticultural
literature and by those who have only a casual acquaintance with it.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/canistel.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:37:35 PM]
Canistel
Colloquial names applied to this species include: egg-fruit, canistel, ti-es, yellow sapote (Cuba,
Hawaii, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Florida); canistel, siguapa, zapotillo (Costa Rica);
costiczapotl, custiczapotl fruta de huevo, zapote amarillo (Colombia); cakixo, canizte, kanis,
kaniste, hantz, kantez, limoncillo, mamee ciruela, zapotillo de montana (Guatemala); huevo
vegetal (Puerto Rico, Venezuela); mammee sapota, eggfruit, ti-es (Bahamas); mamey cerera,
mamey cerilla, mamee ciruela, kanizte (Belize); atzapotl (the fruit), atzapolquahuitl (the tree),
caca de nio, cozticzapotl, cucumu, mamey de Campechi, mamey de Cartagena, huicumo, huicon,
kan 'iste', kanixte, kanizte, palo huicon, zapote amarillo, zapote de nio, zapote borracho (drunken
sapote, perhaps because the fallen fruits ferment on the ground); zapote mante, zubul (Mexico);
guaicume, guicume, zapotillo, zapotillo amarillo (El Salvador); zapote amarillo (Nicaragua);
boracho, canistel, toesa (Philippines).
Description
The canistel tree is erect and generally no
more than 25 ft (8 m) tall, but it may, in
favorable situations, reach height of 90 to
100 ft (27-30 m) and the trunk may attain
diameter of 3 ft (1 m). Slender in habit or
with a spreading crown, it has brown,
furrowed bark and abundant white, gummy
latex. Young branches are velvety brown.
The evergreen leaves, alternate but mostly
grouped at the branch tips, are relatively
thin, glossy, short- to long-stemmed,
Fig. 108: Glossy, yellow, long-keeping, highly nutritious, the
oblanceolate, lanceolate-oblong, or obovate, canistel (Pouteria campechiana) deserves wider recognition
bluntly pointed at the apex, more sharply
as a good food.
tapered at the base; 4 1/2 to 11 in (11.25-28
cm) long, 1 1/2 to 3 in (4-7.5 cm) wide. Fragrant, bisexual flowers, solitary or in small clusters, are
borne in the leaf axils or at leafless nodes on slender pedicels. They are 5- or 6-lobed,
cream-colored, silky-hairy, about 5/16 to 7/16 in (8-11 mm) long.
The fruit, extremely variable in form and size, may be nearly round, with or without a pointed
apex or curved beak, or may be somewhat oval, ovoid, or spindle-shaped. It is often bulged on one
side and there is a 5-pointed calyx at the base which may be rounded or with a distinct depression.
Length varies from 3 to 5 in (7.5-12.5 cm) and width from 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm), except in the
shrubby form, var. palmeri, called huicon4 to 9 ft (1.5-3 m) highwhich has nearly round fruits
only 1 in (2.5 cm) long. When unripe the fruit is green-skinned, hard and gummy internally. On
ripening, the skin turns lemon-yellow, golden-yellow or pale orange-yellow, is very smooth and
glossy except where occasionally coated with light-brown or reddish-brown russetting.
Immediately beneath the skin the yellow flesh is relatively firm and mealy with a few fine fibers.
Toward the center of the fruit it is softer and more pasty. It has been often likened in texture to the
yolk of a hard-boiled egg. The flavor is sweet, more or less musky, and somewhat like that of a
baked sweet potato. There may be 1 to 4 hard, freestone seeds, 1/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.3 cm) long and
1/2 to 1 1/4 in (1.25-3.2 cm) wide, near-oval or oblong-oval, glossy and chestnut-brown except for
the straight or curved ventral side which is dull light-brown, tan or grayish-white. Both ends are
Canistel
sharp-tipped.
The canistel is sometimes erroneously
recorded as native to northern South
America where related, somewhat similar
species are indigenous. Apparently, it
occurs wild only in southern Mexico
(including Yucatan), Belize, Guatemala and
El Salvador. It is cultivated in these
countries and in Costa Rica (where it has
never been found wild), Nicaragua and
Panama, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Cuba (where
it is most popular and commercialized in
Pinar del Rio), the Bahamas, southern
Florida and the Florida Keys. Some writers
have reported the canistel as naturalized on
the Florida Keys, in the Bahamas and Cuba,
but specimens that appear to be growing in
the wild are probably on the sites of former
homesteads. Oris Russell, who has explored
Plate LVI: CANISTEL, Pouteria campechiana
hundreds of acres of coppices in the
Bahamas, has never seen the canistel or its close relative, P. domingensis Baehni, in a wild state.
He says that abandoned plantings can be completely overgrown by coppice in 3 to 4 years. Also, it
is possible that a seedling might arise from the seed of a fruit carried into the woods by an animal
or tossed away by a human. Mango trees are sometimes unintentionally planted in this way in
southern Florida, especially if the seed lands in a hedge which provides a moist and shady site and
physical protection.
Seeds from Cuba were planted at the Lancetilla Experimental Garden, La Lima, Honduras, in
1927. Dr. Victor M. Patiflo bought fruits in a Cuban market in 1957 and had the seeds planted at
the Estacion Agricola Experimental de Palmira, Colombia. He reported that several trees were
growing well there in 1963. The canistel is included in experimental collections in Venezuela. The
tree was introduced at low and medium elevations in the Philippines before 1924 and it reached
Hawaii probably around the same time. Attempts to grow it in Singapore were not successful. In
1949 there were a few canistel trees growing in East Africa.
Varieties
There are apparently no named cultivars but certain types are so distinct as to have been recorded
as different species in the past. The spindle-shaped form (called mammee sapota or eggfruit) was
the common strain in the Bahamas for many years, at least as far back as the 1920's. The rounded,
broader form began to appear in special gardens in the 1940's, and the larger types were introduced
from Florida in the 1950's
In 1945, large, handsome, symmetrical fruits were being grown under the names Lucuma
salicifolia and yellow sapote at the Agricultural Research and Education Center and at Palm Lodge
Canistel
Tropical Grove, Homestead, Florida, but these were soon classified as superior strains of canistel.
Some fruits are muskier in odor and flavor than others, some are undesirably dry and mealy, some
excessively sweet. An excellent, non-musky, fine-textured, rounded type of medium size has been
selected and grown by Mr. John G. DuPuis, Jr., at his Bar-D Ranch in Martin County. It is well
worthy of dissemination. There is considerable variation as to time of flowering and fruiting
among seedling trees.
Climate
The canistel needs a tropical or subtropical climate. In Guatemala, it is found at or below 4,600 ft
(1,400 in) elevation. In Florida, it survives winter cold as far north as Palm Beach and Punta Gorda
and in protected areas of St. Petersburg. It has never reached fruiting age in California. It requires
no more than moderate precipitation; does well in regions with a long dry season.
Soil
The canistel is tolerant of a diversity of soilscalcareous, lateritic, acid-sandy, heavy clay. It makes
best vegetative growth in deep, fertile, well-drained soil but is said to be more fruitful on shallow
soil. It can be cultivated on soil considered too thin and poor for most other fruit trees.
Propagation
Canistel seeds lose viability quickly and should be planted within a few days after removal from
the fruit. If decorticated, seeds will germinate within 2 weeks; otherwise there may be a delay of 3
to 5 months before they sprout. The seedlings grow rapidly and begin to bear in 3 to 6 years. There
is considerable variation in yield and in size and quality of fruits. Vegetative propagation is
preferred in order to hasten bearing and to reproduce the best selections. Side-veneer grafting, cleft
grafting, patch budding and air-layering are usually successful. Cuttings take a long time to root.
Culture
Mulching is beneficial in the early years. A balanced fertilizer applied at time of planting and
during periods of rapid growth is advisable though the tree does not demand special care.
Outstanding branches should be pruned back to avoid wind damage and shape the crown.
Pests and Diseases
Few pests and diseases attack the canistel. In Florida only scale insects and the fungi, Acrotelium
lucumae (rust); Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (fruit spot); Elsino lepagei (leaf spot and scab);
and Gloeosporium (leaf necrosis) have been recorded for this species. The tree is nearly always
vigorous and healthy.
Fruiting Season and Harvesting
Blooming extends from January to June in Mexico (26). In Cuba, flowers are borne mostly in
April and May though some trees flower all year. The canistel. has the advantage of coming into
season in late fall and winter, when few other tropical fruits are available. The fruits generally
mature from September to January or February in the Bahamas, from November or December to
February or March in Florida. In Cuba, the main fruiting season is from October to February but
some trees produce more or less continuously throughout the year. The mature but still firm fruits
Canistel
should be clipped to avoid tearing the skin. When left to ripen on the tree, the fruits split at the
stem end and fall. A severe drop in temperature will cause firm-mature fruits to split and drop to
the ground.
Storage and Shipment
If kept at room temperature, the fruits will soften to eating-ripe in 3 to 10 days. They should not be
allowed to become too soft and mushy before eating. Ripe fruits can be kept in good condition in
the vegetable tray of a home refrigerator for several days.
Freshly picked, hard fruits have been successfully shipped from Florida to fruiterers and other
special customers in New York City and Philadelphia by Palm Lodge Tropical Grove, Homestead.
Unfortunately, no studies have been made to determine optimum temperature and humidity levels
for long-term storage and long-distant shipment. This is an ideal fruit for export to European
markets where its bright color, smoothness and appealing form would be especially welcome in
the winter season.
Food Uses
The fact that the canistel is not crisp and juicy like so many other fruits seems to dismay many
who sample it casually. Some take to it immediately. During World War II when RAF pilots and
crewmen were under training in the Bahamas, they showed great fondness for the canistel and
bought all they could, find in the Nassau market.
Some Floridians enjoy the fruit with salt, pepper and lime or lemon juice or mayonnaise, either
fresh or after light baking. The pureed flesh may be used in custards or added to ice cream mix just
before freezing. A rich milkshake, or "eggfruit nog", is made by combining ripe canistel pulp,
milk, sugar, vanilla, nutmeg or other seasoning in an electric blender.
The late Mrs. Phyllis Storey of Homestead made superb 'mock-pumpkin" pie with 1 1/2 cups
mashed canistel pulp, 2/3 cup brown sugar, 1/2 teaspoon salt, 1/4 teaspoon nutmeg, 1 teaspoon
lime juice, 2 beaten eggs, 2 cups evaporated milk or light cream. The mixture is poured into one
crust and baked for 1 hr at 250 F (121 C).
Others have prepared canistel pancakes, cupcakes, jam, and marmalade. Mrs. Gladys Wilbur made
canistel "butter" by beating the ripe pulp in an electric blender, adding sugar, and cooking to a
paste, with or without lemon juice. She used it as a spread on toast. The fruit could also be
dehydrated and reduced to a nutritious powder as is being done with the lucmo (q.v.) and this
might well have commercial use in pudding mixes.
Food Value
Canistels are rich in niacin and carotene (provitamin A) and have a fair level of ascorbic acid. The
following analyses show that the canistel excels the glamorized carambola (Averrhoa carambola
L.) in every respect except in moisture and fiber content, and riboflavin.
Calories
138.8
Moisture
60.6 g
Canistel
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
1.68 g
0.13 g
36.69 g
0.10 g
0.90 g
26.5 mg
37.3 mg
0.92 mg
0.32 mg
0.17 mg
0.01 mg
3.72 mg
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
58.1 mg
28 mg
13 mg
84 mg
*According to analyses made at the Laboratorio FIM de Nutricion in Havana.

Other Uses
Latex extracted from the tree in Central America has been used to adulterate chicle. The timber is
fine-grained, compact, strong, moderately to very heavy and hard, and valued especially for planks
and rafters in construction. The heartwood is grayish-brown to reddish-brown and blends into the
sapwood which is somewhat lighter in color. The darker the color, the more resistant to decay.
Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the astringent bark is taken as a febrifuge in Mexico and applied
on skin eruptions in Cuba. A preparation of the seeds has been employed as a remedy for ulcers.
In 1971, a pharmaceutical company in California was exploring a derivative of the seed of
Pouteria sapota (mamey, q.v.) which seemed to be active against seborrheic dermatitis of the
scalp. Since they were having difficulty in procuring sufficient seeds for study, I suggested that
they test the more readily available seeds of the canistel. They found these acceptable and were
pursuing the investigation when last heard from.
Lucmo

Morton, J. 1987. Lucmo. p. 405406. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Lucmo
Pouteria lucuma O. Ktze.
Pouteria insignis Baehni
Lucuma obovata HBK.
Description
Climate
Season
Food Uses
Other Uses
This is a rare case of a species of ancient cultivation, little-known outside its homeland, that has
recently found a place in modern food processing. The lucmo, Pouteria lucuma O. Ktze. (syns. P.
insignis Baehni, Lucuma obovata HBK. and perhaps L. bifera Mol.; also Richardella lucuma
Aubr.; Achras lucuma Ruiz & Pavn ), is called lucumo in Chile and Peru; lucma in Ecuador;
lucuma or rucma in Colombia; and mamn in Costa Rica.
Description
This attractive tree ranges from 25 to 50 ft (8-15 m) in height, has a dense, rounded crown, velvety
hairs on its young branchlets, and copious milky latex. The evergreen leaves, clustered at the tips
of small branches, are obovate, oval or elliptic, blunt at the apex, pointed at the base, 5 to 10 in
(12.5-25 cm) long; thin or slightly leathery; dark-green on the upper surface, pale and sometimes
brown-hairy on the underside. The profuse flowers, borne singly or 2 or 3 together in the leaf axils,
are tubular, yellowish-green, with hairy sepals and 5- to 7-lobed mouth about 1/2 in (1.25 cm)
across. The fruit is oblate, ovate or elliptic, pointed or depressed at the apex; 3 to 4 in (7.5-10 cm)
long, with thin, delicate skin, brownish-green more or less overlaid with russet, and bright-yellow,
firm, dry, mealy, very sweet pulp, permeated with latex until almost overripe. There may be 1 to 5,
usually 2, rounded or broad-oval, dark-brown, glossy seeds with a whitish hilum on one flattish
side.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lucmo.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:36 PM]
Lucmo
The lucmo was first seen and reported by Europeans in Ecuador in 1531. Archaeologists have
found it frequently depicted on ceramics at burial sites of the indigenous people of coastal Peru. It
is native and cultivated in the highlands of western Chile and Peru and possibly southeastern
Ecuador where it is known to have been cultivated since ancient times. It is grown also, to a
limited extent, in the Andes of eastern Bolivia and the fruit is sold in the markets of La Paz. It is
most popular in central Chile, less so in Ecuador. In 1776, it was reported as planted only in the
warmest parts of northern Chile. In 1912, there were a few trees growing in gardens around San
Jos, Costa Rica where the lucmo was introduced by returning exiles in the first half of the 19th
Century. In 1915, O.F. Cook collected seeds at Ollantaytambo, Peru, for the United States
Department of Agriculture (S.P.I. #41332). In January of 1922, Wilson Popenoe introduced seeds
from Santiago, Chile (S.P.I. #54653). There have been several attempts to grow the tree in
southern Florida. It has not lived long. One specimen actually bore fruit at the Fairchild Tropical
Garden, developed galls, and eventually succumbed. The lucmo grows well in parts of Mexico and
Hawaii but the fruit is not widely favored.
Climate
This species is not tropical, but grows at temperate elevationsbetween 9,000 and 10,000 ft
(2,700-3,000 m) in Peru. It is adapted to fairly dry locations.
Season
The tree blooms and fruits all year. Mature fruits fall to the ground but they are not edible until
they have been kept on hand for several days. Peruvian Indians bury them in stored grain, cured
hay, chaff, dry leaves or other materials until they become soft.
Food Uses
The fruit is eaten raw, out-of-hand, when fully ripe but Costa Ricans find that, though the flavor is
appealing at first, one soon finds it repulsive because of the peculiar aftertaste. The lucmo has been
stewed in sirup, used as pie-filling, and made into preserves. Currently, some fruits are being
shipped from Chile to England where they are being used in making ice cream. A dehydrated,
powdered product is being produced by a tomato cannery in Peru.
Other Uses
The wood is pale, compact, durable, and used for construction in Peru.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lucmo.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:37:36 PM]
Abiu

Morton, J. 1987. Abiu. p. 406408. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Abiu
Pouteria caimito Radlk.
Lucuma caimito Roem. & Schult.
Achras caimito Ruiz & Pavn
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
A minor member of the Sapotaceae, the abiu, Pouteria caimito Radlk. (syns. Lucuma caimito
Roem. & Schult.; Achras caimito Ruiz & Pavn), has acquired few vernacular names. In
Colombia, it is called caimito, caimito amarilla, caimo or madura verde; in Ecuador, luma or
cauje; in Venezuela, temare; in Brazil, abiu, abi, abio, abieiro or caimito. It is called yellow star
apple in Trinidad.
Description
The tree has a pyramidal or rounded crown; is generally about 33 ft (10 m) high but may reach 115
ft (35 m) in favorable situations. A gummy latex, white or reddish, exudes from wounds in the
bark. The leaves are alternate and highly variable; may be ovate-oblong, obovate or elliptic; 4 to 8
in (10-20 cm) long, 1 1/4 to 2 3/8 in (3-6 cm) wide; short-pointed at the apex, sometimes
long-tapering at the base; smooth or with a few scattered hairs. The flowers, borne singly or in
groups of 2 to 5 in the leaf axils, are cylindrical, 4- to 5-lobed, white or greenish; 1/6 to 1/3 in (4-8
mm) long. The fruit, downy when young, is ovoid, elliptical or round; 1 1/2 to 4 in (4-10 cm) long,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/abiu.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:38 PM]
Abiu
sometimes having a short nipple at the apex;

with smooth, tough, pale-yellow skin when
ripe and fragrant, white, mucilaginous,
translucent, mild-flavored, sweet or insipid
pulp containing 1 to 4 oblong seeds, brown,
with a pale hilum on one side. Until fully
ripe, the fruit is permeated with latex and is
very gummy and astringent.
Plate LVII: ABIU, Pouteria caimito
Fig. 109: The pale-yellow abiu (Poutertai caimito) as sold in

the native market of Buenaventura, Colombia. The fruit is
gummy with latex until it becomes fully ripe.

The abiu is a denizen of the headwaters of the Amazon. It grows wild on the lower eastern slopes
of the Andes from southwestern Venezuela to Peru. It is often cultivated around Iquitos, Peru. In
Ecuador, it is common in the Province of Guayas and the fruits are sold in the markets of
Guayaquil. It is much grown around Par, Brazil; less frequently near Rio de Janeiro, and to a
limited extent at Bahia. In Colombia, it is fairly common in the regions of Caquet, Meta and
Vaups and it abounds in the adjacent areas of Amazonas, Venezuela. It has been growing for
many years in Trinidad.
The plant explorers, Dorsett, Shamel and Popenoe, collected seeds for the United States
Department of Agriculture in Bahia in 1914 (S.P.I. #37929). In 1915, seeds were received from
Lavoras, Minas, Brazil (S.P.I. #41003). This species has been planted several times at the
Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, Florida, but most of the young plants
have been killed by winter cold. A few trees planted in 1953 fruited in 1962.
Varieties
There is much variation in the form, size and quality of the fruits of seedling trees, some having
firm flesh, some soft; and some are insipid, while others have agreeable flavor. At Puerto Ospina,
along the Putamayo River in Colombia, there is a type that fruits in 4 years. The fruit is round and
large. Near the River Inirida, in Vaups, Colombia, there is a type that bears in one year from seed,
but the fruits are small with little pulp.
Abiu
Climate
The abiu is strictly tropical or near-tropical. It thrives best in a year-around warm and moist
climate, yet Popenoe noted that it does well in somewhat cooler Rio de Janeiro. In Peru it has not
been found above 2,000 ft (650 m), though in Colombia, it can be grown up to an elevation of
6,000 ft (1,900 m).
Soil
The tree is naturally suited to fertile, wet soil. It is subject to chlorosis in the limestone of southern
Florida.
Season
The fruits are in season in March and April in Ecuador. They are sold in some Brazilian markets
from September to April but only a few are seen in the much shorter season of February and
March at Bahia. Fruits have matured in October in Florida. The abiu can be picked while underripe
and firm for transport to markets.
In Brazil, the washed seeds are dried in the shade and then planted, 3 together and 2 in (5 cm) deep
in enriched soil. They will germinate in 15 to 20 days. When the seedlings are 4 in (10 cm) high,
the 2 weakest are removed. The strong one is set out when 12 to 16 in (30-40 cm) high. Spacing is
17 x 20 ft (6 x 5 m). One year later, the lower branches are pruned. Fruiting will begin in 3 years;
will be substantial in 5 years.
Pests and Diseases
Actually, the fruit has little value commercially because it is commonly damaged by small insects
(bichos in Spanish and Portuguese). In Brazil, the chief pests are said to be fruit flies.
Food Uses
In Colombia, people who wish to eat the abiu. are advised to grease their lips beforehand to keep
the gummy latex from clinging to them. It is mostly eaten out-of-hand but, in Par, some types are
used to make ices and ice cream.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Lipids
95
74.1 g
2.1 g
1.1 g
Glycerides
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
22.0 g
3.0 g
0.7 g
96.0 mg
Abiu
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin B,
Vitamin B2
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids (mg per g of nitrogen [N 6.25])
Lysine
Methionine
Threonine
Tryptophan
45.0 mg
1.8 mg
0.2 mg
0.2 mg
3.4 mg
49.0 mg
316 mg
178 mg
219 mg
57 mg
*According to analyses made in Brazil.

Other Uses
Wood: The wood is dense and heavy, hard, and valued for construction.
Medicinal Uses: In Brazil, the pulp, because of its mucilaginous nature, is eaten to relieve coughs,
bronchitis and other pulmonary complaints. The latex is given as a vermifuge and purge and is
applied on abscesses.
Star Apple

Morton, J. 1987. Star Apple. p. 408410. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Star Apple
Achras caimito Ruiz & Pavon
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
One of the relatively minor fruits of the family Sapotaceae, the star apple or goldenleaf tree,
Chrysophyllum cainito L. (syn. Achras caimito Ruiz & Pavon), has acquired a moderate
assortment of regional names. In Spanish, it is usually caimito or estrella; in Portuguese, cainito or
ajara; in French, generally, caimite or caimitier; in Haiti, pied caimite or caimitier a feuilles d'or;
in the French West Indies, pomme surette, or buis; in the Virgin Islands, cainit; in Trinidad and
Tobago, it is caimite or kaimit; in Barbados, star-plum; in Colombia, it may be caimo, caimo
morado (purple variety) or caimito maduraverde (green variety); in Bolivia, caimitero, or
murucuja; in Surinam, sterappel, apra or goudblad boom; in French Guiana, macoucou; in Belize,
damsel; in El Salvador, guayabillo; in Argentina, aguay or olivoa. The Chinese in Singapore call it
"chicle durian".
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/star_apple.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:37:40 PM]
Star Apple
Description
The star apple tree is erect, 25 to 100 ft
(8-30 m) tall, with a short trunk to 3 ft (1 m)
thick, and a dense, broad crown,
brown-hairy branchlets, and white, gummy
latex. The alternate, nearly evergreen,
leaves are elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 2 to 6
in (5-15 cm) long, slightly leathery, rich
green and glossy on the upper surface,
coated with silky, golden-brown pubescence
beneath when mature, though silvery when
young. Small, inconspicuous flowers,
clustered in the leaf axils, are
greenish-yellow, yellow, or purplish-white
with tubular, 5-lobed corolla and 5 or 6
sepals. The fruit, round, oblate, ellipsoid or
somewhat pear-shaped, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm)
in diameter, may be red-purple, dark-purple,
or pale-green. It feels in the hand like a
Plate LVIII: STAR APPLE, Chrysophyllum cainito
rubber ball. The glossy, smooth, thin,
leathery skin adheres tightly to the inner rind which, in purple fruits, is dark-purple and 1/4 to 1/2
in (6-12.5 mm) thick; in green fruits, white and 1/8 to 3/16 in.(3-5 mm) thick. Both have soft,
white, milky, sweet pulp surrounding the 6 to 11 gelatinous, somewhat rubbery, seed cells in the
center which, when cut through transversely, are seen to radiate from the central core like an
asterisk or many-pointed star, giving the fruit its common English name. The fruit may have up to
10 flattened, nearly oval, pointed, hard seeds, 3/4 in (2 cm.) long, nearly 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide,
and up to 1/4 in (6 mm) thick, but usually several of the cells are not occupied and the best fruits
have as few as 3 seeds. They appear black at first, with a light area on the ventral side, but they dry
to a light-brown.
It is commonly stated that the star apple is indigenous to Central America but the eminent
botanists Paul Standley and Louis Williams have declared that it is not native to that area, no
Nahuatl name has been found, and the tree may properly belong to the West Indies. However, it is
more or less naturalized at low and medium altitudes from southern Mexico to Panama, is
especially abundant on the Pacific side of Guatemala, and frequently cultivated as far south as
northern Argentina and Peru. It was recorded by Ciezo de Leon as growing in Peru during his
travels between 1532 and 1550. It is common throughout most of the Caribbean Islands and in
Bermuda. In Haiti, the star apple was the favorite fruit of King Christophe and he held court under
the shade of a very large specimen at Milot. The United States Department of Agriculture received
seeds from Jamaica in 1904 (S.P.I. #17093). The star apple is grown occasionally in southern
Florida and in Hawaii where it was introduced before 1901. There are some trees in Samoa and in
Malaya though they do not bear regularly. The tree is grown in southern Vietnam and in
Kampuchea for its fruits but more for its ornamental value in West Tropical Africa, Zanzibar, and
the warmer parts of India. It was introduced into Ceylon in 1802, reached the Philippines much
Star Apple
later but has become very common there as a roadside tree and the fruit is appreciated.
Varieties
Apart from the two distinct color types, there is little evidence of such pronounced variation that
growers would be stimulated to make vigorous efforts to select and propagate superior clones.
William Whitman of Miami observed a tree yielding heavy crops of well-formed, high quality
fruits in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, from late January to the end of June. He brought budwood to
Florida in 1953. Grafted progeny and trees grown from air-layers have borne well here even prior
to reaching 10 ft (3 m) in height. This introduction, named the "Haitian Star Apple", is propagated
commercially for dooryard culture. Seeds of the Port-au-Prince tree have produced seedlings that
have performed poorly in Florida.
Climate
The star apple tree is a tropical or near-tropical species ranging only up to 1,400 ft (425 m)
elevation in Jamaica. It does well only in the warmest locations of southern Florida and on the
Florida Keys. Mature trees are seriously injured by temperatures below 28 F (-2.22 C) and
recover slowly. Young trees may be killed by even short exposure to 31 F (-0.56 C).
Soil
The tree is not particular as to soil, growing well in deep, rich earth, clayey loam, sand, or
limestone, but it needs perfect drainage.
Propagation
Star apple trees are most widely grown from seeds which retain viability for several months and
germinate readily. The seedlings bear in 5 to 10 years. Vegetative propagation hastens production
and should be more commonly practiced. Cuttings of mature wood root well. Air-layers can be
produced in 4 to 7 months and bear early. Budded or grafted trees have been known to fruit one
year after being set in the ground. In India, the star apple is sometimes inarched on star apple
seedlings. Grafting on the related satinleaf tree (C. oliviforme L.) has had the effect of slowing and
stunting the growth.
Culture
During the first 6 months, the young trees should be watered weekly. Later irrigation may be
infrequent except during the flowering season when watering will increase fruit-set. Most star
apple trees in tropical America and the West Indies are never fertilized but a complete,
well-balanced fertilizer will greatly improve performance in limestone and other infertile soils.
Harvesting
Star apples are generally in season from late winter or early spring to early summer. They do not
fall when ripe but must be hand-picked by clipping the stem. Care must be taken to make sure that
they are fully mature. Otherwise the fruits will be gummy, astringent and inedible. When fully
ripe, the skin is dull, a trifle wrinkled, and the fruit is slightly soft to the touch.
Yield
Star Apple
In India, a mature star apple tree may bear 150 lbs (60 kg) of fruits in the short fruiting season of
February and March.
Keeping Quality
Ripe fruits remain in good condition for 3 weeks at 37.4 to 42.8 F (3-6 C) and 90% relative
humidity.
Pests and Diseases
Larvae of small insects are sometimes found in the ripe fruits.
The, main disease problem in the Philippines is stem-end decay caused by species of Pestalotia
and Diplodia. In Florida, some fruits may mummify before they are full-grown.
The foliage is subject to leaf spots from attack by Phomopsis sp., Phyllosticta sp., and
Cephaleuros virescens, the latter known as algal leaf spot or green scurf.
Birds and squirrels attack the fruits if they are left to fully ripen on the tree.
Food Uses
Star apples must not be bitten into. The skin and rind (constituting approximately 33% of the total)
are inedible. When opening a star apple, one should not allow any of the bitter latex of the skin to
contact the edible flesh. The ripe fruit, preferably chilled, may be merely cut in half and the flesh
spooned out, leaving the seed cells and core. A combination of the chopped flesh with that of
mango, citrus, pineapple, other fruits and coconut water is frozen and served as Jamaica Fruit
Salad Ice. An attractive way to serve the fruit is to cut around the middle completely through the
rind and then, holding the fruit stem-end down, twisting the top gently back and forth. As this is
done, the flesh will be felt to free itself from the downward half of the rind, and the latter will pull
away, taking with it the greater part of the core.
In Jamaica, the flesh is often eaten with sour orange juice, a combination called "matrimony"; or it
is mixed with orange juice, a little sugar, grated nutmeg and a spoonful of sherry and eaten as
dessert called "strawberries and-cream". Bolivians parboil the edible portion, and also prepare it as
a decoction. An emulsion of the slightly bitter seed kernels is used to make imitation milk-of
almonds, also nougats and other confections.
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
67.2
78.4-85.7 g
0.72-2.33 g
14.65 g
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
0.55-3.30 g
0.35-0.72 g
7.4-17.3 mg
15.9-22.0 mg
Star Apple
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids:
Tryptophan
Methionine
Lysine
0.30-0.68 mg
0.004-0.039 mg
0.018-0.08 mg
0.013-0.04 mg
0.935-1.340 mg
3.0-15.2 mg
4 mg
2 mg
22 mg

Toxicity
The seeds contain 1.2% of the bitter, cyanogenic glycoside, lucumin; 0.0037% pouterin; 6.6% of a
fixed oil; 0.19% saponin; 2.4% dextrose and 3.75% ash. The leaves possess an alkaloid, also resin,
resinic acid, and a bitter substance.
Other Uses
Wood: The tree is seldom felled for timber unless there is a particular need for it. The heartwood
is pinkish or red-brown, violet, or dark-purple; fine-grained, compact, heavy, hard, strong, tough
but not difficult to work; durable indoors but not outside in humid conditions. It has been utilized
for heavy construction and for deluxe furniture, cabinetwork and balustrades.
Latex: The latex obtained by making incisions in the bark coagulates readily and has been utilized
as an adulterant of gutta percha. It was formerly proposed as a substitute for wax on the shelves of
wardrobes and closets.
Medicinal Uses: The ripe fruit, because of its mucilaginous character, is eaten to sooth
inflammation in laryngitis and pneumonia. It is given as a treatment for diabetes mellitus, and as a
decoction is gargled to relieve angina. In Venezuela, the slightly unripe fruits are eaten to
overcome intestinal disturbances. In excess, they cause constipation. A decoction of the rind, or of
the leaves, is taken as a pectoral. A decoction of the tannin-rich, astringent bark is drunk as a tonic
and stimulant, and is taken to halt diarrhea, dysentery and hemorrhages, and as a treatment for
gonorrhea and "catarrh of the bladder". The bitter, pulverized seed is taken as a tonic, diuretic and
febrifuge. Cuban residents in Miami are known to seek the leaves in order to administer the
decoction as a cancer remedy. Many high-tannin plant materials are believed by Latin Americans
to be carcinostatic. In Brazil, the latex of the tree is applied on abscesses and, when dried and
powdered, is given as a potent vermifuge. Else where, it is taken as a diuretic, febrifuge and
remedy for dysentery.
Japanese Persimmon

Morton, J. 1987. Japanese Persimmon. p. 411416. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Japanese Persimmon
Diospyros kaki L.
Description
Cultivars
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Cropping and Yield
Curing
Packing, Keeping Quality and Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Other Uses
In great contrast to the native American persimmon, Diospyros virginiana L., which has never
advanced beyond the status of a minor fruit, an oriental member of the family Ebenaceae, D. kaki
L. f ., is prominent in horticulture. Perhaps best-known in America as the Japanese, or Oriental,
persimmon, it is also called kaki (in Spanish, caqui), Chinese plum or, when dried, Chinese fig.
Description
The tree, reaching 15 to 60 ft (4.5-18 m) is long-lived and typically round-topped, fairly open,
erect or semi-erect, sometimes crooked or willowy; seldom with a spread of more than 15 to 20 ft
(4.5-6 m). The leaves are deciduous, alternate, with brown-hairy petioles 3/4 in (2 cm) long; are
ovate-elliptic, oblong-ovate, or obovate, 3 to 10 in (7.5-25 cm) long, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) wide,
leathery, glossy on the upper surface, brown-silky beneath; bluish-green, turning in the fall to rich
yellow, orange or red. Male and female flowers are usually borne on separate trees; sometimes
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/japanese_persimmon.html (1 of 12) [5/16/2004 1:37:43 PM]
Japanese Persimmon
perfect or female flowers are found on male

trees, and occasionally male flowers on
female trees. Male flowers, in groups of 3 in
the leaf axils, have 4-parted calyx and
corolla and 24 stamens in 2 rows. Female
flowers, solitary, have a large leaflike calyx,
a 4-parted, pale-yellow corolla, 8
undeveloped stamens and oblate or rounded
ovary bearing the style and stigma. Perfect
flowers are intermediate between the two.
The fruit, capped by the persistent calyx,
may be round, conical, oblate, or nearly
square, has thin, smooth, glossy, yellow,
orange, red or brownish-red skin, yellow,
orange, or dark-brown, juicy, gelatinous
flesh, seedless or containing 4 to 8 flat,
oblong, brown seeds 3/4 in (2 cm) long.
Generally, the flesh is bitter and astringent
until fully ripe, when it becomes soft, sweet
and pleasant, but dark-fleshed types may be Plate LIX: JAPANESE PERSIMMON, Diospyros kaki
non-astringent, crisp, sweet and edible even 'Tamopan'
before full ripening.
The tree is native to Japan, China, Burma and the Himalayas and Khasi Hills of northern India. In
China it is found wild at altitudes up to 6,000-8,000 ft (1,830-2,500 m) and it is cultivated from
Manchuria southward to Kwangtung. Early in the 14th Century, Marco Polo recorded the Chinese
trade in persimmons. Korea has long-established ceremonies that feature the persimmon. Culture
in India began in the Nilgiris. The tree has been grown for a long time in North Vietnam, in the
mountains of Indonesia above 3,500 ft (1,000 m) and in the Philippines. It was introduced into
Queensland, Australia, about 1885.
It has been cultivated on the Mediterranean coast of France, Italy, and other European countries,
and in southern Russia and Algeria for more than a century. The first trees were introduced into
Palestine in 1912 and others were later brought in from Sicily and America.
Seeds first reached the United States in 1856 when they were sent from Japan by Commodore
Perry. Grafted trees were imported in 1870 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and distributed
to California and the southern states. Other importations were made by private interests until 1919.
Seeds, cuttings, budwood and live trees of numerous types were brought into the United States at
various times from 1911 to 1923 by government plant explorers and the tree has been found best
adapted to central and southern California, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia,
Alabama, southeastern Virginia, and northern Florida. A few specimens have been grown in
southern Maryland, eastern Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan and
Oregon.
Japanese Persimmon
By 1930, California had over 98,000 bearing trees and nearly 97,000 non-bearing, on 3,000 acres
(1,214 ha). California production in 1965 amounted to 2,100 tons. Real estate development
reduced persimmon groves to 540 acres by 1968. In 1970, California produced 1,600 tons92% of
the total U.S. crop.
In parts of Central America, Japanese persimmons have been planted from sea-level to 5,000 ft
(1,524 m). The tree was first grown in Brazil by Japanese immigrants. By 1961, the total crop was
2,271,046,000 fruits, mainly in the State of Cear, followed by Pernambuco and Piaui, with Bahia
far behind. At present, the largest orchards are mainly in the States of Sao Paulo, Parana and Rio
Grande do Sul, with lesser groves in Minais Gerais and Espirtu Santo. Of 111,412 acres (45,088
ha) all told, 60,336 acres (24,418 ha) are in Cear. Israel and Italy have developed commercial
plantings, and cultivar trials began in 1976 with a view to establishing persimmon-growing for
export in southeastern Queensland.
Cultivars
Of the 2,000 cultivars known in China,
cuttings of 52, from the provinces of Honan,
Shensi and Shansi, were brought into the
United States in 1914. J. Russell Smith, an
esteemed economic-geographer, collected a
number of types near the Great Wall of
China in 1925 and some of the trees still
survive in his derelict orchard in the Blue
Ridge Mountains of southern Virginia. Over
800 kinds are grown in Japan but less than
100 are considered important. Among
prominent cultivars are the non-astringent
'Fuyu', 'Jiro', 'Gosho' and 'Suruga'; the
astringent 'Hiratanenashi', 'Hachiya',
'Aizumishirazu', 'Yotsumizo' and
'Yokono'. It was formerly believed that the
flesh color and astringency can vary
considerably depending on whether or not
LX: JAPANESE PERSIMMON, Diospyros kaki
the flowers were effectively pollinated, and Plate
'Tanenashi'
cultivars were classed as: 1) Pollination
Constants; and 2) Pollination Variants.
It has been recently discovered that there are two different mechanisms affecting astringency; one
is degree of pollination, the other is the amount of ethanol produced in the seeds and accumulated
in the flesh. Pollination Variant fruits with naturally high levels of ethanol lose astringency on the
tree. So does Pollination Constant 'Fuyu' but other non-astringent Pollination Constant cultivars
have been found to have low levels of ethanol. Pomologists at Kyoto University, Japan, have
classified 40 cultivars into 4 types depending upon the ways or degrees their fruits lose astringency
on the tree and upon flesh color Pollination Constant Non-astringent (PCNA), Pollination Variant
Non-astringent (PVNA), Pollination Variant Astringent (PVA) and Pollination Constant
Astringent (PCA). They evidently have not studied seedless cultivars.
Japanese Persimmon
Dr. H.H. Hume, of the University of Florida, separated 13 seeded and seedless (or nearly seedless)
cultivars according to the earlier pollination classification, and Drs. Camp and Mowry added
'Fuyu'. The following 8 comprise Group 1:
'Costata'conical, pointed, somewhat 4-sided, 2 5/8 in (6.5 cm) long, 2 1/8 in (5.4 cm) wide, with
salmon-yellow skin, light-yellow flesh, with no seeds; or dark flesh and a few seeds. Astringent
until fully ripe, then sweet; late (Oct.-Nov. in Florida). Keeps very well.
'Fuyu' (or 'Fuyugaki')oblate, faintly 4-sided, 2 in (5 cm) long; 2 3/4 in (7 cm) wide; skin
deep-orange; flesh light-orange; firm when ripe; non-astringent even when unripe; with few seeds
or none. Keeps well; excellent packer and shipper. It is the most popular non-astringent
persimmon in Florida. 'Matsumoto Early Fuyu' ripens three weeks earlier.
'Hachiya'oblong-conical, 3 3/4 in (9.5 cm) long, 3 1/4 in (8.25 cm) wide; skin glossy, deep
orange-red; flesh dark-yellow with occasional black streaks; astringent until fully ripe and soft,
then sweet and rich. Seedless or with a few seeds. Midseason to late. Much used in Japan for
drying. Tree vigorous, well-formed and prolific in Kulu Valley, India. Scanty bearer in
southeastern United States; does well on D. virginiana in Florida, but tends to growth-ring
cracking; often prolific in California.
'Ormond'oblong-conical, 2 5/8 in (6.5 cm) long, 1 7/8 in (4.7 cm) thick. Skin reddish-yellow
with thin bloom; flesh orange-red, moderately juicy; seeds large. Very late (Nov. and Dec. in
Florida). Keeps well.
'Tamopan'Introduced from China in 1905, again in 1916 (S.P.I. Nos. 16912, 16921, 26773).
Broad oblate, somewhat 4-sided; indented around the middle or closer to the base; 3 to 5 in
(7.5-12.5 cm) wide; skin thick, orange-red; flesh light-orange, usually astringent until fully ripe,
then sweet and rich. In some parts of China and Japan said to be non-astringent. Seedless or nearly
so. Of medium quality; late (Nov.) in Florida; midseason in California. Was being grown
commercially in North Carolina and at Glen St. Mary, Florida, in 1916.
'Tanenashi'round-conical, 3 1/3 in (8.3 cm) long, 3 3/8 in (8.5 cm) wide; skin light-yellow or
orange, turning orange-red; thick; flesh yellow, astringent until soft, then sweet; seedless. Early;
prolific. Much esteemed. Much used for drying in Japan. Leading cultivar in southeastern United
States without pollination. In California tends to bear in alternate years.
'Triumph'oblate, faintly 4-sided; of small to medium size; skin yellowish to dark orange-red.
Flesh yellowish-red, translucent, soft, juicy; seedless or with 5 to 8 seeds; astringent until fully
ripe, then sweet. Of high quality. Medium-late. In Florida begins in September and lasts until
mid-November.
'Tsuru'long-conical, pointed; 3 3/8 in (8.5 cm) long, 2 3/8 in (6 cm) wide; skin bright
orange-red, turning red with purple bloom when mature; flesh orange-yellow or dark-yellow,
granular; astringent until fully ripe; with few or no seeds. Very late.
Group 2:
'Gailey'roundish to conical with rounded apex; small; skin dull-red, pebbled; flesh dark, firm,
juicy, of good flavor. Bears many male flowers regularly and is planted for cross-pollination.
Japanese Persimmon
'Hyakume'round-oblong to round-oblate, somewhat 4-angled and flat at both ends; 2 3/4 in (7

cm) long, 3 1/8 in (8 cm) wide; skin pale dull-yellow to light-orange, with brown russeting when
ripe; flesh dark-brown, crisp, sweet, non-astringent whether hard or ripe. Midseason. Fairly good
quality; somewhat unattractive externally. Stores and ships well.
'Okame'round-oblate, 2 3/8 in (6 cm) long, 3 1/8 in (8 cm) wide; skin orange-yellow turning to
bright-red with waxy bloom; flesh light but brownish around the seeds; sometimes seedless; sweet,
of excellent quality. Fairly early, beginning about Sept. 1 in Florida. Productive.
'Yeddo-ichi'oblate, 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) long, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide; skin dark orange-red with a
bloom; flesh dark-brown with purplish tint; sweet, rich, non-astringent whether hard or ripe. Of
high quality.
'Yemon'oblate, 4-sided; 2 1/4 in (5.7 cm) long, 3 1/4 in (8.25 cm) wide; skin light-yellow
becoming reddish with orange-yellow mottling; flesh red-brown or light-colored, astringent at
first, sweet after softening; seedless or with few seeds and then dark around the seeds. Of high
quality, but becomes too soft for shipping.
'Zengi' ('Zengimaru')round or round-oblate, 1 3/4 in (4.5 cm) long, 2 1/4 in (5.6 cm) wide. Skin
dark orange-red or yellow-red; flesh dark with black streaks; sweet even when hard; with some
seeds. Early, prolific; of medium quality.
Cultivars that are especially hardy in Maryland, Pennsylvania and Virginia include: 'Atome',
'Benigaki', 'Delicious', 'Eureka', 'Great Wall', 'Manerh', 'Okame', 'Peiping', 'Pen', 'Shaumopan',
'Sheng,' 'Tsurushigaki', 'Yokono', etc.
'Delicious' is oblate, medium to large; skin is smooth, light-red; flesh light-yellow, non-astringent
when hard, but more flavorful when soft; contains a few seeds; tree is vigorous and a regular
bearer.
'Eureka' (from Texas) is oblate, medium to large, puckered at calyx, bright orange-red, astringent;
of good quality; drought and frost-resistant; late (Nov. in Florida). One of the most satisfactory in
Florida.
'Great Wall' is small, flat, 4-sided with fine black stripes extending from the calyx; astringent,
dry-fleshed; tree is vigorous, a biennial bearer; does well in Florida.
'Hanafuyu' is oblate, non-astringent and usually seedless; late-midseason; tree is small, bears
regularly but yield is low; prone to premature shedding of fruit; fairly common in northern Florida.
'Ichikikeijiro' is medium-large, orange, non-astringent; early-ripening; tree is not vigorous but
still this cultivar is among the best of the non-astringent class in Florida.
'Jumbu' resembles 'Fuyu' but is somewhat more conical and larger; non-astringent; edible either
firm or soft. Ripens a little later than 'Tuyu'; of good quality.
'Ogasha' is oblate, non-astringent and usually seedless; prone to immature shedding of fruit; fairly
common in northern Florida.
'Sheng' is large, ribbed, puckered at calyx, astringent; popular in Florida; bears annually when
Japanese Persimmon
pollinated.
'Shogatsu' is flattened, non-astringent, of fair quality; bears an abundance of male flowers. Does
well in Florida.
'Siajo' is small, astringent, of good quality and flavor; performs well in Florida.
'Taber No. 23' is round to oblate with flat apex; fairly small; skin is dark-red, stippled. Begins to
ripen in September in Florida.
'Yamato Hyakume' is large, with red skin; has little tannin when seed content is low; tends to
growth-ring cracking; is a heavy bearer in Florida.
'Yokono' is large, orange-red, astringent, of good quality; bears well but tends to shed fruit; keeps
well.
Maru is a group name for several roundish types of Japanese persimmon with brilliant orange-red
skin, cinnamon-colored flesh; medium to small in size; flesh is juicy, sweet, richly flavored; they
have excellent keeping quality after ripening, store and ship well and are very decorative.
At the Pornological Station, Coonor, India, an unnamed type and a named cultivar, 'Dai Dai
Maru' have performed well. The unnamed cultivar is broad at the base, large, attractive, deep-red,
astringent until fully ripe, then very sweet; bears well regularly. The tree is semi-erect.
'Dai Dai Maru' has a broadly rounded apex, is of medium size; orange-red, glossy, with a slight
bloom; has dark flesh, is not edible until fully cured; seedless unless cross-pollinated; bears good
crops regularly. The tree is of semi-erect habit.
In Brazil, cultivars are sorted into 3 groups. Group 1, 'Sibugaki', includes those that are
yellow-fleshed, always astringent whether seedless or not ('Taubat', 'Hachiya', 'Trakoukaki',
'Hatemya', etc.).
'Taubat', the most popular of this group, is round, slightly flattened, large, yellow-fleshed, very
astringent; highly perishable, lasting only 3 to 4 days after ripening.
Group 2, 'Amagaki', includes those that are yellow-fleshed, never astringent whether seedless or
not ('Jiro', 'Tuyu', 'Hannagosho').
'Hannagosho' is of excellent quality but in Florida is slow in losing astringency and the tree is
deficient in male flowers.
'Jiro' is second to 'Fuyu' in importance in Japan; is of high quality and ships well. The fruit is
colorful and the tree vigorous in Florida.
Group 3, 'Variavel', or 'Variaveis', includes those that are astringent when they have several seeds,
and partially or totally non-astringent when they have only one or a few seeds. The flesh is yellow
when there are no seeds and dark when seeds are present ('Rama Forte', 'Guiombo', 'Luiz de
Queiroz', 'Hyakume', 'Chocolate', etc.).
'Guiombo' (perhaps the same as 'Korean') is one of the best in Florida, with thin skin; but it is a
biennial bearer when young.
Japanese Persimmon
'Rama Forte', the most popular of this group is oblate, medium to large, with dark-yellow flesh,
or dark-brown when there are many seeds; keeps well8 to 10 days at room temperature after
ripening; yields 30% more than 'Taubat' and its branches are less apt to break under a heavy crop.
The Instituto Agronomico do Estado de Sao Paulo has developed various promising hybrids.
In 1922, seeds of 'Kai Sam T'sz' (chicken-heart persimmon) from Canton, China, were sent to the
United States Department of Agriculture as a subtropical cultivar which might be appropriate for
southern Florida and the West Indies in contrast to the hardier types brought in from Japan and
northern and central China, but it seems to have soon dropped out of sight.
Among commercial cultivars in Japan not already mentioned are:
'Suruga' (distributed in 1959); orange-red, non-astringent, very sweet, keeps well.
'Gosho', orange-red, non-astringent, sweet, of high quality but giving a low yield because of
excessive shedding of immature fruits.
'Hiratanenashi', oblate, somewhat 4-sided, astringent, thick-skinned; seedless; of high quality,
but keeps only a short time after curing; mostly used for drying.
'Aizumishirazu', rounded, astringent, black-spotted around seeds; of fair quality; bears well.
'Yotsumizo', small, astringent, usually seedless, sweet after curing; bears well; often dried.
Of six cultivars tested in Queensland ('Tanenashi', 'Hyakume', 'Dai Dai Maru', 'Tsuru Magri', 'Flat
Seedless', and 'Nightingale'), all grafted on D. lotus, only 'Nightingale' proved satisfactory in fruit
quality and yield in an assessment made after 3 years of fruiting.
'Nightingale' is classed as PCA (pollination constant, astringent); is conical, 3 1/2 in (9 cm) long;
red; of distinctive flavor; with an average of 2 1/2 seeds per fruit. The tree is semi-dwarf and fairly
precocious.
Pollination
Some cultivars in certain locations and under some conditions, will fruit abundantly without
cross-pollination, but this trait is not dependable. In commercial groves, the cultivar known as
'Gailey', which regularly produces many male flowers, is interplanted to insure adequate
pollination. The formula is one male for every 8 female trees, uniformly dispersed throughout the
grove; or 12 to 24 pollinating trees per acre (30-60 per ha). Japanese farmers sometimes plant the
pollinating trees as a hedge around the grove. If hand-pollination of early cultivars is necessary,
unopened male buds are collected, dried, opened and the pollen separated and stored. When
needed, it is mixed with skimmed milk or club moss (Lycopodium) and applied at 1/7 to 2/7 oz per
acre (10-20 g per ha).
If the flowers are not effectively pollinated, the entire crop of fruit may fall prematurely. This is a
fault of the cultivar 'Isu' in Japan. Losses can be reduced by girdling the tree after flowering but the
practice has the effect of retarding growth. If the weather is hot and dry at blooming time,
pollination will be inadequate and very few fruits will be set. The maintenance of bee colonies (1
or 2 hives for every 2 1/2 acres, or per ha) in persimmon orchards will enhance pollination,
Japanese Persimmon
especially in cultivar 'Fuyu'.

Climate
The Japanese persimmon needs a subtropical to mild-temperate climate. It will not fruit in tropical
lowlands. In Brazil, the tree is considered suitable for all zones favorable to Citrus, but those zones
with the coldest winters induce the highest yields. The atmosphere may range from semi-arid to
one of high humidity.
Trees in the Middle Atlantic States have been known to have withstood temperatures as low as 20
F (-6.67 C) and to have remained in excellent condition and fruitful after 40 years.
Soil
The tree is not particular as to soil, and does well on any moderately fertile land with deep friable
subsoil. In Florida, a sandy loam with clay subsoil promotes good growth. While the young tree
needs plentiful watering, good drainage is essential.
Propagation
Indonesians propagate the tree by means of root suckers. In the Orient, selected cultivars are raised
from seed or grafted onto wild rootstocks of the same species, or onto the close relative, D. lotus
L. In the eastern United States, the trees are grafted onto the native American persimmon, D.
virginiana. This rootstock significantly contributes to cold-resistance. California growers have
found D. kaki the most satisfactory rootstock, D. lotus rootstock resulting in much lower yields.
Seeds for the production of rootstocks need no pretreatment. They are planted in seedbeds or
directly in the nursery row 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) apart with 3 to 3 1/2 ft (0.9-1.06 m) between the
rows. After a season of growth, they may be whip-grafted close to the surface of the soil, using
freshly cut scions or scions from dormant trees kept moist in sphagnum moss.
Cleft-grafting is preferred on larger stock and for top-working old trees. In India, cleft-grafting on
stem has been 88.9% successful; while cleft-grafting on crown and tongue-grafting on stem have
been 73.4% successful when the grafted plants were left for 2 weeks at about 77 F (25 C) and
relative humidity of 75% for 2 weeks before planting.
In the Kulu Valley, India, scions are grafted onto 2-year-old D. lotus seedlings which are mounded
with earth to cover the graft until it begins to sprout. At the Fruit Research Station, Kandaghat,
2-year-old D. lotus seedlings were used as rootstock for veneer and tongue grafts from cv
'Hachiya' between late June and the third week of August. Success rates ranged from 80 to 100%.
In Palestine, trees grafted on D. lotus and grown on light soil are dwarfish, fruit heavily at first, but
are weak and short-lived. Those grafted on D. virginiana are larger and vigorous and bear heavily
consistently. The only disadvantage is that the shallow root system fans out to 65 ft (20 m) from
the base of the tree and wherever the roots are injured by cultivation, suckers spring up and
become a nuisance.
Culture
The soil should be well prepareddeeply plowed and enriched with organic matter. Trees should
Japanese Persimmon
be set out at spacings ranging from 15 x 5 ft (4.5 x l.5 m) to 20 x 20 ft (6 x 6 m), depending on the
habit of the cultivar. In Japan, 404.7 plants per acre (1,000 per ha) may be installed at the outset, to
be thinned down to 85 trees per acre (200 per ha) in 10-15 years.
Good results have been obtained with a fertilizer mixture of 4 to 6% N, 8 to 10% P and 3 to 6% K
at the rate of 1 lb (.45 kg) per tree per year of age. Generally the application is made in spring, but
some growers apply half in the spring, half in July. Over-fertilization or excessive amounts of
nitrogen fertilizers will cause shedding of fruits.
Young trees are pruned back to 2 1/2 ft to 3 ft (.74-.91 m) when planted and later the new shoots
are thinned with a view to forming a well-shaped tree. Some cultivars tend to develop a willowy
growth and require cutting back occasionally to avoid the development of weak branches which
break when heavy with fruit. Annual pruning during the first 4 to 5 winters is desirable in some
cultivars. If a tree tends to overbear and shows signs of decline, it should be drastically cut back to
give it a fresh start.
After flowering, the trees should be irrigated every 3 weeks on light soil, every month on heavier
soil, until time for harvest. One California grower, with trees on deep river loam, has provided
furrow irrigation every 2 weeks from April through September. Branches are fragile and must be
propped when heavily laden with fruits.
Cropping and Yield
Many cultivars begin to bear 3-4 years after planting out; others after 5-6 years. Shedding of many
blossoms, immature and nearly mature fruits is characteristic of the Japanese persimmon as well as
the tendency toward alternate bearing. The annual yield of a young tree ranges from 50 to 96 lbs
(22.6-40.8 kg); of a full-grown tree, 330 to 550 lbs (150-250 kg). Estimated yield in Brazil is 6.5
tons per acre (15 tons per ha), but yields will vary with the cultivar and cultural practices.
Harvesting takes place in fall and early winter. Late ripening cultivars may be picked after hard
frosts or light-snowfall. Japan produces about 300,000 tons per year.
Japanese growers use color charts to determine when each cultivar is ready for harvest. Astringent
cultivars are picked when fully mature but hard and are cured before marketing.
Curing
In the Orient, much of the crop is left in piles covered by bamboo mats to cure (near-freeze)
naturally and is marketed throughout the winter. In some parts of China, the fruit is cured in
covered pits by introducing the smoke from burning dung. There are several other methods of
curing: soaking in vinegar or immersing in boiling water and letting stand for 12 hours. 'Hachiya'
fruits kept in warm water 104 F (40 C)for 24 hours will be firm and non-astringent 2 days after
treatment. One practice is to leave the astringent fruits in lime water for 2 days but tests have
shown no advantage of a lime solution over pure water except that lime disinfects and can prevent
the rotting that might follow soaking.
In Japan, the fruits may be sprayed with ethanol, or stored for 10 days to 2 weeks in kegs which
previously contained sake; or they may be stored in air-tight containers with ethylene gas for 3
days. Carbon dioxide is widely employed and the treatment consists of storing in a 95% CO2
Japanese Persimmon
atmosphere for 24 hours at 68 to 77 F (20-25 C), but the fruit softens very quickly thereafter. In
Brazil, successful curing has been achieved by immersing 'Taubate' persimmons in 1,000 ppm
solution of ethephon (an ethylene generator) for 1 hour and then storing at room temperature for 4
days. Large quantities are cured by exposure to the fumes of alcohol (aguardiente), acetylene gas
from combustion of calcium carbonate, or gas from burning sawdust, in hermetically sealed
chambers at temperatures between 68 and 82.4 F (20 and 28 C) at relative humidity of 80%.
Various other chemical processes and gamma radiation have been successfully employed in other
countries.
A simple method was discovered in California some years ago. The newly picked fruits were
merely pierced once at the apex with a needle dipped in alcohol, then the fruits were layered with
straw in a tightly closed box for 10 days. The homeowner may merely keep the fruits at room
temperature in a closed vessel or plastic bag for 2-4 days with bananas, pears, tomatoes, apples, or
other fruits which give off ethylene gas. In India, the persimmons are individually paper-wrapped
and placed in alternate rows with 'Kieffer' pears in a closed container and are edible in 3 days.
Non-astringent cultivars need no curing.
Packing, Keeping Quality and Storage
In California, persimmons are graded by size, then tissue-wrapped and packed in peach boxes for
rail shipment in refrigerated cars. Packing in other areas is similar. Astringent types soften in 2 or
3 days after treatment and quickly become overripe. Non-astringent types are usually harder than
astringent types when picked, and they therefore ship and keep better. Persimmons have been kept
for 2 months at 30 F (-1.11 C) and 85-90% relative humidity. 'Triumph' is frequently stored in
Israel for as long as 4 months at 30 F (-1.11 C). Persimmons have been kept in good condition
for several months in sealed 0.06 mm polyethylene bags at 32 F (0 C).
Spraying the bearing branches with gibberellic acid 3 days before harvest has retarded maturity on
the tree; has doubled the storage life of astringent types after curing.
Pests and Diseases
In Brazil, premature fall of 'Fuyu' is partly linked to heavy infestation by the mite, Aceria diospyri.
Spraying with Sevin 85 ppm 3 times at 30-day intervals right after petal fall controls the mite and
increases yield. Retithrips syriacus feeds on and blemishes the leaves and fruit skin in Palestine
but has been controlled by spraying with nicotine sulfate. The greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips
haemorrhoidalis) blemishes fruits in Queensland. San Jos scale is combatted by a dormant
application of Bordeaux in diesel emulsion in India. In Florida, white peach scale,
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, has required control and a twig girdler, Onsideres cingulatus, has
been troublesome. Also, a flat-headed borer drills into the bark and the wood causing oozing of
gum and decline in vigor. The main enemies in the eastern United States are mealybugs which
distort young shoots and kill all new growth unless controlled. They do not seriously affect mature
trees.
In Brazil and Queensland, fruit flies may attack the fruits, especially in dry years. Tree-ripe
persimmons are sought by all kinds of birds, especially by parrots and crows in India, where flying
foxes are a nocturnal menace. The less astringent types seem to be preferred by all of these
predators. Bird-repellent sprays have given good control in Queensland. There, sunburn affects
Japanese Persimmon
marketability especially of 'Tanenashi' and 'Tsuru magri'.

In India, low germination rates of planted seeds has been traced to dry rot caused by Penicillium
sp. It can be controlled by pretreatment with an appropriate fungicide.
D. lotus rootstock is subject to root rot and crown gall in Florida but resistant to wilt caused by
Cephalosporium diospyri which induces severe defoliation and has killed trees on D. virginiana
rootstock. In Brazil, Cercospora may spot the leaves, and a virus causes "mosaic"mottling of
leaves and premature leaf fall, shedding of flowers, and necrotic spots on fruits; also a different
necrosis on the tree and the bark of shoots, twigs and branches that causes die-back. Anthracnose
occurs on fruits that have slightly cracked or have been pierced by insects. In Florida, leaf spot,
algal leaf spot, twig blight, twig dieback, root rot, thread blight and other fungal diseases may
occur.
Food Uses
Fully ripe Japanese persimmons are usually eaten out-of-hand or cut in half and served with a
spoon, preferably after chilling. Some people prefer to add lemon juice or cream and a little sugar.
The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yogurt, used in pancakess, cakes,
gingerbread, cookies, gelatin desserts, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. The
pureed pulp can be blended with cream cheese, orange juice, honey and a pinch of salt to make an
unusual dressing.
Ripe fruits can be frozen whole or pulped and frozen in the home freezer. Large quantities of
'Tamopan' are preserved by drying. Drying is commonly practiced in Brazil and the dried fruit is
popular throughout the country. Some California growers dry the 'Hachiya' by a Chinese method.
The fruits are picked when mature but firm, are peeled and hung up by their stems for 30-50 days
to dry in the sun. Kneading every 4-5 days is necessary to give uniform texture and improve
flavor. Then they are taken down and sweated for 10 days in heaps under mats. Sugar crystals
form on the surface. Lastly, they are hung up again to dry in the wind. In the Orient, the peelings
are dried separately and are mixed in with fruits when packed for sale. An inferior product is made
by slitting the skin with a knife, then spreading the fruits out on mats to dry for several weeks, then
sweating them in piles, and the product is sold at a very low price.
In Indonesia, ripe fruits are stewed until soft, then pressed flat and dried in the sun. Early travelers
called such fruits "red figs". Intestinal compaction from consumption of persimmons in Israel has
been eliminated by drying the fruits before marketing, and some dried fruits are now being
exported to Europe. Surplus persimmons may be converted into molasses, cider, beer and wine.
Roasted seeds have served as a coffee substitute.
Calories
77
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
78.6 g
0.7 g
0.4 g
19.6 g
Japanese Persimmon
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
6 mg
26 mg
0.3 mg
6 mg
174 mg
8 mg
2,710 I.U.
0.03 mg
0.02 mg
0.1 mg
11 mg
*Average values.
The astringent substance in the persimmon, generally called "tannin", has been much studied and
variously defined as knowledge of tannins and other phenols has unfolded. To put it simply, it is
classed as a condensed tannin (proanthocyanidin) of complex structure.
One would be wise to eat only fully ripe persimmons from which the tannin has been almost
entirely eliminated. The skin, which retains some tannin, should not be eaten.
Other Uses
Tannin from unripe Japanese persimmons has been employed in brewing sake, also in dyeing and
as a wood preservative. Juice of small, inedible wild persimmons, crushed whole, calyx, seeds and
all, is diluted with water and painted on paper or cloth as an insect- and moisture-repellent.
The wood of the tree is fairly hard and heavy, black with streaks of orange-yellow, salmon, brown
or gray; close-grained; takes a smooth finish and is prized in Japan for fancy inlays, though it has
an unpleasant odor.
Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the calyx and fruit stem is sometimes taken to relieve hiccups,
coughs and labored respiration.
Mabolo

Morton, J. 1987. Mabolo. p. 418419. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Mabolo
Diospyros blancoi A. DC.
Description
Varieties
Propagation
Cultivation
Season
Keeping Quality
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
A minor member of the family Ebenaceae, more admired for its ornamental than its edible value,
the mabolo has appeared in literature for many years under the illegitimate binomial Diospyros
discolor Willd. In 1968, Dr. Richard Howard, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard
University, proposed the adoption of D. blancoi A. DC., and this is now regarded as the correct
botanical designation for this species. The fruit is sometimes called velvet apple, or, in India,
peach bloom. In Malaya, it is buah mantega (butter fruit)a term now often applied to the
avocado, or buah sakhlat, or sagalat (scarlet fruit). Mabolo (or mabulo) is the most common of
the several Philippine dialectal names. Another, kamagon, is rendered camagon in Spanish.
Description
The mabolo varies in form from a small straggly tree with drooping branches, to an erect, straight
tree to 60 or even 100 ft (18-33 m), with stout, black, furrowed trunk to 50 in (80 cm) thick. It is
rather slow-growing. The evergreen, alternate leaves, oblong, pointed at the apex, rounded or
pointed at the base, are 6 to 9 in (15-22.8 cm) long, 2 to 3 1/2 in (5-9 cm) wide; leathery,
dark-green, smooth and glossy on the upper surface, silvery-hairy underneath. New leaves are
showy, pale-green or pink and silky-hairy. The tubular, 4-lobed, waxy, faintly fragrant blooms are
short-stalked, creamy-white, downy. Male flowers 1/4 in (6 mm) wide, in small clusters, and
female flowers, 1/2 in (12.5 mm) wide, and solitary, are borne on separate trees. Attractive and
curious, the oval or oblate fruit, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) wide, has thin, pink, brownish, yellow, orange
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mabolo.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:46 PM]
Mabolo
or purple-red skin, densely coated with

short, golden-brown or coppery hairs, and is
capped at the base with a dull-green, stiff
calyx. The fruits are often borne in pairs,
very close together on opposite sides of a
branch. A strong, unpleasant, cheese-like
odor is given off by the whole fruit but
emanates from the skin, for it is absent in
the peeled flesh, which is whitish, firm,
mealy, somewhat like that of an overripe
apple; moist but not very juicy; of mild,
more or less sweet flavor, suggesting a
banana-flavored apple. There may be 4 to 8
brown, smooth, wedge-shaped seeds, about
1 1/2 in (4 cm) long and 1 in (2.5 cm) wide,
standing in a circle around the central core,
though the fruits are often completely
seedless. Each seed is covered with a
whitish membrane that is transparent when
fresh, opaque when dried.
Plate LXII: MABOLO, Diospyros blancoi
The mabolo is indigenous to the low and medium altitude forests of the Philippine Islands from the
island of Luzon to the southernmost of the Sulu Islands, and is commonly cultivated for its fruit
and even more as a shade tree for roadsides. The tree was introduced into Java and Malaya, and, in
1881, into Calcutta and the Botanical Garden in Singapore, though it existed in Singapore before
that date. In recent times, it has been decreasing in numbers in Malaya. It is only occasionally
planted in India and then mainly as an ornamental because of the attractiveness of the foliage and
the fruits.
Seeds were sent to the United States Department of Agriculture by W.S. Lyon, of the Philippine
Bureau of Agriculture, in 1906, with a note of admiration for the tree and the exterior of the fruit
but not the interior; still, more seeds were sent in 1909 and the seedlings thrived at the Plant
Introduction Station in Miami. There are occasional specimens grown elsewhere in southern
Florida and some scattered around the Caribbean area, in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Trinidad
and the Lancetilla Experimental Garden in Honduras where plants were received from the
Philippines in 1926 and seeds from Cuba in 1927. There are a few in Bermuda and in Hawaii
where the mabolo first fruited in 1928. Nowhere has the mabolo gained the favor it enjoys in its
homeland.
Varieties
Mabolo trees vary in the degree of hairiness on the twigs and leaves. Burkill (in Malaya) and
Mendiola (in the Philippines) refer to mabolos with red and copper-colored skin as distinct races.
A race with purplish-red skin and unusually sweet flavor was long ago introduced into Malaya. In
1921, budded trees of a superior seedless cultivar called 'Manila' were shipped to the United
Mabolo
States Department of Agriculture by P.J. Wester, who was then Horticulturist in charge of the
Manila Experiment Station. The parent tree in the Philippines had a history of bearing crops of
oblate, sweet, juicy fruits, 80% of them seedless, 20% having 1 to 3 seeds. Another seedless
Philippine cultivar was named 'Valesca'.
Mendiola (1926) wrote that seedless mabolos "are easily distinguished from the seedy ones as they
are flatter. It is believed by some horticulturists and growers that these seedless fruits come from
branches that are bud sports . . . it is impossible to confirm or deny this claim until it is known how
much parthenocarpy has to do with . . . these seedless forms . . . the genus Diospyros is, in a
number of cases, parthenocarpic."
Propagation
The tree is generally grown from seeds. Shield-budding has been successfully practiced in the
Philippines and is the preferred means of perpetuating superior types.
Cultivation
Male trees must be planted near the female trees for effective pollination and fruit production. The
tree does best in loam but flourishes very well in almost any soil with little care. It is rarely
fertilized and seems to need no protective spraying.
Season
In India, the mabolo blooms in March and April and the fruits ripen in July and August. The main
season in Florida is June to September but occasional fruits may be found on the tree at almost any
time of the year.
Keeping Quality
Investigators in Hawaii studied carbon dioxide and ethylene production of mature green and 5%
red-colored mabolos. Mature-green fruits reached the climacteric peak stage in 9 days; the slightly
ripe fruits, in 5 days.
Food Uses
The surface fuzz adheres tightly even when the fruit is ripe. Also, the skin, though thin and pliable,
is tough and papery when chewed. Therefore, the fruits should be peeled before eating, and then
kept in the refrigerator for a few hours before serving. Then the odor, which is mainly in the skin,
will have largely dissipated.
Some people slice or quarter the flesh, season with lime or lemon juice or Grenadine sirup and
serve fresh as dessert. The flesh is also diced and combined with that of other fruits in salads. If
stewed in sirup, the flesh becomes fibrous and tough. Cut into strips and fried in butter, it is crisp
and fairly agreeable as a vegetable of the dasheen or taro type appropriate for serving with ham,
sausage or other spicy meat.
Calories
Ordinary type Seedless type

504
Mabolo
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Sugar
Fiber
Ash
Sulphuric Acid
Malic Acid
Phytin
77.80 g
0.75 g
11.47 g
0.83 g
0.11 g
0.16 g
-
71.95-86.04 g
0.82-2.79 g
0.22-0.38 g
(other) 5.49-6.12 g
(reducing) 6.25-18.52 g
0.74-1.76 g
0.43-1.08 g
3.26% (on dry basis)
*Analyses made in the Philippines and India.

The fruit is considered a fairly good source of iron and calcium and a good source of vitamin B.
Toxicity
The hairs may be somewhat irritating to sensitive skin.
Other Uses
Mabolo seedlings: Useful as rootstock on which to graft the Japanese persimmon.
Wood: The sapwood is pinkish or reddish; may have gray markings. The heartwood is streaked
and mottled with gray and is sometimes all-black. In the Philippines, it is carved into highly prized
hair combs.
Carissa

Morton, J. 1987. Carissa. p. 420422. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Carissa
Carissa macrocarpa A. DC.
Carissa grandiflora A. DC.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Two species of the notorious family Apocynaceae are noteworthy because of their edible fruits and
innocuous milky latex. The more attractive of these is the carissa, Carissa macrocarpa A. DC.
(syn. C. grandiflora A. DC.), also called Natal plum and amantungula.
Description
A vigorous, spreading, woody shrub with abundant white, gummy sap, the carissa may reach a
height of 15 to 18 ft (4.5-5.5 m) and an equal breadth. The branches are armed with formidable
stout, double-pronged thorns to 2 in (5 cm) long. The handsome, evergreen, opposite leaves are
broad-ovate, 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm) long, dark-green, glossy, leathery. Sweetly fragrant, white,
5-lobed, tubular flowers to 2 in (5 cm) broad are borne singly or a few together at the tips of
branchlets all year. Some plants bear flowers that are functionally male, larger than normal and
with larger anthers, and stamens much longer than the style. Functionally female flowers have
stamens the same length as the style and small anthers without pollen.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/carissa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:47 PM]
Carissa
The round, oval or oblong fruit, to 2 1/2 in

(6.25 cm) long and up to 1 1/2 in (4 cm)
across, is green and rich in latex when
unripe. As it ripens, the tender, smooth skin
turns to a bright magenta-red coated with a
thin, whitish bloom, and finally
dark-crimson. The flesh is tender, very
juicy, strawberry-colored and -flavored,
with flecks of milky sap. Massed in the
center are 6 to 16 small, thin, flat, brown
seeds, not objectionable when eaten.
The carissa is native to the coastal region of Fig. 110: Beautiful of foliage, flower and fruit, the thorny
Natal, South Africa, and is cultivated far
carissa (Carissa grandiflora) is primarily an ornamental but
inland in the Transvaal. It was first
the fruits are edible and enjoyable.
introduced into the United States in 1886 by
the horticulturist Theodore L. Meade. Then, in 1903, Dr. David Fairchild, heading the Office of
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agriculture, brought in
from the Botanical Garden at Durban, a large quantity of seeds. Several thousand seedlings were
raised at the then Plant Introduction Garden at Miami and distributed for testing in Florida, the
Gulf States and California, and much effort was devoted to following up on the fate of the plants in
different climatic zones. The carissa was introduced into Hawaii in 1905 and over the next few
years was extensively distributed throughout the islands. It was planted in the Bahamas in 1913. It
first fruited in the Philippines in 1924; is grown to a limited extent in India and East Africa. It was
widely planted in Israel, flourished and flowered freely but rarely set fruit. Elsewhere, it is valued
mainly as a protective hedge and the fruit is a more-or-less-welcomed by-product.
Varieties
Horticulturists in South Africa, California and Florida have selected and named some types that
tend to bear more reliably than others:
'Fancy', selected in California in the 1950's, was an erect form bearing an abundance of large
fruits with few seeds.
'Torrey Pines' produces good crops of fruit and pollen.
'Gifford' is one of the best fruit bearers in Florida.
'Extra Sweet' was advertised in Florida in the early 1960's.
'Alles' ('Chesley') produces few fruits in California.
'Frank' is a light bearer though it has a good supply of pollen.
As space for massive barrier hedges has diminished and interest in the fruits declined, efforts have
been directed to the development of dwarf, compact, less spiny types for landscape use. Some of
the popular ornamental cultivars include: 'Bonsai', 'Boxwood Beauty', 'Dainty Princess',
Carissa
'Grandiflora', 'Green Carpet', 'Horizontalis', 'Linkii', 'Low Boy', 'Minima', 'Nana', 'Nana
Compacta', 'Prostrata' and 'Tuttlei'.
Pollination
In its homeland, the carissa is pollinated by small beetles and hawk-moths and other night-flying
insects. Various degrees of unfruitfulness in America has been attributed to inadequate pollination.
Some seedlings are light-croppers, but others never bear at all. It has been found that unproductive
plants, apparently self-infertile, will bear fruits after cross-pollination by hand.
Climate
The carissa is subtropical to near-tropical, thriving throughout the state of Florida and enduring
temperatures as low as 25 F (-3.89 C) when well-established. Young plants need protection when
the temperature drops below 29 F (-1.67 C). Best growth is obtained in full sun.
Soil
The shrub thrives in dry, rocky terrain in Hawaii; in red clay or sandy loam in California, and in
sandy or alkaline soils in Florida, though the latter may induce deficiencies in trace elements. The
plant has moderate drought tolerance and high resistance to soil salinity and salt spray. It cannot
stand water-logging.
Propagation
Seeds germinate in 2 weeks but the seedlings grow very slowly at first and are highly variable.
Vegetative propagation is preferred and can be done easily by air-layering, ground-layering, or
shield-budding. Cuttings root poorly unless the tip of a young branchlet is cut half-way through
and left attached to the plant for 2 months. After removal and planting in sand, it will root in about
30 days. Grafting onto seedlings of the karanda (q.v.) has considerably increased fruit yield.
Culture
Seedlings may begin to produce fruit in 2 years; cuttings earlier. A standard, well-balanced
fertilizer suffices except on limestone where trace elements must be added. Dwarf cultivars must
be kept under control, otherwise they are apt to revert to the ordinary type. Vigorous shoots will
develop and outgrow the compact form.
Season
While the carissa flowers and fruits all year, the peak period for blooming and fruiting is May
through September. The 5-pointed calyx remains attached to the plant when the fruit is picked.
Pests and Diseases
Spider mites, thrips and whiteflies, and occasionally scale insects, attack young plants, especially
in nurseries and in the shade.
A number of fungus diseases have been recorded in Florida; algal leaf spot and green scurf caused
by Cephaleuros virescens; leaf spot from Alternaria sp., Botryosphaeria querquum, Fusarium sp.,
Gloeosporium sp., Phyllosticta sp. and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides which also is responsible
Carissa
for anthracnose; stem gall from Macrophoma sp., Nectria sp., Phoma sp., Phomopsis sp., and both
galls and cankers from Sphaeropsis tumefaciens; dieback caused by Diplodia natalensis and
Rhizoctonia solani; thread blight from Rhizoctonia ramicola; root rot resulting from infection by
Phytophthora parasitica and Pythium sp.
Food Uses
The carissa must be fully ripe, dark-red and slightly soft to the touch to be eaten raw. It is enjoyed
whole, without peeling or seeding, out-of-hand. Halved or quartered and seeded it is suitable for
fruit salads, adding to gelatins and using as topping for cakes, puddings and ice cream. Carissas
can be cooked to a sauce or used in pies and tarts. Stewing or boiling causes the latex to leave the
fruit and adhere to the pot (which must not be aluminum), but this can be easily removed by
rubbing with cooking oil.
Carissas are preserved whole by pricking, cooking briefly in a sugar sirup and sterilizing in jars.
Peeled or unpeeled, they are made into jam, other preserves, sirup or sweet pickles. Jelly is made
from slightly underripe fruits, or a combination of ripe and unripe to enhance the color.
Food Value
Analyses made in the Philippines show the following values: calories, 270/lb (594/kg); moisture,
78.45%; protein, 0.56%; fat, 1.03%; sugar, 12.00%; fiber, 0.91%; ash, 0.43%. Ascorbic acid
content has been calculated as 10 mg/100 g in India.
Karanda

Morton, J. 1987. Karanda. p. 422424. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Karanda
Carissa congesta Wight
Carissa carandas Auct.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Less showy than the carissa, q.v., the karanda has attracted more interest as a source of fruit and as
a medicinal plant than as an ornamental. Its botanical name was in recent years changed to Carissa
congesta Wight (syn. C. carandas Auct., formerly widely shown as C. carandas L.). It is called
kerenda in Malaya, karaunda in Malaya and India; Bengal currant or Christ's thorn in South India;
nam phrom, or namdaeng in Thailand; caramba, caranda, caraunda and perunkila in the
Philippines.
Description
This species is a rank-growing, straggly, woody, climbing shrub, usually growing to 10 or 15 ft
(3-5 m) high, sometimes ascending to the tops of tall trees; and rich in white, gummy latex. The
branches, numerous and spreading, forming dense masses, are set with sharp thorns, simple or
forked, up to 2 in (5 cm) long, in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The leaves are evergreen,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/karanda.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:37:50 PM]
Karanda
opposite, oval or elliptic, 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5

cm) long; dark-green, leathery, glossy on
the upper surface, lighter green and dull on
the underside. The fragrant flowers are
tubular with 5 hairy lobes which are twisted
to the left in the bud instead of to the right
as in other species. They are white, often
tinged with pink, and borne in terminal
clusters of 2 to 12. The fruit, in clusters of 3
to 10, is oblong, broad-ovoid or round, 1/2
to 1 in (1.25-2.5 cm) long; has fairly thin
but tough, purplish-red skin turning
dark-purple or nearly black when ripe;
smooth, glossy; enclosing very acid to fairly Fig. 111: The karanda (Carissa carandas) is small and
gummy but yields colorful, tart juice.
sweet, often bitter, juicy, red or pink, juicy
pulp, exuding flecks of latex. There may be 2 to 8 small, flat, brown seeds.
Varieties
Formerly there were believed to be 2 distinct varieties: C. carandas var. amarawith oval,
dark-purple, red-fleshed fruits, of acid flavor; and var. dulcisround, maroon, with pink flesh and
sweet-subacid flavor. However, David Sturrock, a Florida horticulturist who took a special interest
in the karanda, observed these and other variations throughout seedling populations.
The karanda is native and common
throughout much of India, Burma and
Malacca and dry areas of Ceylon; is rather
commonly cultivated in these areas as a
hedge and for its fruit and the fruit is
marketed in villages. It is rare in Malaya
except as a potted plant in the north; often
grown in Thailand, Cambodia, South
Vietnam and in East Africa. It was
introduced into Java long ago as a hedge
and has run wild around Djakarta. The
karanda first fruited in the Philippines in
1915 and P.J. Wester described it in 1918 as
"one of the best small fruits introduced into
the Philippines within recent years."
Fig. 112: The karanda, shrubby or climbing, is conspicuous
when in starry bloom.
The United States Department of

Agriculture received seeds from the Middle
Egypt Botanic Garden in 1912 (S.P.I. #34364); from P.J. Wester in the Philippines in 1918 (S.P.I.
#46636) and again in 1920 (S.P.I. #51005); and a third time in 1925 (S.P.I. #65334). The shrub has
been cultivated in a limited way in Florida and California and in some experimental gardens in
Trinidad and Puerto Rico.
Karanda
Climate
The karanda is more cold-tolerant than the carissa. It grows from sea-level to 2,000 ft (600 m) in
the Philippines; but up to an altitude of 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in the Himalayas. Burkill says it is not
really suited to the humid climate of Malaya. Like the carissa, its chief requirement is full
exposure to sun.
Soil
The plant grows vigorously in Florida on sand or limestone. In India, it grows wild on the poorest
and rockiest soils and is grown as a hedge plant in dry, sandy or rocky soils. It is most fruitful on
deep, fertile, well-drained soil but if the soil is too wet, there will be excessive vegetative growth
and lower fruit production.
Propagation
Propagation is usually by seed because cuttings have never rooted readily. Experimental work in
India has shown that cuttings from mature plants may not root at all; 20% of hardwood cuttings
from trimmed hedges have rooted in November but not when planted earlier. Cuttings from
nursery stock gave best results: 10% rooted in late September; 20% in early October; 30% in late
October; and 50% in early November. In all cases, cuttings were pre-treated with indolebutyric
acid at 500 ppm in 50% alcohol. Sturrock found that tender tip cuttings could be rooted under
constant mist; also that the karanda can be grafted onto self-seedlings. It has proved to be a good
rootstock for carissa.
Culture
The plant grows slowly when young. Once well-established, it grows more vigorously and
becomes difficult to control. If kept trimmed to encourage new shoots, it will bloom and fruit
profusely.
Season
The karanda may bloom and fruit off and on throughout the year. For use unripe, the fruits are
harvested from mid-May to mid-July. The main ripening season is August and September. The
5-pointed calyx remains attached to the plant when the fruit is picked, leaving a gummy aperture at
the base.
Keeping Quality
Freshly-picked ripe fruits can be kept at room temperature only 3 or 4 days before they begin to
shrivel.
Pests and Diseases
Nursery plants are probably prone to the same pests that attack young carissas.
Fungus diseases recorded on the karanda in Florida are algal leaf spot and green scurf caused by
Cephaleuros virescens; twig dieback from Diplodia natalensis; and stem canker induced by
Dithiorella sp.
Karanda
Food Uses
The sweeter types may be eaten raw out-of-hand but the more acid ones are best stewed with
plenty of sugar. Even so, the skin may be found tough and slightly bitter. The fruit exudes much
gummy latex when being cooked but the rich-red juice becomes clear and is much used in cold
beverages. The sirup has been successfully utilized on a small scale by at least one soda-fountain
operator in Florida. In Asia, the ripe fruits are utilized in curries, tarts, puddings and chutney.
When only slightly underripe, they are made into jelly. Green, sour fruits are made into pickles in
India. With skin and seeds removed and seasoned with sugar and cloves, they have been popular as
a substitute for apple in tarts. British residents in India undoubtedly favored the karanda as being
reminiscent of gooseberries.
Food Value
Analyses made in India and the Philippines show the following values for the ripe karanda:
calories, 338 to 342/lb (745-753/kg); moisture, 83.17-83.24%; protein, 0.39-0.66%; fat,
2.57-4.63%; carbohydrate, 0.51-0.94%; sugar, 7.35-11.58%; fiber, 0.62-1.81%; ash, 0.66-0.78 %.
Ascorbic acid content has been reported as 9 to 11 mg per 100 g.
Other Uses
Fruit: The fruits have been employed as agents in tanning and dyeing.
Leaves: Karanda leaves have furnished fodder for the tussar silkworm.
Root: A paste of the pounded roots serves as a fly repellent.
Wood: The white or yellow wood is hard, smooth and useful for fashioning spoons, combs,
household utensils and miscellaneous products of turnery. It is sometimes burned as fuel.
Medicinal Uses: The unripe fruit is used medicinally as an astringent. The ripe fruit is taken as an
antiscorbutic and remedy for biliousness. The leaf decoction is valued in cases of intermittent
fever, diarrhea, oral inflammation and earache. The root is employed as a bitter stomachic and
vermifuge and it is an ingredient in a remedy for itches. The roots contain salycylic acid and
cardiac glycosides causing a slight decrease in blood pressure. Also reported are carissone; the
D-glycoside of B-sitosterol; glucosides of odoroside H; carindone, a terpenoid; lupeol; ursolic acid
and its methyl ester; also carinol, a phenolic lignan. Bark, leaves and fruit contain an unnamed
alkaloid.
Naranjilla

Morton, J. 1987. Naranjilla. p. 425428. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Naranjilla
Solanum quitoense Lam.
Solanum angulatum Lam.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Closely Related Species
An intriguing and highly appealing member of the nightshade family, Solanaceae, the naranjilla,
Solanum quitoense Lam. (syn. S. angulatum Lam.), acquired its Spanish name, meaning "little
orange" because it is round, and is bright-orange when fully ripe. In Ecuador it is called naranjilla
de Quito, or nuqui; in Peru, naranjita de Quito. The Incas called it lulum. In Mexico, it is lulun; in
Colombia, lulo, naranjilla or toronja. Variety septentrionale Schultes & Cuatr. is called lulo de
castilla, lulo de perro, or lulo morado.
Description
The naranjilla plant is a spreading, herbaceous shrub to 8 ft (2.5 m) high with thick stems that
become somewhat woody with age; spiny in the wild, spineless in cultivated plants. The alternate
leaves are oblong-ovate, to 2 ft (60 cm) long and 18 in (45 cm) wide, soft and woolly. There may
be few or many spines on petioles, midrib and lateral veins, above and below, or the leaves may be
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/naranjilla_ars.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:37:52 PM]
Naranjilla
completely spineless. Young leaves, young

stems and petioles are coated with richly
purple stellate hairs. Hairs on other parts
may appear simple. Borne in short axillary
clusters of as many as 10, the fragrant
flowers, about 1 1/5 in (3 cm) wide, have 5
petals, white on the upper surface, purple
hairy beneath, and 5 prominent yellow
stamens. The unopened buds are likewise
covered with purple hairs. A brown, hairy
coat protects the fruit until it is fully ripe,
when the hairs can be easily rubbed off,
showing the bright-orange, smooth,
Plate LXIII: NARANJILLA, Solanum quitoense
leathery, fairly thick peel. The fruit,
crowned with the persistent, 5-pointed calyx, is round or round-ovate, to 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) across
and contains 4 compartments separated by membranous partitions and filled with translucent green
or yellowish, very juicy, slightly acid to acid, pulp of delicious flavor which has been likened to
pineapple-and-lemon. There are numerous pale-buff seeds, thin, flat, hard and 1/8 in (3 mm) in
diameter.
The usually spineless naranjilla is believed to be indigenous and most abundant in Peru, Ecuador
and southern Colombia. The forms found in the rest of Colombia and in the central and northern
Andes of Venezuela and interior mountain ranges of Costa Rica may vary from partly to very
spiny. Some botanists have suggested that these spiny forms belong to the botanical variety
septentrionale. In Ecuador, 90% of commercial naranjilla cultivation is in a 15-mile area in the
valley and adjacent hillsides of the Pastaza River, a tributary of the Amazon.
Seeds were first sent to the United States Department of Agriculture from Colombia in 1913; from
Ecuador in 1914 and 1916. Many other introductions were made but the resulting plantings in
California, Florida and northern greenhouses flourished only briefly, some set fruit, and all died.
Trial plantings were made in the Philippines about 1922. The exhibition of fruits and 1,500 gallons
of freshly made juice of Ecuadorian naranjillas at the New York World's Fair in 1939 roused a
great deal of interest. In February, 1948, 20 naranjilla plants were set out in a field at the
University of Florida's Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead, Florida. They
flourished and were beginning to fruit when nearly all were destroyed by hurricanes. Dr. Milton
Cobin tried grafting the naranjilla on the so-called "potato tree", Solanum macranthum Dunal of
Brazil, hoping to give it wind-resistance. The grafted plants were set out in 1949 and fruited well.
Seeds of acid and sweet strains were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture in
1950. Some of the resulting plants were grafted onto S. macranthum and did well; others, set out
on their own roots, became severely infested with rootknot nematodes and died. In 1951, the
naranjilla was grafted onto S. erianthum D. Don but the plants were dwarfed by this rootstock and
short-lived. A number of fruit fanciers took up the growing of grafted naranjilla plants in home
gardens. Interest was aroused in Caribbean horticulturists and other visitors to the Homestead
station. In the early 1950's, plantings were made in Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Panama, Hawaii and
Queensland, and in the Meseta Central of Costa Rica where one of several growers set out 70,000
Naranjilla
plants of the local wild variety which bears a larger fruit than the non-spiny South American type.
In 1962, a commercial plantation owned by Frederic Zeuner, proprietor of Cia Procesadora de
Naranjilla Ltda, of San Jos, covered 1,200 acres (511 ha) and a $55,000 factory was built to
process the fruits. The pulp was being shipped to the United States in No. 10 cans. It was blended
with apple or pineapple juice, put up in small cans and frozen for retail sale. In 1966, I was advised
by the U.S. Agricultural Attach in San Jos that this pilot effort failed because the canned product
was not properly processed and had a metallic taste, also because of the collapse of the canners'
contracts with farmers. Production of a better product with proper cooling and storage continued
on a local scale. In 1963, the naranjilla was a relatively new crop in Guatemala and there was an
experimental plantation and others that were semi-commercial.
The naranjilla is much admired as an ornamental foliage plant in northern conservatories but it will
not fruit in temperate latitudes.
Varieties
The botanical variety septentrionale already referred to is found in Valle, Cundinamarca,
Magdalena, Santanderes and Tolima, in central and northern Colombia, and also in Ecuador and
Venezuela. It is said to differ from the typical form, var. quitoense, of Ecuador, Peru and southern
Colombia, only in having spines on the stem, branches, petioles, and principal veins of the leaves.
There is a sweet, but not very juicy strain around the Andean town of Baza, about 50 miles (80
km) east of Quito, Ecuador.
A wild, spiny form in Costa Rica, called berenjena de olor ("fragrant eggplant"), has woodier stem
and branches and unusually large fruits to 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) in diameter.
The fruit of seedling plants shows much variation. However, there seems to be little or no effort to
select and name superior cultivars.
Climate
In Colombia, the naranjilla flourishes in humid regions at elevations between 3,600 and 7,900 ft
(1,600 and 2,400 m) where the annual rainfall is about 60 in (150 cm). Precipitation up to 120 in
(250 cm) is tolerable if well distributed throughout the year. In Panama, the naranjilla has made
good growth at altitudes from 4,000 to 6,000 ft (1,200-1,800 m). It is grown in southern Florida at
near sea-level. The best plantations in Ecuador are between 5,000 and 6,000 ft (1,500-1,800 m),
where the mean temperature is 62.6 to 66.2 F (17-19 C). The naranjilla cannot tolerate
temperatures over 85 F (29.4 C). It is not adapted to full sun but favors semi-shade.
Soil
The plant does best in a rich, organic soil; also grows well on poor, stony ground, and on scarified
limestone. It must have good drainage. In Latin America, naranjillas are planted on virgin soil in
tracts where the large trees have been felled and the undergrowth burned off. The remaining trees
provide semi-shade and wind protection.
Propagation
Naranjilla
The naranjilla can be propagated by air-layering or by cuttings of mature wood. In Latin America,
it is commonly grown from seeds which must first be spread out in the shade to ferment slightly to
eliminate the mucilage, then washed, air-dried, and dusted with fungicide. There are about 140,000
seeds to the pound (.5 kg); 9,000 to the ounce (28 g). Seedlings are raised in nurseries by the same
methods appropriate for tomato seedlings, and are ready for transplanting in 2 to 3 months.
In Florida, the naranjilla is easily cleft-grafted onto S. macranthum seedlings that have grown 2 ft
(60 cm) tall and have been cut back to 1 ft (30 cm) from the ground, then split down the center for
a distance of 1 to 2 in (2.5-5 cm). Selected scions 2 to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) long are inserted in the slit
and tightly bound in place. It takes 2 to 3 weeks for the scion to fully unite with the stock. The
plants are not set out until the scion has grown about 2 ft (30 cm). Other grafting methodssaddle,
side, and whiphave also been successful.
Trials on tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea Sendt.) seemed promising in 1952. In tropical Africa,
the naranjilla has done well on the nematode-resistant relative, S. torvum Sw.
Culture
Naranjilla plants should be set 6 to 8 ft (1.8-2.4 m) apart each way, which provides 1,250 plants
per acre (3,000/ha). Colombians transplant young seedlings from the nursery bed into polyethylene
bags containing 5 1/2 lbs. (2.5 kg) of soil, keep them in semi-shade, give them ;4 oz (14 g) of
super-phosphate and frequent irrigation. When 14 in (35 cm) high, they are set out in holes
enriched with 8.8 lbs (4 kg) of organic compost, breaking the plastic bag as they place the plant in
the hole. In Latin America, generally, the naranjilla is planted out in the afternoon of a cloudy day
at the beginning of the rainy season. The planting hole is 12 x 12 x 12 in (30 x 30 x 30 cm) and a
circle at least 3 ft (1 m) in diameter is kept free of weeds. The plant is a heavy feeder and growth is
rapid if fertilizer is given once a month, though most plantations are given no such nutritional care.
A 12-12-20 mixture of NPK at the rate of 3 oz (85 g) per plant every 2 months has been
recommended. In the coffee zone of Caldas, Colombia, where the soil is organically rich but low
in phosphorus, the addition of urea, superphosphate and potassium sulphate, has been found to
double productivity.
Seedlings flower 4 to 5 months after transplanting. Fruiting begins 10 to 12 months from seed and
is continuous for 3 years in Panama. When the plants reach 4 years of age, productivity declines
and they begin to die. In Costa Rica, they are said to bear until 4 to 7 years old. Grafted plants
begin to bear about 1 year from planting in the field. In Florida, they continue fruiting for 2 years,
then they die back and are replaced by young ones. Watering is essential in dry periods.
Though everbearing in its natural habitat, the naranjilla fruits mainly in the winter in Florida;
rarely, or very lightly, in the summer. For eating out-of-hand, the fruits are picked fully ripe, at
which stage the calyx naturally separates from the fruit, leaving a circular depression. In the field,
workers remove the hairs by stooping down and rubbing the fruit in dry grass. For marketing, the
fruits must be picked when half-colored to avoid falling and bruising and to assure they are firm
enough to withstand handling and packing. They are individually cleaned with a dry cloth and then
packed in wooden boxes holding 400 fruitsabout 70 lbs (32 kg).
In large-scale processing operations, there are mechanized devices for inspection and grading of
Naranjilla
fruits, washing off the hairy coat, drying, and removing the peduncle and calyx. For underripe
fruits with firmly adhering hairs, the machine must be equipped with brushes. Because of the
continuous bearing, fruits must be collected every 7 to 10 days. In Ecuador, long trains of mules
and burros make weekly trips with sacks and boxes of naranjillas down the trails to central market
places.
A healthy plant bears 100 to 150 fruits a year. A good annual yield is 135 fruits20 lbs (9 kg)per
plant. This results in 25,000 lbs (10,417 kg) per acre, 60,000 lbs (27,273 kg) per hectare.
Keeping Quality
Fully ripe naranjillas soften and ferment very quickly. Fruit picked when half colored will remain
in good condition at ordinary temperatures for 8 days. They can be stored for 1 or 2 months at
45-50 F (7.22-10 C) and relative humidity of 70 to 80%.
Pests and Diseases
The chief enemies of the naranjilla are the rootknot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.) and grafting on
nematode-resistant rootstock is essential to fruit production in southern Florida. In the Chinchin
coffee-growing region of Caldas, Colombia, nematicide-treatment of the soil each time it is
invaded is considered too expensive, and the plants can therefore be kept in production only one
year before they succumb to nematode damage. Nematodes are causing a drop in naranjilla
production in various parts of the country and Dr. Charles Heiser of Indiana University is studying
the possibility of hybridization with nematode-resistant wild relatives in order to save the industry.
Measures to reduce nematode populations in Guatemalan fields include discarding nursery
seedlings and adult plants that show typical symptoms (chlorosis, dwarfing, rachitic appearance),
mulching, or frequent plowing during hot, dry spells. In Panama, the main stem and branches, and
sometimes even the fruits, of mature plants are attacked by the cochinilla blanca (white, or West
Indian, peach scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona).
A number of other pests and diseases affect
naranjilla plants in Colombia. Bacterial wilt
is a serious problem in Puerto Rico.
Food Uses
Ripe naranjillas, freed of hairs, may be
casually consumed out-of-hand by cutting
in half and squeezing the contents of each
half into the mouth. The empty shells are
discarded. The flesh, complete with seeds,
may be squeezed out and added to ice cream
mix, made into sauce for native dishes, or
utilized in making pie and various other
cooked desserts. The shells may be stuffed
with a mixture of banana and other
ingredients and baked. But the most popular
use of the naranjilla is in the form of juice.
For home preparation, the fruits are washed,
Naranjilla
the hairs are rubbed off, the fruits cut in

half, the pulp squeezed into an electric
blender and processed briefly; then the
green juice is strained, sweetened, and
served with ice cubes as a cool, foamy
drink. A dozen fruits will yield 8 oz (227 g)
of juice. Commercially, the juice is
extracted mechanically from the cleaned
and chopped fruits, strained, concentrated
and canned or put into plastic bags and
frozen.
Sherbet is made in the home by mixing
naranjilla juice with corn sirup, sugar,
water, and a little lime juice, partially
freezing, then beating to a froth and
freezing. Naranjilla jelly and marmalade are
produced on a small scale in Cali,
Colombia.
Food Value Per 100 g
of Edible Portion*
Calories
Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Thiamine
Riboflavin
23
85.8-92.5 g
0.107-0.6 g
5.7 g
0.1-0.24g
0.3-4.6 g
0.61-0.8g
5.9-12.4 mg
12.0-43.7 mg
0.34-0.64 mg
0.071-0.232 mg
(600 I.U.)
0.04-0.094 mg
0.03-0.047 mg
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
1.19-1.76 mg
31.2-83.7 mg
Carotene
Fig. 113: Naranjilla (Solanum quitoense) juice is most prized

fresh or preserved, but some is made into wine in Colombia.
*According to analyses of fresh fruits in Colombia and Ecuador.

Toxicity
Naranjilla
People with very sensitive skin may find the hairs on the fruits irritating and should protect the
hands when rubbing off the fuzz.
Closely Related Species

Dr. Charles Heiser has made a survey of wild relatives of the naranjilla in the hope that one or
more of them may be used in cross-breeding to incorporate nematode-resistance without adversely
affecting the fruit quality, productivity and other desirable characteristics. He found S. tequileme
A. Gray most like S. quitoense. It is native from central Mexico to central Ecuador, usually
between 3,200 and 6,200 ft (1,000-1,900 m) of elevation, and its fruit is sometimes eaten though
its hairy coat is more persistent than that of the naranjilla. Fertile hybrids of the two species have
been achieved.
Among other wild species reported by Heiser as having edible, naranjilla-like fruits: S. pseudolulo
Heiser, of Colombia, with cream-colored flesh and short hairs which are readily shed. The fruits
are gathered and sold by local vendors. This species, also, has made fertile hybrids with S.
quitoense.
S. candidum occurring in lowland areas from Mexico to northern Peru and called huevo de gato.
The juice is less flavorful than that of the naranjilla and the hairs do not detach readily.
S. pectinatum Dunal (syn. S. hirsutissimum Standl.), often a small tree, ranges from Mexico to
Venezuela and Peru, is known variously as lulita, lulo de la tierra fria, toronja, or tumo. It has
juice of fine flavor but is handicapped by persistent hairs and the fruit reportedly contains alkaloids
which may hinder its exploitation. The spiny plant is a local folk-remedy for hypertension.
The inedible S. hirtum Vahl., huevo de gato, found wild in Trinidad and Tobago, Yucatan, Central
America, Colombia and Venezuela, is nematode-resistant and hybrids of this species and S.
quitoense retain this character and have moderately good fruits. Dr. Heiser is encouraging further
efforts at cross-breeding in Colombia and Costa Rica.
Cocona

Morton, J. 1987. Cocona. p. 428430. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Cocona
Solanum sessiliflorum Dunal.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Pollination
Propagation
Culture
Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Closely allied to the naranjilla, and similar vegetatively but with a quite different fruit, the cocona
is much less known outside its natural range. At one time it was erroneously identified as Solanum
hyporhodium A. Br. & Bouch. This binomial was dropped in favor of S. topiro HBK., which is
now replaced by S. sessiliflorum Dunal. The Amazonian Indian name, cubiy, is a term applied to
several species of Solanum, but around Manaus, Brazil, cubiu pertains specifically to S.
sessiliflorum. The Indians of the Upper Orinoco call it tupiro or topiro. Some Colombians refer to
it as coconilla, or as lulo, a name more often given to the naranjilla. It has been casually dubbed
"turkey berry", "peach tomato", or "Orinoco apple".
Description
The cocona plant is a much-branched, herbaceous shrub 6 1/2 ft (2 m) high, with downy stem,
densely white-hairy twigs, and ovate leaves, oblique at the base, scalloped on the margins, downy
on the upper surface, prominently veined beneath; 18 in (45 cm) long and 15 in (38 cm) wide.
New shoots are rusty-hairy on the underside. The wild variety georgicum has spines on stem,
branches and leaves. The flowers, in clusters of 2 or more in the leaf axils, are 1 in (2.5 cm) wide,
with 5 pale greenish-yellow petals, 5 yellow stamens, and a dark-green, 5-pointed calyx. Borne
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cocona.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:37:54 PM]
Cocona
singly or in compact clusters on very short

peduncles, and capped with the persistent
calyx, the fruit may be round, oblate, oblong
or conical-oval, with bluntly rounded apex;
1 in (2.5 cm) to 4 in (10 cm) long, and up to
2 1/3 in (6 cm) wide at the base. The thin,
tough skin is coated with a slightly prickly,
peach-like fuzz until the fruit is fully ripe,
then it is smooth, golden- to orange-yellow,
burnt-orange, red, red-brown or deep
purple-red, and has a bitter taste. Within is a
1/4 to 3/8 in (6-10 mm) layer of
cream-colored, firm flesh enclosing the
Plate LXIV: COCONA, Solanum sessiliflorum
yellow, jelly-like central pulp. The cut-open
fruit has a faint, tomato-like aroma. The flesh has a mild flavor faintly suggestive of tomato, while
the pulp has a pleasant, lime-like acidity. Abundant throughout the central pulp are the thin, flat,
oval, cream-colored seeds, 3/32 to 3/16 in (2-4 mm) in length and unnoticeable in eating.
The spineless cocona is apparently unknown in the wild, having been observed by botanists only
in cultivation from Peru and Colombia to Venezuela and bordering regions of Brazil. In 1760, a
Spanish surveyor, Apolinar Diez de la Fuente, found the cocona with maize and beans in an Indian
garden between Guaharibos Falls and the juncture of the Casiquiare and Orinoco rivers. In 1800,
Humboldt and Bonpland, traveling up the Orinoco, observed that the cocona was one of the
common plants in the region between the Javita and Pimichin rivers, and they collected specimens
on which the first technical description was based. In the mid-1940's, seeds from the upper
Amazon were planted at the Experiment Station in Tingo Maria, Peru, and, later on, the plant was
grown at the Instituto Interamericano de Agricultura at Turrialba, Costa Rica. Seeds sent from
Natal, South Africa, were planted at the University of Florida's Agricultural Research and
Education Center, Homestead, Florida, in 1948. By 1950, all the resulting plants had succumbed to
nematode damage. The seeds sent to Medellin, Colombia, in 1948 could have been from these
plants. Dr. J.J. Ochse grew specimens in a plot outside the then Botany Building at the University
of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, in 1953.
Dr. Niilo Virkki of Cupey, Puerto Rico, bought one fruit from a street vendor in Manaus, Brazil, in
June 1964 and planted the seeds when he returned home. The seedlings grew vigorously and began
fruiting in March 1965. Plant breeders studied the plant and fruits in view of its possible potential
for hybridizing with the naranjilla. They determined the chromosome number of the cocona to be
2n = 24.
The fruits are much eaten by the Indians and commonly marketed throughout the producing areas
of Latin America. In Colombia and Brazil, the cocona is a domestic product, in Peru it is the basis
of an industry. Cultivation is being encouraged by Gerber's Baby Foods and farmers are
guaranteed a good price. Canned juice is being exported to Europe.
Varieties
Cocona
The wild variety, S. topiro var. georgicum Heiser, of the lowlands of eastern Ecuador and
Colombia, is a smaller plant with smaller fruits and with spines on the stem, branches and leaves.
It spontaneously hybridizes with the typical var. topiro, and Dr. Charles Heiser of Indiana
University views it as the ancestor of the cultivated cocona.
In Peru, 4 types are distinguished: a) small, purple-red; b) medium, yellow; c) round, resembling
an apple, yellow; d) pear-shaped. The medium-sized cocona is in greatest demand in Peru and
especially for juice.
The Diviso de Ciencias Agronomicas of INPA in Amazonia, made a collection of 35 strains of
cocona from Belem do Par, Brazil, and Iquitos, Peru, and established an experimental block of
149 plants in pure sand for evaluation. The range of variation indicated that seedling coconas
represent a great reservoir of characters to be utilized in improvement of the crop, to enhance
nematode resistance, reduce seed count, and increase sweetness.
Climate
In Florida and Trinidad, the cocona is grown at near sea-level. In Colombia, it is grown from
sea-level to an elevation of 2,000 ft (610 m), while elsewhere in South America it thrives at
altitudes up to 3,000 or 4,000 ft (910-1,200 m). Unlike the naranjilla, the plant needs full sun.
Soil
The cocona grows in soil of medium fertility on Peruvian mountain slopes; in Amazonian Brazil,
on latisols or pure sand. In Puerto Rico, it has done well on clay; in southern Florida on scarified
limestone. Good drainage is essential.
Pollination
The cocona is self-fertile. Bees are always visiting the flowers and carrying pollen, and natural
crosses are common. Fruits mature about 8 weeks after pollination.
Propagation
There are from 800 to 2,000 seeds in each fruit. New plants spring up voluntarily from seeds
clinging to discarded rinds in full sun on disturbed ground in northern South America. For
planting, seeds extracted from the ripe fruits are placed in the shade for 2 days to ferment a little
and break down the mucilage. Then they are washed and dried briefly out of the direct sun, and
finally dusted with fungicide 2 1/4 g per lb (5 g per kg) of seeds. The seeds are planted 3/8 in (1
cm) deep in nursery beds in rows 8 in (20 cm) apart; or in polyethylene bags containing a 50-50
mixture of potting soil and sand. In each bag, or each hole, one puts 4 to 5 seeds expecting the
emergence of 1 or 2 sturdy seedlings. Germination time varies from 15 to 40 days.
Vegetative propagation is possible, in order to perpetuate a particular cultivar. Air-layers and
cuttings of mature wood have been rooted successfully.
Culture
Seedlings are transplanted to the field when 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) high and they are spaced 5 to 7
ft (1.5-2.5 m) apart each way, depending on the fertility of the soil. Flowering commences 2 to 3
Cocona
months after transplanting. The plants usually begin fruiting in 6 to 7 months from seed and will
continue fruiting for several months.
A fertilizer formula of 10-8-10 NPK is applied 6 times during the year at the rate of 1.8 to 2.5 oz
(50-70 g) per plant. If the soil is low in phosphorus, the formula should be 10-20-10. Productivity
has been greatly enhanced in field trials at Manaus on pure sand, by applying organic
fertilizer104 tons per acre (250 tons/ha), with the addition of appropriate amounts of triple
super-phosphate, urea and chlorate of potassium.
Yield
Average annual yield in Colombia is 22 to 44 lbs (10-20 kg) per plant. In Costa Rica, cocona
plants have yielded 40 to 60 lbs (18-27 kg) of fruit. In variety trials at Manaus, productivity per
plant varied from 5 1/2 to 30 lbs (2.5-14 kg). An unfertilized plantation may provide 20 to 30 fruits
per plant12 tons per acre (29 tons/ha). With a high-yielding selection and a well-fertilized field,
one can realize up to 136 fruits per plant61 tons per acre (146 tons/ha). The fresh fruit keeps well
for 5 to 10 days at normal temperature.
Processing studies have shown that 22 lbs (10 kg) of fruit will yield about 6 1/2 pints (3 liters) of
preserved flesh and 3 1/4 lbs (1 1/2 liters) of jelly, or 2 gallons (7 1/2 liters) of juice. A plantation
providing 30 tons fruit per acre (70 tons/ha) will yield 5,548 gallons preserved flesh and 2,774
gallons of jelly, or 13,738 gallons (52,000 liters) of juice.
Pests and Diseases
The cocona is prone to attack by rootknot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.). In 1973, it was decided,
after test plantings at the Universidad Central de Venezuela, that it was impossible to cultivate the
cocona commercially in that country because of its susceptibility to nematodes, but the
experimenters at Manaus believe that they have demonstrated that selection for
nematode-resistance and soil-enrichment can give the farmer good returns.
In Puerto Rico, a mealybug, Pseudococcus sp., infests the new growth but causes little harm.
However, Psara periosalis has been very damaging in the fall. Cutworms and leaf-eating insects
require control. In Brazil, a hemipterous bug of the family Tingidae colonizes the underside of the
leaves, causing them to discolor and fall. A fungal disease (Sclerotium sp.) has been identified
with wilting.
Food Uses
The ripe fruit is peeled and eaten out-of-hand by South American Indians. More sophisticated
people use the fruit in salads, cook it with fish and also in meat stews. Sweetened, it is used to
make sauce and pie-filling. It is prized for making jam, marmalade, paste, and jelly, and is
sometimes pickled or candied. It is often processed as a nectar or juice which, sweetened with
sugar, is a popular cold beverage. Dr. Victor Patio of Cali, Colombia, states that a 50-50
cocona-naranjilla juice mixture is superior to naranjilla alone.
In Brazil, the leaves are cooked and eaten as well.
Cocona
Protein
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
0.6 g
0.4g
5.7 g
12 mg
14 mg
0.6 mg
140 mcg
25 mcg
500 mcg
*Analyses made in Brazil.

The fruit has a high level of citric acid, about 0.8%. Venezuelan studies reveal 142 mg tannin.
Toxicity
The cocona is utilized by Indians of eastern Peru to rid the head of lice.
Cape Gooseberry

Morton, J. 1987. Cape Gooseberry. p. 430434. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Cape Gooseberry
Physalis peruviana L.
Physalis edulis Sims
Description
Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
The genus Physalis, of the family Solanaceae, includes annual and perennial herbs bearing
globular fruits, each enclosed in a bladderlike husk which becomes papery on maturity. Of the
more than 70 species, only a very few are of economic value. One is the strawberry tomato, husk
tomato or ground cherry, P. Pruinosa L., grown for its small yellow fruits used for sauce, pies and
preserves in mild-temperate climates. Though more popular with former generations than at
present, it is still offered by seedsmen. Various species of Physalis have been subject to much
confusion in literature and in the trade. A species which bears a superior fruit and has become
widely known is the cape gooseberry, P. Peruviana L. (P. edulis Sims). It has many colloquial
names in Latin America: capuli, aguaymanto, tomate sylvestre, or uchuba, in Peru; capuli or
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cape_gooseberry.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:37:57 PM]
Cape Gooseberry
motojobobo embolsado in Bolivia; uvilla in Ecuador; uvilla, uchuva, vejign or guchavo in

Colombia; topotopo, or chuchuva in Venezuela; capuli, amor en bolsa, or bolsa de amor, in Chile;
cereza del Peru in Mexico. It is called cape gooseberry, golden berry, pompelmoes or apelliefie in
South Africa; alkekengi or coqueret in Gabon; lobolobohan in the Philippines; teparee, tiparee,
makowi, etc., in India; cape gooseberry or poha in Hawaii.
Description
This herbaceous or soft-wooded, perennial
plant usually reaches 2 to 3 ft (1.6-0.9 m) in
height but occasionally may attain 6 ft (1.8)
m. It has ribbed, often purplish, spreading
branches, and nearly opposite, velvety,
heart-shaped, pointed, randomly-toothed
leaves 2 3/8 to 6 in (6-15 cm) long and 1 1/2
to 4 in (4-10 cm) wide, and, in the leaf axils,
bell-shaped, nodding flowers to 3/4 in (2
cm) wide, yellow with 5 dark purple-brown
spots in the throat, and cupped by a
purplish-green, hairy, 5-pointed calyx. After
the flower falls, the calyx expands,
ultimately forming a straw-colored husk
much larger than the fruit it encloses. The
berry is globose, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) Fig. 114: The golden cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana)
wide, with smooth, glossy, orange-yellow keeps well and makes excellent preserves. The canned fruits
have been exported from South Africa and the jam from
skin and juicy pulp containing numerous
England.
very small yellowish seeds. When fully ripe,
the fruit is sweet but with a pleasing grape-like tang. The husk is bitter and inedible.
Reportedly native to Peru and Chile, where the fruits are casually eaten and occasionally sold in
markets but the plant is still not an important crop, it has been widely introduced into cultivation in
other tropical, subtropical and even temperate areas. It is said to succeed wherever tomatoes can be
grown. The plant was grown by early settlers at the Cape of Good Hope before 1807. In South
Africa it is commercially cultivated and common as an escape and the jam and canned whole fruits
are staple commodities, often exported. It is cultivated and naturalized on a small scale in Gabon
and other parts of Central Africa.
Soon after its adoption in the Cape of Good Hope it was carried to Australia and there acquired its
common English name. It was one of the few fresh fruits of the early settlers in New South Wales.
There it has long been grown on a large scale and is abundantly naturalized, as it is also in
Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Northern Tasmania. It was
welcomed in New Zealand where it is said that "the housewife is sometimes embarrassed by the
quantity of berries [cape gooseberries] in the garden," and government agencies actively promote
increased culinary use.
In China, India and Malaya, the cape gooseberry is commonly grown but on a lesser scale. In
India, it is often interplanted with vegetables. It is naturalized on the island of Luzon in the
Cape Gooseberry
Philippines. Seeds were taken to Hawaii

before 1825 and the plant is naturalized on
all the islands at medium and somewhat
higher elevations. It was at one time
extensively cultivated in Hawaii. By 1966,
commercial culture had nearly disappeared
and processors had to buy the fruit from
backyard growers at high prices. It is
widespread as an exotic weed in the South
Sea Islands but not seriously cultivated. The
first seeds were planted in Israel in 1933.
The plants grew and bore very well in
cultivation and soon spread as escapes, but
Fig. 115: The cape gooseberry is a useful small fruit crop for
the fruit did not appeal to consumers, either the home garden; is labor-intensive in commercial plantings.
fresh or preserved, and promotional efforts
ceased.
In England, the cape gooseberry was first reported in 1774. Since that time, it has been grown
there in a small way in home gardens, and after World War II was canned commercially to a
limited extent. Despite this background, early in 1952, the Stanford Nursery, of Sussex, announced
the "Cape Gooseberry, the wonderful new fruit, especially developed in Britain by Richard I.
Cahn." Concurrently, jars of cape goosebery jam from England appeared in South Florida markets
and the product was found to be attractive and delicious. It is surprising that this useful little fruit
has received so little attention in the United States in view of its having been reported on with
enthusiasm by the late Dr. David Fairchild in his well-loved book, The World Was My Garden. He
there tells of its fruiting "enormously" in the garden of his home, "In The Woods", in Maryland,
and of the cook's putting up over a hundred jars of what he called "Inca Conserve" which "met
with universal favor." It is also remarkable that it is so little known in the Caribbean islands,
though naturalized plants were growing profusely along roadsides in the Blue Mountains of
Jamaica before 1913.
With a view to encouraging cape gooseberry culture in Florida, the Bahamas, and the West Indies,
seeds have been repeatedly purchased from the Stanford Nursery and distributed for trial. Good
crops have been obtained. Nevertheless there was no incentive to make further plantings.
Pollination
In England, growers shake the flowers gently in summer to improve distribution of the pollen, or
they will give the plants a very light spraying with water.
Climate
The cape gooseberry is an annual in temperate regions and a perennial in the tropics. In Venezuela,
it grows wild in the Andes and the coastal range between 2,500 and 10,000 ft (800-3,000 m). It
grows wild in Hawaii at 1,000 to 8,000 ft (300-2,400 m). In northern India, it is not possible to
cultivate it above 4,000 ft (1,200 m), but in South India it thrives up to 6,000 ft (1,800 m).
In England, the plants have been undamaged by 3 degrees of frost. In South Africa, plants have
Cape Gooseberry
been killed to the ground and failed to recover after a temperature drop to 30.5 F (-0.75 C).
The plant needs full sun but protection from strong winds; plenty of rain throughout its growing
season, very little when the fruits are maturing.
Soil
The cape gooseberry will grow in any well-drained soil but does best on sandy to gravelly loam.
On highly fertile alluvial soil, there is much vegetative growth and the fruits fail to color properly.
Very good crops are obtained on rather poor sandy ground. Where drainage is a problem, the
plantings should be on gentle slopes or the rows should be mounded. The plants become dormant
in drought.
Propagation
The plant is widely grown from seed. There are 5,000 to 8,000 seeds to the ounce (28 g) and, since
germination rate is low, this amount is needed to raise enough plants for an acre2 1/2 oz (70 g)
for a hectare. In India, the seeds are mixed with wood ash or pulverized soil for uniform sowing.
Sometimes propagation is done by means of 1-year-old stem cuttings treated with hormones to
promote rooting, and 37.7% success has been achieved. The plants thus grown flower early and
yield well but are less vigorous than seedlings. Air-layering is also successful but not often
practiced.
Culture
It is necessary to determine the time of planting for each area. In India, seeds are broadcast from
March through May. In Hong Kong, planting in seedbeds is done in September/October and again
in March/April. In the Bahamas the first seeds planted in late summer of 1952 produced healthy
plants and a continuous crop of fruits for 3 months during the following winter. Additional seeds
procured from England were planted in April of 1953. The plants started to blossom in mid-July
and from September on continued to flower and set fruit, although no fruits remained on the plants
to maturity until the cooler months of winter when a good yield was obtained. Seeds were again
planted the following November. Thirteen weeks later, the first fruits were ripening, and by
mid-May of the following year a heavy crop was harvested. In late June, the plants were still
growing and flowering profusely but only a few fruits were being set and these failed to develop to
maturity. This condition continued into September, by which time some of the more robust plants
had reached 6 ft (1.8 in) in height with much lateral growth.
In Jamaica, the initial planting of cape gooseberries in late January of 1954 made slow growth
until June when development accelerated. By mid-August the plants had reached 15 in (37.5 cm)
in height with much lateral growth, and were flowering and setting fruit. It would appear that the
heat of summer is unfavorable for fruit development and, therefore, the best time to plant the cape
gooseberry is in the fall so that fruit can be set during the cooler weather and harvested in late
spring or early summer. In California, the plants do not fruit heavily until the second year unless
started early in greenhouses.
Some growers have kept plants in production for as long as 4 years by cutting back after each
harvest, but these plants have been found more susceptible to pests and diseases.
Cape Gooseberry
In India, plants 6 to 8 in (15-20 cm) high are set out 18 in (45 cm) apart in rows 3 ft (0.9 m) apart.
Farmers in South Africa space the plants 2 to 3 ft (0.6-0.9 m) apart in rows 4 to 6 ft (1.2-1.8 m) or
even 8 ft (2.4 m) apart in very rich soil. They apply 200 to 400 lbs (90-180 kg) of complete
fertilizer per acre (approx. = kg/ha) on sandy loam. Foliar spraying of 1% potassium chloride
solution before and just after blooming enhances fruit quality.
In dry seasons, irrigation is necessary to keep the cape gooseberry plant in production.
Season
In parts of India, the fruits ripen in February, but, in the South, the main crop extends from January
to May. In Central and southern Africa, the crop extends from the beginning of April to the end of
June. In England, plants from seeds sown in spring begin to fruit in August and continue until
there is a strong frost.
In rainy or dewy weather, the fruit is not picked until the plants are dry. Berries that are already
wet need to be lightly dried in the sun. The fruits are usually picked from the plants by hand every
2 to 3 weeks, although some growers prefer to shake the plants and gather the fallen fruits from the
ground in order to obtain those of more uniform maturity. At the peak of the season, a worker can
pick 2 1/2 bushels (90 liters) a day, but at the beginning and end of the season, when the crop is
light, only 1/2 bushel (18 liters).
A single plant may yield 300 fruits. Seedlings set 1,800 to 2,150 to the acre (228-900/ha) yield
approximately 3,000 lbs of fruit per acre (approx. = kg/ha). The fruits are usually dehusked before
delivery to markets or processors. Manual workers can produce only 10 to 12 lbs. (4.5-5.5 kg) of
husked fruits per hour. Therefore, a mechanical husker, 4 to 5 times more efficient, has been
designed at the University of Hawaii.
Keeping Quality
Cape gooseberries are long-lasting. The fresh fruits can be stored in a scaled container and kept in
a dry atmosphere for several months. They will still be in good condition. If the fresh fruits are to
be shipped, it is best to leave the husk on for protection.
Pests and Diseases
In South Africa, the most important of the many insect pests that attack the cape gooseberry are
cutworms, in seedbeds; red spider after plants have been established in the field; the potato tuber
moth if the cape gooseberry is in the vicinity of potato fields. Hares damage young plants and
birds (francolins) devour the fruits if not repelled. In India, mites may cause defoliation. In
Jamaica, the leaves were suddenly riddled by what were apparently flea beetles of the family
Chrysomelidae. In the Bahamas, whitefly attacks on the very young plants and flea beetles on the
flowering plants required control.
In South Africa, the most troublesome diseases are powdery mildew and soft brown scale. The
plants are prone to root rots and viruses if on poorly-drained soil or if carried over to a second
year. Therefore, farmers favor biennial plantings. Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas spp.) occurs in
Queensland. A strain of tobacco mosaic may affect plants in India.
Cape Gooseberry
Food Uses
In addition to being canned whole and preserved as jam, the cape gooseberry is made into sauce,
used in pies, puddings, chutneys and ice cream, and eaten fresh in fruit salads and fruit cocktails.
In Colombia, the fruits are stewed with honey and eaten as dessert. The British use the husk as a
handle for dipping the fruit in icing.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
78.9 g
0.054 g
0.16 g
4.9 g
1.01 g
8.0 mg
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
55.3 mg
1.23 mg
1.613 mg
0.101 mg
0.032 mg
1.73 mg
43.0 mg
*According to analyses of husked fruits made in Ecuador.

The ripe fruits are considered a good source of Vitamin P and are rich in pectin.
Toxicity
Unripe fruits are poisonous. The plant is believed to have caused illness and death in cattle in
Australia.
Other Uses
Fruits: In the 18th Century, the fruits were perfumed and worn for adornment by native women in
Peru.
Medicinal Uses: In Colombia, the leaf decoction is taken as a diuretic and antiasthmatic. In South
Africa, the heated leaves are applied as poultices on inflammations and the Zulus administer the
leaf infusion as an enema to relieve abdominal ailments in children.
Indian chemists have isolated from the leaves a minor steroidal constituent, physalolactone C.
Mexican Husk Tomato

Morton, J. 1987. Mexican Husk Tomato. p. 434437. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,
Miami, FL.
Mexican Husk Tomato

Physalis ixocarpa Brot.
Physalis aequata Jacq.
Description
Varieties
Pollination
Climate and Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Harvesting
Yield
Keeping Quality
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Medicinal Uses
Somewhat suggesting a miniature tomato, the Mexican, or Mayan, husk tomato, Physalis ixocarpa
Brot. (syn. P. aequata Jacq.), is also called tomate de cscara, tomate verde, tomate Mexicano,
tomate de fresadilla, tomate de culebra, tomatillo, miltomate and farolito.
Description
The plant, which is a semi-woody annual, may attain a height of 4 to 5 ft (1.2-1.5 m), but is often
prostrate and spreading. Its branches and leaves are smooth, not downy. The leaves are ovate,
pointed at apex, wedge-shaped at base, sometimes wavy-margined; 2 1/2 in (6.25 cm) long, 1 1/4
in (3.2 cm) wide. Borne singly in the leaf axils, the flowers, clasped halfway by a 5-toothed, green
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mexican_husk_tomato.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 1:37:59 PM]
Mexican Husk Tomato
calyx, are 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) long and

wide; yellow with dark-brown spots in the
throat. As the fruit develops, the calyx
enlarges to more or less enclose it and
finally becomes straw-colored and papery.
It is so tight-fitting that it often bursts. The
berry is slightly oblate, 1 to 2 1/2 in
(2.5-6.25 cm) wide. When ripe, its thin skin
may be yellow, purple, or, more rarely
reddish, or still green. The flesh is
pale-yellow, crisp or soft, and acid, subacid,
sweet, or insipid, and contains many tiny
seeds.
The Mexican husk tomato was a prominent
staple in Aztec and Mayan economy. The
plant abounds in Mexico and the highlands Fig. 116: The Mexican husk tomato, (Physalis ixocarpa),
page-green, yellow, purple or reddish when ripe, is a staple
of Guatemala and the fruits are commonly food in Mexico and Guatemala and commonly marketed.
seen in native markets. Nevertheless, this
species has not been as widely distributed abroad as the Cape gooseberry. It was introduced into
India in the 1950's and is cultivated in the northwest desert region of Rajasthan. In Queensland,
Australia, and in South Africa it has fruited prolifically. There is some commercial cultivation in
Pietersburg, South Africa, for processing. It was too-successfully introduced into East Africa, for,
in 1967, it was reported to be the most important weed of agricultural fields in the highlands of
Kenya.
Before 1863, it was thoroughly naturalized and commonly growing in abundance in the far west of
the United States. Mr. Sun Jue cultivated some 20 acres (8 ha) of Mexican husk tomatoes near Los
Angeles, California, from 1930 to about 1939, supplying the fruits to Mexican and Italian markets.
In 1945, the American Fruit Grower publicized this species under the concocted name "Jamberry",
as a new fruit introduced by scientists at Iowa State College. Dr. I.E. Melhus, Director of the Iowa
State College Guatemala Tropical Research Center reported in 1953 that, as a result of 6 years'
testing of hundreds of selections, only a few were found suitable for the American Midwest. They
were then sending out a strain to which they had given the name "Mayan husk tomato"; 4,000
packets of seed were distributed in Iowa and adjoining states. Sampling data from 200 people that
grew the plant showed that over 60% were successful and liked the fruit. Later, that strain was
offered by the Earl May Seed Company of Shenandoah, Iowa. An apparently independent
introduction was made by Glecklers, Seedsmen, of Metamora, Ohio, and first offered by them as
"Jumbo husk tomato" in 1952. Seeds obtained from these sources and from fruits purchased in the
Mexican markets were given by the writer to experimenters in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Jamaica
and Florida.
Plantings were successful in the Bahamas and Puerto Rico but did not arouse enough interest to
cause further cultivation. Florida and Jamaica trials were failures. In recent years, test plantings
have been made in Trinidad and Taiwan, and plants have fruited well in greenhouse culture in
Mexican Husk Tomato
England. The principal areas of production in Mexico are the States of Morelos and Hidalgo. The
former has about 32,000 acres (13,000 ha) with a total production of 101,366 tons.
Varieties
There is great variation, not only in color and flavor of the numerous strains of Mexican husk
tomato. Some require long days and others short days. Some mature early, others late. The husk
may be long or short. The flesh may be soft and spongy or firm and crisp. A large number of
selections has been made at the Campo Agricola Experimental de Zacatepec, in the State of
Morelos, Mexico. The most promising, 'Rendidora', is more erect than the common type, the fruit
is large, green, ripens 15 days earlier than others and gives 80% greater yield. Horticulturists at the
Universidad de San Simn in Bolivia have long maintained a collection of various types received
from Mexico.
The "Mayan husk tomato" selection at Iowa is semi-prostrate, vigorous, branching at a height of 4
to 6 in (10-15 cm); the stems are pale-green, smooth and succulent when young. The fruit is round,
yellow, with light-yellow, firm flesh and mild-acid flavor. According to Dr. Margaret Menzel, an
authority on the genus, the so-called Physalis macrocarpa, or "Golden Nugget Cape Gooseberry",
offered by seedsmen in Australia, is really a yellow-fruited form of the Mexican husk tomato, P.
ixocarpa.
Pollination
The Mexican husk tomato is highly self-incompatible. When the flowering plants are bagged, no
fruits are set. K.K. Pandey, while at the University of Ohio, studied this problem. He reported that
only a few seedlings in a group produce rare fruits by natural-selfing and such fruits usually
contain no seeds or only a small number. An occasional fruit may have 100 or more.
Climate and Soil
This species is not ultra-tropical but tropical and, like the tomato, is grown in summer in temperate
regions. The plant needs full sun. It will grow in any soil suitable for tomatoes but not in wet
situations.
Propagation
The Mexican husk tomato is usually raised from seed and it takes about 2 1/4 oz (60 g) to plant an
acre; 5 1/4 oz (150 g) to plant a hectare. In Puerto Rico, seeds saved from the first crop and kept
for 6 months without refrigeration were planted and 80% germinated.
Cuttings should root easily. Heavy rains cause the plants to bend down to the ground and it has
been observed that tips that touch the soil take root and the new shoots grow vigorously.
Culture
Ideal spacing for cv. 'Rendidora' is 16 in (40 cm) between plants and 4 ft (1.25 m) between rows.
From 4 to 6 seeds are planted 1/2 in (1.25 cm) deep in hills 2 ft (60 cm) apart in rows 5 ft (1.5 m)
apart. When 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) high, the seedlings are thinned to 1 plant per hill. In the
midwestern United States, seedlings are raised in greenhouses and are transplanted when about 3
Mexican Husk Tomato
weeks old as soon as all likelihood of spring frosts is past. They will begin to bear 6 to 18 weeks
later and continue for about 1 1/2 months.
In Bahamian trials, seeds were planted in mid-April. By mid-September, the plants were fruiting
heavily. They reseeded themselves and a healthy clump of "volunteers" sprang up on the site. In
Puerto Rico, seeds planted at Mayaguez produced an abundant crop in the winter of 1953-54. The
plot was fertilized at the rate of 2 oz (56 g) per plant, side dressing, of 9-8-8 fertilizer. The plants
were staked and tied twice and grew to a height of 5 ft (1.5 m).
Season
Wild plants in Mexico flower from June to October. In the midwestern United States, flowering
takes place in mid-June and fruits start to ripen in late July and fruiting continues until fall frosts.
The plants bear during the summer months in South Africa; in northern India, both summer and
winter.
Harvesting
With the Mexican husk tomato, falling of fruits before ripening is not uncommon, and, according
to Dr. Melhus, they may be allowed to remain on the ground until fully colored. Collecting must
be done every day. The green-skinned variety grown commercially by Mr. Jue was harvested as
soon as it burst its husk, and the crop was then kept on hand 2 to 4 weeks for the husk to dry
before the fruit was considered acceptable to the consumer. If left too long on the plant, there is
much loss of flavor.
Yield
Individual plants may produce 64 to 200 fruits in a season. In test plantings at Ames, Iowa, the
fruit yield averaged 2 12 lbs (1.1 kg) per plant; equal to approximately 9 tons per acre (20.2
MT/ha). In Mexico and India, yields of 7.5 to 10 tons per acre (17-22.5 MT/ha) have been
reported.
Keeping Quality
The unhusked fresh fruits can be stored in single layers in a cool, dry atmosphere for several
months. Mexican and Central American people may pull up the entire plant with fruits attached
and hang it upside-down in a dry place until the fruits are needed.
Pests and Diseases
The Mexican husk tomato is subject to few pests and diseases. In Mexico, the main pest is the
so-called mosquita blanca (see below). The larvae of Heliothis virescens attack the fruits. It has
been found that various species of Trichogramma parasitize the eggs, found mainly on the
underside of the leaves, though only in certain localities at certain seasons. In India, fruit and stem
borers are troublesome during the rainy season but not in the winter. No insects attacked the plant
in Puerto Rico. The two trials in Florida were at first promising, the plants flowering and setting
fruit satisfactorily. However, as the fruits began to mature, they were attacked within the husk by a
species of cutworm and only a few mature fruits were harvested. In Jamaica, seeds planted in late
January produced vigorous and precocious plants which flowered when only 4 in (10 cm) high.
Fruit-setting began in May and a high yield was expected but nearly all of the fruits were damaged
Mexican Husk Tomato
by caterpillars before reaching maturity.

In Puerto Rico, no diseases were evident. In the Bahamas, only a slight incidence of leaf spot was
observed. In Mexico, the husk tomato and the common tomato are both subject to a disease called
chino or chahuixtle which occurs in irrigated plantings in Morelos. It is transmitted by the
mosquita blanca, Trialeurodes vaporariorum.
Food Uses
This species, in contrast with the cape gooseberry, is used more largely as a vegetable than as a
dessert fruit, though it is often consumed ripe, raw, out-of-hand. In Mexico, it is generally made
into a sauce, salsa verde, for meats, alone or together with green chili peppers. Suggestions for use
distributed by Iowa State College include recipes for stewing, frying, baking, cooking with
chopped meat, making into soup, marmalade and dessert sauce. The fruit is an excellent addition
to salads and curries. It has been utilized commercially for jam in Australia but the product is there
considered inferior to that made from the cape gooseberry. The fruits, canned whole in Mexico, are
sold domestically and in the western United States.
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrates
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Phytin Phosphorus
Iron
Ionisable Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Copper
Sulfur
Chloride
90.4-91.7 g
0.171-0.7 g
0.6 g
5.8 g
0.6-1.7 g
0.6-0.69 g
6.3-10.9 mg
23 mg
21.9-40 mg
7 mg
0.57-1.4 mg
1.0 mg
0.4 mg
243 mg
0.09 mg
27 mg
14 mg
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
80 I.U. or 0.061-0.074 mg
0.054-0.106 mg
0.023-0.057 mg
2.1-2.7 mg
Mexican Husk Tomato
Ascorbic Acid
2-4.8 mg
*According to analyses of the husked fruit made in Guatemala and India.

Medicinal Uses
It is said in Mexico that a decoction of the calyces will cure diabetes.
Tree Tomato

Morton, J. 1987. Tree Tomato. p. 437440. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Tree Tomato
Cyphomandra betacea Sendt.
Cyphomandra hartwegi Sendt.
Solanum betaceum Cav.
Description
Varieties
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Culture
Irrigation
Pollination
Cropping and Yield
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
The tree tomato, Cyphomandra betacea Sendt. (C. hartwegi Sendt.; Solanum betaceum Cav.) is
the best-known of about 30 species of Cyphomandra (family Solanaceae). Among its various
regional names are: tomate, tomate extranjero, tomate de arbol, tomate granadilla, granadilla, pix,
and caxlan pix (Guatemala); tomate de palo (Honduras); arvore do tomate, tomate de arvore
(Brazil); lima tomate, tomate de monte, sima (Bolivia); pepino de arbol (Colombia); tomate dulce
(Ecuador); tomate cimarron (Costa Rica); and tomate francs (Venezuela, Brazil). In 1970, or
shortly before, the construed name "tamarillo" was adopted in New Zealand and has become the
standard commercial designation for the fruit.
Description
The plant is a small, half-woody, attractive, fast-growing, brittle tree; shallow-rooted; reaching 10
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tree_tomato.html (1 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:38:01 PM]
Tree Tomato
to 18 ft (3-5.5 m) in height; rarely as much

as 25 ft (7.5 m). The leaves are muskily
odorous, evergreen, alternate, more or less
heart-shaped at the base, ovate, pointed at
the apex, 4 to 13 1/2 in (10-35 cm) long and
1 1/2 to 4 3/4 in (4-12 cm) broad, thin,
softly hairy, with conspicuous coarse veins.
Borne in small, loose clusters near the
branch tips, the fragrant flowers, 1/2 to 3/4
in (1.25-2 cm) wide, have 5 pale-pink or
lavender, pointed lobes, 5 prominent yellow
stamens, and green-purple calyx. The
long-stalked, pendent fruit, borne singly, or
in clusters of 3 to 12, is smooth, egg-shaped
but pointed at both ends and capped with
the persistent conical calyx. In size it ranges
from 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm) long and l 1/2 to 2
in (4-5 cm) in width. Skin color may be
solid deep-purple, blood-red, orange or
yellow, or red-and-yellow, and may have
faint dark, longitudinal stripes. Flesh color
Plate LXV: TREE TOMATO, Cyphomandra betacea
varies accordingly from orange-red or
orange to yellow or cream-yellow. While the skin is somewhat tough and unpleasant in flavor, the
outer layer of flesh is slightly firm, succulent and bland, and the pulp surrounding the seeds in the
two lengthwise compartments is soft, juicy, subacid to sweet; it is black in dark-purple and red
fruits, yellow in yellow and orange fruits. The seeds are thin, nearly flat, circular, larger and harder
than those of the true tomato and distinctly bitter. The fruit has a slightly resinous aroma and the
flavor suggests a mild or underripe tomato with a faintly resinous aftertaste.
Although its place of origin is not certain, the tree tomato is generally believed to be native to the
Andes of Peru and probably also Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia where it is extensively grown, as it is
also in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia. It is cultivated and naturalized in Venezuela and grown in
the highlands of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and Haiti.
It must have been carried at an early date to East Africa, Asia and the East Indies, as it is well
established in the Nilgiri heights and the hills of Assam in southern India, and in the mountains of
Malaya, and was popular in Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies before 1903. It has been grown in
Queensland, Australia, in home gardens, for many years and is a practical crop in the highlands of
the Australian part of New Guinea.
D. Hay & Sons, nurserymen, introduced the tree tomato into New Zealand in 1891 and
commercial growing on a small scale began about 1920. Shortages of tropical fruits in World War
II justified an increased level of production. A promotional campaign was launched in 1961;
window banners and 100,000 recipe leaflets were distributed. This small industry prospered until
1967 when annual production reached a peak of 2,000 tons. There was a heavy loss of trees at
Tree Tomato
Kerikeri in 1968. Replanting took place there and at the Bay of Plenty and cultivation of this crop
continues to expand. In 1970, there were 209,110 trees on 476 acres (130 ha) in New Zealand.
Shipment of the fresh fruits to Australia has not been very successful and the surplus crop is being
delivered to processors for the making of preserves.
The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Argentina in 1913; from
Sumatra and Ceylon in 1926. The plant was fruiting at the United States Department of
Agriculture's Plant Introduction Station at Chico, California, in 1915. It is still grown casually in
California and occasionally in Florida. It is frequently advertised and sold throughout the United
States for growing indoors in pots as a curiosity. It fruits satisfactorily in northern greenhouses.
Varieties
There are apparently no named cultivars,
but there are local preferences according to
fruit color. Red fruits are chosen for the
fresh fruit markets because of their
appealing color. The dark-red strain (called
"black") now leading in commercial
plantings in New Zealand was obtained by
selection around 1920 as a variation from
the yellow and purple types grown up to
that time. It was propagated and reselection
thereafter resulted in this large, higher
quality, red variety.
Plate LXVI: TREE TOMATO, Cyphomandra betacea
Yellow fruits are considered best for preserving because of their superior flavor.
Climate
The tree tomato is not tropical but subtropical. It flourishes between 5,000 and 10,000 ft
(1,525-3,050 m) in Ecuador; between 1,000 and 3,000 ft (305-915 m) in Puerto Rico; 1,000 to
7,500 ft (305-2,288 m) in India. In Haiti it grows and fruits to perfection at 6,000 ft (1,830 m). In
cooler climates, it succeeds at lower elevations. It does best where the temperature remains above
50 F (10 C). Frost at 28 F (-2.2 C) kills the small branches and foliage of mature trees but not
the largest branches and main stem. The tree will recover if such frosts are not prolonged or
frequent. However, seedlings and cuttings are readily killed by frost during their first year.
Protection from wind is necessary as the tree is shallow-rooted and easily blown over. It is also
brittle and its branches are easily broken by gusts, especially when laden with fruit. It is suggested
that windbreaks be established for each 1/2 acre (1/5 ha) before setting out the plantation in order
to protect the young plants. Hedges of Albizia lophantha Benth. and of Hakea saligna R. Br., kept
trimmed and narrow, are popular in the North Auckland area of New Zealand.
Soil
The tree tomato cannot tolerate tightly compacted soil with low oxygen content. It requires fertile,
light soil. It grows well on deep lateritic soil in Haiti. Perfect drainage is necessary. Water standing
for even a few days may kill the tree.
Tree Tomato
Propagation
Seeds or cuttings may be used for propagation. Seeds produce a high-branched, erect tree, ideal for
sheltered locations. Cuttings develop into a shorter, bushy plant with low-lying branches, suitable
for exposed, windy sites. The tree does not always come true from seed, but is most likely to if one
is careful to take seed from red fruits with black seed pulp or yellow fruits with yellow seed pulp.
In Brazil, seeds for planting are first washed, dried in the shade, and then placed in a freezer for 24
hours to accelerate germination. They are then planted in boxes of rich soil12 in (30 cm) between
plants and 24 in (60 cm) between rowsand virtually 100% will germinate in 4 to 6 days.
Culture
The seedlings are set out in the field when 2 to 2 3/4 in (5-7 cm) high, spaced 32 in (80 cm) apart
in rows 6 1/2 ft (2 m) apart. In New Zealand, the trees are set 8 to 10 ft (2.5-3 m) apart in paired
rows 8 ft (2.5 m) apart with 14 ft (4.25 m) between each pair. If the soil is very rich, 9 ft (2.75 m)
is allowed between the rows and 16 ft (5 m) between the pairs. Closer planting is recommended in
windy, unprotected locations5 to 6 ft (1.5-1.8 m) between the plants and 8 to 10 ft (2.5-3 m)
between the rows, and the trees may be staked to prevent swaying and disturbing the roots. In
India, the trees are set out in pits 4 to 5 ft (1.2-1.5 m) apart.
Cuttings should be of 1- to 2-year-old wood 3/8 to 1 in (10-25 mm) thick and 18 to 30 in (45-75
cm) long; the leaves are removed and the base cut square below a node. They can be planted
directly in the field and, while precocious, should not be permitted to fruit in the first year.
Recommended fertilizer application is 0.5 to 2.2 lbs (0.25-1.0 kg) per tree of NPK 5:6:6, half in
early spring and half in midsummer. In the 5th or 6th year, the grower is advised to give a special
feeding of 2 parts superphosphate, 1 1/2 parts nitrate of soda, 1 part sulphite of potash, in late
winter or early spring, at the rate of 2 to 3 lbs (1-1.5 kg) per plantapproximately 10 to 16 cwt per
acre, or 100 kg per hectare.
Because of the shallow root system, deep cultivation is not possible, but light cultivation is
desirable to eliminate weeds until there is sufficient vegetative growth to shade them out.
Seedling trees are pruned back the first year after planting to a height of 3 or 4 ft (0.9-1.2 m) to
encourage branching. Annual pruning thereafter is advisable to eliminate branches that have
already fruited and induce ample new shoots close to the main branches, inasmuch as fruit is
produced on new growth. Otherwise, the tree will develop a broad top with fruits only on the outer
fringe. And wide-spreading branches are subject to wind damage. Pruning facilitates harvesting
and, if timed appropriately, can extend the total fruiting period. Early spring pruning of some of
the owners' trees brings about early maturity; fall pruning of other trees delays fruit maturity to the
following fall.
Irrigation
The tree tomato cannot tolerate prolonged drought and must have an ample water supply during
extremely dry periods. A mulch is very beneficial in conserving moisture at such times.
Pollination
Tree Tomato
Tree tomato flowers are normally self-pollinating. If wind is completely cut off so as not to stir the
branches, this may adversely affect pollination unless there are bees to transfer the pollen.
Unpollinated flowers will drop prematurely.
Cropping and Yield
The tree usually begins to bear when 1 1/2 to 2 years old and continues to be productive for 5 or 6
years. If then adequately nourished, it may keep on fruiting for 11 to 12 years. In Brazil, each tree
is expected to yield 44 to 66 lbs (20-30 kg) of fruit annually.
The crop does not ripen simultaneously and several pickings are necessary. The fruits are clipped,
leaving about 1/2 in (12.5 cm) of stem attached. They are collected in bags worn by the harvesters.
In New Zealand, the fruits are sorted by sizesmall, medium and largeand packed in paper-lined
wooden boxes for marketing. Because of its firm flesh and tough skin, the fruit can be shipped
long distances without bruising. However, it deteriorates rather rapidly under ordinary storage
conditions.
Pests and Diseases
The tree tomato is generally regarded as fairly pest-resistant. A looper caterpillar makes large
holes in the leaves of young plants in the nursery but causes little damage to trees in the field.
Occasionally the plants are attacked by the green aphis.
In South America and the Caribbean, the fruits are subject to attack by fruit fliesAnastrepha sp.
and Carpolonchaea pendula (syn. Silba pendula). In Colombia, the tree tomato has been found to
be the preferred host of the tree tomato worm (Neoleucinodes sp.) which infests also the tomato
and the eggplant. The larvae feed on the fruits and cause heavy losses. Rigorous spraying and
sanitary measures are required to reduce losses and means of biological control are being sought.
The principal disease is powdery mildew (both Erysiphe sp. and Oidium sp.), which may cause
serious defoliation if not controlled. Minor problems include Sclerotinia disease (Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum), the black lesions of which girdle stems and cause terminal wilting; and Ascochyta
disease (Ascochyta sp.) which is evidenced by small, round, black, dead areas on leaves, especially
mature leaves. Tree tomato mosaic virus causes pale mottling on leaves and sometimes on the
fruits which has not been considered a serious disadvantage. Another virus disorder, called
"bootlace virus", distorts the leaf, especially on young plants, reducing it to little more than the
midrib. Affected plants are pulled up and destroyed.
The tree tomato is noted for its resistance to tobacco mosaic virus, though it is susceptible to
cucumber mosaic virus and potato virus. Die-back, of unknown origin, at times is lethal to the
flowers, fruit cluster, twigs and new shoots. A strain of Arabis mosaic virus (which, in
combination with two other unidentified viruses, causes sunken necrotic rings on the fruit surface)
was reported in two plantations in the TePuke-Tauranga area of New Zealand in 1971, together
with the identification of its vector, the nematode Xiphinema diversicaudatum.
Abnormality: In Haiti and New Zealand, small, hard, irregular, semi-transparent "stones" occur in
the flesh of tree tomatoes and must be strained out in the process of jam-making. It is not known if
these are similar to the "two gritty lumps in the wall of the fruit (on opposite sides)" mentioned by
Tree Tomato
E.J.H. Corner as observed in Malaya. Samples of the stones were examined at the Division of
Plant Industry, Florida State Department of Agriculture, and were found to contain "large amounts
of sodium and calcium, probably as silicates, borates, aluminum-magnesium-oxygen complexes,
or aluminates or magnesium oxides. In addition, small amounts of tin, copper, chromium, iron and
phosphorus were found. " It is well known that plants may accumulate minerals from mineral-rich
soils, but such stony accretions are found in the leaves, not in the fruits. At Tela, Honduras,
concretions occur in mangosteens, often rendering the fruit inedible. The cause has not been
determined.
Food Uses
Ripe tree tomatoes may be merely cut in half lengthwise, sprinkled with sugar and served for
eating by scooping out the flesh and pulp. Or the halves may be seasoned and grilled or baked for
15 minutes for service as a vegetable. The fruit should not be cut on a wooden or other permeable
surface, as the juice will make an indelible stain. For other purposes, the skin must be removed and
this is easily done by pouring boiling water over the fruit and letting it stand for 4 minutes, then
peeling is begun at the stem end. The peeled fruit can then be sliced and the slices added to stews
or soups, or served with a sprinkling of sugar and perhaps with a scoop of vanilla ice cream.
Seasoned with salt and pepper, the slices can serve as sandwich-filling or may be used in salads.
Chopped slices are blended with cream cheese and used as sandwich spread.
Peeled, diced fruits, with diced onion, breadcrumbs, butter and appropriate seasonings are
employed as stuffing for roast lamb. Tree tomato slices, alone, or combined with sliced apple, are
cooked in pies. They may be packed in preserving jars with water or sugar sirup and cooked for 55
minutes, or may be put into plastic containers with a 50% sirup and quick-frozen for future use in
pies or puddings. The peeled fruits can be pureed in a blender or by cooking, strained to remove
the seeds and then packed in plastic containers and frozen. Lemon juice may be added to the puree'
to enhance flavor. The peeled, stewed fruits are combined with gelatin, milk, sugar and lemon
juice to make a dessert which is then garnished with fresh tree tomato slices. Peeled, sliced and
seeded tree tomatoes, with lemon rind, lemon juice and sugar, are cooked to a jam; or, with onions
and apples, are made into chutney. Chutney is prepared commercially in a factory in Auckland,
New Zealand. Being high in pectin, the fruit is easily made into jelly but the fruit oxidizes and
discolors without special treatment during processing. Whole, peeled fruits, with sugar, are cooked
to a sauce for use on ice cream. The peeled fruits may be pickled whole, or may be substituted for
tomatoes in a hot chili sauce.
Moisture
Protein
Carbohydrates
82.7-87.8
1.5 g
10.3 g
Fat (ether extract)

Fiber
Nitrogen
Ash
0.06-1.28 g
1.4-4.2 g
0.223-0.445 g
0.61-0.84 g
Tree Tomato
Calcium
Phosphorus (with seeds)
(without seeds)
Iron
Carotene
(or calculated as Vitamin A)
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin (with seeds)
(without seeds)
Ascorbic Acid**
3.9-11.3 mg
52.5-65.5 mg
13.1 mg
0.66-0.94 mg
0.371-0.653 mg
540 I.U.
0.038-0.137 mg
0.035-0.048 mg
1.10-1.38 mg
1.011 mg
23.3-33.9 mg
*Analyses made in Ecuador, Guatemala and India.

**Most of the ascorbic acid is lost in cooking.
Genipap

Morton, J. 1987. Genipap. p. 441443. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Genipap
Genipa americana L.
Description
Varieties
Climate and Soil
Propagation
Culture
Season
Food Uses
Food Value
Other Uses
Superstitious Uses
Rating low as an edible fruit but popular as a source of beverages, the genipap, Genipa americana
L. (syns. G. americana var. caruto Schum.; G. caruto HBK.), of the family Rubiaceae, has a
number of colloquial names: marmalade box in former British West Indies; genipa, jagua or
caruto in Puerto Rico and several other Spanish-speaking countries; genipapo or jenipapo in parts
of Colombia and Brazil; chipara or chibara or guanapay among Colombian Indians; carcarutoto,
caruto rebalsero, or guaricha in Venezuela; tapoeripa in Surinam; lana in Guyana; bi, bicito or
totumillo in Bolivia; huitoc, vito, vitu or palo colorado in Peru; maluco in Mexico; crayo, irayol de
montaa, or guali in Guatemala; guaitil or tapaculo in Costa Rica; irayol, tambor or tie-dientes in
El Salvador; guayatil colorado or jagua blanca in Panama.
Description
The tree is erect, to 60 or even 110 ft (18-33 m), with a tall, slender trunk and spreading branches.
One form with a dense coating of soft hairs on the young branchlets and underside of the leaves
has been separated by some botanists as a distinct species, G. caruto or G. americana var. caruto,
though most botanists now view this as just a variation of G. americana. The leaves are abundant,
deciduous, short-petioled, opposite but mostly clustered at the branch tips; oblong-obovate, 4 to 13
in (10-33 cm) long, 1 1/2 to 5 1/4 in (4-13 cm) wide; sometimes faintly toothed, and with
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/genipap.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:38:03 PM]
Genipap
prominent whitish midrib. The faintly

fragrant pale-yellow or white, tubular,
5-petalled flowers, to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) wide,
are borne in short, branched, terminal
clusters.
The fruit, 3 1/2 to 6 in (9-15 cm) long, 2 3/4
to 3 1/2 in (7-9 cm) wide, weighing 7 to 14
oz (200-400 g), is elliptic or rounded-oval
tapering briefly at the stem end, and having
a short hollow tube at the apex. It has a thin
leathery, yellow-brown, scurfy skin
adherent to a 1/4 to 1/2 in (6-12.5 mm) layer
of muskily odorous, rubbery, whitish flesh
(turning yellowish on exposure). The central
cavity is filled with flat, circular, yellowish
or brown seeds 3/8 to 1/2 in (1-1.25 cm)
long, enclosed in grayish-yellow,
mucilaginous membranes arranged in rows
around a central fleshy core. The fruit, like
the European medlar (Mespilus germanica
L.) is edible only when overripe and soft to
the touch, when the flavor, acid to subacid,
resembles that of dried apples or quinces.
The genipap is native to wet or moist areas
Fig. 117: The genipap (Genipa americana L.) photographed
of Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the
by P.H. Dorsett, plant explorer for the U.S. Department of
Virgin Islands, and from Guadeloupe to
Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, in Bahia, Brazil,
Trinidad; also from southern Mexico to
November 12, 1913.
Panama, and from Colombia and Venezuela
to Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. Its usefulness to the Indians was reported by several European
writers in Brazil in the 16th Century. It is widely cultivated in dooryards as an ornamental tree and
for its fruits, but Patio stated in 1967 that it was no longer as commonly grown in the Cauca
Valley of Colombia as it had been in the past. In Trinidad, the tree is occasionally planted as a
living fencepost for pasture fences. In 1965, a program was launched to utilize the genipap for
reforestation in northeastern Brazil and plantations were established with a view to the exploitation
of the fruit for liquor manufacture and the timber and other products for local use and possible
export.
The tree first fruited in the Philippines in 1913 and is occasionally planted there. Otherwise, it is
virtually unknown in the Old World. Burkill wrote that it had been tried in the southern part of the
Malay Peninsula several times but without success.
P.J. Wester sent seeds from the Philippines to the United States Department of Agriculture in 1917
(S.P.I. #44090). A tree at the Plant Introduction Station, Miami, was 20 ft (6 m) tall in 1951 but
Genipap
had never bloomed. It is still alive and well today. There was a large tree at the Agricultural
Research and Education Center, Homestead. It did not bear fruit and was killed by a freeze. A tree
at the Fairchild Tropical Garden, Coral Gables, bloomed for the first time in the spring of 1980 but
did not produce fruit. A few small seedlings were distributed by the Rare Fruit Council in 1980.
Varieties
It is reported in Brazil that there are
varieties that bear all year. There is a
shrubby form, jenipaporana, or
jenipapo-bravo, no more than 10 to 13 ft
(3-4 m) high, that grows in swamps along
the edges of rivers and lakes in Brazil. The
fruit is small and inedible.
Climate and Soil
The tree is strictly tropical; is limited to
elevations below 3,300 ft (100 m) in Peru
and has been killed by low temperatures in
Florida. The genipap flourishes best in a
humid atmosphere and deep, rich, loamy,
moist soil.
Propagation
The genipap is mostly grown from seed but Plate LXVII: GENIPAP, Genipa americana
P.J. Wester determined that it can be
propagated by shield-budding, using mature, non-petioled scions.
Culture
Seeds germinate in 25 to 30 days. The seedlings reach 4 3/4 in (12 cm) in 3 to 4 months and are
transplanted when 6 to 12 months old at a height of 8 in (20 cm). The tree requires little cultural
attention and thrives even in and situations. For fruit production, the trees are spaced 33 to 50 ft
(10-15 m) apart. Temporary crops such as cassava or cotton are interplanted to provide shade for
the young trees and income for the farmer. For purposes of reforestation, the spacing may be 5 x
10 ft (1.5 x 3 m) or up to 10 x 10 ft (3 x 3 m). The heavy leaf fall of the genipap is important in
improving the soil of the plantation.
Season
Flowers and fruits appear continuously from spring to fall in Puerto Rico. In Brazil, the tree
flowers in November and the fruits appear in the markets in February and March.
Food Uses
In Puerto Rico, the fruit is cut up and put in a pitcher of water with sugar added to make a summer
drink like lemonade. Sometimes it is allowed to ferment slightly. A bottled concentrate is served
with shaved ice by street vendors. In the Philippines, also, the fruit is used to make cool drinks, as
Genipap
well as jelly, sherbet and ice cream. The flesh is sometimes added as a substitute for commercial
pectin to aid the jelling of low-pectin fruit juices. Rural Brazilians prepare sweet preserves, sirup, a
soft drink, genipapada, wine, and a potent liqueur from the fruits.
Food Value
Analyses made in the Philippines many years ago show the following values for the edible portion
(70%) of the fruit: protein, 0.51%; carbohydrates, 11.21%; sugar, 4.30%; ash, 0.20%; malic acid,
0.63%.
Recent analyses made at the Fundacion Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica show:
Food Value per 100 g of Edible Portion
Calories
113
Moisture
67.6 g
Protein
5.2 g
Lipids
Glycerides
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Vitamin B,
Vitamin B2
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid
Amino Acids
(per g of nitrogen [N 6.25])
Lysine
Methionine
Threonine
Tryptophan
0.3 g
25.7 g
9.4 g
1.2 g
40.0 mg
58.0 mg
3.6 mg
0.04 mg
0.04 mg
0.50 mg
33.0 mg
316 mg
178 mg
219 mg
57 mg
The fruit contains too much-tannin to be a desirable article of diet.

Other Uses
Fruit: In Guyana, the ripe fruit is used mainly as fish bait. The fallen, astringent fruits are much
eaten by wild and domestic animals. The juice of the unripe fruit is colorless but oxidizes on
exposure to the air and gradually turns light brown, then blue-black, and finally jet black. It has
been commonly employed by South American Indians to paint their faces and bodies for
Genipap
adornment and to repel insects; and to dye clothing, hammocks, utensils and basket materials a
bluish-purple. The dye is indelible on the skin for 15 to 20 days. Oviedo wrote that the Indian men
sometimes playfully sprinkled the women with the fresh juice mixed with perfume so that
mysterious spots would appear on their bodies and alarm them. Cardenas tells of seeing the robe of
a Franciscan monk which was dyed a very dark purple with this juice.
Leaves: The foliage is readily eaten by cattle.
Bark: The bark, rich in tannin, has been used for treating leather. It also yields a fiber employed in
making rough clothing.
Wood: When 5 or 6 years old, saplings can be harvested for firewood, poles or fenceposts.
Ten-year-old trees can be cut for timber. The wood is yellowish-white or sometimes slightly
pinkish or lavender, with light, reddish-brown streaks. It is fibrous, compact, hard, elastic, strong
but not durable, being subject to attack by termites, borers and fungi. It has been used for spears,
rifle stocks, shoe lasts, frames for sieves, barrel hoops, ammunition chests and other boxes,
packing cases, plows, tool handles, boards for flooring, door frames and cabinetwork.
Flowers: The flowers yield nectar for honeybees.
Medicinal Uses: The fruit is eaten as a remedy for jaundice in El Salvador. Ingested in quantity, it
is said to act as a vermifuge. The fruit juice is given as a diuretic. It is a common practice in Puerto
Rico to cut up the fruits, steep them in water until there is a little fermentation, then add flavoring
and drink the infusion as a cold remedy.
Because the fruit and its infusion have unusually good keeping quality, Puerto Rican scientists
investigated the possible presence of antibiotic principles and proved the existence of antibiotic
activity in all parts of the fruit. In 1964, Dr. W.H. Tallent of G.D. Searle & Company in Chicago,
isolated and identified 2 new antibiotic cyclopentoid monoterpenes, primarily genipic acid and
secondarily genipinic acid, its carbomethoxyl derivative.
The crushed green fruit and the bark decoction are applied on venereal sores and pharyngitis. The
root decoction is a strong purgative.
The bark exudes when cut a whitish, sweetish gum which is diluted and used as an eyewash and is
claimed to alleviate corneal opacities. The juice expressed from the leaves is commonly given as a
febrifuge in Central America. The pulverized seeds are emetic and caustic. The flower decoction is
taken as a tonic and febrifuge.
Superstitious Uses: Guatemalan Indians carry the fruits in their hands in the belief that this will
provide protection from disease and ill-fortune.
Cassabanana

Morton, J. 1987. Cassabanana. p. 444445. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami,
FL.
Cassabanana
Sicana odorifera Naud.
Cucurbita odorifera Vell.
Description
Culture
Keeping Quality and Marketing
Food Uses
Other Uses
A handsome and interesting member of the Cucurbitaceae, the cassabanana, Sicana odorifera
Naud. (syn. Cucurbita odorifera Vell.), is also called sikana or musk cucumber. It is known as
melocotonero, calabaza de olor, calabaza meln, prsico or alberchigo in Mexico; melocotn or
meln de olor in El Salvador and Guatemala; calabaza de chila in Costa Rica; cojombro in
Nicaragua; chila in Panama; pavi in Bolivia; padea, olerero, secana or upe in Peru; calabaza de
Paraguay, curuba, or pepino melocoton in Colombia; cura, cora, curua, curuba, cruatina, melo
caboclo or melo mac in Brazil; caj cajuba, cajua, cagua, calabaza de Guinea in Venezuela;
pepino, pepino angolo or pepino socato in Puerto Rico; cohombro in Cuba.
Description
The vine is perennial, herbaceous, fast-growing, heavy, requiring a strong trellis; climbing trees to
50 ft (15 m) or more by means of 4-parted tendrils equipped with adhesive discs that can adhere
tightly to the smoothest surface. Young stems are hairy. The leaves are gray-hairy,
rounded-cordate or rounded kidney-shaped, to 1 ft (30 cm) wide, deeply indented at the base,
3-lobed, with wavy or toothed margins, on petioles 1 1/2 to 4 3/4 in (4-12 cm) long. Flowers are
white or yellow, urn-shaped, 5-lobed, solitary, the male 3/4 in (2 cm) long, the female about 2 in (5
cm) long. Renowned for its strong, sweet, agreeable, melon-like odor, the striking fruit is ellipsoid
or nearly cylindrical, sometimes slightly curved; 12 to 24 in (30-60 cm) in length, 2 3/4 to 4 1/2 in
(7-11.25 cm) thick, hard-shelled, orange-red, maroon, dark-purple with tinges of violet, or entirely
jet-black; smooth and glossy when ripe, with firm, orange-yellow or yellow, cantaloupe-like,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/cassabanana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 1:38:06 PM]
Cassabanana
tough, juicy flesh, 3/4 in (2 cm) thick. In the

central cavity, there is softer pulp, a soft,
fleshy core, and numerous flat, oval seeds,
5/8 in (16 mm) long and 1/4 in (6 mm)
wide, light-brown bordered with a
dark-brown stripe, in tightly-packed rows
extending the entire length of the fruit.
The cassabanana is believed native to Brazil
but it has been spread throughout tropical
America. Historians have evidence that it
was cultivated in Ecuador in pre-Hispanic
times. It was first mentioned by European
writers in 1658 as cultivated and popular in
Peru. It is grown near sea-level in Central
America but the fruit is carried to markets
even up in the highlands. Venezuelans and
Brazilians are partial to the vine as an
ornamental, but in Cuba, Puerto Rico and
Mexico it is grown for the usefulness of the
fruit.
In 1903, O.F. Cook saw one fruit in a
market in Washington, D.C. The United
States Department of Agriculture received
seeds from C.A. Miller, the American
Consul in Tampico, Mexico, in 1913 (S.P.I. Fig. 118: The cassabanana (Sicana odorifera Naud.),
photographed by Wilson Popenoe, plant explorer for the
#35136). H.M. Curran collected seeds in
U.S.D.A. Bureau of Plant Industry, in Guatemala on
Brazil in 1915 (S.P.I. #41665). Wilson
September 23, 1916.
Popenoe introduced seeds from Guatemala
in 1916 (S.P.I. #43427). The author brought seeds from Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, to the
Agricultural Research and Education Center, Homestead, in 1951. A resulting vine grew to large
size but produced a single 2 ft (60 cm) fruit. Dr. John Thieret, formerly Professor of Botany at
Southwestern Louisiana University, says that the Cajuns in the southern part of that state grow the
cassabanana for making preserves. Verrill stated in 1937, "The fruit is now on sale in New York
markets."
According to Burkill, the vine was tried in the Botanic Gardens in Singapore but lived for only a
short time. Wester wrote that it fruited at Lamao in the Philippines in 1916 and became heavily
attacked by a destructive fly (Dacus sp.).
Culture
Fenzi says that the cassabanana is grown from seeds or cuttings. A high temperature during the
fruiting season is needed to assure perfect ripening. Brazilians train the vine to grow over arbors or
they may plant it close to a tree. However, if it is allowed to climb too high up the tree there is the
Cassabanana
risk that it may smother and kill it.

Keeping Quality and Marketing
The cassabanana remains in good condition
for several months if kept dry and out of the
sun.
The fruit has high market value in Puerto
Rico. It is cut up and sold by the piece, the
price being determined by weight.
Food Uses
The ripe flesh, sliced thin, is eaten raw,
Plate LXVIII: CASSABANANA, Sicana odorifera
especially in the summer when it is
appreciated as cooling and refreshing. However, it is mainly used in the kitchen for making jam or
other preserves. The immature fruit is cooked as a vegetable or in soup and stews.
Analyses of ripe fruit made in Guatemala
(without peel, seeds, or soft central pulp)
Moisture
85.1 g
Protein
0.145 g
Fat
0.02 g
Fiber
1.1 g
Ash
0.70 g
Calcium
21.1 mg
Phosphorus 24.5 mg
Iron
0.33 mg
Carotene
0.11 mg
Thiamine
0.058 mg
Riboflavin
0.035 mg
Niacin
0.767 mg
Analyses of peeled green fruit made in

Nicaragua (including seeds)
92.7 g
0.093 g
0.21 g
0.6 g
0.38 g
8.2 mg
24.2 mg
0.87 mg
0.003 mg
0.038 mg
0.647 mg
10.0 mg
Other Uses
Fruit: People like to keep the fruit around the house, and especially in linen- and clothes-closets,
because of its long-lasting fragrance, and they believe that it repels moths. It is also placed on
church altars during Holy Week.
Medicinal Uses: In Puerto Rico, the flesh is cut up and steeped in water, with added sugar,
overnight at room temperature so that it will ferment slightly. The resultant liquor is sipped
Cassabanana
frequently and strips of the flesh are eaten, too, to relieve sore throat. It is believed beneficial also
to, at the same time, wear a necklace of the seeds around the neck.
The seed infusion is taken in Brazil as a febrifuge, vermifuge, purgative and emmenagogue. The
leaves are employed in treating uterine hemorrhages and venereal diseases. In Yucatan, a
decoction of leaves and flowers (2 g in 180cc water) is prescribed as a laxative, emmenagogue and
vermifuge, with a warning not to make a stronger preparation inasmuch as the seeds and flowers
yield a certain amount of hydrocyanic acid.
(Bibliography)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abdel Akher, M., Abdel Moneim. Youssef, and M.S. Ezzat. 1964. The chemical
composition and utilization of palm tree leaves. Alexandria J. Agr. Res. 12 (1): 179-189.
Abdel-Fattah, A.F., D.A. Zaki, and M. Edrees. 1975. Some investigations on the pectin and
amino acid composition of Dovyalis caffra W. fruit. Qualitas Plant.Pl. Foods & Human
Nutr. 24 (3/4): 311-316.
Abou Aziz, A.B., S.M. El-Nabarvy and H.A. Zaki. 1975. Effect of different temperatures on
the storage of papaya fruits and respirational activity during storage. Scientia Hort. 3:
173-177.
Abraham, E.A.V. 1912. Materia Medica Guian. Brit. Temehri. J. Roy. Agr. Soc. Brit.
Guiana 2 (3rd Set.) (1): 179-196.
Abrams, R. and G.C. Jackson. 1959. Influence of root-inducing substances and time
intervals on the rooting of acerola cuttings. J. Agr. U. of Puerto Rico 43 (3): 152-158.
Abusin, A.M. and B.H. Harnid. 1971. Evaluation of the major mango varieties for
processing. Sudan J. of Food Sci. & Tech. Vol. 3: 61-63.
Abutiate, W. S. and N.Y. Nakasone. 1972. Studies of vegetative propagation of the lychee
(Litchi chinensis Sorm.) with special reference to graftage. Ghana J. Agr. Sci. 5: 201-211.
Ackerman, E.D. 1978. Jaboticaba nutrition experiment. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 91: 187-189.
Adams, C.D. 1972. Flowering Plants of Jamaica. Univ. of the West Indes, Mona, Jamaica.
Adams, C.S. 1929. Growing melons on trees. [papaya] Fla. Grower, Nov. 16-17.
Adams, M.R. 1978. Small-scale vinegar production from bananas. Trop. Sci. 20 (1): 11-19.
Adamson, R.S. and T.M. Salter. 1950. Flora of the Cape Peninsula. Juta & Co., Ltd., Cape
Town & Johannesburg, S. Africa.
Adcock, R. E. 1968. Malaysia increases its pineapple profits. For. Agr. 6 (32): 11.
Adesogan, E.K. and J.I. Durodola. 1976. Antiturnour and antibiotic principles of Annona
senegalensis. Phytochem. 15: 1311-1312.
Adsuar, J. 1972. A new virus disease of papaya (Carica papaya) in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U.
Puerto Rico 56 (4): 397-402.
Adsuar, J. 1947. Studies on virus diseases of papaya (Carica papaya) in Puerto Rico, I, II,
and III. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 31 (3): 248-264.
Adsuar, J. 1950. Studies on virus diseases of papaya (Carica papaya) in Puerto Rico. Tech.
Paper #6. U. of Puerto Rico Agr. Expt. Sta., Rio Piedras.
Adsule, P.G., M.A. Ismael and P.J. Fellers. 1984. Quality of citrus fruit following cold
treatment as a method of disinfestation against the Caribbean fruit fly. J. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 109 (6): 851-854.
Agarwal, K.D. 1970. Table-cum-juicy mangoa promising variety. Indian Hort. 14 (2): 15,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/Bibliography.html (1 of 107) [5/16/2004 1:38:36 PM]
(Bibliography)
32.
Agena, U., J.E. Dunn, Sr., and Jaw-Kai Wang. 1969. Current status of papaya
mechanization. Hawaii Farm Sci. 18 (2): 1-3.
Agnew, G.W.J. 1968. Growing quality papaws in Queensland. Queensland Agr. J. 94 (1):
24-36.
Agnihotri, B.N. 1950. The bael, Aegle marmelos Correa. Indian Food Packer 4 (9): 29-31.
Aguilar Giron, J.I. 1966. Relacion de unos aspectos de la flora util de Guatemala. 2nd ed.
Tipografia Nacional de Guatemala, for Associacion Amigos del Bosque.
Aguilar-Santos, G., J.R. Librea, and A.C. Santos. 1967. The alkaloids of Annona muricata
Linn. Phil. J. Sci. 96 (4): 399-407.
Agustl:, M., V. Almela, and J.L. Guardiola. 1981. The regulation of fruit cropping in
mandarins through the use of growth regulators. Proc. Internat. Soc. Citriculture, Nov. 9-12,
1981, Tokyo. Vol. 1: 216-220.
Ahlawat, V.P. and R. Yamdagni. 1981. Effect of potassium sprays on quality of guava
(Psidium guajava L.) cv. Sardar (L. 49). Agr. Sci. Digest 1 (4): 213-214.
Ahmad, M., M.H. Naqvi, A. Hussain, M. Mohyuddin, A. Sattar, and M. Ali. 1972. Induction
of ripening delay in mangoes (var. Dushhri) by gamma irradiation and refrigeration.
Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. 15 (4-5): 314-319.
Ahmad, M.N., Nasir-ud-Din Zahid, M. Rafio and I. Ahmad. 1964. Composition of the oil of
Grewia asiatica (phalsa) seeds. Pakistan J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 7 (2): 145-146.
Ahmed, S. 1961. The litchi. Agr. Pakistan 12 (4): 769-775.
Ahmed, S. and M.A. Ghafoor. 1961. Falsa (Grewia asiatica) cultivation in West Pakistan.
Agr. Pakistan 12 (4): 762-768.
Aiyappa, K.M. 1969. Higher pineapple yields possible. Indian Hort. 14 (1): 5-6 & inside
back cover.
Ajao, A.O., O. Shonukan and B. Femi-Onadeko. 1985. Antibacterial effect of aqueous and
alcohol extracts of Spondias mombin and Alchornea cordifoliatwo local antimicrobial
remedies. Internat. J. Crude Drug Res. 23 (2): 67-72.
Akamine, E.K. 1971. Controlled atmosphere storage of papayas. Misc. Pub. 64. (Proc. 5th
Ann. Mtg. Haw. Papaya Indus. Assn.). U. Hawaii Coop. Exten. Serv., Honolulu. Pp. 23-24.
Akamine, E. K. 1965. Fumigation of bananas with special reference to ripening. Hawaii
Farm Sci. 14 (2): 1-3.
Akamine, E.K. 1960. Preventing the darkening of fresh lychees prepared for export. Tech.
Progress Rpt. 127. U. Hawaii, Agr. Expt. Sta., Honolulu.
Akamine, E. K. and G. Girolami. 1959. Pollination and fruit set in the yellow passion fruit.
Tech. Bul. 39. Hawaii Agr. Expt. Sta., Honolulu.
Akamine, E.K. and T. Goo. 1981. Carbon dioxide and ethylene production in Diospyros
discolor Willd. HortSci. 16 (4): 519.
Akamine, E.K. and T. Goo. 1979. Concentrations of carbon dioxide and ethylene in the
cavity of attacked papaya fruit. HortSci. 14 (2): 138-139.
Akamine, E.K. and T. Goo. 1971. Relationship between surface color development and total
(Bibliography)
soluble solids in papaya. HortSci. 6 (6): 567-568.

Akamine, E.K. and T. Goo. 1979. Respiration and ethylene production in fruits of species
and cultivars of Psidium and species of Eugenia. J. Amer. Sec. Hort. Sci. 104 (5): 632-635.
Akamine, E.K., T. Goo, T. Steefy, T. Greidanus, and N. Irvaoka. 1975. Control of
endogenous brown spot of fresh pineapple in postharvest handling. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
100 (1): 60-65.
Akamine, E.K., R.A. Hamilton, T. Nishida, G.D. Sherman, W.B. Storey, W.J. Yee and T.N.
Shaw. 1954. Passion Fruit Culture. Exten. Cit. 345. U. Hawaii Agr. Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Albizu de Santiago, C. 1968. Karyotype of the blue chrysomelid of acerola, Leucoceia
laeticollis Weise (Coleoptera), Chrysomelidae. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 52 (1): 74-75.
Alcorn, J. L. 1968. Cucurbit powdery mildew on papaw. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci.
25 (3): 161-164.
Aldrich, W.W. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1975. Day versus night application of calcium carbide
for flower induction in pineapple. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 100 (4): 410-413.
Ali, A., M. Sahai and A.B. Ray. 1984. Physalolactone C, a new withazolide from Physalis
peruviana. J. Nat. Prod. 47 (4): 648-651.
Ali Dinar, H.M. and A.H. Krezdorn. 1976. Extending the grapefruit harvest season with
growth regulators. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 4-6.
Allan, P. 1981. Clonal "Honey Gold" pawpaws a horticultural and commercial success.
Citrus and Subtrop. Fruit J. 575: 19-23.
Allan, P. 1979. Cultivation practices for Kiwi fruit with special reference to South African
conditions. Hortus 26: 33-40.
Allan, P. 1967. Papaw research at Pietermaritzburg. 1. Production from seedlings. Farming
S. Afr. 41 (10): 25, 29, 31.
Allan, P. 1963. Pollen studies in Carica papaya. I. Formation, development, morphology and
production of pollen. S. Afr. J. Agr. Sci. 6: 517-530.
Allan, P. 1963. Pollen studies in Carica papaya. II. Germination and storage of pollen. S.
Afr. J. Agr. Sci. 6: 613-624.
Allan, P. 1964. Papajas van steggies gekweek. Boerderj in S. Afr. 39 (11): Feb.: 35-40.
Allan, P. 1967. Papaw research at Pietermaritzburg. 2. Production from cuttings. Farming in
So. Afr. 42 (11): 15-21.
Allen, B.M. 1967. Malayan fruits: an introduction to the cultivated species. Donald Moore
Press, Ltd., Singapore.
Allen, D.J. 1970. Botryodia fruit rot of giant granadilla in East Africa. Pl. Dis. Reporter 54
(9): 809-811.
Allen, J.L. 1970. Lime juice and lime oil production and markets. Report G-45. Trop. Prod.
Inst., London.
Allen, P.H. 1943. Poisonous and injurious plants of Panama. Supp. to Amer. J. Trop. Med.
Vol. 23, No. 1. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland.
Allen, P.H. 1977. The rain forests of Golfo Dulce. U. Fla. Press, Gainesville, Fl.
(Bibliography)
Almeyda, N. and F.W. Martin. 1976. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise.
Pt. 1. The mangosteen. ARS-S-155. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Pt. 2. The Mamey Sapote. ARS-S-156. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Pt. 4. The Lanson. ARS-S-171. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Pt. 8. The pejibaye. U.S. Dept. Agr., Sci. & Educ. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Alston, A.H. G. 1938. The Kandy flora. Ceylon Gov't Press, Colombo.
Altman, L.J. and S.W. Zito. 1976. Sterols and triterpenes from the fruit of Artocarpw altilis.
Phytochem. 15: 829-830.
Altschul, S. v. R. 1973. Drugs and foods from little-known plants. Harvard U. Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Alvarez, A.M. 1980. Improved marketability of fresh papaya by shipment in hypobaric
containers. HortSci. 15 (4): 517-518.
Alvarez-Garcia, L.A. and J. Lopez-Garcia. 1971. Gummosis, die-back and fruit rot disease
of mango (Mangifera indica L.) caused by Physalospora rhodina (B. & C.) Cke. in Puerto
Rico. J. Agr. U. of Puerto Rico 55 (4): 435-450.
Ammer, K., A. Afifi, and A.E.A. Fahmy. 1925. Wine production from bitter orange juice.
Egypt J. Food Sci. 3 (1-2): 17-23.
Ammerman, C.B., D.A. Hansen, F.G. Martin and L.R. Arrington. 1976. Nutrient
composition of dried citrus pulp as influenced by season of production and production
source. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 168-170.
Anand, J.C. 1960. Efficacy of sodium benzoate to control yeast fermentation in phalsa
(Greivia asiatica L.) juice. Indian J. Hort. 17 (2): 138-141.
Andam, C.J. 1983. Response of maturing 'Carabao' mango fruits to pre-harvest ethephon
application. NSTA Tech. J. July-Sept. 4-13.
Anderson, D.L., M. Sedgley, J.R.T. Short and A.J. Allwood. 1982. Insect pollination of
mango in Northern Australia. Aust. J. Agr-Res. 33: 541-548.
Anelli, G., R. Fiorentini, and A.A. Lepidi. 1984. Food and feed from banana by-products.
Revista. di Agricoltura Subtrop. e Trop. 76 (1-2): 67-75.
Angeles, E.R. 1962. A survey of patch-budding of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.)
at the provincial nursery in Oriental Mindoro. Arenata J. Agr. 9 (4): 267-273.
Anon. 1965. A Climbing Mandarin. Queensland Fruit & Veg. News. June. p. 519.
Anon. 1974. A frutifera calabura. O Estado de Sao Paulo: Supp. Agricola. Mar. 24. P. 15.
Anon. 1977. Alkop FarmsCalifornia's largest kiwi planting. Blue Anchor 54 (1): 23-26.
Anon. 1981. All out alert to stop citrus enemy #1. Plant Indus. News 23 (2): 3-5, 15.
Anon. 1979. Annotated Bibliograpliies: Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), 1967-1978. Plant
Ser. ISSN 0141-5921. Commonwealth Agr. Bur., Farnham House, Farnham Royal Slough,
UK.
(Bibliography)
Anon. 1963. A 'Peach Belt' for Florida? Fla. Grower & Rancher, June, pp. 9, 16.
Anon. 1952. Avocado oil in toilet preparations and pharmaceuticals. Perfurn. & Essen. Oil
Rec. 43 (11): 399-400.
Anon. 1979. Avocados: $40 million business. Israel Economist No. 35. P. 21.
Anon. 1982. Babaco, mountain papaya and papaya: all are susceptible to powdery mildew.
N. Zeal. J. Agr. 145 (4): 28.
Anon. 1950. Big lychee planting started. Fla. Grower. Oct. Pp. 19, 22.
Anon. 1980. Big retail profit opportunity with record new California avocado crop. Blue
Anchor 57 (5): 34.
Anon. 1962. Brazil product [banana flakes] suits many purposes. Braz. Bull. Dec. 15. P. 6.
Anon. 1978. Breadfruit reconnaisance study in the Caribbean region. CIAT, Inter-Amer.
Develop. Bank. 65 pp.
Anon. 1972. California mechanizes desert grapefruit harvest. Fla. Grower & Rancher-South
Central. July-Aug. P. 12.
Anon. 1970. Caqui fruit could reward investors. Brazilian Bull. Feb. P. 7.
Anon. 1963. Caquis. Brasil. 19: 24.
Anon. 1965. Caqui so detesta mismo o vento forte na maturarao. O Dirigente Rural 4 (9):
18, 20.
Anon. 1977. Carta Informativa #97: [cherimoya]. Sociedad Amer. de Ciencias
HorticolasRegion Tropical.
Anon. 1977. C B F [Citrus blackfly] update: Parasite Lab. Proposed and quarantine line
extended. Pl. Indus. News 19 (2): 3-5.
Anon. 1977. Certified Star Ruby is (finally!) here. Plant Indus. News 18 (3): 6-7.
Anon. 1951. Ceylon jack fruit can be grown in India. Indian Food Packer 5 (12): 17-18.
Anon. 1942. Chemistry investigations ... The non-volatile acids and flavor of the soursop,
were studied. Rpt. of Puerto Rico Exp. Sta. 1940. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C. Pp.
88-91.
Anon. 1967. Choko pickles. Queensland Agr. J. 93 (4): 251.
Anon. 1982. Chymopapain approved. FDA Drug Bull. 12 (3): 17 -18.
Anon. 1977. Citrus blackflyeradication or containment. Plant Indus. News 18 (4): 3-5,
15-18.
Anon. 1983. Citrus Budwood Registration-a model program for quality control. Plant Indus.
News 24 (4): 3-7, 15.
Anon. 1965. Collar rot and shell bark in lemon trees. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News. Apr. P.
343.
Anon. 1978. Cultivar and germplasm. releases: papaya. HortSci. 13 (5): 527.
Anon. 1962. Cultivo de la curuba [Passiflora mollissima] Rev. Nac. de Agr. 55(691): 54.
Anon. 1959. Dehydration of litchis. Ann. Rpt. for 1957-59. Fruit Res. Sta., Hort. Res. Inst.,
Dept. of Agr., Uttar Pradesh, Saharanpur, India. P. 17.
(Bibliography)
Anon. 1975. Deno Giannandrea and his kiwifruit. Blue Anchor 52 (4): 17-20.
Anon. 1975. Development and prospects of pineapple production industry. J. PH. Statist. 26
(2): ix-xxix.
Anon. 1982. Disk surgery the easy way [papaya]. Amer. Health (5): 84.
Anon. 1962. Drug research and development of new drugs. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 21A (5):
227.
Anon. 1968. Drying lychee fruit. Fla Grower & Rancher 6 1: 11.
Anon. 1964. Estudio economico de pre-inversion en plantas frutales. Inst. Latirroarnericano
de Mercadeo Agricola, Bogoti, Colombia. Pp. 1-13 & tables.
Anon. 1981. Estudo nacional da despesa familiar. Tabelas de composiciao de alimentos. 2nd
ed. Fundacion Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Anon. 1979. Exotic plants declared weeds [Pereskia]. So. Aff. Dig. June 1. P. 19.
Anon. 1983. Feijoas forge ahead. New Zeal. J. Agr. 147 (2): 58.
Anon. 1986. Flordaprince peach now available. Amer. Fruit Grower 106 (1): 36.
Anon. 1980. Florida Christmas merry and green [lychee]. Fla. Market Bull. 23 (24): 1.
Anon. 1982. Florida exports sunshine. Fla. Market Bull. 25 (6): 1, 4.
Anon. 1953. Grapefruit born of scalawag tree. Fla. Grower & Rancher. Oct. P. 5.
Anon. 1963. Guavas. The Farmer (Jamaica) 68: 2-4, 57-59, 84, 97.
Anon. 1967. Hybrid No. 5 papaw seed unavailable. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 31 (9):
215.
Anon. 1965. Hybrid papayas gaining popularity. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News. Apr. P. 399.
Anon. 1978. In search of the perfect peeler. Amer. Fr. Grower 98 (6): 8.
Anon. 1982. In search of the perfect pine. So. Aft. Dig. Jan. 15, p. 16 (from Sci. Prog. 14
(3)).
Anon. 1965. jenipapeiro 6 boa essincia e vai bem no Nordeste. 0 Dirigente Rural 4 (8): 28.
Anon. 1977. Kiwifruit conquers new lands. World Farming 19 (1): 14, 18-19, 31.
Anon. 1986. Kiwifruit is nutritional food. The Orchardist of New Zealand 58 (4): 177; 1985;
reproduced in HortSci. 21 (1): 13: 1986.
Anon. 1977. Kiwifruit pioneers Tanimotos still see bright future. Blue Anchor 54 (1): 21-22.
Anon. 1971. Le palmier Dattier en Tunisie. Fiche Technique #29. Ministere de
I'Agriculture, Direction de la Production Agricole, Div. de la Vulgarisation Agricole. 16 pp.
Anon. 1954. Lemonade concentrate - the rush is on. Fla Grower & Rancher, Aug. Pp. 11,
28.
Anon. 1973. Lemonscultivation lacks organization. Rev. of the economic situation of
Mexico 49 (569): 152-157.
Anon. 1829. Library of entertaining knowledge: Description and listing of vegetable
substances used in the arts and in domestic economy: timber trees, fruits. Charles Knight,
London.
Anon. 1958. Lychee Varieties. Fruit Varieties & Hort. Dig. 13 (2).
(Bibliography)
Anon. 1975. Mainland papaya consumption looking up. Blue Anchor 52 (1): 22-24.
Anon. 1904. Materia Medica Mexicana: A manual of Mexican medicinal herbs. Mexican
Nat'l Comm., St. Louis, Mo.
Anon. 1954. Mayan husk tomato is well received in Iowa. Better Iowa 40 (24): 2.
Anon. 1982. Mexican canker investigated. Plant Indus. News 24 (2): 6-7.
Anon. 1958. Monstera deliciosa. Bull. #7. National Botanical Garden, Lucknow, India.
Amon. 1979. Mystery disease threat to Valley's date palms. Houston Chronicle Dec. 23, P.
18. Sec. 1.
Anon. 1965. Nematode fumigation lifts pineapple yield. Queensland Agr. J. 91 (12):
712-714.
Anon. 1970. New pineapple variety for 1975. Queensland Agr. J. 96 (5): 317.
Anon. 1966. One ton pines - picked and loaded in 8 minutes. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News
29 (19): 444-445.
Anon. 1964. Oriental persimmons, California grown. Blue Anchor 40 (4): 8-12.
Anon. 1981. Oroblanco grapefruit. Amer. Fruit Grower 101 (6): 26.
Anon. 1974. Papaw dieback and calcium deficiency. Queensland Agr. J. 100 (7): 316.
Anon. 1967. Papaya insect control, pests to watch, what to do about them. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 75 (8): 27.
Anon. 1977. Pawpaw cure. So. Afr. Dig. Apr. 29, p. 28.
Anon. 1963. Pectin and papain from raw papaya. Ann. Rpt. Central Food Tech. Res. Inst.
Mysore, India. 1961-1962. Pp. 66-68.
Anon. 1968. Persimmons. Blue Anchor 45 (4): 42.
Anon. 1980. Picture caption: "Unusual bunch of 12 pineapples". So. Afr. Dig. Mar. 28.
(from The Star).
Anon. 1975. Pomegranates a specialty for the Don Miller family. Blue Anchor 52 (4):
29-30.
Anon. 1977. Poor fruiting on tamarillo. New Zeal. J. Agr. 135 (5): 63.
Anon. 1962. Possible use for lychee roots. Fla. Dept. Agr., Div. of Pl. Indus. 4 (1): 4.
Anon. 1974. Problems in Paradise. Amer. Fr. Grower 94 (1): 14.
Anon. 1977. Production of Maui papayas moving up at Princess Orchards. Blue Anchor 54
(4): 40-44.
Anon. 1965. Pruning breadfruit trees. Agr. Exten. Leaflet No. 4. Div. of Agr., Dept. of
Resources & Dev., Trust Terr. of the Pacific Islands, Saipan, Marianna Islands.
Anon. 1973. Pruning of tamarillo. New Zeal. J. Agr. 127 (4): 9.
Anon. 1962. Rambutan (condensed from Tech. Bull. #7, Coll. of Agr., U. of Phil.). Farmers'
J 4 (2): 10, 12-15.
Anon. 1891. Report on the condition of tropical and semitropical fruits in the United States
in 1887. Bull. #1. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Pornology, Washington, D.C.
Anon. 1974. Scientific literature reviews on generally recognized as safe (GRAS) food
(Bibliography)
ingredients - papain. PB-228-540. Prepared for FDA by Food & Drug Res. Lab., Inc., East
Orange, NJ. Distributed by Nat'l Tech. Info. Serv., U.S. Dept. Commerce, Washington, D.C.
86 pp.
Anon. 1983. Slipped disc drug gains approval. AARP News Bull. 24 (1).
Anon. 1978. 'Star Ruby' case upheld. Plant Indus. News 20 (1): 9, 19-20.
Anon. 1977. 'Star Ruby' distributed. Plant Indus. News. 18 (4).
Anon. 1977. Steady kiwi expansion. Blue Anchor 54 (5): 30.
Anon. 1978. "Strange fruit" no longer strange to eastern retailers. Blue Anchor 55 (5):
21-23.
Anon. 1970. Talking over tamarillos. New Zeal. J. Agr. 120 (6): 111.
Anon. 1979. (based on report by P.J. Ferree, U.S. Agr. Attach, Bangkok). Thailand brakes
growth of pineapple industry. For. Agr. 17 (10): 10.
Anon. 1953. The Cape gooseberry. Queensland Agr. J. 76 (5): 288-290.
Anon. 1949. The feijoa: host for fruit fly in New South Wales. The Seed & Nursery Trader,
Sept. 20. P. 13.
Anon. 1942. The nonvolatile acids of the carambola were investigated. Report of the Puerto
Rico Exper. Sta., U.S. Dept. Agr. 1940 (issued May 1942). Pp. 91-93.
Anon. 1961. The Queensland Agricultural and Pastoral Handbook. Vol. 11. 2nd ed. Fruits
and Vegetables. Dept. of Agr. & Stock, Brisbane, Australia.
Anon. 1971. The world banana economy. Commodity Bull. Set. #50. Food & Agr. Org. of
the United Nations, Rome. 65 pp.
Anon. 1966. The world's largest persimmon ranch. Blue Anchor 43 (4): 20-21.
Anon. 1972. Transporte de banana por barco volador resulta ripido y eficiente. La Hacienda
67 (10): 20-21.
Anon. 1961. Transvaal lowveld farmers now 'milk' their pawpaws. So. Afr. Sugar J. 45 (10):
886.
Anon. 1961. Tree tomatoes popular in New Zealand. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News. 19 (13):
307 (reproduced from NX Orchardist).
Anon. 1953. Uses of New Zealand grapefruit. New Zeal. J. Agr. 87 (5): 491-496.
Anon. 1970. Vegetative propagation of jaman. Indian Horticult. 14 (2): 17.
Apelbaum, A., G. Zauberman and Y. Fuchs. 1977. Prolonging storage life of avocado fruits
by subatmospheric pressure. HortSci. 12 (2): 115-117.
Aponte, C. E. 1963. El cultivo de guayaba en Puerto Rico. Carib. Agr. 1 (3): 199-215.
Aponte, C.E. 1974. El cultivo del agaucate, Pt. 1. La Hacienda 69 (12): 23-26.
Appleman, D. 1944. Preliminary report on toxicity of avocado leaves. Calif. Avocado Soc.
Yearbook. P. 37.
Aragaki, M., S. Nakata and C. Long. 1969. The etiology, including nutritional
considerations, of passion fruit brown spot in Hawaii. Pl. Dis. Rep. 53 (10): 789-792.
Aranha, C. 1970. A Arvore do tomate. O Estado de Sao Paulo, Supp. Agricola, Nov. 25, p.
4.
(Bibliography)
Araque, R. 1963. El higo. Serie de Cultivos #7. Consejo de Bienestar Rural, Caracas, Venez.
12 pp.
Araque, R. 1963. La pifia. Serie de Cultivos #5. Consejo de Bienestar Rural, Caracas,
Venez. 33 pp.
Araque, R. 1967. Produccion de frutales en Venezuela (Mimeo). Consejo de Bienestar
Rural, Caracas. 28 pp.
Araujo, J. 1965. Seleccione sus papayas por medio de la flor. Agr. en el Salvador 6 (4,5,6):
3-5.
Archapong, A. and F. Wieneke. 1977. Processing of plantain in simple operations. Proc.
Int-'I Conf. on Rural Develop. Tech.: An International Approach. Asian Inst. Tech.,
Bangkok. Pp. 227-242.
Arctander, S. 1960. Perfume and flavor materials of natural origin. Steffen Arctander,
Elizabeth, NJ. 370 pp.
Arechavaleta, J. 1902. Flora Uruguay Vol. 11 (Part 1). Establecimiento Tipo-litografico
"Oriental", Montevideo, Uruguay. 160 pp.
Arias, 0. 1979. Efecto del flurenol en la produccion de hijos laterales de pejibaye (Bactris
gasipaes HBK). Agron. Costarr. 3 (1): 47-52.
Ariosa Terry, M.D. 1982. Una nueva enfermedad de la guayaba (Psidium guajava L.) en la
provincia de Sancti Spiritus. Centro Agricola 9 (2): 3-7.
Arostegui, F., C. F. Asenjo and A. 1. Munez. 1954. Studies on the West Indian Cherry,
Malpikhia punic!foh4 L., observation and data on a promising selection. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 67: 250-255.
Arostegui, F., C.F. Asenjo, A. L Muniz and L. Alemany. 1955. Observations and data on a
promising selection of the West Indian Cherry, Malpighia punicifolia L. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 39 (2): 51-56.
Arnoldo, M. and P.W. Hummelinck. 1936. Over Hylocereus undatus. Succulenta. 8: 1-5.
Arroyo, R. 1943. Preparacion de vinos en el hogar usando la manza Malaya, tambien
conocido como pomarrosa americana. Agr. Exper. 3 (3): 9-12.
Arpaia, M.L., F.G. Mitchell, A.A. Kader and G. Mayer. 1986. Ethylene and temperature
effects on softening and white core inclusions of kiwifruit stored in air controlled
atmospheres. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 111 (1): 149-153.
Arshad Ali, M. and Tarikul Alam, M. 1963. Quantitative survey of Holarrhena
antidysenterica (Kurchi) and Emblica officinalis plants in the andhermanik forests of the
Chittagong Forest Division. Pakistanj. Sci. 15 (4): 161-165.
Arteaga, P.H. 1957. Papayo (Carica papaya L.). Cafe de el Salvador 27 (302/3): 33-34.
Arumugam, S. and K.G. Shanmugavelu. 1975. Studies on the effect of Sarcotesta on the
seed germination of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Seed Research 3 (2): 77-80.
Asenjo, C.F. 1953. The story of the West Indian Cherry. Bol. del Colegio de Quimicos 10
(8-11): 1-11.
Asenjo, C.F. 1959. Vitamin C in acerola and rose hips. J. Agr. U. of Puerto Rico 43 (3):
212-213.
(Bibliography)
Asenjo, C.F. and A.R. Freise de Guzman. 1946. The high ascorbic acid content of the West
Indian Cherry. Science 103: 219.
Asiedu, J.J. 1980. Foodstuff technology: the processing of plantain, an example from
Ghana. GATE 3: 19-20.
Asprey, G. F. and P. Thornton. 1953. Medicinal plants from Jamaica. Pt. 1. West Indies
Med. J. 2 (4): 233-252.
Assaf, R. and P. Rivals. 1977. Neoculture du nflier du Japon (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.).
Fruits 32 (4): 237-251.
Astridge, S.J. 1975. Cultivars of Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis) in New Zealand.
Econ. Bot. 29: 357-360.
Atchley, J. and P.A. Cox. 1984. Breadfruit fermentation in Micronesia. Econ. Bot. 39 (3):
326-335.
Aubert, B., R. Vogel, J. M. Bove, and C. Bove. 1982. Virus infections of Citrus transmitted
by aphids in the island of Reunion. [Volkamer lemon]. Fruits 37 (7-8): 441-465.
Audas, J.W. 1919. The litchi. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria 17 (6): 371-373.
Aurnhammer, G., H. Wagner, L. Hrhammer and L. Farkas. 1971. Synthese des
7-B-neohesperidosyl-4'-B-D-glucopyranosyl-naringenins, eines Flavanontriglykosides aus
citrusfrchten. Chem. Ber. 104: 473-478.
Awad, N.M. and H. Amenomori. 1972. Astringency removal in persimmon fruits with
ethephon. HortSci. 7 (2): 174.
Awada, M. 1977. Relations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization to nutrient
composition of the petiole and growth of papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 (4): 413-418.
Awada, M. and C. Long. 1978. Relation of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization to fruiting
and petiole composition of 'Solo' papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103 (2): 217-219.
Awada, M. and C. Long. 1971. Relation of petiole nitrogen levels to nitrogen fertilization
and yield of papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 96 (6): 745-749.
Awada, M., R. Suchisa, and Y. Kanchiro. 1975. Effects of lime and phosphorus on yield,
growth, and petiole composition of papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 100 (3): 294-298.
Awadallab, A., S. Fouds, O.F. Selim, and A.G. Hashem. 1975. The chemical control of the
Zizyphus fruit fly, Carpomyia incompleta, Becker, in Assiut area. Agr. Res. Rev. 53 (1):
123-125.
Ayala, A. 1968. Nematode problems of pineapple in Puerto Rico. In: Tropical Nematology;
G.C. Smart and V.G. Perry, editors. Pp. 49-60.
Ayers, E.L. 1957. Erinose. Fla. Lychee Growers Assn. Year Book and Proc. 5th Ann. Mtg.,
Winter Haven, Fla. Pp. 15-17.
Azam, B., F. Lafitte, F. Obry and J. L. Paulet. 198 1. Le Feijoa en NovelleZlande. Fruits
36 (6): 361-384.
Bafna, A.M., N.M. Parikh, G.B. Shah and P.M. Bhatt. 1983. Effect of long term fertilisation
on yield of sapota. (Achras sapota L.) [sapodilla] and N fractions in soil. So. Indian Hort. 31
(2/3): 66-69.
Bailey, F.L. 1952. Culture of feijoa trees. New Zeal. J. Agr. 84 (4): 291-293, 295-296.
(Bibliography)
Bailey, F.L. and E. Topping. 1951. Chinese gooseberries, their culture and uses. Bull. 349.
New Zeal. Dept. Agr., Wellington, N.Z. 23 pp.
Bailey, L.H. 1947. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 3 vols. (Reprint of 1942 ed.).
The Macmillan Co., N.Y. 3639 pp.
Bajpai, P.N. 1957. Blossom biology and fruit set in Phyllanthus emblica. Indian J. Hort. 14
(2): 99-102.
Bajpai, P.N. and R.K. Trivedi. 1961. Storage of mango seedstone. Hort. Adv. 7: 228-229.
Bakhshi, J.C. and N.S. Randhawa. 1967. Bright prospects for guava cultivation in the
Punjab. Indian J. Hort. 11 (3): 3-4, 23.
Bakker, W. 1974. Notes on East African plant virus diseases VI: Virus diseases of
Passiflora in Kenya. E. Aft. Agr. & For. J. 40 (1): 11-23.
Baldry, J. and F.D. Dempster. 1976. Green bananas for cooking: a study of taste-panel
preferences between certain clones. Trop. Sci. 18 (4): 219-225.
Balls, A.K., R.R. Thompson and M.W. Kies. 1941. Bromelin-properties and commercial
production. Indus. & Engrg. Chem. 33 (7): 350-353.
Bandyopadhyay, C. and A.S. Gholap. 1979. On the chemical composition of mango kernel
fat (Mangifera indica L.) Curr. Sci. 48 (21): 935-936.
Banks, N.F. 1964. Tree tomatoes, a rich source of vitamin C for winter. New Zeal. Agr. 108
(4): 413.
Banta, E.D. 1952. Behold! The lychee. Amer. Fr. Grower, Oct. 10-11, 20-21.
Barker, W.G. 1959. A system of maximum multiplication of the banana plant. Trop. Agr.
(Trin.) 36: 275-284.
Barmore, C.R. and E.F. Mitchell. 1975. Ethylene preripening of mangos prior to shipment.
Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. Vol. 88: 469-471.
Barmore, C.R. and A.H. Rouse. 1976. Pectinerase activity in controlled atmosphere stored
avocados. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 101 (3): 294-296.
Barnett, G. B. 1947. The papaw or papaya (Carica papaya). Leaflet 542; reprinted from J.
Dept. Agr. W. Aust. 15, 2nd Ser. (1): 21-29. W. Aust. Dept. Agr., Perth. 9 pp.
Barnett, G. B193 1. The pineapple. Bull. (reprinted from Agr. Gaz. Feb. 1931). New So.
Wales Dept. Agr. 5 pp.
Barrau, J. 1959. Investigation to extend season of breadfruit yield. So. Pacific Quart. Bull. 9
(2): 41, 43.
Barrett, M.F. 1956. Common exotic trees of South Florida. Univ. Fla. Press, Gainesville, Fl.
Barrett, O.W. 1928. The tropical crops. The Macmillan Co., N.Y.
Barreveld, W.H. 1941. Industrial use of second quality dates. World Crops 23 (4): 209-210.
Barron, R.W. and R. W. Olsen. 1960. Processed products from Murcott orange. Pt. 11.
Characteristics of processed products. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 73: 279-283.
Baslas, K.K. 1961. Essential oil from the flowers of Mangifera indica. Perf. & Ess. Oil
Record. Mar.: 156-158.
Basu, D. and R. Sen. 1974. Alkaloids and coumarins from root-bark of Aegle marmelos.
(Bibliography)
Phytochem. 13: 2329-2330.

Bates, R. P. 1964. Factors affecting foam production and stabilization of tropical fruit
products. Food Tech. 18 (1): 93-96.
Bates, R. P. 1968. The retardation of enzymatic browning in avocado puree and guacamole.
Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 81: 230-235.
Beal, P.R. 1975. Hybridization of Passiflora edulis Sims and P. edulis Sims f. flaticarpa
Degener. Bull. 723. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 32 (1): 101 -111.
Beal, P.R. 1981. Screening of mango varieties at Bowen, Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. &
Anim. Sci. 38 (1): 71-85.
Becker, S. 1958. The production of papainan agricultural industry for tropical America.
Econ. Bot. 12 (1): 62-79.
Bedoya, L., J., 0. Medina L., R.D. Zarate R., and R. Torres M. 1983. Etiologia de la
pudricion radicular de Maracuya Amarillo Passiflora edulis var. flaticarpa Degener. Acta
Agron. 33 (4): 54-60.
Beerh, 0. P. and V. R. Rane. 1964. Utilization of Rangpur limes. Indian Food Packer 18 (2):
22-24.
Behl, P.N., R.M. Captain, B.M.S. Bedi and S. Gupta. 1966. Skin-irritating and sensitizing
plants found in India. Dr. P.N. Behl, Dept. Derm., Irwin Hosp. & M.A. Med. Coll., New
Delhi. 206 pp.
Bembower, W. and A. Champoopho. 1955. Mango varieties of Thailand. Indiani. Hort. 12
(2): 58-62.
Ben-Aire, R. and S. Guelfat-Reich. 1976. Softening effects of CO, treatment for removal of
astringency from stored persimmon fruits. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 101 (2): 179-181.
Ben-Aire, R., N. Segal, and S. Guelfat-Reich. 1984. The maturation and ripening of the
'Wonderful' pomegranate. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109 (6): 898-902.
Benero, J.R., L.E. Cancel, and A.L. Rivero. 1970. Dehydration of fermented citron. J. Agr.
U. Puerto Rico 54 (3): 508-516.
Benero, J.R., A.L. Collazo de Rivera and L.M.I. de George. 1974. Studies on the preparation
and shelf-life of soursop, tamarind, and blended soursop- tamarind soft drinks. J. Agr. U.
Puerto Rico 58 (1): 99-104.
Benero, J.R., and A.J. Rodriguez. 1971. Mango pulp extracting method. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 60 (4): 513-515.
Benero, J.R., A.A. Rodriguez and A. Collazo de Rivera. 1972. A mechanical method for
extracting tamarind pulp. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 56 (2): 185-186.
Benero, J.R., A.J. Rodriguez, and A. Roman de Sandoval. 1971. A soursop pulp extraction
procedure. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 55 (4): 518-519.
Ben-Jaacov, J., B. Steinitz and Y. Tendler. 1984. Dark storage of calamondin. HortSci. 19
(2): 263-264.
Benschoter, C.A., R.J. King and P.C. Witherell. 1984. Large chamber fumigations with
methyl bromide to destroy Caribbean fruit fly in grapefruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 97:
123-125.
(Bibliography)
Benthall, A.P. 1946. Trees of Calcutta and its neighborhood. Thacker Spink & Co. (1933)
Ltd., Calcutta. 513 pp.
Bento de Oliveira, J. 1959. Tamareirasda viabilidad desta cultura em Cabo Verde. V. Cabo
Verde 11 (122): 12-15.
Bento de Oliveira, J. 1960. Tamareirasda viabilidade desta cultura ern Cabo Verde. VI.
Cabo Verde 11 (124): 29-34.
Ben-Yehoshua, S. 1969. Gas exchange transpiration and the commercial deterioration in
storage of orange fruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 94: 524-528.
Ben-Yehoshua, S., B. Shapiro, and 1. Kobiler. 1982. New method of degreening lemons by
a combined treatment of ethylene-releasing agents and seal-packaging in high-density
polyethylene film. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (3): 365-368.
Berk, Z. 1973. Soybean proteins for bananas. Israel J. Res. & Devel. 1 (2): 29-30.
Bernhardt, L.W., Z. de Martin, and E. Angolucci. 1971/72. Industrializacao do pseudofruto
do cajueiro. Coletanea do Inst. de Tech. de Alimentos 4: 47-61.
Berrill, F.W. 1966. New chemical flower induction in pines. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News
29 (1): 9-10.
Berrill, F.W. 1959. Plant sword-leaved banana suckers. Queensland Agr. J. 85 (1): 15-17.
Bertin, Y. 1976. La taille de Favocatier a la Martinique. Fruits 31 (6): 391-399.
Bertin, Y. 1970. L' Avocatier en Martinique. Proc. 7th Ann. Mtg. C.F.C.S., pp. 101-104.
Bettai Gowder, R. and 1. Irulappan. 197 1. Performance of 'Neelum' variety of mango
(Mangifera indica L.) on polyembryonic rootstocks as compared to that on monoembryonic
rootstock. Madras Agr. J. 58 (3): 183-189.
Beutel, J.A., F.H. Winter, S.C. Mannars and M.W. Miller. 1976. A new crop for California:
kiwifruit. Calif. Agr. 30 (10): 5-7. (reprinted under the title "Growing, Processing and
Marketing kiwifruit", Blue Anchor 54 (1): 18-21; Jan. Teb. 1977).
Beutel, M. 1975. Kiwifruit recipes. Kiwi Growers of Calif., P.O. Box 922, Gridley, Calif.
95948. 64 pp.
Bhaduri, A. P., R.P. Rastogi, and N.M. Khanna. 1968. Biologically active carissone
derivatives. Indian J. Chem. 6 (7): 405-406.
Bhakuni, D. S., S. Tewari and M. M. Dhar. 1972. Aporphine alkaloids of Annona squamosa.
Phytochem. 11: 1819-1822.
Bhan, K.C. and P.K. Mazumder. 1956. Propagation trials on banana. II. Butts and bits of
rhizomes as planting materials. Indian J. Hort. 13 (3): 141-148.
Bhan, K.C. and P.K. Mazumder. 1961. Propagation trials on banana. III. Effect of age of
suckers and season of planting on banana production. Ind. J. Hort. 18 (3): 187-197.
Bharath, S. 1969. Cultivation of papaw in Trinidad and Tobago. Crop Bull. #15. Min. of
Agr., Lands and Fish., (Trin. & Tobago); pp. 3-7.
Bharath, S. 1970. Guava propagation from stem cuttings in Trinidad. J. Agr. Soc. Trin. and
Tobago. 70 (4): 396-399.
Bhatia, B.S. and G. Lal. 1956. Development of products from jack fruit. Pt. VI. Canned
green jack fruit in brine and in curry. Indian Food Packer 10 (8): 7-8.
(Bibliography)
Bhatia, B.S. and G. Lal. 1956. Development of products from jack fruit. Pt. VII: Dried green
jack fruit and jack pickle. Indian Food Packer 10 (9): 13-14.
Bhatia, B. S., G. L. Mehra, and K. G. Nair. 1963. Dehydration of litchi (Litchi chinensis).
Food Sci. 12 (11): 313-315.
Bhatia, B.S., G.S. Siddappa and G. Lal. 1955. Development of products from jack fruit. Pt.
I. Frozen canned jack fruit and jack fruit jam. Indian Food Packer 9 (9): 8-12.
II. jack fruit preserve, candy, chutney and dried bulbs. Indian Food Packer 9 (11): 7-9.
III. Canned jack seeds in brine, tomato sauce and curry. Indian Food Packer 10 (1): 9-10, 12.
IV. jack fruit concentrate, powder, pulp, toffees and squash. Indian Food Packer 10 (6):
11-12, 18.
V. Dried jack seeds and flower, roasted nut and jack "papad" (papai). Indian Food Packer 10
(7): 9.
Bhatia, B.S., G.S. Siddappa and G. Lal. 1960. Preparation of pectin, pectin extract and syrup
fromjack fruit rind. Food Sci. 9 (12): 421.
Bhatia, B.S., G.S. Siddappa and G. Lal. 1956. Some physicochemical changes in canned
jack-fruit during storage. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15C (4): 91-95.
Bhatia, I.S. and K.L. Bajaj. 1975. Chemical constituents of the seeds and bark of Syzygium
cumini. Plapta Med. 28: 346-352.
Bhatia, I.S., S.K. Sharma and K.L. Bajaj. 1974. Esterase and galloyl carboxylase from
Eugenia jambolana (Lam.) leaves. Indian J. Exper. Biol. 12: 550-552.
Bhatnagar, S.S., H. Santapan, F. Fernandez, V.N. Kamat, N.J. Dastoor, and T.S.N. Rao.
1961. Physiological activity of Indian medicinal plants [jambolan]. J. Sci. & Indus. Res.
20A (8): 1-24.
Bhutiani, R.C. 1956. Fruit and vegetable preservation industry in India. [jackfruit]. Cent.
Food Tech. Res. Inst., Mysore, India.
Bhutiani, R.C., J.V. Shankar and P.G. Kutty Menon. 1963. Papaya. Cent. Food Tech. Res.
Inst., Mysore, India.
Bickern, W. 1903. Bietrag zur kenntnis der Casimiroa edulis La Llave. Arch. de Pharmacie
241: 166-176.
Bielorai, H., J. Shalhevet, and Y. Levy. 1983. The effect of high sodium irrigation water on
soil salinity and yield of mature grapefruit orchard. Irrig. Sci. 4: 255-266.
Bierrenbach de Castro, J. 1973. As goiabas australianas. O Estado de Sao Paulo, 19 (944)
Supp. Pp. 8-10.
Bierrenbach de Castro, J. 1979. Cultura da lichia na regiao de Bauru, S.P. O Estado de Sao
Paulo, Supp. Agr. Jan. 31, pp. I & 3.
Biggs, R.H. and S.V. Kossuth. 1980. Modeling the effectiveness of Release as a citrus
harvest aid for 'Valencia' fruits. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 93: 301-304.
(Bibliography)
Bird, J., A. Krochmal, G. Zentmyer and J. Adsuar. 1966. Fungus diseases of papaya in the
U.S. Virgin Islands. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 50 (3): 186-200.
Bischoff, W.H. 1950. Autos-Arias-Avocados. Miami Sunday News Mag. Oct. 22, p. 20.
Bischoff, W.H. 1949. Florida pineapple comes back. Miami Sunday News Mag. July 31. p.
20.
Bischoff, W.H. 1949. Lychee fever: Florida west coast residents rush to plant trees yielding
big profit. Miami Sunday News Mag. Oct. 23: p. 20.
Bischoff, W.H. 1949. Tailor-made papaya tree. Miami Sunday News Mag. July 24, p. 20.
Bishop, E.J.B., J.B. Gradwell, J.A.G. Nell and D.M. Bradfield. 1965. Pineapple plants, a
good drought fodder for cattle. Farming in So. Aft. 41 (9): 6-7, 9.
Blaak, G. 1976. Pejibaye. Abs: on Trop. Agr. 2 (9): 9-17.
Blaak, G. 1980. Vegetative propagation of pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes HBK). Turrialba 30
(3): 258-261.
Black, R.F. and P.E. Page. 1969. Pineapple growth and nutrition over a plant crop cycle in
south-eastern Queensland. 2. Uptake and concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 26 (3): 385-405.
Blacker, G.W.J. 1960. Grafting passion vines. New Zeal. J, Agr. 101 (4): 402, 403, 405.
Blazquez, C.H. 1967. Ortanique, anew orangetangerine cross. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 80:
331-337.
Blazquez, C.H., A,G. Naylor and D. Hastings. 1966. Sphaeropsis knot of lime. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 79: 344-350.
Bloch, F. and R.J. Binder. 1960. Report on processing trials with fruits and nuts not
common in United States. Chemurgic Dig. 19 (10): 13-14.
Blohm, H. 1962. Poisonous plants of Venezuela. Harvard U. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 136
pp.
Blondeau, J.P. and Y. Bertin. 1978. Carences minrales chez la grenadille (Passiflora edulis
Sims var. flavicarpa). I. Carences totales en N, P, K, Ca, Mg. Croissance et symptomes.
Fruits 33 (6): 433-443.
Blumenfeld, A. 1980. Fruit growth of loquat. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105 (5): 747-750.
Bolt, L.C. and A.J. Joubert. 1968. Litchi grafting trials. Farming in So. Africa 44 (2): 11, 13.
Bombardelli, A., A. Bonati, B. Gabetta, E.M. Martinelli and G. Mustich. 1975. Passiflorine,
a new glycoside from Passiflora edulis. Phytochem. 14: 2661-2665.
Bonavia, E. 1890. The cultivated oranges and lemons, etc. of India and Ceylon. Vol. I, 384
pp. & Vol. II, 259 pis. W.H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W., London.
Bondad, N.D. 1982. Mango and its relatives in the Philippines. Phil. Geog. J. 26 (2): 88-100.
Bondad, N.D. 1982. Origin and distribution of mango. Phil. Geog. J. 26 (1): 44-52.
Bondad, N.D. 1980. World mango production and trade. World Crops (Nov.): 160-168.
Bopaiah, B. M. 1985. Microbial spoilage of cashew apples and its prevention. Indian
Cashew J. 16 (2): 15-17.
(Bibliography)
Borg, J. 1937. Cactia gardener's handbook for their identification and cultivation.
Blandford Press, Ltd., London.
Borrel, M. and A. Diaz. 1982. Effects of mechanical pruning on yield of citrus trees. Proc.
Internat. Soc. of Citriculture. Vol. 1. 190-194.
Bowden, R.P. 1968. Processing quality of oranges grown in the Near North Coast area of
Queensland. Queenslandj. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 25 (3): 93-119.
Bowers, R. 1981. Breadfruit-a low energy requirement source of carbohydrate for the wet
tropics. Entevicklung & landlicher raurn 15 (2): 11-13.
Bowman, G.F. 1980. Utilizacion de desperdicios de banano. La Hacienda 75 (3): 34-36.
Braddock, R.J. 1974. Citrus seeds: a potential food source. Span 17 (2): 86-87.
Braddock, R.J. and J.W. Kesterson. 1973. Dried citrus juice sacs for the food and beverage
industries. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 86: 261-263.
Brekke, J.E. and L. Allen. 1967. Dehydrated bananas. Food Technol. 21 (139): 101-105.
Brekke, J.E., C.G. Cavaletto, T.O.M. Nakayama and R.H. Suehina. 1976. Effects of storage
temperature and container lining on some quality attributes of papaya nectar. J. Agr. Food
Chem. 24 (2): 341-343.
Brekke, J.E., C.G. Cavaletto, A.E. Stafford & H.T. Chan, Jr. 1975. Mango: processed
products. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., in coop. with Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta. 26 pp.
Brimblecombe, A.R. 1961. Scale insects on papaws. Queensland Agr. J. 87 (3): 163-164,
Brite, J.R. 1951. A plantation with a futurepineapple production soars in Miami area.
Miami Herald. Aug. 12, p. 6-G.
British War Charities. 195 1. Buen Provecho: Caracas Cookery. Rev'd. Caracas J., Venez.,
p. 151, 161. [mamey].
Britton, N.L. 1918. Flora of Bermuda. Charles Scribner's Sons, N.Y.
Britton, N.L. and C.F. Millspaugh. 1920. The Bahama flora. Pub'd by authors, N.Y.
Britton, N. L. and P. Wilson. 1925-6; 1930. Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands
(Sci. Surv. P.R. and V.I.) Vol. 6, Pts. 1-4. N.Y. Acad. Sci., N.Y.
Broadley, R.A. 1974. Nematode control in banana planting material. Queensland Agr. J. 100
(7): 279-280.
Brocklehurst, K., J. Carlsson, P. Marek, P.J. Kierstan, and E.M. Crook. 1973. Covalent
chromatography: Preparation of fully active papain from dried papaya latex. Biochem. J.
133: 573-584.
Brodrick, H.T. 1971. Mango diseases. Leaflet 72. Subtrop. Fr. Ser. 12; Mango Ser. #3. Dept.
Agr. & Tech. Serv., Pretoria, So. Africa.
Brogdon, J., F.G. Butcher, G.W. Dekle, E.G. Kelsheimer, and D.O. Wolfenberger. 1966.
Lychee insect control. Cir. 131. Coop. Exten. Work, Agr. Exten. Serv., U. of Fla.,
Gainesville. 4 pp.
Brooks, R.F. and J.L. Knapp. 1983. Control of chaff scale on 'Dancy' tangerine. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 96: 367-369.
Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1952. Register of new fruit and nut varieties, 1920-1950.
(Bibliography)
[white sapote]. Berkeley, Calif.

Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1972. Register of new fruit and nut varieties, List 27. HortSci.
7 (5): 455-458. [Chinese gooseberry]
Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1982. Register of new fruit and nut varieties. List 32. HortSci.
17 (1): 19. [grapefruit]
Brooks, R.M. and H.P. Olmo. 1984. Register of new fruit and nut varieties. List 34. Lychee:
Kaimana. HortSci. 19 (3): 361.
Broughton, W.J. and B.E. Chan. 1979. Maturation of Malaysian fruits. IV. Storage
conditions and ripening of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis L. var. flavicarpa). MARDI Res.
Bull. 7 (2): 27-34.
Broughton, W.J. and S.F. Leong. 1979. Maturation of Malaysian fruits. III. Storage
conditions and ripening of guava (Psidium guajava L. var. GU3 and GU4). MARDI Res.
Bull. 7 (2): 12-26.
Broughton, W.J. and Ten Guat. 1979. Storage conditions and ripening of the custard apple
Annona squamosa L. Scientia Hort. 10: 73-82.
Broughton, W.J. and H.C. Wong. 1979. Storage conditions and ripening of chiku fruits,
Achras sapota L. Scientia Hort. 10: 377-385.
Brown, B.I. 1966. Observations on physical and chemical properties of acerola fruit and
puree. Queensland J. of Agr. & Anim. Sci. 23 (4): 599-604.
Brown, F.B.H. 1935. Flora of southeastern Polynesia. Bull. 130. Bernice P. Bishop Mus.,
Honolulu.
Brown, M.B. 1974. Kiwi culture in the Vumba. Hortus 21: 24-26.
Brown, R.L., C.S. Tang and R.K. Nishimoto. 1983. Growth inhibition from guava root
exudates. HortSci. 18 (3): 316-318.
Brown, W.H. 1921. Minor products of Philippine forests. Vol. 111. Bull. 22. Bur. Forestry,
Dept. Agr. & Nat. Res., Manila.
Brown, W.H. 1951. Useful plants of the Philippines. Vol. I (Tech. Bull. 10). Phil. Dept. Agr.
& Nat. Res., Manila.
Brown, W.H. 1946. Useful plants of the Philippines. Vol. 3 (Tech. Bull. 10) Dept. of Agr. &
Commerce, Manila.
Browne, F.G. 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Gov't Pig.
Office, Kiching, Sarawak.
Burden, O.J. 1968. A wilt of papaw caused by Verticillium dahliae Kleb. Queensland J. Agr.
& Anim. Sci. 25 (3): 153-164.
Burden, O.J. 1968. Reduction of banana anthracnose following hot-water treatment of the
green fruit. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 25 (3): 135-144.
Burdick, E.M. 1971. Carpaine: an alkaloid of Carica papaya-its chemistry and
pharmacology. Econ. Bot. 25 (4): 363-365.
Burg, S.P. and E.A. Burg. 1966. Auxin induced ethylene formation: its relation to flowering
in the pineapple. Science Mag. 27. P. 1269.
(Bibliography)
Burkill, I.H. 1935. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula (2 vols.).
Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, Eng.
Burney, B. 1980. Exotics: Second part of our guide to some that may be grown here. New
Zeal. J. Agr. 140 (3): 56.
Bums, R.M., S.B. Boswell, C.D. McCarty and BW. Lee. 1972. Experimental growing of
lemons on trellises. Calif. Agr. 26 (9): 10-15.
Bums, R.M., D.O. Rosedale, J.E. Pehrson and C.W. Coggins. 1964. Preliminary trials
indicate gibberellin delays lime maturity. Calif. Citrograph 49 (12): 488-490.
Busson, F. 1965. Plantes Alimentaries; de I'Ouest Africain. Leconte, Marseille, France.
Butani, D.K. 1975. Insect pests of fruit crops and their control: Sapota. Pesticides 9 (11):
37-39.
Butani, D.K. 1976. Insect pests of fruit crops and their control: 21. Pomegranate. Pesticides
10 (6): 23-26.
Butani, D.K. 1978. Insect pests of tamarind and their control. Pesticides. 12 (11): 34-41.
Butani, D.K. 1975. Papaya (In: "Insect pests of fruit crops and their control"). Pesticides.
Feb. P. 23.
Butani, D.K. 1978. Pests and diseases of jackfruit in India and their control. Fruits 33 (5):
351-357.
Butani, D.K. 1974. Pests of fruit crops in India and their control. #12. Loquat. Pesticides 3
(12): 17-18.
Butani, D.K. 1977. Pests of litchi in India and their control. Fruits 32 (4): 269-273.
Butcher, F. G. 195 5. A new caterpillar on lychees. Fl. Lychee Growers Assn. Year Book
and Proc. 3rd. Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fl. Pp. 19-20.
Butcher, F.G. 1956. Bees pollinate lychee blooms. Proc. Fl. Lychee Growers Assn., Winter
Haven, Fl. Nov. 14; 59-60.
Butcher, F.G. 1957. Pollinating insects on lychee blossoms. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 70:
326-328.
Butcher, F.G. 1955. Some insect problems on guavas. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 68: 292-293.
Butcher, F.G. 1957. Tung borer injury in the lychee. Proc. Fl. Lychee Growers Assn.,
Winter Haven, Fl. Nov. 11, pp. 21-22.
Butterfield, H.M. 1970. History of the persimmon, quince and pomegranate industries in
California. Blue Anchor 47 (4): 18-19, 22.
By-Products Dept., TSC. 1975. A study on production of alcohol from pineapple skin-juice.
Taiwan Sugar 22 (1): 14-16.
Cadillat, R.M. 1968. L'ananas en Amrique Centrale. Fruits 23 (2): 119-122.
Cailes, R.L. 1952. The cultivation of the Cape gooseberry. Leaflet 200 1. Reprint from J.
Agr. of Western Australia.
California Fruit Exchange. 1964. Fresh persimmon recipes. Blue Anchor 40 (4): 21-22.
Calvacante, P.B. 1972, 1974, 1979. Frutas comestiveis da Amazonia: I, II, III. Museu
Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, Brazil.
(Bibliography)
Calzada Benza, J., V. Bautista Carrasco and J. Bermudez Rodriguez. 1967. Status del
mejoramiento del papayo en la Molina, Peru. Agron. Trop. Peru 17 (4): 381-389.
Camacho, E. and J. Soria V. 1970. Palmito de pejibaye. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 14: 122-132.
Cameron, J.W. and R.K. Soost. 1986. 'C35' and 'C32': citrange rootstocks for citrus.
HortSci. 21 (1): 157-158.
Camp, W.H. 1947. Some additional comments on the naranjilla. J. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 48
(571): 159-160.
Campbell, CW. 1985. Carambola industry in Florida. HortSci. 20 (1): 16.
Campbell, CW. 1979. Effect of gibberellin treatment and hand pollination on fruit set of
atemoya (Annona hybrid). Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23: 122-124.
Campbell, C.W. 1966. Growing the mangosteen in southern Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
79: 399-401.
Campbell, C.W. 1965. Performance of peach selections at Homestead, Florida. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 78: 324-327.
Campbell, C.W. 1963. Promising new guava varieties. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 76: 363-365.
Campbell, C.W. 1976. Selection and propagation of the Spanish lime in Florida. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 89: 227-229.
Campbell, C.W. 1959. Storage behavior of fresh Brewster and Bengal lychees. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 72: 356-360.
Campbell, C.W. 1983. The bacuripari: a shade-tolerant tropical fruit tree for southern
Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 96: 219-220.
Campbell, C.W. 1965. The Golden Star carambola. Cir. S-173. U. of Florida, Agr. Exp. Sta.,
Gainesville.
Campbell, C.W. 1984. The kwai muk, a tropical fruit tree for southern Florida. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 97: 318-319.
Campbell, C.W. 1965. The naranjilla. [bulletin] Vol. 2. Rare Fruit Council of S. Fla., Inc.,
Miami.
Campbell, C.W. 1975. Ten new 'Tahiti' lime selections. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 88:455-458.
Campbell, C.W. 1973. The 'Tommy Atkins' mango. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 86: 348-350.
Campbell, C.W., R.J. Knight, Jr., and R. Olszack. 1985. Carambola production in Florida.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 98: 145-149.
Campbell, C.W. and S.P. Lara. 1982. Mamey sapote cultivars in Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 95: 114-115.
Campbell, CW. and S.E. Malo. 1981. Evaluation of the longan as a potential crop for
Campbell, C.W. and S.E. Malo. 1972. The carambola. Fruit Crops Fact Sheet 12. U. of
Florida, Coop. Exten. Serv., IFAS and USDA, Cooperating.
Campbell, C.W. and J. Popenoe. 1967. Effect of gibberellic acid on seed dormancy of
Annona diversifolia Saff. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. XV Ann. Mtg. Pp. 33-36.
(Bibliography)
Campbell, C.W., J. Popenoe and H.Y. Ozaki. 1962. Adaptation trials of tropical and
subtropical fruits on sandy soils in Broward County, Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75:
361-363.
Cancel, H.L. 1974. Harvesting and storage conditions for pineapples of the Red Spanish
variety. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 58 (2): 162-169.
Cancel, H.L. and T. Garcia de Perez. 1979. Effect of fruit size on the ripening of Edward
mangoes. J. Agr. U. of Puerto Rico 63 (4): 460-463.
Cancel, L.E., M.A. Gonzales and F. Sanchez Nieva. 1962. Elaboracion del platanutre. Pub.
#6. Lab. de Tecnol. de Alimentos, U. de Puerto Rico, Estac. Exper. Agr., Rio Piedras, P.R.
Cancel, L.E., M.A. Gonzalez, and F. Sanchez Nieva. 1964. Utilizacion de los residuos del
efflatado de la pifia-preparacion de un sirope adecuado para enlatar pifias en rebanadas.
Bull. 185. U. de Puerto Rico, Estac. Exper. Agr., Rio Piedras.
Cancel, L.E. and E.R. de Hernandez. 1979. Effect of blanching and freezing on the texture
and color of candied citron. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 63 (3): 309-314.
Cancel, L.E., I. Hernandez, and E. Rodriguez-Sosa. 1970. Lye-peeling of green papaya
(Carica papaya L.). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 54 (1): 10-27.
Cancel, L.E., J.M. RiveraOrtiz, and M.R. de Montalvo. 1972. Lye peeling of citron (Citrus
medica L.). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 56 (2): 154-161.
Caftizares Zayas, J. 1944. Los frutales en Cuba. 1944. Rev. de Agr. July, Aug.-Sept. Pp.
23-140.
Cann, H.J. 1956. Split corin in bananas. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 9 (13): 388.
Cann, H.J. 1967. The custard apple [atemoya]. Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales 18 (2): 85-90.
Cann, H.J. 1966. The papaw. Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales 77: 347-350.
Cannon, R.C. 1963. Bunchy top -a threat to bananas. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 23 (13):
296-297.
Cannon, R.C. 1957. Closer spacing of pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 83 (10): 575-578.
Cardenas, M. 1969. Manual de plantas economicas de Bolivia. Imprenta Ichthus,
Cochabamba, Bolivia.
Cary, P.R. 1982. Citrus tree density and Pruning practices for the 21 st Century. Proc.
Internat. Soc. Citriculture. Vol. 1: 165-168.
Casimir, D.J., J.F. Keffod and F.B. Whitfield. 1981. Technology and flavor chemistry of
passion fruit juices and concentrates. (Pp. 243-295 in: Advances in Food Res. Vol. 27;
edited by C.O. Chichester, E.M. Mrak and G.F. Stewart. Academic Press, N.Y.
Castaeda, R.R. 1961. El lulo: una fruta de importancia economica. Agr. Trop. 17 (4):
214-218.
Castaeda, R.R. 1961. Frutas silvestres de Colombia. Vol. 1. Author, Bogoti, Colombia.
Castellani, J.J. 1975. Flocos de banana e soja. O Estado de Sao Paulo, Supp. Agr. 1067.
Sept. 11, p. 6.
Castellar Palma, N. and A. Figueroa Escobar. 1969. Estudio biologico de dos formas de
lepidopteros: Agraulis vanillae (Linn.) y Mechanitis veritabilis (Butler) en el maracuya
(Bibliography)
(Passiflora edulis var. flavicarpa, D.) Acta Agron. 19 (1): 17-30.

Castle, W.S. 1983. Antitranspirant and root canopy pruning effects on mechanically
transplated eight-year-old 'Murcott' citrus trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108 (6): 981-985.
Castro, I.R. 1981. Studies on papain production. NSDB Tech. J. 6 (2): 61-66.
Ceponis, M.J. and R.A. Cappellini. 1985. Wholesale and retail losses in grapefruit marketed
in Metropolitan New York. HortSci. 20 (1): 93-95.
Cereda, E. and U.A. Lima. 1976. Conservacao do maracuj amarelo para consumo, "in
natura". Acta Hort. 57: 145-150. (Trop. and Subtrop. Frs.)
Chadha, K.L. 1968. Litchi cultivation in India. Indian Hort. 12 (3): 13-16, 36.
Chakraborty, D.P. 1959. Chemical examination of Feronia elephantum Corr. J. Sci. &
Indus. Res. 18B (2): 90-91.
Chakraborty, R.N., L.V.L. Sastry & G.S. Siddappa. 1962. Changes in polyphenols and
ascorbic acid during the candying of cashew apples. Indian Food Packer 16 (7): 10-11.
Chakraborty, S., R. Rodriguez, S.R. Sampathu and N.K. Saha. 1974. Prevention of pink
discolouration. in canned litchi (L. chinensis). J. Food Sci. & Technol. 11 (6): 266-268.
Chalons, M.E. 1944. Naranjillasthe golden fruit of the Andes. Agr. in the Americas 4 (6):
110-112.
Chalutz, E., J. Waks, and M. Schiffman-Nadel. 1985. Reducing susceptibility of grapefruit
to chilling injury during cold treatment. HortSci. 20 (2): 226-228.
Chan, H.T., Jr. 1979. Sugar composition of papayas during fruit development. HortSci. 14
(2): 140-141.
Chandler, W.H. 1950. Evergreen Orchards. Lea & Febiger, Phila.
Chandra, D. 1965. Recent advances in clonal propagation of guava. Allahabad Fanner 39
(4): 137-139.
Chandra Rao, B.R. and J.V. Ghat. 1981. Preliminary observations on the harmful effects of
Megascolex insignis on Carica papaya. U.A.S. Tech. Ser. 53-60.
Chandrasekhar, N. and C.S. Vaidyanathan. 1961. Some pharmacological properties of the
blood anticoagulant from Carica papaya Linn. J. Sci. Indus. Res. 20C (7): 213-215.
Chang, T.S. 1982. Kiwifruit: the Chinese way. New Zeal. J. Agr. 144 (4): 18-19.
Chapman, H.L., Jr. 1971. Citrus feeds as substitutes for grain in livestock rations. Sunshine
State Agr. Res. Report 16 (1-2): 11-14.
Chapman, K.R., J. Saranah and B. Paxton. 1979. Induction of early cropping of guava
seedlings in a closely planted orchard using urea as a defoliant. Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Anim.
Hubs. 19: 382-384.
Chapman, K.R., B. Paxton, J. Saranah and P.D. Scudamore-Smith. 1981. Growth, yield and
preliminary selection of seedling guavas in Queensland. Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Anim. Husb. 21:
119-123.
Chapman, T. 1967. Passion fruit growing in Kenya. Econ. Bot. 17 (3): 165-168.
Chapot, H. 1965. Le Citrus volkameriana Pasquale. Al Awarnia 14: 29-45.
Chapot, H. 1964. Les bigaradiers bruquetiers. Pt. 1. Al Awarnia 10: 55-95.
(Bibliography)
Charley, V.L.S. 1969. Some tropical fruit juices. Proc. Trop. & Sub trop. Fruit Conference.
Charney, P.F. and R.A. Seelig. 1967. Persimmons. 2nd rev'd ed. Fruit & Veg. Facts &
Pointers, United Fresh Fruit & Veg. Assn., Washington, D.C.
Charpentier, J.M., J. Godefroy et Y. Menillet. 1970. Interet de la couverture du sol par un
film de polyethylene sur bananeraie de Cote d'Ivoire. Fruits 25 (2): 77-85.
Chatterjee, A., R. Sen and D. Ganguly. 1978. Aegelinol, a minor lactonic constituent of
Aegle marmelos. Phytochem. 17: 328-329.
Chattopadhyay, S.B. and S.K. Bhattacharjya. 1968. Investigation on the wilt disease of
guava (Psidium guajava L.) in West Bengal. I & II. Ind. J. Agr. Sci. 38 (1): 65-72, 176-183.
Chauhan, K.S., M.K. Dhingra and P.K. Mehta. 1981. Ber responds to pruning. Indian Hort.
26 (2): 5-6.
Chauhan, K.S. and J. Singh. 1971. Effect of moisture stress and indolebutyric acid on
rooting of stem cuttings of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Indian J. Agr. Sci. 41 (4):
293-296.
Cheema, P.S., R.S. Dixit, T. Koshi and S.L. Perti. 1958. Indigenous insecticides: Pt. 11.
Insecticidal properties of the seed oil of Annona squamosa Linn. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 17C
(8): 132-134.
Chellappan, K. and J.I. Roche. 1982. A hybrid Jack. South Indian Hort. 30 (2): 76-81.
Chen, Wen-Hsun. 1949. The culture of the lychee. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 62: 223-226.
Cheshire, P.C. 1966. Papain: Trade and markets. TPI Rept. G. 25. Trop. Products Inst.,
London.
Childers, N.F., H.F. Winters, P.S. Robles and H.K. Plank. 1950. Vegetable gardening in the
tropics. Cir. 32. Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, P.R.
Chin, H.F. 1975. Germination and Storage of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) seeds.
Mal. Agr. Res. 4: 173-180.
Chinappa, B. 1968. Studies on a leaf blight disease of custard apple (Annona squamosa L.).
J.U. of Poona, Sci. Technol. Sect. 34: 117-118.
Chiossone V., C. 1938. Flora Medica del Estado Lara. Coop. de Artes Graficas, Caracas,
Venez.
Chi-Tung, S.C. 1961. Will lungan ever come of age in Florida? Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 74:
306-309.
Chopra, R.N., R. L. Badhwar, and S. Ghosh. 1965. Poisonous Plants of India. Vol. II. Indian
Coun. Agr. Res., New Delhi.
Chopra, R.N., I.C. Chopra, K.L. Handa and L.D. Kapur. 1958. Chopra's Indigenous Drugs
of India. 2nd ed. U.N. Dhur & Sons Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.
Chopra, R.N., S.I. Nayar and I.C. Chopra. 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal plants. Coun.
Sci. & Indus. Res., New Delhi.
Christopherson, E. 1935. Flowering plants of Samoa. Bull. 128. Bernice P. Bishop Mus.,
Honolulu, Hawaii.
Cibes, H.R. and S. Gaztambide. 1978. Mineral-deficiency symptoms displayed by papaya
(Bibliography)
plants grown under controlled conditions. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 62 (4): 413-423.
Cibes, H. and G. Samuels. 1961. Mineral-deficiency symptoms displayed by Smooth
Cayenne pineapple plants grown under controlled conditions. Tech. Paper 31. U. Puerto
Rico Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras.
Clark, R.K., Jr. and M.T. Ellis. 1976. The use of Release an abscission agent, to increase
the productivity of pickers on processing oranges. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 72-73.
Claus, E.P., V.E. Tyler and L.R. Brady. 1970. Pharmacognosy 6th ed. Lea & Febiger, Phila.
Clavijo, H. and J. Maner. 1975. The use of waste bananas for swine feed. Proc. of
Conference on Anim. Feeds of trop. and subtrop. origin. Trop. Prod. Inst., London.
Clement, C.R. and J. Mora Urpi. 1982. The pejibaye palm (Bactris gasipaes) comes of age.
Principes 26 (3): 150-152.
Clemente, A.M. 1960. A chamada goiaba 'Campinas'. Supl. Agricola 6 (296): 15.
Cobin, M. 1948. Notes on the grafting of Litchi chinensis Sonn. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 61:
265-268.
Cobin, M. 1945. Recent introductions and distributions [mangosteen]. In: Report of the Fed.
Exper. Sta. in Puerto Rico, 1944. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Fed. Exper. Sta,, Mayaguez, P.R. Pp. 23-24.
Cobin, M. 1948. The Barbados or West Indian cherry in Florida. Mimeo. Rpt. 14. U. of
Florida, Subtrop. Exper. Sta., Homestead, Fla.
Cobin, M. 1961. The lychee in Florida. Bull. 176 (rev, of Bull. 546, 1954.) U. of Florida,
Agr. Exten. Serv., Gainesville.
Cobin, M. 1945. Tropical fruits and vegetables: Introduction and production of tropical
fruits and vegetables. Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto Rico. 1944. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Fed. Exper. Sta., Mayaguez, P.R. P. 22.
Cobin, M. 1946. Tropical fruits [mangosteen]. In: Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto
Rico, 1945. U.S. Dept. Agr., Fed. Exper. Sta., Mayaguez, P.R. Pp. 33-34.
Cody, R.S. 1969. Expedirn pias de "la costa bananera". La Hacienda 64 (3): 42.
Coenen, J. and J. Barrau. 1961. The breadfruit tree in Micronesia. So. Pacific Bull. 11 (4):
37-39, 65-67.
Coetzee, W.H.K., M.M. Krynauw, F.F. Pratt and J.F. du T.Hugo. 1950. Guava juice and
guava sweets. Reprint #4. Farming in So. Africa. Jan: 1-4.
Cohen, A. 1982. Recent developments in girdling of citrus trees. Proc. Internat. Soc.
Citriculture. Vol. 1: 196-199.
Cohen, A., J. Lomas, and A. Rassis. 1972. Climatic effects on fruit shape and peel thickness
in 'Marsh Seedless' grapefruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97 (6): 768-771.
Cohen, C.V. 1959. Key lime disappearing; revival campaign is renewed. Miami Herald
Sept. 27, p. 28G.
Cohen, M. 1955. Clitocybe rot of lychee trees. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 68: 329-332.
Coit, J.E. 1949. Carob culture in the semi-arid southwest. Walter Rittenhouse, San Diego,
Calif.
(Bibliography)
Coit, J.E. 1951. Carob or St. John's bread. Econ. Bot. 5 (1): 82-96.
Coit, J.E. 1960. Carob research in California. Hort. Advance (India) 4: 16-20.
Coit, J.E. 1967. Carob varieties for the semi-arid southwest. Fr. Vars. & Hort. Dig. 21 (1):
5-9.
Colbran, R.C. 1969. Cover crops and nematode control in pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 95
(10): 658-661.
Colbran, R.C. and G.W. Saunders. 1961. Nematode root-rot of bananas. Queensland Agr. J.
87 (1): 22-24~
Collins, J.L. 1949. History, taxonomy and culture of the pineapple. Econ. Bot. 3 (4):
335-359.
Colom-Covas, G. 1977. Effect of plant population and fertilization on growth and yield of
papaya (Carica papaya L.). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (2): 152-159.
Condit, I.J. 1947. The fig. Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass.
Conover, R.A. 1979. Yellow strap leaf, a new disease of Florida papayas. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 92: 276-277.
Conover, R.A. and R.E. Litz. 1978. Progress in breeding papayas with tolerance to papaya
ringspot virus. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 91: 182-184.
Conover, R.A., R.E. Litz and S.E. Malo. 1986. 'Cariflora'a Papaya Ringspot Virus-tolerant
Papaya for South Florida and the Caribbean. HortScience 21 (4): 1074.
Conover, R.A. and V.H. Waddill. 1981. Permethrin as a control for the papaya fruit fly.
Consolmagno, E. 1968. Destaninizacao, melhora o caqui. Coopercotia 25: 36-40.
Conway, T. 1963. Pruning citrus and subtropical fruits: Tree tomatoes New Zeal. J. Agr.
105 (5): 425.
Cook, A.A. and F.W. Zettler. 1970. Susceptibility of papaya cultivars to papaya ringspot
and papaya mosaic viruses. Pl. Dis. Rep. 54 (10): 893-895.
Cook, O.F. 1913. Nomenclature of the sapote and the sapodilla. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb.
Vol. 16, Pt. 11. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C.
Cook, O.F. and G.N. Collins. 1903. Economic plants of Puerto Rico. Contrib. U.S. Nat.
Herb. Vol. 8, Pt. 2. Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C.
Cooke, P.D. and J.C. Caygill. 1974. The possible utilisation of plant proteases in
cheesemaking. Trop. Sci. 16 (3): 149-153.
Cooper, J.F. 1977. Lemons require complex care. Fla. Grower & Rancher 70 (5): 10-11.
Cooper, J.F. 1982. In search of the golden apple. Vantage Press, N.Y.
Cordoba V., J.A. 1961. La chirimoya. Agr. Trop. 17 (11): 647-664.
Cordoba V., J.A. 1961. La guayaba. Agr. Trop. 17 (8): 459-479.
Comer, E.J.H. 1952. Wayside trees of Malaya (2 vols.) 2nd ed. Gov't Printing Office,
Singapore.
Correll, D.S. and H.B. Correll. 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago (including the Turks
(Bibliography)
and Caicos Islands). J. Cramer, Vaduz, Germany.

Costantino, F. 1962. L'Anona cherimolia, a subtropical crop of great interest for the South.
Agricultura (Italy) 11 (12): 37-40.
Couey, H.M. and G. Farias. 1979. Control of postharvest decay of papaya. HortSci. 14 (6):
719-721.
Courtenay, C.E. 1966. Big build-up of Malayan pineapple industry. Queensland Fr. & Veg.
News 29 (7): 149, 151.
Cowen, D.V. 1965. Flowering trees and shrubs in India. Rev'd 4th ed. Thacker & Co., Ltd.,
Bombay.
Cox, J.E. 1961. Fusarium resistant rootstocks for passion vines. Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales
72 (6): 314-318.
Cox, P.A. 1980. Two Samoan technologies for breadfruit and banana preservation. Econ.
Bot. 34 (2): 181-185.
Craigmill, A.L., R.N. Eide, T.A. Shultz and Karel Hendrick. 1984. Toxicity of avocado
(Persea americana (Guatemalan var.)) leaves; review and preliminary report. Vet. & Human
Toxicology 26 (5): 381-383.
Crandall, P.G. and J.W. Kesterson. 1976. Recovery of naringin and pectin from grapefruit
albedo. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 189-191.
Craveiro, A.A., C.H.S. Andrade, F.J.A. Matos, J.W. Alencar and M.I.L. Machado. 1983.
Essential oil of Eugenia jambolana. J. Nat. Prod. 46 (4): 591-592.
Crawford, D.L. 1937. Hawaii's Crop Parade. Advertiser Pub'g Co., Honolulu.
Crawford, M. 1978. Where do we stand on mechanical citrus harvesting? Fl. Grower &
Rancher. Oct. Pp. 19-20.
Cribb, A.B. and J.W. Cribb. 1975. Wild foods in Australia. William Collins, Pub. Pty. Ltd.,
Sydney.
Crider, F.J. 1958. Airlayering the papaya. Trop. Living-Homemaker & Gardener. Sept. P.
12.
Crider, F.J. 1958. Airlayering the papaya (cont'd). Trop. Living-Homemaker & Gardener.
Oct. P. 14.
Cronauer, S.S. and A.D. Krikorian. 1984. Rapid multiplication of bananas and plantains by
in vitro shoot tip culture. HortSci. 19 (2): 234-235.
Crooks, M.R. 1978. Sparkling wine from feijoas. New Zeal. J. Agr. 136 (8): 85.
Crowther, P.C. and E.H.G. Smith. 1960. Dates from the eastern Aden Protectorate. Trop.
Sci. II (1 & 2): 90-92.
Cruz, G. L. 1979. Dicionario das plantas uteis do Brasil. Editora Civilizacao Brasileira S.A.,
Rio de Janeiro.
Cruz, G.L. 1965. Livre Verde das Plantas medicinais e industriais do Brasil. Vols. 1 & 2.
Velloso, S.A., Belo Horizonte, Brasil.
Cruz Cay, J.R. 1972. Processing chironja. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 56 (2): 183-184.
Cueto, C.U., A.G. Quintos, C.N. Peralta and M.S. Palmario. 1978. Pineapple fibers. The
(Bibliography)
retting process. II. N.S.D.B. Technology J. 3 (2): 73-79.

Cull, B.W. and F.D. Hams. 1974. Litchi finds a new home in Queensland. Queenslandj.
Agr. 100 (12): 597-603.
da Cunha Parro, A. 1971. Os alcoois superiores do sumo fermentado de caju (Anacardium
occidentale). Rev. Cienc. Agron. Lourenco Marques 4 (3) Ser. B.: 47-68.
Dadlani, S.A. and K.P.S. Chandal. 1970. The little-grown tree tomato. Indian Hort. 14 (2):
13-14.
Dahlgren, B.E. 1947. Tropical and subtropical fruits. Popular Ser., Botany #26. Chicago
Nat. Hist. Mus., Chicago.
Dahlgren, B.E. and P.C. Standley. 1944. Edible and poisonous plants of the Caribbean
Region. NAVMED. 127. U.S. Navy Dept., Bur. of Medic. and Surgery, Washington, D.C.
Dale, I.R. and P.J. Greenway. 1961. Kenya trees and shrubs. Buchanan's Kenya Estates,
Ltd., Nairobi.
Dalziel, J.M. 1948. Useful plants of West Tropical Africa (Appendix to the Flora of
W.T.A.). Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.
DaPonte, J.J. 1973. A cercosporiore de ateira, Annona squamosa L. Rev. de Agric. 48 (2-3):
121-122.
Das, R.C. and B.N. Acharya. 1969. The effect of wax emulsion on the storage life of guava
fruits (Psidium guajava L. var. Banaras Round). Plant Sci. India 1: 233-238.
Dass, H.C., H.S. Sohi, M.C. Reddy and G.S. Prakash. 1977. Vegetative multiplication by
leaf cuttings of crowns in pineapple (Ananas comosus). Curr. Sci. 46 (7): 241-242.
Dastur,J.F. 1952. Medicinal plants of India and Pakistan. D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.,
Ltd., Bombay.
Dastur, J.F. 1951. Useful plants of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. D.B. Taraporevala Sons &
Co., Ltd., Bombay.
Data, E.S., D.B. Mendiola and E.B. Pantastico. 1975. Note: Storage of Calamansi fruits
(Citrus mitis Blanco). 1. Chemical changes. Phil. Agr. 59: 119-125.
Datta, S.C., V.V.S. Murti, and T.R. Seshadri. 1969. Anew synthesis of zapotin, zapotinin
and related flavones [white sapote]. Indianj. Chem. 7 (8): 746-750.
Daulta, B.S. and K.S. Chauhan. 1982. Ber-a fruit with rich food value. Indian Hort. 27 (3):
7, 9.
Dave, K.G., R. Mani and K. Venkataraman. 1961. The colouring matters of the wood of
Artocarpus integnfolia. Pt. 111. Constitution of artocarpin and synthesis of
tetrahydroartocarpin dimethyl ether. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 20B (3): 112-121.
Dave, K.G., S.A. Telang and K. Venkataraman. 1960. The colouring matter of the wood of
Artocarpus integrifolia: Pt. II. Artocarpetin, a new flavone, and artocarpanone, a new
flavanone. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 19B (12): 470-476.
Dave, K.G. and K. Venkataraman. 1956. The colouring matters of the wood of Artocarpus
integrifolia. Pt. I. Artocarpin. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15B (4): 183-190.
Davenport, T.L. and C.W. Campbell. 1977. Stylar-end breakdown: a pulp disorder in 'Tahiti'
(Bibliography)
lime. HortSci. 12 (3): 246-248.

Davenport, T.L. and CW. Campbell. 1977. Stylar-end breakdown in 'Tahiti' lime:
aggravating effects of field heat and fruit maturity. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 (4):
484-486.
Davey, J.B. 1958. Can windbreaks improve quality of papaws. Queensland Agr. J. 84 (1):
2-6.
Davies, W.N.L. 1970. The carob tree and its importance in the agricultural economy of
Cyprus. Econ. Bot. 24 (4): 460-470.
Davis, T.A. and W. Charles. 1976. The pejibaye can take root in India. Indian Farming 26
(1): 13-14.
deAguiar Falco, M., E. Lleras, W. Estevam Kerr, and L.M. Medeiros Carreira. 1981.
Aspectos fenologicos e de produtividade do biriba (Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill.). Acta
Amazonica 11 (2): 297-306.
deAlmeida Filho, J. and J. Cambraia. 1974. Estudo do valor nutritivo do "ora-pro-nobis"
(Pereskia aculeata Mill.). Rev. Ceres 21 (114): 105-111.
deCaloni, I.B. and J.R. Cruz-Cay. 1984. Elaboration and evaluation of typical Puerto Rican
dishes prepared with mixtures of plantain, cassava and tanier flours. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico
68 (1): 67-73.
deCaloni, I.B. and F. Fernandez Coll. 1983. Elaboration, sensory and microbiological
evaluation of mofongo. [plantain] J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (2): 95-99.
deCandolle, A. 1884. Origin of cultivated plants. Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London.
DeCardenas, J. 1923. Las frutas de Cuba. Republica de Cuba, Sec. de Agr., Havana.
Dedolph, R.R., J. Hiyane and F.A.I. Bowers. 1960. A study of guava orchard renovation.
Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 76: 262-269.
Degener, O. 1946. Flora Hawaiiensis (New illustrated flora of the Hawaiian Islands). Books
1-5. Otto Degener, Riverdale, N.Y.
Degener, O. 1946-57-1963. Flora Hawaiienis (New illustrated flora of the Hawaiian
Islands). Book 6. Author, Mokuleia Beach, Waialua, Oahu.
Degener, O. 1945. Plants of Hawaii National Park, illustrative of plants and customs of the
South Seas. Author, N.Y. Bot. Gard., Bronx Park, N.Y.
Degner, R.L. and C.B. Dunham. 1977. Economic trends in the Florida avocado industry.
Degner, R.L. and M.G. Rooks. 1978. Lime production in Florida: projections and economic
implications for 1981-82. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 91: 194-197.
deHernandez, E.K. and J.R. Benero. 1982. Evaluation of four mango cultivars for nectar. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66 (3): 153-158.
Dei-tutu, J. 1975. Studies on the development of tatate mix, a plantain product. Ghana J.
Agr. Sci. 8 (2): 153-157.
Dekle, G.W. 1957. A leaf beetle feeding on the stems of lychee. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 70:
331-333.
(Bibliography)
Dekle, G. W. 1954. Insects on lychee. Fla. Subtrop. Gard. July. P. 10.

Dekle, G.W. 1955. Insects on lychees during the past year. Fla. Lychee Growers Assn. Year
Book & Proc. 3rd Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fla. 29-30.
Dekle, G.W. 1954. Some lychee insects of Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 67: 226-228.
deLange, J.H. and A.P. Vincent. 1972. Pollination requirements of Ortanique tangor.
Agroplantae 4: 87-92.
delCampillo, A. and C.F. Asenjo. 1957. Bound ascorbic acid in acerola juice. J. Agr. U.
Puerto Rico 41 (2): 134-139.
deLille, J. 1934. Nota acerca de la accion del zapote blanco sobre la tension arterial. Anales
del Inst. de Biologia, Mexico 5: 45-47.
de Lima, D.C. 1971/1972. Extracao de pectina do maracuja. Coletanea do Inst. de Tech. de
Alimentos [Brazil] 4: 63-69.
Della Monache, G., B. Botta, J.F. deMello, J.S. de Barros Coelho and F. Menichini. 1984.
Chemical investigation of the genus Rheedia; IV: Three new xanthones from Rheedia
brasiliensis. J. Nat. Prod. 47 (4): 620-625.
DePerello, A.O. 1955. Cocina Criolla [cookbook]. Editora del Caribe C. por A., Ciudad
Trujillo, Dom. Rep.
deRamallo, N.E.V. and S. Zabala. 1966. Antracnosis del Palto (Bol. 102). Estac. Exper.
Agt., Prov. Tucumin, Argentina.
deRoman, A.L. 1979. Plantana. y banana: dos cultivos colombianos amenazados por
enemigos presentes y ausentes (adaptado a partir de "Diseminacion de patgenos y control
de enfermedades en banano", seminario presentado por el Ing. Agron. Gabriel Cubillos Z.,
PEG UN-1 CA, Revista ICA-INFORMA 13 (5): 23-27.
de Sousa Correa, L., C. Rugiero and J.C. Oliveira. 1979. Propagation of yellow passion fruit
by graftage. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23: 149-150.
Deszyck, E.J. and S.V. Ting. 1960. Processed products from Murcott orange, Pt. 1:
Availability and characteristics of fruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 73: 276-279.
de Toledo Piza, Jr., C. 1963. Mudas de Caqui. Chacaras e Quintais [Sao Paulo] Apr. 15, pp.
391-392.
Deullin, R. and F. Trupin. 1965. Transport maritime des litchis. Fruits 20 (7): 341-343.
de Villiers, E.A. 1972. Which pests attack granadillas? Farming in So. Afr. Jan. 31-33, 35.
de Villiers, E.A. and D.L. Milne. 1972. Nip eelworm in the bud on granadillas. Farming in
So. Afr. 48 (8): 75-77.
Dhaliwal, J.S. 1975. Insect-pollination in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Curr. Sci. 44
(14): 527.
Dhaliwal, T.S. and J. L. Serapin. 1981. Progress in guava selection in Puerto Rico. J. Agr.
U. Puerto Rico 65 (1): 74-75.
Dhar, D.C., D.L. Shrivastara, and M. Screenivasaya. 1956. Studies on Emblica officinalis
Gaertn. Pt. I. Chromatographic study of some constituents of amla. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15C
(9): 205-206.
(Bibliography)
Dharkar, S.D., K.A. Savagaon, U.S. Kumta, and A. Sreenivasan. 1966. Development of a
radiation process for South Indian fruits: mangos and sapodillas. J. Food Sci. 31 (1): 22-28.
Dhillon, B.S., G.S. Chohan and J.S. Josan. 1982. Redblusha grapefruit. Indian Hort. 27
(3):6.
Dhillon, J.S., K. Kirpal Singh and J.C. Bakhshi. 1963. Investigations on flowering and
fruiting problems in sweet lime (C. limettioides Tanaka). The Punjab Hort. J. 3 (1): 46-53.
Dhingra, O.D. and M.N. Khare. 1971. A new fruit rot of papaya. Curr. Sci. 40 (22):
612-613.
Dhingra, P., R.S. Mehrotra and K.R. Aneja. 1980. A new postharvest disease of Annona
squamosa L. Curr. Sci. 49 (12): 472-478.
Dhuria, H.S., V.P. Bhutani and B.B. Lal. 1977. A new technique or vegetative propagation
of persimmons. Scientia Hort. 6: 55-58.
Diaz, A. and G. Coto. 1983. Chemical composition of two varieties of mango seed for
animal feeding. Cuban J. Agr. Sci. 17: 175-182.
Diaz, N. 1976. Effect of storage at 45 F (7 C) on keeping quality of 5 Chironja clones. J.
Agri. U. Puerto Rico 60 (3): 348-368.
Diaz, N., T. Rodriguez, and I.B. de Caloni. 1983. Some characteristics of the chemical
composition and general quality of the Red Spanish and PR 1-67 pineapple varieties. J. Agr.
U. Puerto Rico 67 (4): 507-513,
Diaz Polanco, C. and A. Rondon. 1971. Un tipo de Macrophomina patogeno en frutos; de
guayaba. Agron. Trop. Venez. 21 (2): 111-118.
Dickinson, T.A. 1962. Growing litchis in California. World Crops 14 (2): 55-56.
Dickson, F. 1973. Pineapples. Miami Herald. Sept. 28. P. 5-D.
Dierberger, J. 1949. Guia do fruticultor Brasileiro [catalog]. Dierberger Agricola Ltd. Sao
Paulo, Brazil.
Dietenbeck, W. 1980. Florida avocados$12.5 million industryand growing. Fla. Grower
& Rancher (Oct.). P. 6.
Djerassi, C., E.J. Eisenbraun, R. Gilbert, A.J. Lemin, S.P. Marfey and M.P. Morris. 1959.
Naturally occurring oxygen heterocyclics. 11. Characteristics of an insecticidal principle
from Mammea americana L.J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 80 (14): 3866-3897.
Dodge, C.R. 1897. Descriptive catalogue of useful fiber plants of the world. Rpt. #9. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Off. of Fiber Investigations, Washington, D.C.
Doepel, R.F. 1965. Brown spot of passion fruit. J. Agr. West. Aust. 6 (3): 4th Set. 149-151.
Doepel, R.F. 1965. Grease spot of passion fruit. J. Agr. West. Aust. 6 (5): 4th Ser. 291.
Doepel. R.F. 1966. Loquat diseases-black spot and fleck. J. Agr. West. Aust. 7 (5): 225-227.
Dominguez Gil, O.E. 1978. Insectos perjudiciales del guanabano (Annona muricata L.) en el
Estado Zulia, Venezuela. Rev. de la Fac. de Agron. 4 (3): 149-163.
Dominguez Gil, O.E. 1983. Insectos perjudiciales del guanabano (Annona muricata L.) en el
estado Zulia, Venezuela. Rev. de la Fac. de Agron. 6 (2): 699-707.
Dorsett, P.H., A.D. Shamel and W. Popenoe. 1917. Navel orange of Bahia, with notes on
(Bibliography)
some little-known Brazilian fruits. Bull. 445. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus., Washington,
D,C.
Doughty, D.D. and E. Larson. 1960. Tissue changes in experimental achee poisoning. Trop.
Geog. Med. 12: 243-250.
Douglas, J. 1980. Persimmon and loquatsviable prospects for New Zealand? New Zeal. J.
Agr. 141 (4): 11-13, 15.
Dressier, R. L. 1953. The pre-Columbian cultivated plants of Mexico. Harvard U. Bot. Mus.
Leaflet 16: 128.
Drury, Col. Heber. 1873. The useful plants of India. 2nd ed. William H. Allen & Co.,
London.
DuCharme, E.P. and R.F. Suit. 1955. Immunity of the lychee from the burrowing nematode.
Dunsmore, J.R. 1957. The pineapple in Malaya (Ananas comosus Merr.). Malayan Agr. J.
40 (3): 159-187.
Dupaigne, P. 1975. Effets biochirniques; des bromlines. Leur utilisation en therapeutique.
Fruits 30 (9): 545-567.
Dupaigne, P. 1976. Le dattier, plante saccharifere. Fruits 31 (2): 111-116.
Durand, B.J., L. Orcan, U. Yanko, G. Zauberman, and Y. Fuchs. 1984. Effects of waxing on
moisture loss and ripening of 'Fuerte' avocado fruit. HortSci. 19 (3): 421-422.
Durrani, S.M., V.K. Patil and B.A. Kadam. 1982. Effect of N, P and K on growth, yield,
fruit quality and leaf composition of sapota [Achras zapota]. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 52 (4):
231-234.
Dutta, S. 1956. Cultivation of jack fruit in Assam. Indian J. Hort. 13 (4): 189-197.
Dutta, S. 1954. jujubes of Assam. Indian J. Hort. 11 (2): 53-56.
Eaks, I.L. 1985. Effect of calcium on ripening, respiratory rate, ethylene production, and
quality of avocado fruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110 (2): 145-148.
Eaks, I.L. 1972. Effects of clip vs. snap harvest of avocados on ripening and weight loss. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 98 (1): 106-108.
Eastwood, H.W. 1942. The Monstera. Deliciosa. Agr. Gaz., New So. Wales. Jan. 1: 23.
Ebeling, W. and R.J. Pence. 1957. Orange tortrix as a pest of avocados. Calif. Citrograph.
Aug. Pp. 367-368.
Edward, J.C., Z. Naim and G. Shanker. 1964. Canker and fruit-rot of guava (Psidium
guajava L.). Allahabad Farmer 38 (2): 59-61.
Eggeling, W.J. 1951. The indigenous trees of the Uganda Protectorate. 2nd ed. Gov't of the
Uganda Protectorate, Entebbe.
Egler, F.E. 1947. The role of botanical research in the chicle industry. Econ. Bot. 1 (2):
188-209.
Einset, J.W., J.L. Lyon and P. Johnson. 1981. Chemical control of abscission and
degreening in stored lemon. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 106 (5): 531-533.
Eisen, G. 1901. The fig: its history, culture and curing with a descriptive catalogue of the
(Bibliography)
known varieties of figs. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Pomology, Washington, D.C.
El Baradi, T.A. 1963. Date growing. Trop. Abs. 23 (8): 433-479.
El Baradi, T.A. 1975. Guava. Review article. Abs. on Trop. Agr. 1 (3): 9-16.
El Baradi, T.A. 1968. Processing and by-products of dates. Trop. Abs. 23 (9): 541-546.
El Kady, M.H., M. El Said Nassar and M. El Said El Halawany. 1977. A study of the
chemical control of the citrus flat mite, Brevipalpus californicus (Banks) on guava (Psidium
guajava) trees. Agr. Res. Rev. 55 (1): 139-141.
Elliott, R. 1950. Prospects for marketing Hawaiian papaya products in the United States.
Agr. Econ. Bull. #1. U. Hawaii Coll. of Agr., Agr. Exper. Sta., Dept. of Agr. Economics.
EI-Tayet, O., M. Kucera, V.O. Marquis and H. Kucerova. 1974. Contribution to the
knowledge of Nigerian medicinal plants. Ill. Study on Carica papaya seeds as a source of a
reliable antibiotic, the BITC. Planta Med. 26: 83-89.
El-Wakeel, A.T., N.A. Ali, and I.M. Ibrahim. 1967. Bearing capacity of mature orange trees
in relation to rootstock effect. Agr. Res. Rev. U.A.R, 45 (4): 27-31.
El-Wakeel, A.T. and M.M. Eid. 1967. A citrus rootstock on heavy soil. Agr. Res. Rev.
U.A.R. 45 (4): 21-26.
EI-Wakeel, A.T., A.M. Rokba, A.M. Ezzat and M.H. Osman. 1977. Two new selected
loquat cultivars. Egypt. J. Hort. 4 (1): 33-44.
Emechebe, A.M. and J. Mukiibi. 1975. Fungicidal control of brown spot of passion fruit in
Uganda. Acta Horticulturae, Tropical Horticulture: 49: 281-289.
Emechebe, A.M. and J. Mukiibi. 1976. Nectria collar and root rot of passion fruit in
Uganda. Pl. Dis. Rep. 60 (3): 227-231.
Emeruwa, A.C. 1982. Antibacterial substance from Carica papaya fruit extract. J. Nat.
Prod, 45 (2): 123-127.
Emilsson, B. 1969. Problems in long-range transport of fresh avocados, mangoes and
pineapples. Proc. Trop. and Subtrop. Fruits Conf. Pp. 65-69.
Ervin, R.T., D.S. Moreno, J.L. Baritelle and P.D. Gardner. 1985. Pheromone monitoring is
cost-effective [California red scale on citrus]. Calif. Agr. 39 (9 & 10): 17-19.
Ewart, A. 1976. California growers turn to Kiwifruit. New Zeal. J. Agr. 132 (3): 10-11.
Ezzat, A. H., M. Naguib and S. Metwalli. 1974. Evaluation and determination of the
maturity stage of the fruits of some Annona varieties. Agr. Res. Rev. 52 (9): 7-17.
Ezzat. A.H., A.M. Rokbal, and F.A. Khalil. 1972. Seasonal changes of the loquat fruit. Agr.
Res. Rev. 50 (4): 33-38.
Fahmy, I. 1952. Grafting studies on macadamia and sapodilla in relation to carbohydrates,
using pre-girdled scions. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 65: 190-192.
Fahmy, M.A., S.A. Dewedar and M.A. Wally. 1978. Effect of calcium chloride and latex
treatments on keeping quality of avocado fruits during storage. Res. Bull. 858. Ain Shams
Univ., Cairo, Egypt.
Fairchild, D. 1931. Exploring for plants. The Macmillan Co., N.Y.
Fairchild, D. 1946. The alamoen-a citrus fruit of the tangelo type from Paramaribo. Proc. Fl.
(Bibliography)
St. Hort. Soc. 59: 151-155.

Fairchild, D. 1946. The jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia Merrill), its planting in Coconut
Grove, Fla. Paper 16. Fairchild Trop. Garden, Miami.
Fairchild, D. 1915. The mangosteen. J. Heredity. (Aug.) Pp. 339-347. Fairchild, D. 1927.
The pink-fleshed pummelo of Java. J. Heredity 18 (Oct.): 425-426.
Fairchild, D. 1947. The world grows round my door. Chas. Scribner's, N.Y.
Fairchild, G.F. and J.A. Niles. 1975. The marketing of by-products in the Florida citrus
industry. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 88: 281-285.
Farrales, J.F., A.T. Jocson and B.C. Andres. 1962. Progress report on the design and
development of a cashew juice expeller. Phil. J. Agr. 23 (1-4): 71-77.
Felizardo, B.C., R.V. Valmayor, N.B. Nazareno and J.C. Hapitan, Jr. 1964. Influence of
fertilizers on the growth and yield of calamondin (Citrus mitis Blanco). Phil. Agr. 47 (8):
412-418.
Felton, G. 1971. The use of pineapple by-products for livestock feeding. Misc. Pub. 75. U.
Hawaii Coop. Exten. Serv., Pp. 40-42.
Fennah, R.G. 1937. Lepidopterous pests of the soursop in Trinidad (1). Trop. Agr. 14 (16):
75-78.
Fennah, R.G. 1937. Lepidopterous pests of the soursop in Trinidad (2). Trop. Agr. 14 (8):
244-245.
Fennell, J.L. 1948. "Cocona"a desirable new fruit. Tech. Pub. 24 (A reprint from For. Agr.)
Inst. Interamer. de Ciencias Agr., Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Fenzi, E.O. 1915. Fruitti Tropicali e Semitropicali (Esclusi gli agrumi). Inst. Agr. Coloniale
Italiano, Firenze.
Fernandez, C.E. 1962. Pejibaye. Rev. Cafetalera. 1 (Set. 4): 5-6.
Finnegan, R.A. and E.J. Eisenbraun. 1964. Constitution of mamey wax. J. Pharm. Sci. 53
(12): 1506-1509.
Firminger, T.A. 1947. Firminger's Manual of gardening for India. 8th ed. [jackfruit].
Thacker Spink & Co. (1933), Ltd., Calcutta.
Fisher, A.E. 1968. Growers test plastic mulch in pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 94 (2):
104-108.
Fisher, J.F. and H.E. Nordby. 1965. Isolation and spectral characterization of coumarin in
Florida grapefruit peel oil. J. Food Sci. 30 (5): 869-873.
Fleming, G.D., Jr. 1953. Personal communication [lime]. Mar. 11.
Fletcher, W.A. 1952. Passionfruit culture. Bul. 135, rev'd. New Zeal. Dept. Agr., Auckland.
Fletcher, W.A. 1963. Production of subtropical fruits in 1962. [kiwi-fruit, passionfruit, tree
tomato]. New Zeal. J. Agr. 106 (6): 489-490.
Fletcher, W.A. 1958. Subtropical fruit production and planting trends. New Zeal. J. Agr. 97
(5): 484.
Flores G., A., and D. Rivas. 1975. Estudios de maduracion y almacenamiento refrigerado de
nispero (Achras sapota L.). Fitotecnia Latinoamericana 11 (1): 43-51.
(Bibliography)
Fonnesbech, A. and M. Fonnesbech. 1980. In vitro propagation of Monstera deliciosa.

HortSci. 15 (6): 740-741.
Ford, H.W. 1958. The host status of lychee with reference to the burrowing nematode. Year
Book & Proc. Fla. Lychee Growers Assn., Winter Haven, Fla. 10-12.
Ford, I. 1971. Chinese gooseberry production in France. New Zeal. J. Agr. 123 (4): 20-21.
Fouqu, A. 1973? Especies fruitieres d'Amerique Tropicale. Institut francais de recherches
fruitieres outre-mer, Paris. (with 144 35 mm. color transparencies).
Fouqu, A. 1972. Especies fruitieres d' Amerique tropicale: genre Passiflora. Fruits 27 (5):
369-382.
Foyet, M. 1972. L'extraction de la papaine. Fruits 27 (4): 303-306.
Foyet, M. and E. Bothia. 1978. Comportement de l'ananas et qualite industrielle de la rcolte
en deux sites ecologiques au Cameroun. Fruits 33 (6): 425-432.
Fraire Mora, R. 1973. Evaluacion de fungicidas en la prevencion de anthracnosis,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz del mango en Veracruz. Agr. Tec. en Mxico 3 (6):
233-236.
Fraire Mora, R. 1973. Evaluacion de fungicidas en el combate de anthracnosis
Colletotrichum sp. de papaya en Veracruz. Agr. Tec. en Mxico 3 (7): 259-261.
Franzmann, B.A. 1974. Banana rust thrips in north Queensland. Queensland Agr. J. 100
(12): 595-596.
French, R.B. and O.D. Abbott. 1951. Levels of thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin in
Florida-grown foods. Bull. 482. U. Fla., Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville.
Frossard, P. 1969. Les maladies du papayer, les maladies fongiques (Pt. 7). Fruits 24
(11-12): 473-481.
Fuchs, Y., G. Zauberman, U. Yanko and S. Homsky. 1975. Ripening of mango fruits with
ethylene. Trop. Sci. 17 (4): 211-216.
Fung-Kon-Sang, W.E. 1977. Rootstocks for grapefruit in the coastal clays of Surinam. De
Surinaamse Landbouw 25 (1): 14-19.
Gachanja, S.P. 1975. Training and pruning of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) in
Kenya. Acta Hort. 49: 219-222.
Gaillard, J.P. 1972. Approches sur la fertilisation du papayer 'Solo' au Cameroun. Fruits 27
(5): 355-360.
Gaillard, J.P. 1971. Lutte contre le Cercospora de Favocatier au Cameroun. Fruits 6 (3):
225-230.
Gallardo-Covas and R. Ingls Casanova. 1983. Insecticide evaluation for the control of
Carpophilus humeralis F. in pineapple fields of Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (2):
174-175.
Gallardo Covas, F. and S. Medina Gaud. 1983. Conditions that affect populations of
Carpophilus humeralis F. (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in the pineapple fields of Puerto Rico. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (1): 11-15.
Gallego M., F.L. 1960. Gusano del tomate de arbol. Rev. Fac. Nacional del Agronomia
(Bibliography)
(Medellin, Colombia) 20 (54): 39-43.

Ganapathy, K.M. and H.R. Singh. 1975. Passion-fruit for Malnad areas. Planters' Chronical
70 (12): 383-385.
Garcia Reyes, F. 1967. El cultivo de lulo en la zona cafetera colombiana. Rev. Cafetalera
Colombia 17 (142): 75-77.
Garcia-Rivera, J. and M.P. Morris. 1953. Mamey toxicity. Rpt. of Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto
Rico., U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Gardner, F.E. and G.E. Horanic. 1967. Poncirus trifoliata and some of its hybrids as
rootstocks for Valencia sweet orange. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 80: 85-88.
Garlick, P. 1964. More success for paper bunch covers [banana]. Queensland Fr. & Veg.
News. 25 (21): 490.
Garnsey, S.M., C.O. Youtsey, G.D. Bridges and H.C. Burnett. 1976. A necrotic ringspotlike
virus found in a 'Star Ruby' grapefruit tree imported without authorization into Florida. Proc.
Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 63-67.
Garzn Tiznado, J.A., and R.G. Alvarez. 1979. Influencia de la. densidad de poblacion
sobre el rendimiento y calido de fruto en el cultivar 'Rendidora' de tomate de cascara
(Physalis ixocarpa Brot.). Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. 23: 268-270.
Gatto, G. 1971. 11 carrubo [carob] in Sicilia. Agri. Forum 12 (10): 369-372.
Gattoni, L.A. 1961. La naranjilla. Agr. en El Salvador 2 (1): 8-12.
Gattoni, L.A. 1961. La naranjilla o lulo. Agr. Trop. 17 (4): 218-224.
Gattoni, L.A. 1957. La naranjilla o lulun. Servicio Interamer. de Cooper. Agricola., Min. de
Agr., Comercio e Industrias, Panama.
Gattoni, L.A. 1962. Naranjilla. Mexico Agricola 9 (108): 22-23.
Gattoni, L.A. 1961. Nuevo mtodo de propagacion de la pifia. Ceiba 9 (1): 13-20.
Gazit, S., I. Galon and H. Podoler. 1982. The role of nitidulid beetles in natural pollination
of Annona in Israel [atemoya]. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (5): 849-852.
Gazit, S. and A. Kadman. 1980. 13-1 mango rootstock selection. HortSci. 15 (5): 669.
Gazit, S. and Y. Levy. 1963. Astringency and its removal in persimmons. Israel J. Agr. Res.
13 (3): 125-132.
Geach, W.F. 1978. High costs, low profits affect future of both rail and highway perishable
carriers. Blue Anchor 55 (2): 21-22.
Generalao, M.L. 1980. Luscious lanzones for agro-forestry. Canopy. Jan. P. 3.
Genovar, C. 1961. The lychee, a prize fruit from the Orient finds a new home and future in
Florida. All Florida TV Week Mag., Miami News. June 3.
Gentry, J.L., Jr. and P.C. Standley. 1974. Flora of Guatemala. Vol. 24, Pt. 10, Nos. 1-2, Pub.
#1184. Field Mus. of Nat. Hist., Chicago, Ill.
George, A.P. and R.J. Nissen. 1982. Yield, growth and fruit quality of the persimmon
(Diospyros kaki L.) in south-east Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 39 (2):
149-158.
Gerlach, W.W.P. 1980. Thread blight of passion fruit and its control in Western Samoa.
(Bibliography)
Alafua Agri. Bull. 5 (2): 42-45.

Germek, E.B. 1962. A cultura da alfarrobeira [carob]. Rural (Rev. Soc. Rural Bras.) 42
(489): 33-36.
Germek, E.B. 1964. Cultura da calabura. [Jamaica cherry]. Agronomico, Brasil 16 (9/10):
34-36.
Germek, E.B. 1978. Cultura experimental da pupunha no estado de Sao Paulo [pejibaye].
Agronomico, Brasil 29/30: 96-103.
Glassman, S. 1978. Seedling citrus for central Texas and points north. Texas Horticulturist 5
(3): 7-8.
Glennie, J.D. and K.R. Chapman. 1976. A review of dieback-a disorder of the papaw
(Carica Papaya L.) in Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 33 (2): 177-188.
Glennie, J.D. and R.B. Parsons. 1981. Biuret injury of pineapples. Queensland J. Agr. &
Anim. Sci. 38 (1): 43-46.
Godora, N.R., K.S. Chauhan and S.S. Bisla. 1980. Evaluation of mid-season ripening her
(Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) germplasm. Haryana J. Hort. 9 (3-4): 101-105.
Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey, W. and W.S. Abutiate. 1973. Description of some mango cultivars in
Ghana. Ghana J. Agr. Sci. 6: 33-42.
Goldweber, S. 1965. Give yourself the raspberry. Miami News, Apr. 4 [Mysore raspberry].
Goldweber, S. 1976. The use of ethylene to preripen mango fruit. (Memorandum), U.
Florida, IFAS, Fla. Coop. Exten. Serv., Gainesville, Fla. June 3.
Gondwe, A.T.D. 1976. Cyanogenesis in passion fruit. 1. Detection and quantification of
cyanide in passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Syms) at different stages of fruit development. E.
Aft. Agr. & For. J. 42 (1): 117-120.
Gonzaga Herrera, L. and F. Lopez C. 1977. Apuntes sobre el cultivo del brevo [fig].
ICA-Informa Vol, 11, #4. Inst. Colombiano Agropecuario, Ayudantes de Tcnico, Distrito
ATEA Pereira. Pp. 9-20.
Gonzalez Casillas, J.A. 1970. Cultivo de pltanos y bananos. La Hacienda 65 (11): 20,
22-25.
Gonzalez-Tejera. 1970. Effects of plant density on the production of a plant crop of Red
Spanish pineapple in Puerto Rico. Proc. 7th Ann. Mtg. C.F.C.S., Martinique-Guadeloupe.
1969. Pp. 72-78.
Gonzalez Villafane, E. 1982. Economic impact of modem technology on plantain
production. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66 (4): 250-253.
Goodin, J.R. and V.T. Stoutemyer. 1962. Salable carobs quicker with gibberellin. So. Florist
& Nurseryman. Oct. P. 52.
Gooding, E.G.B., A.R. Loveless and G.R. Proctor. 1965. Flora of Barbados. Overseas Res.
Pub. #7. Her Majesty's Staty. Off., London.
Goor, A. 1967. The history of the date through the ages in the Holy Land. Econ. Bot. 21 (4):
320-340.
Goor, A. 1967. The history of the pomegranate in the Holy Land. Econ. Bot. 21 (3):
(Bibliography)
215-229.
Gopalakrishna Rao, K.P. and S. Krishnamurthy. 1985. Studies on shelf-life of Coorg
mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco). So. Indian Hort. 31 (2/3): 55-61.
Gopalkrishna, N. and P.V. Deo. 1960. Role of pouches as banana bunch covers. Hort. Adv.
(India) 4: 165-167.
Gottreich, M. and Y. Halevy. 1982. Delaying ripening of the pre-harvest bananas (Dwarf
Cavendish) with gibberellins. Fruits 37 (2): 97-102.
Gould, H. P. 1940. The Oriental persimmon. Leaflet 194. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Pl. Indus.,
Washington, D.C.
Govindachari, T.R., P.S. Kalyanaaman, N. Muthukumaraswamy and B.R. Pai. 1971.
Isolation of 3 new xanthones from Garcinia mangostana Linn. Ind. J. Chem. 9 (5): 505-506.
Grant, J.A. and K. Ryugo. 1982. Influence of developing shoots on flowering potential of
dormant buds of Actinidia chinensis. Hort Sci. 17 (6): 977-978.
Grant, J.A. and K. Ryugo. 1984. Influence of within-canopy shading on fruit size, shoot
growth and return bloom in kiwifruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109 (6): 799-802.
Grant, W.G. 1960. Influence of avocados on serum cholesterol. Proc. Soc. for Ep. Biol. &
Med. 104: 45-47.
Greber, R.S. 1966. Identification of the virus causing papaw yellow crinkle with tomato big
bud virus by transmission tests. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 23 (2): 147-153.
Greber, R.S. 1966. Passion-fruit woodiness virus as the cause of passion vine tip blight
disease. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 23 (4): 533-538.
Greening, H.G. 1965. Scalicides for use on papaws in Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. &
Anim. Sci. 22 (1): 107-108.
Greenway, P.J. 1948. The papaw or papaya. E. Afr. Agr. J. 13 (4): 228-233.
Gregory, J.M. 1948. Litchi, Chinese American. Nature Mag. 41: 521-522.
Grierson, W. 1958. Finding the best lemon for Florida -a report of progress. IV. Florida
lemons for fresh fruit use. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 86: 140-146.
Grierson, W. 1982. Record grapefruit cluster. Hort. Sci. 17 (3): 301.
Grierson, W. and S.V. Ting. 1960. Florida lemons for fresh and cannery use: Variety
selection and degreening methods. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 73: 284-288.
Grierson, W. and H.M. Vines. 1965. Carambolas for potential use in gift fruit shipments.
Griffith, E. and W.H. Preston, Jr. 1971. The oriental persimmon comes north. Plants &
Gard. (Brooklyn Bot. Gard.) 27 (3): 22-24.
Griffith, E. and W.H. Preston, Jr. 1961. The oriental persimmon in the Middle Atlantic
States. Gardeners Forum (Amer. Hort. Soc.) 4 (5): 2.
Groff, G.W. 1948. Additional notes upon the history of the 'Brewster' lychee. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 61: 285-289.
Groff, G.W. 1927. Culture and varieties of Siamese pummelos as related to introductions
into other countries. Lingnan Sci. J. 5 (3): 187-254.
(Bibliography)
Groff, G.W. 1951. Describing Florida varieties of lychee. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 64:
276-280.
Groff, G.W. 1943. Some ecological factors involved in successful lychee culture. Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 56: 3-24.
Groff, G.W. 1921. The lychee and lungan, Orange Judd Co., N.Y.
Groff, G.W. (not dated) The papaya for South China. Bull. 12. Canton Christian College,
Dept. of Agr., Canton, China.
Groff, G.W. and B.F. Galloway. 1925. List of lychees introduced and distributed by the
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, U.S. Dept. Agr.
(manuscript, unpublished).
Groff, G.W. and Su-Ying Liu. 1951. Describing Florida varieties of lychee, Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 64: 276-285.
Grove, W.R. 1950. The lychee in Florida. No. 134, New Ser. Florida Dept. Agr.,
Tallahassee, Fla.
Grove, W.R. Jr. and D.R. Van Sickler. 1974. The lychee in Florida today. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 87: 338-339.
Guelfat-Reich, S. 1970. Conservation de la nifle du Japon (Eriobotrya japonica). Fruits 25
(3): 169-173.
Guerout, R. 1975. Nematodes of pineapple: a review. PANS 21 (3): 123-140.
Guillen Paiz, R. 1975. Algunas perspectivas del limon criollo en la diversification agricola.
Revista Cafetalera 149: 29-35.
Gumah, A.M. and S.P. Gachanja. 1984. Spacing and pruning of purple passion fruit. Trop.
Agr. (Trin.) 61: 143-147.
Gunkel, W.W., W.H. Kahl and L. Moffett. 1972. Mechanical planting of pineapples. Spec.
Pub. SP-01-72. Conf. Papers. Internat. Conf. on Trop. & Subtrop. Agr., Honolulu. Apr.
11-13, 1972. Pp. 242-246.
Gupta, R.C. and R.L. Madaan. 1975. Diseases of fruits from Haryana. I. A new fruit rot of
Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Curt. Sci. 44 (24): 908.
Gupta, R.C. and R.L. Madaan. 1977. Diseases of fruits from Haryana. A new leaf spot
disease of Zizyphus mauritiana Laink. Curt. S6. 46 (7): 237-238.
Gupta, V.K. and D. Mukherjee. 1980. Effect of morphactin on the storage behavior of guava
fruits. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105 (1): 115-119.
Guru Venkatesh, A.S. and Y.K. Raghunatha. Rao. 1960. Minor oilspapaya seed oil. Food
Sci. (Feb.): 49.
Guyot, A., A. Pinon and C. Py. 1974. L'ananas en Cte d' Ivoire. Fruits 29 (2): 85-116.
Guzman, D.J. 1947. Especies utiles de la flora Salvadorea. Imprenta Nacional, San
Salvador, El Salvador.
Guzman R., R., C. de Villaveces, and E. de Clavijo. 1977. Estudio de la composicion.
quimica del lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.) y obtencion de un producto comercial a partir de
este fruto. Bol. Informativo #2. Univ. Nac. Dep. de Quimica y Org. de los Estados
(Bibliography)
Americanos, Bogoti, Colombia, Pp. 59-69.

Haddad G., O. 1966. Rendimientos de parchita maracuya. Fruticultura (U. de Oriente,
Venez.) 1 (1): 17-25.
Haddad G., O. and M. Figueroa R. 1973. Estudios de la floracion y fructificacion en parcha
granadina (Passiflora quadrangularis L.). Agron. Trop. 22 (5): 483-496.
Haddad G., O., A. Ordosgoitty, and J. Bechyne. 1970. Dafios causados por Disonycha
glabrata (Fabricus) en Passiflora quadrangularis L. Agron. Trop. 20 (5): 331-334.
Haendler, H. and R. Huet. 1965. La papaine. Fruits 20 (8): 411-415.
Haendler, L. 1965. La passiflore, su composition chimique et ses possibilites de
transformation. Fruits 20 (5): 235-245.
Haendler, L. 1965. L'huile d' avocat et les produits drivs du fruit. Fruits 20: 625-633.
Haendler, L. 1966. Produits de transformation de la banane. Fruits 21 (7): 329-342.
Hahn, B.C. 1956. Panama fishing trip brings choice recipes. Miami Sunday News July 29.
[pineapple].
Hali, R. 1967. Mangosteena money-maker. Ind. J. Hort. 11 (3): 16.
Hall, D.J. 1983. Fungicides for postharvest decay control in loquats. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
96: 366-367.
Hamilton, K.S. 1965. Reproduction of banana from adventitious buds. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 42
(1): 69-73.
Hamilton, R.A. 1969. Effect of location on size and quality of papaya fruits. Misc. Pub. 64
(Proc. 5th Ann. Mtg. Hawaii papaya Indus. Assn.). U. Hawaii Coop. Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Pp. 25-27.
Hamilton, R.A. 1960. Mango varieties in Hawaii. Hort. Adv. (India). Vol. IV, p. 15.
Hamilton, R.A. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1967. Bud grafting of superior guava cultivars. Hawaii
Farm Sci. 16 (2): 6-8.
Hamilton, R.A. and W. Yee. 1969. GOUVEIA, an attractive new mango. Cir. 435. U.
Hawaii Coop. Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Hamilton, R.A. and W. Yee. 1970. Lychee cultivars in Hawaii. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 83:
322-325. [also pub'd in Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 14: 7-12].
Hamilton, R.G. 1948. Tree tomato culture. Bull. 306. (Reprinted from New Zeal. J. Agr.
Sept. 1947). New Zeal. Dept. Agr., Wellington, N.Z.
Hampton, R.E. and P.G. Thompson. 1974. Passionfruit production in Fiji. Fiji Agr. J. 36:
23-27.
Hancock, W.G. 1944. Pineapple growing in Queensland. Bull. (reprinted from Queensland
Agr. J. Oct. 1944). Queensland Dept. Agr.
Haque, S.Q. and S. Parasam. 1973. Empoasca stevensi, a new vector of bunchy top disease
of papaya. Plant Dis. Rep. 57 (5): 412-413.
Harding, P.L. 1959. The importance and early history of the 'Temple' Orange. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 72: 93-96.
Hargreaves, J.R. 1979. Damage to passion-fruit by the Queensland fruit fly, Dacus tryoni
(Bibliography)
(Froggath). Bull. 805. Queenslandj. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 36 (2): 147-150.
Harkness, R.W. 1954. Papaya growing in Florida. Mimeo. Rpt. 17. U. Fla. Sub-tropical
Exper. Sta., Homestead, Fla.
Harrar, E.S. and J.G. Harrar. 1946. Guide to southern trees. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
N.Y.
Harris, W. 1913. Notes on fruits and vegetables in Jamaica. Gov't Ptg. Off., Kingston,
Jamaica.
Hart, W.J. 1964. Why not take another look at the loquat? J. Agr. West. Aust. 5 (6) (4th
Ser.): 351.
Hartley, C.W.S. 1950. Flacourtia inermisRokam Masan. Malaya Agr. J. 33 (2): 93-97.
Hartwig, L. 1976. Growth regulators can put profits back in tangerines. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 69 (6): 8-9, 22.
Hatton, T.T. and CW. Campbell. 1959. Evaluation of indices for Florida avocado maturity.
Hatton, T.T. and R.H. Cubbedge. 1983. Preferred temperature for prestorage conditioning of
'Marsh' grapefruit to prevent chilling injury at low temperatures. HortSci. 18 (5): 721-722.
Hatton, T.T., R.H. Cubbedge, L.A. Rissee, R.W. Hale, D.H. Spalding, D. von Windeguth
and V. Chew. 1984. Phytotoxic responses of Florida grapefruit to low-dose irradiation. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109 (5): 607-610.
Hatton, T.T. Jr. and W.F. Reeder. 1972. Quality of 'Lula' avocados stored in controlled
atmospheres with or without ethylene. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 97 (3): 339-341.
Hatton, T.T. Jr. and W.F. Reeder. 1965. Ripening and storage of Florida avocados.
Marketing Res. Rpt. 697. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Hatton, T.T., W.F. Reeder and C.W. Campbell. 1965. Ripening and storage of Florida
mangos. Marketing Res. Rpt. 725. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Hatton, T.T., W.F. Reeder and J. Kaufman. 1966. Maintaining market quality of fresh
lychees during storage and transit. Marketing Res. Rpt. 770. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res.
Serv., Washington, D.C.
Hawson, M.G. and D.W. Thomas. 1968. Papaw varieties for Camaroun. J. Agr. West. Aust.
9 (2) 4th Ser.: 85-88.
Hayes, W.B. 1953. Fruit growing in India. 2nd rev'd ed. Kitabistan, Allahabad, India.
Heam, C.J. 1984. Development of seedless orange and grapefruit cultivars through seed
irradiation. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109 (2): 270-273.
Hearn, C.J. 1979. Performance of 'Sunburst', a new citrus hybrid. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 92:
1-3.
Heinicke, R.M. and W.A. Gortner. 1957. Stem bromelain-a new protease preparation from
pineapple plants. Econ. Bot. 11 (3): 225-234.
Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1985. Ethnobotany of the naranjilla (Solanum quitoense) and its relatives.
Econ. Bot. 39 (1): 4-11.
Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1972. The relationships of the naranjilla. Biotropica 4 (2): 77-84.
(Bibliography)
Heiser, C.B., Jr. and J. Len. 1955. The pejibaye palm. Nature Mag. 48: 131-132.
Hendrickson, R. and J.W. Kesterson. 1961. Grapefruit seed oil. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 74:
219-223.
Hendrickson, R. and J.W. Kesterson. 1954. Hesperidin, the principal glucoside of oranges.
Bull. 545. U. Fla., Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Henricksen, H.C. and M.J. Iorns. 1909. Pineapple growing in Porto Rico. Bull. 8. Porto Rico
Agr. Exper. Sta., Mayaguez.
Henry, F.E., G.B. Macfie and L.H. Young. 1981. Processing Puerto Rican plantains for the
school lunch program. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 94: 309-311.
Herbas A., R. 1969. El mosaico del caqui (Diospyros kaki) y a1gunas propiedades eisicas de
su agente causal. Turrialba 19 (4): 480-490.
Herklots, G.A.C. 1972. Vegetables in South-East Asia. Haftier Press Div., Macmillan Pub'g
Co., Inc., N.Y.
Hernandez, I. 1973. Storage of green plantains. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 62 (2): 100-106.
Hernandez, J., J.M. Rivera, and C.E. Bueso. 1976. VitaminC enrichment of banana nectar. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 60 (2): 250-251.
Hernandez-Medina, E. 1952. Filter press cake increases pineapple yields in Puerto Rico.
Bull. 104. U. Puerto Rico Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras.
Hernandez-Medina, E. 1969. Further evidence of the need of magnesium for pineapple in
oxisols. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 53 (4): 357-368.
Hernandez-Medina, E. 1970. Yield response of the Red Spanish pineapple in Puerto Rico as
affected by different levels of magnesium. Proc. 7th Ann. Mt., C.F.C.S.,
Martinique-Guadeloupe. 1969.
Hernandez-Medina, E., J. Velez-Santiago and M.A. Lugo-Lopez. 1970. Root development
of acerola trees as affected by liming. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 54 (1): 57-61.
Hernandez Roque, F. 1974. Ensayo de resistencia del jitomate y del tornate de ciscara, al
"Chino" y a la mosquita blanca en el estado de Morelos. Agr. Tcn. Mxico 3 (8): 305-309.
Hernandez Roque, F. and J. L. Carrillo S. 1973. Parasitismo natural de Trichogramma spp.
en gusano del fruto, del tomate de cscara. en el Estado de Morelos Agr. Tcn. en Mxico 3
(7): 255-258.
Hernandez-Unzon, H.Y. and S. Lakshminarayana. 1982. Biochemical changes during
development and ripening of tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica L.). HortSci. 17 (6):
940-942.
Hernandez-Unzon, H.Y. and S. Lakshminarayana. 1982. Developmental physiology of
tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica L.). HortSci. 17 (6): 938-940.
Higgins, J.E. 1924. Seediness in pineapples. Phil. Agriculturist 12 (8): 333-338.
Higgs, H. 1952. Bahamian Cook Book. 8th ed. Author. Nassau, Bahamas.
Hills, L.D. 1980. The cultivation of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). Internat. Tree Crops
J. 1: 27-36.
Hine, R.B., O.V. Holtzmann and R.D. Raabe. 1965. Diseases of papaya (Carica papaya L.)
(Bibliography)
in Hawaii. Bull. 136. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., Honolulu.

Hochstein, F.A. 1951. Medical Research Lab., Chas. Pfizer & Co., Groton, Conn. Personal
communication. May 26.
Hodge, W.H. 1947. Naranjillas or "Little Oranges" of the Andean highlands. J.N.Y. Bot.
Gard. 48 (571): 155-159.
Hodge, W.H. 1957. Solanum quitoense as an ornamental. Nat. Hort. Mag. 36 (4): 365-367.
Hodge, W.H. 1960. The South American "sapote". Econ. Bot. 14 (3): 203-206.
Hodgson, R.W. 1960. Avocado industry of Chile. Calif. Citrograph. Feb: 123-128.
Hodgson, R.W. and C.A. Schroeder. 1947. On the bearing behavior of the kaki persimmon
(Diospyros kaki). Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 50: 145-148.
Hoffman, R.W. and C.E. Kennett. 1985. Tracking CRS development by degree-days. Calif.
Agr. 39 (9 & 10): 19-20. [Calif. red scale on Navel orange]
Hofmeyr, J.D.J. 1953. Sex reversal as a means of solving breeding problems of Carica
papaya L. So. Afr. J. Sci. 49 (7): 228-232.
Hogarth, W.B. 1969. Blackheart in rough-leaf pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 95 (10): 657.
Hogarth, W.B. 1966. Zinc and pineapples. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News. Oct. 20. Pp.
389-390.
Holder, E.W. Jr. 1975. The citrus industry's spreading decline program. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 88: 85-86.
Holdridge, L.R. and A. Poveda. 1975. Arboles de Costa Rica. Vol. 1. Centro Cientifico
Tropical, San Jos, C.R.
Holtzman, O.V. and M. Ishia. 1963. Papaya mosaic virus reduces quality of papaya fruits.
Hawaii Farm Sci. 12 (4): 1-2.
Hooper, D. and H. Field. 1937. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Pub. 387. Bot. Ser.
Vol. 9, No. 3.. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago, Ill.
Hope, G.W. and D.G. Vitale. 1972. Osmotic dehydration-a cheap and simple method of
preserving bananas and plantains. Monograph IRDC-004e. Food Res. Inst., Canada Dept.
Agr., Ottawa, Can.
Hope, T. 1963. Pineapple maturity. Queensland Agr. J. 89 (7): 429.
Hope, T. 1963. Quality tests identify best avocadoes. Queensland Agr. J. 89 (11): 657-660.
Horticulture Div., Palmerston North. 1967. Poor fruiting of feijoa. New Zeal. J. Agr. 114
(8): 5.
Horticulture Div., Auckland. 1969. Cultivating feijoa. New Zeal. J. Agr. 118 (6): 11.
Hosaka, E.Y. and A. Thistle. 1954. Noxious Plants of the Hawaiian ranges. Exten. Bull. 62.
U. Hawaii Coll. Agr. with U.S. Dept. Agr. cooperating.
Hottes, A.C. 1949. Climbers and ground covers. A.T. De La Mare Co., Inc., N.Y. 2nd ptg.
Howard, A. L. 1951. A manual of the timbers of the world. 3rd ed. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.,
London.
Howard, R.A. 1961. The correct names for "Diospyros ebenaster". J. Arnold Arboretum 42
(Bibliography)
(4): 430-436.
Howell, CW. 1976. Edible fruited Passiflora adapted to South Florida growing conditions.
Hoyt, C.R. 1958. Check lists for ornamental plants of subtropical regions. Livingston Press,
San Diego, Calif.
Huet, R. and M.-C. Murail. 1972. L'huile essentielle d' orange de type Guine. Fruits 27 (4):
297-301.
Hughes, T.J. 1960. Florida's fresh lemon deal. Fla. Grower & Rancher 68 (10): 33-34.
Hughes, T.J. 1956. Lemons loom large. Fla. Grower & Rancher Dec. P. 13.
Hume, E.P. 1951. Growing avocados in Puerto Rico. Cir. 33. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res.
Serv., Washington, D.C.
Hume, E.P. 1949. Some ornamental vines for the tropics. Cir. 31. Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto
Rico, Mayaguez.
Hume, E.P. and H.F. Winters. 1949. The "palo de tomate" or tree tomato. Econ. Bot. 3 (2):
140-142.
Hume, E. P. and H. F. Winters. 1948. Tomatoes from a tree. Foreign Agr. 12 (6): 121-122.
Hume, H.H. 1941. The cultivation of citrus fruits. The Macmillan Co., N.Y.
Hume, H.H. 1903. The kumquats. Bull. 65. Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta., Lake City, Fla.
Hundtoft, E.B. 1974. Mechanized papaya harvesting dictates continuous handling concept.
Hawaii Farm Sci. 23 (2): 7-9.
Hundtoft, E.B. 1972. New concepts for papaya harvester design. Hawaii Farm Sci. 21 (1):
6-9.
Hunter, J.E. 1969. Aerial application of fungicides on papayas. Hawaii Farm Sci. 18 (2):
4-5.
Hunter, J.E. and I.W. Buddenhagen. 1972. Incidence, epidemiology and control of fruit
diseases of papaya in Hawaii. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 49 (1): 54-71.
Hunter, J.R. 1969. The lack of acceptance of the pejibaye palm and a relative comparison of
its productivity to that of maize. Econ. Bot. 25 (3): 237-244.
Hurst, E. 1942. Poison plants of New South Wales. NSW Poison Plants Comm., U. Sydney
& NSW, Dept. of Agr., Sidney, Australia.
Hwang, S.C., C.L. Chen, J.C. Lin and H.L. Lin. 1984. Cultivation of banana using plantlets
from meristem culture. HortSci. 19 (2): 231-233.
Ibrahim, A.G., G. Singh, and H.S. King. 1979. Trapping of the fruit-flies, Dacus spp.
(Diptera: Tephritidae) with methyl eugenol in orchards. Pertanika 2 (1): 58-61.
Iguina. de George, L.M., A.L. Collazo de Rivera, J.R. Benero and W. Pennock. 1969.
Provitamin A and vitamin C contents of several varieties of mango (Mangifera indica L.)
grown in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 53 (2): 100-105.
Ikramul Hao, M.Y. and A.F.M. Ehteshamuddin. 1971. Utilization of mango waste-stone
kernels. Sci. Ind. 8 (2): 207-209.
Inch, A.J. 1978. Passionfruit diseases. Queensland Agr. J. 104 (5): 479-484.
(Bibliography)
Ireta Ojeda, A. 1969. Eliminacion de plantes "masculinas" en una plantacin de papaya.

Agron. en Sinaba 3 (3): 8-9.
Ireta Ojeda, A. 1975. Estudios sobre la propagacion del litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn). por el
mtodo de acodo areo en el valle de Culiacn. Agr. Tcn. en Mxico 3 (11): 418-423.
Iriiarte, J., F.A. Kinel, G. Rosenkranz and F. Sondheimer. 1956. The constituents of
Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex. Pt. II. The bark. J. Chem. Soc.: 4170-4173.
Irizarry, H., J.J. Green, E. Rivera and I. Hernandez. 1978. Effect of planting season on yield
and other horticultural traits of the Horn type plantain Maricongo (Musa acuminata X M.
balbisiana, AAB) in North-Central Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 62 (1): 113-118.
Irizarry, H., E. Rivera, J.A. Rodriguez and J.J. Green. 1978. Effect of planting pattern and
population density on yield and quality of the Horn-type Maricongo plantain (Musa
acuminata X M. balbisiana, AAB), in North-Central Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 62
(3): 214-223.
Irizarry, H., J. Rodriguez and D. Oramas. 1979. Evaluation of four nematicides in preplant
treatments of plantain (Musa acuminata X M. balbisiana, AAB cv. Maricongo) corms. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 63 (2): 269-271.
Irizarry, H., S. Silva and J. Vicente-Chandler. 1980. Effect of water table level on yield and
root system of plantains. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (1): 33-36.
Irvine, F.R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana, with special reference to their uses, Oxford U.
Press, London.
Ismail, K.B., J. Abdullah and Yee Soi Yin. 1974. Pineapple waste studies (Study #1) Bull.
135. Min. Agr. & Fish., Malaysia.
Ito, P.J. 1978. 'Noel's Special' passion fruit. HortSci. 13 (2): 197.
Ivens, G.W. 1967. East African weeds and their control. Oxford U. Press, Nairobi.
Iyer, C.P.S., R. Singh and M.D. Subramanyan. 1978. A simple method for rapid germination
of pineapple seeds. Scientia Hort. 8: 39-41.
Jackson, G.C. 1967. Promising selections of the honeyberry (Melicocca bijuga L.) from
Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 51: 66-70.
Jackson, G.C. and W. Pennock. 1958. Fruit and vitamin C production of five- and
six-year-old acerola trees. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 42 (3): 196-205.
Jackson, L.K. and W.B. Sherman. 1972. Seedlessness in 'Tahiti' lime. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 85: 330-332.
Jacobs, C.J., H.T. Brodrick, H.D. Swarts and N.J. Mulder. 1973. Control of postharvest
decay of mango fruit in So. Africa. Pl. Dis. Rep. 57 (2): 173-176.
Jacobson, M. 1958. Insecticides from plants. Agr. Handbook 154. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr.
Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Jadan, D. 1973. A guide to the natural history of St. John. Virgin Islands Conservation Soc.,
St. John, V.I.
Jahn, O.L. 1974. Degreening of Florida lemons. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 87: 218-221.
Jahn, O.L. 1981. Effects of ethephon, gibberellin and BA on fruiting of 'Dancy' tangerines.
(Bibliography)
J. Amer. Hort. Soc. 106 (5): 597-600.

Jain, N.L. 1959. A note on drying of litchi. Indian J. Hort. 16 (3).
Jain, N.L. and D.H. Barker. 1966. Preparing beverages from guava. Indian Hort. 11 (1): 5-7.
Jain, N.L., D.P. Das and G. Lal. 1958. Utilization of cashew apples. In: Fruit and vegetable
preservation industry in India. Proc. of the Symposium. Cent. Food Tech. Res. Inst.,
Mysore.
Jain, N.L. and G. Lal. 1957. Some studies in the utilization of jack fruit wastes as a source
of pectin. Indian J. Hort. 14 (4): 213-222.
Jain, N.L. and G. Lal. 1954. Studies on the preparation of amla syrup. Bull. Cent. Food
Tech. Res. Inst., Mysore, India. 3:297-301.
Jain, N.L., G. Lal and G.V. Krishnamurthy. 1957. Further studies in the preparation and uses
of mango cereal flakes. Indian J. Hort. 14 (3): 2-8.
Jain, S.K. 1968. Medicinal plants (IndiaThe land and people). Nat. Book Trust, New Delhi,
India.
Jamwall, K.S., I.P. Sharma and C.L. Chopra. 1959. Pharmacological investigation of the
fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 18C (9): 180-181.
Jaramillo, R. 1982. Necesidad de obtener variedades de pltano resistentes a la Sigatoka
negra. Infortne Mensual (UPEB) 5 (47): 38-42.
Jaramillo C., R. 1984. Produccion del pltano en la cuenca del lago de Maracaibo,
Venezuela, Informe Mensual 8 (63): 40-44.
Jarman, C.G. 1978. Banana fibre in rural industries. Appropriate Technol. 5 (1): 25.
Jarrett, F.M. 1959. Studies in Artocarpus and allied genera. III. A revision of Artocarpus
subgenus Artocarpus. J. Arn. Arbor. XL (2): 113-368.
Jawanda, J.S. and S.K. Narula. 1983. Loquat cultivation in the Punjab. Progressive Farming
19 (12): 7-8.
Jernberg, D.C. and A.H. Krezdorn. 1976. Performance of commercial 'Nova' tangelo
plantings. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 14-17.
Jindal, K.K. and R.N. Singh. 1976. Sex determination in vegetative seedlings of Carica
papaya by phenolic tests. Scientia Hort. 4: 33-39.
Jindal, V.K. and S. Mukherjee. 1970. Structure of alkali-soluble polysaccharides from
Phoenix dactylifera seeds. Indian J. Chem. 8: 417-419.
Jindal, V. K. and S. Mukherjee. 197 1. Structure of alkali-soluble seed polysaccharide from
Phoenix dactylifera seeds: Part 2Isolation of oligosaccharides. Indian J. Chem. 9: 207-208.
Jiravatana, V., J. Cuevas-Ruiz and H.D. Graham. 1970. Extension of storage life of papayas
grown in Puerto Rico by gamma radiation treatments. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico. 54 (2):
314-319.
Johannessen, C.L. 1966. Pejibayes in commercial production. Turrialba, Rev. Interam.
Ciencia Agr. 16 (12): 181-187.
Johannessen, C.L. 1967. Pejibaye palm: physical and chemical analysis of the fruit. Econ.
Bot. 21 (4): 371-378.
(Bibliography)
Johannessen, C.L. 1966. Pejibaye palm: yields, prices and labor costs. Econ. Bot. 20 (3):
302-315.
Johannessen, C.L. 1966. The domestication process in trees reproduced by seed: the
pejibaye palm in Costa Rica. Geogr. Rev. 56 (4): 363-376.
Johar, D.S. and J.C. Anand. 1952. Nature and prevention of spoilage in amla preserves.
Indian Food Packer 6: 9-11.
Johar, D.S. and Y.S. Lewis. 1955. Pectin for jams and jellies from tamarind pulp. Indian
Food Packer 9 (4): 28-30.
Johnson, S. 1975. Funda de polietileno com insecticida protege racimos de banano. La
Hacienda 70 (3): 22-25.
Johnson, T.J. 1979. Effects of potassium on buoyancy of banana fruit. Expl. Agr. 15:
173-176.
Johnston, B. 1962. Cape gooseberries, a delicacy for many. New Zeal. J. Agr. 104 (4): 372.
Joiner, J.N. 1954. Lychee growing gains in Florida. Fla. Grower & Rancher. Sept. Pp.
12-13, 16.
Joiner, J.N. 1959. The effects of differential levels of nitrogen, potassium and magnesium
on the growth of lychees. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 72: 346-348.
Jones, M.A. and H. K. Plank. 1946. Chemical examination of mamey seed. Report of Fed.
Exper. Sta., Mayaguez, P.R. 1945. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Jones, M.A. and H. K. Plank. 1947. Chemical examination of mamey seed. Report of Fed.
Exper. Sta., Mayaguez, P.R. 1946. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Jones, W.W., T.W. Embleton, S.B. Boswell, G.E. Goodall and E.L. Barnhart. 1970.
Nitrogen rate effects on lemon production, quality and leaf nitrogen. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
95 (1): 46-49.
Jones, W.W., T.W. Embleton, M.L. Steinacker and C.B. Cree. 1970. Carbohydrates and
fruiting of 'Valencia' orange trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95 (3): 380-381.
Jones, W.W., W.B. Storey, G.K. Parris, and F.G. Holdaway. 1941. Papaya production in the
Hawaiian Islands. Bull. 87. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., U. of Hawaii.
Jordan, B. 1980. Lime production in Niue. Alafua Agr. Bull. 5 (3): 17-20.
Jordan, B. 1980. Passionfruit production in Niue. Alafua Agr. Bull. 5 (3): 9-14.
Jordan, K.R. 1969. Comparison of four fertilizer schedules for pineapples in central
Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 26: 495-508.
Jorgensen, K.R. 1978. Copper deficiency in pineapples. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 35
(2): 77-81.
Jorgensen, K.R. 1973. Fertilizing pineapples on a soil high in potassium. Queensland J. Agr.
& Anim. Sci. 30 (3): 213-223.
Jorgensen, K.R. 1969. Investigation of pineapple fertilizing methods and flower induction.
Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 26 (4): 483-493.
Joseph, G.H. 1947. Citrus productsa quarter century of amazing progress. Econ. Bot. 1 (4):
415-426.
(Bibliography)
Joubert, A.J. and L.J. van Lelyveld. 1975. An investigation of pre-harvest browning of litchi
peel. Phytophylactica 7: 9-14.
Joyner, G. 1977. Grumichama and Surinam cherries. Fla. Gardening Companion 2 (2):
12-14.
Juarez-Gutierrez, R.E. and S. Becerra Rodriguez. 1979. Comportamiento de catorce
cultivates de platano (Musa spp.) en el estado de Colima, Mexico. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci., 23: 175-178.
Judd, B.I. 1975. Goma de mascarel gran movimiento Americano. La Hacienda 70 (10):
13-14, 16. [sapodilla].
Kaln, V. 1976. Polyphenol oxidase isoenzymes in avocado. Phytochem. 15: 267-272.
Kanehiro, Y. and G.D. Sherman. 1947. Production of a dehydrated guava-flavored pectin.
U. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta. Biennial Rpt. 1944 & 1946.
Karikari, S.K. 1972. Plantain growing in Ghana. World Crops 24 (1): 22-24.
Karling, J.S. 1942. Collecting chicle in the American tropics. [sapodilla]. Torreya 42: 38-50,
104-113.
Katyal, S.L. 1969. Mango cultivation in Surinam. Indian Hort. 13 (3): 3-5.
Katyal, S.L. and D.V. Chugh. 1961. Problems in extensive litchi cultivation. Hort. Adv.
(India) 5: 39-41.
Kay, D.E. 1967. The processing of banana products. So. Pac. Bull. 2nd quarter. 17 (2):
37-41.
Kay, D.E. 1965. The production and marketing of pineapples. TPI Rpt. G: 10. Trop. Prod.
Inst., London.
Kay, D.E. and E.H.G. Smith. 1960. The production and world trade in fresh pineapples.
Trop. Sci. 11 (1 & 2): 55-63.
Kean, E.A. (Editor). 1975. HypoglycinProceedings of a Symposium Kingston, Jamaica.
Academic Press, Inc., N.Y.
Kee, N.S. and S. Thamboo. 1967. Nutrient removal studies on Malayan fruits: durian and
rambutan. Malayan Agr. J. 46 (2): 164-182.
Keeler, J.T., K. Mihata and W. Nakashima. 1961. Economic factors affecting the production
of papayas in Waimanalo, Oahu. Agr. Econ. Rpt. 49 (rev'd). Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., U.
Hawaii.
Kehat, M., D. Blumberg and S. Greenberg. 1976. Fruit drop and damage in dates: the role of
Coccotrypes dactyliperda F. and nitidulid beetles, and prevention by mechanical means.
Phytoparasitica 4 (2): 91-99.
Kennard, W.C. 1955. The passion fruits in Puerto Rico. Fr. Vars. & Hort. Dig. 10 (4):
50-60.
Kennard, W.C. and H.F. Winters. 1960. Some fruits and nuts for the tropics. Misc. Pub. 801.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Kerharo, J. 1971. Senegal bisap (Hibiscus sabdariffa) or Guinea sorrel or red sorrel. Plant.
Med. Phytother. 5 (4): 277-281.
(Bibliography)
Keshwal, R.L. 1979. Note on manganese and zinc deficiency disease in lemon and jack fruit
trees. Allahabad Farmer 50 (3): 251-253.
Kesterson, JW., R.J. Braddock, R.C.J. Koo and R.L. Reese. 1977. Nitrogen and potassium
fertilization as related to the yield of peel oil from 'Pineapple' oranges. J. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 102 (1): 3-4.
Kesterson, J.N. and R. Hendrickson. 1958. Finding the best lemon for Floridaa report of
progress. III. Evaluation of coldpressed Florida lemon oil and lemon bioflavonoids. Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 86: 132-140.
Keys, J.D. 1976. Chinese herbs, their botany, chemistry and pharmacodynamics. Charles E.
Tuttle Co., Rutland, Vt. and Tokyo, Japan.
Khalil, M.A. and M.B. Sial. 1974. Spray drying of mango juice powder. Mesopotamia J.
Agr. (Iraq) 91 (1-2): 47-56.
Khan, M.I.H. and J. Ahmad. 1985. A pharmacognostic study of Psidium guajava L.
Internat. J. Crude Drug Res. 23 (1) No. 2: 95-103.
Khorana, M.L., MR. Rajarama Rao, and H.H. Siddiqi. 1960. Expectorant activity of
Emblica officinalis Gaertn, J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 19C: 60-61.
Killip, E.P. 1938. The American species of Passifloraceae. Bot. 19. Field Mus. Natural
History, Chicago.
Kinel, F.A., J. Romo, G. Rosenkranz and F. Sondheimer. 1956. The constituents of
Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex. Pt. I. The seed. J. Chem. Soc. 4163-4169.
King, G.S., H. Sakanashi and E. Song. 1951. High powder from papaya. Indian Food Packer
5 (12): 31.
King, K. 1964. Mechanical planting of pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 90 (2): 72-75.
King, K. 1969. Storing pineapple tops. Queensland Agr. J. 95 (7): 448.
Kiser, L.A. 1960. Lickin' good is the luscious lychee. Fla. Grower & Rancher. June. P. 20.
Kishore, N. 1950. Preparation of jelly [emblic]. Indian Food Packer 4: 15-22.
Kitagawa, H., A. Sugiura, and M. Sugiyama. 1966. Effects of gibberellin spray on storage
quality of kaki. HortSci. 1 (2): 59-60.
Kizer, L.A. 1957. Citrus gemsgolden kumquats. Fla. Grower & Rancher. Jan. P. 29.
Knapp, F.F. and H.J. Nicholas. 1969. The sterols and triterpenes of banana peel. Phytochem.
8 (1): 207-214.
Knight, R.J., Jr. 1969. Edible-fruited passionvines in Florida: the history and possibilities.
Proc. Trop. Reg., Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 13: 265-274.
Knight, R.J., Jr. 1965. Heterostyly and pollination in carambola. Proc. Fla. St. Hort. Soc. 78:
375-378.
Knight, R.J., Jr. 1982. Partial loss of self-incompatibility in 'Golden Star' carambola.
HortSci. 17 (1): 72.
Knight, R.J., Jr. 1982. Response of carambola seedling populations to Dade County's oolitic
limestone soil. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 95: 121-122.
Knight, R.J., Jr. 1972. The potential for Florida of hybrids between the purple and yellow
(Bibliography)
passionfruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 85: 288-292.

Knight, R.J., Jr., W.E. Manis, G.W. Kosel and C.A. White. 1968. Evaluation of longan and
lychee introductions. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 82: 314-318.
Knight, R.J., Jr. and H.F. Winters. 1971. Mango and avocado evaluation in southeastern
Knight, R.J., Jr. and H.F. Winters. 1963. Pollination and fruit set of yellow passionfruit in
southern Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75: 412-418.
Knobb, L.C. 1958. Finding the best lemon for Florida-a report of progress. 1. The growing
of lemons in Florida: historical, varietal, and cultural considerations. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
86: 123-128.
Kok, J.B. and A.J. Joubert. 1967. Produce better litchis. Fanning in So. Africa 43 (1): 6-7, 9.
Koo, R.C.J. and R.L. Reese. 1976. Influence of fertility and irrigation treatments on fruit
quality of 'Temple' orange. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 45-51.
Koo, R.C.J., T.W. Young, R.L. Reese and JW. Kesterson. 1973. Responses of 'Bearss'
lemon to nitrogen, potassium and irrigation applications. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 86: 9-12.
Koroieveibau, D. 1966. Some Fiji breadfruit varieties. Bull. 46, Dept. Agr. Fiji.
Kotalawala, J. 1971. Mass production of pineapple planting material Trop. Agriculturist
127: 199-201.
Kotalawala, J. 1968. Pineapple cultivation in coconut land in the low-country wet zone.
Ceylon Coconut Planters' Rev. 5 (3): 112-117.
Kothan, K.L. 1968. Controlling fruit rot of guava. Indian Hort. 12 (3): 9-10.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1977. Citrus close-ups: Inconsistency in Minneola reproductive
incompatability. Fla. Grower & Rancher 70 (10): 14, 16.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1984. Citrus Trunk Line: Control quality with cultural practices. Amer. Fr.
Grower Oct. 26-27.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1983. Citrus Trunk Line: Living with blight and tristeza. Amer. Fr. Grower
103 (6): 24-25.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1982. Citrus Trunk Line: The citrus rootstock dilemma. Amer. Fr. Grower.
Oct. 26-27.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1981. Citrus Trunk Line: whatever happened to mechanical harvesting? Fla.
Grower & Rancher 101 (10): 8.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1980. Closer tree spacingis it the answer? Fla. Grower & Rancher. Aug. P.
26.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1979. Grapefruit characteristics and variety selection. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 72 (10): 22-24.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1980. Lemons and limes, their culture in Florida. Fla. Grower & Rancher 73
(6): 26-27.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1980. Mandarin acreage small. Fla. Grower & Rancher 73 (2): 13.
Krezdorn, A.H. 1979. Rootstocks: their relation to virus disease and blight. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 72 (7): 25-26.
(Bibliography)
Krezdorn, A.H. and G.W. Adriance. 1961. Fig growing in the South. Agr. Handbook #196.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Krikorian, A.D. 1968. The psychedelic properties of banana peel: an appraisal. Econ. Bot.
22 (4): 385-389.
Krikorian, A.D. and S.S. Cronauer. 1984. Aseptic culture techniques for banana and plantain
improvement. Econ. Bot. 38 (3): 322-331.
Krishnamurthi, S. and N.V. Madhava Rao. 1962. Mangosteen deserves wider attention.
Indian Hort. Oct. -Dec. 3-4, 8 & inside back cover.
Krishnamurthi, S. and V.N. Madhava Rao. 1965. The mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana
L.) and its introduction and establishment in peninsular India. Adv. in Agr. Sci., Coimbatore
(India). Pp. 401-420.
Krishna Murthy, G.V., N. Giridhar and B. Raghuramaiah. 1984. Suitability of some mango
varieties for processing. J. Food Sci. & Technol. 21: 21-15.
Krochmal, A. 1973. Algunas enfermedades comunes de la papaya. La Hacienda 73 (3): 50,
52-53.
Krochmal, A. 1969. Low volume papaya processing in Surinam. World Crops 21 (1): 22-23.
Krochmal, A. and M.R. Henderson. 1970. Empaque y embarque areo. La Hacienda 65
(12): 35-36.
Krome, W.H. 1968. Economic view of lime-growing. Econ. Bot. 22 (3): 270-272.
Kruger, N.S. and R.C. Menary. 1968. Measures against high nitrate in papaws. Queensland
Agr. J. 94 (4): 234-235.
Kuhn, G.D. 1962. Dehydration studies of lychee fruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75: 273-277.
Kuhn, G.D. 1962. Some factors influencing the properties of lychee jelly. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 75: 408-410.
Kuhne, F.A. 1968. Cultivation of granadillas (1). Farming in So. Africa 43 (11): 29-32.
Kuhne, F.A. 1968. The yellow granadilla in South Africa. Farming in So. Africa 44 (5): 7.
Kuhne, F.A. and P. Allen. 1970. Seasonal variations in fruit growth of Carica papaya. Agr.
Sci. So. Africa, Agroplanten 2 (3): 99-104.
Kumar Saha, A. 1969. Studies on fruit-set in jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.). I.
Effect [of] ringing, scoring, and shoot pruning on fruiting. Pl. Sci. India 1: 220-223.
Kunimoto, R.K., P.J. Ito and W.H. Ko. 1977. Mucor rot of guava fruits caused by Mucor
hiemalis. Trop. Agr. 54 (2): 185-187.
Labanauskas, C.K., W.W. Jones and T.W. Embleton. 1964. Effects of foliar applications of
manganese, zinc and urea on yield and fruit quality of Valencia oranges. Calif. Citrograph
49 (5): 175, 190-192.
Laemmlen, F.F. and M. Aragaki. 1971. Collar rot of papaya caused by Calonectria sp. Pl.
Dis. Rep. 55 (8): 743-745.
Lahav, E., B. Gefen, and D. Zamet. 1972. The effect of girdling on the productivity of the
(Bibliography)
avocado. Hortus 17 (Apr.): 30-33.

Lakshmi, V. and J.S. Chauhan. 1976. Grewinol, a keto-alcohol from the flowers of Grewia
asiatica. Lloydia 39 (5): 372-374.
Lakshminarayana, S., A. Gomez-Cruz and S. Martinez-Romero. 1985. Preliminary study of
a new preharvest stem-end rot and associated microflora in mango. HortSci. 20 (5):
947-948.
Lakshminarayana, S. and M.A. Moreno Rivera. 1978. Enfermedades y desordenes en la
produccion y mercadeo, de la guayaba mexicana. Chapingo, Nueva Epoca No. 9: 27-33.
Lakshminarayana, S. and M.A. Moreno Rivera. 1979. Promising Mexican guava selections
rich in Vitamin C. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 92: 300-303.
Lakshminarayana, S. and M.A. Moreno Rivera. 1979. Proximate characteristics and
composition of sapodilla. fruits grown in Mexico. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 92: 303-305.
Lakshminarayana, S., A.R. Vijayendra Rao, N.V.N. Moorthy, B. Amandaswamy, V.B.
Dalal, P. Narasimham, and H. Subraman-yam. 1971. Studies on the rail shipment of mango.
J. Food Sci. & Tech. 8: 121-126.
Lal, G. and D.P. Das. 1956. Studies on jelly making from papaya fruit. Ind. J. Hort. 13 (1):
38-44.
Lal, G., D.P. Das and N. L. Jain. 1958. Tamarind beverage and sauce. Indian Food Packer
12 (5): 13-14.
Lal, G., G.V. Krishnamurthy, N.L. Jain and B.S. Bhatia. 1960. Suitability of different
varieties of mangoes for the preparation of mango cereal flakes. Food Sci. 9 (4): 121-123.
Lal, G., G. S. Sidappa and G.L. Tandon. 1960. Preservation of fruits and Vegetables. Indian
Coun. Agr. Res., New Delhi.
Lal, G. and J. Singh Pruthi (undated). Ascorbic acid retention in pineapple products. Inc. J.
Hort. 137-141.
Landrau, P., Jr. and E. Hernandez Medina. 1959. Effects of major and minor elements, lime,
and soil amendments on the yield and ascorbic acid content of acerola (Malpighia
punicifolia L.). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 43 (1): 19-33.
Lange, A.H. 1969. Reciprocal grafting of normal and dwarf Solo papaya on growth and
yield. HortSci. 4 (4): 304-306.
Lange, A.H. 1961. Transplanting papaya versus seeding in place. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 38 (3):
235-243.
Lara Rodriguez, E.A. and M.W. Borys. 1983. El cultivo, del guayabo, Psidium guajava L.
Chapingo 8 (41): 41-45.
Larson, E., M.F. Wynn, S.J. Lynch and D.D. Doughty. 1953. Some further studies on the
akee. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 16 (3): 151-156.
Larue, M. 1975. L'Actinidia chinensis et sa culture. Fruits 30 (1): 45-50.
Lassoudiere, A. 1969. La papaine; production, proprietes, utilisation. Fruits 24 (11-12):
503-517.
Lassoudiere, A. 1969. Le papayer Pt. III. La Plante et les conditions ecologiquees. Fruits 24
(Bibliography)
(2): 3, 105-113.
Lassoudiere, A. 1969. Le papayer. Pt. 5. Analyse d'une population de papayers 'Solo' non
maintenue en selection, resultats preliminaires. Fruits 24 (4): 217-221.
Lassoudiere, A. 1969. Le papayer. Pt. 9. Recolte, conditionnement, exportation, produits
transformes. Fruits 24 (11-12): 491-502.
Laumas, K.R. and T.R. Seshadri. 1958. Chemical components of the bark of Phyllanthus
emblica. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 17B (4): 167-168.
Laurence, G. 1968. Insect problems of papaw production in Trinidad. J. Agr. Soc. Trinidad
& Tobago 68 (3): 311-312.
Lavadores Villanueva, G. 1969. Estudio de las 119 plantas medicinales mas conocidas en
Yucatan, Mexico. Univ. Nac. Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico, D.F.
Lavigne, N.F., Sr. 1976. Japanese grapefruit exports continue strong. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 69 (8): 22.
Lawler, F.K. 1967. Banana challenges food formulators. Pt. I. Food Engrng. 39 (5): 58-63.
Lawler, F.K. 1967. Banana challenges food formulators. Pt. II. Food Engrng. 39 (6): 62-65.
Lazo, F.R. 1965. El injerto del mamey colorado. Arroz 14 (148): 2.
Leal, F.J. 1970. Notas sobre la guanabana (Annona muricata) in Venezuela. Proc. Trop.
Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 14: 118-121.
Leal, F.J., M.G. Antoni and P. Rodriguez. 1979. Descripcion de cinco variedades de pia
(Ananas comosus) en Venezuela. Rev. Fac. Agron. (Maracay) 10 (1-4): 21-30.
Leal, F.J. and M.G. Antoni. 1979. Descripcion y clave de las variedades de pia cultivadas
en Venezuela. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23: 169-172.
Leal, F.J. and J. Soule. 1977. 'Maipure', a new spineless group of pineapple cultivars.
HortSci. 12 (4): 301-305.
LeBourdelles, J. and P. Estanove. 1967. La goyave aux Antilles. Fruits 22 (9): 397-412.
LeCointe, P. 1947. Arvores e plantas uteis. 2nd ed. Amazonia Brasileira III. Bibloteca
Pedagogica Brasileira, Sao Paulo.
Ledin, R.B. 1956. A comparison of three clones of Barbados cherry and the importance of
improved selections for commercial plantings. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 69: 293-297.
Ledin, R.B. 1957. A note on the fruiting of the Mauritius variety of lychee. Fla. Lychee
Growers Assn. Year Book & Proc. 5th Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fla.
Ledin, R.B. 1953. A tropical black raspberry for South Florida. Cir. s-56. U. of Fla. Agr.
Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Ledin, R.B. 1954. Florida mango census. Fla. Subtrop. Gardener. Sept.: 20-21.
Ledin, R.B. 1958. Mango varieties in Florida. Hort. Adv. Vol. II: 16-26.
Ledin, R.B. 1952. Naranjilla (Little Orange), a new fruit for Florida. Fla. Grower. Oct. Pp.
20, 26, 27.
Ledin, R.B. 1955. Rubus trials in South Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 68: 272-274.
Ledin, R.B. 1958. The Barbados or West Indian cherry. Bull. 594. U. of Fla. Agr. Exper.
(Bibliography)
Sta., Gainesville, Fla.

Ledin, R.B. 1954. The Mysore black raspberry in Florida. Fr. Vats. & Hort. Dig. 9 (1):
10-11.
Ledin, R.B. 1952. The naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam.). Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 65:
187-190.
Lee, D. 1985. The durian, a most magnificent and elusive fruit. Fairchild Trop. Garden Bull.
40 (2): 19-27.
Lee, G.R., F. Proctor and A.K. Thompson. 1973. Transport of papaya fruits from Trinidad to
Britain. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 50 (4): 303-306.
Lee, S.A. 1972. Agro-economic studies on intercropping in pineapple. Malaya Pineapple 2:
23-32.
Lee, S.A. 1977. Paraquat, diesel oil and kerosene for ratoon clearing of pineapple. Weed
Res. 17 (2): 109-111.
Lee Oi Hian and Chew Tek Ann. 1974. Allocation of resources in pomelo farms. Malay.
Agr. Res. 3: 119-126.
Lefevre, J.C. 1971. Revue de la litterature sur le tamarinier. Fruits 26 (10): 687-695.
Leigh, D.S. 1969. The papaw. Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales 80 (1): 6-11.
Leon, Hno. & Hno. Alain. 1953. Flora de Cuba. Vol. III. [Barbados gooseberry]. Museo de
Historia Nat. de la Salle, Havana.
Leon, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias Andinas. Bol. Tec. 6. Inst. Interamer. de Ciencias Agr.
Zona Andina, Lima, Peru.
Leonard, L.Y. and P.G. Sylvain. 1930. La papaye. Bull. 20. Serv. Tech. du Dept. de
l'Agriculture et de l' Enseignement professional. Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
Leu, L.S., C.W. Kao, C.C. Wang, W.J. Liang and S.P.Y. Hsieh. 1979. Myxosporium wilt of
guava and its control. Pl. Dis. Rep. 63 (12): 1075-1077.
Lever, R.J.A.W. 1965. The breadfruit tree. World Crops 17 (3): 63.
Leverington, R.E. 1963. Pineapple juice. Queensland J. Agr. 89 (4): 247.
Leverington, R.E. and R.C. Morgan. 1967. An experimental pineapple juice concentrate
plant incorporating flavour recovery. 2. Instrumentation and control of the turbulent thin
film evaporator. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 24 (1): 42-47.
Lewis, T. and E.F. Woodward. 1950. Papainthe valuable latex of a delicious tropical fruit.
Econ. Bot. 4 (2): 192-194.
Lewis, Y.S., C.T. Dwarakanath and D.S. Johar. 1956. Acids and sugars in Eugenia
jambolana. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15C (12): 280-281.
Lewis, Y.S., C.T. Dwarkanath and D.S. Johar. 1954. Utilization of tamarind pulp. J. Sci. &
Indus. Res. 13A (6): 284-286.
Li, L-Y and Chou, C-Y. 1948. Notes on the Chen-tze lychee of Henghua, Fukien, China.
Lim, T.K. and K.C. Khoo. 1983. Crusty leaf spot disease of mango. Pertanika 6 (3): 12-14.
Lim, W.H. 1974. The etiology of fruit collapse and bacterial heart rot of pineapple. MARDI
(Bibliography)
Res. Bull. (Malaya) 2 (2): 11-16.

Lind, H.Y., M.L. Bartow, and C.D. Miller. 1946. Ways to use vegetables in Hawaii. Bul. 97.
2nd ptg. U. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta., Honolulu.
Lindley, John and T. Moore. 1876. The Treasury of Botany: a popular dictionary of the
vegetable kingdom. 2nd ed (2 vols.). Longmans, Green & Co., London.
Lindsay, W.R. 1940. Mangosteen cultivation. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Congress, Washington,
D.C. 263-265.
Ling, J.S.L., S.Y. Van and F.A. Hochstein. 1958. Some pharmacological properties of
N-substituted analogs of histamine. J. Pharm. Exp. Therap. 122: 44a.
Lipitoa, S. and G.L. Robertson. 1977. The enzymatic extraction of juice from yellow
passion fruit pulp. Trop. Sci. 19 (2): 105-112.
Little, E.L., Jr. and F.H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands (Agr. Handbook 249). U.S. Dept. Agr., For. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Litz, R.E. 1984. In vitro somatic embryogenesis from callus of jaboticaba, Myrciaria
cauliflora. HortSci. 19 (1): 62-64.
Litz, R.E. 1981. Effect of sex type, season, and other factors in in vitro establishment and
culture of Carica papaya L. explants. J. Amer. Hort. Soc. 106 (6): 792-794.
Litz, R.E. and R.A. Conover. 1978. In vitro propagation of papaya. HortSci. 13 (3):
241-242.
Litz, R.E. and R.A. Conover. 1977. Tissue culture propagation of papaya. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 90: 245-246.
Liu, F.W. 1976. Ethylene inhibition of senescent spots on ripe bananas. J. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 101 (6): 684-686.
Lizana, L.A. and J.M. Errazuriz. 1978. Calidad de la naranja en el mercado mayoritario de
Santiago. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 22: 82-97.
Llorens, A.A. and R.P. Gonzalez. 1963. El mercadeo de la pia en Puerto Rico. Bull. 175.
U. Puerto Rico Estac. Exper. Agr.
Lloyd, A.C. 1972. Nitrate and nitrate reductase in papaw fruit. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim.
Sci. 29: 85-102.
Logan, M.D. 1960. The carob crusade, Amer. Forests 66 (6): 18-19, 63-65.
Lpez Garcia, J. and R. Prez Prez. 1977. Effect of pruning and harvesting methods on
guava yields. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (2): 148-151.
Lombardo, A. 1964. Flora arborea y arborescente del Uruguay. Consejo Depart. de
Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.
Longe, O.G., E.O. Famojuro, and V.A. Oyenuga. 1977. Available carbohydrates and energy
values of cassava, yam and plantain peels for chicks. E. Afr. Agr. J. 42 (4): 408-413.
Loo, T.G. 1969. Some aspects of the isolation of sugar from Ceratonia siliqua L. Koninklijk
Inst. voor de Tropen, Amsterdam.
Loomis, H.F. and R.O. Nelson. 1955. Bengal, a promising large-clustered lychee. Fla.
Lychee Growers Assn. Year Book and Proc. 3rd Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fla.
(Bibliography)
Lopes, H.C. 1972. Composicao quimica e aproveitamento de "pera" de caju. de

Mocambique. Agron. Mocamb., Lourenco Marques 6 (2): 119-131.
Lopez G., J.A. and H. Garcia T. 1968. El limon: Aspectos tecnicos, cultivo, mercado,
financiamiento y costo [Pt. I]. Rev. Mensual Asoc. Gen. de Agricultores 126 (3): 12-13,
16-17.
Lopez G., J.A. and H. Garcia T. 1969. El limon: Aspectos tecnicos, cultivo, mercado,
financiamiento y costs [Pt. II]. Rev. Mensual Asoc. Gen. de Agricultores 128 (3): 12-13,
15-18, 20, 22-23.
Lopez G., J.A. and H. Garcia T. 1969. El limon: Aspectos technicos, cultivo, mercado,
financiamiento y costo [conclusion]. Rev. Mensual Asoc. Gen. de Agricultores 129 (3):
19-22.
Lopez, H., M. Cimadevilla, E. Fernandez, C. Dubruthy, J.M. Navia, A. Valiente, I.D.
Clement and R.S. Harris. 1956. Tabla provisional de la composicion nutritiva de los
alimentos cubanos. Lab. FIM de Nutricion. Pub. #3. Comite Cubano Amer. pro Fundacion
Invest. Med. Havana, Cuba.
Lotorto, G.F. 1978. Eradication of citrus blackfly, biological and chemical control. Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 91: 192-193.
Lovering, F.W. 1956. Citron grows mostly now in Florida gardens. Fla. Grower & Rancher.
Jan. 12-18.
Loxton, P.L.D. 1970. Canned mango for export. Queensland Agr. J. 96 (4): 283.
Lunde, P. 1978. A history of date. Aramco World Mag. Mar./Apr. 21-23.
Lynch, S J., E. Larson, and D.D. Doughty. 1951. A study on the edibility of akee (Blighia
sapida) fruits of Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 64: 281-284.
Lynch, S.J. 1943. The Dade white sapote. Press Bull. 581. U. Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta.,
Gainesville, Fla.
Lynch, S.J. 1958. The effect of cold on lychees on the calcareous soils of southern Florida
1957-58. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 71: 359-362.
Lynch, S.J. and F.J. Fuchs, Sr. 1955. A note on the propagation of Phyllanthus emblica L.
Lynn, K.R. 1973. An isolation of chymopapain. J. Chromatog. 84: 423-425.
Lyons, K. 1965. Cosechero de pina colombiano se adapta a nuevos mercados. La Hacienda
60 (4): 24-25.
Lyons, K. 1966. En Peru se obtienen pias y aguacates muy buenos en area desertica La
Hacienda 61 (5): 58, 60.
Macbride, J.F. 1937. Flora of Peru. Vol. 13, Pt. 6, #2. Bot. Ser. Pub. 393. Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., Chicago.
MacDaniels, L.H. 1947. A study of the Fe'i banana and its distribution with reference to
Polynesian migrations. Bull. 190. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., Honolulu.
MacLeod, Jr., W.D. 1966. Nootkatone, grapefruit flavor and the citrus industry. The Calif.
Citrograph 51 (3): 120-123.
(Bibliography)
Macpherson, N. 1953. Banana passion fruit. New Zeal. J. Agr. Mar. 286-287.
Macpherson, N. 1954. Cape gooseberry recipes. New Zeal. J. Agr. 88 (4): 401-404.
Macpherson, N. 1952. Feijoas have a variety of culinary uses. New Zeal. J. Agr. 84 (4):
336-337.
Mahata, K.C. and S.M. Singh. 1960. Influence of source and time of planting on the
performance of hardwood cuttings of Carissa carandas L. Indian J. Hort. 17 (1): 31-37.
Maiden, J.H. 1889. The useful native plants of Australia (including Tasmania). Technol.
Mus. of New So. Wales, Sydney.
Major, R.T. and F. Dursch. 1958. Na, Na-dimethylhistamine, a hypotensive principle in
Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex. J. Org. Chem. 23: 1569.
Majumdar, P.K. and S.K. Mukherjee. 1968. Guava: a new vegetative propagation method.
Indian Hort. 12 (2): 11-35.
Mali, V.R. and P.V. Khalikar. 1977. Passion flower mosaic virus disease, a new record for
India. Curr. Sci. 46 (5): 153-154.
Mallareddy, K. and B.B. Sharma. 1983. Effect of storage conditions on germination,
moisture content and some biochemical substances in citrus seeds. III. Trifoliate orange and
purnmelo. Seed Res. 11 (1): 56-59.
Malo, S.E. 1967. A successful method for propagating sapodilla trees. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 80: 373-376.
Malo, S.E. 1971. Girdling increases avocado yields in South Florida. Proc. Trop. Reg.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 15: 19-25.
Malo, S.E. 1970. Mango and avocado cultivarspresent status and future developments.
Malo, S.E. 1977. The mango in Florida. Hort. Sci. 12 (4): 286, 367.
Malo, S.E. and F.W. Martin. 1980. Tropical fruit: the durian. World Farming 22 (5): 38-39.
Manandhar, M.D., A. Shoeb, R.S. Kapil and S.P. Popli. 1978. New alkaloids from Aegle
marmelos. Phytochem. 17: 1814-1815.
Manfred, L. 1947. 7000 recetas botanicas a base de 1300 plantas medicinales americanas.
Editorial Kier, Buenos Aires.
Manis, E. 1966. Personal communication, June 16 [pineapple].
Mann, A.R. and S.A. Treaci. 1971. Comparative studies on guava jelly production. Sci. Ind.
8 (2): 164-167.
Mann, G.S. and G. Singh. 1984. Development of chemical control against the leaf-webber,
Dudua aprobola (Meyr.) on litchi. Internat. Pest Control. May/June. p. 77.
Maor, T.G. 1958. Banana. Rev. Ser. #23. Indian Coun. Agr. Res., New Delhi.
Maranto, J. and K.D. Hake. 1985. Verdelli summer lemons: a new option for California
growers. Calif. Agr. 39 (5&6): 4.
Marcelino-Ponce, J. 1979. Comportamiento de injertos de Annona reticulata L. sobre varios
patrones. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23: 119-121.
Marchal, J., J.P. Blondeau and X. Bertin. 1978. Carences minerales chez la grenadille
(Bibliography)
(Passiflora edulis Sims. var. flavicarpa). II. Carences totales en N, P, K, Ca, Mg. Influences
sur la composition minerale des organes de la plante. Fruits 33 (10): 681-690.
Marchal, J. and J. Bourdeaut. 1972. Enchantillonnages foliaires de la grenadille (Passiflora
edulis Sims var. flavicarpa). Fruits 27 (4): 307-311.
Martezki, A., H.J. Teas and C.F. Asenjo. 1966. Uptake and conversion of radioactive carbon
dioxide and glucose in the acerola and their relationship to ascorbic acid biosynthesis. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 50 (1): 1-8.
Marfey, S.P. 1962. Studies in the insecticidal principal of Mammea americana L. Pt. 1.
Doctoral thesis Wayne State U. 1955. Pub'd by Univ. Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Marin Acosta, J.C. 1969. Insectos relacionados con la lechosa, Carica papaya L., en
Venezuela. Agron. Trop. 19 (4): 251-267.
Marlatt, R.B. and C.W. Campbell. 1980. Incidence of algal disease (Cephaleuros sp.) in
selections of guava (Psidium guajava). Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 93: 109-110.
Marloth, R.H. 1949. The litchi in South Africa. 2nd rev. ed. Bull. 286. Union of So. Africa
Dept. of Agr., Pretoria.
Marriott, J., C. Perkins and B.O. Been. 1979. Some factors affecting the storage of fresh
breadfruit. Scientia Hort. 10: 177-181.
Martin, F.W. and W.C. Cooper. 1977. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise.
The Pummelo. ARS-S-157. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Martin, F.W. and S.E. Malo. 1978. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise: Pt.
5. The canistel. and its relatives. U.S. Dept, Agr., Sci. & Educ. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Martin, F.W. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1970. The edible species of Passiflora. Econ. Bot. 24 (3):
333-343.
Martin, M.A. 1971. Introduction a l' ethnobotanizue du Cambodge. Centre Nat. de la
Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
Martindale, W.L. 1974. Tomatoes from a tree. J. Agr. Victoria. 72, Pt. 10: 347-349.
Martinez, M. 1951. Las casimiroas de Mexico y Centroamerica. An. Inst. Biol. Mexico 21:
25-81.
Martinez, M. 1959. Las plantas medicinales de Mexico. 4th ed. Ediciones Botas, Mexico,
D.F.
Martinez, M. 1959. Plantas tiles de la flora Mexicana. Ediciones Boras, Mexico, D.F.
Martinez Nadal, N.G. 1964. Information Bull. 1963-64. [genipap]. Research Center, U.
Puerto Rico, Coll. Agr. & Mech. Arts, Mayaguez, P.R.
Massal, E. and J. Barrau. 1956. Food plants of the South Sea islands. Tech. Paper 94. South
Pac. Comm., Noumea, New Caledonia.
Matzumato, K. 1958. Normas technicas para ter mais jaboticabas. Rural, Rev. Soc. Rural
Brasil 38 (450): 18-19.
Masumdar, B.C. 1979. Cape-gooseberry. World CropsJan./Feb. 19, 23.
McCann, C. 1947. Trees of India. B.D. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay.
McCann, L.P. 1947. Ecuador's naranjillaa reluctant guest. Agr. In the Americas 7 (12):
(Bibliography)
146-149.
McCarty, C.D., S.B. Boswell & R.M. Burns. 1971. Chemically-induced sprouting of
axillary buds in avocados. Calif. Agr. Dec.: 4-5.
McConnell, D.B. and J.W. Host. 1983. Watering frequency and light levels affect growth
and anatomy of lemon vine. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 96: 294-296.
McDonald, R.E., T.T. Hatton and R.H. Cubbedge. 1985. Chilling injury and decay of
lemons as affected by ethylene, low temperature, and optimal storage. HortSci. 20 (1):
92-93.
McHardy, K. 1972. Feijoas are versatile. New Zeal. J. Agr. 124 (5): 59, 61.
McLennan, M. 1972. Tamarillos truly are versatile. New Zeal. J. Agr. 124 (4): 1, 53-55.
McMillan, R. 1973. Co-operation between co-operatives [kiwifruit]. New Zeal. J. Agr. 127
(1): 33-35.
McMillan, R. 1973. The kiwi fruit storyexport potential. New Zeal. J. Agr. 127 (5): 59.
McMillan, R. 1973. Control of anthracnose and powdery mildew of mango with systemic
and non-systemic fungicides. Trop. Agr. (Trin). 50 (3): 245-248.
McMillan, R. 1984. Control of mango anthracnose with foliage sprays. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 97: 344-345.
McMillan, R. 1974. Rhizopus artocarpi rot of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus). Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 87: 392-393.
McRitchie, J.J. 1976. Div. of Plant Indus., Fla. Dept. Agr. office memorandum to C.F.
Dowling, Feb. 12.
McSorley, R. and J.L. Parrado. 1983. The spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinatus on
banana in Florida and its control. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 96: 201-207.
McSorley, R., J.L. Parrado and R.A. Conover. 1983. Population buildup and effects of the
reniforin nematode on papaya in southern Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 96: 198-200.
McVaugh, R. 1963. Flora of Guatemala, Botany. 24, Pt. 7, No. 3. Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus.,
Chicago.
McVaugh, R. 1958. Flora of Peru, 13, Pt. 4, No. 2. Bot. Ser. Pub. 861. Daboticabal. Field
Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago.
McVaugh, R. 1943. To make tough meat tender. Agr. in the Americas 3 (7): 134-136.
[papaya].
Meisels, A. and F. Sondheimer. 1957. The constitutents of Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex.
III. The structure of casimiroin. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 79: 6328-6333.
Melendez, P.L. 1968. A cercospora leaf spot of acerola in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 52 (1): 71-73.
Melendez, P.L. and J. Bird Pinero. 1971. Corynespora leaf spot of papaya (Carica Papaya
L.) in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 55 (4): 411-425.
Melhus, I.E., and F.O. Smith. 1953. The Mayan husk tomato: a tropical fruit comes to Iowa.
Iowa Farm Sci. 7 (11): 15-16.
Mendes de Carvalho, A. 1965. Cultura do maracuja. Agron. Brasil 17 (9-10): 12-20.
(Bibliography)
Mendez, M. 1937. Pharmacologic data of some Mexican remedies. J. Amer. Inst.

Homeopathy 30: 273-274.
Mendiola, N.B. 1926. A manual of plant breeding for the tropics. Bur. of Printing, Manila.
Mendoza, D.B., Jr., E.B. Pantastico and F.B. Javier. 1972. Storage and handling of rambutan
(Nephelium lappaceum L.). The Phil. Agriculturist 4 (7 & 8): 322-332.
Mendoza-Guazon, M.P. 1930. The treatment of itching, acne vulgaris and pruritus vulva
with c alamansi juice (Citrus mitis Blanco). J. of Phil. Isls. Medical Assn. June: 233-235.
Menninger, E.A. 1966. Actinidia chinensis, a promising fruit and some related species.
Amer. Hort. Mag. 45 (2): 253-256.
Menninger, E.A. 1959. The cultivated Eugenias in American gardens. Nat. Hort. Mag. 38
(3): 92-163.
Menzel, M.Y. 1951. The cytotaxonomy and genetics of Physalis. Proc. Amer. Philosoph.
Soc. 95 (2): 132-183.
Mercader, A. and E.M. Willsey. 1935. El platano: modos de preparlo para la mesa. Cir. 2.
Servicio de Extension, Colegio de Agr. y Artes Mecanicas, U. Puerto Rico in cooper. with
U.S. Dept. Agr.
Meredith, W.C., J.N. joiner and R.H. Biggs. 1970. Influences of indole-e-acetic acid and
kinetin on rooting and indole metabolism of Feijoa sellowiana. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95
(1): 49-52.
Merrill, E.D. 1954. The botany of Cook's voyages. Vol. 14, No. 5/6. Chronica Botanica Co.,
Waltham, Mass. [ambarella].
Micklem, T. 1949. Cape gooseberry culture in the Western Cape Province. Repr. 52. Reprint
from Farming in So. Africa. Aug. 1-4.
Miller, C.D. 1929. Food values of breadfruit, taro leaves, coconut and sugar cane. Bull. 64.
Bernice P. Bishop Mus., Honolulu.
Miller, C.D., K. Bazore and M. Bartow. 1955. Fruits of Hawaii. 2nd ed. U. Hawaii Press,
Honolulu.
Miller, C.D., L. Louis and K. Yanazawa. 1947. Vitamin values of foods in Hawaii. Tech.
Bull. U. Hawaii, Agr. Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Miller, C.D., N.S. Wenkarn and K.O. Fitting. 1961. Acerola, nutritive value and home use.
Cir. 59. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta., U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Miller, E.P. 1984. Oriental persimmons (Diospyros kaki L.) in Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 97: 340-344.
Miller, E.V. and A.S. Heilman. 1952. Ascorbic acid and physiological breakdown in the
fruits of the pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.). Science 116: 505-6.
Miller, W.R., P.W. Hale, D.H. Spalding and P. Davis. 1983. Quality and decay of mango
fruit wrapped in heat-shrinkable film. HortSci. 18 (6): 957-958.
Millspaugh, C.F. 1902. Flora of the Island of St. Croix. Pub. 68. Bot. Ser. Vol. 1, No. 7.
Field Columbian Mus., Chicago.
Milne, D.L. 1982. Nematode pests of litchi. In: Chap. 5, Nematology in So. Africa. Sci.
(Bibliography)
Bull. #400. Pp. 38-41. Dept. Agr. & Fish, Pretoria, So. Africa.
Milne, D.L., M.R. Appleton and L.C. Holtzhausen. 1975. The anatomical reaction of Litchi
chinensis roots attacked by three nematode species and a soil mite. Phytophylactica 7:
15-20.
Milne, D.L. and E.A. deVilliers. 1972. Campaign progressing against nematodes on litchis.
Farming in So. Afr. 49 (6): 14-15.
Milne, D.L. and E.A. deVilliers. 1969. Decline in litchi orchards. Farming in So. Africa 45
(7): 32-35.
Milne, D.L. and E.A. deVilliers. 1972. Nematodes on litchis. Farming in So. Africa 49 (6):
14-15.
Milne, D.L., E.A. deVilliers, and L.C. Holtzhausen. 197 1. Litchi tree decline caused by
nematodes. Phytophylactica 3: 37-44.
Minessey, F.A., M.A. Barakat and E.M. EI-Azab. 1970. Effect of water table on mineral
content, root and shoot growth, yield and fruit quality in 'Washington Navel' orange and
'Balady Mandarin'. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 95 (1): 81-85.
Miranda, F. 1952. La vegetacion de Chiapas. Ediciones del Gobierno del Estado, Tuxtla
Guitierrez, Mexico.
Mishra, K. A. 1982. The vegetative propagation of persimmon. Scientia Hort. 17: 125-127.
Mitchell, A.R. and M.E. Nicholson. 1965. Pineapple growth and yield as influenced by urea
spray schedules and potassium levels at three plant spacings. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim.
Sci. 22 (4): 409-417.
Mitchell, E.F. 1971. Mango production and marketing practices. Florida. 1971. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 84: 307-311.
Mitchell, P. and P.C. Annon. 1953. The pineapple. Advisory Leaflet 286. Queensland Dept.
Agr. & Stock., Div. of Pl. Indus.
Mitscher, L.A., Wu-nan Wu, and J.L. Beal. 1973. The isolation and structural
characterization of 5-O-methyldesmethoxymatteucinol from Eugeia javanica. Lloydia 36
(4): 422-425.
Mittal, J.P. and B. Singh. 1977. Using mango kernel. Noma (Nigeria). 2 (3): 7-8, 24.
Miyashita, R.K., H.Y. Nakasone, and C.H. Lamoureux. 1964. Reproductive morphology of
acerola (Malpighia glabra L.). Tech. Bul. 63. Hawaii Agr. Exper. St., U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Mobbs, J.A. 1965. Banana planting material. Queensland Agr. J. 91 (1): 16-19.
Moffett, J.O. and D.R. Rodney. 1973. Honey bee visits increase yields of 'Orlando' tangelo.
HortSci. 8 (2): 100.
Moffett, M.L. and D.S. Teakle. 1966. Bacterial leaf spot of cape gooseberry in Queensland.
Bull. 349. Queenslandj. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 23 (2): 133-145.
Mohammed, S. and K.S. Chauhan. 1970. Vegetative propagation of phalsa (Grewia asiatica
L.). Indian J. Agr. Sci. 40 (7): 581-586.
Mohammed, S. and H.R. Shabana. 1979. Date palm cultivation and research in Iraq.
Chonica Hort. 19 (3): 49-50.
(Bibliography)
Mohammed, S. and H.R. Shabana. 1980. Effects of naphthaleneacedc acid on fruit size,
quality, and ripening of 'Zahdi' date palm. HortSci. 15 (6): 724-725.
Mohammed, S. and C.A. Sorhaindo. 1984. Production and rooting of etiolated cuttings of
West Indian and hybrid avocado. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 61 (3): 200-204.
Moreno, D.S., C.E. Kennett, H.S. Forster, R.W. Hoffmann and D.L. Flaherty. 1985.
Predicting CRS [California red scale] infestations by trapping males. Calif. Agr. 39 (5 & 6):
10-12.
Moreuil, C. 1973. Quelques observations et essais sur le litchi. Fruits 28 (9): 637-640.
Morgan, C.N. 1944. Pineapple sunburn. Queensland Agr. J. 90 (3): 139.
Morgan, K.T. and L.W. Timmer. 1984. Effect of inoculum density, nitrogen source and
saprophytic fungi on Fusarium wilt of Mexican lime. Plant & Soil 79: 203-210.
Morong, T. and N.L. Britton. 1892. Enumeration of the plants collected by Dr. Thomas
Morong in Paraguay 1888-1890. (Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. VI). N.Y. Acad. Sci., N.Y.
Morris, M.P. 1951. Chemical studies [mamey]. Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto
Rico. 1951. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Morris, M.P. 1952. Mamey chemistry. Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto Rico. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Morris, M.P., C. Pagan and J. Garcia. 1952. Es el mamey una fruta venenosa? Rev. de Agr.
de Puerto Rico Sup. Secc. Nutr. 43 (1): 288a & 288b.
Morse, J.G., M.J. Arbaugh and D.S. Moreno. 1985. Computer simulation of CRS
[California red scale] populations. Calif. Agr. 39 (5 & 6): 8-10.
Mortensen, E. and E.T. Bullard. 1964. Handbook of tropical and subtropical horticulture.
U.S. Dept. State, A.I.D., Washington, D.C.
Morton, J.F. 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of Middle America. Charles C. Thomas
Publisher, Springfield, Ill.
Morton, J.F. 1962. Garden Clinic [lime]. Miami News, Fla. Living Mag. Nov. 4.
Morton, J.F. 1964. Honeybee plants of South Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 77: 415-436.
Morton, J.F. 1959. Importancia economica del tamarindo. La Hacienda, June.
Morton, J.F. 1962. La naranjilla. Rev. de Alimentos 1 (1): 8-9.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants: botany, culture and uses. Charles Thomas
Publisher, Springfield, Ill. [pineapple].
Morton, J.F. 1955. Monstera deliciosa. Miami News, Fla. Living. Aug. 28.
Morton, J.F. 1954. New gooseberry [Dovyalis hybrid]. Miami Daily News. Feb. 21.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Poisonous and injurious higher plants and fungi. Chap. 71. in: Tedeschi,
C.G., W.G. Eckert and L.G. Tedeschi, editors, Forensic Medicine Vol. Ill: Environmental
Hazards, 1456-1567. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. [cashew; mango].
Morton, J.F. 1974. Renewed interest in roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), the long-forgotten
"Florida cranberry". Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 87: 416-425.
Morton, J.F. 1960. Se elaboran confites con tamarindo y marafiones. La Hacienda. July.
(Bibliography)
Morton, J.F. 1955. Some useful and ornamental plants of the Caribbean Gardens. Caribbean
Gardens, Naples, Fla.
Morton, J.F. 1961. The cashew's brighter future. Econ. Bot. 15 (1): 57-78.
Morton, J.F. 1962. The drug aspects of the white sapotes. Econ. Bot. 16 (4): 288-294.
Morton, J.F. 1960. The emblic (Phyllanthus emblica L.). Econ. Bot. 14 (2): 119-128.
Morton, J.F. 1955. The emblic (Phyllanthus emblica L.), a rich but neglected source of
vitamin C. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 68: 315-321.
Morton, J.F. 1965. The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.): its culture, varieties and
utilization. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 78: 336-344.
Morton, J.F. 1963. The jambolan (Syzygium cumini Skeels)its food, medicinal, ornamental
and other uses. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 76: 328-338.
Morton, J.F. 1958. The tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), its food, medicinal and industrial
uses. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 71: 288-294.
Morton, J.F. 1968. Tropical fruit tree and other exotic foliage as human food. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 81: 318-329.
Morton, J.F. 1983. Why not select and grow superior types of Canistel? Proc. Amer. Soc.
for Hort. Sci., Trop. Region Vol. 27, Pt. A: 43-52.
Morton, J.F. 1961. Why not use and improve the fruitful ambarella? Hort. Adv. (India) 5:
13-16.
Morton, J.F. and O.S. Russell. 1954. The cape gooseberry and the Mexican husk tomato.
Morton, K. and J. Morton. 1946. Fifty tropical fruits of Nassau. Text House (Fla.) Inc.,
Coral Gables, Fla.
Moscoso, G.G. 1976. La chironja: una nueva fruta citrica Puertorriquefia. Bol. 248. Ext.
Exper. Agr. U. Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, P.R.
Moscoso, C.G. 1958. The Puerto Rican Chironja-new all-purpose citrus fruit. Econ. Bot. 12
(1): 87-94.
Moscoso, C.G. 1969. The Puerto Rican chironjaa new type of citrus. Proc. Trop. &
Subtrop. Fruits Conf. (Trop. Prod. Inst.): 193-195.
Moscoso, C.G. 1950. West Indian cherries and the production of ascorbic acid. Misc. Pub.
2. U. Puerto Rico, Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras, P.R.
Moscoso, C.G. 1956. West Indian cherry-richest known source of natural vitamin C. Econ.
Bot. 10 (3): 280-294.
Mosqueda Vazquez, R. 1969. Efecto de diversos tratamientos aplicados a la semilla papaya,
sobre su poder germinativo. Agr. Tcnica 2 (11): 487-491.
Mosqueda-Vasquez, R., M. Aragaki and H.Y. Nakasone. 1981. Screening of Carica Papaya
L. seedlings for resistance to root rot caused by Phytophthora palmivora Britt. J. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 106 (4): 484-487.
Mosqueda-Vazquez, R. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1982. Diallel analysis of root rot resistance in
papaya. HortSci. 17 (3): 384-5.
(Bibliography)
Mott, J. 1969. The market for passion fruit juice. Rpt. G38. Trop. Prod. Inst., London.
Motz, F.A. 1944. Gifts of the Americas. The sapodilla. Agr. in the Americas 4 (10): 198.
Motz F.A. and L.D. Mallory. 1944. The fruit industry of Mexico. For. Agr. Rpt. #9. Off. of
For. Agr. Relations, U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
Mouat, H.M. 1958. New Zealand varieties of yang-tao or Chinese gooseberry. New Zeal. J.
Agr. 92 (2): 161-163, 165.
Mowry, H. and R.D. Dickey. 1950. Ornamental hedges for Florida. Bull. 443. U. Fla. Agr.
Exper. Sta., Gainesville.
Mowry, H., L.R. Toy and H.S. Wolfe (revised by G.D. Ruehle). 1953. Miscellaneous
tropical and subtropical Florida fruits. Bull. 156. U. Fla. Agr. Exten. Serv., Gainesville.
Mukerjea, T.D. and R. Govind. 1958. Studies on indigenous insecticidal plants. Pt. II.
Annona squamosa. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 17C (1): 9-15.
Mukerjee, P.K. 1957. Dehydration of litchis. Hort. Adv. (India) 1: 55-57.
Mukerji, B. 1951. Indigenous Indian drugs used in the treatment of diabetes. [jambolan]. J.
Sci. & Indus. Res. 16A (10): Suppl 1-18.
Mukherjee, S.K. 1976. Current advances on mango research around the world. Acta Hort.
57: 37-42.
Mukherjee, S.K. 1972. Origin of mango (Mangifera indica). Econ. Bot. 26 (3): 260-264.
Mukherjee, S.K. and B.K. Chatterjee. 1979. Effects of forcing etiolation and indole butyric
acid on rooting of cuttings of Artrocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Scientia Hort. 10: 295-300.
Muller, I.A. and M.J. Young. 1992. Influence of gibberellic acid and effectiveness of several
carriers on growth of sour orange (Citrus aurantium L.) seedlings. HortSci. 17 (4): 673-674.
Mune, T.L. and J.W. Parham. 1956. The declared noxious weeds of Fiji and their control.
Bul. 31. Dept. Agr., Suva, Fiji.
Munier, P. 1965. Le palmier-dattier, producteur de sucre. Fruits 20 (10): 577-579.
Munier, P. and P. Dupaigne. 1963. Un nouvel avenir pour la pate de dattes. Fruits 18 (10):
468-473.
Munier, R. 1962. La culture du lulo en Colombie. Fruits 17 (2): 91-92.
Munsell, H.E., R. Castillo, C. Zurita and J.M. Portillo. 1953. Production, uses, composition
of foods of plant origin from Ecuador. Food Res. 18 (4): 319-342.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, LT. Kelley, and R.S. Harris. 1950. Composition
of food plants of Central America. VII. Honduras. Food Res. 15 (6): 421-438.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, L.T. Kelley, A.M. McNally and R.S. Harris.
1950. Composition of food plants of Central America. VI. Costa Rica. Food Res. 15 (5):
379-404.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, L.T. Kelley, A.M. McNally and R.S. Harris.
1950. Composition of food plants of Central America. VIII. Guatemala. Food Res. 15 (6):
439-453.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher and R.S. Harris. 1950.
Composition of food plants of Central America. II. Guatemala. Food Res. 15 (1): 16-33.
(Bibliography)
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher and R.S. Harris. 1950.
Composition of food plants of Central America. V. Nicaragua. Food Res. 15 (5): 355-365.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher, G. Nightingale and R.S. Harris.
1950. Composition of food plants of Central America. III. Guatemala. Food Res. 34-52.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher, G. Nightingale, and R. S. Harris.
1949. Composition of food plants of Central America. I. Honduras. Food Res. 14 (2):
144-164.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher, G. Nightingale, L.T. Kelley and
R.S. Harris. 1950. Composition of food plants of Central America. IV. El Salvador. Food
Res. 15 (4): 263-296.
Murray, D.A.H. 1978. Effect of fruit fly sprays on the abundance of the citrus mealybug,
Planococcus citri (Risso), and its predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, on
passion-fruit in southeastern Queensland. Bull. 786. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 35
(2): 143-147.
Murray, D.A.H. 1982. Effects of sticky banding of custard apple [atemoya] tree trunks on
ants and citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Pseudo-coccidae (Hem.)) in south-east
Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 39 (2): 141-146.
Murray, D.A.H. 1976. Insect pests on passion fruit. Queensland J. Agr. 102 (2): 145-151.
Murray, D.A.H. 1982. Pineapple scale (Diaspis bromeliae) (Kerner) distribution and
seasonal history. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 39 (2): 125-130.
Murray, D.A.H. 1978. Population studies of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso)
and its natural enemies on passion-fruit in southeastern Queensland. Bull. 785. Queenslandj.
Agr. & Anim. Sci. 35 (2): 139-141.
Musa, S.K. 1974. Preliminary investigations on the storage and ripening of 'Totapuri'
mangoes in the Sudan. Trop. Sci. 16 (2): 65-73.
Mustard, M.J. 1952. Ascorbic acid content of some miscellaneous tropical and subtropical
plants and plant products. Food Res. 17 (1): 31-35.
Mustard, M.J. 1955. Handling guavas, lychees and white sapotes for the fresh fruit market.
Mustard, M.J. 1964. Lychees. Fr. & Veg. Facts and Pointers. United Fresh Fruit & Veg.
Assn., Washington, D.C.
Mustard, M.J. 1960. Megagametophytes of the lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) Proc. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci. 75: 292-304.
Mustard, M.J. 1954. Oleocellosis or rind-oil spot on Persian limes. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
67: 224-226.
Mustard, M J. 1954. Pollen production and seed development in the white sapote. Bot. Gaz.
116: 189-192.
Mustard, M.J. 1946. The ascorbic acid content of some Malpighia fruits and jellies. Science
104 (2697): 230-231.
Mustard, M.J. and R.O. Nelson and S. Goldweber. 1956. Exploratory study dealing with the
effect of growth regulators and other factors on the fruit production of the lychee. Proc. Fla.
(Bibliography)
Lychee Growers Assn. 4th Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fla.

Nadarajah, M., P.A.J. Yapa, C.G. Balasingham and S. Kasinathan. 1973. The use of papain
as a biological coagulant for natural rubber latex. Q.J. Rubber Res. Inst., Sri Lanka 50:
134-142.
Nagy, S., P.E. Shaw and M.K. Veldhuis. 1977. Citrus science and technology: Vol. I:
Nutrition, anatomy, chemical composition and bioregulation. The AVI Pub'g Co., Westport,
Conn.
Nagy, S., P.E. Shaw and M.K. Veldhuis. 1977. Citrus Science and technology. Vol. II: Fmit
production, processing practices, derived products and personnel management. The AVI
Pub'g Co., Westport, Conn.
Nagy, S., W.F. Wardowski and C.J. Hearn. 1982. Diphenyl absorption and decay in 'Dancy'
and 'Sunburst' tangerine fruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (1): 154-157.
Nagy, S. and R.E. Shaw (editors). 1980. Tropical and subtropical fruits: composition,
properties and uses. The AVI Pub'g Co., Westport, Conn.
Naik, K.C. 1949. South Indian fruits and their culture. P. Varadachary & Co., Madras, India.
Nair, A.G.R. and S.S. Subramanian. 1962. Evaluation of the flowers of Eugenia jambolana.
J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 21B (9): 457-458.
Nakasone, H.Y. 1973. Guava propagation in Hawaii. Misc. Pub. 111. Coop. Exten. Serv., U.
Hawaii, Honolulu.
Nakasone, H.Y. 1975. Papaya development in Hawaii. HortSci. 10 (3): 198.
Nakasone, H.Y. 1972. Production feasibility for soursop. Hawaii Farm Sci. 21 (1): 10-11.
Nakasone, H.Y., R.A. Hamilton and P. Ito. 1967. Evaluation of introduced cultivars of
guava. Hawaii Farm Sci. 16 (2): 4-6.
Nakasone, H.Y., R. Hirono and P. Ito. 1967. Preliminary observations on the inheritance of
several factors in the passionfruit (Passiflora edulis L. and forma flavicarpa). Tech. Prog.
Rpt. 161. U. Hawaii, Agr. Exper. Sta., Honolulu.
Nakasone, H.Y. and P.J. Ito. 1978. 'Ka Hua Kula' guava. HortSci. 13 (2): 197.
Nakasone, H.Y. and C. Lamoureux. 1982. Transitional forms of hermaphroditic papaya
flowers leading to complete maleness. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (4): 589-592.
Nakasone, H.Y., R.K. Miyashita and G.M. Yamane. 1966, Factors affecting ascorbic acid
content of the acerola (Malpighia glabra L.). Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 89: 161-166.
Nakasone, H.Y., W. Yee, D.K. Ikehara, M.J. Doi, and R.J. Ito. 1974. Evaluation and naming
of two new Hawaii papaya lines, 'Higgins' and 'Wilder'. Res. Bull. 167. Hawaii Agr. Exp.
Sta., U. of Hawaii,
Nakata, S. 1953. Girdling as a means of inducing flower-bud initiation in litchi. Progress
Notes #95. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., U. Hawaii,
Namba, R. 1971. Aphid transmission of the papaya mosaic virus. Misc. Pub. 64 (Mimeo).
Coop. Exten. Serv., U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Namba, R. and C.Y. Kawanishi. 1963. Transmission studies on the papaya mosaic virus.
Hawaii Farm Sci. 12 (4): 3.
(Bibliography)
Nanjundaswamy, A.M., L. Setty and G.S. Siddappa. 1964. Preparation and preservation of
guava juice. Indian Food Packer 18 (4): 13-17.
Nanjundaswamy, A.M. and G.S. Siddappa. 1964. Preservation of the central edible core of
the banana stem in the form of candy, canned curried product and dehydrated slices. Indian
Narang, D.D. and G.S. Mann. 1983. Insect pests of guava. Progressive Farming 19 (11):
12-13.
Narayanamurti, D., P. Ramarhandra Rao and R. Ram. 1957. Adhesives from tamarind seed
testa. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 168 (8): 377-378.
Nash, D.L. and J.V.A. Dieterle. 1976. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany V. 24, Pt. 11,
#4. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago. 275-431.
Natarajan, S., D.E. Eveleigh and R.H. Dawson. 1976. A natural source for neohesperidin.
Econ. Bot. 30: 38.
Natarajan, C.P., R. Balakrishnan Nair, N. Gopalakrishna Rao, C.S. Viraktamath and D.S.
Bliatia. 1960. A method for the quantitative estimation of roasted date and tamarind in
coffee powder. Food Sci. 9 (2): 39.
Natarajan, P.N. and R. Karunanithy. 1974. Synthetic flavour enhancers for Artocarpus
integrifolia L. [jackfruit]. The Flavour Indus. Nov./Dec. 282-283.
Nath, N. and G.S. Randhawa. 1969. Classification and description of some varieties of
Punica granatum L. Indian J. Hort. 16 (4): 191-201.
Nath, N. and G.S. Randhawa. 1959. Studies on floral biology in the pomegranate (Punica
granatum L.). 1. Flowering habit, flowering season, bud development and sex-ratio in
flowers. Indianj. Hort. 16 (2): 61-68.
Nath, N. and G.S. Randhawa. 1954. Studies on floral biology in the pomegranate. II.
Anthesis, dehiscence, pollen studies and receptivity of stigma. Indian J. Hort. 16 (3):
121-140.
Navaratnam, S.J. 1966. Patch canker of the durian tree. Malayan Agr. J. 45 (3): 291-294.
Navia, J.M., M. Cimadevilla, E. Fernandez, I.D. Clement, A. Valiente and R.S. Harris.
1955. Tabla provisional de la composicion nutritiva de los alimentos Cubanos. Lab. FIM de
Nutricion. Pub. #2. Comite Cubano Amer. pro Fundacion Invest. Med., Havana, Cuba.
Navia, J.M., H. Lopez, I.D. Clement, M. Cimadevilla, E. Fernandez, and R.S. Harris. 1954.
Tabla provisional de la composicion nutritiva de los alimentos Cubanos. Lab. FIM de
Nutricion. Pub. #1. Comite Cubanc, Amer. pro Fundacion Invest. Med., Havana, Cuba.
Navia, G., V.M. and J. Valenzuela B. 1978. Sintomatologia de deficiencias nutricionales en
chirimoyo (Annona cherimola Mill.) cv. Bronceada. Agr. Tecn. (Chile) 38: 9-14.
Nayar, T.G., V.S. Seshadri and C.M. Bakthavathsalu. 1956. A note on mattocking practices
in banana culture. Indian J. Hort. 13 (4): 210-211.
Neal, M.C. 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Press,
Honolulu.
Negron de Bravo, E., H.D. Graham and M. Padovani. 1983. Composition of the breadmit
(seeded breadfruit). Carib. J. Sci. 19 (3-4): 27-32.
(Bibliography)
Nelson, R.O. 1953. High humidity treatment for air layers of lychee. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
66: 198-199.
Nelson, R.O. 1954. Notes on lychee grafting. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 67: 231-233.
Nelson, R.O. 1957. Suggested methods for top-working lychee trees. Proc. Fla. Lychee
Growers Assn. Nov. 11. 27-31.
Nelson, R.O. and S. Goldweber. 1956. Further rooting trials of Barbados cherry. Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 69: 285-287.
Neville-Rolfe, E. 1897. Report on the cultivation of the carob tree. Misc. Ser. #431. Foreign
Office. Her Majesty's Staty. Off., London.
Ng Siew Kee, and S. Thamboo. 1967. Nutrient removal studies on Malayan fruits: durian
and rambutan. Malayan Agr. J. 46 (2): 164-182.
Nichols, M.A. 1977. Horticulture in New Zealand. HortScience 12 (6): 539.
Nicks, G.S. 1969. Pioneer promotion of Hawaiian papayas in Japan. For. Agr. 7 (22): 8.
Nieva, F.S., A.J. Rodriguez and M.A. Gonzalez. 1965. Removal of stone cells from guava
nectar. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 49 (2): 234-243.
Nihoul, E. 1976. Le yang tao (Actinidia chinensis Planchon). Fruits 31 (2): 45-50.
Nirvan, R.S. 1957. Control of dry rot of persimmon (Diospyros kaki Linn.) seeds. Hort.
Advance 1: 62-64.
Nirvan, R.S. 1960. Effect of antibiotic spray on citrus canker. Hort. Advance 4: 155-160.
Nirvan, R.S. 1961. Trial export of litchi to the United Kingdom. Ann. Rpt. Hort. Res. Unit.,
Saharanpur, India: 59-63.
Nishida, T. and F.G. Holdaway. 1955. The erinose mite of lychee. Cir. 48. Hawaii Agr.
Exper. Sta., U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Nisperos, M.O., L.C. Raymundo, and L.B. Mabesa. 1982. Ascorbic acid, color, provitarnin
A and sensory qualities of calamansi (Citrus mitis Linn.) juice after various processing
operations and lengths of storage. Phil. Agr. 65 (Oct.-Dec.): 353-361.
Nixon, R.W. 1939. Date growing in the United States. Leaflet #170. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Washington, D.C.
Nixon, R.W. 1951. The date palm"Tree of Life" in the subtropical deserts. Econ. Bot. 5
(3): 274-301.
Noonan, J.C. 1953. Review of investigations on the Annona species. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
66: 205-210.
Nordby, H.E., J.F. Fisher and T.J. Kew. 1968. Apigenin 7B-rutinoside, a new flavonoid
from the leaves of Citrus paradisi. Phytochemistry 7: 1653-1657.
Norman, J.C. 1972. The influence of some compounds on the growth and flowering of
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. cultivar Sugarloaf. Ghana J. Agr. Sci. 5: 213-219.
Northwood, P.J. 1970. A note on a spacing and nitrogen fertilizer experiment with pawpaw.
E. Afr. Agr. & For. J. 36 (1): 45-48.
Nuez L., V.R. and J. De la Cruz. 1982. Reconocimiento y descripcion de las principales
insectos observados en cultivares de guanabano (Anona muricata L.) en el departarnento del
(Bibliography)
Valle. Acta Agron. 32 (1/4): 45-51.

Nuez M., E. 1964. Plantas medicinales de Puerto Rico. Bol. 176. U. Puerto Rico Estac.
Exper. Agr., Rio Piedras.
Nuez-Elisea, R. 1984. "Manzanillo-Nuez': a new Mexican mango cultivar. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 97: 360-363.
Oakes, A.J. 1970. Herbicidal control of guava (Psidium guajava L.). Turrialba 22 (1):
30-36.
Oakes, A.J. and M.P. Morris. 1959. The West Indian Weedwoman of the United States
Virgin Islands. Bul. of the History of Medic. 32 (2): 164-170.
Oatman, E.R. and G.R. Platner. 1985. Biological control of two avocado pests. Calif. Agr.
39 (11/12): 21-23.
O'Brien, M. and J.B. Smith. 1972. Bio-engineering factors in mechanically harvesting
pineapple. Spec. Pub. SP-01-72. Conf. Papers. Internat. Conf. on Trop. & Subtrop. Agr.,
Amer. Soc. Agr. Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich.: 235-240.
Ochse, J.J. 1953. Solanum hyporhodium. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 66: 211-212.
Ochse, J.J. in collab. with R.C. Bakhuizen van den Brink. 1931. Fruits and fruitculture in the
Dutch East Indies. G. Kolff & Co., Batavia.
Ochse, J.J. and R.C. Bakhuizen van den Brink. 1931. Vegetables in the Dutch East Indies.
Dept. Agr., Indus. & Comm. of the Netherlands East Indies, Buitenzorg, Java.
Ochse, J.J., M.J. Soule, Jr., M.J. Dijkman, and C. Wehlburg. 1961. Tropical and subtropical
agriculture. 2 vols. Macmillan Co., N.Y.
Ogden, M.A.H. and C.W. Campbell. 1982. Intergeneric and interspecific rootstock trials for
jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora (Mart.) Berg.). Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 95: 119-121.
Ogden, M.A.H., C.W. Campbell and S.P. Lara. 1984. Juvenile interstocks for topworking
mamey sapote (Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Mern.). Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 97: 357-358.
Ojima, M. and O. Rigitano. 1968. Cultura da nespereira. Bull. 184. Inst. Agron., Sec. Agr.
Estado de Sao Paulo, Campinas, Brazil.
Ojima, M., O. Rigitano, H.J. Scaranari, F.P. Martins, F.A.C. Dall' orto and V. Nagai. 1977.
Variedades e espacamento da nespereira. Bol. Tech. #46. Inst. Agron., Sec. Agr. Estado de
Sao Paulo, Campinas, Brazil.
Oliver, B. 1960. Medicinal plants in Nigeria. Nigerian Coll. of Arts, Sci. & Tech., Ibadan.
Ondieki, J.J. 1975. Diseases and pests of passion fruit in Kenya. Acta Hort. 49: 291-293.
Ondieki, J.J. and J.M. Kori. 1971. Control of brown spot disease of passion fruit in Kenya
using fungicides. East Africa Hort. Symp. Pp. 85-88.
Ong Ching Ang and Ting Wen Poh. 1973. Two virus diseases of passion fruit Passiflora
edulis f. flavicarpa). MARDI Res. Bull. 1 (1): 33-50.
Oppenheimer, C. 1947. Acclimitisation of new tropical and subtropical fruit trees in
Palestine. Bul. 44. Jewish Agency for Palestine, Agr. Res. Sta., Rehovot.
Oppenheimer, C. 1967. Nimroda new mango variety selected in Israel. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 80: 358-359.
(Bibliography)
Oppenheimer, C. and Sh. Gazit. 1961. Zinc deficiency in mango groves in Israel and its
correction. Hort. Advance V: 1-12.
Oppenheimer, C. and O. Reuveni. 1961. Flowering and pollination of the loquat (Eriobotrya
japonica Lindl.) in Israel. Ind. J. Hort. 18 (2): 97-105.
Oramas, D. and.J. Roman. 1982. Plant parasitic nematodes associated with plantain (Musa
acuminata X M. balbisiana, AAB) in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66 (1): 52-59.
Ordetx Ros, G.S. 1952. Flora apicola de la America tropical. Editorial Lex, Havana, Cuba.
Orphanos, P.I. and J. Papaconstantinou. 1969. The carob varietiesof Cyprus. Tech. Bull.
Cyprus Agr. Res. Inst. 5: 3-27.
Ortiz N., A.J., R.D. Cooke and R.A. Quiros M. 1982. The processing of a date-like caramel
from cashew apple. Trop. Sci. 24 (1): 29-38.
Osorio Bedoya, I.A.J. 1979. Cultivo de la "Curuba de Castilla". Rec. Nac. de Agr. No. 845:
28-32.
Oste, C.A. and S. Alvarez. 1974. Tonnage: nueva variedad de palto. Estac. Exper. Agr.,
Tucumin, Argentina.
Ostendorf, F.W. 1962. Nuttige planten en sierplanten in Suriname. Bull. 79.
Landbouwproefstation in Suriname, Paramaribo.
Ostendorf, F.W. 1963. The West Indian cherry. Trop. Abs. 18 (3): 145-150.
Oudit, D.D. & K J. Scott. 1973. Storage of 'Hass' avocados in polyethylene bags. Trop. Agr.
(Trin.) 50 (3): 241-243.
Oxenham, B.L. 1963. Pineapple tip rot and root rot. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 24 (19):
455.
Pacini, A. 1970. Personal communication re: sapote seed oil. Dec. 29.
Pagan, C. and M.P. Morris. 1953. A comparison of the toxicity of mamey seed extract and
rotenone. J. Econ. Entom. 46 (6): 1092-1093.
Page, P.E. 1970. Winter nitrogen for pineapples. Queensland Agr. J. 96 (6): 394.
Pal, R., and D.K. Kulshreshtha. 1975. A new lignan from Carissa carandas. Phytochem. 14:
2302-2303.
Palmario, M.S., C.V. Cueto, Z.S. Imperial, S.A. Tayco, R.P. Soriaga, R.V. Buenaventura
and M.C. de Guzman. 1976. Pineapple fibers: the retting process. Sci. Rev. 17 (4): 8-16.
Palmer, G. 1956. Some aspects of the lychee as a commercial crop. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
69: 309-312.
Pandey, K.K. 1957. Genetics of self-incompatibility in Physalis ixocarpa Brot. Amer. J.
Bot. 44: 879-887.
Pandey, P.K., A.B. Singh, M.R. Nimbalkar and T.S. Marathe. 1976. A witches'-broom
disease of jujube from India. Pl. Dis. Rep. 60 (4): 301-303.
Pandey, V.S. and P.N. Bajpai. 1969. Studies on blossom bud differentiation in litchi (Litchi
chinesis Sonn.) var. Kalkattia and Rose-scented. Indian J. Sci. & Indus. 3 (2): 99-102.
Pantastico, E.B. 1975. Postharvest physiology, handling and utilization of tropical and
subtropical fruits and vegetables. The AVI Pub'g Co., Inc., Westport, Conn.
(Bibliography)
Pantastico, E.B., D.B. Mendoza and R.M. Abcaly. 1968-69. Some chemical and
physiological changes during storage of lanzones (Lansium domesticum Correa). Phil.
Agriculturist 52 (7-8): 505-517.
Panyathorn, K.S. 1969. Thailand making gains as a canned pineapple exporter. For. Agr. 7
(48): 6.
Parham, B.E.V. 1961. Controlling "bunchy-top" in Western Samoa. So. Pacific Bull. 11 (2):
40-42, 60.
Parker, A., Vo Huu De, and L.H. Myers. 1976. The Florida grapefruit industry: an economic
analysis. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 1-3.
Parsi Ros, O. 1976. The preparation of papaya jam. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 60 (1): 129-131.
Partridge, I. 1979. The guava threat in Fiji. So. Pacific Bull. 2nd quarter 1979. Pp. 28-30.
Passam, H.C. and G. Blunden. 1982. Experiments on the storage of limes at tropical ambient
temperature. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 59 (1): 20-24.
Passera, C. and P. Spettoli. 1981. Chemical composition of papaya seeds. Qual. Plant Foods
& Human Nutr. 31: 77-83.
Patel, B. and V.J. Patel. 1979. Impact of chemicals on ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.).
Pesticides 13 (3): 28-30.
Patil, P.K. and V.K. Patil. 1983. Studies on soil salinity tolerance of sapota [sapodilla]. So.
Indian Hort. 31 (1): 3-6.
Patil, S.S., C.S. Tang and J.E. Hunter. 1973. Effect of benzyl isothiocyanate treatment on
the development of postharvest rots in papayas. Pl. Dis. Rep. 57 (1): 86-89.
Patio, V.M. 1962. Edible fruits of Solanum in South American historic and geographic
references. Bot. Mus. Leaflets, Harvard Univ. 19 (11): 215-234.
Patio, V.M. 1963. Plantas cultivadas y animales domesticos en America Equinoccial-Vol.
1: Frutales. Imprenta Deptamental, Cali, Colombia.
Patio, V.M. 1964. Plantas cultivadas y animales domesticos en America Equinoccial. Vol.
2: Plantas alimenticias. Imprenta Departmental, Cali, Colombia.
Patyapongan, P. 1962. jackfruit (trans.). Kasikorn 35 (6): 549-553.
Paull, R.E. 1982. Postharvest variation in composition of soursop (Annona muricata L.) in
relation to respiration and ethylene production. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (4): 582-585.
Paull, R.E., N.J. Chen, J. Deputy, H. Huang, G. Cheng and F. Gao. 1984. Litchi growth and
compositional changes during fruit development. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 109 (6): 817-821.
Paull, R.E., J. Deputy and NJ. Chen. 1983. Changes in organic acids, sugars, and headspace
volatiles during fruit ripening of soursop (Annona muricata L.). J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 108
(6): 931-934.
Payumo, E.M., L.M. Pilac and P.L. Manequis. 1965. The preparation and storage properties
of canned guwayabano, (Annona muricata L.) concentrate. Phil. J. Sci. 94 (2): 161-169.
Peacock, B.C. 1980. Banana ripeningeffect of temperature on fruit quality. Queensland J.
Agr. & Anim. Sci. 37 (1): 39-45.
Peacock, B.C. 1972. Effect of light on preclimacteric life of bananas. Queensland J. Agr. &
(Bibliography)
Anim. Sci. 29: 199-207.

Peasley, D. 1981. Passionfruit industry benefits through scionwood scheme. Agr. Gaz. of
New So. Wales 92 (5): 5-8.
Pegg, K.G. 1978. Avocado root rot. Queensland Agr. J. 104 (2): 131-133.
Pegg, K.G. 1978. Disease-free avocado nursery trees. Queensland Agr. J. 104 (2): 134-136.
Pegg, K.G. 1973. Phytophthora blight in passion fruit. Queensland Agr. J. 99 (12): 655-656.
Pegg, K.G. 1969. Pineapple top rot control with chemicals. Queensland Agr. J. 95 (7):
458-459.
Pea, J. E., H. Glenn and R. M. Baranowski. 1984. Important insect pests of Annona spp. in
Pea, R. 1901. Flora Crucea. Author. Printed by Imp. Bolivar de M. Pizarro, Sucre,
Bolivia.
Penella L., J.S. 1967. El aguacate. Serie de Cultivos #11. Consejo de Bienestar Rural,
Caracas, Venez.
Penella L., J.S. (undated; bet. 1963 & 1967). El platano y el cambur. Serie de Cultivos #8.
Consejo de Bienestar Rural, Caracas, Venez.
Pennella L., J.S. 1968. La lechosa. Serie de Cultivos #16. Consejo de Bienestar Rural,
Caracas, Venez.
Pennington, T.D., and J. Sarukhan. 1968. Arboles tropicales de Mexico. GAO & Inst. Nac.
de Invest. Forest., Mexico, D.F.
Pennock, W. 1961. Doce frutas para los patios pequeos en la Costa Norte de Puerto Rico.
Rev. de Agr. de Puerto Rico 48 (1): 148-152.
Pennock, W. and H. Gandia. 1975. Effect of slip size, slip storage and time of planting on
yield of Red Spanish pineapple in Puerto Rico. U. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 59 (3): 141-164.
Pennock, W. and G. Maldonado. 1963. The propagation of guavas from stem cuttings. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 47 (4): 280-289.
Pennock, W., T. Soto, R. Abrams, R. Gandia Caro, A. Perez, and G.C. Jackson. 1963.
Variedades selectas des aguacates de Puerto Rico. Bol. 172. U. Puerto Rico Estac. Exper.
Agr.
Peregrine, W.T.H. 1968. A survey of pawpaw debility in Tanzania. E. Afr. Agr. & For. J. 33
(4): 316-322.
Peregrine, W.T.H. 1969. A survey of pawpaw debility in Tanzania. PANS 15 (2): 177-182.
Perez, A., E. Boneta, E. Perez, and J. Green. 1980. Behavior of ten chironja clones at three
sites. II. Fruit quality. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (3): 323-329.
Perez, A. and N.F. Childers. 1982. Growth, yield, nutrient content and fruit quality of
Carica papaya L. under controlled conditions. 1. Nitrogen effects. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66
(2): 71-79.
Perez, A. and N.F. Childers. 1982. Growth, yield, nutrient content and fruit quality of
Carica papaya L. under controlled conditions. II. Boron effects. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66
(2): 80-88.
(Bibliography)
Perez, A., M.N. Reyes and J. Cuevas. 1980. Germination of two papaya varieties: effect of
seed aeration, K-treatment, removing of the sarcotesta, high temperature, soaking in distilled
water, and age of seeds. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (2): 173-180.
Perez, A., C.J. Torres, E. Perez and J. Green. 1980. Behavior of ten chironja clones at three
sites. I. Growth and yield. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (3): 318-322.
Perez, A. and D. Vargas. 1977. Effect of fertilizer level and planting distance on soil pH,
growth, fruit size, disease incidence, yield, and profit of two papaya varieties. J. Agr. U.
Puerto Rico 61 (1): 68-76.
Perez, E., A. Perez-Lopez, C.J. Torres, and J. Green. 1981. Behavior of ten chironja clones
at three sites: III. Interaction of genotype X environment. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 65 (3):
299-303.
Perez-Arbelaez, E. 1956. Plantas utiles de Colombia. 3rd ed. Libreria ColombianaCamacho
Roldan (Cia. Ltda.), Bogot.
Perez-Lopez, A. 1963. Relation of maturity to some fruit characters of the West Indian
cherry. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 47 (3): 193-200.
Perez-Lopez, A., J.R. Cruz Cay and J.R. Benero. 1982. Behavior of ten chironja clones at
three sites. IV. Evaluation of fresh and processed fruits. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66 (1):
65-70.
Perez-Lopez, A. and R.D. Reyes-Jurado. 1983. Effect of nitrogen and boron application on
Carica papaya L. I. Growth and yield. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (3): 181-187.
Perez-Lopez, A., A. Sotomayor-Rios and S. Torres-Rivera. 1980. Studies on characters of
chironja seedling trees. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (2): 232-235.
Perez-Lopez, A. and C.J. Torres. 1984. Growth, yield, efficiency and fruit quality of five
Navel orange clones during 4 years. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 68 (4): 405-411.
Perkins, R.M. and P.F. Burkner. 1973. Mechanical pollination of date palms. Report of 50th
annual Date Growers' Inst., Coachella Valley, Calif.
Permar, J.H. 1945. Catalog of plants growing in the Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela,
Honduras. Tela Railroad Co., La Lima, Honduras.
Petelot, A. 1952, 1954. Plantes medicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. I
#14, Vol. 3, #22. Centre de Rech. Sci. et Tech., Arch. des Rech. Agron. au. Camb., au Laos,
et au Vietnam, Saigon.
Peterson, R.A., and A.J. Inch. 1980. Control of anthracnose on avocados in Queensland.
Phadnis, N.A. and T.R. Bagle. 1969. Rupees 10,000 from a hectare. Grow Papaya for profit.
Ind. Hort. July/Sept. 12-14, 33.
Phadnis, N,A. and N. Gopalkrishna. 1958. Lest low temperature should harm the bananas.
Indian Hort. 3 (1): 5-7.
Phillips, R.L. and W.S. Castle. 1977. Evaluation of twelve rootstocks for dwarfing citrus. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 (5): 526-528.
Piatos, P. and R.J. Knight. 1975. Self-incompatibility in the sapodilla. Proc. Fla. St. Hort.
Soc. 88: 464-465.
(Bibliography)
Pillai, N.C., G.J.S. Rao and M. Sirsi. 1957. Plant anticoagulants [emblic]. J. Sci. & Indus.
Res. 16C (5): 106-107.
Pittier, H. 1957. Ensayo sobre plantas usuales de Costa Rica. Univ. de Costa Rica, San Jos,
C.R.
Pittier, H. 1914. New and noteworthy plants from Colombia and Central America-4.
Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 18, Pt. 2. Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, D.C.
Pittman, E.G. 1956. La chirimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.). Cir. 71. Estac. Exper. de 'La
Molina', Min. de Agr., Lima, Peru.
Plank, H.K. 1950. Experiments with mamey for pests of man and animals. Trop. Agr. 27:
38-41.
Plank, H.K. 1945. Plant toxicology studies [mamey]. Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in
Puerto Rico, 1944. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Admin., Washington, D.C.
Plank, H.K. 1948. Plant toxicology studies: mamey controlled fleas and ticks on dogs.
Report of the Fed. Exper. Sta. in Puerto Rico, 1947. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agrs. Res. Admin.,
Washington, D.C.
Platts, P.K. 1945. Pineapple ABC's. Fla. Dept. Agr., Tallahassee, Fla.
Plucknett, D.L. and O.R. Younge. 1967. A high-lift machine for harvesting papaya. Hawaii
Farm Sci. 16 (2): 1-3.
Poignant, A. 1969. Effets de deux hormones appliques sur 1' ananas pendant la formation
de fruit. Fruits 21 (7-8): 353-364.
Polius, F. 1980. The agronomy of the banana plant. Windward Islands Banana Growers
Assn., Res. & Dev. Div., Exten. Newsletter 11 (4): 4-9.
Pongpangan, S. and S. Poobrasert. 1972. Edible and poisonous plants in Thai forests. Sci.
Soc. of Thailand, Bangkok.
Pontikis, C.A. and P. Melas. 1986. Micropropagation of Ficus carica HortSci. 21 (1): 153.
Pope, W.T. 1923. Acid lime fruit in Hawaii. Bull. 49. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., Honolulu.
Pope, W.T. 1926. Banana culture in Hawaii. Bull. 55. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., Honolulu.
Pope, W.T. 1968. Manual of wayside plants of Hawaii. Chas. E. Tuttle Co., Rutland, Vt.
Pope, W.T. 1934. Propagation of plants by cuttings in Hawaii. Cir. 9. U. of Hawaii Agr.
Exper. Sta., Honolulu.
Popenoe, F.W. 1912. Feijoa sellowiana: its history, culture and varieties. Pomona Coll. J.,
Econ. Bot. 11 (1): 217-242.
Popenoe, F.W. 1911. The white sapote. Pomona Coll. J., Econ. Bot. 1 (2): 83-90.
Popenoe, J. 1965. Quest for the ilama. Fairchild Trop. Bull. 20 (1): 5-6.
Popenoe, J. 1974. Status of annona culture in South Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 87:
342-344.
Popenoe, J. 1962. Summer avocado varieties. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75: 358-360.
Popenoe, J. 1966. The 'African Pride' atemoya in Florida. Fr. Vars. & Hort. Dig. 20 (3): 44.
Popenoe, P. (edited by Henry Field). Written in 1928; pub'd 1973. The date palm. Field Res.
(Bibliography)
Projects, Coconut Grove, Miami, Fla.

Popenoe, P. 1924. The date palm in antiquity. Sci. Monthly 19: 313-325.
Popenoe, W. 1952. Central American fruit culture. Ceiba 1 (5): 269-366.
Popenoe, W. 1924. Economic fruit-bearing plants of Ecuador. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. Vol.
24, Pt. 5. Smithsonian Irist., Washington, D.C.
Popenoe, W. 1938. Importantes frutas tropicales (Pub. Agr. 130-1). Pan Amer. Union, Off.
of Agr. Coop., Washington, D.C.
Popenoe, W. 1938. Manual of tropical and subtropical fruits. 2nd ptg. The Macmillan Co.,
N.Y.
Popenoe, W. 1914. The jaboticaba. J. Heredity; July: 318-326.
Popenoe, W. 1921. The native home of the cherimoya. J. Heredity, Aug.-Sept.: 331-336.
Popenoe, W. and O. Jimenez. 1921. The pejibaye, a neglected food plant of tropical
America. Bull. of Pan Amer. Union, Nov.: 449-462. Same, in J. Heredity Apr.: 154-166.
Porres, M.A., P.A. Servando Rivera de Leon. [undated]. Temas Agricolas 36. Dept. de
Divulgacion Agricola, DIGESA, Min. de Agr., Guatemala, C.A.
Propisil, F., S.K. Karikari, and E. Boamah-Mensah. 1972. Characterization and selection of
pawpaw varieties (Carica papaya L.) in Ghana. Ghana J. Agr. Sci. 5 (2): 137-151.
Poucher, W.A. 1974. Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps. Vol. 2: The production, manufacture
and application of perfumes. 8th ed. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. [orange blossoms].
Power, F.B. and T. Callan. 1911. The constituents of the seeds of Casimiroa edulis. Trans.
Chem. Soc. (London) 99: 1993-2010.
Prakash, V., R. Yamdagni and P.C. Jindal. 1982. Studies on the effect of pre-harvest
treatments on storage behaviour of guava (Psidium guajava L.). Indian J. Agr. Res. 16 (3):
153-159.
Prasad, A. and J.P. Shukla. 1979. Studies on the ripening and storage behaviour of guava
fruits (Psidium guajava). Indian J. Agr. Res. 13 (1): 39-42.
Prasad, A. and J.P. Shukla. 1978. Studies on the ripening and storage of ber (Zizyphus
mauritiana Lamk.). Plant Sci. 10: 191-192.
Prasad, A. and J.P. Shukla. 1978. Studies on ripening and storage of custard apple [sugar
apple] fruits. Plant Sci. 10: 185-196.
Prasad, J. 1982. An agro-technique for papaya production. Indian Hort. Oct.: 25-26, 28.
Prasad, J. 1980. Pectin and oil from passion fruit waste. Fiji Agr. J. 42: 45-48.
Prasad, J.S. and R.A.B. Verma. 1980. Efficacy of certain antibiotics in the control of
postharvest decay of papaya fruits. Phytoparasitica. 8 (2): 105-108.
Prasad, P.C. and R. Chandra. 1980. Review of passionfruit research in Fiji. Fiji Agr. J. 42
(2): 19-22.
Prasad, S.S. 1962. Two new leaf spot diseases of Nephelium litchi Cambess. Curr. Sci. 31
(7): 293.
Prest, R.L. 1955. The custard apple [atemoya]. Queensland Agr. J. Jan. 1: 17-21.
(Bibliography)
Protopadakis, E. and Ch. Zambettakis. 1982. Contribution to knowledge of the resistance of

various scion/rootstock combinations against 'mal secco' [Volkamer lemon]. Fruits 37 (7-8):
467-471.
Pruthi, J.S. 1962. Chemical composition and utilization of passion fruit seed, seed oil and
seed meal. Ind. Oils & Soap J. 28 (3): 55.
Pruthi,J.S. 1960. Freeze-drying of passion fruit juice. Food Sci. 9 (16): 336-338.
Pruthi, J.S. 1960. Nutritive value and utilization of passion fruit waste. (skin or rind). Food
Sci. 9 (12): 397-399.
Pruthi, J.S. 1963. Spin pasteurization of canned passion fruit juice. Food Sci. 12 (1): 1-10.
Pruthi, J.S. 1965. Studies in isolation, characterization and recovery of pectin from purple
passion fruit waste (rind). Chem. & Indus. 13: 555-559.
Pruthi, J.S., R.N. Chakraborty, L.V.L. Sastry and G.S. Siddappa. 1963. Studies on
concentrating the juice of the cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale). Food Tech. 17 (11):
95-97.
Pruthi, J.S., G.V. Krishnamurthy and G. Lal. 1959. Utilization of mango waste. Indian Food
Packer 13 (4): 7-15.
Pruthi, J.S. and G. Lal. 1955. Refrigerated and common storage of purple passion fruits
(Passiflora edulis Sims.). Indian J. Hort. 12 (4): 204-211.
Pruthi, J.S., K.K. Mookerji and G. Lal. 1960. A study of factors affecting the recovery and
quality of pectin from guava. Indian Food Packer 14 (7): 7-13, 19.
Pulle, A. 1951. Flora of Suriname (Netherlands Guyana). Vol. III, Pt. 2. The Royal Inst. for
the Indies, Amsterdam.
Pulle, A. 1934. Flora of Surinam. Vol. III. Kon. ver Koloniaal Inst. te Amsterdam.
Purohit, A.G. 1981. Growing papaya the proper way. Ind. Hort. 25 (4): 3-5.
Purseglove, J.W. 1968. Tropical CropsDicotyledons 1 & 2. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., N.Y.
Purseglove, J.W. 1972. Tropical CropsMonocotyledons 1 & 2. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Halsted Press Div., N.Y.
Purvis, A.C. 1985. Relationship between chilling injury of grapefruit and moisture loss
during storage: amelioration by polyethylene shrink film. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110 (3):
385-388.
Purvis, A.C. and L.G. Albrigo. 1984. Seasonal and temperature effects on seed germination
in stored grapefruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 97: 100-103.
Py, C. and A. Guyot in collab. with C. Garlin and J. Martial. 1970. Etude sur l' utilisation de
l' ananas en conserverie. Fruits 25 (5): 349-355.
Py, C., P. Lossois and M. Karamkam. 1968. Contribution a l' etude du cycle de l' ananas.
Fruits 23 (8): 403-413.
Py, C. and R. Naville. 1973. Economic production of quality pineapples. Span 16 (1): 21-23.
Pynaert, L. 1954. Le mangoustanier (Garcinia mangostana L.). Dir. de l' Agr. des Forets et
de l' Elevage, Brussels, Belgium.
Pynaert, L. 1955. Les litchis et leurs especes fruitieres voisines. Tract #38. Dir. de l' Agr.
(Bibliography)
des Forets et de l' Elevage, Brussels, Belgium.

Quijano, J. and G.J. Arango. 1979. The breadfruit from Colombiaa detailed chemical
analysis. Econ. Bot. 33 (2): 199-202.
Quilantan-Carren, J. 1979. Propagacion vegetativa del zapote mamey. Proc. Trop. Reb.,
Quimio, T.H., A.N. Pordesimo and A.J. Quimio. 1975. Control of papaya fruit rots by
postharvest dip in thiabenzadole. Phil. Agr. 59: 7-11.
Quimio, T.H. and A.J. Quimio. 1974. Note: a new fruit rot of papaya in the Philippines.
Phil. Agriculturist 58 (7-8): 330-331.
Quiros, C.F. 1984. Overview of the genetics and breeding of husk tomato. Hort. Sci. 19 (6):
872-874.
Quisumbing, E. 1951. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Tech. Bull. 16. Phil, Dept. Agr.
Res. & Nat. Res., Manila.
Quraishi, A. and A. Nafees. 1983. Clonal propagation of mango (Mangifera indica) Pakistan
J. Agr. Res. 4 (1): 12-16.
Raad, H.J. 1981. Economics of macadamia and lateba [litchi] cultivation in the Cook
Islands. Farm Management Notes #10. Min. Agr. & Fish., Rarotonga, Cook Islands.
Raad, H.J. 1981. Economics of pawpaw cultivation on Rarotonga, Farm Management Notes
#8. Min Agr. & Fish., Rarotonga, Cook Islands.
Richman, A.R. 1964. The development of plantain flakes. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 48 (3):
263.
Rahman, A.R., C.M. Berrocal, J.R. Cruz-Day and J.D. Rivera-Anaya. 1963. Toxicity studies
on flour produced from unpeeled green plantains. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 47 (1): 11-13.
Rahman, M.A. 1981. Uses for mango wastes. Appropriate Tech. 7 (4): 29-30.
Rajagopalan, B. and K.I. Wilson. 1972. Diplodia natalensis causing dry rot of guava fruits
in South India. Pl. Dis. Rep. 56 (4): 323-324.
Rajput, C.B.S. and J.E. Teskey. 1979. Loquat cultivation in India. World Crops 31 (1): 20.
Rajarama Rao, M.R. and H.H. Siddiqui. 1964. Pharmacological studies on Emblica
officinalis Gaertn. Indian J. Exper. Biol. 2 (1): 29-31.
Ralph, W. 1980. Sunblotch disease in avocados. Rural Res. 109 (Dec.): 21-22.
Ram, B., R. Naidu and H.P. Singh. 1977. Alternaria macrospora Zimm. A new record on
passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims.) from India. Curr. Sci. 46 (5): 165.
Ram, M. and P.K. Majumdar. 1980. Propagating litchi through stooling. Indian Hort. 25 (2):
1.
Ram, S. 1974. Aonlaa tree you must grow. Intensive Agr. 12 (10): 6-8.
Rama Rao, P.B., S. Balakrishnan and R. Rajagopalan. 1952. Spray drying of Indian
gooseberry juice. Dept. Biochem., Indian Inst. of Sci., Bangalore, Typescript of paper, dated
July 5.
Ramirez, C.T. and E. Gonzalez Tejera. 1983. Spacing, nitrogen and potassium on yield and
quality of Cabezona. pineapple. J. Agri. U. Puerto Rico 67 (1): 1-10.
(Bibliography)
Ramirez, E. and M. Rivera. 1936. Contribucion al estudio de la accin farmaco-dinamico

del zapote blanco (Casimiroa edulis). Rev. Mensual Med. Mexico 9 (1): #3.
Ramirez, J.M. and A.H. Krezdorn. 1975. Effect of date of harvest and spot picking on yield
and quality of grapefruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 88: 40-44.
Ramirez, O.D. 1964. Metodo para eliminar las plantas masculinas de papaya en siembras
comerciales. Bull. 180. U. de Puerto Rico, Estac. Exper. Agr., Rio Piedras.
Ramirez, O.D. and H. Ganda. 1976. Comparison of three planting distances and fertilizer
applications on the yield of pineapple variety PR 1-67. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 60 (1): 31-35.
Ramirez, O.D. and H. Ganda. 1982. Comparison of nine planting distances on the yield of
pineapple variety PR 1-67. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 66 (2): 130-138.
Ramirez, O.D., H. Ganda and J. Velez Fortuo. 1970. Two new pineapple varieties for
Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 54 (3): 417-428.
Ramirez Diaz., J.M. 1973. Estudio comparativo de cultivates de mango, Mangifera indica
L., en plantaciones de Culiacan, Sinaloa. Agr. Tc. en Mxico 3 (6): 216-222.
Ramirez Padilla, P., L. Bello Muios and J.C. Suarez Mesa. 1982. Estudio comparativo de
tres cultivares de Valencia de la Empresa Citricola. Victoria de Giron. Centro Agricola 9
(2): 65-72.
Ramos Nuez, G. 1968. La guayaba: fruto para consumo y exportacion. Rev. Nac. Agr.
Colombia 62 (753): 8-11.
Randhawa, G.S. and R.R. Kohli. 1966. Sapota cultivation in India [sapodilla]. Indian Hort.
10 (4): 3-6, 26.
Randhawa, G.S., R.S. Malik and J.P. Singh. 1959. Note on clonal propagation in the phalsa
(Grewia asiatica L.). Indian J. Hort. 16 (2): 119-120.
Randhawa, G.S., B.B. Sharma and N.L. Jain. 1961. Effect of plant regulators on fruit drop,
size and quality in sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) var. Jaffa, Pineapple and
Mosambi. Ind. J. Hort. 18 (3) 177-186.
Randhawa, G.S. and J.P. Singh. 1958. Grow litchi, but select the right variety. Indian Hort. 3
(1): 10-11.
Randhawa, G.S., J.P. Singh and S.S. Khanna. 1959. Effect of gibberellic acid and some
other plant regulators on fruit set, size, total yield and quality in phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.).
Indian J. Hort. 16 (4): 202-205.
Randhawa, G.S., J.P. Singh and R.S. Malik. 1958. Fruit cracking in some tree fruits with
special reference to lemon (Citrus limon). Indian J. Hort. 15 (1): 6-9.
Randhawa, G.S. and R.K.N. Singh. 1967. Canning a loquat variety. Indian J. Hort. 11 (3):
16.
Randhawa, G.S. and R.K.N. Singh. 1967. Loquat growing is a paying proposition. Indian
Hort. 11 (2): 8-12, 31.
Ranganna, S., L. Setty and K.V. Nagaraja. 1966. Discolouration in canned guava. Indian
Rao, D.P.C. and S.C. Agrawal. 1977. A new fruit rot of Psidium guajava. Curr. Sci. 46 (5):
162-163.
(Bibliography)
Rao, G.M. 1983. Litchi and bee-keeping. Indian Hort. 28 (2): 19-20.
Rao, P.S. 1959. jellies and related products from tamarind seed kernels. J. Sci. & Indus. Res.
8 (9): 354-355.
Rao, P.S. 1957. Tamarind seed jellose: a new class of polysaccharides. J. Sci. & Indus. Res.
16A (3): 138-140.
Rasmussen, G.K. 1980. Relative effectiveness of dilute and concentrated
abscission-chemical sprays in loosening 'Valencia' oranges from trees. J. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 105 (2): 145-147.
Rastogi, R.C., R.P. Rastogi and M.L. Dhar. 1967. Studies on Carissa carandas Linn. Part
IIpolar glycosides. Indian J. Chem. 5 (5): 215-216.
Rastogi, R.C., M.M. Vohra, R.P. Rastogi and M.L. Dhar. 1966. Studies on Carissa
carandas Linn.: Pt. IIsolation of the cardiac active principles. Indian J. Chem. 4 (3):
132-138.
Ratnam, C. and M. Srinivasan. 1959. Behaviour of ascorbic acid in Indian gooseberry to
heat treatment. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 18C (7): 132-133.
Rawal, R.D., N.C. Muniyappa and B.A. Ullasa. 1983. Effect of pre-harvest sprays of
fungicides on the control of storage rot of papaya. Indian J. Agr. Sci. 53 (7): 614-615.
Raymond, W.D. and J.A. Squirer. 1961. Pewa or peach nuts from Trinidad. Col. Pl. &
Anim. Prod. 2 (3): 203-205.
Reasoner, P.W. 1891. Report on the condition of tropical and semitropical fruits in the
United States in 1887. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Pomology, Washington, D.C.
Record, S.J. and R.W. Hess, 1947. Timbers of the New World. 3rd ptg. Yale U. Press, New
Haven, Conn.
Reddy, D.B. 1975. Insects, other pests and diseases recorded in the southeast Asia and
Pacific region: mango, Mangifera indica. Tech. Doc. #96. Plant Protect. Comm., FAO,
Bangkok.
Reddy, Y.N. and P.K. Majumder, 1975. Bottom heata new technique for rooting hardwood
cuttings of tropical fruits. Curt. Sci. 44 (12): 444-445.
Reece, P.C. and F.E. Gardner, 1959. Robinson, Osceola and Leenew early-maturing
tangerine hybrids. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 72: 49-51.
Reece, P.C., C.J. Hearn, and F.E. Gardner. 1964. Nova tangeloan early ripening hybrid.
Reece, P.C. and R.O. Register. 1961. Influence of pollinators on fruit set on Robinson and
Osceola tangerine hybrids. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 74: 104-106.
Reed, J.B. 1956. Lychee production problems solved by good soil and water practices. Fla.
Grower & Rancher. Feb.: 14, 30-31.
Reeve, R.M. 1974. Histological structure and commercial dehydration potential of
breadfruit. Econ. Bot. 28: 82-96.
Reinking, O.A. 1929. The double pummelo of Banda and Ambon. J. Heredity 20 (10):
448-458.
(Bibliography)
Reinking, O.A. and G.W. Groff. 1921. The Kao Pan seedless Siamese Pummelo and its
culture. Phil. J. Sci. 19 (4): 389-437.
Reis de Almeida, J.M. 1974. O maracuja. Rev. Agricola 16 (171): 27-29.
Reitz, H.J. 1984. The world citrus crop, pp. 140-146. In: Outlook on Agriculture Vol. 13,
No. 3. Pergamon Press, Great Britain.
Reuther, W., H.J. Webber and L.D. Batchelor. 1967. The citrus industry. Vol. 1. Rev'd ed.
U. California, Riverside.
Reuveni, O. and I. Adato. 1974. Endogenous carbohydrates, root promoters and root
inhibitors in easy- and difficult-to-root date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) offshoots. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99 (4): 361-363.
Reyes, M.N., A. Perez and J. Cuevas. 1980. Detecting endogenous growth regulators on the
sarcotesta, sclerotesta, endosperm, and embryo by paper chromatography on fresh and old
seeds of two papaya varieties. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 64 (2): 164-172.
Reynhardt, J.P.K. and E.R. Dalldorf. 1968. Planting material for the Cayenne pineapple.
Farming in So. Africa 44 (2): 24-25, 27, 32.
Reynhardt, J.P.K. and E.R. Dalldorf. 1968. Queen pineapple planting material. Farming in
So. Africa 44 (4): 27-31.
Reynhardt, J.P.K. and J.L. van Heerden. 1968. Pruning pineapples. Farming in So. Africa 44
(4): 57-59.
Riaz, R.A. 1967. Pectin extraction from roselle sepals. Sci. & Indus. (West Pakistan) 5 (3):
435-441.
Rios-Castao, D. 1964. Cidras Corsican e Italian, dos ctricos potencialmente econmicos.
Agr. Trop. (Colombia) 20 (7): 369-378.
Rios-Castao, D. 1963. Clave para. la identificacion de tres especics de kumquat
(Fortunella spp.). Agr. Trop. (Colombia), 19 (8): 477-489.
Rivals, P. 1964. Notes biologique et culturales sur l' Actinidia de Chine (Actinidia sinensis
Planchon). J. d' Agr. Trop. et de Bot. Appl. 11 (4): 75-83.
Rivera Lopez, C. 1975. A method to obtain relatively uniform breadfruit trees from a
stockplant. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 59 (1): 77-78.
Rizvi, S.H., R.S. Kapil and A. Schoeb. 1985. Alkaloids and coumarins of Casimiroa edulis.
J. Nat. Prod. 48 (1): 146.
Roberts, J.W. 1963. Feijoas. New Zeal. J. Agr. 106 (4): 363-364.
Robinson, P.W. 1970. Simple grafting methods for passion fruit. Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales
81 (11): 591-592.
Robinson, T.R. 1952. Grapefruit and pummelo. Econ. Bot. 6 (3): 228-245.
Robinson, T.R. 1921. The bud-sport origin of a new pink-fleshed grapefruit in Florida. J.
Heredity 12 (3): 195-198.
Robinson, W.B. 1963. juice from the tomato's Latin American cousin [naranjilla]. Farm Res.
29 (3): 12, 13.
Rodriguez, A.J., R. Guadalupe, and L.M. Iguina de George. 1974. The ripening of local
(Bibliography)
papaya cultivars under controlled conditions. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 58 (2): 184-196.
Rodriguez, A.J. and L.M. Iguina de George. 1972. Evaluation of papaya nectar prepared
from unpeeled papaya puree. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 56 (1): 79-80.
Rodriguez, A.J. and L.M. Iguina de George. 1971. Evaluation of some processing
characteristics of cultivated guava clones. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 55 (1): 44-52
Rodriguez, A.J. and L.M. Iguina. de George. 1971. Preparation and canning of a papaya
drink. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 55 (2): 161-166.
Rodriguez, J., V.B. Dalal, N.V.N. Moorthy and H.C. Srivastava. 1963. Effect of postharvest
treatment with plant growth regulators in wax emulsion on storage behaviour of limes
(Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle). Indian Food Packer 17 (5): 9-11.
Rodriguez, J.A. and H. Irizarry. 1979. Effect of planting material on yield and quality of two
plantain cultivars (Musa acuminata X M. balbisiana, AAB). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 43 (3):
351-365.
Rodriguez, R. and P.L. Melendez. 1984. Occurrence of Sphaeropsis knot on citron (Citrus
medica L.) in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 68 (2): 179-183.
Rodriguez F., R. and H. Garayar M. (undated). Cultivo de Cocona, Maracuya and
Naranjilla. Oficina Tecnica de Informacion Agraria (OTIA).
Rodriguez-Sosa, E.J., I. Beauchamp de Caloni, O. Parsi-Ros and M.A. Gonzalez. 1977. The
preparation of cupcakes from green banana flour. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (4): 521-523.
Rodriguez-Sosa, E.J., M.A. Gonzalez, I.B. de Caloni and O. Parsi-Ros. 1977. The
preparation of green banana flour. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (4): 470-478.
Rodriguez-Sosa, E.J. and O. Parsi-Ros. 1984. pH affects properties of green banana starch.
J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 68 (4): 323-329.
Rogers, D.J. and A.D. Blair. 1981. Assessment of insect damage to litchi fruit in northern
Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 38 (2): 191-194.
Rogers, D.J. and A.D. Blair. 1983. Control of the banana scab moth (Nacoleia octasema)
(Meyrick) in south Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. 40 (1): 35-38.
Roig y Mesa, J.T. 1945. Plantas medicinales, aromaticas o venenosas de Cuba. Cultural,
S.A., Havana
Rojas, H.C. 1969. Ensayos preliminares sobre la industrializacion de la fibra de hoja de
pia. Rev. Univ. Indus. Santander, Invest. 2: 11-21.
Rokba, A.M., N.H. El Bakly, and N.E. Solet. 1982. Pollination studies in Annonas and their
effect on fruit set, fruit maturity and fruit characteristics. Res. Bull. 2117. Fac. of Agr., Ain
Shams Univ., Egypt.
Rokba, A.M., A.T. El-Wakeel and N.H. Ali. 1977. Studies and evaluation of some annona
varieties. Agr. Res. Rev. 55 (3): 13-29.
Rolfs, R.H. 1929. Subtropical vegetable-gardening. The Macmillan Co., N.Y.
Roman, J., D. Oramas, J. Green and A. Torres. 1983. Control of nematodes and black
weevils in plantains. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (2): 270-277.
Rondiere, P. 1972. The pineapple gold rush. Ceres: FAO Rev. 5 (3): 39-41.
(Bibliography)
Rose, J.N. 1899. Notes on useful plants of Mexico, Vol. 5, No. 4 [roselle]. U.S. Nat. Herb.,
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C.
Rosenzweiz, R.W. 1968. Etrog: Israel's Goodly Tree. For. Agr. 6 (49): 9-10.
Rossetto, C.J., M. Ojima and O. Rigitano. 1971. Queda dos frutos do caquizeiro, associada a
infestacao de Aceria diospyri K. (Acarina, Eriophyidae). Bragantia 30 (1): 1-9.
Roth, G. 1963. Post harvest decay of litchi fruit (Litchi chinensis Sonn.). Tech. Commun.
Dept. Agr. Techn. Serv. 11: 1-16.
Rouse, A.H. and P.G. Crandall. 1976. Nitric acid extraction of pectin from citrus peel. Proc.
Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 166-168.
Rouse, R.E. and H.K. Wutscher. 1985. Heavy soil and bud union crease with some
grapefruit clones limit use of Swingle Citrumelo rootstock. HortSci. 20 (2): 259-261.
Roy, B.N., M.S. Sengupta, and T.K. Bose. 1970. Growth substances prevent flower drop in
acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). Allahabad Farmer 44 (5): 275-277.
Roy, R.S. and C. Sharma. 1960. Mutation in mango (Mangifera indica L.). Indian J. Hort.
17 (2): 142-143.
Roy, R.S. and D.R. Singh. 1952. Utilization of unripe mango fruits. Indian Food Packer.
Apr.: 13-14, 31-33.
Roy, S.K. and R.N. Singh. 1979. Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)a potential fruit for
processing. Econ. Bot. 33 (2): 203-212.
Roy, R.S. and U.P. Verma. 1950. Bael products. Indian Food Packer 4 (8): 13-14, 28.
Ruberte-Torres, R. and F.W. Martin. 1974. First-generation hybrids of edible passion fruit
species. Euphytica 23: 61-70.
Ruehle, G.D. 1943. Cause and control of Cercospora spot and of anthracnose of the
avocado. Press Bull. 583. U. Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Ruehle, G.D. 1948. The common guavaa neglected fruit with a promising future. Econ.
Bot. 2 (3): 306-325.
Ruehle, G.D. 1951. The sapodilla in Florida. Cir. S-34. U. Fla., Agr. Exper. Sta.,
Gainesville, Fla.
Ruehle, G.D. 1953. Two new fruits for South Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 66: 190-191.
Ruggiero, C., D.A. Bangatto and A. Lam-Sanchez. 1976. Studies on natural and controlled
pollination in yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Deg.). Acta Hort. 57:
121-123.
Ryerson, K. (undated). The white sapote in California (Mimeo). Cir. 3. U. California, Coll.
Agr., Berkeley, Calif.
Saavedra, E. 1977. Influence of pollen grain stage at the time of hand pollination as a factor
on fruit set of cherimoya. HortSci. 12 (2): 117-118.
Saavedra, E. 1979. Set and growth of Annona cherimola Mill. Fruit obtained by
hand-pollination and chemical treatments. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 104 (5): 668-673.
Sadasivam, R., S. Muthuswamy, J.S. Sundaraj and D.D. Sundaraj 1970. Experiments with
waxing of mango fruits in common storage. Madras Agr. J. 57 (11): 694-699.
(Bibliography)
Sadhu, M.K. and S.K. Ghosh. 1976. Effects of different levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium on growth, flowering, fruiting and tissue composition of custard apple (Annona
squamosa L.). Indian Agr. 20 (4): 297-301.
Sadhu, M.K., S.K. Ghosh and T.K. Bose. 1975. Mineral nutrition of fruit plants. I. Effect of
different levels of nitrogen and potassium on growth, flowering, fruiting and leaf
composition of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.) Indian Agr. 19 (3): 319-321.
Safford, W.E. 1912. Botany: Annona diversifolia, a custard apple of the Aztecs. J.
Washington Acad. Sci. 11 (5): 118-125.
Safford, W.E. 1914. Classification of the genus Annona, with descriptions of new and
imperfectly known species. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. Vol. 18, Pt. 1. Smithsonian Inst.,
Washington, D.C.
Safford, W.E. 1905. Useful plants of the island of Guam. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. Vol. II.
Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, D.C.
Sagawa, Y. 1982. Potentials of tissue culture for the banana industry. Research & Extension
Series No. 21; pp. 36-37. Proc. Ann. Hawaii Banana Indus. Conf. 1981.
Saha, A.K. 1971. Increase in fruit set of female trees of papaya (Carica papaya L.) by
spraying 2, 4-Dichloraphenoxy acetic acid and naphthalene acetic acid. Allahabad Farmer
45 (6): 581-583.
Saha, A.K. 1969. Some investigations of vegetable propagation of jaman Syzygium jambos
L.). Allahabad Farmer 43 (3): 187-189.
Salazar C., R. and R. Torres M. 1977. Almacenamiento de frutas de maracuya (Passiflora
edulis var. flavicarpa, Degener) en bolsas de polietileno. Revista ICA 12 (1): 1-11.
Sale, P. 1981. Avocados: NZ's [New Zealand's] got all the advantages. New Zeal. J. Agr.
142 (4): 2-3.
Sale, P. 1973. The kiwi fruit story. New Zeal. J. Agr. 127 (5): 56-58.
Saleh, M.A., M.K. Mahmoud Amer, A. EI-Wahab Radwan, and M. El Said Amer. 1961.
Experiments on pomegranate seeds and juice preservation. Agr. Res. Rev. [U.A.R.] 42 (4):
54-64.
Salibe, A.A. 1970. Jaca; a maior fruta. O Estado do Sao Paulo. Oct. 28. P. 14.
Samarawira, I. 1983. Date palm, potential source for refined sugar. Econ. Bot. 37 (2):
181-186.
Sambamurty, K. and V. Ramalingam. 1954. A note on hybridisation in the sapota (Achras
zapota L.). Indian J. Hort. 11 (2): 57-60.
Sambamurty, K. and V. Ramalingam. 1954. Preliminary studies in blossom biology of the
jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) and pollination effects. Indian J. Hort. 11 (1):
24-27.
Sampalo, A. 1977. Desenvolve-se intensamente o cultivo da nespera ou ameixa-amarela. O
Estado do Sao Paulo, Supl. Agricola. Dec. 12, P. 7.
Samuels, G. 1970. Pineapple cultivars, 1970. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 83: 325-332.
Samuels, G., E. Orengo-Santiago and A. Beale. 1978. Influence of fertilizers on the
production of plantains with irrigation. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 62 (1): 1-9.
(Bibliography)
Sanchez-Nieva, F. 1955. Extraction, processing, canning, and keeping quality of acerola

juice. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 39 (4): 175-183.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. 1962. Nuevos procedimientos para la elaboracion de los nectares de
mango, guayaba y guanabana. P.M. 6. U. Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., C.E. Bueso and M. Mercado. 1983. The canning of green bananas. II.
Internal corrosion of plain tin containers by the acidified green bananas. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 67 (4): 356-365.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. and I. Hernandez. 1967. Preparacion y conservacion por congelacion de
platanos maduros en almibar. Lab. de Tech. de Alimentos. Pub. #7. U. Puerto Rico., Estac.
Exper. Agr., Rio Piedras.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. and I. Hernandez. 1977. Studies on the freezing of Red Spanish and
Smooth Cayenne pineapples. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (3): 354-360.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., I. Hernandez and C. Bueso. 1975. Studies on freezing green plantains
(Musa paradisiaca). 1. Effect of blanching treatments on the quality and storage life of raw
and pre-fried slices. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 59 (2): 84-91.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., I. Hernandez and C.E. Bueso. 1975. Studies on the freezing of plantains
(Musa paradisiaca). III. Effect of stage of maturity at harvest on quality of frozen products.
J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 59 (2): 107-114.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., I. Hernandez and C. Bueso, de Vinas. 1970. Studies on the ripening of
plantains under controlled conditions. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 54 (3): 517-529.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., I. Hernandez, R. Guadalupe and C. Bueso. 1971. Effect of time of
planting on yields and processing characteristics of plantains. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 55 (4):
394-404.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., I. Hernandez and L.M. Iguina de George. 1970. Frozen soursop puree. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 54 (2): 220-235.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., L. Igaravidez, and B. Lopez-Ramos. 1953. The preparation of soursop
nectar. Tech. Paper 11. U. Puerto Rico, Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. and M. Mercado. 1981. Non-enzymatic darkening in young
hot-water-peeled green bananas. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 65 (1): 1-7.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. and M. Mercado. 1983. The canning of green bananas. I. Processing
factors affecting the acidification of hot water peeled fruit. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (4):
339-355.
Sanchez-Nieva, F. and M. Mercado. 1983. The canning of green bananas. III. Effect of
storage and processing variables on chemical composition, texture and sensory attributes. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 67 (4): 366-378.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., M. Mercado and C. Bueso. 1980. Effect of the stage of development at
harvest on the texture, flavor, quality and yields of frozen green bananas. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 64 (3): 275-282.
Sanchez-Nieva, F., A.J. Rodriguez and J.R. Benero. 1959. Processing and canning mango
nectars. Bull. 148. U. Puerto Rico Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras.
Sandhu, I.P.S., G.S. Dhaliwal and M.P. Singh. 1983. Effect of pruning on yield, fruit quality
(Bibliography)
and maturity in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. J. Res. Punjab Agr. U. 20 (2):
135-138.
Santini, R., Jr., and A. Huyke. 1956. Identification of the anthocyanin present in the acerola
which produces color changes in the juice on pasteurization and canning. J. Agr. U. Puerto
Rico 40 (3): 171-178.
Santini, R., Jr. and A.S. Huyke. 1956. Identification of sugar present in fruit of the acerola
(Malpighia punicifolia L.) by paper chromatography. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 40 (2): 87-89.
Santini, R., Jr. and J. Navarez. 1955. Extraction of ascorbic acid from acerolas (Malpighia
punicifolia L.). J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 39 (4): 184-189.
Santos, E. 1962. A cultura do maracuja. Lav. e Criacao 136: 31-33.
Saras, R. 1978. Guava, the Emperor of fruits. Malaysian Panorama 8 (2): 18-23.
Sarveswara Rao, K., N.S. Kapur, H. Subramanyam, S. d'Souza and H.C. Srivastava. 1962.
Gas storage of bananas. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 21D: 331-335.
Sarwar, M. and M. Kamal. 1971. Studies on fruit rot of papaya caused by Rhizopus oryzae
(Went. & Jeerl.). Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. 14 (3): 234-236.
Sastry, L.W.L., M.N. Satyanarayona, M. Srinivasan, N. Subramanian and V.
Subrahmanyan. 1956. Polyphenols in edible materials. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15C (3): 78-90.
Sastry, M.V. 1965. Biochemical studies in the physiology of guava. Pt. I. Physical changes.
Indian Food Packer 19 (1): 11-14.
Sastry, M.V. 1966. Biochemical studies in the physiology of sapota. Pt. II. Major chemical
constituents. Indian Food Packer 20 (6): 16-20.
Sastry, M.V. 1965. Biochemical studies in the physiology of guava. Pt. V. Changes during
storage. Indian Food Packer 19 (6): 17-20.
Saucedo Veloz, C., F. Esparza Torres, and S. Lakshminarayana. 1977. Effect of refrigerated
temperatures on the incidence of chilling injury and ripening quality of mango fruit. Proc.
Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 90: 205-210.
Sauls, J.W. and C.W. Campbell. 1980. Avocado seed germination studies. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 93: 153-154.
Sauls, J.W. and C.W. Campbell. 1980. Herbicide screening on Carica papaya L. Proc. Trop.
Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 24: 93-96.
Savastano, L. 1923. Della coltivazione dell' anona in Italia. Ann. Rpt. 7. R. Stazione
Sperimentale di Agrumicoltura e frutticoltura, Acireale, Italy.
Savur, G.R. 1956. Manufacture of pectin in India. Indian Food Packer 10 (5): 12-14.
Savur, G.R. 1955. Utilization of tamarind seed polyose in food industries. Indian Food
Packer 9 (2): 13-16 and 9 (3): 31-32.
Sawaya, W.N., W.M. Safi, L.T. Black, A.S. Mashadi and M.M. AlMuhammad. 1983.
Physical and chemical characterisation of the major date varieties grown in Saudi Arabia.
11. Sugars, tannins, vitamin A and C. Date Palm J. 2 (2): 183-196.
Schaefers, G.A. 1969. Aphid vectors of the papaya mosaic viruses in Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U.
Puerto Rico 53 (1): 1-13.
(Bibliography)
Schaffer, R.S., W.E. Scott and T.D. Fontaine. 1952. Antibiotics that come from plants. Pp.
727-733. In: U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1950-1951, "Crops in Peace and War".
Schaible, C.H. 1965. "Drink that cold away with tangerine juice". Fla. Grower & Rancher.
73 (2); 13.
Schieber, C. 1963. Nemtodos; que atacan a la naranjilla en Guatemala. Revista Cafetalera
46: 6-7.
Schnee, L. 1973. Plantas comunes de Venezuela. 2nd ed. Universidad Central de Venezuela,
Fac. de Agron., Maracay.
Schneider, H. and J.E. Pehrson, Jr. 1985. Decline of navel orange trees with trifoliate orange
rootstocks. Calif. Agr. 39 (9 & 10): 13-16.
Schroeder, C.A. 1945. Cherimoya. culture in California. Cir. 15; Mimeo Cir. Series. U.
Calif., Coll. of Agr., Agr. Exper. Los Angeles, Calif.
Schroeder, C.A. 1947. Cherimoya varieties in California. Fr. Vats. & Hort. Dig. 2 (3):
68-71.
Schroeder, C.A. 1981. Fruit morphology and anatomy of the cherimoya. Bot. Gaz. 112 (4):
436-446.
Schroeder, C.A. 1954. Fruit morphology and anatomy in the white sapote. Bot. Gaz. 115
(3): 248-254.
Schroeder, C.A. 1947. Hand pollination of cherimoya improves fruit set. 1947 Yearbook,
Calif. Avocado Soc. Pp. 67-70.
Schroeder, C.A. 1947. Pollination requirements of the feijoa. Proc. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci.
49: 161-162.
Schroeder, C.A. 1946. Priority of the species Psidium cattleianum Sabine. J. Arn. Arbor. 27:
314-315.
Schroeder, C.A. 1947. Rootstock influence on fruit-set in the Hachiya persimmon. Proc.
Schroeder, C.A. and J.E. Coit. 1944. The Cattleycommonly known as the strawberry
guava. Yearbook Calif. Avocado Soc. Pp. 44-47.
Schroeder, C.A. and W.A. Fletcher. 1967. The Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis) in
New Zealand. Econ. Bot. 21 (1): 81-92.
Schroeder, C.A. 1949. The feijoa in California. Fr. Vats. & Hort. Dig. (Winter). P. 99.
Schroeder, C.A. 1948. The kei apple. Yearbook (1947), Calif. Avocado Soc. Pp. 71-73.
Schroeder, C.A. 1950. The loquat. Yearbook 1959, Texas Agr. Soc. Pp. 69-73.
Schroeder, C.A. 1949? The white sapote, Casimiroa edulis. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.? Pp.
60-65.
Schroeder, C.A. 1949. White sapote varieties in California. Fr. Vats. & Hort. Dig. 4 (1): 7-9.
Schultes, R.E. 1958. A little-known cultivated plant from northern South America [Solanum
topiro]. Bot. Mus. Leaflets, Harvard U. 18 (5): 229-244.
Schultes, R.E. and J. Cuatrecasas. 1953. Notes on the cultivated lulo. Bot. Mus. Leaflets,
Harvard U. 16 (5): 97-105.
(Bibliography)
Sciancalepore, V. and W. de Dorbesson. 1981. Influencia de la variedad sobre la

composicion acidica y la estructura gliceridica del aciete de aguacate. Rev. Agr. Subtrop. e
Trop: 109-115.
Scott, F.S., Jr. and R. Shoraka. 1974. Economic analysis of the market for guava nectar. Res.
Rpt. 230. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., Coll. of Agr., U. of Hawaii.
Scott, K.J., B.I. Brown, G.R. Chaplin, M.E. Wilcox and J.M. Bain. 1982. The control of
rotting and browning of litchi fruit by hot benomyl and plastic film. Scientia Hort. 16:
253-262.
Scrimshaw, N.S., INCAP, Guatemala. 1955. Personal communication, June 10.
Seale, P.E. and G.D. Sherman. 1960. Commercial passion fruit processing. Cit. 58. Hawaii
Agr. Exper. Sta., U. of Hawaii.
Seaman, R.J. 1978. The Australian avocado industry. Chron. Hort. 18 (1): 5.
Seaman, R.J. 1978. The Australian pineapple industry. Chron. Horticulturae 18 (1): 5-6.
Sein, F., Jr. and J. Adsuar. 1947. Transmission of the bunchy top disease of papaya (Carica
papaya L.) by the leaf hopper Empoasca papayae Oman. Science 106: 130.
Sekeri-Pataryas, K.H., K.A. Mitzakos and M.K. Georgi. 1973. Yields of fungal protein from
carob sugars. Econ. Bot. 27 (3): 311-319.
Sen, A.B. and Y.N. Shukla. 1968. Chemical examination of Hylocereus undatus. J. Indian
Chem. Soc. 45 (8) [no page no.]
Sen, A.K. 1963. Furocourmarins in the treatment of leucoderma [bael fruit]. J. Sci. & Indus.
Res. 22 (2): 88-91.
Sen, P.K., R.N. Basu, T.K. Bose and N. Roychoudhury. 1968. Rooting of mango cuttings
under mist. Curr. Sci. 37 (5): 144-146.
Sengupta, S.C. 1972. Improved lac cultivation. Indian Farming 22 (3): 11-14, 23. [Indian
jujube].
Sergent A., E. 1979. Estado actual de las zonas productoras de aguacate (Persea americana)
en Venezuela. Rev. Fac. Agron. (Maracay) 10 (1-4): 51-56.
Seth, J.N. 1962. Cytogenetical studies in Psidium, I.F1 hybrids of P. gualava X P.
guineense S.W. cross. Hort. Adv. (India) 6: 173-179.
Setty, K.G.H. 1959. Blue mold of amla. Curr. Sci. 28 (5): 208.
Shaffer, R. 1982. Kiwi is growing ripe profits for California farms. Christian Sci. Monitor.
Nov. 9.
Shanker, G. 1969. Aonla for your daily requirement of vitamin C. Indian Hort. July-Sept.:
9-11, 35.
Shanker, G. 1967. How to grow apple colour guava. Indian Hort. 11 (2): 22-23.
Shanker, G. 1980. Preliminary studies on propagation of aonla (Phyllanthus emblica L.) by
chip budding. Allahabad Farmer 51 (1): 79-80.
Shanker, G. and N. Chezhiyan. 1979. A note on the effect of gibberellic acid on seedless
guava (Psidium guajava) cultivar. Allahabad Farmer 50 (1): 29-32.
Shanker, G. and B.A. David. 1979. Guava varieties and its relatives differ in susceptibility
(Bibliography)
to the guava stem girdling and boring bark caterpillar, Indarbela sp. Indarbelidae,
Lepidoptera. Allahabad Farmer 50 (3): 327-329.
Shanmugavelu, K.G. 1971. Effect of plant growth regulators on jack (Artocarpus
heterophyllus Lamk.). The Madras Agr. J. 58 (2): 97-103.
Sharaf; A. 1962. The pharmacological characteristics of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Planta Med.
10 (1): 48-52.
Sharaf, A., M.B.E. Fayez and A.R. Negm. 1967. Pharmacological properties of Punica
granatum L. Qual. Plant. Mater. Veg. 14 (4): 331-336.
Sharaf, A., O. Lotfy and A. Geneidy. 1967. The effect of a coloring matter separated from
Hibiscus sabdariffa on Mycobacterium tuberculosis as compared to that of its watery
extract. Qual. Plant. Mat. Veg. 15 (2): 117-122.
Sharma, B.M. and P. Singh. 1975. Diagnostic characters of seeds of Carica papaya L. an
adulterant of black papper of commerce. Quart. J. Crude Drug Res. 13: 69-76.
Sharma, R.D. and P.A.A. Loof. 1973. Novo tipo de enfermidade da goiabeira causada por
nematoides na Bahia. Cacau Atualidades 10 (1): 20-21.
Sharma, R.D. and S.A. Sher. 1973. Occurrence of plant parasitic nematodes in avocado in
Bahia, Brazil. Nematropica 3 (1): 20-23.
Sharp, J.L. and D.L. Spalding. 1984. Hot water as a quarantine treatment for Florida mangos
infested with Caribbean fruit fly. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 97: 355-356.
Sheerer, L. 1977. Intelligence Report: African folk medicine. Parade: Orlando Sentinel Star.
June 5.
Shigeura, G.T. 1973. Culture and management of guava. Misc. Pub. #11. U. Hawaii Coop.
Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Shivpuri, D.N. 1963. Allergy to papaya tree (Carica papaya Linn.). Ann. of Allergy 21 (3):
139-144.
Shoeb, A., R.S. Kapil, and S.A. Popli. 1973. Coumarins and alkaloids of Aegle marmelos.
Phytochem. 12: 2071-2072.
Shoemyen, J. 1969. Citrus pulp pellets formed by extrusion process. Fla. Grower & Rancher
62 (5): 4-5.
Shoji, K., M. Nakamura, and M. Matsumura. 1958. Growth and yield of papaya in relation
to fertilizer applications. Prog. Notes 118 (Mimeo). Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., Coll. of Agr.,
U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Shrestha, G.K. 1981. Effects of ethephon on fruit cracking of lychees (Litchi chinensis
Sonn.). HortSci. 16 (4): 498.
Shrivastava, H.C., K. Kripal Singh, and P.B. Mathur. 1962. Refrigerated storage of
mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana). Food Sci. Aug.: 226-228.
Shukla, O.P. and C.R. Krishna Murti. 1961. Bacteriolytic activity of plant latices [jackfruit].
J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 20C (7): 225-226.
Shukla, S. and R.D. Tewari. 1971.
7-methylporoil-4-B-D-xylopyranosyl-D-gluco-pyranoside from the heartwood of Feronia
elephantum. Ind. J. Chem. 9 (3): 187.
(Bibliography)
Siddappa, G.S. 1957. Effect of processing on the trypsin inhibitor in jackfruit seed
(Artocarpus integrifolia). J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 16C (10): 199-201.
Siddappa, G.S. 1959. Preparation of some useful preserved products from carambola
(Averrhoa carambola). Indian J. Hort. 16 (1): 47-48.
Siddappa, G.S. and B.S. Bhatia. 1956. Effect of canning on the B-carotene content of
mango, papaya and jackfruit. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 15C (5): 118-120.
Siddappa, G.S. and B.S. Bliatia. 1952. Preparation of jelly from jackfruit rind. The Bulletin.
Cent. Food Tech. Res. Inst., Mysore, India 2 (3): 70-72.
Siddappa, G.S., A.M. Nanjundaswami and S. Saroja. 1969. Utilisation of banana fruit.
Indian Hort. 14 (1): 7-8, 29-30.
Silveira, A.H. da. 1958. Pequea industria de jaboticaba. Rural, Rev. Soc. Rural Brasil. 38
(446): 19.
Silveira, A.P., M. Ojima, B.P. Bastos Cruz and S.C.P. Silveira. 1965. Controle quimico da
"entomosporiose" nos viveiros de nespereira [sapodilla]. O Biologico 31 (7): 137-141.
Simao, S. 1955. Contribuicao para caracterizacao de algumas variedades de mangueira,
Mangifera indica L. J. de Piracicaba, Piracicaba, Brazil.
Simmonds, J.H. 1959. Mild strain protection as a means of reducing losses from the
Queensland woodiness virus in the passion vine. Queensland J. Agr. 16 (4): 371-380.
Simmonds, J.H. 1965. Papaw diseases. Queensland Agr. J. 91 (11): 666-678.
Simmonds, N.W. 1959. Bananas. Trop. Agr. Ser. Longmans, Green & Co., Ltd., London.
Simons, J.S. 1942. La guanabana y su cultivo. Bol. Bimestral de la Est. Exper. Agr. de la U.
de Puerto Rico 2 (3): 7-8.
Simons, J.S. and R. Arroyo. 1943. La pomarrosa Malaya en la produccion de vino(Jambos
malaccensis (L) DC). Agr. Exper. Bol. Bimestral de la Estac. Exper. de la U. de Puerto Rico
11 (3): 5-7.
Sinclair, W.B. 1972. The grapefruit. U. Calif. Press, Berkeley, Calif.
Sinclair, W.B. 1961. The orange, its biochemistry and physiology. U. Calif., Div. of Agr.
Sci., Riverside, Calif.
Sing Ching Tongdee. 1972. Polyethylene bags and ethylene absorbent for delaying banana
ripening. Thai J. Agr. Sci. 5: 265-271.
Singh, B.B. 1962. Alternaria rot of mango in cold storage and its control. Hort. Adv. 6:
164-167.
Singh, B.B. 1959. Fruit rot of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.). Hort. Adv. 3: 128-130.
Singh, H. and A.N. Rao. 1963. Seed germination and seedling morphology in Durio
zibethinus. The Malay Forester, Apr. Pp. 98-103.
Singh, H.P. and I.S. Yadav. 1980. Ways of quick multiplication of pineapple. Indian Hort.
25 (2): 7-9, 28.
Singh, I.D. and S.C. Sirohi. 1977. Sex expression studies in papaya (Carica papaya L.).
Pantnagar J. Res. 2 (2): 150-152.
Singh, J.P., P.S. Godara and R.P. Singh. 1961. Effect of type of wood and planting dates on
(Bibliography)
the rooting of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.) cuttings. Indian J. Hort. 18 (1): 46-50.
Singh, J.P. and C.B.S. Rajput. 1961. Pomological descriptions and classification of some
loquat varieties Ind. J. Hort. 18 (3): 171-176.
Singh, J.P. and G.S. Randhawa. 1958. Some interesting bud variations in citron (Citrus
medica L.). Indian J. Hort. 15 (1): 19-21.
Singh, J.P., G.S. Randhawa and C.B.S. Rajput. 1960. Effect of plant regulators on fruit
development, ripening, drop, yield, size and quality of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.)
var. Improved Golden Yellow and Pale Yellow. Ind. J. Hort. 17 (3-4): 156-163.
Singh, J.P. and H.C. Sharma. 1961. Effect of time and severity of pruning on growth, yield
and fruit quality of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.). Indian J. Hort. 28 (1): 20-28.
Singh, J.R. and R.P. Srivastava. 1963. Propagation of guava by budding. Trop. Agr. (Trin.)
40 (1): 71-73.
Singh, K.K. and P.B. Mathur. 1954. A note on investigations on the cold storage and
freezing of jackfruit. Indian J. Hort. 11 (4): 149.
Singh, K.K. and P.B. Mathur. 1954. Cold storage of guavas. Indian J. Hort. 11 (1): 1-5.
Singh, K.K. and P.B. Mathur. 1953. Studies in the cold storage of cashew apples. Indian J.
Hort. 10 (3): 115-121.
Singh, K.K. and P.L. Sarin. 1957. Studies on the varietal differences in fruit quality in litchi
(Litchi chinensis Sonn.). Indian J. Hort. 14 (12): 103-107.
Singh, L.B. 1960. A new technique for inducing early bearing in jackfruit (Artocarpus
heterophyllus Lam.). Ann. Rpt. Hort. Res. Inst., Saharanpur, India. Pp. 40-46.
Singh, L.B. 1952. A new technique for propagating aonla (Phyllanthus emblica). Sci. &
Culture 17: 345-346.
Singh, L.B. 1960. 'Sharbati'the wonder peach (Prunus persica Batsch.) for the subtropics.
Ann. Rpt. 1960. Hort. Res. Inst., Saharanpur, India. Pp. 47-50.
Singh, L.B. 1961. Some promising selections of bael. Ann. Rpt. Hort. Res. Inst.,
Saharanpur, India. Pp. 111-119.
Singh, L.B. 1961. Studies on the rootstocks for sweet orange in the wet subtropics. I.
Variety 'Mosambi'(non-blood group). Hort. Adv. 5: 156-170.
Singh, L.B. and R.N. Singh. 1956. A monograph on the mangoes of Uttar Pradesh (2 vols.).
Supt., Printing & Stationery, U.P., India.
Singh, L.B. and U.P. Singh. 1954. The Litchi. Supt., Printing & Stationery, U.P., India.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1960. A new method of papain production. Reprint from
Ann. Rpt. Hort. Res. Inst., Saharanpur, U.P., India. Pp. 90-92.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1960. Papaw pilot scheme. Ann. Rpt. Hort. Res. Sta.,
Saharanpur, U.P., India. Pp. 45-48.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1957. Studies in the preparation of papain: selection of fruits
for the first lancing. Indian J. Hort. 14 (2): 77-82.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1957. Studies in the preparation of papain II. Further
observations on the selection of fruits for the first lancing. Indian J. Hort. 14 (3): 141-144.
(Bibliography)
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1957. Studies in the preparation of papain III. Effect of
alcohol, acetone and sodium-bisulphite on the quality and recovery of the enzyme. Hort.
Adv. 1: 95-101.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1960. Studies in the preparation of papain. V. Effect of
different concentrations of sodium-bisulphite on the quality of the enzyme. Hort. Adv. 4:
72-77.
Singh, L.B. and R.D. Tripathi. 1962. Studies in the preparation of papain. VI. Effect of high
concentrations of sodium-bisulphite and different storage temperatures of the latex on the
quality of the enzyme. Hort. Adv. 6: 64-70.
Singh, M.P. 1959. Studies in pectin production from lanced papaya fruits; effect of levels of
maturity and lancing on pectin content of fruits. Hort. Adv. 3: 102-107.
Singh, N. and H.S. Shukla. 1978. Response of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.) fruits to
GA and urea. Plant Sci. 10: 77-83.
Singh, N.P. and R.P. Srivastava, 1981. Steps to stone grafting in mango. Indian Hort. 26 (1):
7-8, 24.
Singh, O.S., R.P. Gangwas and B.S. Dhillon. 1970. Regulations of fruit ripening in guava by
gibberellic acid. Trop. Agriculturist (Ceylon) 126 (2): 85-89.
Singh, P., M.S. Bajwa and R. Singh. 1973. Propagation of her (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.).
I. Effect of ringing and IBA on the stooling. Plant Sci. 5: 137-139.
Singh, P., C.L. Madan and B.C. Kundu. 1963. Histological study of the roots of Carissa
carandas and Carissa spinarum. Lloydia 26 (1): 49-56.
Singh, R. 1957. Improvement of packing and storage of litchi at room temperature. Indian J.
Hort. 14 (4): 205-212.
Singh, R. and R.C. Khanna. 1968. Some North Indian cultivars of ber. Indian Hort. 12 (2):
23-26, 36.
Singh, R.D. 1970. Studies on flowering and pollination in sapota (Achras sapota L.). Indian
J. Sci. & Indus. 4 (2): 65-72.
Singh, R.G. and S.N. Dafe. 1971. Micronutrient deficiency in mango (Mangifera indica L.)
and guava (Psidium guajava L.). Allahabad Farmer 45 (5): 479-483.
Singh, R.L. 1954. Propagation of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.). Ann. Rpt. Fruit
Res. Sta., Saharanpur, India.
Singh, R.L. 1961. Studies on the effect of three levels of nitrogen on the growth and
cropping of mandarins and sweet oranges budded on different rootstocks. III. Effect on the
fruit-set and yield. Hort. Adv. 5: 176-196.
Singh, R.L. 1962. Studies on the effect of three levels of nitrogen on the growth and
cropping of mandarins and sweet oranges budded on different rootstocks. IV. Effect on the
quality of fruits. Hort. Advance 6: 93-109.
Singh, R.N. 1980. Mango improvement. Indian Farming 30 (8): 56-59.
Singh, R.N., P.K. Majumdar, and D.K. Sharma. 1969. New mango hybrids of greater export
potential. Indian Hort. 13 (4): 3-6, 33.
Singh, R.N., P.K. Majumdar, and D.K. Sharma. 1963. Seasonal variation in the sex
(Bibliography)
expression of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Ind. J. Agr. Sci. 33 (4): 261-267.
Singh, R.N., P.K. Majumdar and D.K. Sharma. 1961. Sex reversal in papaya (Carica
papaya L.). Ind. J. Hort. 18 (2): 148-149.
Singh, R.N., P.K. Majumdar, D.K. Sharma, G.C. Sinha and P.C. Bose. 1974. Effect of
de-blossoming on the productivity of mango. Scientia Hort. 2: 399-403.
Singh, R.N., D.K. Sharma, and P.K. Majumdar. 1980. An efficient technique of mango
hybridization. Scientia Hort. 12: 299-301.
Singh, S., D.V. Chugh and K.K. Singh. 1965. Seasonal and interaction effects in marcotting
of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) with some plant regulators. Ind. J. Agr. Sci. 35 (2):
101-113.
Singh, S., S. Krishnamurthi and S.L. Katyal. 1963. Fruit culture in India. Indian Coun. Agr.
Res., New Delhi.
Singh, S., K.K. Singh and D.V. Chugh. 1961. Marcotting with some plant regulators in
loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lind.). Indian J. Hort. 18 (2): 123-129.
Singh, S.M. and T. Kaisuwan. 1971. Effect of interval between extraction and sowing; and
container for storage on the germination of seedstones and growth of seedlings of mango
(Mangifera indica Linn.) Allahabad Farmer 45 (3): 287-290.
Singh, S.N. 1960. Longevity of papaya (Carica papaya L.) pollen. Ind. J. Hort. 17 (3-5):
238-242.
Singh, S.N. 1962. Storage of litchi pollen. Hort. Adv. 6: 78-88.
Singh, S.N. 1962. Studies on the morphology and viability of the pollen grains of litchi.
Hort. Adv. 6: 28-52.
Singh, S.N. 1959. Testing viability of papaya pollen in artificial medium. Hort. Adv. 3:
111-114.
Singh, S.R., C.O. Das and K.K. Srivastava. 1967. Physico-chemical studies of three species
of genus Carissa. Allahabad Farmer 41 (2): 83-85.
Singh, U.P. 1954. A note on hybridization technique in loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.)
Indian J. Hort. Mar.: 30-31.
Singh Dhaliwal, T. 1959. The Mysore raspberry, a new fruit for home gardens in the
central-western mountainous region of Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 43 (2): 132-138.
Singh Dhaliwal, T. and A. Torres-Sepulveda. 1962. Performance of acerola, Malpighia
punicifolia L., in the coffee region of Puerto Rico. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 46 (3): 195-204.
Singmaster, J.A. III. 1970. Comparison of four chemicals to B-hydroxyethyl hydraxine
(BOH) for flower initiation in pineapple. U. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 54 (1): 184-186.
Sinha-Roy, S.P. and D.P. Chakraborty. 1976. Psoralen, a powerful germination inhibitor.
Phytochem. 15: 2005-2006.
Skipworth, R.G. 1944. The commercial culture of Cape gooseberries. Bull. 1255. Reprint
from Rhodesia Agr. J. 61 (1): 20-22.
Smiley, N. 1951. Pineapples can be raised in backyard if you have patience and know how.
Miami Herald. Sept. 2.
Smith, D. 1973. Insect pests of avocados. Queensland Agr. J. 99 (12): 645-653.
(Bibliography)
Smith, J. 1882. A dictionary of popular names of the plants which furnish the natural and
acquired wants of man, in all matters of domestic and general economy. Macmillan & Co.,
London.
Smith, J.H.E. 1972. Mango farmers plan in good time. II. Farming in So. Africa. Mar. Pp.
18-19, 21, 23.
Smith, J.H.E. 1972. The white sapote. Leaflet 74. Subtrop. Fruit Ser. 14. White sapote Ser.
#1. Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv., Pretoria, So. Africa.
Smith, K.L. 1957. Growing and preparing guavas. Bull. 74. Dept. Agr., Tallahassee, Fla.
Smith, N.F. 1965. Banana passionfruit is useful in winter. New Zeal. J. Agr. 110 (3): 272.
Smith, P.F. 1976. Collapse of 'Murcott' tangerine trees.J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 101 (1):
23-25.
Smith, R. 1983. The Indian jujube. Living Off the Land, a Subtropic Newsletter 9 (1): 7-8.
Smith, R.A. and D.B. Fitz. 1973. Mexico's changing citrus industry finds a new star in
grapefruit. For. Agr. 11 (16): 2-4.
Smith, R.J. 1982. Hawaiian milk contamination creates alarm. Science 217 July 9: 137-140.
Smith, R. and S. Siwatibau. 1975. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons of Fijian guavas. Phytochem.
14: 2013-2015.
Sobrinho, A.P. da Cunha, O.S. Passos, W.S. Soares Filho, and Y.S. Coelho. 1981.
Behaviour of citrus rootstocks under tropical conditions. Proc. Internat. Soc. Citriculture.
Vol. I: 123-126.
Soepadmo, E. and B.K. Eow. 1977. The reproductive biology of Durio zibethinus Murr.
Gardener's Bull. 29: 25-33.
Soliven, F.A., P.H. Quinitio, and L.T. Gonzalez. 1961. Chemical peeling of fruits. I. Santol
(Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merr.). Phil. J. Sci. 90 (1): 1-8.
Soman, R. and P.P. Pillay. 1962. Isolation of crystalline vitamin from the fruits of Emblica
officinalis Gaertn. J. Sci. Indus. Res. 21 B (7): 347.
Sondheimer, F. and A. Meisels. 1958. The constituents of Casimiroa edulis Llave & Lex.
IV. Identification of edulein with 7 methoxy-1-methyl 2-phenyl-4-quinolone. J. Org. Chem.
23: 762-763.
Sondheimer, F., A. Meisels and F.A. Kimel. 1959. Constituents of Casimiroa edulis Llave
& Lex. V. Identity of casimirolid and obacunone. J. Org. Chem. 24: 870.
Sookmark, S. and E.A. Tai. 1975. Vegetative propagation of papaya by budding. Acta Hort.
49: 85-90.
Soost, R.K., and J.W. Cameron. 1986. 'Melogold', a new pummelo-grapefruit hybrid. Calif.
Agr. 40 (1/2): 30-31.
Soost, R.K. and J.W. Cameron. 1985. 'Melogold', a triploid pummelo-grapefruit hybrid.
HortSci. 20 (6): 1134-1135.
Soost, R.K. and J.W. Cameron. 1980. 'Oroblanco', a triploid pummelo-grapefruit hybrid.
HortSci. 15 (5): 667-669.
Sosa, J. 1981. Efecto de la poda en setos en lima persa (Citrus latifolia Tan.) a los doce
meses de efectuada. Cultivos Tropicales 3 (3): 3-11.
(Bibliography)
Soto Santos, D. (undated). El moko del banano. Temas Agricoles #26. Dept. de Sanidad
Vegetal. Direccion de Desarrollo Agricola, Min. de Agr., Guatemala.
Southwick, S.M. and F.S. Davies. 1982. Growth regulator effects on fruit set and fruit size
in Navel Orange. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 107 (3): 395-397.
Souza-Novelo, N. 1950. Plantes alimenticias y plantas de condimento que viven en Yucatan.
Inst. Tecn. Agricola Henequenero, Mrida, Yucatan.
Spalding, D.H., R.J. Knight and W.F. Reeder. 1976. Storage of avocado seeds. Proc. Fl. St.
Hort. Soc. 89: 257-258.
Spalding, D.H. and W.F. Reeder. 1977. Low pressure (hypobaric) storage of mangos. J.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 (3): 367-369.
Spruce, R. 1908. Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes, edited and condensed by
Alfred Russell Wallace (2 vols.). Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London.
Spurgin, M.M. 1964. Vinegar base production from waste pineapple juice. Queensland J.
Agr. Sci. 21 (2): 213-232.
Spurlock, D.H. 1960. Fruit shedding of Japanese Persimmon. So. Florist and Nurseryman.
June 24. Pp. 67-68.
Sridhar, T.S. and B.A. Ullasa. 1978. Leaf blight of guava-a new record. Curr. Sci. 47 (12):
442.
Srinivasan, C., C.M. Pappiah and A. Doraipandian. 1973. Effect of gibberellic acid on
ascorbic acid, sugar content and oxidative enzyme activity of West Indian cherry (Malpighia
punicifolia L.) fruit. Ind. J. Exper. Biol. 11: 469-470.
Srinivasa Rao, N.K., S. Narayanaswamy, E.K. Chacko and R. Dore Swamy. 1981. Tissue
culture of the jack tree. Curr. Sci. 50 (7): 310-312.
Srirangarajan, A.N. and A.J. Shrikhande. 197 6. Mango peel waste as a source of pectin.
Curr. Sci. 45 (17): 620-621.
Srivas, S.R., N.V. Subhadra, V.L. Sastry and G.S. Siddappa. 1965. Studies on the
preservation of woodapple (Feronia elephantum Corr.). Pt. I. Physico-chemical composition
of the fruit and seed. Indian Food Packer 19 (6): 5-11.
Srivastava, M.P. and R.N. Tandon. 1971. Post-harvest diseases of papaya. PANS 17 (1):
51-54.
Srivastava, R.P. and A. Verghese. 1983. Mango leaf-webber and its control. Indian Hort. 28
(2): 21-22.
Stahl, A.L. 1935. Composition of miscellaneous tropical and subtropical Florida fruits. Bull.
283. U. of Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Stambaugh, S.U. 1955. New practices in growing pineapples in Florida. Fla. Grower &
Rancher. Feb.: 14, 31-32.
Stambaugh, S.U. 1955. Old pineapple roots sliced into 1-inch discs grow healthy plants. Fla.
Grower & Rancher. Dec.: 11-12, 14.
Stambaugh, S.U. 1931. Planting papaya in fall months. Fla. Grower (June): 20.
Stambaugh, S.U. 1945. The papaya. A fruit suitable for South Florida. New Set. #90. State
of Fla., Dept. of Agr., Tallahassee.
(Bibliography)
Standley, P.C. 1938. Flora of Costa Rica. Pt. III. Pub. 420. Bot. Set. Vol. 18. Field Mus.
Nat. Hist., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. 1938. Flora of Costa Rica, Pt. IV. Pub. 429. Bot. Ser. Vol, 18 Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. 1931. Flora of the Lancetilla Valley, Honduras. Pub. 283. Bot. Set. Vol. 10.
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. 1928. Flora of the Panama Canal Zone. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. Vol. 27.
Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, D.C.
Standley, P.C. 1930. Flora of Yucatan. Pub. 279. Bot. Set. Vol. 3, No. 3. Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. 1927. Six new trees from British Honduras and Guatemala. Trop. Woods
#11: 18-22.
Standley, P.C. 1933. The flora of Barro, Colorado Island, Panama. Arnold Arboretum,
Harvard U., Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Standley, P.C. 1920-1926. Trees and shrubs of Mexico, Vol. 23, Pts. 1-5. Smithsonian Inst.,
U.S. Nat. Herb., Washington, D.C.
Standley, P.C. and S.J. Record. 1936. The forest and flora of British Honduras. Pub. 350.
Vol. 12. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. and J.A. Steyermark. 1958. Flora of Guatemala. Vol. 24, Pt. 1. Chicago Nat.
Hist., Museum, Chicago.
Standley, P.C. and J.A. Steyermark. 1946. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany, Vol. 24,
Pt. 4. Pub. 577. Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. and L.O. Williams. 1961. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany. Vol. 24, Pt.
7, No. 1. Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., Chicago.
Standley, P.C. and L.O. Williams. 1967. Flora of Guatemala. Vol. 24, Pt. 8, No. 3. Field
Mus. Nat. Hist., Chicago.
Stanton, W.R. 1966. The chemical composition of some tropical food plants: VI. Durian.
Trop. Sci. 8 (1): 6-10.
Steinmetz, E.F. 1960. A botanical drug from the tropics used in the treatment of diabetes
mellitus [jambolan]. Acta Phytotherapeutica 7 (2): 23-25.
Steinmetz, E.F. 1959. Drug Guide. Pub'd by author, Amsterdam.
Stephens, S.E. 1963. Mango varieties in tropical Queensland. Queensland J. Agr. 89 (8):
455-458.
Stephens, S.E. 1954. Rough leaf pineapples. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 15 (6): 178-179,
Stephens, S.E. 1937. Some tropical fruits: No. 16. The granadilla. Reprint from Queensland
Agr. J. Aug.
Stephens, S.E. 1935. Some tropical fruits: 1. The mangosteen. Queensland Agr. J. Sept.:
346-348.
Stephens, S.E. 1937. Some tropical fruits. No. 17. The rose apple. Queensland Agr. J. Dec.
Stephens, S.E. 1936. Some tropical fruits. No. 11: The soursop. Queensland Agr. J. Sept.:
(Bibliography)
409-412.
Stephens, S.E. 1956. The granadilla. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 10 (20): 614-615.
Stephens, S.E. 1936. The jackfruit. Queensland Agr. J.: 67-68.
Stewart, I., G.D. Bridges, A.P. Pieringer and T.A. Wheaton. 1975. 'Rhode Red Valencia', an
orange selection with improved juice color. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 88: 17-19.
Stone, B.C. 1970-71. The flora of Guam. Micronesica: J. of U. of Guam. Vol. 6 (complete).
Storey, R.I. and D.J. Rogers. 1980. Lepidopterous pests of the litchi in North Queensland.
Storey, W.B., R.A. Hamilton and H.Y. Nakasone. 1953. Groffa new variety of lychee. Cir.
39. Agr. Exper. Sta., U. Hawaii, Honolulu.
Story, G.E. and R.S. Halliwell. 1969. Identification of distortion ringspot virus disease of
papaya in the Dominican Republic. Pl. Dis. Rep. 53 (9): 757-760.
Stother, J. 1971. The market for fresh mangoes in selected Western European countries. TPI
Rpt. G59. Trop. Prod. Inst., London.
Stother, J. 1970. World production and trade in fresh grapefruit. Pub. G48. Trop. Prod. Inst.,
London.
Strain, M.B. 1966. Preserving tree tomatoes. New Zeal. J. Agr. 112 (6): 81.
Streets, R.J. 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Clarendon Press,
Oxford.
Stuart, G.A. 1911. Chinese Materia Medica: vegetable kingdom. Amer. Presbyterian
Mission Press, Shanghai.
Sturrock, D. 1959. Fruits for southern Florida. Southeastern Printing Co., Stuart, Fla.
Sturrock, D. 1948. The karanda as a commercial fruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 61: 289-291.
Sturrock, D. 1940. Tropical fruits for southern Florida and Cuba and their uses. Harvard U.,
Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass.
Sturtevant, E.L. 1919. Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants (edited by U.P. Hedrick). N.Y.
Agr. Exper. Sta., Geneva, N.Y.
Subbarayan, C. and H.R. Cama. 1964. Carotenoids in Carica papaya (papaya fruit). Indian
J. Chem. 2 (11): 451-454.
Subhadra, N.V., S.R. Srivas, V.L. Sastry and G.S. Siddappa. 1965. Studies on the
preservation of woodapple (Feronia elephantum). Pt. II. Preservation of pulp by canning,
drying and conversion into nectarlike products. Indian Food Packer 19 (6): 12-16.
Subrahmanyan, V., G.S. Sidappa and N.V.R. Iyengar. 1963. Utilization of cellulosic
agricultural wastes: pulp from banana pseudostem and areca husk. Indian Pulp and Paper
17: 1.
Suguira, A. and T. Tomans. 1983. Relationships of ethanol production by seeds of different
types of Japanese persimmons and their tannin content. HortSci. 18 (3): 319-321.
Sulladmath, V.V. and C.P.A. Iyer. 1982. Preliminary evaluation of some lemon (Citrus
limon Burm.) cultivars for growth, yield and quality. So. Indian Hort. 30 (2): 69-71.
Swaine, G. 1971. Banana pests in South Queensland. Queensland Agr. J. 97 (1): 31-34.
(Bibliography)
Swaine, G. 1970. Corky scab of Cavendish banana. Queensland Agr. J. 96 (7): 474-475.
Swaine, G. and R.J. Corcoran. 1971. Skin blemishes of banana fruit. Queensland Agr. J. 97
(8): 427-430.
Swarts, D.H. and T. Anderson. 1980. Chemical control of mould growth on litchis during
storage and sea shipment. Info. Bull. #98. Citrus and Subtrop. Fr. Res. Inst., Nelspruit, So.
Africa. Pp. 13-15.
Swingle, W.T. 1905. A new genus, Fortunella, comprising four species of kumquat oranges.
J. Washington Acad. Sci. 5 (5): 165-176.
Swingle, W.T. 1904. The date palm and its utilization in the southwestern states. Bull. 53.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Pl. Indus., Washington, D.C.
Sydenham, F. 1943. Tree-tomato culture. New Zeal. J. Agr. Feb. 15: 93-94.
Tadeo, C.B. 1962. Plants with edible fruit in the Philippines. Forestry Leaves 14 (1/2):
55-64.
Tadros, M.R., A.S. Khalifa and A. Bondok. 1983. Gouging tool for desuckering banana
plants. Ann. Agr. Sci., Fac. Agric. Ain Shama U., Cairo 28 (1): 249-259.
Tai Luang Huan. 1971. Studies on Phytophthora palmivora, the causal organism of patch
canker disease of durian. Malaysian Agr. J. 48 (1): 1-9.
Tai Luang Huan. 1973. Susceptibility of durian clones to patch canker disease. MARDI Res.
Bull. 1 (2): 5-9.
Tainter, M.L., C.E. Alford, A. Arnold, H. Blumberg, O.H. Buchanan, T.T. Hinkel, Jr., K.
Hwang, A.C. Ivy, R.K. Lager, J.R. Schmitz, J.R. Shepherd, H.S. Wyzan and C. Zippin. 1951
Papain. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 54 (2): 143-296.
Takata, R.H. and P.J. Scheuer. 1976. Isolation of glyceryl esters of caffeic and p-coumaric
acids from pineapple stems. Lloydia 39 (6): 409-411.
Talapatra, S.K., M.K. Chaudhuri and B. Talapatra. 1973. Coumarins of the root bark of
Feronia elephantum. Phytochem. 12: 236-237.
Tallent, W.H. 1964. Two new antibiotic cyclopentoid monoterpenes of plant origin.
Tetrahedron 20 (7): 1781-1787.
Tamir, M., E. Nachtomi and E. Alumot. 1972. Urinary phenolic metabolites of Rats fed
carobs (Ceratonia siliqua) and carob fractions. Internat. J. Biochem. 3: 123.
Tanchico, S.S. and C.R. Magpanlay. 1958. Analysis and composition of Artocarpus integra
latex. Phil. J. Sci.: 149-157.
Tandon, G.L. 1950. Preserves and their manufacture [emblic]. The Indian Food Packer 4:
9-12 and 25-28.
Tandon, I.N. 1960. Diplodia collar rot and root rot of loquat. Hort. Adv. 4: 115-121.
Tandon, I.N. 1959. Studies in the control of damping-off of papaya (Carica papaya L.).
Hort. Adv. 3 (115-122).
Tandon, I.N. 1961. Studies on the control of root rot of papaya. Ind. J. Hort. 18 (3):
223-225.
Tandon, P.L. and R.P. Srivastava. 1980. Comparative toxicity of different insecticides to
mango scale Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell. Internat. Pest Control Nov./Dec. 158-159.
(Bibliography)
Tang, Chung-Shih. 1979. New macrocyclic '-piperideine alkaloids from papaya leaves:
dehydrocarpaine. I & II. Phytochem. 18: 651-652
Tarr, P. 1983. A spirit of defiance moves across the southern Philippines. Christian Sci.
Monitor. Dec. 30: 7-8.
Tay, T.H. and Y.C. Wee. 1976. Comparative study on the effects of different types and sizes
of planting materials on pineapple yield and quality. Malaysian Agr. J. 50 (4): 502-506.
Taylor, P.V. 1962. Another fruiting indoor ornamental ready for market. So. Florist &
Nurseryman. Mar. 30. Pp. 43-44.
Taylor, P.V. 1961. Citrus goes ornamental [calamondin]. So. Florist and Nurseryman. Mar.
17: 62-63.
Teakle, D.S. and G.B. Wildermuth. 1967. Host range and particle length of passionfruit
woodiness virus. Bull. 411. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 24 (2): 173-186.
Teaotia, S.S. and R.K. Awasthi. 1967. Studies on varietal suitability of guava fruit by
canning. Indian Food Packer 21 (2): 28-33.
Teaotia, S.S. and S. Bhan. 1966. Determination of maturity for harvesting pineapple fruit
(Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) variety Giant Kew. Indian Agriculturist 10 (2): 107-112.
Teaotia, S.S. and R.S. Chauhan. 1963. Flowering, pollination, fruitset and fruit-drop studies
in her (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). I. Floral biology. Punjab Hort. J. III (1): 58-70.
Teaotia, S.S., I.C. Pandey, B.N. Agnihotri and K.L. Kapur. 1962. Study of some guava
varieties (Psidium guajava L.) of Uttar Pradesh. Indian Agr. 6 (1-2): 47-55.
Teaotia, S.S., R.S. Tripathi and R.N. Singh. 1972. Effect of growth substances on ripening
and quality of guava (Psidium guajava L.). J. Food Sci. & Tech. 9 (1): 38-39.
Tedder, J.L.O. 1956. Breadfruit drying in the reef islands. So. Pacific Comm. Quarterly 6
(3): 21-22.
Terra, G.J.A. 1966. Tropical Vegetables: Vegetable growing in the tropics and subtropics,
especially of indigenous vegetables. Comm. 54e. Royal Trop. Inst. & Neth. Org. for
Internat. Assist, Amsterdam.
Terry, R.M. 1975. Use of plant growth regulators in Hawaii on pineapple. Misc. Pub. #123.
U. Hawaii Coop. Exten. Serv.: 37-39.
Thomas, C.A. 1979. Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae), as source of food and
income. Econ. Bot. 34 (2): 154-159.
Thomas, C.A. 1969. You can grow breadfruit in your garden. Indian Hort. 13 (4): 27.
Thomas, W. and C.H. Procter. 1972. Arabic mosaic virus in Cyphomandra betacea Sendt.
New Zeal. J. Agr. Res. 15 (2): 395-404.
Thompson, A.K., Y.M. Abdulla and H. Silvis. 1974. Preliminary investigations into
dessication and degreening of limes for export. Sudan J. Food Sci. & Tech. 6: 1-6.
Thompson, A.K., B.O. Been and C. Perkins. 1974. Storage of fresh breadfruit. Trop. Agr. 51
(3): 407-415.
Thorpe, P. 1973. Giving a lift to a lamb. New Zeal. J. Agric. 127 (4): 54. [tree tomato].
Ting, S.V., R.L. Huggart, and M.A. Ismail. 1980. Color and processing characteristics of
(Bibliography)
'Star Ruby' grapefruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 93: 293-295.
Ting Wen Poh and Tai Luang Huan. 1971. Occurrence of Cercospora leaf spot of star fruit
(Averrhoa carambola L.) in Selangor. Malaysian Agr. J. 148 (1): 25-27.
Tingyu, Q. 1983. Records of the larvae of longicorns injurious to the stem of jackfruit.
Chinese J. of Trop. Crops 4 (1): 103-106.
Tirmazi, S.I.H. and R.B.H. Wills. 1981. Retardation of ripening of mangoes by postharvest
application of calcium. Trop. Agr. 58 (2): 137-141.
Tisserat, B. 1984. Propagation of date palms by shoot tip cultures. HortSci. 19 (2): 230-231.
Toll Jubes, J. 1964. El cultivo, de la cherimoya in Tucuman y sus posibilidades. Cit. 173.
Estac. Exper. Agr. de Tucuman, Argentina.
Torne, S.G. and N.P. Raut Desai. 197 5. Effect of ionizing radiation on seed germination of
Passiflora species. Curt. Sci. 44 (4): 112-113.
Torres, J.P. and P.B. Dionido. 1962. Notes on the selection and commercial propagation of
chico [sapodilla]. Coffee & Cacao J. 5 (10): 214-215.
Torres, J.P., P.B. Dionido, and A. Zamora. 1962. Selection and propagation of rambutan in
Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Araneta J. Agr. 9 (2): 146-160.
Torres M., R. and D.C. Giacometti. 1966. Comportamiento del maracuja (Passifora edulis
var. flavicarpa) bajo las condiciones del Valle del Cauca. Agr. Trop. 22 (5): 247-254.
Torres M., R. and D.C. Giacometti. 1965. Virosis de la papaya (Carica papaya L.) en el
Valle del Cauca. Agr. Trop. 22 (1): 27-38.
Torres, M., R. and D. Rios Castao. 1968. Bases para un programa. de mejoramiento de
papaya (Carica papaya L.) in Colombia. Agr. Trop. 24 (2): 107-112.
Toutain, G. 1973. Productions du palmier dattier (Parts 1 & 2). Al Awamia 48: 73-88.
Traub, H.P., T.R. Robinson and H.E. Stevens. 1942. Papaya production in the United States.
Div. of Fr. & Veg. Crops and Diseases, Bur. of Pl. Indus., U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington,
D.C.
Treakle, H.C. 1965. Iraq's date industrybiggest export cropbiggest source of farm income.
For. Agr. 3 (48): 7-8.
Trejo, J.A. and J.D. Interiano. 1969. Plagas y enfermedades del banano. Cit. 86. Min. de
Agr. y Ganaderia, Santa Tecla, El Salvador.
Trochoulias, T. 1976. Girdling of 'Fuerte' avocado in subtropical Australia. Scientia Hort. 5:
239-242.
Trout, S.A. 1966. Dr. Trout's Notebook: the avocado. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News. Oct.
20: 392-393.
Trout, S.A. 1966. Of mangoes, nuts and pines and papayas. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News.
Oct. 13. p. 361.
Trout, S.A. 1977. Queensland horticultural exports to Hawaii. Queensland Agr. J. 103 (6):
578.
Trupin, F. 1966. Bilan de deux campagnes d' exportation de litchis de Madagascar. Fruits 21
(9): 495-500.
(Bibliography)
Turnbull J. 1951. Odd-plant fanciers admire "TreeTomato". Floriland (magazine). Sept.

Tyler, V.C., L.R. Brady and J.E. Robbers. 1981. Pharmacognosy. 8th ed. Lea & Febiger,
Phila.
Udanga, L.E. 1980. Datiles for reforestation? Canopy. May.
Udo, H. 1981. Evaluation of breadfruit as a possible energy source for poultry diets in W.
Samoa. Alafua Agr. Bull. 6 (3): 49-54.
Ugas, C. 1971. La pia. Indus. Alimenticia 2 (4): 48-59.
Ullasa, B.A. and H.S. Sohi. 1975. A new phytophthora leaf blight and damping off disease
of passion fruit from India. Curr. Sci. 44 (16): 593-594.
United States Dept. Agr., 1906. Yearbook - 1905. Supt. Doc., Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1899. Foreign seeds and plants imported. Inventory
No. 7 [Byrsonima crassifolia] Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1909. Inventory of seeds and plants imported Oct.
1 to Dec. 31, 1909. Bull. 205 [ambarella]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington,
D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1911. Inventory of seeds and plants imported Apr.
1 to June, 1911. Bull. 242. [ambarella]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington,
D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1911. Inventory of seeds and plants imported. No.
20. Bull. 248. [jambolan]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1912. Inventory of seeds and plants imported Oct.
1-Dec. 31, 1912. No. 33. [jambolan]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. PA. Indus. 1920. Inventory of seeds and plants imported June
1-Sept. 30, 1920. No. 64 [jambolan]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1913. New Plant Immigrants. Bull. of For. Pl.
Intro. No. 84. [sansapote; tree tomato]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington,
D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1913. Plant Immigrants. No. 91 [sansapote]. Off.
For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1913. Plant Immigrants. No. 92. [jaboticaba]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1914. Plant Immigrants. No. 102. [sapote]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1914. Plant Immigrants. No. 93 [jaboticaba]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1914. Plant Immigrants. No. 104. [ilama] Off. For.
Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1915. Plant Immigrants. No. 105. [atemoya]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1915. Plant Immigrants. No. 110. [passion fruit].
(Bibliography)
Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.

United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1916. Plant Immigrants. No. 122. [Japanese
persimmon; feijoa; sansapote]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1916. Plant Immigrants. No. 128. [green sapote].
Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1917. Plant Immigrants. No. 132. [atemoya;
Barbados cherry]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1917. Plant Immigrants. No. 137. [atemoya; tree
tomato]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1917. Plant Immigrants. Bull. 140. [ilama]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1918. Plant Immigrants. Bull. 141. [feijoa;
cassabanana]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1918. Plant Immigrants. No. 142. [atemoya;
soncoya]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1918. Plant Immigrants. No. 143. [jaboticaba]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1918. Plant Immigrants. No. 144. [kiwifruit;
carob]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1919. Plant Immigrants. No. 154. [ilama]. Off. For.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1919. Plant Immigrants. No. 158. [mamey]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1920. Plant Immigrants. No. 174. [jambolan]. Off.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1921. Plant Immigrants. No. 179. [madroo]. Off.
(Bibliography)
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1921. Plant Immigrants. No. 185. [avocado;
mabolo]. Off. For. Seed & Pl. Intro., USDA, Washington, D.C.
United States Dep. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1923. Plant Immigrants. No. 212. [ilama]. Off. For.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1929. Plant Material Introduced by Off. For. Pl.
Intro. Apr. 1-June 30, 1926. Inventory No. 87. [tree tomato]. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington,
D.C.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1907. Seeds and plants imported during the period
from Dec. 1903 to Dec. 1905. Inventory No. 11. Bull. 97. [mango; sweet lime]. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Washington, D.C.
from Dec. 1905 to July 1906. Inventory No. 12, Bull. 106. [mangosteen, rambutan, star
apple]. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
from July 1906 to Dec. 31, 1907. Inventory No. 13. Bull. 132. [avocado, breadfruit,
cherimoya]. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
from Jan. 1 to Mar. 31, 1908. Inventory No. 14. Bull. 137. [kiwifruit]. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Washington, D.C.
of Oct. 1 to Dec. 31, 1909. Inventory No. 21. Bull. 205.
United States Dept. Agr., Bur. Pl. Indus. 1923. Seeds and plants imported-June 1 to Sept.
30, 1920. Inventory No. 64. [pejibaye]. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
Upadhya, M.D. and J.L. Brewbaker. 1966. Irradiation of mangoes for control of the mango
seed weevil. Hawaii Farm Sci. 15 (1).
Vagholkar, B.P. 1916. Notes on propagation of the bor-tree in East Khandesh. Poona Agr.
Coll. Mag. 8 (2): 1-4.
Valdez Verduzco, J. 1979. El peso del cormo en la propagacion y el desarrollo y
rendimiento del platano cv. Giant Cavendish. Proc. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 23:
173-175.
Valle, N. Del, O. Herrera, and A. Rios. 1982. The influence of rootstocks on the
performance of 'Valencia' oranges under tropical conditions. Proc. Internat. Soc. Citriculture
1: 134-137.
Valmayor, R.V., R.E. Coronel and D.A. Ramirez. 1965. Studies in floral biology, fruit set
and fruit development in durian. Phil. Agr. 48 (8-9): 355-366.
Valmayor, R.V., D.B. Mendoza, H.B. Aycardo and C.O. Palencia. 1971. Growth and
flowering habits, floral biology and yield of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.). Phil.
Agriculturist 54 (7 & 8): 359-374.
Vanderweyen, A. 1980. Influence de la variete d' agrumes sur la sensibilite du porte-greffe a
(Bibliography)
la gommose a phytophora [Volkamer lemon]. Al Awamia 60: 67-80.

Van Doesburg, P.H. 1964. Two insect pests of soursop in Surinam. Carib. Agr. 3 (1):
797-803.
Van Overbeek, J. 1945. Flower formation in the pineapple plant as controlled by 2,4-D and
Naphthaleneacetic acid. Science 102: 621.
Vargas Hernandez, D. and R. Pedraza Gonzalez. 1961. Harvesting and marketing of
grapefruit in Puerto Rico. 1957-58. Bull. 159. U. Puerto Rico, Agr. Exper. Sta., Rio Piedras,
P.R.
Varma, U.P. and S. Ahmad. 1958. Drying bael (Aegle marmelos Correa) pulp. Indian Food
Packer 12 (7): 7-9.
Varner, D.M. 1966. Slow, steady progress with food irradiation. Food Engrng. 38 (11):
111-113.
Velasco M., N.I., J.G. Bautista, L.N. Cruz, E.C. Gaac, V.G. Silverio and D.C. Avante.
1983. A study of the utilization of banana meal as replacement for ground corn in poultry
rations. Phil. J. Anim.
Velazquez Diaz, J. 1953. El chirimoya en la costa granadina. Agr. Rev. Agropecuaria 25
(6): 432-434.
Velez Ramos, A. and J.A. Vega Lopez. 1977. Chemical control of weeds in plantains. J.
Agr. U. Puerto Rico 61 (2): 259-261.
Veltkamp, H.J. 1977. Plantain growing in Surinama survey. De Surinaamse Landbouw 25
(1): 20-34.
Venkataraman, K. 1966. Spectroscopic methods of structure determination: applications to
natural phenolic pigments [jackfruit]. J. Sci. & Indus. Res. 25 (3): 97-118.
Venkataratnam, L. and G. Satyanarayanaswamy. 1958. Studies on genetic variability in
Annona squamosa L. In: Proc. Internat. Symp. on Orig., Cytogen. and Breeding of Trop.
Fruits. Indian J. Hort. 15 (3/4): 228-238.
Venkataratnam, L. and G. Satyamaranaswamy. 1956. Vegetative propagation of sitaphal
(Annona squamosa Linn.). Indian J. Hort. 13 (2): 80-101.
Venkatesh, A.S.G. and Y.K. Raghunatha Rao. 1960. Minor oilspapaya seed oil. Food Sci.
9 (2): 49.
Verdoorn, I.C. 1938. Edible wild fruits of the Transvaal. Bull. 85. Pl. Indus. Ser. 29. [cape
gooseberry]. Dept. Agr. & For., Pretoria, So. Africa.
Verma, A.N., D.C. Srivastava, K. Ram and R.K. Sharma. 1970. Effect of plant regulator on
air layering in mango (Mangifera indica L.), guava (Psidium guajava-L.), and Kagzi lime
(Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). Allahabad Farmer 44 (3): 139-142.
Verma, K.S., S.S. Cheema and P.S. Bedi. 1983. Prevalence of ber rust (Phakopsora
zizyphi-vulgaris) in Punjab and its control. J. Res. Punjab Agr. Univ. 20 (1): 43-46.
Verma, S.U.P. 1952. Loss of vitamin 'C' and pectin during 6 months of storage guava extract
(with water). Indian Food Packer. Apr. 5-6, 43-44.
Verma, U.P. 1950. Preservation of jackfruit. Indian Food Packer 4 (4): 15-16.
Verma, U.P. 1956. Properties and therapeutic value of papain. 1956. Indian Food Packer 10
(Bibliography)
(2): 9-26.
Verma, U.P. and S. Ahmad. 1957. Canning of litchi. Indian Food Packer 11 (2): 7-10.
Verrill, A. Hyatt. 1937. Foods America gave the world. L.C. Page & Co., Boston, Mass.
Viennot-Bourgin, G. and A. Comelli. 1959. Le Cercospora du mangier au Congo. Fruits 14
(6).
Villar, A., M. Mares, J.L. Rios and D. Cortes. 1985. Alkaloids from Annona cherimola
leaves. J. Nat. Prod. 48 (1): 151-152.
Vines, H.M. and W. Grierson. 1966. Handling and physiological studies with the carambola.
H. St. Hort. Soc. 79: 350-355.
Virmani, R.S. 1950. Jaman vinegar and its composition. Indian Food Packer 4 (1): 13, 14.
Vock, N.T. 1976. Diseases of bananas. Queensland Agr. J. 102 (3): back cover, both sides.
Vock, N.T. 1974. Top and root rot of pineapples; recognition and spread. Queensland Agr.
J. 100 (12): back cover, both sides.
Vock, N.T. 1975. Top and root rot of pineapples: control. Queensland Agr. J. 101 (1): back
cover, both sides.
Voltz, J. 1985. Guavas? You can prepare them many ways. The Miami Herald. July 27. P.
6-E.
Voltz, J. 1957. Meet Platts, the pineapple king. Miami Herald. Oct. 20: 14-E.
von der Pahlen, A. (undated). Cubiu [Solanum topiro (Humb. & Bonpl.)], uma fruteira da
Amazonia. Acta Arnazonica 7 (3): 301-307.
von Windeguth, D.L. 1984. Low dose ethylene dibromide fumigation for quarantine control
of Caribbean fruit fly in grapefruit. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 97: 120-122.
Vosbury, E.D. 1921 (reprint 1938). Pineapple culture. Reprint from USDA Farmers' Bull.
1237. Fla. St. Dept. Agr., Tallahassee.
Vosters, J.B. 1982. A pineapple in every home. Fairchild Tropical Garden Bull. 37 (2):
14-17.
Vyas, N.L. and K.S. Panwar. 1976. A new post-harvest disease of pomegranate in India.
Curr. Sci. 45 (2): 76.
Wagner, C.J., W.L. Bryan, R.E. Berry and R.J. Knight, Jr. 1975. Carambola selection for
commercial production. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 88: 466-469.
Waithaka, J.H.G. and D.K. Puri. 1971. Recent research on pineapple in Kenya. World Crops
July/Aug.: 190-192.
Walker, A.R. and R. Sillans. 1961. Les plantes utiles du Gabon. Encyc. Biolog. Editions
Paul Le Chevalier, Paris.
Walker, W.O. and F.P. Cullinam. 1955. Notice to fruit growers and nurserymen relative to
the naming and release of a new variety of lychee called Bengal, a variety adapted to soils of
high pH and producing large clusters of fruit. (Mimeo.). U.S. Dept. Agr. Hort. Crops Res.
Branch, Beltsville, Md. and Div. of Res. & Indus., U. of Miami, Coral Gables, Fl.
Wan, A.S.C. 1972. Garcinia mangostanahigh resolution NMR studies of mangosteen.
Planta Med. 24 (3): 297-300.
(Bibliography)
Wan, S. & R.A. Conover. 1981. A rhabdovirus associated with a new disease of Florida
papayas. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 91: 318-321.
Wang, J-K. 1966. Equipment for husking poha berries. Tech. Bull. 60. Hawaii Agr. Exper.
Sta., Honolulu.
Wang, Y.P. 1975. Discovery and study on the boron deficiency of papaya. Taiwan Agr.
Quart. 2 (3): 72-73.
Ward, J.F. 1961. Garden cherry [bulletin]. Min. of Agr. & Lands, Kingston, Jamaica.
Wardlaw, C.W. 1972. Banana diseases, including plantains and Abaca. 2nd ed. Longman
Group Ltd., London.
Wardowski, W.F., C.R. Barmore, T.S. Smith and C.W. DuBois. 1974. Curing of Florida
lemons with ethephon. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 87: 216-218.
Ware, C.E. 1956. Peerless, an interesting new lychee. Year Book & Proc. Fla. Lychee
Growers Assn. 4th Ann. Mtg., Winter Haven, Fla.: 60-62.
Warner, R.M. and R.L. Fox. 1977. Nitrogen and potassium nutrition of 'Giant Cavendish'
banana in Hawaii. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 (6): 739-743.
Waters, H. 1976. The Paradise Navel, ready made for the restaurant trade. Fla. Grower &
Rancher 69 (9): 21.
Watkins, J.V. 1969. Florida landscape plants, native and exotic. U. Fla. Press, Gainesville,
Fla.
Watkins, J.V. 1952. Gardens of the Antilles. U. Fla. Press, Gainesville Fla.
Watt, B.K. and A.L. Merrill. 1963. Composition of foods: raw, processed and prepared. Agr.
Handbook 8. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Watt, G. 1896. Dictionary of economic products of India. 9-vols. [Durian]. Supt. of Gov't.
Ptg., Calcutta. P. 198.
Watt, G. 1908. The commercial products of India. John Murray, London.
Watt, J.M. and M.G. Breyer-Brandwijk. 1962. Medicinal and poisonous plants of southern
and eastern Africa. E. & S. Livingstone, Ltd., Edinburgh & London.
Webber, H.J. 1943. The 'Tristeza' disease of sour-orange rootstock. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 43: 160-168.
Wee, Y.C. 1971. The effects of Planofix on the pineapple fruit. Malaya. Pineapple 1: 35-38.
Weir, C.C. 1976. Effect of various rootstocks on the growth of Valencia orange, Marsh
seedless grapefruit and Ortanique trees in Jamaica. J. Agr. U. Puerto Rico 60 (4): 485-490.
Wehlburg, C., S.A. Alfieri, Jr., K.R. Langdon, and J.W. Kimbrough. 1975. Index of plant
diseases in Florida. Bull. 11. Fla. Dept. Agr. & Consumer Serv., Div. of Pl. Indus.,
Gainesville, Fla.
Wenzel, F.W., R.W. Olsen, R.W. Barron, R.L. Higgart, R. Patrick and E.C. Hill. 1958.
Finding the best lemon for Floridaa report of progress. II. Use of Florida lemons in frozen
concentrate for lemonade. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 86: 129-132.
Wester, C. 1965. Peach Industry on the move. Fla. Rural Elec. News 2 (5): 8 & 10.
Wester, P.J. 1924. Food plants of the Philippines. Bull. 39. Phil. Dept. Agr. & Nat. Res.,
(Bibliography)
Bur. of Agr., Manila.

Wester, P.J. 1912. Pineapple culture. Cit. 16. Gov't of Phil. Islands, Dept. of Pub. Instr., Bur.
of Agr., Manila.
Wester, P.J. 1914. Propagation of the seedless breadfruit. Phil. Agr. Rev. 7 (3): 1-3.
Wester, P.J. 1907. Roselle: its culture and uses. Farmers' Bull. 307. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Washington, D.C.
Wester, P.J. 1920. The breadfruit. Phil. Agr. Rev. 13 (3): 1-8.
Wester, P.J. 1920. The cultivation and uses of roselle. Cir. 20. Reprinted from the Phil. Agr.
Rev. 13 (2).
Wheaton, T.A. and I. Stewart. 1965. Feruloylputrescine: isolation and identification from
citrus leaves and fruit. Nature 206: 620-621.
Wheeler, L.C. 1955. The husks of the Prodigal Son. Turtox News 33 (10): 194-197. [carob].
Whitely, K.T. 1962. The cape gooseberry. J. Agr. West. Aust. 3 (1) 4th Ser. 59, 61.
Whiteside, J.O. and L.C. Knorr. 1978. Susceptibility of different rough lemon collections to
foot rot, blight and Alternaria leaf spot. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 91: 75-77.
Whitman, W.F. 1980. Growing and fruiting the langsat in Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc.
93: 136-140.
Whitman, W.F. 1962. New fruit varieties for southern Florida and other warm regions. Fr.
Var. & Hort. Dig. 16 (3): 47-48.
Whitman, W.F. 1974. The camu camu, the 'Wan' maprang and the 'Manila' santol. Proc. Fl.
St. Hort. Soc. 84: 375-379.
Whitman, W.F. 1965. The green sapote, a new fruit for South Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 78: 330-336.
Whitman, W.F. 1976. South American sapote. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 89: 226-227.
Whitman, W.F. 1971. The olosapo, the sunsapote and the Fijian longan. Proc. Fl. St. Hort.
Soc. 84: 323-325.
Whitney, C.M. (editor). 1955. The Bermuda garden. [Barbados gooseberry] Garden Club of
Bermuda, Hamilton.
Whittaker, D.E. 1972. Passion fruit: agronomy, processing and marketing. Trop. Sci. 14 (1):
59-77.
Wild, B.L. and L.E. Rippon. 1973. Quality control in lemon storage. Agr. Gaz. New So.
Wales 84 (3): 142-144.
Wilder, G.P. 1928. The breadfruit of Tahiti. Bull. 50. Bernice P. Bishop Mus., Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Willaman, J.J. and B.G. Schubert. 1961. Alkaloid-bearing plants and their contained
alkaloids. Tech. Bull. 1234. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv., Washington, D.C.
Williams, C.G. 1954. Preparing passion fruit for the fresh fruit market. Queensland Agr. J.
78 (2): 81-88.
Williams, L.O. 1977. The avocados, a synopsis of the genus Persea, subg. Persea. Econ.
Bot. 31: 315-320.
(Bibliography)
Williams, R.O. 1949. Useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar
Protectorate, Gov't Printer, Zanzibar.
Williams, R.O. and R.O., Jr. 1951. Useful and ornamental plants in Trinidad and Tobago.
4th ed. Guardian Commercial Pty., Port-of-Spain, Trinidad.
Williamson, Jr. 1955. Useful plants of Nyasaland. Gov't Printer, Nyasaland.
Wills, J. McG. 1955. Tropical notes on banana growing. Queensland Fr. & Veg. News 8
(19): 589.
Wills, R.B.H., B.I. Brown, and K.J. Scott. 1982. Control of ripe fruit rots of guavas by
heated benomyl and guazatine dips. Aust. J. Exper. Agr. & Anim. Husb. 22: 437-440.
Wills, R.B.H., E.E. Mulholland, B.I. Brown and K.J. Scott. 1983. Storage of two new
cultivars of guava fruit for processing. Trop. Agr. (Trin.) 60 (3): 175-178.
Wills, R.B.H., A. Poi, H. Greenfield and C.J. Rigney. 1984. Postharvest changes in fruit
composition of Annona atemoya during ripening and effects of storage temperature on
ripening. HortSci. 19 (1): 96-97.
Wilson, A.M. 1954. The richest known source of vitamin C. Today's Health 32 (11): 20, 21,
54-57. [Barbados cherry].
Wiltbank, W.J. 1977. Mango and avocado cultivars in Brazil. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 90:
243-244.
Winer, N. 1980. The potential of the carob (Ceratonia siliqua). Internat. Tree Crops J. 1:
15-26.
Winters, H.F. 1953. The Mangosteen. Fr. Vars. & Hort. Dig. 8 (4): 57-58.
Winters, H.F. 1963. The Natal plum. Amer. Hort. Mag. 42 (2): 93-95.
Wolfe, H.S. 1962. The mango in Florida1887-1962. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75: 387-391.
Wolfe, H.S. 1960. The mystery of the Mulgoba. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 73: 309-311.
Wolfe, H.S. and S.J. Lynch. 1942. Papaya culture in Florida. Bull. 113. U. Fla., Agr. Exten.
Serv., Gainesville, Fla.
Wolfenbarger, D.O. 1972. Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum, feeds on avocado
flowers. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 85: 341-343.
Wolfenbarger, D.O. 1963. Controlling mango insect pests. Cir. 147A. U. Fla. Agr. Exten.
Serv., Gainesville, Fla.
Wolfenbarger, D.O. 1963. Insect pests of the avocado and their control. U. Fla. Agr. Exper.
Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Wolfenbarger, D.O. 1962. Papaya fruit fly control. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 75: 381-384.
Wolfenbarger, D.O. and H. Spencer. 1951. Insect control on pineapples. Cir. S-36. U. Fla.
Agr. Exper. Sta., Gainesville, Fla.
Woods, C. 1974. Fighting young tree decline with chemotherapy. Fla. Grower & Rancher
67 (9): 6-8.
Woods, C. 1973. Florida's other citrus crop makes a comeback. Fla. Grower & Rancher 66:
10, 24-26.
Woot-Tsuen Wu Leung, F. Busson and C. Jardin. 1968. Food composition table for use in
(Bibliography)
Africa. FAO, Nutr. Div., Rome, and U.S. Dept. HEW, Pub. Health Serv., Bethesda, Md.
Worthington, T.B. 1959. Ceylon trees. Colombo Apothecaries' Co., Ltd., Colombo, Ceylon.
Wren, R.W. 1970. Potter's New Cyclopaedia of botanical drugs and preparations. 7th ed.
Health Sci. Press, Rustington, Sussex, England.
Wuhrmann, J.J. and A. Patron. 1965. Evaluation de quelques fruits tropicaux peu connus.
Fruits 20 (11): 615-624.
WuLeung, W., R.K. Pecot and B.K. Watt. 1952. Composition of foods used in Far Eastern
countries. Agr. Handbook 34. U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C.
Wutscher, H.K., N. Del Valle and A. de Bernard. 1983. Citrus blight and wood pH in Cuba
and Florida. HortSci. 18 (4): 486-488.
Wutscher, H.K., N.P. Maxwell and A.V. Shull. 1975. Performance of nucellar grapefruit,
Citrus paradisi Macf., on 13 rootstocks in South 29-32.
Wutscher, H.K. and A.V. Schull. 1976. Performance of 'Orlando' tangelo on 16 rootstocks.
J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 101 (1): 88-91.
Wynne, V.A. 1977. Haiti Seed Store, Kenscoff, Haiti. Personal Communication. Oct. 10.
[tree tomato].
Wynne, V.A. 1980. Terraces and better irrigation may help stop erosion in Haiti. VITA
(Volunteers for Internat. Assist.) News: Oct.
Wysoki, M., E. Swirski and Y. Izhar. 1981. Biological control of avocado pests in Israel.
Protection Ecology 3: 25-28.
Yamamoto, H.Y. and W. Inouye. 1963. Sucrose as a gelation inhibitor of commercially
frozen papaya puree. Tech. Prog. Rpt. 137. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., U. of Hawaii,
Honolulu.
Yamane, G.M. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1961. Effects of growth regulators on fruit set and
growth of the acerola (Malpighia glabra L.). Tech. Bull. 43. Hawaii Agr. Exper. Sta., U. of
Hawaii, Honolulu.
Yamane, G.M. and H.Y. Nakasone. 1961. Pollination and fruit set studies of acerola,
Malpighia glabra L., in Hawaii. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 78: 141-148.
Yamdagani, R., D.S. Balyan and P.C. Jindal. 1980. A note of the effect of nitrogen on litchi
(Litchi Chinensis Sonn.). Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 9 (3-4): 141-143.
Yan, J. 1981. Histoire d' Actinidia chinensis Planch. et conditions actuelles de sa production
a l' estranger. J. d' Agric. Trad. et de Bot. Appl. 28 (3-4): 281-290.
Yee, W., E.K. Akamine, G.M. Aoki, F.H. Haramoto, R.B. Hine, O.V. Holtzmann, R.A.
Hamilton, J.T. Ishida, J.T. Keeler and H. Nakasone. 1970. Papayas in Hawaii. Cir. 436. U.
Hawaii, Coop. Exten. Serv., Honolulu.
Yong, H.S. 1979. Sukun, Nangka and Cempedak [breadfruit, jackfruit and champedak] from
Mutiny on the Bounty, the fruit with the strongest and richest smell. Malaysian Panorama 9
(2): 18-23.
Young, I.N. 1935. The Hawaiian Islands and the story of pineapple. Amer. Can Co., 230
Park Ave., N.Y.
Young, R., O. Jahn, W.C. Cooper and J.J. Smoot. 1970. Preharvest sprays with
(Bibliography)
2-chloroethyllphosphonic acid to degreen 'Robinson' and 'Lee' tangerine fruits. HortScience

5 (4): 268-269.
Young, T.W. 1966. A review of the Florida lychee industry. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 79:
395-398.
Young, T.W. 1956. Response of lychees to girdling. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 69: 305-308.
Young, T.W. 1970. Some climatic effects on flowering and fruiting of 'Brewster' lychees in
Young, T.W. and R.W. Harkness. 1961. Flowering and fruiting behavior of Brewster
lychees in Florida. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 74: 358-363.
Young, T.W. and R.C.J. Koo. 1975. Effect of hedging on yield of lemon and lime trees.
Young, T.W. and R.C.J. Koo. 1964. Influence of nitrogen source and rate of fertilization on
performance of Brewster lychees. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 77: 406-410.
Young, T.W. and J.C. Noonan. 1958. Freeze damage to lychees. Proc. Fl. St. Hort. Soc. 71:
300-304.
Younge, O.R. and D.L. Plucknett. 1969. Estimating the number of papaw (Carica papaya)
trees required for reliable yield data. Queensland J. Agr. & Anim. Sci. 26: 289-292.
Youngman, B.J. 1953. Chinese gooseberry. Kew Bull. 4: 567-568.
Zachrawan dan Sumarto. 1977. Percoban pengawetan buah sawo (Achroas zapota L.) dalam
fentuk kering [a study on dehydration of sawo (Achras zapota)]. Bull. Penel. Hort. 5 (4):
13-19.
Zaiger, D., and G.A. Zentmyer. 1967. Epidemic decline of breadfruit in the Pacific Islands.
FAO Plant Protection Bull. 15 (2): 25-29.
Zaki, D. 1975. Biological investigation of Dovyalis caffra. Planta. Med. 27: 330-332.
Zapata, A. 1972. Pejibaye palm from the Pacific coast of Colombia (a detailed chemical
analysis). Econ. Bot. 26 (2): 156-159.
Zayas, J.C. 1944. Los frutales en Cuba. Rev. de Agr. 27 (27): 23-140.
Zentmyer, G.A. 1963. Avocado root rot in the Caribbean. Carib. Agr. 1 (4): 317-324.
Zentmyer, G. 1977. California Avocado Industry. U.C. research program on production
problems. The Blue Anchor 54 (5): 53.
Ziegler, L.W. and H.S. Wolfe. 1961. Citrus growing in Florida. U. Florida Press,
Gainesville, Fla.
Zink, E. and M. Ojima. 1965. Influencia das condicoes de armazenagem no poder
germinativo dos sementes de nespera. Bragantia 24 (3): 9-12.
Zio, S. 1975-76. Utilisation en medecine traditionnelle de quelques plantes en Hauto-Volta.
Notes et documents Voltaiques 9 (1): 77-80.
Macadamia integrifolia & M. tetraphylla
Index| Search| Home
Macadamia integrifolia Maiden

& Betche
Smooth Shelled Macadamia
and
M. tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson

Rough Shelled Macadamia
and their natural & artificial hybrids.
Proteaceae
The NewCROP server has Macadamia information at:
Macadamia Production in Southern CaliforniaLawrence T. McHargue
Outside links:
Macadamia Crop Information from University of California Davis
MACADAMIA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California
Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including botanical
identification, description and culture notes based on California research, and characteristics of
cultivars).
Macadamia Library articles from the California Macadamia Society yearbooks as well as other
sources provided by Thompson Cooper.
Australian Macadamia Breeding Unit
Macadamia nutfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Macadamia_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:48:11 PM]
Macadamia integrifolia & M. tetraphylla
Current Comments
"Macadamias are easier to grow in South Florida than lychees, they are less delicate and grow
faster, besides they bear regularly year after year. But they are very susceptible to soil conditions.
I've tried growing them in alkaline soils in Dade county, and found that a very difficult task. On
mucky soil however, they truly thrive. I have four different varieties, two Integrifolias (pink
flowers, bumpy skin) and two ternifolias (white flowers, smooth skin). They all grow and fruit
well here. As with lychees they grow better in the acid soils".- Mario Lozano, April 1998
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Macadamia_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:48:11 PM]
Collards
Collards
Cruciferae Brassica oleracea L. (Acephala group)
Collards are closely related to kale and cabbage, and might be described as a
non-heading cabbage. They are grown for the smooth, rather thick, tender leaves which are used as
greens or pot herbs. Plants may be started in beds, or direct seeded in the field. They produce a
rosette of leaves. The whole rosette may be cut off and marketed, the usual commercial practice, or
leaves may be stripped off and the central axis will continue to grow and produce. Leaf surface is
generally exposed, as in spinach.
Season, seeding to harvest: 21/2 to 3 months.
Production in U.S.: 10,050 acres, 1959 census.
Use: Mainly as greens or pot herbs.
Part of plant consumed: Leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Collards.html [5/16/2004 3:48:26 PM]
Theobroma cacao
Theobroma cacao L.
Sterculiaceae
Chocolate, Cacao, Cocoa
New Products from Theobroma cacao: Seed Pulp and Pod GumAntonio Figueira, Jules Janick,
and James N. BeMiller
Article from:
Article from:
Outside Links
CacaoFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm No. 20Link to
the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Theobroma_cacao_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:48:54 PM]
Cacao butter
Cacao butter
Stericuliaceae Theobroma cacao L.
Cacao butter is obtained fromcacao seeds, which contain 50 percent or more
of a non-drying fat. The butter is a byproduct from the manufacture of beverage cacao. The butter
may be extracted by pressing or with solvents. The chief use of the butter is in confections. It is
also used in pharmaceutical preparations.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cacao_butter.html [5/16/2004 3:48:55 PM]
Opuntia sp.
Opuntia sp.
Cactaceae
Cactus pear, tuna, Barbary fig, Indian
fig, Nopalitos
Native Cultivars of Cactus Pear in MxicoC. Mondragon-Jacobo and S. Perez-Gonzalez
Mediterranean FruitsJoan Tous and Louise Ferguson
Commercializing Mesquite, Leucaena, and Cactus in TexasPeter Felker
Low Input Agricultural Systems Based on Cactus Pear for Subtropical Semiarid
EnvironmentsCandelario Mondragon Jacobo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Opuntia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:48:55 PM]
Cajanus cajan
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Syn.: Cajanus indicus Spreng.
Fabaceae
Alverja, Bengal bean, Congo pea, Dhal, Gandul, Goongoo pea,
Gray pea, Gungo pea, Indian dhal, Indian pea, No-eye pea,
Pigeon pea, Pois cajun, Pois d'Angole, Red gram, Yellow dhal
Pigeonpeas: Potential New Crop for the Southeastern United StatesSharad C. Phatak, Ram G.
Nadimpalli, Suresh C. Tiwari, and Harbans L. Bhardwaj
New Crops and the International Agricultural Research CentersRobert B. Bertram
New Forage, Grain, and Energy Crops for Humid Lower South, USGordon M. Prine and Edwin
C. French
Anwar A. Hamama
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cajanus_cajun_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:48:55 PM]
(Cav.) S.T.Blake
Syn.: M. cajuputi Auct.
M. leucadendron Auct.
Myrtaceae
Cajeput
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Source of oil of Cajeput or Tea Tree Oil, used as a mosquito repellent, effective also against lice
and fleas. The tea-tree oil serves as a solvent and cleaning agent. Dissolving caoutchouc, it creates
a good varnish. In dentistry, it is used to relieve the pain of dry sockets. The oil is used as a flavor
component in foods (baked goods, candy, condiments, dairy desserts, meat and meat products,
nonalcoholic beverages, relishes) and in creams, detergents, lotions, perfumes, and soaps (Leung,
1980). Bark serves in lieu of cork as an insulating material, also used in floats, life belts, and
stuffing cushions, mattresses, and pillows (Duke, 1984b). Years ago, the tree was recommended
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Melaleuca_quinquenervia.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 3:48:56 PM]
for salt swamps to subdue "malarial vapors." In India, sheets of cajeput bark were historically
employed for sacred writing. The bark is useful in packing tropical fruits. The leaf infusion has
been used as a tea. Steeping the flower in water is said to impart an agreeable sweetness to the
water. The wood, durable under ground and water, is valued for boats, cabinetry, carving,
crossties, fencerails, flooring, gunstocks, mine braces, pilings, posts, rafters, railway sleepers,
ships and wharves.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be antiseptic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emollient, rubefacient, sedative,
stimulant, sudorific, and vermifuge, cajeput is a folk remedy for acne, bronchitis, bruise, cholera,
cold, colic, cough, diarrhea, earache, eczema, gout, headache, hiccup, inflammation, laryngitis,
malaria, myalgia, neuralgia, paralysis, pharyngitis, pityriasis, pleuritis, pneumonia, psoriasis,
rheumatism, rhinitts, scabies, scurvy, skin ailments, sore throat, spasms, sprains, toothache, and
tumors (Duke and Wain, 1981). Burmese mix cajeput oil with camphor for gout. Indochinese use
the oil for arthritis and rheumatism, inhaling the oil for colds and rhinitis. Cambodians use the
leaves for dropsy. Indonesians apply the oil externally for burns, cramps, colic, earache, headache,
pain, skin disease, and toothache. Softened bark is applied to boils as a suppurative. New Guinea
natives rub the oil on the body for malaria. Filipinos use the leaves for asthma. Indonesians use the
fruit for stomach disorders. Malayans use the oil as pain killer and stomachic, dropping a bit onto
sugar lumps for cholera and colic (Duke, 1984b). In India, the oil is used internally as an
expectorant in chronic bronchitis and laryngitis. Overdoses cause gastrointestinal irritation. Acts as
an anthelmintic, especially against roundworms.
Chemistry
Leaves contain ca 1.3% essential oil with 1465% cineole (or eucalyptol), 1-pinene, and terpineol
and aldehydes. Besides these, the oil contains 1-limonene,
3,5,-dimethyl-4-6-di-0-methylphloroacetophenone, dipentene, nerolidiol, sesquiterpenes, azulene,
sesquiterpene alcohols, valeraldehyde, and benzaldehyde. The bark contains betulinic acid
(melaleucin) (Duke, 1984b). Oleanolic- and ursolic-acids, quercimeritrin, isoquercitrin,
kaempferol-3-glucoside, kaemp-ferols-7-glucoside, and gallic acid derivatives are also reported
(List and Horhammer, 19691979). Silica content of the wood varies from 0.20.95%.
Toxicity
Overdoses of the oil may induce gastroenteritis, kidney inflammation, and disturbance of the
nervous system. Even small amounts may cause skin eruptions in sensitive persons (Morton,
1966). Although the vapors emanating from the tree may repel insects and the trees may serve as a
"super Air-Wick", Morton (1966) adduces evidence to show that the volatile properties may also
irritate the human respiratory system. Morton even suggests that eating cajeput honey may build
up immunity in cajeput-sensitive individuals. Mitchell and Rook (1979) say that contact with
branches, fruits, and roots, even the volatile emanations, can produce dermatitis. The oil can
produce dermatitis and folliculitis when used for massage. According to Leung (1980), "Available
data indicate it to be nontoxic ... Has been approved for food use ([[section]]172.510)."
Description
Resiniferous evergreen tree to 30 m tall, 1 m diameter, with whitish papery bark, often exfoliating.
Leaves alternate, dull green, narrowly lanceolate, oblanceolate, or lance-elliptic, 520 cm long,
535 mm wide, apically and basally acute, entire, pli-nerved, aromatic, the petiole 24 mm long.
Flowers ramiflorous, between or below groups of leaves in "bottlebrush spikes" 415 cm long,
often producing apical foliaceous shoots following flowering. Calyx with 5 rounded lobes <2 mm
long, and 5 somewhat longer whitish petals, ca 30 filiform stamens and inferior 24 celled ovary
with many ovules. Capsules sessile, crowded along the branches, with many minute narrow brown
seeds <2 m long.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian, Hindustani, and Indonesia-Indochina Centers of Diversity, cajeput,
or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate acid sulphate soils, brackish sites, drought, fire, heavy soils,
light frost, limestone, low pH, poor soil, salt spray, sand, tin tailings, waterlogging, weeds, and
wind. Morton (1966) discusses several of the confusing variations in this species and genus. (2n =
22)
Distribution
Native from eastern Australia through Malaysia and Burma, now widely introduced, e.g. in Africa,
Central America, Florida, Hawaii, India, Philippines, Puerto Rico, South America, and the West
Indies.
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, cajeput is reported
to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of 4 cases = 22.2), annual temperature of
21.3 to 25.4C (mean of 4 cases = 24.0), and pH of 5 to 7.7 (mean of 3 cases = 6.6) ( Duke, 1978,
1979). Commonly forms forest communities on swampy ground; in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo,
forms brackish swamp forests immediately behind the mangroves and great savannas in Buru and
Ceram. Its thick flaky bark makes it fire resistant. In Burma it sometimes occurs as shrub or small
tree on edge of tidal forests. In Annam and Queensland, it is found on sand dunes as shrub up to 1
m tall, or shrubs of 12 m tall in amphibious scrub. Common in gray podsolic depressions in
sandstone outcropping areas with Eucalyptus species. Occasionally on calcareous gravelly soils
near waterholes.
Cultivation
Propagated by seed, but cuttings of immature wood root easily in sand, laid horizontally. Seeds are
scattered on damp seedbed, placed in shade or covered with damp burlap or sphagnum moss.
Stratification has been reported to retard germination. Seedlings may attain 12 m height a year.
Once established, trees are extremely vigorous and tough, crowding out other plants and difficult
to exterminate by cutting or burning. It is rarely cultivated for essential oil because of the
enormous quantity of leaf material available from wild-growing trees.
Harvesting
Leaves, harvested throughout the year, are cut from shrubs or low trees which are not more than 6
months old. Fresh leaves and terminal branchlets yield, on steam-distillation, the volatile oil. The
commercial product is usually green due to its being distilled in copper containers. Distillation
often takes place in field stills similar to those used for producing American eucalyptus oils (Reed,
1976). Seven year rotations have been suggested in Malaysia. Coppices readily.

Leaves and branchlets yield 11.5%, sometimes up to 1.8%, of essential oil. Of five trees studied
in Florida, this one was projected to lead the others by far in dry matter yields, at 28.5 MT/ha of
9.4 for slash pine, 9.0 for sand pine, 8.3 for casuarina, and only 5.6 MT/ha for Eucalyptus (Smith
and Dowd, 1981). At spacings of 1 x 2 m, M. leucadendron yields 5,500 kg leaves/yr, at 1 x 2.5 m,
3,500 kg. Webb et al. (1980) put the annual wood production at 1016 m3/ha. During this century,
oil of cajeput is imported into India mainly from France and Netherlands, up to 10 MT/yr. Main
producers of the oil are in the East Indies. Much of the crude oil is shipped to other countries
where it is refined and resold. When Morton (1966) published her paper, tea-tree oil was twice as
costly as Eucalyptus oil. It takes ca 1 man-hour to harvest 8.5 kg leaves, and 405 man-hours/ha
(Fenton et al., 1977).
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), standing biomass of Melaleuca in Cambodia,
LAI 7.1, was ca 172 MT/ha. Fenton et al. (1977) however put the stem biomass of natural stands at
only 7.4 MT/ha. Moderately heavy (740785 kg/m3 air dry, 410 kg/m3 oven dried), the wood is
said to be an excellent fuel, the chief firewood of Malacca, exuding resin as it burns. The average
heat values (kj/kg) of melaleuca wood, bark, terminal branches, and foliage were 18,422, 25,791,
19,301, and 20,139, respectively. The heat of combustion of melaleuca bark is unique because it is
comparable with that of some coals at 25,000 kj/kg, the highest figure yet determined for tree
material. This unique characteristic is due to the presence of a great amount of fatty substances in
the bark. The densities (g/cm3) of stemwood and stembark are approximately 0.51 and 0.19,
respectively. The green moisture contents averaged 114% for stemwood and 131% for stembark.
The average ash contents of stemwood and stembark are 0.7 and 2.7%, respectively. The fuel
quality of melaleuca stemwood and stembark varies significantly among trees (Wang et al., 1982).
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists the following as affecting M. leucadendron: (Fungi) Fomes lignosus.
(Angiospermae) Loranthus sp. (?). (Crustacea) Sesarma spp. (Lepidoptera) Bathrotoma
constrictana, Metara elongata. (Mammalia) Lepus crawshayi. Fenton et al (1977) list the
following fungi: Cylindrocladium macrosporum, C. pteriolis, Phellinus senex (causing heart rot),
Phytophthora cinnamomi, Pleomassaria melaleucac, and Rigidiporus lignosis on this or closely
related species. In Hawaii, the black twig borer Xylosandrus compactus, has been associated with
plantation mortality. The foliage is unattractive to browsing livestock.
References
17(34):91110.
Duke, J.A. 1984b. Borderline herbs. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
Morton, J.F. 1966. The cajeput treea boon and an affliction. Econ. Bot. 20(1):3139.
the USDA.
Smith, W.H. and Dowd, M.L. 1981. Biomass production in Florida. J. For. 79(8):508511.
Wang, S.L., Huffman, J.B., and Rockwood, D.L. 1982. Qualitative evaluation of fuelwood
in Floridaa summary report. Econ. Bot. 36(4):381388.

Cucurbits
Cucurbits
(Cucurbita spp.)
The authors of this chapter are R. Lira Saade (National Herbarium of Mexico, Mexico City) and S. Montes
Hernndez (CIFAP, SARH, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico).
One plant group with the most species used as human food is the Cucurbitaceae family. Within this family, the genus
Cucurbita stands out as one of the most important. Five of its species Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber, C. ficifolia Bouch,
C. moschata (Duchesne ex Lam.) Duchesne ex Poiret, C. maxima Duchesne ex Poiret, and C. pepo L.have been
domesticated in the New World and for thousands of years they have been cultivated or at least handled by American
societies.
In spite of the current marginalization of some of these species, from very remote times all have contributed essential food
products to the diet of rural and some urban communities on the American continent and in many other parts of the world.
With the exception of C. maxima, whose centre of origin is in South America, it is assumed that the other four cultivated
species were domesticated in Mesoamerica. although this has not been confirmed in all cases.
During the second half of the 1980s, a great quantity of information was collected on the origin and evolution of the four
species. The taxonomic and genetic limits of Cucurbita argyrosperma and C. pepo have been redefined and their
closest-related wild species have been classified into intraspecific categories within these limits. The results of this research
have raised some doubts about the Mesoamerican origin of C. ficifolia and C. moschata, suggested so often in many
publications.
Cucurbita argyrosperma
Botanical name: Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Common names. English: cushaw (United States); Spanish: calabaza, calabaza pinta, calabaza pipiana (Mexico), pipin
(Mexico, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), saquil, pipitoria (Guatemala)
Origin, domestication and expansion

Cucurbita argyrosperma is one of the cultivated species of the genus which has undergone the most profound study in
recent years. There are two subspecies:
i) argyrosperma, comprising four varietiesargyrosperma, callicarpa, stenosperma and palmierithree of which include
all the cultivated types, while the fourth corresponds to spontaneous populations of northeastern Mexico that are generally
known as Cucurbita palmieri L. Bailey;
ii) sororia, which includes wild populations with a wide distribution from Mexico to Nicaragua, originally described under
the name C. sororia L. Bailey. This subspecies has been designated as the wild ancestor of the group.
According to the age of the archaeological remains discovered thus far, it has been suggested that domestication of C.
argyrosperma must have occurred in southern Mexico more than 7000 years ago.
The characteristics that were most transformed in the process of domestication of the ssp. argyrosperma were, as in other
crops, mainly those connected with handling and preferred uses. For example, relatively uniform germination; a reduction in
size and abundance of trichomes; an increase in the size of parts and organs used, such as fruits and seeds; and a reduction in
the bitter taste of the flesh. It is considered that var. argyrosperma is the least specialized or most primitive of the group and
that var. callicarpa, on the other hand, is the most recent or specialized.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/cucurbits.html (1 of 12) [5/16/2004 3:48:59 PM]
Cucurbits
The different degrees of variation in the nutritionally important parts of the three cultivated varieties of the complex
argyrosperma suggest a strong association with human interests. The relatively large seed size of the var. argyrosperma
indicates that it was mainly selected to obtain seeds. while the great diversity of shapes, colours and size of the fruits and
seeds of var. stenosperma and callicarpa indicate that selection had a double aim: to obtain flesh as well as seeds.
Unlike with the rest of the cultivated species of Cucurbita, data on the distribution of cultivated Cucurbita argyrosperma
varieties outside America are very scarce and there is no certainty that this species was cultivated at any time in the Old
World or even outside its general area of domestication.
In South America, it is grown in Peru and Argentina, although it appears to involve very recent introductions of certain
cultivars which can be class)fled within the var. callicarpa. In the United States, some cultivars of var. callicarpa are
cultivated on a very low scale for nutritional purposes, and one cultivar of var. argyrosperma, Silver Seed Gourd, is
occasionally grown as a horticultural curiosity.
The reasons for the sparse world distribution of this species are not known; although the situation is not surprising, given the
low quality of the fruit's flesh compared with that of C. moschata or C. pepo and the size of the seeds of all the cultivated
varieties that may have been attractive to the first Europeans who learned of them.

Throughout its distribution area, the flowers, young stems, young fruit and ripe fruit of C. argyrosperma are eaten as
vegetables. The ripe fruit is occasionally used to prepare sweets although it is used most frequently as feed for livestock and
poultry. The seeds are eaten whole, roasted, toasted or ground and are the main ingredient of sauces used to prepare various
stews (for example, pipinmeat cooked in thick chili sauce, mole verdea stew prepared with chili and green tomatoes).
The seeds are the most important product, chiefly because of their oil (39 percent) and protein content (44 percent), and their
consumption in urban areas of Mexico and other countries of Central America is fairly common.
In some regions of Mexico, the seeds and also the unripe fruit of wild taxa are used as food. The latter are eaten after being
washed and boiled several times to rid them of the bitter taste deriving from the cucurbitins present in the flesh and
placentae, while the seeds are simply washed, seasoned with salt and roasted or toasted. On the Yucatn peninsula, peasants
use the flesh of the cultivated varieties' fruit to treat burns, sores and skin eruptions, while the seeds are prepared with water
and used as an anaesthetic and to stimulate women's milk production for breastfeeding.
C. argyrosperma is a creeping or climbing monoecious plant, ranging from villous to pubescent and which may be hirsute,
with short, rigid and rather enlarged and sharp trichomes. It has fibrous roots and slightly angular stems. Its ovate-cordate
leaves have petioles of up to 30 cm and measure 10 to 30 x 15 to 40 cm. They have white spots, number three to five and are
lobulate with triangular or elliptical lobules. The margins are denticulate to serrate-denticulate. There are two to four
ramified tendrils and pentamerous, solitary, axillary flowers. The male flowers are on pedicels of 10 to 20 cm and have a
campanulate calyx of 5 to 20 x 8 to 25 mm. Their sepals are linear-lanceolate or (rarely) foliaceous and are 10 to 35 mm
long. They have a tubular-campanulate corolla that is yellow to orange, 6 to 12 cm long, with five lobules for up to one-third
of its total length and they have three stamens. The female flowers grow on sturdy peduncles of 2 to 3.5 cm; have a globose,
ovoid-elliptical, botuliform or piriform, multilocular ovary, a small calyx and a corolla that is somewhat bigger than that of
the male flowers. They have three stigmas. The fruit is short or long and piriform, straight or curved in the thinnest part and
11 to 50 cm long. It has a hard rind which is smooth to slightly ribbed, and is white with longitudinal green reticulate stripes
or completely white. The flesh is white, yellow or orange, the seeds elliptical and slightly inflated, measuring 15 to 30 x 8 to
16 mm, with a white, smooth and even testa.
Cucurbits
Figure 5 Mesoamerican cucurbits: A) Cucurbita argyrosperma; A1) leaf; A2) fruit; A3) seed; B) C. pepo; B1) leaf; B2)
fruit; B3) seed; C) C. moschata; C1) leaf; C2) fruit; C3) seed; D) C. ficifolia; D1) leaf; D2) fruit; D3) seed

The three cultivated varieties of C. argyrosperma are found in a relatively wide range of altitudes (0 to 1800 m), generally in
areas with a hot, fairly dry climate or a well-defined rainy season. The species does not tolerate very low temperatures,
which limits its cultivation to the altitudes mentioned. Each cultivated variety has a fairly defined distribution model,
although there are some areas where two varieties can be found cultivated simultaneously.
In Mexico, the var. argyrosperma is grown on the slope of the gulf (Tamaulipas, San Luis Potos, Puebla, Veracruz,
Tabasco, Chiapas and Yucatn). In Central America it has been recorded in Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The var. callicarpa is found mainly on the Pacific slope, from the southeastern United
States to central Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua. Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Nayarit and Jalisco). The var. stenosperma is
endemic to Mexico and is grown in the central and southeastern states (Guerrero, Morelos, Michoacn and Oaxaca) as well
as in some areas of the gulf slope (Veracruz and Yucatn).
Genetic diversity
Limits of genetic stock. Knowledge of the genetic relations of C. argyrosperma Huber and the consequent inclusion and
definition of wild and cultivated taxa within its taxonomic limits have considerably widened the species' genetic stock. This
includes: the local races of the cultivated varieties in the southeastern United States. Mexico and Central America; the two
wild taxa of the complex (var. palmieri and ssp. sororia): and, in the United States, Green Striped Cushaw, White Cushaw,
Magdalena Striped, Papago, Silver Seed Gourd, Japanese Pie, Hopi, Taos, Parral Cushaw and Veracruz Pepita.
Hybridization experiments of the taxa belonging to C. argyrosperma with other wild and cultivated taxa of the genus and
some field observations have revealed that, with the cultivated species, C. moschata has the highest degree of compatibility.
A second level of compatibility consists of the wild and cultivated taxa of C. pepo, some cultivars of C. maxima and the
wild perennial species of C. foetidissima H.B.K. A third group is formed by C. lundelliana L. Bailey, and C. martinezii L.
Bailey, with which crossings only produced fruit without viable seeds. The fourth and last group includes the perennial
species C. pedatifolia L. Bailey, C. digitata A. Gray, in the broad sense and C. radicans Naudin, with which only a few
fruits were able to be obtained but generally without viable seeds.
The wild species that have shown some degree of compatibility with the taxa of the complex C. argyrosperma possess genes
resistant to some viral diseases that have a high incidence in the cultivated species.
However, because of two factors relating to interspecific crossings, some obstacles will have to be overcome before a
successful plant improvement programme including all the taxa is carried out:
hybrids with viable seeds were not always produced;
when some success was achieved, the plant receiving the pollen was always from the complex C. argyrosperma and,
in the case of the species of the last two groups, it always involved var. palmieri or ssp. sororia.
Cucurbits
Germplasm collections. Germplasm collections are not so scarce for the cultivated taxa but they are in very short supply in
the case of the wild ones. Most of the accessions come from Mexico and are deposited in the CIFAP's gene bank in Mexico
and in the USDA's in the United States.
The cultivated varieties of Cucurbita argyrosperma are worked in the traditional heavy rain agricultural systems and are
sown at the start of the rainy period (May-June). Development of these varieties lasts five to seven months; the young fruit
for vegetables is harvested approximately three months after being sown, while the ripe fruit for seed is harvested between
October and December.
In the Mixe region of the state of Oaxaca, var. stenosperma is also grown in the dry season on so-called humid ground. This
practice is also recorded in some parts of the state of Sonora in northeastern Mexico, where some cultivars of var. callicarpa
can be grown in the dry season, but always with the help of irrigation to ensure production throughout the year.
The only form of propagation is the sowing of seed which is done along with some of the traditional crops of this
agricultural model (maize, beans and other species of Cucurbita). In some regions of Yucatn, Quintana Roo and Oaxaca
the seeds of C. argyrosperma are often the first to be planted in the maize fields. Sowing begins shortly before the start of
the rain and before the other associated crops are sown.
In some localities of Yucatn, sowing is done very quickly the day after the traditional burning of the stubble of the previous
crop and long before the first rain and the sowing of other associated crops. The aim is to prevent the development of weeds
which would affect production of the other species cultivated in the maize field, utilizing the rapidity of growth and cover
attained by this species. Practices of this type show that the seeds of C. argyrosperma are completely suited to these regions
and germinate even in conditions of low humidity.
Unlike other cultivated species of the genus, it is less frequent for varieties of the argyrosperma complex to be found in
vegetable gardens or plots or in small agricultural holdings or to be associated with other species.
Cucurbita pepo
Botanical name: Cucurbita pepo L.
Common names. English: pumpkin, vegetable marrow, summer pumpkin, autumn pumpkin; Spanish: calabaza (Mexico),
hicoy (Guatemala)
Origin, domestication and expansion
According to archaeological recordings, C. pepo appears to be one of the first domesticated species. The oldest remains have
been found in Mexico, in the Oaxaca valley (8750 BC to AD 700) and in the caves of Ocampo, Tamaulipas (7000 to 500 BC).
Its presence in the United States also dates back a long time, as the recordings in Missouri (4000 BC) and Mississippi (1400
BC) indicate. This species may have been domesticated at least on two occasions and in two different regions: in Mexico and
in the eastern United States, in each case having C. fraterna and C. texana, respectively, as possible progenitors.
Eight groups of edible cultivars of C. pepo are known:
Pumpkin (C. pepo L. var. pepo L. Bailey) includes cultivars of creeping plants which produce spherical, oval or oblate
fruit that is rounded or flat at the ends. The fruit of this group is grown to be eaten when ripe and sometimes is used as
fodder.
Scallop (C. pepo L. var. clypeata Alefield) has a semi-shrubby habit, the fruit ranges from flat to almost discoidal,
with undulations or equatorial margins, and it is eaten before maturity.
Acorn (C. pepo L. var. turbinata Paris) is both a shrubby and creeping plant with fruit which is obovoid or conical,
pointed at the apex and longitudinally costate-grooved. The rind is soft, hence the fruit can be eaten in the ripe state.
Crookneck (C. pepo L. var. torticollia Alefield) is a shrubby type, with yellow, golden or white fruit which is
claviform and curved at the distal or apical end and generally has a verrucose rind. It is eaten unripe since the rind and
the flesh harden when ripe.
Straightneck (C. pepo L. var. recticollis Pans) is a shrubby plant with yellow or golden fruit and a verrucose rind
Cucurbits
similar to that of var. torticollia.

Vegetable marrow (C. pepo L. var. fastigata Paris) has creeper characteristics as a semi-shrub and has short
cylindrical fruit that is slightly broader at the apex, with a smooth rind which hardens and thickens on ripening and
which varies in colour from cream to dark green.
Cocozzelle (C. pepo L. var. Ionga Paris) has cylindrical, long fruit that is slender and slightly bulbous at the apex; it is
eaten in the unripe state and one of the most common names is Cocozzelle.
Zucchini (C. pepo L. var. cylindrica Paris) is the most common group of cultivars at present. Like the previous group,
the zucchini group has a strong affinity with the vegetable marrow and its origin is also recent (nineteenth century).
Its plants are generally semi-shrubby and its cylindrical fruit does not broaden or else broadens only slightly. It is
eaten as a vegetable in the unripe state.
With regard to traditional cultivars, it is common to see a fair representation of cultivars with characteristics similar to those
of each of the commercial groups in one single field cultivated by Mesoamerican peasants. The question of the origin of the
cultivars native to the Mayan area in the middle and low areas of Chiapas and the Yucatn peninsula still has to be resolved.
These cultivars, whose fruits are either without or with unpronounced ribs and have rather rounded and oval seeds, are
grown from a little above sea level to nearly 1800 m.
The distribution of C. pepo outside America is possibly the best documented of this genus: it is known that some cultivars
reached Europe approximately half a century after 1492 and it is even said that others originated on that continent. In
contrast to C. pepo's long-established presence in the Old World, it seems that its arrival in South America was very recent.
At present, the fruit of some cultivars (for example, Zucchini and Cocozzelle) has a nutritional and commercial role in
several regions of the world.

Like the other cultivated species of the genus, the mature or young fruit and the seeds of C. pepo, as well as to a lesser extent
the flowers and young tips of the stems, are eaten in many parts of its native distribution area and in other regions of the
world. C. pepo's nutrient content is similar to that described for the other cultivated species.
C. pepo has: creeping plants which are compact or semi-shrubby, annual, monoecious and pubescent-scabrous; broadly
ovate-cordate to triangular-cordate leaves, 20 to 30 x 20 to 35 cm, with or without white spots, often with three to five deep
lobules, and with denticulate to serrate-denticulate margins. Tendrils have two to six branchlets, or are simple and little
developed tendrils in the semi-shrubby types. It has pentamerous, solitary, axillary flowers, the males of which have
pedicels 7 to 20 cm in length, a campanulate calyx of 9 to 12 mm, linear sepals of 12 to 25 x 1 to 2 mm, a
tubular/campanulate corolla, 5 to 10 cm long, which is divided into five for up to one-third or more of its length; and three
stamens. The female flowers have sturdy, sulcated pedicels of 2 to 5 cm; the ovary is globose, oblate, ovoid, cylindrical,
rarely piriform, smooth, ribbed or verrucose and multilocular; and the calyx is very small. The fruit is very variable in size
and shape: smooth to heavily ebbed, often verrucose and rarely smooth, with a rigid skin varying in colour from light to dark
green, plain to minutely speckled with cream or green contrasting with yellow, orange or two-coloured. The flesh is cream
to yellowish or pale orange; it ranges from soft and not bitter to fibrous and bitter, has numerous seeds which are narrowly
or broadly elliptical or rarely orbicular, slightly flattened and 3 to 20 x 4 to 12 mm.

Traditionally, C. pepo is cultivated from North America to Central America and in some parts of South America, although it
is generally said to be a crop of high areas. Like C. moschata, this species covers a fairly wide range of altitudes. In Mexico,
there are native varieties which grow from very close to sea level and in semi-dry climates, such as the variety called tsol in
Yucatn, to others which are cultivated at altitudes greater than 2000 m, such as those called giches in Oaxaca. In
Guatemala, the native cultivars, commonly called gicoy, are grown above 1000 m, while tsols are sown in the low, hot
humid parts of the Petn below 500 m.
Cucurbits
Genetic diversity
Limits of genetic stock. The primary genetic stock of C. pepo is formed by the groups of edible cultivars (ssp. pepo) and
ornamental cultivars (ssp. ovifera) as well as wild taxa (C. fraterna and C. texana).
There are a great number of commercial cultivars with particular characteristics which, together with the local varieties
referred to which are grown mainly in Mexico, constitute an extraordinary genetic stock. However, in contrast to other
species, this diversity does not represent an important source of genes resistant to pests and diseases, since C. pepo
(including C. texana) is probably the species with the greatest susceptibility to the most important viral diseases that attack
cultivated species of Cucurbita.
Species that might represent a secondary genetic stock are scarce, as most of the attempts at hybridizing C. pepo with other
wild or cultivated species have required special techniques such as embryo culture; however, good results with hybridization
have been achieved in Mexico and the United States.
Germplasm collections. Data obtained from the gene banks show that C. pepo is the species of the genus with the second
highest number of accessions (1135). However, this refers only to cultivated and edible forms, since those corresponding to
the two closest wild relatives are very scarce and, in fact, those of C. fraterna were completed only very recently. The gene
banks with the greatest representation of C. pepo cultivars are in the United States, Mexico and Costa Rica.
In its native area of distribution, C. pepo is grown both in maize fields and vegetable gardens as well as in other more
intensive systems. In the former case, it is combined with maize, beans and/or with one to three of the other cultivated
species of Cucurbita, while in the latter system it may be found growing on plots or in small groups. generally combined
with other vegetables. Where it is grown commercially, it is generally found as the sole crop, occupying areas of varying
size.
In the region of Mixteca Alta, Mexico, and particularly in San Andres Lagunas, some local variants have been found which
are grown under two different sets of conditions and at two different times. One of these is known as heavy rain gourd
(calabaza de temporal); it is grown on rocky ground, generally with abundant outcrops of limestone and commonly with
little soilthat is, on dry ground. Sowing takes place in April and May, depending on the appearance of the first rains, and
the ripe fruit is harvested in October and November. Another variant is known as the bowl gourd (calabaza de cajete); it is
grown on ground called cajete (bowl), which is very flat and humid and situated in small valleys which are said to have once
been occupied by lakes. In this form, it is sown at the start of the driest period of the year (February or March) and the ripe
fruit is harvested between July and September.
In Yucatn, the tsol or "mensejo" variety is grown, generally in vegetable gardens or intensive husbandry systems such as
those called conucos (small farms) and pachpakal, and very rarely in maize fields. It is a short-cycle variety; sowing takes
place approximately 15 to 20 days after the start of the heavy rainstorms (from May to June); the unripe fruit for use as
vegetables is harvested from August onwards, while the ripe fruit is available between September and October.

The three species Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. moschata and C. pepo complement one another in their natural areas of
production, which range from 0 to 2 000 m in their region of origin. In the latter, evaluation of the primitive cultivars needs
to be stepped up and their germplasm used to develop new cultivars that are more productive and of greater food value, or
that are resistant to diseases, especially viruses. As has already been shown in the case of some species, there are also local
varieties which differ in their production period. The direct use of these, or of the genes that determine this characteristic,
would allow their period of availability at markets to be extended.
The germplasm of the four species of Cucurbita should be urgently collected in their area of natural distribution. Introducing
varieties present in other areas, such as C. moschata varieties which are found in Africa and have a high carotene content,
and incorporating them in genetic improvement programmes is also a matter of urgency.
Boosting consumption, whether local or in the form of exports, requires the fruit to possess characteristics adapted to
consignment and storage. There is a wide diversity of such characteristics which can be used to produce superior varieties.
Cucurbita spp. offer possible new uses or more intensive uses, which can be widely promoted. One is the preparation of
Cucurbits
purees or similar foods, for which there would be a very extensive genetic stock for determining organoleptic or nutritional
characteristics, resulting in a product superior to the one existing on the markets and which is derived from other products.
We ought also to explore the possibility of increasing the use of young stems, which are the part of the plant with the
greatest food value because of the amino acid and vitamin content. Varieties which produce more foliage could even be bred
for this purpose.
The use of seeds as dried fruit is common in some areas of Mesoamerica and almost unknown in others. The seeds are a
good source of protein and oil, and their industrial preparation and marketing should be investigated.
There is still much to be done in terms of the collection, conservation, evaluation and use of regional or local varieties.
These tasks are feasible. as the range of these crops is still to be found in the rural communities of the New World. We
should not pass up the opportunity of utilizing this material to produce superior varieties and conserve their germplasm for
future use.
Cucurbita moschata
Botanical name: Cucurbita moschata (Duchesne ex Lam.) Duchesne ex Poiret
Common names. English: pumpkin, winter squash. musky squash, cushaw; Nahuatl: tamalayota (Mexico, Colombia
[Guerrerol); Spanish calabaza (Mexico), ayote (Guatemala to Costa Rica), auyama (Panama to Venezuela), zapallo
(Ecuador, Peru), joko (Bolivia)
Origin, domestication and distribution

It was thought that C. moschata, like Cucurbita ficifolia, was of Asiatic origin. However, it is now evident that it was
domesticated in Latin America, although it is still unclear what the precise area of domestication of either species was. On
numerous occasions, it has been reported to be in Mesoamerica and on other occasions in South America, more specifically
with its centre of origin in Colombia. The vestiges available are undoubtedly difficult to interpret. The oldest archaeological
remains of this species were found in northwestern Mexico (the caves of Ocampo, Tamaulipas) and date from 4900 to 3500
BC. Remains are also known in northern Belize, in Tikal, Guatemala (2000 BC to AD 850), and in Huaca Prieta, Peru (3000
BC).
Electrophoretic analysis of isoenzymes has not provided any substantial evidence. However, it has enabled us to reaffirm the
strong relationship between this species and taxa of the C. argyrosperma group. Nor is the linguistic evidence very clear: C.
moschata is known by native names both in the Mesoamerican region (mainly in Mexico) and in South America; this, on the
other hand, supports the observation that both regions correspond to two centres of the crop's diversification.
Furthermore, the variation in C. moschata does not suggest any region in particular as the centre of origin, since this species
is extremely variable in the morphology of its fruit and seeds.
The geographical distribution of the known archaeological remains of C. moschata indicate that it has been cultivated for
more than 5000 to 6000 years. Its spread to other countries, both within Latin America and outside the continent, was
certainly very early. This is shown by the existence of the variety called Seminole Pumpkin, grown since pre-Columbian
times by indigenous groups of Florida in the United States, and also by its appearance in seventeenth-century botanical
illustrations. Such an early spread must have been very continuous and intense since, in the last decade of the nineteenth
century, the species was cultivated in India, Java, Angola and Japan.

In the greater part of C. moschata's native area, its flowers. young stems and young and ripe fruits are eaten as a vegetable.
The latter are also commonly used to prepare sweets and as fodder. The seeds are eaten whole, roasted or toasted and are
ground into different stews. They have high oil and protein contents (similar to those noted in C. argyrosperma) and their
consumption in urban areas is also fairly common.
Cucurbits
C. moschata is a creeping and climbing plant. It is herbaceous, annual, monoecious, lightly and densely pubescent, with
short and long uniseriate trichomes and caulescent vegetative apices that are fairly reflexed. It has slightly angular stems. Its
leaves have petioles of 30 cm or more, are broadly ovate-cordate to suborbicular, measure 20 to 25 x 25 to 30 cm, have
white spots, are slightly lobate with three to five ovate or triangular lobules. have an obtuse apex that is briefly apiculate,
serrate-denticulate margins and three to five ramified tendrils. C. moschata has pentamerous, solitary, axillary flowers. The
male flowers have 16 to 18 cm pedicels and a very short calyx, are broadly campanulate to pateriform, expanded or
foliaceous towards the apex, 5 to 13.5 cm long, with five divisions for up to one-third of their length. The female flowers
have thick pedicels of 3 to 8 cm in length, and a globose, ovoid, oblate, cylindrical, piriform, conical, turbinate ovary. They
have a very small calyx and sepals that are more often foliaceous than in the males, measure up to 7.5 cm in length and are
of thickened style. They have three lobate stigmas. The fruit varies greatly in size and shape (generally following the form of
the ovary): smooth or with rounded ribs, rarely verrucose or granulose, with a rind that is both thickened and durable and
soft and smooth, and of a very variable colourlight green to uniform dark green or with cream spots, light to dark, or
completely white. The flesh is light or bright orange to greenish, ranges from light to very sweet, is soft and generally not
fibrous. It has numerous seeds which are ovate/elliptical, measuring 8 to 21 x 5 to 11 mm and which have a yellowish-white
surface.

In botanical literature, C. moschata is reported as being grown mainly in areas of low altitude with a hot climate with high
humidity. However, while it is true that this species is preferentially grown within these limits, they do not appear to be
strictly adhered to, as variants have recently been found above 2200 m in Oaxaca, Mexico.
Genetic diversity
Limits of genetic stock. The wide range of altitudes at which C. moschata is cultivated within the American continent, the
considerable morphological diversity of its seeds and fruit (colour, shape, thickness and durability of the fruit's skin), the
existence of varieties with life cycles of different duration as well as the existence of numerous cultivars developed in other
parts of the world and of local varieties with excellent agronomic characteristics, clearly indicate that the genetic variation of
this species is very extensive.
Some interesting regional varieties for Latin America are those existing on the Yucatn peninsula (and possibly in other
regions of Latin America), with two life cycles of different duration, and those cultivated in Guanajuato and Chiapas, in
which resistance to some viral diseases was recently found. Among the former, the short-cycle variety commonly grown in
Mayan vegetable gardens is of great interest, since it was certainly from this that the most commercially important variety in
the region was derived. It should be mentioned that those cultivated in Guanajuato and Chiapas are currently being used in
genetic improvement programmes.
With regard to the sources of variation of C. moschata cultivars developed outside its area of origin, the best example is that
of a cultivar, native to Nigeria, which represents the only source of resistance to certain viral diseases. The possibilities of
hybridization that C. moschata has shown with other cultivated species (for example, C. maxima) enable us to affirm that
there are good prospects for the improvement of these crops.
Another part of the genetic stock of C. moschata is represented by the numerous commercial cultivars that have been
developed, mainly in the United States and to a lesser extent in Brazil. Prominent among these are Butternut Squash, Golden
Cushaw, Large Cheese, Tennessee Sweet Potato, Kentucky Field, Menina Brasileira and others. Some of these commercial
cultivars also have different levels of resistance and/or susceptibility to certain diseases, which is indicative of the wide
genetic variation of this species.
Germplasm collections. C. moschata is the best represented of Cucurbita in the gene banks of America. in which more than
2 000 accessions have been deposited. These come chiefly from Mexico and Central America and to a lesser degree from
South America and other regions of the world. The most important accessions are those from the United States and Costa
Rica. Collectively, the accessions are made up of American material, mainly from Central America. For its part, the CIFAP
collection in Mexico is possibly the most representative of C. moschata's variation in that country.
Cucurbits
The different variants of C. moschata are grown under traditional, heavy rain agricultural systems. It is possible to find
varieties grown in maize fields together with maize, beans and one or two other Cucurbits, or in vegetable gardens and other
more intensively managed farmland where they are grown alone or with other species. Sowing is carried out at the start of
the rainy season and the development time is approximately five to seven months, although there are varieties with a very
short cycle (three to four months) such as those mentioned from the Yucatn peninsula. In the long-cycle varieties, the
young fruit to be used as vegetables is harvested approximately three months after sowing, while the ripe fruit for seed is
harvested mainly between the sixth and seventh month.
In the Mixe region and other regions of the state of Oaxaca, C. moschata is also grown in the cold, dry season of the year on
moisture-retaining ground. Cultivation is even carried out with the help of irrigation in some parts of the state of Sonora and
some short-cycle varieties have also been observed on the Yucatn peninsula where they are grown for commercial purposes
in humid soils or using unusual substrates (henequen fibre waste) and irrigation.
It is likely that varieties such as the ones described, and possibly others, are grown more commonly than is thought or
known on the American continent. There are some old references to a considerable variation in Colombia, but its current
situation has to be properly documented and evaluated.
Cucurbita ficifolia
Botanical name: Cucurbita ficifolia Bouche
Common names. English: fig leaf squash. Malabar gourd, cidra, sidra; Nahuatl: chilacoyote (Mexico, Guatemala): Spanish:
lacoyote (Peru. Bolivia, Argentina), chiverri (Honduras, Costa Rica), victoria (Colombia)
Origin, domestication and distribution

At the end of the last and the beginning of this century, some authors were suggesting an Asiatic origin for Cucurbita
ficifolia. Since the middle of this century. the consensus has been that it is of American origin. However, its centre of origin
and domestication are still unknown. Some authors have suggested Central America or southern Mexico as places of origin,
while others suggest South America, and more specifically the Andes. Biosystematic studies have been unable to support the
Mexican origin suggested by the distribution of common names derived from Nahuatl throughout America.
Archaeological vestiges point to a South American origin. since the oldest remains are Peruvian. but biosystematics have not
been able to confirm this hypothesis either.
Attempts at obtaining hybrids beyond the first generation with the other four cultivated species have failed and the few
results obtained have required the use of special techniques such as embryo cultivation. These results have been
corroborated by other studies which reveal that C. ficifolia shows considerable isoenzymatic and chromosomic differences
compared with all the taxa of the genus.
In addition to the foregoing observations, the recent discovery that Peponapis atrata does not appear to be a specific
pollinator of C. ficifolia has led to the suggestion that the wild ancestor of this species might have been a still undiscovered
species whose habitat could be the eastern region of the Andes. This is why the possibility of using wild (or cultivated)
species in future programmes for the genetic improvement of this crop and their use in the improvement of other cultivated
species of the genus is still remote. The importance of these programmes lies in the fact that collections have been identified
which are resistant or completely immune to the attack of different viruses that severely affect other cultivated species.
The cultivation of C. ficifolia ranges from northern Mexico to Argentina and Chile. Its spread to Europe (France and
Portugal, for example) and Asia (India) apparently began in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when its fruit reached
the Old World from South America and India. Since then, its cultivation has spread to many other parts of the world
(Germany, France, Japan and the Philippines).
Cucurbits

The different parts of C. ficifolia plants are put to various food uses throughout its distribution area in America. The unripe
fruit is eaten boiled as a vegetable, while the flesh of the ripe fruit is used to prepare sweets and soft or slightly alcoholic
drinks. The seeds are also greatly valued and in Chiapas, Mexico, they are used with honey to prepare desserts known as
palanquetas.
In some regions of Mexico (and perhaps other countries of the continent), the young stems (or "runner tips") and also the
flowers are eaten as a cooked vegetable, while the ripe fruit is used as fodder for domestic animals. The latter is the
commonest use in the Old World where this species has been introduced.
The most important nutritional value is found in the seeds which provide a considerable source of protein and oil. As
indicated by its white colour, the flesh of the fruit is deficient in beta-carotene, and has a moderate quantity of carbohydrates
and a low vitamin and mineral content.
Recent research in Chile has shown that some proteolytic enzymes from the flesh of C. ficifolia fruit can be used to treat
waste water from the industrial processing of foods derived from fish. This discovery is of great interest because of the
reduction in costs that these industries could achieve by using enzymes which would replace those imported at present.
In Japan and Germany, it has been used as a support or rootstock for the winter production of cucumber (Cucumis sativus
L.) in greenhouses.
C. ficifolia is a creeping or climbing plant, monoecious, annualalthough persistent for a certain period, giving the
impression of being a short-lived perennialwithout swollen reserve roots. It is resistant to low temperatures but not to
severe frosts. It is villose to softly pubescent. with some short. sharp spines dispersed over the vegetative parts. It has five
vigorous, slightly angular stems and leaves with 5 to 25 cm petioles that are ovate-cordate to suborbicular-cordate. with or
without white spots on the surface, and have three to five rounded or obtuse, apiculate lobules, the central one bigger than
the lateral ones. They have denticulate margins and three to four ramified tendrils. The flowers are pentamerous, solitary,
and axillary. The male flowers are long and pedicellate, have a campanulate calyx that is 5 to 10 mm long and almost as
wide, 5 to 15 x 1 to 2 mm linear sepals and a tubular-campanulate corolla that is rather broader towards the base, 6 to 12 cm
long and yellow to pale orange. They have three stamens. The female flowers have sturdy peduncles, 3 to 5 cm long, an
ovoid to elliptical, multilocular ovary: sepals that are occasionally foliaceous and a corolla that is somewhat larger than that
of the male flowers. They are of a thickened style and have three lobate stigmas. The fruit is globose to ovoid-elliptical, with
three colour patterns: i) light or dark green, with or without longitudinal white lines or stripes towards the apex; ii) minutely
spotted white and green; iii) white, cream or flesh white. The flesh is sweet and the seeds are ovate-elliptical, flattened, 15 to
25 x 7 to 12 mm, and a dark brown to black or creamy white colour.

C. ficifolia is grown over a wide distribution area from 1000 to almost 3000 m in practically all the mountain ranges of Latin
America. The restriction of cultivation to areas of considerable altitude is a distinctive characteristic of C. ficifolia compared
with other cultivated species of the genus, which can generally grow in a wider range of ecological conditions (in the case of
C. pepo and C. moschata, from 0 to 2300 m).
Genetic diversity
Limits of genetic stock. In view of the reproductive incompatibility of C. ficifolia with the other species of the genus. it
may be said that its genetic stock is limited to itself. However, in other respects this species is much less different than are
other cultivated species of the genus. and there are no commercial cultivars. Among its most notable morphological
variations are the coloration and size of its fruit and seeds. The scant morphological variation of this species is consistent
with that observed in the patterns of isoenzymes studied so far.
From the agronomic point of view, it is possible to acknowledge the existence of some genetic diversity for C. ficifolia for
two reasons:
it is cultivated in a wide geographic range where conditions are only relatively uniform as regards altitude. but
different from the point of view of other local ecological factors;
Cucurbits
it is grown both without distinction both under agricultural systems with high competition (for example, heavy rain
maize fields) and under others with less competition or which allow a more intensive cultivation (for example, maize
fields cultivated in the dry season on humid ground, vegetable gardens and plots).
However, none of these aspects has so far been evaluated.
Productivity, as regards the number of fruits and the quantity of seeds per fruit, is another aspect which possibly reflects the
genetic diversity of the species and which, again, is insufficiently documented. Field observations have revealed that some
medium-sized fruits contain 500 or more seeds and that each plant can produce more than 50 fruits.
Germplasm collections. Accessions of C. ficifolia germplasm are the least abundant of all those existing for the cultivated
species of Cucurbita. In addition, they are not very representative of its geographical distribution. There are 338 accessions
to be found in America's gene banks; these, added to another 82 deposited with institutions of countries outside the
continent, make a total of 420. However, many of the accessions are duplicates. which reduces their number by about half.
C. ficifolia is a crop grown mainly in traditional heavy rain agricultural systems, which shows that the start of the rainy
season corresponds to the sowing time, while harvesting takes place from the end of September (young fruit and flowers for
vegetables) to December or January (ripe fruit for seed and flesh). In some regions of Mexico. such as Mixteca Alta in
Oaxaca, it has been found that, in addition to being cultivated during the rainy season on heavily rain-fed terrain. this species
is also grown during the dry season on more humid ground (valleys or areas where the soil drainage is slightly deficient). In
these cases, sowing is carried out in the early months of the year and the crop is harvested from the dry season (April) until
that corresponding to summer (May to July). This has made it possible to ensure almost uninterrupted production throughout
the year.
The only form of propagation is the sowing of seed, together with one of the traditional crops of this type of agriculture
(maize, bean and other species of Cucurbita), or else cultivation in vegetable gardens along with other species or by itself.
The ripe fruit is harvested and selected for seed. It can be stored for long periods (18 to 20 months) and it is frequently seen
drying on the roofs of farmers' houses.
Bibliography
Andrs, T.C. 1990. Biosystematics, theories on the origin and breeding potential of Cucurbita ficifolia. In D.M. Bates,
R.W. Robinson & C. Jeffrey, eds. Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae, p. 102-199. Ithaca, N.Y., USA,
Cornell University Press.
Azurdia, C.A. & Gonzlez, M. 1986. Informe final del proyecto de recoleccin de algunos cultivos nativos de
Guatemala. Guatemala, University of San Carlos/ICTA/IBPGR.
Bailey, L.H. The domesticated cucurbits. First Paper. Genet. Herb., 2: 23-34.
Bates, D.M., Robinson, R.W. & Jeffrey, C., eds. 1990. Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Ithaca, N.Y.,
USA, Cornell University Press.
Bukasov, S.M. 1981. Las plantas cultivadas en Mxico, Guatemala y Colombia. Turrialba, Costa Rica, GATIE-GTZ.
(Spanish translation by J. Len)
Delgadillo, S.F., Garzon, T.J.A. & Vega, P.A. 1989. Cucurbit viruses in Mexico: a survey. Fitopatologa, 7(2):
136-139.
Lira, R. 1990. Estudios taxonmico y ecogeogrfico de las Cucurbitceas de Latinoamrica. 1st biannual report
(Jan.-Aug. 1990). Rome, IBPGR.
Lira, R. 1991. Estudios taxonmico y ecogeogrfico de las Cucurbitceas de Latinoamrica. 2nd biannual report
(Aug. 1990-Jan. 1991). Rome, IBPGR.
Lira, R. 1991. Estudios taxonmico y ecogeogrfico de las Cucurbitceas de Latinoamrica. 3rd biannual report
(Jan.-Aug. 1991). Rome, IBPGR.
Merrick, L.C. 1990. Systematics and evolution of a domesticated squash, Cucurbita argyrosperma and its wild and
weedy relatives. In D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson & C. Jeffrey, eds. Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae.
Ithaca, N.Y., USA, Cornell University Press.
Paris, H.S. 1989. Historical records, origins and development of the edible cultivar groups of Cucurbita pepo
(Cucurbitaceae). Econ. Bot., 43: 423-443.
Cucurbits
Whitaker, T.W. & Davis, G.N. 1962. Cucurbits, botany, cultivation and utilization. London, Leonard Hill.
Neglected Crops : 1492 from a Different Perspective. 1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len (eds.). Plant Production and
Protection Series No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p. 63-77.
Citrofortunella mitis
Citrofortunella mitis J.
Ingram & H. E. Moore
Rutaceae
Calamondin, calamondin orange, China orange, musk lime,
Panama orange, Philippine orange, to-kumquat
CalamondinJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrofortunella_mitis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:00 PM]
Calathea allouia
Calathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl.

Marantaceae
Guinea arrowroot, Allouya, Leren, Lerenes, Lleren,
Llerenes, Sweet-corm-root, Topee-tambu
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Calathea_allouia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:01 PM]
Calendula officinalis
Calendula officinalis L.
Compositae
Pot marigold, Scotch marigold,
Calendula
Schneiter
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Calendula_officinalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:02 PM]
New Horticultural Crops in New Zealand

Hewett, E.W. 1993. New horticultural crops in New Zealand. p. 57-64. In: J. Janick and J.E.
New Horticultural Crops in New

Zealand
Errol W. Hewett
1. ESTABLISHED FRUIT CROPS
1. Kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C.F. Liang & A.R. Ferguson] var deliciosa,
Actinidiaceae
2. Apples (Malus x domestica Borkh., Rosaceae)
2. THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONNECTION
1. Tree Tomato [Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendtn., Solanaceae]
2. Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana Berg, Myrtaceae)
3. Pepino (Solanum muricatum Ait., Solanaceae)
4. Babaco [Carica x heilbornii Badillo m. pentagona (Heilborn) Caricaceae]
5. Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L., Solanaceae)
6. Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill., Annonaceae)
7. Oca or "Yam" (Oxalis tuberosa Mol., Oxalidaceae)
8. Other Crops
3. NEW FLOWER CROPS
1. Calla (Zantedeschia spp., Araceae)
2. Nerine (Nerine spp., Amaryllidaceae)
3. Sandersonia (Sandersonia auriantiaca Hook., Liliaceae)
4. Other Flowers
4. NATIVE PLANTS FROM NEW ZEALAND
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
New Zealand, a small country located in the South Pacific (latitude between 35 and 47S and
longitude 167 and 178E) has a population of 3.3 million. Horticulture is a small but important
contributor to the national economy having NZ$1.2 billion export earnings in 1991, 7.4% of total
exports (NZ$1 = US$0.54, 1992). Four new fruit crops have been successfully introduced to
international trade during the 20th century: avocado, blueberry, kiwifruit, and macadamia (Janick
1991). Of these, kiwifruit has arguably made the largest and most dramatic impact over the last 20
years.
The kiwifruit is a unique fruit with unusual visual (a brown, hairy skin with a spectacular green
translucent flesh containing an attractive circle of black seeds around a white pith), nutritive (low
calories, high fiber, high potassium, and vitamin C content), and storage (quality can be
maintained for up to 12 months in air or controlled atmosphere storage) characteristics. It has
successfully captured the imagination of traders and consumers who have paid high prices to
purchase this new fruit. Associated profitability has seen kiwifruit planted in large numbers
throughout the world during the 1980s.
ESTABLISHED FRUIT CROPS

New Zealand grows a wide range of temperate fruit crops, but only contributes significantly to
world trade with kiwifruit and apples. Major efforts are currently underway to improve the existing
range of cultivars to exploit consumer demand for new taste and visual sensations.
Largely as a result of the foresight, dedication, perseverance, and skill of the late D.W. McKenzie,
major breeding and plant improvement programs are being undertaken by the Department of
Scientific Research (DSIR) on a range of crops including kiwifruit, apples, pears, apricots, and a
range of subtropical fruits.
Kiwifruit [Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C.F. Liang & A.R.

Ferguson] var deliciosa, Actinidiaceae
Commercial plantings of kiwifruit in New Zealand are known to have derived from one seed
acquisition brought from China in about 1903 by Miss Isabel Fraser, sister of Miss Katie Fraser, a
missionary in Xichang. It is possible that the majority of kiwifruit grown in New Zealand (and to a
large extent elsewhere especially France, Italy, and Australia) originated from seed from one fruit,
certainly from only a few fruit collected from the wild by E.H. Wilson from one region in China
(Ferguson 1990). Hence, the present genetic base of existing kiwifruit plantings is extremely
limited.
The genus Actinidia is known to have more than 50 species and more than 100 taxa (Liang and
Ferguson 1986, Ferguson 1990). The cultivar `Hayward', which accounts for more than 95% of the
current kiwifruit plantings in New Zealand today, was selected by Hayward Wright, a nurseryman
who has been called "the Luther Burbank of New Zealand horticulture." In the period from 1903 to
1946, when kiwifruit were grown mainly as an ornamental plant, many enthusiastic nurserymen
were involved in the propagation, improvement and sale of these novel plants; in particular Bruno
Just, Alexander Allison, James McGregor, and Hugh Gorton, made significant contributions
(Ferguson and Bollard 1990).
Scientists in DSIR recognized the inherent danger of relying on such a narrow genetic base for the
development and continued success of an important new crop. They were also well aware of the
diverse range of species, indigenous in China, which while providing fruit for a range of products
(jam, pastes, medicines) had not been subject to any concerted or deliberative screening
programme for improving size or quality. Since the 1970s there has been a joint effort by DSIR
and Chinese scientists to obtain seed material from a broad range of Actinidia species, to grow
them together under uniform conditions of cultivation and training for comparison of fruiting
characteristics and to obtain diverse material to be used in breeding programmes by traditional or
novel molecular biology means.
The genus Actinidia is characterized by having a wide range of growth habits, fruit size, shape,
color, and nutritive qualities. Some species are cross compatible and interspecific crosses are
easily achieved, while others are incompatible, and interspecific hybrids may only be possible by
using recently developed embryo transfer techniques. Three major thrusts are being adopted by
scientists involved in the current breeding program:
1. to obtain improved or different selections from existing plantings or "Hayward lookalikes."
Selections already made and under evaluation include: more uniform fruit shape, earlier fruit
maturation, hermaphrodite as distinct from diecious plants, more productive plants than
`Hayward', higher vitamin C, and reduced flats and fans.
2. to develop vigor controlling rootstocks which will also offer better flowering after mild
winters, produce high export yields, enhance precocity from young vines, and reduce flats
and fans.
3. to crossbreed with other Actinidia species, in particular from A. chinensis Planchon, to
produce fruit with smooth skins like a peach or pear, maybe with different colored skins
and/or flesh. A. chinensis vines are precocious and high yielding, some are early maturing
with good flavor. A range of flesh colors from green through yellow to pink are available,
and fruit store for 2 to 3 months. Successful hybridization between A. deliciosa and A.
chinensis is likely to produce fruit combining the desirable features of both species. A.
arguta (Seibold & Zuccarini) Planchon ex Miquel, marketed as a home garden vine in North
America, produces fruit about grape-size, very sweet, with red or green flesh. A green
skinned hairless fruit from a highly productive vine has already been produced.
Results from these different approaches already indicate that there is a major potential for a
dramatic increase in the range of cultivars of kiwifruit of commercial potential. Even more
exciting is the possibility of the emergence of "new" fruits based on the genetic diversity of the
Actinidia species. These long term strategic plant improvement programs are financially supported
by the kiwifruit industry which recognizes the commercial necessity and opportunities which
accrue from successful new cultivar development.
Apples (Malus x domestica Borkh., Rosaceae)

One of the main reasons for the success of the New Zealand apple industry is the ability to provide
customers with a range of 5 to 9 distinct cultivars over a 4 to 6 month marketing period. This
contrasts with some other apple producing countries which tend to produce only two or three
major cultivars. In addition, the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board has successfully
introduced several highly acceptable new cultivars to international trade in recent years. The
cultivars 'Braeburn', 'Gala', and 'Royal Gala' have had a major impact in apple markets highlighting
New Zealand's reputation of being able to develop and market appealing new fruit sensations.
The late D.W. McKenzie, working for DSIR, with great perspicacity, foresaw the need for a
concentrated and directed breeding program to ensure a continuous release of new apple cultivars
onto major markets. With perseverance and dedication, he overcame serious opposition in New
Zealand, and acting against prevailing international trends, initiated a program to produce a bright
red, late maturing highly flavored apple to have a market slot after 'Granny Smith'.
While none of his original selections are likely to achieve major success, subsequent releases from
his work, together with hybrids from current programs, are likely to have a substantial impact in
the next decade. 'Splendour' x 'Gala' crosses are undergoing commercial evaluation and two are
being focussed on by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for test marketing. In
particular, GS2085, looks promising. It is a rosy pink cultivar which ripens late in the season with
'Granny Smith'; it has an extremely crisp and crunchy texture with a sweet flavor and a good acid
balance. The trees are precocious, like a 'Golden Delicious' in openness and vigor, having good
branch angles and carrying good fruit loads on young branches. GS2085 has tolerance to black
spot and is less susceptible to mildew than existing cultivars.
Later crosses, including selections from a collaborative program with Japanese plant breeders, are
equally, if not more exciting. It is anticipated that a portfolio of selections will be produced which
will provide quite different taste and texture sensation for consumers contrasting markedly with
major cultivars available today. Enhanced pest and disease tolerance/resistance is another major
objective in the ongoing pome fruit breeding program in an attempt to reduce the importance of
pesticides in producing high quality fruit. A pear breeding program is also underway in DSIR, but
this is less advanced than the apple projects. Recognition of the strategic importance of providing
new apple cultivars has resulted in considerable financial input from the New Zealand apple
industry to this program.
THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONNECTION

In tropical South American countries, at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,000 m, there occur endemic
fruiting plants that are really warm temperate species. Many of these appear to be well adapted to
warmer parts of New Zealand. Over the past 20 years, both private and Government sponsored
expeditions have visited a number of countries, including Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and
Brazil to obtain propagating material for evaluation under New Zealand conditions. The rapid
destruction of natural rainforest vegetation in several of these countries is placing many precious
food plants at risk of extinction; there is an urgent need to collect and preserve as many of these
plants as soon as possible if they are not to be lost forever. New Zealand has been fortunate in
being recipients of some most interesting fruit and vegetable crops from South America, many of
which were common foods of the Incas (Veitmeyer 1991).
Tree Tomato [Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.) Sendtn., Solanaceae]

The tree tomato [renamed the tamarillo in New Zealand, not to be confused with the tomatillo
(Physalis ixocorpa Brot.)] is an egg shaped/sized, bright red fruit developed in New Zealand from
seed thought to have been obtained from a missionary in Ecuador early this century. In the wild,
the fruit is generally small, splotchy and yellow or pale red in color (Veitmeyer 1991). Large
red-fruited strains were developed by nurserymen in New Zealand, and recently large golden
colored cultivars have been produced.
Tamarillos are rapidly growing trees which produce good crops after 18 months. They are frost
tender which limits their distribution. Fruit is highly attractive, but some people find the skin and
flesh too astringent to make it a popular fresh fruit. While the fruit has a high vitamin C content, it
has a limited storage life, suffering from chilling injury and postharvest pathogens if maintained
below 5C for any sustained period of time. Fruit processes extremely well. They can be frozen or
canned and can be used for a range of products including jam, pulp, puree, chutney, and juice;
there is considerable potential for combining with milk products such as yogurt.
Unfortunately, tamarillo trees are easily infected with tamarillo mosaic virus, which results in
production of blotchy, streaked unattractive fruit. Until disease resistant stock can be obtained,
opportunities for existing tamarillo cultivars are limited. A wide range of seeds have been
collected from indigenous tamarillo plants in South America and these are currently under
evaluation.
Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana Berg, Myrtaceae)

Originating in the plateau lands of southeast Brazil, the feijoa, known as pineapple guava in
California, has been grown in New Zealand for many years. It has a shrub-like growth habit
producing attractive flowers. It is more hardy than tamarillo, being able to tolerate mild winter
frosts. In California, it is grown mainly as an ornamental hedge, while in southern Russia and
Israel, it has been grown as a commercial fruit crop. Until recently, most plantings in New Zealand
have been with seedlings, resulting in extreme variation in fruit size, shape, flavor, and keeping
quality. Over the last decade, a number of improved selections have been made and the availability
of grafted plants is ensuring consistency in fruiting.
The ovoid green skinned fruit with vanilla-colored flesh has a very sweet and aromatic taste when
eaten fresh. Flesh has to be scooped as the skin is bitter. No satisfactory maturity index has been
developed so it is difficult to determine optimum harvest maturity. Fruit catching structures are
placed under trees by the serious feijoa growers in order to prevent fruit dropping to the ground
when ripe; if this occurs fruit is likely to be damaged and become infected with postharvest
pathogens. Recent research has produced cultivars with large fruit having thin smooth dark green
skins, strong aromatic flavor, good sugar/acid balance, smooth texture with a minimum of
grittiness, and a moderate storage life. Fruit may be canned to create a pleasing product.
Pepino (Solanum muricatum Ait., Solanaceae)

The pepino is a small, shrubby plant which produces large (up to 15 cm diameter) fruit with a
sweet smell, subtle flavor, and attractive yellow/golden skin color often with purple stripes. It is
grown widely in the north of South America and cultivated extensively in Chile. Seed material,
introduced to New Zealand in 1973, produced extremely variable fruit with a range of shapes and
flavors. It grows well in New Zealand, generally in the same climate as tomato. Early sales of
seedling fruit by entrepreneur growers wanting to cash in on this new crop, created serious market
problems, as fruit was often small, bitter, unattractive to both the eye and the palate.
A selection and breeding programme by DSIR scientists in conjunction with a committed and
enthusiastic grower, has led to the production of several outstanding cultivars. However, best crops
seem to be produced under protected cultivation and many management problems involving
nutrition temperature, light, and maturity indices have still to be solved.
In spite of an apparently receptive market in Japan for high quality pepinos, this industry has
virtually lapsed for want of necessary research input.
Babaco [Carica x heilbornii Badillo m. pentagona (Heilborn)

Caricaceae]
The babaco is native of Ecuador and is a hybrid between two Andean papayas, producing more
and larger fruit than the mountain papayas. It was introduced to New Zealand in 1973, but
popularized by an ardent nurseryman who made numerous visits to Ecuador to collect this and
other exotic fruit material.
Babaco is extremely productive, producing large (2 kg) green, torpedo shaped fruit hanging in
clusters around the trunk. The fruit has a subtle flavor when ripe; it is very refreshing to eat and
make an acceptable and healthy juice. Although difficult to propagate initially, many plants were
sold to real and "would-be" horticulturists during the boom times of the early 1980s. However, this
crop has not been a commercial success either locally or for export, possible because of their
novelty (and lack of promotion) and their large size (they are too expensive for the consumer
wanting to try something new).
Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L., Solanaceae)

These plants grow all over the Andes and were fruit of the Incas (Veitmeyer 1991). Cape
gooseberries (which are neither gooseberries nor from the Cape; seeds were obtained from the
Cape of Good Hope late last century) are grown on a few small properties in New Zealand.
Production is small and fruit is supplied mainly to the local market. Removed from the paper-like
husks, the attractive yellow marble-sized fruit makes an extremely tasty jam. Fruit has a high
vitamin A, B, and C content, is a rich source of carotene, phosphorous, and iron, and also contains
vitamin P. It may be eaten fresh, in salads or in cocktails. No research effort is being made in New
Zealand to improve this crop.
Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill., Annonaceae)

Considerable interest is currently being shown for this green-skinned, softball-sized fruit
sometimes called "the queen of subtropical fruits." A range of cultivars have been introduced from
Ecuador, Chile, and Peru for evaluation in warmer climates in New Zealand and several
commercial orchards have been planted. A reasonable market potential seems to exist for this very
tasty fruit (enhanced by the recent freeze in California which destroyed a major production area).
However, selection of cultivars for good production of high quality fruit in marginal New Zealand
climatic conditions is still necessary; fruit with fewer seeds and extended shelf life are also
required before this fruit could become a substantial export earner from New Zealand.
Oca or "Yam" (Oxalis tuberosa Mol., Oxalidaceae)

The oca (or yam as it is called in New Zealand) is a small, red, waxy, crinkled tuber was probably
a staple food item of the Andean Indians (Veitmeyer 1991). They are grown on a very small scale
in a localized area in New Zealand and sold only on the local market. The tubers have a tangy, acid
nutty flavor and are eaten mainly with roast dinners. The original planting material probably came
from Chile to New Zealand in the late 1800s with immigrants. Oca does not seem to be widely
grown outside of South American countries and so appears to qualify as "one of the lost crops of
the Incas" (Veitmeyer 1991).
Other Crops
A range of other unusual and exotic South American food crops are being grown in New Zealand,
generally by enthusiastic horticulturalists. These include: naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam.,
Solanaceae), which produces an orange hairy fruit which makes a green frothy drink, and has a
flavor reminiscent of pineapple and strawberry; capulin cherry (Prunus capuli Cav., Rosaceae) a
red skinned, green fleshed fruit with excellent flavor; yacon (Polymnia sonchifolia Poepp. & Endl.,
Asteraceae) a root vegetable, which when eaten uncooked, is very crunchy, watery to translucent,
and sweet. Any attempt to improve or develop these plants further is being undertaken by private
individuals.
Another fruit vegetable that has received some interest in recent years is the kiwano or African
Horned Melon (Cucumis metuliferus E.H. Mey. ex Schrad., Cucurbitaceae). It grows on the fringes
of the Kalahari Desert in Africa and was introduced to New Zealand during the 1970s. The orange
spiny fruit with intensely green flesh is extremely attractive. The fruit has many seeds, a subtle
flavor, and has an excellent storage life at room temperature. However, it is more of a novelty crop
and has not undergone commercial development.
NEW FLOWER CROPS

New Zealand is a very small producer of flowers by international standards. Orchids are the most
important flower in terms of exports. However, there are a few new flower types that have been
developed which are poised to make a contribution in the near future. Private breeders are also
producing international prize winning cultivars with traditional flowers.
Calla (Zantedeschia spp., Araceae)

Originating in Southern Africa, several New Zealand nurserymen have specialized in developing
an extensive range of new brightly colored callas. These are versatile plants and can be used as
bedding plants, pot plants, and cut flowers. A considerable amount of basic research has been
undertaken at Massey University to understand the factors controlling the growth cycle of these
plants, including flowering, dormancy, and productivity, with a view to producing a production
management blueprint for purchasers of the export tubers and plants (Funnell et al. 1988). A recent
innovation has been to develop a miniature potted version of the white arum lily (Z. aethiopica cv.
Childsiana) which holds considerable potential as a decorative or commemorative living momento.
Nerine (Nerine spp., Amaryllidaceae)

In recent years, New Zealand has obtained ownership of probably the most extensive collection of
nerine species and cultivars in cultivation in the world. A very limited number of growers are
involved in evaluating this collection in New Zealand conditions, with a view to exporting both
bulbs and a range of diversely colored cultivars.
Sandersonia (Sandersonia auriantiaca Hook., Liliaceae)

A protected genera now in South Africa, Sandersonia stock was obtained by a New Zealand
nurseryman over 70 years ago, but commercial development has been very slow. Grown from
tubers, the plants produce beautiful, orange, bell-like granny's bonnet shaped flowers which have a
reasonable shelf life. Both tubers and cut flowers are grown for export.
Other Flowers
New Zealand has some highly accomplished private flower breeders who are making major
advances in new cultivars. Prominent among these are: Keith Hammett who has gained
international awards for his outstanding new selections of dahlias, sweet peas, and carnations; Sam
McGredy, originally from Ireland, who now resides in New Zealand and continues to produce
world class roses with infinite shape, color, and aroma; Bill Doreen who has been producing a
wide range of colorful and exciting lilies for many years.
A number of other flower crops are being grown by committed enthusiasts; these include peony,
leucodendrons, limonium, and gypsophila. A recent novel development has been the production of
miniature flower plants of Leptospermum spp. (Myrtaceae) and kowhai [Sophora spp.,
Leguminosae (subfamily Faboideae)].
NATIVE PLANTS FROM NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand has a unique flora. Many indigenous shrubs and trees are not well-known in other
parts of the world. Some of these have potential for pot plants or foliage. While some have been
developed by nurserymen for local sale, most of the range of foliage and flower types available
have not been utilized as commercial products.
A number of Cordyline spp. and Phormium spp. (both Agavaceae) have been selected; these
include dwarf species, and selections with a range of foliage from deep reds through yellow to
green, as well as a range of variegated types.
One tree with considerable potential is the pohutakawa or New Zealand Christmas tree
(Meterosideros spp., Myrtaceae). In the wild, it grows as a huge gnarled tree, often protruding
precariously from high cliffs overlooking the sea. Trees have brilliant crimson red flowers which
cover the whole tree in December in New Zealand. It is possible to produce trees in pots and to
induce flowering within two years of planting. Further research is required to manipulate growth
and flowering with more precision before a successful export industry can develop, but there is
considerable potential for this spectacular specimen.
Hebe spp. (Scrophulariaceae) are common throughout New Zealand. Many have been developed
as garden and potted plants, as much for their varied foliage as for their range of flower types.
Increasingly, these Hebes are being developed in countries other than New Zealand, (Denmark) as
successful commercial nursery plants.
CONCLUSION
Possingham (1990) identified two contrasting influences at work in horticultural industries in
developed countries. On the one hand there is a strong move to develop new and exotic crops,
often drawn from diverse species growing in the wild, which have the potential to produce good
profits for growers and others involved in horticultural trade. On the other hand, there is a
reduction in the number of cultivars being grown as market requirements define apparently
narrower quality characteristics.
New Zealand horticulture generally follows the first trend. While Maoris, the original inhabitants
of New Zealand, brought several vegetable crops, notably the sweet potato, with them from the
Pacific, the majority of new plant introductions occurred with the arrival of English settlers in the
late 19th century.
Most of the traditional horticultural crops grown in New Zealand are well known in other fruit
growing countries in temperate climates. Introductions of apples, pears, stonefruit, berryfruit,
citrus, flowers, and ornamental plants continue to this day from diverse international sources.
However, there has been a large element of serendipity in the introduction of new or different
plants. Missionaries, travellers, explorers, and visitors have all had an influence on the introduction
of new and unusual plants. The kiwifruit from China and the range of species from South America
exemplify this fact.
Highly skilled, observant, and entrepreneurial nurserymen probably had the major role in
transforming wild growing species into potential commercial cultivars. Many of these nurserymen
were very talented plantsmen who initiated plant improvement programs themselves by selection
and breeding. The seminal influence of Alexander Allison, Bruno Just, and Hayward Wright in the
initial development of the kiwifruit has been well documented (Ferguson and Bollard 1990). The
influence of nurserymen on the development of other crops mentioned in this article is not
documented.
Invariably, success depended on the efforts of a "champion" of the crop. Whether this champion
was a nurseryman, a grower, a scientist, or a marketer, almost without exception, any product
which has achieved any economic significance in New Zealand can be identified with an
enthusiastic, committed, and skillful plantsman who are unabashed advocates for their particular
crop.
A more recent feature of new crop development in New Zealand has been the involvement of
Government scientists, mainly from DSIR, but also from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
and from Universities. The Government has funded a number of plant improvement programs,
both in selection and breeding in major and minor crops, and the scientists involved have worked
closely with growers and nurserymen. This collaboration has accelerated in the last two decades,
particularly but not exclusively with the major crops such as apples and kiwifruit.
Both of these industries have well developed infrastructures and a strong marketing role. Industry
personnel have agreed with scientists on the strategic importance of developing an extended range
of cultivars which should provide a market advantage for this country in the future. Input from
marketing experts to the scientists breeding program is an important characteristic of today's
efforts which are underpinned by both Government and industry funding.
While many other groups have developed to represent the collective interests of those producing or
marketing particular products, they lack the organizational structure and the financial success of
the major product groups. Consequently less "seed" money has been available for attracting
subsequent Government research effort.
Recent structural and philosophical changes have occurred in science organization in New Zealand
which is impacting on research carried out on minor horticultural crops. The 1980s have seen the
introduction of "user pays;" that is research perceived to bring direct benefit to an individual or an
industry is expected to be increasingly funded by that individual or industry. Therefore, while the
apple and kiwifruit industries currently contribute nearly $6 million to research, and as a
consequence still receive substantial Government support, minor industries are in no position to
provide enough funding to attract significant Government support. In spite of the fact that there is
potential for commercial success from one or more of a range of "sunrise" crops, (i.e. crops at
early stages of development and perceived to have potential for growth), the Government policy of
not picking winners and not funding research on crops/sectors that do not provide research funds,
means that the effort being directed into minor crops has diminished drastically over the past eight
years.
New Zealand has turned a complete circle. Successful development of new and exotic crops in the
future will come again from the private nurseryman, the enthusiastic amateur horticulturist, the
perceptive grower, and from the non-institutional groups such as the Tree Crops Society. Either
individually or collectively they will collect, import, select, and develop horticultural crops which
they will champion. Only when an individual crop can be demonstrated to have commercial
success will the Government research scientists be in a position to lend their considerable expertise
to further improvement. New Zealand will continue to have an international reputation for
producing a diverse range of new and exciting horticultural crops. New apples and kiwifruit,
diverse and colorful plants and flowers, and exotic fruits sourced from South America will be
traded successfully in world fruit markets during future decades.
REFERENCES
Ferguson, A.R. 1990. Botanical nomenclature: Actinidia chinensis, Actinidia deliciosa and
Actinidia setosa, p.36-57. In: I.J. Warrington and G.C. Weston (eds.). Kiwifruit science and
management. Ray Richards, Auckland, New Zealand.
Ferguson, A.R. and E.G. Bollard. 1990. Domestication of the kiwifruit, p.165-246. In: I.J.
Warrington and G.L. Weston (eds.). Kiwifruit science and management. Ray Richards,
Auckland, New Zealand.
Funnell, K.A., B.O. Tjia, C.J. Stanley, D. Cohen, and J.R. Sedcote. 1988. Effect of storage
temperature, duration, and gibberellic acid on the flowering of Zantedeschia elliotiana and
Z. 'Pink Satin'. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113:860-863.
Janick, J. 1991. New fruits from old genes. Acta Hort. 297:25-42.
Liang, C.F. and A.R. Ferguson. 1986. The botanical nomenclature of the kiwifruit and
related taxa. New Zealand J. Bot. 24:183-184.
Possingham, J.V. 1990. Under-exploited wild species that have potential for horticulture, p.
49-55. In: 23 I.H.C. Lectures. Special publication of the International Society for
Horticultural Science from the XXIII Int. Hort. Cong., Firenze, Italy.
Vietmeyer, N. 1991. Lost crops of the Incas. New Zealand Geographic 10:49-67.
Last update April 2, 1997 aw
Meissn.
Mimosaceae
Calliandra
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Calliandra is unusually promising as a firewood source because of its excellent coppicing ability
and very quick growth. In Indonesia it is cut for fuel after only a year's growth and harvested
annually for the next 1520 years. Even when harvested on such short rotations, it produces a
sizable yield of branch wood that makes good household fuel. Like many other genera favored for
charcoal making, Calliandra often travels under the Spanish name of 'carbonaria' or 'carbonero'.
Indonesians use the tree to supress Imperata, and to make firebreaks. Livestock relish the leaves of
this good fodder crop, grown with elephant grass in large areas previously unable to support any
crop. An exciting ornamental, producing beautiful red "powderpuff" flowers, it forms attractive
hedges. Planted in strips on Indonesian state forest lands to protect the forest against fire (as well
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Calliandra_calothyrsus.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:04 PM]
as illegal woodcutting). Honey produced by bees foraging on Calliandra has a bittersweet flavor.
The species grows very quickly, its dense foliage provides ground cover, and its extensive and
deep root system makes Calliandra particularly suitable for erosion control on slopes and for
rejuvenating degraded soils. By nitrogen fixation and litter production, Calliandra improves soil
quality and productivity. Farmers in East Java sometimes rotate agricultural crops with Calliandra
plantations. Calliandra serves as a suitable host for the shellac insect, Kerria lacca (NAS, 1980a,
l983b).
Folk Medicine
Closely related Calliandra houstoni is reported to be febrifugal in homeopathic doses (List and
Horhammer, 19691979). The root bark has been sold in Mexico under the name 'pambotani'.
Chemistry
Calliandra houstoni is reported to contain tannin, fat, resin, glycosides, alkaloids, and saponins
(List and Horhammer, 19691979). Dry fodder
Toxicity
"No toxic components have been found so far, although tannin levels are high." (NAS, 1983b).
Description
Slender shrubs, rarely to 10 m tall, nearly glabrous; leaves with 1520 pairs of pinnae; the leaflets
rounded or very obtuse, not curved. Flowers in pink, mimosa-like "powderpuffs", the corolla
glabrous or nearly so. Pods 811 cm long, ca 1 cm wide, with 315 seeds (14,000/kg).
Germplasm
Reported from the American Center of Diversity, calliandra, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
heavy soils, poor soils, some shade, slope, and weeds (NAS 1980a, 1983b). It does not tolerate
prolonged waterlogging, nor poorly drained calcareous clay soils.
Distribution
The plant is native to Central America, but seeds were introduced from Guatemala to Indonesia in
1936. Calliandra proved so successful as a plantation crop that in 1950 the Indonesian State Forest
Enterprise (Perum Perhutani) began planting it on a large scale, so that by early 1979 about 30,000
ha in Central, East, and West Java were under cultivation.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Rain through Tropical Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones,
this Calliandra is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1044 dm and estimated to tolerate
annual temperatures of 2026C and pH of 4.58.0. On Java, the plant grows at altitudes between
150 and 1,500 m. It can withstand drought for several months. It grows on many different soils,
including infertile ones (reported from andosols, laterites, latosols, litosols, podsols, regosols,
ultisols, and vertisols; NAS, 1983b) tiles, or bricks. It converts to charcoal (34% yield in one test)
with a fuel value of 7,200 kcal/kg. Indonesians estimate one hectare can produce 14 tons charcoal
(NAS, 1983b).
Cultivation
Plantations are established by direct seeding or by seedlings, usually Planted at the beginning of
the wet season. Seedlings are transplanted from nurseries at about 46 months, spaced at 2m x 2m
or 1m x 1m. Seeds are treated with hot water and then soaked in cold water for 24 hours. Because
it grows so rapidly and densely, Calliandra supresses competing plants very quickly. There is little
information on performance of this species on different sites. The plant is so hardy and reproduces
so easily that it may become a weed of sorts, difficult to keep in check.
Harvesting
Cut as needed, regenerating rapidly. Cut stumps coppice readily.

Indonesian trials showed initial growth of 2.53.5 m in 69 months. After 1 year's growth,
calliandra can be cut at about 50 cm above the ground, reportedly yielding about 520 m3 per ha.
Afterwards, yearly cuttings are possible, producing between 35 and 65 m3 of small-sized fuelwood
per ha, a rather incredible yield. In Indonesia, annual yields of 710 MT of dry fodder (22% crude
protein) per ha have been recorded. In Toyomarto, East Java, villagers earn more money selling
calliandra firewood than they do from food crops, often intercropped with calliandra. A hectare of
Calliandra is estimated to Yield 1 MT honey (NAS, 1983b).
Energy
In parts of Java, Calliandra is a favorite fuelwood. (In one instance, an experimental plantation of
0.5 ha was established in 1963; by 1975, over 250 ha of firewood plantations had been
independently established on nearby privately owned farms and home lots.) The wood has a
specific gravity of 0.510.78, its calorific value is 4,5004,750 kcal per kg, and its ash content is
1.8%. It is used for cooking as well as in small industries; for example, those making lime, derived
from Calliandra calothyrsus contains 22% protein, 3075% fiber, 45% ash, 23% fat, and 13%
tannin. There is ca 1% quercetin-3-rhamnoside.
Biotic Factors
Bees forage heavily on the flowers. Ravenelia reticulatae, a rust, has been reported on an Arizonan
species of Calliandra called False-mesquite (Ag. Handbook 165). Few pests have been reported
from Calliandra calothyrsus in Indonesiaa scale insect on branches and stems, a trunk borer,
and a looper eating the leaves. Snails and rats may destroy seedlings in nurseries. Fungi (e.g.
Corticium salmonicola and Xylaria sp.) may kill weakened stems following careless coppicing
(NAS, 1983b).
References
Washington.
N.A.S. 1983b. Alcohol fuelsoptions for developing countries. National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
Calocarpum sapote
Calocarpum sapote (Jacq.)

Merr.
Sapotaceae
Mamey sapote, Sapota, White sapote
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Calocarpum_sapote_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:05 PM]
White Sapote
Sapote, White
Mamey zapote
Sapotaceae Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr.
Sapote, Green
Injerto
C. viride Pettier
The white sapote tree is a large - up to 80 feet - tropical evergreen with leaves up to 12 inches long
by 4 inches wide. Fruits are ovoid or elliptical, 3 to 6 inches long, with usually one large seed. The
fruit peel is thin, scurfy and roughened. Flesh is red or reddish brown, firm and somewhat
granular, with a rich, sweet flavor.
The green sapote tree is similar to the white, but with smaller leaves. Fruits are similar in size and
other characteristics to the white sapote.
Season, bloom to maturity: 6 to 8 months.
Production in U. S.: No data. Dooryard trees only,
Use: Fresh eating, preserves.
Part of fruit consumed: Inner pulp.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/sapote.html [5/16/2004 3:49:05 PM]
Drug Discovery and Development at the National Cancer Institute: Potential for New Pharmaceutical Crops

Cragg, G.M., J.E. Simon, J.G. Jato, and K.M. Snader. 1996. Drug discovery and development at
the National Cancer Institute: Potential for new pharmaceutical crops. p. 554-560. In: J. Janick
Drug Discovery and Development at

the National Cancer Institute: Potential
for New Pharmaceutical Crops
Gordon M. Cragg, James E. Simon, Johnson G. Jato, and
Kenneth M. Snader
1. PLANT ACQUISITION AND DRUG DISCOVERY
2. DRUG DEVELOPMENT: SUPPLY ISSUES AND THE POTENTIAL FOR NEW
PHARMACEUTICAL CROPS
1. Alternative Methods of Production
2. The Large-Scale Production of Paclitaxel
3. NCI Policies for Biomass Production
4. Sustainable Harvesting of Calophyllum species. Production of (-)-Calanolide B
5. Feasibility Studies of the Cultivation of Ancistrocladus korupensis
3. CONCLUSION
4. REFERENCES
5. Fig. 1
Plants have formed the basis for the treatment of diseases in traditional medicine systems for
thousands of years, and continue to play a major role in the primary health care of about 80% of
the world's inhabitants (World Health Organization statistic, Farnsworth et al. 1985). In the area of
cancer treatment, many claims have been made for the beneficial effects of plants (Hartwell 1982),
though many of these claims may be viewed with some skepticism since cancer, as a specific
disease entity, is likely to be poorly defined in terms of folklore and traditional medicine.
Nevertheless, the discovery and development of efficacious anticancer agents, such as vinblastine
and vincristine isolated from the Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don,
provided convincing evidence that plants could be a source of novel cancer chemotherapeutic
agents. While the natural product isolated as the active compound might not be suitable for
development as an effective drug, it can provide a suitable lead for conversion into a clinically
useful agent. This approach is well illustrated by the development of the anticancer drugs,
etoposide, and teniposide, as semisynthetic derivatives of epipodophyllotoxin, isolated from

Podophyllum peltatum L. and P. emodii Wall. (Cragg et al. 1993a).
PLANT ACQUISITION AND DRUG DISCOVERY

In 1960, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) initiated a plant collection program in collaboration
with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (Perdue 1976). During the next twenty
one years, over 35,000 plant samples representing some 12,000 to 13,000 species were collected
by the USDA, mainly from temperate regions; over 114,000 extracts were tested for antitumor
activity, primarily in the in vivo L1210 and P388 mouse leukemia systems. While many active
agents belonging to a wide variety of chemical classes were isolated and characterized (Cragg et
al. 1993a), few satisfied the stringent requirements for preclinical and clinical development. The
major clinically active agents to emerge from this program were paclitaxel isolated from Taxus
brevifolia Nutt. and other Taxus species (Suffness 1995), and hycamptamine (topotecan), CPT-11,
and 9-aminocamptothecin, all semisynthetic derivatives of camptothecin isolated from
Camptotheca acuminata Decne (Wall and Wani 1993). The structures of these compounds are
shown in Fig. 1.
In 1986, NCI expanded its program to the collection of plants from tropical and subtropical
regions. Contracts were awarded to Missouri Botanical Garden (Africa and Madagascar), New
York Botanical Garden (Central and South America), and the Univ. of Illinois at Chicago, assisted
by the Arnold Arboretum and the Bishop Museum in Honolulu (Southeast Asia), and were
renewed, after open competition, in 1991. Collections have been performed in over 25 countries,
with the contractors working in close collaboration with qualified organizations in each source
country. The collaboration of the source country organizations and scientists has been
indispensable in the procurement of the necessary collection and export permits, in the successful
performance of in-field collecting activities and taxonomic identifications, as well as the provision
of facilities for the preparation, packaging, and shipment of the samples to the NCI natural
products repository in Frederick, Maryland. In turn, the NCI program has provided support for
expanded research activities by source country scientists, and the expansion of source country
holdings of their flora through deposition of a voucher specimen of each species collected in the
national herbarium. Through its Letter of Collection (LOC), the NCI has committed itself to
policies of collaboration with source countries in the drug discovery and development process, and
fair and equitable compensation in the event of commercialization of a drug developed from a
plant collected within their borders (Cragg et al. 1994). A key provision of the LOC is the
commitment to utilize source country resources, either through sustainable harvest or cultivation,
in the large-scale production of an agent for preclinical and clinical development. In the event that
a drug is licensed to a pharmaceutical company for advanced development and commercial
production, the successful licensee will be required to seek as its first source of supply the natural
resources available from the source country, provided a mutually agreeable fair price can be
determined.
To date, over 45,000 plant samples have been collected by the NCI contractors, and over 40,000
have been extracted to yield more than 87,000 organic solvent and aqueous extracts. These extracts
are tested in vitro for selective cytotoxicity against panels of human cancer cell lines representing
major disease types, including leukemias, breast, central nervous system, colon, lung, ovarian,
prostate, and renal cancers (Boyd and Paull 1995), as well as for anti-AIDS activity in a screen
comprising human lymphoblastoid cells infected with the live AIDS virus (Bader 1992). Extracts
showing significant activity in either screen are subjected to bioassay-guided fractionation aimed
at the isolation of the pure, active agents. Of the more than 44,000 extracts tested so far in the in
vitro human cancer cell line screen, less than 1% have shown some level of selective cytotoxicity.
In some instances, the patterns of differential cytotoxicity have been associated with known
classes of compounds such as cardenolides, cucurbitacins, lignans, and quassinoids, but others
appear to be new leads which are being investigated further. Over 36,000 extracts have been tested
in the anti-AIDS screen, and approximately 10% have exhibited some in vitro activity; however,
most of the active extracts are aqueous and, in the majority of cases, the activity has been
attributed to the presence of ubiquitous chemotypes, such as polysaccharides and tannins. Such
compounds are not a current NCI focus for drug development and are typically eliminated early in
the drug discovery process (Cardellina et al. 1993). A number of in vitro active anti-AIDS agents
have been isolated and selected for preclinical development. Of these, michellamine B isolated
from the leaves of the Cameroon liana, Ancistrocladus korupensis, and the calanolides isolated
from Calophyllum species collected in Sarawak, Malaysia, are in advanced preclinical
development, and their production is discussed later in this paper.
DRUG DEVELOPMENT: SUPPLY ISSUES AND

THE POTENTIAL FOR NEW PHARMACEUTICAL
CROPS
Alternative Methods of Production
The isolation of an active compound is the first stage in the development of a new agent which
might be developed as a drug for advancement to clinical trials and possibly to commercial use
(Grever et al. 1992). While the initial plant sample (0.3-1.0 kg) collected generally yields enough
extract (10-40 g) to permit the isolation and structural elucidation of the pure, active constituent,
subsequent secondary testing and preclinical development might require gram or even kilogram
quantities. Approval of an agent for clinical development could require multi-kilogram quantities.
In order to isolate sufficient quantities of an active agent for preclinical development,
re-collections of 5 to 200 kg of the dried plant material might be necessary, preferably from the
original collection site. Such large re-collections necessitate surveys to determine the abundance
and distribution of the plant, as well as the variation in drug content with the season of harvesting.
The feasibility of propagation and the potential for mass cultivation of high-yielding phenotypes of
the plant would also need to be assessed. If problems are encountered due to the scarcity of the
wild plant or inability to adapt it to cultivation, alternative sources need to be sought. Other species
of the same genus or closely related genera may be analyzed for drug content, and other biomass
production techniques, such as plant tissue and cell culture can be investigated. Another potential
route for bulk production of the active agent is total synthesis, but experience has shown that the
complex structures of most bioactive natural products require the development of multi-step
bench-scale syntheses which often are not readily adapted to economically feasible large-scale
production. Thus, despite over 30 years of extensive research into the synthesis and tissue culture
production of the commercial anticancer drugs, vinblastine and vincristine, isolation from the
source plant, Catharanthus roseus, grown in various regions of the world, remains the most
economically viable method of large-scale production.
The Large-Scale Production of Paclitaxel

The development of paclitaxel as an effective drug for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers
illustrates how escalating demands necessitated the development of various methods of biomass
production. While the original wild source, the bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia),
provided adequate supplies of the drug for preclinical and early clinical studies, it was soon
apparent that the destructive method of harvesting the bark would not meet the large demands
resulting from the observation of clinical efficacy against ovarian cancer. An extensive program
was initiated to develop alternative, renewable resources , and the current needs are now being met
through the harvesting of needles from wild and cultivated Taxus species; in addition, scale-up
production through tissue culture has been developed by the company, Phyton Inc., but whether
such in vitro systems will be commercially viable as a source for paclitaxel or as a source of high
taxane-yielding plants is as yet unproven. The evolution and solution of the paclitaxel supply
problems has been reviewed in detail (Cragg et al. 1993b).
NCI Policies for Biomass Production

In response to the experience gained in the production of paclitaxel, the NCI has implemented
policies which permit the study of various methods of biomass production at an early stage of
development of a new anticancer or anti-AIDS agent (Cragg et al. 1993b). Through a Master
Agreement (MA) mechanism, pools of qualified organizations have been established with
expertise in: the large-scale re-collection of source plant materials; the cultivation of source plants;
and source plant tissue culture. Allowance has been made for two phases in the cultivation and
tissue culture projects, one involving the initiation of pilot-scale studies aimed at exploring the
feasibility of techniques for biomass production, and the second involving the application of
methods developed in the feasibility studies to large-scale production. When a plant-derived agent
is approved for preclinical development, a Master Agreement Order (MAO) Request for Proposals
(RFP) for projects in one or more of the above areas may be issued to the relevant pools of MA
Holders who then submit technical and cost proposals addressing the particular RFP specifications.
An award is made to the MA Holder whose proposal is judged to be best suited to the Government
requirements.
Sustainable Harvesting of Calophyllum species. Production of

(-)-Calanolide B
Several calanolides have been isolated as potential anti-AIDS drugs from Calophyllum species
collected in the rainforest regions of Sarawak, Malaysia. Calanolide A is a novel coumarin isolated
from leaves and twigs of Calophyllum lanigerum Miq. var. austrocariaceum (T.C.Whitmore)
P.F.Stevens, collected in 1987 as part of the NCI contract with the Univ. of Illinois at Chicago for
collections in Southeast Asia (Kashman et al. 1992). Recollections of plant material identified as
C. lanigerum from the same general location as the original collection failed to yield substantial
quantities of calanolide A required for preclinical development. This isomer has not been detected
in any related species analyzed thus far, but an extensive analytical survey has shown that the latex
of C. teysmanii var. inophylloide P.F. Stevens collected in the same region yields a related
compound, (-)-calanolide B (costatolide) which also shows significant anti-HIV activity (Fuller et
al. 1994). Latex collections are made by making small slash wounds in the bark of mature trees.
After scraping the latex from the trees, the wounds heal and new collections can be performed.
Repeated collections have not affected the health of the trees, and 50 kg has been collected from
several hundred trees for the production of sufficient (-)-calanolide B for possible preclinical and
clinical development. The latex collections are being performed by the Sarawak State Department
of Forests working in collaboration with the NCI collection contractor, the Univ. of Illinois at
Chicago. In addition, these two organizations are studying the propagation and cultivation of the
source species in Sarawak.
Feasibility Studies of the Cultivation of Ancistrocladus

korupensis
In 1987, a sample of the leaves of a liana identified as an Ancistrocladus species was collected in
the Korup region of southwestern Cameroon as part of the NCI contract with Missouri Botanical
Garden for collections in Africa and Madagascar. Extracts of the leaves exhibited significant in
vitro anti-HIV activity, and the dimeric naphthylisoquinoline alkaloid, michellamine B, was
isolated as the active agent (Manfredi et al. 1991; Boyd et al. 1994). The plant was later identified
as a new species and named Ancistrocladus korupensis D. Thomas & Gereau (Thomas and Gereau
1993). Michellamine B shows in vitro activity against both HIV-1 and HIV-2, and is in advanced
preclinical development.
An initial botanical survey indicated that the range of A. korupensis was limited to the Korup
National Park and that the vines were found in limited abundance with several related species
closely resembling A. korupensis. Fallen leaves collected from the forest floor were found to
contain reasonable quantities of michellamine B, and collections of these leaves should provide
sufficient quantities of the drug to complete advanced preclinical development. The collection of
fallen leaves thus far, has obviated the necessity for large-scale harvest of fresh leaves, which
would be most difficult to collect from a liana, and avoids the possible endangerment of a wild
species found endemic primarily in a national park. As larger quantities of leaves would be
required if any clinical efficacy is observed, the NCI utilized its Master Agreement mechanism to
provide a contract with the Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue Univ., to examine the
feasibility of cultivating A. korupensis in Cameroon as a potential long-term source of
michellamine B. By cultivating high michellamine B yielding plants, the limited wild stands could
be preserved and the danger of encroachment into a national park avoided. Purdue Univ.
established such a project, working in concert with American scientists such as Roy Gereau and
Jim Miller from the Missouri Botanic Garden (the original contracting source which collected this
plant), Duncan Thomas from Oregon State Univ., and Cameroon scientists and institutions
including the Univ. of Yaounde, the Korup Project, and the World Wide Fund for Nature which is
coordinating conservation projects in Korup National Park (Simon et al., 1995). The project is
being performed entirely in Cameroon except for the analyses of michellamine B and the entire
project staff on site are Cameroonians. This project has the full permission and cooperation of the
Cameroon government and is overseen by an Intraministrial Committee for Research on A.
korupensis. Working in collaboration with the government of the source country is valuable
because at present few legal regulations address bioprospecting of plants for non-timber use in
Cameroon (Jato et al. 1996).
This project has several objectives. First, to complete a botanical survey of the region so that the
total number of wild vines could be determined as well as to identify high michellamine B yielding
vines. To accomplish this objective a rapid and quantitative assay was needed. An NCI contractor,
Science Applications International Corporation (formerly Program Resources, Inc.), Fort Detrick,
MD, developed a very efficient quantitative assay for michellamine B based upon HPLC. Over
1,000 analyses have already been performed and this cooperation enabled the project team to
identify high michellamine B yielding phenotypes (Simon et al. 1995).
More than 1,000 kg of dried leaves from the forest floor were also collected in the first year of this
project. Leaf collections were made in different regions by a team of locally-hired and trained leaf
collectors. Leaves were air-dried, bulked in sacks and stored. The alkaloids appear very stable and
not subject to easy degradation. The bulk collection of leaves provides a buffer of raw material for
future NCI preclinical studies. As fallen leaves do contain considerable amounts of michellamine
B, this technique can be used on a recurrent basis as a sustainable method to collect leaves without
any harvesting or cutting of the wild vines. Such a technique can be used for both native stands as
well as for cultivated vines (Thomas et al., 1994).
The geographical areas of collection and the averaged michellamine B content from each of the
areas was calculated based upon subsampling of the leaf collection bags. Results indicate that the
Rengo Camp and the Ekundo-Kundu areas yielded the highest michellamine values averaging
5.5% and 4.5% (w/w basis), respectively. This was followed by Akpasang, Chimpanzee Camp,
Mana River, and the lowest, Ikassa. The very high values from the Rengo Camp and the
Ekundo-Kundu sites need to be reconfirmed, but suggest that wild vines from these two areas
should also be relatively higher in michellamine B than vines from other areas. The completed
botanical survey identified several new populations, though all were still in the Korup region. An
estimated 10,000 vines are in the wild, and plants are found at an elevational range of 50-160 m in
skeletal highly leached soils and with soil pH about 4.0.
An analysis of 791 samples indicated that the average michellamine B content in leaves was 2.1l%
(dry wt.). This distribution reflects all manner of samples that we collected (single leaf, leaf
clusters, and leaves of varying ages). The highest levels of michellamine B were found in mature
leaves but young, fully expanded pale green leaves also contained michellamine B. Younger
leaves and the older, fallen, brown leaves had significantly less alkaloid (Simon et al. 1995). More
than 400 individual vines were sampled for michellamine B and variation between vines was
significant. Despite problems in sampling procedures, high michellamine B vines were identified
and are being vegetatively propagated. Of interest to note is that some samples appeared devoid of
michellamine B.
Many A. korupensis seedlings were also collected from the forest by digging the plants up and
replanting into polyethylene plastic bags. While lower levels of michellamine B were expected
from these young plants, their relative concentrations could be effective markers for high
michellamine B. Seedling plants which already exhibit higher michellamine B levels, given the
similar age and sampling techniques, may represent a genetic source that will continue to exhibit
higher levels of michellamine B over time. Variation in plant growth and in michellamine B
content among seedlings was also observed. Plants with the highest michellamine B content
(0.6%-0.8% dry wt.) were identified and are also being propagated.
In parallel to the large leaf collection, wild vines were assayed several times for michellamine B
content. Samples indicating high values of this dimeric alkaloid were then re-sampled for
verification. Vines containing michellamine B contents >3.5% were targeted for propagation. By
the end of Year 1, many of the high michellamine B yielding plants were being vegetatively
propagated. Methods to improve the vegetative propagation success rate are being investigated. As
all work is taking place in the jungle, specialized facilities to propagate and maintain the
propagules were needed. Therefore, a medicinal plant nursery was designed and constructed by
Purdue and the Korup Project staff at the Korup National Park. This new facility now provides, for
the first time, specialized propagation units and a nursery for the Ancistrocladus plants which now
comprise our germplasm collection.
Field plots have been established including unreplicated demonstrations which provide initial
insight into the growth patterns of the plants once introduced into fields of full-sun, shade, and into
darkened forest. Seven field studies using more than 5,000 plants are ongoing--all under varying
environmental and field conditions which include cleared areas, secondary growth areas, mature
forest, and underneath mature palms. In additon, plant population and fertilizer studies in open
cleared areas are underway. Plantings in the forest are situated under varying light conditions.
Although under natural conditions the seedlings are found only in shaded conditions, plants
growing under full-sun are growing rapidly. The plants appear to be responsive to both sunlight
and fertilizer, such as nitrogen. Plants growing in full-sunlight look good and have exhibited
robust and large leaves. As the plantings mature, trellis systems or trees which the A. korupensis
plants can eventually use for structural support will be needed. This will provide needed
background information and test various shading and trellising systems. Both low and high input
production systems within agricultural and agroforestry systems are being explored.
The collection, germplasm preservation, and horticultural studies should permit us to develop
strategies to collect the leaves and introduce this plant into cultivation, whether in an open field,
through enrichment of the jungle with high yielding clones, or in fallow ground. All this is being
done in a manner compatible with the needs of the Cameroon people, the Cameroon government
and the preservation of the rainforest to which the plant is endemic.
These studies become integral to drug discovery programs for several reasons. First, we need to
ensure the availability of the raw plant material. In general, such a discovery is often focused on a
wild plant that has not previously been studied--chemically, botanically, or horticulturally. The
procurement of the raw plant material is not always easy. In the case of A. korupensis, this plant
was not used in local medicine and, thus, is not part of the regional ethnopharmacopia. This
suggests that a random screening of flora was successful, since a study only of locally used
medicinal plants would never have led to the discovery of this plant. Secondly, as the discovery of
new drugs from plants should not infringe upon the natural and undisturbed forest areas to which
they may be native, the establishment of partnerships between the countries to which a potential
drug plant candidate is native and the country that seeks to develop a drug from the plant is
critical. Most tropical countries lack the financial support to initiate and sustain such a preservation
and development program.
CONCLUSION
Natural products and plant-derived products continue to be excellent sources of new drug
candidates. A program such as the one that has evolved at the National Cancer Institute can
achieve three of the most important goals. It can be successful at helping to protect the rights and
benefits of the source country which provides the new bioresource. It can anticipate and reduce the
problems of providing adequate biomass supplies for drug studies by encouraging early cultivation
and plant tissue culture programs. Finally, it can achieve both of these goals in a manner
compatible with the needs of the source country. and still be successful in our third and primary
goal, that of discovering new pharmacologically useful drug candidates.
REFERENCES
Bader, J.P. 1992. The AIDS antiviral screening programme of the National Cancer Institute,
p. 271-275. Biotechnology International. Century, London.
Boyd, M.R., Y.F. Hallock, J.H. Cardellina II, K.P. Manfredi, J.W. Blunt, J.B. McMahon,
R.W. Buckheit Jr., G. Bringmann, M. Schaffer, G.M. Cragg, D.W. Thomas, and J.G. Jato.
1994. Anti-HIV michellamines from Ancistrocladus korupensis. J. Med. Chem.
37:1740-1745.
Boyd, M.R. and K.D. Paull. 1995. Some practical considerations and applications of the
National Cancer Institute in vitro anticancer drug discovery screen. Drug Devel. Res.
34:91-109
Cardellina II, J.H., M.H.G. Munro, R.W. Fuller, K.P. Manfredi, T.C. McKee, M. Tischler,
H.R. Bokesch, K.R. Gustafson, J.A. Beutler, and M.R. Boyd. 1993. A chemical screening
strategy for the dereplication and prioritization of HIV-inhibitory aqueous natural products
extracts. J. Nat. Prod. 56:1123-1129.
Cragg, G.M., M.R. Boyd, J.H. Cardellina II, M.R. Grever, S.A. Schepartz, K.M. Snader, and
M. Suffness. 1993a. Role of plants in the National Cancer Institute Drug Discovery and
Development Program. p. 80-95. In: D.A. Kinghorn and M.F. Balandrin (eds.), Human
medicinal agents from plants. ACS Symposium Series 534. American Chemical Society,
Washington DC.
Cragg, G.M., S.A. Schepartz, M. Suffness, and M.G. Grever. 1993b. The taxol supply crisis.
New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel natural product
anticancer and anti-HIV agents. J. Nat. Prod. 56:1657-1668.
Cragg, G.M., M.R. Boyd, M.R. Grever, T.D. Mays, D.J. Newman, and S.A. Schepartz.
1994. Natural product drug discovery and development at the National Cancer Institute.
Policies for international collaboration and compensation. Missouri Botanical Garden
Monograph Series. 48:161-167.
Farnsworth, N.R., O. Akerele, A.S. Bingel, D.D. Soejarto, and Z. Guo. 1985. Medicinal
plants in therapy. Bul. World Health Org. 63:965-981.
Fuller, R.W., H.R. Bokesch, K.R. Gustafson, J.H. Cardellina II, J.B. McMahon, G.M.
Cragg, D.D. Soejarto, and M.R. Boyd. 1994. HIV-inhibitory coumarins from the latex of the
tropical rainforest tree Calophyllum teysmanni var. inophylloide. Biorganic Med. Chem.
Letter. 4:1961-1964.
Grever, M.R., S.A. Schepartz, and B.A. Chabner. 1992. The National Cancer Institute:
Cancer drug discovery and development program. Seminars in Oncol. 19:622-638.
Hartwell, J.L. 1982. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Quarterman Publications,
Lawrence, MA.
Jato, J., J.E. Simon, P. Symonds, A. Koufani, and A.B. Njamnshi. 1996. Rules and
regulations on the collection in Cameroon of biological materials for biological testing and
drug discovery. J. Ethnopharmacol. (in press).
Kashman, Y., K.R. Gustafson, R.W. Fuller, J.H. Cardellina, II, J.B. McMahon, M.J.
Currens, R.W. Buckheit, S.H. Hughes, G.M. Cragg, and M.R. Boyd. 1992. The calanolides,
a novel HIV-inhibitory class of coumarin derivatives from the rainforest tree, Calophyllum
lanigerum. J. Med. Chem. 35:2735-2743.
Manfredi, K.P., J.W. Blunt, J.H. Cardellina, II, J.B. McMahon, L.K. Pannell, G.M. Cragg,
and M.R. Boyd. 1991. Novel alkaloids from the tropical plant Ancistrocladus abbreviatus
inhibit cell-killing by HIV-1 and HIV-2. J. Med. Chem. 34:3402-3405.
Perdue, Jr., R.E. 1976. Procurement of plant materials for antitumor screening. Cancer
Treat. Rpt. 60:987-998.
Simon, J.E., J. Jato, P. Symonds, D. Thomas, M.R. Morales, R. Gereau, B. Alkire, E. Jato,
and T. McCloud. 1995. Feasibility studies on the cultivation of the Cameroon plant,
Ancistrocladus korupensis. First Annual Progress Report to the National Cancer Institute,
March 10, 1995.
Suffness, M. 1995. Taxolreg.. Science and applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Thomas, D.W., M.R. Boyd, J.H. Cardellina II, R.E. Gereau, J. Jato, and P. Symonds. 1994.
Sustainable harvest of Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae). Leaf litter for
research on HIV. Econ. Bot. 48:313-414.
Thomas, D.W. and R.E. Gereau. 1993. Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae): A
new species of liana from Cameroon. Novon 3:494-498.
Wall, M.E. and M.C. Wani. 1993. Camptothecin and analogues: Synthesis, biological in
vitro and in vivo activities, and clinical possibilities. p. 149-169. In: D.A. Kinghorn and
M.F. Balandrin (eds.), Human medicinal agents from plants. ACS Symposium Series 534,
Am. Chem. Soc. Washington, DC.
Fig. 1. Clinically active agents identified during plant collection programs conducted by the
National Cancer Institute.
Calotropis gigantea
Calotropis gigantea: Useful Weed

Pankaj Oudhia
Calotropis gigantea R.Br. Asclepiadaceae,
commonly known as milkweed or
swallow-wort, is a common wasteland weed
(Singh et al. 1996). Calotropis belongs to
Asclepiadaceae or Milkweed or Ak family
which includes 280 genera and 2,000 species
of world-wide distribution but most abundant
in the sub-tropics and tropics, and rare in
cold countries. Other familiar plants of
Calotropis are Milk weed or Silk weed
(Asclepias syriaca L.), Butterfly weed
(Asclepias tuberosa L.) and Calotropis
procera (Ait.) Ait.f. Comparision of these
plants is given in Table 1. Native to India (Lindley, 1985), Calotropis grows wild up to 900 meters
throughout the country (Sastry and Kavathekar, 1990) on a variety of soils in different climates,
sometimes where nothing else grows
Table 1. Comparison of Calotropis and Asclepias species.
Species
Common
name(s)
Calotropis
gigantea
Gigantic
swallow wort,
Madar
Flower
Height
Leaf
Size
Origin
(ft.) arangement (inches)
India
8-10
Opposite
Color
Leaves
White to purple, Sessile

rarely light
green yellow or
white. Flowers
not scented
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/calotropis.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:10 PM]
Fruits
Follicles
recurved, 2
or 1
follictes,
second
more often
suppressed,
3-4" long
Calotropis gigantea
Asclepias
tuberosa
Butterfly
weed
South
America
Asclepias
syriaca
Common
milkweed
Sikweed
South Up to
America
5
Calotropis
procera
Swallow-wort
India
2-3
3-6
Alternate
0.5
Corolla
Sessile or Follicles
greenish-orange, very short finely
scented
petiolated pubescent,
4-5" long
Opposite
or
verticillate
0.5
Corolla greenish Petiolated Follicles

to purplish
tomentose
white, scented.
and
echinate,
3-5" long.
Opposite
1.5
White to pink,
scented.
Sub-sessile Follicles
3-4",
recurved
Uses
Calotropis is used as a traditional medicinal plant (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991; Oudhia and Dixit
1994; Oudhia 1999a,b,c,d) with unique properties (Oudhia and Tripathi 1998, 1999a).
Traditionally alotropis is used alone or with other medicinals (Caius 1986) to treat common
disease such as fevers, rheumatism, indigestion, cough, cold, eczema, asthma, elephantiasis,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea (Das 1996). According to Ayurveda, dried whole plant is a good tonic,
expectorant, depurative, and anthelmintic. The dried root bark is a substitute for ipecacuanha. The
root bark is febrifuge, anthelmintic, depurative, expectorant, and laxative. The powdered root used
in asthama, bronchitis, and dyspepsia. The leaves are useful in the treatment of paralysis,
arthralegia, swellings, and intermittent fevers. The flowers are bitter, digestive, astringent,
stomachic, anthelmintic, and tonic (Agharkar 1991; Warrier et al. 1996). Calotropis is also a
reputed Homoeopathic drug (Ghosh 1988; Ferrington 1990).
Calotropis yields a durable fiber (commercially known as Bowstring of India) useful for ropes,
carpets, fishing nets, and sewing thread. Floss, obtained from seeds, is used for stuffing purposes.
Fermented mixture of Calotropis and salt is used to remove the hair from goat skins for production
of "nari leather" and of sheep skins to make leather which is much used for inexpensive
book-binding (Singh et. al. 1996). Fungicidal and insecticidal properties of Calotropis have been
reported (Ganapathy and Narayanasamy 1993).
Allelopathic effects of Calotropis on different agricultural crops have not been well studied.
Extracts of different plant parts viz. root, stem, leaf ,and stem+leaf of Calatropis affect
germination and seedling vigor of many agricultural crops have been reported (Oudhia and
Tripathi 1997, 1999; Oudhia et al. 1997, 1998a,b). However, extracts of Calatropis failed to
produce any detrimental effects on weeds such as Chenopodium album Melilotus alba, Melilotus
indica, Sphaeranthus indicus, and Phalaris minor (Oudhia and Tripathi 1997).
References
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. Scientific Publ., India. p. 48-49.
Caius, J.F. 1986. The medicinal and poisonous plants of India. Scientific Publ., Jodhpur, India.
Calotropis gigantea
Das, B.B. 1996. Rasraj Mahodadhi. Khemraj Shri Krishnadas Prakashan, Bombay.
Ferrington, E.A. 1990. Clinical Materia Medica (reprint ed.) B. Jain Publ. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
Ganapathm. Kalyani Publishers Ludhiana, India. p. 347-353.
Ghos, N.C 1988. Comparative Materia Medica. Hannemann Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd. Colicata, India.
Lindley, J. 1985. Flora medica. Ajay Book Services, New Delhi.
Oudhia, P. 1999a. Int. Rice Res. Notes 24(1):40.
Oudhia, P. 1999b. Int. Chickpea and Pigeonpea Newslett. 6:29-33.
Oudhia, P. 1999c. Int. Arachis Newslett.19:62-64.
Oudhia, P. 1999d. Rachis. 18(1):40-41.
Oudhia, P. and A. Dixit, 1994. Weed News 1(2):19-21.
Oudhia, P. and R.S.Tripathi. 1998. Proc. National Conference on Health Care and Development of
Herbal Medicines, IGAU, Raipur, India 29-30 Aug. 1997.p. 71-78.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi, 1999. World Weeds 4:109-119.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi, Abstract National Seminar on Institute/Industry Cooperation
Programme for Developing Skills in Students of Seed Technology, Govt. Motilal Vigyan
Mahavidyalaya, Bhopal, India 20-21 Nov. p. 88-89.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi. 1997. Legume Res. 20(2):133-136.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S Tripathi, 1998a. In: Abstract. III International Congress on
Allelopathy in Ecological Agriculture and Forestry, UAS, Dharwad, India 18-21 Aug. p. 151.
Oudhia, P., S.S. Kolhe, and R.S. Tripathi, 1998b. Extended Summaries. First International
Agronomy Congress on Agronomy, Environment and Food Security for 21st Century, Vigyan
Bhawan, New Delhi. 23-27 Nov. p. 27.
Oudhia, P., R.S Tripathi, S. Puri, and D.S. Chandel, 1999a. Vasundhara The Earth 1(1):12-15.
Oudhia, P., R.S. Tripathi, and P. Katiyar, 1999b . Abstract National Seminar on Chemistry of
Environmental Pollution with special emphasis on pesticides, Department of Chemistry, Govt. DB
Girls P.G. College, Raipur (India) 28-29 Jan. p. 22.
Singh, U., A.M. Wadhwani, and B.M. Johri, 1996. Dictionary of Economic Plants of India. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. p. 38-39.
Rastogi, Ram, P. and B.M. Mehrotra, 1991 In : Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Pbl.
Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow and Publications & Information Directorate, N. Delhi.
p. 70-73.
Sastry, C.S.T. and K.Y. Kavathekar. 1990. In: Plants for reclamation of wasteland. Publication and
Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi. p. 175-179.
Calotropis gigantea
Warrier, P.K., V.P.K Nambiar, and C. Mankutty 1994. Indian Medicinal Plants. Orient Longman;
Chennai, India p. 341-345.
Cowslip
Cowslip
Caltha palustris L. Cowslip greens, Marsh marigold
Ranunculaceae
This plant is a perennial native in eastern U.S.,
from the Carolinas to Canada, growing in
marshy areas. Stems are hollow, 1 to 2 feet
high. Leaves are cordate or rounded. They are
gathered in spring before flowering, and used
as pot herbs.
Season: Leaves gathered within 2 or 3 weeks
of growth start in spring.
Production in U.S.: None commercial,
harvested from wild plants.
Use: Pot herbs. Part of plant consumed: Leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cowslip.html [5/16/2004 3:49:12 PM]
Camelina sativa
Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz

Camelina, falseflax, linseed dodder,
or gold of pleasure
NewCROP has Camelina information at:
Improvement of Camelina sativa, an Underexploited Oilseed. Vollmann, J., A. Damboeck, A.
Eckl, H. Schrems, and P. Ruckenbauer. 1996. p. 357-362. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in New
Crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Camelina: A Promising Low-input Oilseed. Putnam, D.H., J.T. Budin, L.A. Field, and W.M.
Breene. 1993. p. 314-322. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New Crops. Wiley, New York.
Schneiter
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Camelina_sativa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:14 PM]
Camellia oleifera
Camellia oleifera Abel

Theaceae
Tea Oil Camellia
Nursery Production of Tea Oil Camellia Under Different Light LevelsJohn M. Ruter
Outside Links:
Camellia cousin could become Georgia farm crop
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Camellia_oleifera_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:15 PM]
Camellia sinensis
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Theaceae
Tea, assam, black tea, Broken Orange Pekoe
Pannings, ch'a, Darjeeling, dust, Flowery Orange Pekoe, green
tea, gunpowder, hyson, iced tea, imperial, Keemum, Keemun,
Lapsung Souchong, leaf pekoe, Oolong, orange pekoe, pekoe
souchong, pekoe tip, sencha, souchong, tsocha, twanky,
women's-tobacco, young hyson
Outside Links:
TeaDescriptors for Tea (Camellia sinensis)Link to the publication on the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Camellia_sinensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:15 PM]
Rampion
Rampion
Bellflower, Little turnip
Campanulaceae Campanula rapunculus L.
Rampion is a biennial plant, but in cultivation is grown as an annual. Both roots and leaves are
eaten, mainly in salads. Leaves are entire, obovate to linear lanceolate in shape, 6 inches or more
in length. They form a rosette at the root crown. The roots are long, up to 1 foot, slender, and
white. The plant resembles radish in culture and exposure. Roots can be stored for winter use.
Season, seeding to harvest: Up to 5 inches.
Production in the U.S.: No data. Minor.
Use: Mainly in raw salads.
Part of plant consumed: Mainly root, but leaves also.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Rampion.html [5/16/2004 3:49:16 PM]
Canada wild-rye
Canada wild-rye
Gramineae Elymus canadensis L.
This grass is a native bunchgrass in the Plain, Rocky Mountain and Pacific
Northwest States. Seed heads may reach to 5 feet. Leaf blades are broad, flat and rough, up to 12
inches long and 0.5 inch or more broad. Growth begins later in spring than most grasses but
continues throughout summer if moisture is available. Palatability while succulent is fair, but poor
when the plants become woody. Good quality hay can be obtained with early mowing. It is usually
seeded in combination with other slower-growing grasses in order to obtain a quick cover.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Canada_wild-rye.html [5/16/2004 3:49:16 PM]
Canarium ovatum
Canarium ovatum Engl.

Burseraceae
Pili nut
FactSHEET contributed by: Francis T. Zee
Rambutan and Pili Nuts: Potential Crops for HawaiiFrancis T. Zee
Outside Links:
Pili nutCanarium ovatum Engl.Link to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Canarium_ovatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:17 PM]
Phalaris canariensis
Phalaris canariensis L.
Gramineae
Annual canarygrass
Annual Canarygrass: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative
Extension Service, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant &
Animal Products
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phalaris_canariensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:18 PM]
Phalaris arundinacea
Phalaris arundinacea L.
Syn: Phalaris japonica Steud.
Poaceae
Reed canarygrass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phalaris_arundinacea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:18 PM]
Sesbania bispinosa
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.)

W.F. Wight
Syn.: Coronilla cannabina Willd.
Closely related, if not synonymous with S. aculeata and S. cannabina
Fabaceae
Canicha, Danchi, Dunchi fiber
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Danchi stems, used for pipe-stems, provide a strong durable fiber, substituted for hemp in rope,
twine, cordage for fish net, gunny sacks, and made into a cloth used for sails. According to NAS
(1980a), the plant, with fibers simliar to those of birch, "is an exciting potential new source of
paper products." The crop is grown as green manure (adding 150 kg N/ha), leaves for forage, and
in South Africa, for poultry feed. Plant is eaten in time of famine. Seeds contain a guar-like gum
used in films for sizing textiles and paper products and for thickening and stabilizing solutions.
Grown also for firewood, the plant is used for erosion control, hedges, intercropping "mother
plants," nitrogen fixation, and windbreaks. In Vietnam, it is planted in the rice fields and harvested
for firewood before the rice crop is harvested. It is said to have the admirable trait of supressing
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sesbania_bispinosa.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:19 PM]
Sesbania bispinosa
weeds like Imperata cylindrica in moist situations (Duke, 1981a; NAS, 1980a).
Folk Medicine
Medicinally, seeds are mixed with flour and applied to ringworm, other skin diseases, and wounds
(Duke, 1981a). Ayurvedics regard the root as alexiteric, anthelmintic, collyrium, diuretic, and
lactagogue. Kirtikar and Basu (1975) report that around Las Bela it is used for wounds, and
powdered roots are administered to snakebite victims, inducing emesis and perhaps a cure.
Chemistry
Seeds of the genus Sesbania are reported to contain trypsin inhibitors and chymotrypsin inhibitors.
Seed are reported to contain 6.2% of a fixed oil and 32.9% crude protein. Gohl (1981) reports seed
analyses from South Africa showing 36.4% CP, 12.1% CF, 1.5% ash, 6.9% EE, and 43.1% NFE;
from India showing 32.7% CP, 10.7% CF, 5.0% ash, 2.9% EE, 48.7% NFE, 0.37% Ca, and 0.59%
P. Oven-dry fiber is reported as 0.71% ash, 0.94 fat and wax, 2.3 nitrogenous matter, 9.76
pentosan, 16.3 lignin, 85.2 holocellulose (63.6% alpha cellulose), etc. (These figures from
Mazumdar et al, 1973, add up to more than 100%, and must be evaluated carefully.) (Duke,
1981a).
Description
Erect suffuticose low annual subshrub, up to 7 m tall; stems fairly thick, glabrous, branched from
the base but soft and pithy; leaves up to 38 cm long, pinnate, leaflets 1855 pairs, 1.22.5 cm long,
0.3 cm wide, glabrous, glaucous; inflorescence 28-flowered, 2.57.5 cm long; flowers yellow and
purple-spotted; pods up to 25 cm long, 0.3 cm thick, curved, many-seeded. Fl. Sept.Nov. (India).
Germplasm
Assigned to the Hindustani Center of Diversity, danchi, or cvs thereof, is reported to exhibit
tolerance to alkaline soils, drought, heavy soil, low pH, salt, sandy soil, weeds, and waterlogging.
(2n = 12, 24). (Duke, 1981a; NAS, 1980a).
Distribution
Native to northern India, Pakistan, China, Sri Lanka, and tropical Africa, this crop is cosmopolitan
in the Old World Tropics, and has been introduced in southern United States and the Phillippines;
a common weed in tropical Africa from Senegal to the Cameroons.
Sesbania bispinosa
Ecology
Crop adapted to wet areas and heavy soils, which do not require much preparation. Under
waterlogged conditions stem produces a spongy mass of aerenchyma. It thrives in low to medium
elevations (01200 m), along streams, in open wetlands or often as a weed in rice paddy fields.
Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, danchi is
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.522.1 dm (mean of 4 cases = 3.4), annual mean
temperature of 19.927.3C (mean of 4 cases = 23.8), and pH of 5.87.5 (mean of 3 cases = 6.9)
but has been grown in pH 9.2 (Duke, 1981a; NAS, 1980a).
Cultivation
In India seed sown in JuneJuly at onset of southwest monsoon; sowings after September produce
poor seed production. In southern United States seed broadcast after soil has been moistened by
rains in April or May and harrowed. In India seed is usually broadcast, but sometimes drilled in
rows 30 cm apart. Seed may be drilled or broadcast at rate of 2060 kg/ha. Thicker planting
facilitates harvest of small plants. The crop is fast-growing, needs little weeding. Usually no
fertilizers are applied. In India, grown either as a main crop in rice rotation or as a border crop on
the edge of rice fields. On alkali soils (pH 9.2) with added N, P, K, and zinc sulfact rice ('IR8-68')
yielded 6.74 MT/ha where danchi was plowed in, on 16 4.52 MT/ha after fallow. The effect of
green manuring was equivalent to the addition of 80 kg N/ha (Duke, 1981a).
Harvesting
Ready to cut in September or October, but the fiber does not suffer if left standing until seed is ripe
in November. In India seed matures in about 55 1/2 months; in the United States in about 2
months. Ripe pods normally do not shatter. In India pods are usually hand-picked and threshed by
beating with sticks; however, if hand-picking is delayed beyond March, some pods shatter. In the
United States crop is harvested by machine and windrowed, and then threshed with an ordinary
grain thresher. Seeds must be treated with insecticides before storing, as they are liable to damage
by insects. Processes for steeping and cleaning the fiber are similar to those for sunn hemp
(Crotalaria juncea). About 2 kg of fiber can be dressed per day (Duke, 1981a).

In India yields of seed are about 600 kg/ha; in Peru, 900 kg/ha; in California, 1,000 kg/ha. Fiber
yields are 1001,000 kg/ha.
Energy
Recommended as a firewood crop by NAS (1980a), the stems of danchi have low density (sp.
grav. 0.3) but yield well in 6 months. It is used for firewood for example in Vietnam and Pakistan,
Sesbania bispinosa
where villagers use it to evaporate water from sugar. In Italy, a yield of 15 MT/ha DM is reported.
The NAS states, "In the tropics, where more than one crop can be harvested each year, the annual
production could be even higher." (NAS, 1980a). In a table comparing oil seed yields, Duke and
Bagby (1982) report 1,000 kg seed per hectare for Sesbania bispinosa, with 200 kg/ha seed (Vigna
umbellata) the lowest reported in that table, and 14,000 kg/ha (Sapium sebiferum) the highest, both
rather extreme.
Biotic Factors
This crop is self-pollinating and requires no isolation for pure seed production. Several nematodes
attack this Sesbania: Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, and Trichodorus minor. In southern
United States, this crop usually precedes autumn planted vegetables. However, because of
nematode attack, it is not recommended for growing in sandy soils with other susceptible crops, as
cucurbits. Weevils and caterpillars attack seed pods, and the seeds in storage. These may be
controlled with insecticides. Plants are attacked by the parasitic flowering plant, Dendrophthoe
falcata.
References
NewYork.
Duke, J.A. and Bagby, M.O. 1982. Comparison of oilseed yields: A preliminary review.
Typescript of paper presented in North Dakota.
New Delhi.
Heller
Chenopodiaceae
Kaniwa, quaiwa, caihua
Outside links:
Kaniwa can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chenopod_pallidicaule_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:20 PM]
Pouteria campechiana
Pouteria campechiana Baehni

Sapotaceae
Canistel, Eggfruit
Canistel Julia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pouteria_campechiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:20 PM]
Canna spp.
Canna spp.
Cannaceae
Starch Noodles from Edible CannaMichael Hermann
New Bedding PlantsLowell C. Ewart
Outside links
Achira, Canna edulis can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Canna_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:21 PM]
Cannabis sativa
Cannabis sativa L.
Cannabaceae
Hemp, Marijuana
Hemp: A New Crop with New Uses for North AmericaErnest Small and David Marcus
Hemp: Specialty Crop for the Paper IndustryAnthony Capelle
Agronomic Research on Hemp in ManitobaJack Moes, Allen Sturko, and Roman Przybylski
Low-THC Hemp Research in the Black and Brown Soil Zones of Alberta, CanadaS.F. Blade,
R.G. Gaudiel, and N. Kerr
New Crop Development in EuropeLouis J.M. van Soest
New Industrial Crops for EuropeAnthony Capelle
Characterization and Processing Research on New Crops for Increased Industrial Applicability of
New and Traditional Crops: A European PerspectiveWillem M.J. van Gelder, F.P. Cuperus,
J.T.P. Derksen, B.G. Muuse, and J.E.G. van Dam
Outside links for industrial hemp:
Hemp Report: North America's top web magazine on industrial hemp
Industrial Hemp
Natural Hemphasis charting new directions for Canada's growing hemp community
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cannabis_sativa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:21 PM]
Cucumis melo
Cucumis melo L.
Cucurbitaceae
Melon, Muskmelon, Cantaloupe, Honeydew, Sugar
melon
Including specialty melons such as Garden Lemon, Japanese Cucumber, and Winter Melon.
Melofon: A New Crop for Concentrated Yield of PicklesHaim Nerson, Harry S. Paris, and
Menahem Edelstein
Specialty Melons for the Fresh MarketJames E. Simon, Mario R. Morales, and Denys Charles
New Opportunities In MelonsGlenn Sullivan
Screening Melons for Adaptability in North CarolinaJ.R. Schultheis, W.R. Jester, and N.J.
Augostini
Muskmelons and Specialty Melons production links
Garden lemon (Chito group)
Armenian Cucumber (Flexuosus group)
Winter Melon (Inodorus group)
Cantaloupe (Reticulatus group)
Muskmelon
Muskmelon Problems on Acid Sandy SoilsCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana
Identifying Air Pollution Damage on MelonsCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana
Cantaloupe: Marketing and Production Opportunities for IndianaCooperative Extension Service,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucumis_melo_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:22 PM]
Rapeseed/Canola
Index| Search| Home
Brassica rapa
B. campestris L., and
B. napus L.
Brassicaceae, Cruciferae
Rapeseed, Canola (low erucic acid rapeseed)
NewCROP Links to otherBrassica napus crop information (Rutabaga, Siberian Kale, etc.).
NewCROP has Rapeseed and Canola information at:
Canola: An Emerging Oilseed CropPaul L. Raymer
Prospects of Canola as an Alternative Winter Crop in
VirginiaDavid E. Starner, Anwar A. Hamama, and Harbans
L. Bhardwaj
Performance of Canola in Southern Sonora, MxicoSergio
Muoz-Valenzuela, Greg Buzza, and Roberto Avalos-Prez
Canola: A Quality Brassica OilseedR.K. Downey
Potential of Canola Production in OhioWalter H. Schmidt
Canola Seed Yield in Relation to Harvest MethodsCasimir A. Jaworski and Sharad C. Phatak
Evaluation of Planting Date for Winter Canola Production in
IndianaEllsworth P. Christmas
Potential of Canola as a Dryland Crop in Northeastern
ColoradoDavid C. Nielsen
Canola Production in VirginiaDavid E. Starner, Harbans L.
Bhardwaj, Anwar A. Hamama, and Muddappa Rangappa
High Performance 4-Cycle Lubricants From CanolaDuane L.
Johnson
Canola-based Motor OilsDuane L. Johnson, Blaine Rhodes, and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Brassica_rapeseed_nex.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:49:24 PM]
Rapeseed/Canola
Robert Allen
Evaluation of Salinity Tolerance of Canola GerminationNaveen Puppala, James L. Fowler,
Linnette Poindexter, and Harbans L. Bhardwaj
Canola Oil Yield and Quality as Affected by Production Practices in VirginiaDavid E. Starner,
Anwar A. Hamama, and Harbans L. Bhardwaj
Thomas P. Schuman
Determining Amaranth and Canola Suitability in Missouri Through Geographic Information
Systems AnalysisRobert L. Myers
Canola: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Canola: A Potential New Crop for Indiana"Indiana canola crop resulted in the harvest of
approximately 7,000 acres in early summer of 1991."
The 1990-91 Indiana Canola Update: Elsworth Christmas
The 1991-92 Indiana Canola Update:"Late fall and winter weather conditions in Indiana proved to
be disastrous for fall seeded crops, including alfalfa, canola, and wheat."
Potential of Winter and Spring Rapeseed Cultivars for Oilseed Production in the Southeastern
United StatesP.L. Raymer, D.G. Bullock, and D.L. Thomas
Rapeseed, a New Oilseed Crop for USAMatti Sovero
Selecting Winter Hardy Oilseed Rape for the Great PlainsC.L. Rife and J.P. Salgado
Rapeseed Performance in West Tennessee (Abstract)H.A. Fribourg, C.R. Graves, G.N. Rhodes,
Jr., J.E. Bradley, and E.C. Bernard Gorczanski
High Glucosinolate Rapeseed Meal as a Supplemental Protein Source in Finishing Cattle Diets
(Abstract)Jean Heidker and C.F. Klopfenstein
Influence of Irrigation Timing and Nitrogen on Growth, Yield, and Quality of Rape
Rapeseed/Canola
(Abstract)Joseph G. Lauer
Engineering New Oilseed Crops from RapeseedH. Maelor Davies
Rapeseed Meal as a Natural PesticideHarbans L. Bhardwaj, Anwar A. Hamama, D. Morris
Porter, and Paul F. Reese, Jr.
Bioassembly of Storage Lipids in Oilseed CropsDavid C. Taylor, Ljerka Kunst, and Samuel L.
MacKenzie
Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed
crops of the United States..
Rapeseed Oil
Napobrassica group
Pabularia group
And outside links to more canola info:
Canola Council of Canada
The Facts About Canola by Canbra Foods Ltd.
Quality of Western Canadian Canola 1996 - Canadian Grain Comission
Canola Disease Index from Texas A & M.
Canola diseases (North Dakota)
Canola / Rape as Covercrops
Physalis peruviana
Physalis peruviana L.
Solanaceae
Goldenberry, Cape Gooseberry, Golden Husk,
Groundcherry, Peruvian Cherry, Peruvian groundcherry,
Strawberry Tomato, Winter Cherry
Cape GooseberryJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
GoldenberryR. McCain, Potential fruits for cool subtropical areas
Food and feed crops of the United StatesMagness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971
Outside links:
Goldenberry can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Physalis_peruviana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:24 PM]
Dimorphotheca pluvialis: A New Source of Hydroxy Fatty Acid

Hof, L. 1996. Dimorphotheca pluvialis: A new source of hydroxy fatty acid. p. 372-377. In: J.
Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.
Dimorphotheca pluvialis: A New

Source of Hydroxy Fatty Acid
Lysbeth Hof
1. EXPERIMENTAL
1. Synchronization Between Plants
2. Synchronization Within Plants
3. Oil Content
4. Pollen Transfer
2. CONCLUSIONS
3. REFERENCES
4. Table 1
5. Fig. 1
6. Fig. 2
7. Fig. 3
In the search for alternative crops for Dutch agriculture, Dimorphotheca pluvialis L. (Mnch),
Asteraceae, is being considered as a potential new crop with industrial applications. Its seeds
contain oil with 60% to 65% dimorphecolic acid (d9-hydroxy,t10,t12-octadecadienoic acid): a
hydroxy fatty acid with two conjugated double bonds. This feature provides dimorphecolic acid
with a unique functionality and properties that are totally different from other known hydroxy fatty
acids as ricinoleic and lesquerolic acid. The chemical structure suggests that the molecule should
be very reactive, and hence suitable for a wide range of industrial products such as surface
coatings, surfactants, plastic foams, or as additive in plastics (Knowles et al. 1965; Muuse et al.
1992). New applications and markets need to be developed, possibly leading to new products with
a high added value.
Dimorphotheca pluvialis is a herbaceous annual native to South West Africa (Norlindh 1977). As
is common in the Asteraceae, the capitulum (flower head) bears two types of florets. The species
Dimorphotheca is characterized by hermaphrodite disc florets and female-fertile (male-sterile) ray
florets. Both types of florets produce distinctly different types of seeds (achenes). Seeds produced
by ray florets are small, angular, while those of the disc florets are flattened and have winged
margins (Barclay and Earle 1965). The ray florets have one large white petal, which is often
colored purple at the base, giving the appearance of a "ring" in the inflorescence.
The species is well adapted to the maritime climate of Northern and Western Europe, and fits in a
rotation system with annual crops. Although it is known as a garden ornamental, Dimorphotheca is
considered an undomesticated species showing many primitive characteristics. Populations
collected from the natural habitat in general have a long, unsynchronized flowering period and
show poor seed retention. These factors together account for severe yield losses prior to and during
harvest. Realized yields at trial fields range 500-1500 kg/ha, with potential yields of at least
2000-2500 kg/ha. As it is sensitive to frost, in the Netherlands, Dimorphotheca is grown as a
summer annual. It is sown in April, flowers in July and can be harvested in August (van Dijk et al.
1993). The average oil content of collected populations is 21%, which is too low for mechanical
expelling. At present, oil recovery should be done by solvent extraction or preferably with
supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (Muuse et al. 1992).
Dimorphotheca was first introduced in the Netherlands by the Dutch Gene Bank (CGN) in 1986,
and since 1990 has been studied extensively in the framework of three large multidisciplinary
projects (the Dutch National Oilseeds Program, and the EC-projects VOICI and VOSFA). In these
projects expertise from the whole production chain was brought together including germplasm
collection, evaluation, cultivation, breeding, crop physiology, pathology, harvest techniques, oil
recovery, processing of the oil, application, and market research (van Soest and Mulder 1993).
At the Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction Research (CPRO-DLO), research in
Dimorphotheca has been focusing on improvement of synchronization of flowering and seed
ripening, oil content, and plant architecture. Furthermore, research is carried out to study
pollination and mating system.
EXPERIMENTAL
In order to determine optimal selection strategies for synchronization of flowering and oil content,
variation and heritability of these characters were estimated. Flowering synchronization was
considered particularly important. Large differences in time of flowering make it difficult to detect
slight differences in seed retention, hence making selection for this character at present almost
impossible. More synchronized populations are expected to have a shorter flowering and seed
ripening period, facilitating the determination of the optimal harvest date. A too early harvest
causes reduction of seed yield because of a large proportion of immature seeds. If harvest is
carried out too late, yield is severely reduced because of seed losses due to shattering.
For synchronization of flowering two distinct characteristics were distinguished:
1. The synchronization between plants, which was defined as the period of time between
sowing and the first flower to open. A population flowers synchronously if all plants start
flowering at the same time.
2. The synchronization within plants, which was defined as the period of time in which
individual plants produced 90% of their total number of flowers. A plant flowers
synchronously if it produces its flowers in a relatively short period of time.
Both the synchronization between plants of a population, as well as the synchronization within
plants of that population are considered to have a large effect on the synchronization of flowering
of a population.
To establish the variation for synchronization of flowering (both between and within plants) and
oil content, two experiments were carried out on loam soil at location Lelystad in the Netherlands.
Heritabilities were estimated by means of parent-offspring regression in the following year.
Synchronization Between Plants

In 1992, 350 plants of population 883168 were sown at a wide density (50 x 50 cm), allowing
scoring and harvesting of individual plants. Time of flowering was scored every Monday and
Thursday, and for further analyses expressed as the number of days from sowing until first open
flower. The mean time of flowering was 78 days after sowing (range: 68-90 days). Although most
plants started to flower after 75 to 80 days, some started to flower one week earlier, others as much
as three weeks later. This means there was a difference of four weeks between the first and last
plant to open its first flower.
To estimate the heritability of this character in this population, 40 plants were selected and their
seeds collected. D. pluvialis is considered a predominantly outcrossing species, and the progenies
of the selected plants are considered to be half-sib families. In 1993, a trial field was sown with 24
(three rows of eight) plants of each of the 40 families, and time of flowering was scored.
The relationship between selected plants and the mean of their progenies for time of flowering is
presented in Fig. 1. It is clear that selected plants and their corresponding families showed
considerable resemblance, this despite difference in weather conditions in 1992 and 1993.
Narrow sense heritability (h 2n) is described as the ratio between genotypic and phenotypic effects.
High heritabilities indicate that the genetic component in the observed phenotype is relatively
important to the environmental component. This means that high heritabilities for a character
usually result in a quick response to selection. With low heritabilities the response to selection is
not necessarily lower, but more time consuming. From the linear regression of offspring (Y) on
female parents (X), expressed as Y = a + bX, the (narrow sense) heritability can be estimated by h
2 = 2b (Falconer 1989). The estimated heritability for time of flowering in this experiment was
n
0.94, which is very high.
Synchronization Within Plants

For estimation of duration of flowering of individual plants a similar experimental lay out was
used. In 1992, a field was sown with 220 plants of an unselected population (879585). Plant
spacing was approx. 100 x 100 cm. Twice a week the number of open flowers per plant (NOF) was
scored. At the end of the growing season plants were removed from the field and the total number
of heads per plant (TNH) was counted. Knowing the total number of heads per plant, a correction
could be made for the error caused by counting open flowers twice on two consecutive counting
dates. In general, flowers stay open about 4 to 6 days. For each plant a correction term (CT) was
estimated, being the ratio between the actual total number of heads (TNH) and the mathematical
sum of counted open flowers on the counting dates (MNF). This ratio is 1 if no flowers are
counted twice. In this experiment, in most plants the ratio was estimated between 1.0 and 2.0,
meaning that 0% to 100% of the flowers were indeed counted twice on two consecutive counting
dates. The number of newly opened flowers per counting date (NNOF) was estimated by the
product of the number of counted open flowers (NOF) and the estimated correction term (CT):
NNOF = NOF x CT, where CT is TNH/MNF.
The cumulative numbers of open flowers per plant plotted against time fitted a logistic curve (Y =
c/[1 + e-b(X - m)]). In this curve, c represents the upper asymptote (being the total number of heads,
TNH), b the "slope parameter," and m the inflexion point of the curve, which is also the date at
which the maximum number of open flowers was counted: peak bloom. The flowering of each
individual plant was characterized by these three parameters. In this experiment this model on
average accounted for 99.6% of the observed variation, indicating that it described the flowering of
individual plants well.
Using this model, the period in which the plants produced 90% of their total number of flowers
(the duration of flowering) could be calculated. The 90% interval, and not 100%, was chosen
because slight deviations from the model occurred at beginning and end of flowering, accounting
for relatively large aberrations in estimates of duration of flowering when using the 100% interval.
Duration of flowering ranged from 11 to 63 days, with a mean of 27 days. Since plants did not
start flowering at the same time, environmental factors may have had a considerable effect.
Therefore, also for this character heritability was estimated by means of parent-offspring
regression.
From the population grown in 1992, 20 plants were selected showing much variation for duration
of flowering. In 1993, ten plants per progeny were sown in a complete randomized block design,
and flower counts were made in the same way as before. The explained variation for the fit of the
logistic model on the data was 99.8%.
The relationship between female parents and the mean of their corresponding families is shown in
Fig. 2. The calculated regression line explained only 13% of the variation. This means that it
leaves 87% of the variation still to be accounted for, and seems drawn rather arbitrarily through a
cloud of data points. The estimated heritability (based on the slope of this regression line) of 0.27
can therefore be regarded as unreliable.
Oil Content
The same trial field as described in the first experiment was used to assess the variation and
heritability for oil content. Of all plants seeds were harvested and separated in winged and
unwinged seeds. Oil content of the winged seeds was measured with Near InfraRed Spectroscopy
(NIRS) equipment (InfraAlyzer 500, Bran+Lbbe). Oil content of individual plants ranged from
15% to 29%, with a mean of 21.5%. From this experiment 40 plants were selected representing
almost the whole range. Progenies were tested in 1993 (same experimental lay out as in time of
flowering experiment). Seeds were collected and oil content was measured with NIRS. The
relationship between the female parents and the mean of the corresponding offspring is presented
in Fig. 3. The estimated heritability was 0.36 but the regression line explained only 17% of the
observed variation.
Pollen Transfer
Dimorphotheca pluvialis is considered a predominantly outcrossing species, however little is
known on the mode of pollen transfer. The influence of insects on seed set was investigated in a
complete randomized block design with three replications, three populations, and three treatments.
The treatments consisted of: (1) plots in open air (free insect visitation), (2) plots with cages open
at the North side (free insect visitation + shading effect of cage), and (3) plots with cages (no
insects, shading effect). The second treatment was included as a control, to determine possible
effects of the shading caused by the cages on growth and development of the crop. Plot size was 3
x 3 m. The number of open flowers was counted weekly on two subplots of 0.25 m2. Seed set was
determined by picking 20 flowers randomly, and counting the number of winged and unwinged
seeds.
Analyses of variance revealed no difference between treatments 1 and 2 for crop development,
seed set and thousand seed weight. Apparently the light shading did not effect these characters
(Table 1). Population 879585 flowered slightly earlier than the other two. No population x
treatment interaction was found for any of these characters.
Seed yield of plots with open cages was lower than yield of open fields. This could not be
explained by a lower seed set, lower number of flowers, or lower thousand seed weight. In the
harvest bags of this treatment moths were found, which might have caused severe damage.
Exclusion of insects led to a prolonged flowering of the crop, and a severely reduced seed set and
yield. Thousand seed weight was higher.
CONCLUSIONS
For time of flowering, duration of flowering, and oil content of seeds, sufficient variation was
found to enable improvement by means of selection. Heritability for time of flowering appears to
be high, indicating that selection for this character will show quick response. For duration of
flowering and oil content of the seeds, heritability estimates by means of parent-offspring
regression were questionable, but most likely these heritabilities are not very high. In this case the
result of selection does not necessarily have to be less, but is more time consuming. The
environmental component of the observed phenotype is relatively large, and therefore may conceal
the genotypic component.
For these experiments it was assumed that random mating and complete cross pollination has
taken place. Furthermore, interaction effects (epistasis, genotype-year, year-location, and
genotype-location) were considered negligible. It is likely that some of these assumptions were
incorrect, and may have affected the outcome. Year and location effects can only be studied when
experiments are carried out at several locations in several years. The presented results on
heritability estimates are therefore preliminary, but nevertheless give an indication of what can be
expected from selection.
Presence of insects during flowering is essential for a good seed set. Exclusion of insects may
result in yield losses up to 75%.
Dimorphotheca pluvialis is as yet not ready for commercialization. Several agronomic constraints
are recognized, but most can be overcome given time. Other problems still lay in the area of oil
recovery and purification. However, the unique structure of dimorphecolic acid justifies further
studies.
REFERENCES
Barclay, A.S. and F.R. Earle. 1965. The search for new industrial crops V. The South
African Calendulae (Compositae) as a source of new oil seeds. Econ. Bot. 19:33-43.
Dijk, N van, H.P. de Bie, and H. Breemhaar. 1993. Voorlopige teelthandleiding nieuwe
olieproducerende gewassen. (in Dutch), Int. Report PAGV-DAT Lelystad, CPRO-DLO
Wageningen and IMAG-DLO Wageningen.
Falconer, D.S. 1989. Introduction to quantitative genetics. 3rd ed. Longman, London.
Knowles, R.E., L.A. Goldblatt, G.O. Kohler, S.J. Toy, and J.R. Haun. 1965. Oil seed
composition of two species of Dimorphotheca grown at five locations in the United States.
Econ. Bot. 19:262-266.
Muuse, B.G., F.P. Cuperus, and J.T.P. Derksen. 1992. Composition and physical properties
of oils from new oilseed crops. Ind. Crops Prod. 1:57-65.
Norlindh, T. 1977. Calendulae--systematic review. p. 961-987. In: Heywood, V.H., J.B.
Harborne, and B.L. Turner (eds.), Biology and chemistry of the compositae.
Soest, L.J.M. van and F. Mulder. 1993. Potential new oilseed crops for industrial use. Lipid
Tech. 5:60-65.
Table 1. Effect of exclusion of insects during flowering on crop development and yield
characteristics of Dimorphotheca pluvialis.
No. of open flowers/
0.25 m2
Variable
June July July

30
7
14
Thousand seed
weight
Seed
No.
winged
July July
No. winged unwinged
yield unwinged
seeds
21 28
seeds/flower seeds (g)
2
(g)
(g/m ) seeds/flower
Population
879127
1.2 28.3 140.9 126.0 22.8 70.7
879731
0.7 29.6 134.6 107.0 26.1 85.7
879585
2.2 48.3 195.3 74.1 30.9 79.8
10.7
10.3
11.1
29.0
30.2
28.4
3.39
3.50
3.48
2.26
2.28
2.25
Sign.z
NS
NS
NS
NS
14.4
15.4
2.4
41.3
41.2
5.1
2.90
3.03
4.46
2.14
2.20
2.46
**
*** ***
***
Cage treatmenty
1
1.4 40.6 148.9 82.9 7.5 125.9
2
0.9 33.8 142.1 71.6 4.0 83.0
3
1.7 31.9 179.7 152.6 68.4 27.4
Sign.z
NS NS
***
***
***
***
***
***
zNS
= effect not statistically significant, ***significant 0.1%, ** at 1%, * at 5%.

1 = open plots (insects yes, shading no), 2 = partly opened cages (insects yes,
shading yes), 3 = closed cages (insects no, shading yes).
xDistribution of residuals not Normal, ANOVA performed on -transformed data.
yTreatments:
Fig. 1. Parent-offspring relationship for

beginning of flowering in a population of
Dimorphotheca pluvialis (days after
sowing).
Fig. 2. Parent-offspring relationship for

duration of flowering in a population of
Dimorphotheca pluvialis (days).
Fig. 3. Parent-offspring relationship for oil

content in a population of Dimorphotheca
pluvialis (% oil in the seed).
Capparis spinosa
Capparis spinosa L.
Capparidaceae, or Capparaceae
Caper, Cappero, Alcaperro, Caper Berry, Caper
Bud, Caperbush, Caper Fruit, Kpari, Smooth Caper, Spiny
Caper, Tapra
Caper Fact Sheet from Ben Alkire.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Capparis_spinosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:28 PM]
Euphorbia lathyris
Euphorbia lathyris L.
Euphorbiaceae
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Euphorbia_lathyris_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:28 PM]
Capsicum annuum
Capsicum annuum L.
Solanaceae
Capsicum (pepper), Chile (pepper), Chili (pepper),
Chilli(es), Japanese mustard (Korean), Pepper, Pepper of Calicut
(archaic), Pimiento, Red pepper
Peppers: History and Exploitation of a Serendipitous New Crop DiscoveryW. Hardy Eshbaugh
Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient CropPaul W. Bosland
Peppers production links
Peppers (Aij picante)
Peppers, Bell Type (Mango)
Peppers, Chili
Peppers, Pimiento
Peppers, Small Fruited (Paprika, Tabasco, Cayenne, Chili, Red)
Outside links:
The Chile Pepper Institute
Chile Varieties database
Peppers can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
CapsicumDescriptors for CapsicumLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Capsicum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:28 PM]

Fabaceae
Siberian peashrub
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
"During World War II, the Siberian peasants reportedly carried their chicken flocks through the
winter feeding the seed of one small woody pland, Caragana arborescens." (Snell, 1983). Some
ethnic groups have used young pods for vegetables. Seeds serve as a valuable wild life food. Bark
provides a fiber. Leaves yield an azure dye. Because of its cold and drought tolerance, it is widely
planted in the US and Canada for windbreaks. In the northern Great Plains, it is also used for
hedges and outdoor screening. Because of its nitrogen-fixing capacity, it is valued as a
soil-improving plant. In the Arctic Circle it is valued as a supplementary fodder for reindeer herds.
It is valuable in these colder climates, but in warmer climates like New England as the eastern and
western coastal areas of the US, better ornamentals are available. According to Snell (1983),
Caranga "serves well as a windbreak, ground cover, soil builder, poultry cover, cattle forage,
vegetable for human use, fiber plant, bee plant, dye plant, and ornamental landscape specimen."
Folk Medicine
According to the Dictionary of Chinese Traditional Medicine (Kiangsu, 1977), the whole plant,
known as ning tiao, is used for cancer of the breast, and the orifice to the womb, and for
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Caragana_arborescens.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:29 PM]
dysmenorrhea and other gynecological problems.
Chemistry
According to USDA analyses, the ash content of the seed runs 3.4-3.6, protein 35.5-36.4%, oil
content 13.2-13.6%. Contains a lectin or phytohemagglutinin.
Description
Deciduous shrub or small tree 6-8 m tall; stipules becoming spiny, leaves alternate, paripinnate,
5-9 cm long, with 3-6 pairs of obovate to elliptic-oblong leaflets, to 2.5 cm long. Flowers
yellowish, pea-shaped, one to four in each cluster, the calyx teeth short, as broad as long. Fruit
stalked to 5 cm long, with 6 reddish-brown, oblong to spherical seeds, 2.5-4 0 mm in diam. (Seeds
ca 40,000-42,000/kg).
Germplasm
Reported from the Eurosiberian Center of Diversity, Siberian peashrub is reported to tolerate
alkalinity, drought, cold, poor soil, and wind. Some named variations are forma xorbergii, var.
crasseaculeata, var. nana, and var. pendula, the latter with handsome drooping branches. (2n =
16)
Distribution
Native to Siberia and Manchuria. Extends over about 160 million ha in Siberia 77deg.-120deg. E,
48deg.-60deg. N. In the US its growth is stunted south of Nebraska.
Ecology
Apparently ranges from Cold Temperate Steppe to Moist through Boreal Moist to Wet Forest Life
Zones, Siberian peashrub tolerates annual precipitation of 4 to 8 dm, annual temperature of 2 to
7C reaching Zone 2 (Hardiness Zone) of the United States and Canada.
Cultivation
According to Hortus III (1976), pea trees grown for their flowers should be planted in.sunny
locations in sandy soil. Seeds are generally sown outdoors in autumn, or in spring after soaking the
seed in warm water. Softwood cuttings can be set in early June. Also propagated by root cuttings,
layering, or grafting. Certain pesticides, captain, thiram, and mercuric chlorate can increase
germination, possibly by inhibiting disease. No significant differences in characteristics of
1-year-old seedlings were noted following Rhizobia inoculation of seeds prior to field sowing.
However, one source recommended inoculation for best results. Many nurserymen recommend
planting 75-150 seeds per linear meter. A Russian report recommended planting 2.5 cm deep. In
one North Dakota nursery, Siberian peashrub is seeded during the last week in July or the first
week in August. A cover crop of oats is seeded between the tree rows early enough to give winter
protection. Shrubs are large enough to dig the following fall (Ag Handbook 450).
Harvesting
In the US, the optimum time for collecting seed is less than two weeks, usually in July or August.
Since seeds are ready to collect as soon as the fruit ripens, the pods should be gathered by hand as
soon as they open. For vegetable trials, greener pods should of course be harvested.

Shrubs take ca 3-5 years to reach commercial bearing age (Ag Handbook 450). Good crops occur
nearly every year.
Energy
With no data available, I speculate that this species could produce 4-10 MT/DM/yr fixing nitrogen
in the process. Nitrogen-fixing rhizobia were reported in the species before 1900. There is
considerable variation in the 14 strains now reported, all belonging to the slow-growing
cowpea-soybean-lupine type rhizobia. Host infective patterns were quite uniform but some
nonreciprocal cross-inoculation was observed. Caragana rhizobia reisolated from nodules they
formed on Trifolium pratense retained the ability to nodulate Caragana. Throughout the life of a
Caragana nodule, the volume of tissue functionally active in N-fixation remains more or less
constant. As the nodule becomes larger, the ratio of the N-fixing volume to total nodule mass
becomes smaller. On a one-month-old nodule, the ratio of functional bacteroidal tissue to total
nodule mass is about 1:1, in 2-month-olds, 1:2; in 6-month-olds 1:5. Of particular interest is the
coexistence of juvenile and senescent tissue in close proximity for long periods. Growth
equilibrium, development, and function of the nodule, do not appear unbalanced during its
existence (Allen and Allen, 1981).
Biotic Factors
Agriculture Handbook 165 lists: Agrobacterium rhizogenes (hairy root), Ascochyta sp. (leaf
blight), Botrytis cinerea (pod blight), Cucurbitaria anae (on branches), Hendersonia
septem-septata (on twigs), Pellicularia filamentosa (root rot of seedlings), Phomopsis caraganae
and Phomopsis rudis (on branches), Phyllosticta gallarum (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum
(root rot), Phytophthora cactorum (wilt of seedlings), Rhizoctonia solani (damping-off), Septoria
sp. (leaf blight), and Sphaeropsis sp. (on branches). Nursery stock may need pesticides to prevent
damage by spiders, blister beetles, and other leaf-eating insects. Grasshoppers are especially
destructive, sometimes completely defoliating the plants. Plants have also been extensively
damaged by browsing deer, but mammal repellent has been effective (Ag Handbook 450).
References
Washington.
812 p.
Hortus Third. 1976. A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and
Canada. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Kiangsu - Institute of Modern Medicine. 1977. Encyclopedia of Chinese drugs. 2 vols.
Shanghai.
Snell, T. 1983. Caragana: the pea shrubs. p. 41-44. In: The International Permaculture Seed
Yearbook 1983. Orange, MA.
Last update July 3, 1996
Carum carvi
Carum carvi L.
Caraway, Jintan, Karawya, Kmmel
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carum_carvi_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:30 PM]
Cardoon
Cardoon
Cardoni
Compositae Cynara cardunculus L.
Cardoon is closely related to globe artichoke. Growth is up to 6 feet, with large pinnate, prickly
leaves. In cultivation, plants are grown from seed. When leaves are near fully grown they are tied
together near the top, and plants are banked with straw and soil - or other material - to blanch the
leaf stalks or petioles. These are edible parts, but are inedible unless blanched. Cardoon appears
not to be grown commercially in the U.S. In exposure of edible parts during growth, the plant is
comparable to celery.
Season, seeding to harvest: 4 to 5 months.
Production in U.S.: None commercial.
Use: Fresh, as pot herb.
Part of plant consumed: Petioles and main ribs.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cardoon.html [5/16/2004 3:49:30 PM]
Carica papaya
Index| Search| Home
Carica papaya L.
Caricaceae
Green papaya, Melon fruit, Melon pawpaw,
Papaya, Papaw, Paw-paw, Solo papaya
We have Papaya information from several sources:
PapayaJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Papaya: A Potential Annual Crop Under Middle Georgia ConditionsU.L. Yadava, Janice A.
Burris, and D. McCrary
Food and feed crops of the United States. Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
Link to NewCROP info on Babaco, Carica pentagona
Outside Papaya links:
Highland Papayas can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Carica pubescens
Carica stipulata
Carica monoica
Carica goudotiana
California Rare Fruit Growers "Papaya Fruit Facts"
Commodity Sheet FVSU-002 Papaya from Fort Valley State University
Papayafrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Papaya Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carica_papaya_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:31 PM]
Carica pubescens
Carica pubescens L.
Caricaceae
Mountain Papaya, Mountain Papaw,
Chamburo
Outside Papaya links:
Highland Papayas can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carica_pubescens_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:32 PM]
Carissa macrocarpa
Carissa macrocarpa A. DC.

Apocynaceae
Carissa, Natal plum
CarissaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carissa_macrocarpa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:32 PM]
Ceratonia siliqua
Ceratonia siliqua L.
Leguminosae
Carob, Algarroba, Locust, Locust Bean,
Saint-John's-bread
CarobJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside links
Carob treeby I. Battle, J. Tous from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ceratonia_siliqua_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:33 PM]
Carolina-Jessamine
Carolina-Jessamine
Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait. f.
Other common names.Yellow jasmine or jessamine, Carolina wild
woodbine, evening trumpetflower.
Habitat and range.Carolina jessamine is a plant native to the
South, found along banks of streams, in woods' lowlands, and thickets,
generally near the coast, from the eastern part of Virginia to Florida
and Texas and south to Mexico.
Description.This highly ornamental climbing or trailing plant
grows abundantly in the woods of the Southern States, its slender
stems are festooned over trees and fences, and its presence is made
known by the delightful perfume exhaled by its flowers. The smooth,
shining stems of this vine sometimes reach a length of 20 feet. The
leaves, which are from 1 1/2 to 3 inches long, generally remain on the
vine during the winter. The bright-yellow funnel-shaped flowers,
which appear from January to April, are very fragrant but poisonous. Figure
33.Carolina-jessamine
The rootstock, attaining a length of 15 feet or more, runs near the
(Gelsemium sempervirens)
surface of the around. It is branched and here and there produces
fibrous rootless. When fresh it is very yellow and has a peculiar odor and bitter taste.
Part used.The rootstock, collected when the plant has come into flower, and cut into pieces
from 1 to 6 inches long.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/jessamine.html [5/16/2004 3:49:34 PM]
Carolina-Vanilla
Carolina-Vanilla
Trilisa odoratissima (Walt.) Cass.
Synonym.Liatris odoratissima Michx.
Other common names.Deertongue, vanilla leaf, vanilla plant,
dog's-tongue, houndstongue.
Habitat and range.Carolina-vanilla is found in dry or wet pine
barrens from southeastern Virginia to North Carolina, Florida, and
Louisiana.
Description.This is a stout erect herb 2 to 3 feet high with smooth,
thick, entire leaves 4 to 10 inches long and 1 to 1% inches wide. In
August to September the small purple flowers are borne, 5 to 10 in a
head, in branched, rather flat-topped clusters. The leaves, especially
when bruised, have a characteristic odor of vanilla.
Part used.This plant, while of minor importance as a drug plant, is Figure 34.Carolina-vanilla
included here because large quantities of the leaves are used in the
(Trilisa odoratissima)
flavoring of tobacco.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/vanilla.html [5/16/2004 3:49:35 PM]
Juglans regia
Index| Search| Home
Juglans regia L.
Juglandaceae
English walnut, Carpathian or Persian
walnut
Outside links:
Walnuts, Juglans spp. University of Georgia
Walnut Crop Information University of California Davis
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Juglans_regia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:36 PM]
Daucus carota
Daucus carota L.
Apiaceae, or Umbelliferae
Cultivated carrot, Queen-Anne's lace
(Wild)
Carrots production links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Daucus_carota_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:36 PM]
Carthamus tinctorius
Carthamus tinctorius L.
Asteraceae
Safflower, False saffron
Safflower:Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Safflower Management and Adaptation for the High PlainsDavid D. Baltensperger, Glen
Frickel, Drew Lyon, Jim Krall, and Tom Nightingale
Evaluation of Safflower Germplasm for Ornamental UseVicki L. Bradley, Robert L. Guenthner,
Richard C. Johnson, and Richard M. Hannan
Outside links to safflower information:
Safflower Production in Californiaby Steven Kaffka and Thomas Kearney, UC Davis.
Safflowerby Li Dajue, Hans-Henning MundelLink to the publication on the International
Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Carthamus_tinctorius_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:36 PM]
Hickory nuts
Hickory nuts
Juglandaceae: Carya sp.
Pignut hickory: C. glabro (Mill.) Sweet
Small pignut (False shagbark): C. ovalis (Wangh.) Sarg.
Shellbark (Shagbark hickory): C. laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud.
Mockernut (Bigbud hickory): C. tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt.
Nutmeg hickory: C. myristicaeformis (Michx. f.) Nutt.
The above species are all native to parts of the U.S. and produce nuts with edible kernels. They are
not grown commercially for the nuts, but some quantities are harvested from native or ornamental
trees. The trees become large, up to 100 feet or more, with compound, pinnate leaves. Fruits are
generally near globose, glabrous, and somewhat ridged, and 1 to 1.5 inches long. The nut is
encased in a fleshy husk which becomes fibrous and opens as the nuts mature. The shells are hard
and woody. The kernels do not separate from the shells readily. Limited quantities either in shell
or as kernels are marketed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Hickory_nuts.html [5/16/2004 3:49:37 PM]
Pecan
Pecan
Juglandaceae Carya illinoinensis (Wangh.) K. Koch
The pecan is a large tree, up to 100 feet in height, and with trunk diameter up
to 6 feet. It is native in the lower Mississippi Valley and westward through Texas, and in northern
Mexico. Leaves are large and compound, with a dozen or more long-oval, near glabrous leaflets.
The fruits are generally oval, up to 2.5 inches long, and fairly smooth. The outer husk is fleshy
early, becoming fibrous and splitting open at maturity. The shells are relatively thin, hard and
woody. The kernel separates rather readily. Improved varieties are widely cultivated. In addition,
large quantities are harvested from native trees.
Production in the U.S.: About 200,000 tons, in shell.
Use: Direct eating, confections, ice cream, cookery.
Part of plant consumed: Internal kernels only.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Pecan.html [5/16/2004 3:49:37 PM]
Cascara Buckthorn
Cascara Buckthorn
Rhamnus purshiana DC.
Other common names.Cascara sagrada, chittembark, chittam
wood, sacred bark, bearberry-tree, bearwood.
Habitat and range.This native tree occurs on the sides and bottoms
of canyons from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, extending
north into British America.
Description.The cascara tree is usually from 15 to 20 feet in height.
The rather thin leaves are from 2 to 6 inches long and about 1 to 3
inches wide, somewhat hairy on the lower surface and rather
prominently veined. The small, insignificant greenish flowers are
produced in clusters and are followed by black, 3-seeded berries of a
somewhat insipid taste. The bark has a somewhat aromatic odor and
an extremely bitter taste. In the cascara district several other species of
Rhamnus occur which are not commercially important, but their
Figure 35.Cascara buckthorn
resemblance to R. purshiana may lead inexperienced persons to
(Rhamnus purshiana)
include the bark of such species in their collections.
Part used.The bark collected during the summer. The collecting season opens about the end of
May and closes before the rainy season sets in, as bark collected after exposure to wet weather is
difficult to cure properly. The strips of bark after removal from the trees are dried in such a way
that the inner surface is not exposed to the sunlight, in order to retain its yellow color. Cascara
bark must be aged at least one year before it is used. If collectors in removing the bark allow
enough to remain to prevent the tree from dying it will develop new bark, thus prolonging the
natural supply of this valuable drug which is gradually being exhausted.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/buckthorn.html [5/16/2004 3:49:38 PM]
Casimiroa edulus
Index| Search| Home
Casimiroa edulus Llave.

Rutaceae
White Sapote, casimiroa, custard apple, matasano,
Mexican apple, sapota, white zapote, zapote, zapote blanco
NewCROP has information at:
White Sapote Julia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Golden Berry, Passionfruit, and White Sapote: Potential Fruits for Cool Subtropical
AreasRichard McCain
Introduction and Domestication of Rare and Wild Fruit and Nut Trees for Desert AreasAvinoam
Nerd, James A. Aronson, and Yosef Mizrahi
Nerd
And outside links to more White Sapote info:
SAPOTE "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare Fruit
Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including botanical identification,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Casimiroa_edulis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:39 PM]
Manihot esculenta
Manihot esculenta Crantz

Euphorbiaceae
Cassava, Mandioc, Mandioca, Manihot, Manioc,
Tapioca, Yuca
FactSHEETcontributed by: Stephen K. O'Hair
Tropical Root and Tuber CropsStephen K. O'Hair
Outside Links
CassavaFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Cassava
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Manihot_esculenta_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:39 PM]
Cassia
Cassia
Cassia buds
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cassia Blume
The tree is a tropical evergreen, reaching up to 50 feet, with thick, oblong leaves 3 to 6 inches
long. The trees are hardy in the Gulf States in the U.S., but commercial cassia and cassia buds are
not produced. The cassia of commerce, quite similar to cinnamon, is the ground, dried bark of the
tree; while cassia buds are the dried, immature fruits harvested when about one-fourth their full
size. They resemble cloves, but are smaller. The buds are used as a spice, mainly in confections,
while the powdered bark is used in cookery, often as a substitute for cinnamon, which is more
expensive.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cassia.html [5/16/2004 3:49:40 PM]
Cassia fistula
Cassia fistula L.
Fabaceae
Purging cassia, Indian laburnum, Golden-shower
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Widely planted as a handsome ornamental tree, the plant is being considered as a firewood source
in Mexico. The reddish wood, hard and heavy (spec. grav. 0.9), strong and durable, is suited for
cabinetwork, farm implements, inlay work, posts, wheels, mortars, etc. The bark has been
employed in tanning, often in conjunction with avaram. The drug "cassia fistula", a mild laxative,
is obtained from the sweetish pulp around the seed.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (1967-1971), the plants are used in folk remedies for tumors of the
abdomen, glands, liver, stomach, and throat, cancer, carcinomata, and impostumes of the uterus.
Reported to be aperient, astringent, laxative, purgative, and vermifuge, Indian laburnum is a folk
remedy for burns, cancer, constipation, convulsions, delirium, diarrhea, dysuria, epilepsy, gravel,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cassia_fistula.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:49:40 PM]
Cassia fistula
hematuria, pimples, and glandular tumors (Duke and Wain, 1981). Ayurvedic medicine recognizes
the seed as antibilious, aperitif, carminative, and laxative, the root for adenopathy, burning
sensations, leprosy, skin diseases, syphilis, and tubercular glands, the leaves for erysipelas,
malaria, rheumatism, and ulcers, the buds for biliousness, constipation, fever, leprosy, and skin
disease, the fruit for abdominal pain, constipation, fever, heart disease, and leprosy. Yunani use the
leaves for inflammation, the flowers for a purgative, the fruit as antiinflammatory, antipyretic,
abortifacient, demulcent, purgative, refrigerant, good for chest complaints, eye ailments, flu, heart
and liver ailments, and rheumatism, though suspected of inducing asthma. Seeds are considered
emetic. Konkanese use the juice to alleviate ringworm and blisters caused by the marking nut, a
relative of poison ivy. Leaf poultices are applied to the chilblains so common in the upper Sind;
also used in facial massage for brain afflictions, and applied externally for paralysis and
rheumatism, also for gout. Rhodesians use the pulp for anthrax, blood poisoning, blackwater fever,
dysentery, and malaria. Gold Coast natives use the pulp from around the seed as a "safe and useful
purgative" (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). Throughout the Far East, the uncooked pulp of the pods is a
popular remedy for constipation, thought to be good for the kidneys "as those who use it much
remain free of kidney stones" [Heyne as cited in Perry (1980)]. A decoction of the root bark is
recommended for cleansing wounds. In the West Indies, the pulp and/or leaves are poulticed onto
inflamed viscera, e.g. the liver. The bark and leaves are used for skin diseases: flowers used for
fever, root as a diuretic, febrifuge; for gout and rheumatism.
Chemistry
According to Roskoski et al (1980), studying Mexican material, the seeds contain 5.31% humidity,
4.55% ash, 24.00% crude protein, 4.43% crude fat, 6.68% crude fiber, and 50.36% carbohydrates
with a 81.17% in vitro digestibility. The foliage contains 11.21% humidity, 6.39% ash, 15.88%
crude protein, 6.65% crude fat, 20.01% crude fiber, 39.86% carbohydrates with a 88.43% in vitro
digestibility. In comparison, the FAO (Gohl, 1981) reports the leaves to contain, on a zero
moisture basis, 17.6 g protein, 7.8% g fat, 66.8 g total carbohydrate, 30.2 g fiber, 7.8 g ash, 3,270
mg Ca, and 330 mg P per 100 g. Flowers contain ceryl alcohol, kaempferol, rhein, and a
bianthroquinone glycoside, which on hydrolysis, yields fistulin and rhamnose. Leaves contain
rhein, rheinglucoside, and sennosides A and B. The rootbark contains tannin, phlobaphenes, and
oxyanthraquinone substances, which probably consist of emodin and chrysophanic acid; also
contains (bark and heartwood) fistuacacidin, barbaloin, and rhein. Stembark contains lupeol,
beta-sitosterol, and hexacosanol.
Description
Deciduous tree 10 m tall, the bole to 5 m, to 1 m DBH. Leaves alternate, pinnate, 30-40 cm long,
with 4-8 pairs of ovate leaflets, 7.5-15 cm long, 2-5 cm broad, entire, the petiolules 2-6 mm long.
Flowers yellow, in long drooping terminal clusters (racemes); petals 5, yellow; sepals 5, green, the
individual flower stalks 3-6 cm long. Stamens 10, three with longer stalks. Fruits pendulous,
cylindrical, brown, septate, 25-50 cm long, 1.5-3 cm in diameter, with 25-100 seeds. Seeds
lenticular, light brown, lustrous.
Cassia fistula
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, Indian laburnum, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate mild drought, poor soils, and slopes. (2n = 24, 26, 28).
Distribution
Native of tropical Asia, widely cultivated and naturalized in the tropics including West Indies and
continental tropical America.
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist Forest Life Zones,
Indian laburnum is reported to tolerate precipitation of 4.8 to 27.2 dm (mean of 96 cases = 14.2),
annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5C (mean of 94 cases = 25.5), and pH of 5.5 to 8.7 (mean of 23
cases = 7.1). Hortus III (1976) assigns it to Zone 10 in the United States.
Cultivation
Although soaking the seeds in sulfuric acid results in highest germination, puncturing the seed coat
proved to be the simplest, most effective method to break dormancy in Mexican studies. Seedlings
planted in plastic bags containing 7 kg soil, survived transplant quite well. Cuttings did not take
readily in the Mexican studies. According to Nalawadi et al (1977), Cassia fistula seeds were
either soaked in concentrated H2SO4 for 5-20 minutes and then soaked in water for 24 hours, or
soaked in water alone for 24 hours. Seeds soaked in water alone failed to germinate, but soaking in
acid for 20 minutes resulted in 84% germination. Additional soaking in water did not further
improve germination.
Harvesting
Timber or firewood can be felled as needed. It is usually more practical to harvest in the dry
season, making it easier to suncure or airdry the timber or bark. Besides other farm duties tend to
be less pressing then, at least in the garden, once irrigation is accomplished.

Among the tanners of Dindigul, Coimbatore, and other places in South India, the bark, being
favored by the tanners, was collected from the forests at the rate of 200-500 MT/year in South
India alone.
Cassia fistula
Energy
The plant is being considered for fuelwood, weighing slightly over800 kg/m.
Biotic Factors
Apparently this is not one of the nodulated species of Cassia. Certain factors may militate against
nodule formation. Root hairs are uncommon; when present, they are sparse and thick walled.
Simple phenolic compounds, tannins, quinones and derivatives occur in the overlapping cortical
root cells. It is assumed that these cell layers present a physicochemical barrier because of their
role in thwarting nematode gall formation (Allen and Allen, 1981). Agriculture Handbook #165
reports the tarspot, Phyllachora canafistulae, in Maryland, near its northern limit. Very susceptible
to attack by scale insects. Browne (1968) lists: Fungi. Phelospora cassiae, Polyporus anebus,
Trametes incerta. Angiospermae, Cuscuta reflexa, Loranthus sp. (?), Viscum articulatum.
Coleoptera, Acmaeodera stictipennis, Adoretus bimarginatus, Adoretus caliginosus, Adoretus
lasiopygus, Anomala bengalensis, Anomala polita, Anomala rugosa, Anomala tristis, Apogonia
villosella, Aristobia approximator, Bruchus pisorum, Caryedon serratus Cephaloserica thomsoni,
Colasposoma semicostatum, Holotrichia problematica, Hypomeces squamosus, Idionycha excisa,
Myllocerus pubescens, Schizonycha ruficollis, Sophrops cotesi, Steraspis speciosa. Hemiptera,
Acudaleyrodes rachipora, Aonidiella orientalis, Euphalerus vittatus, Eurybachys tomentosa,
Otionotus oneratus, Oxyrhachis formidabilis, Oxyrhachis mangiferana, Oxyrhachis tarandus,
Parlatoreopsis chinensis, Pinnaspis aspidistrae, Pinnaspis buxi. Lepidoptera, Anarsia idioptila,
Archips micaceanus, Buzura suppressaria, Catopsilia crocale, Catopsilia florella, Catopsilia
pomona, Catopsilia pyranthe, Cleora acaciaria, Cryptophlebia illepida, Cusiala raptaria,
Dasychira mendosa, Diaphania conclusalis, Ericeia inangulata, Euproctis scintillans, Fodina
stola, Hypanartia blanda, H. hecabe, Hyposidra talaca, Kotochalia doubledaii, Nephopteryx
rhodobasalis, Omiodes surrectalis, Phaleri raya, Phalera sangana, Pilocrocis milvinalis, Selepa
discigera, Semiothisa emersaria, Spatularia mimosae, Stauropus alternus, Stegasta variana,
Suana concolor, Thosea cana, Thylacoptila paurosema, Trachylepidia fruticassiella, Xyleutes
persona, Zeuzera coffeae. Orthoptera, Schistocera gregaria.
References
Washington.
812 p.
Cassia fistula
Hortus Third. 1976. A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and
Canada. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
New Delhi.
Nalawadi, U.G., Bhandary, K.R., and Chandrashekar, T. 1977. Germination of Cassia
fistula (Linn.) seeds could be improved by treatment with sulphuric acid for 20 Minutes.
Current Research. Hort. Abstr. 46. 3645:1975. 4: 3: 42-43.
Roskoski, J.P., Gonzalez, G.C., Dias, M.I.F., Tejeda, E.P., and Vargas-Mena y Amezcua.
p. 135-155. In: SERI: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. SERI/CP-622-1086.
USGPO. Washington.
Last update July 3, 1996
Cassia tora
Charota or Chakod (Cassia tora L. syn.

Cassia obtusifolia L.)
contributor.
English Name: Foetid cassia, The Sickle Senna, Wild Senna

Common (Indian) names:
Hindi: Charota,Chakvad,Chakavat.
Bengali & Oriya: Chakunda
Gujrati: Kawaria
Canarese: Gandutogache
Malyalam: Chakramandrakam,takara
Marathi: Takala
Sanskrit : Chakramarda,Dadmari,Dadrughra,Taga
Tamil: Tagarai
Telugu: Chinnakasinda
Family: Leguminosae
Habitat: In India it occur as wasteland rainy season weed.
Botany: It is an annual foetid herb, 3090 cm high .
Leaves: pinnate, up to 10 cm long rachis grooved, conical gland between each of two lowest pairs
of leaflet, leaflets in 3 pairs, opposite, obovate, oblong and base oblique.
Flowers: In pair in axils of leaves, petals five, pale yellow.
Fruit: Pod, Obliquely separate.
Seed: 30-50 rhombhedral
Flowering time: After the monsoon rains (in Indian conditions)
Useful parts: Roots, Leaves, and Seeds.
Medicinal Properties and Uses: According to Ayurveda the leaves and seeds are acrid, laxative ,
antiperiodic, anthelmintic, ophthalmic, liver tonic, cardiotonic and expectorant. The leaves and
seeds are useful in leprosy, ringworm, flatulence, colic, dyspepsia, constipation, cough, bronchitis,
cardiac disorders.
Ayuerveda Formulation: Chakramadha Tailamu.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cassia.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:41 PM]
Cassia tora
Other uses: Recommended for reclamation of saline, alkaline and brackish soils. Used as green
manure crop in acidic soils. Dried seed contain protein (up to 24 percent) and is given as a protien
rich feed for livestock and birds. Roasted seeds are substituted for coffee like Tephrosia seeds.
Seeds yield tannins and dyes (yellow, blue and red). fields a gum (7.50%),which is a good agent
for suspending and binding. The aqueous extracts of whole plant and leaves produces inhibitory
allelopathic effects on common weeds specially on Parthenium hysterophorus. Recommended to
grow in Parthenium infested areas as smoother crop. Stimulatory allelopathic effects on rice and
wheat have been reported. Seeds used in preparation of sweet dishes. Leaves are popular potherb.
In organic farms of India, Cassia tora is used as natural pesticide. Fungicidal activity of
chrysophanic acid-9-anthrone from Cassia tora have been reported.
Chemical Constituents
Roots: 1,3,5-trihydroxy-6-7-dimethoxy-2-methylanthroquinone and beta-sitosterol.
Seeds: Naptho-alpha-pyrone-toralactune, chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, rubrofusarin,
cchrysophonic acid-9-anthrone.
Leaves: Emodin, tricontan-1-0l, stigmasterol, -sitosteral--D-glucoside, freindlen, palmitic,
stearic, succinic and d-tartaric acids uridine, quercitrin and isoquercitrin.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cassia.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:41 PM]
Castanea sp.
Index| Search| Home
Castanea sp.
Fagaceae
Chestnut, American Chestnut, Chtaigne, Chinese
Chestnut, Dwarf Chestnut, European Chestnut, European Horse
Chestnut, Japanese Chestnut, Kastanie, Spanish Chestnut,
Sweet Chestnut
Requirements for a United States Chestnut IndustryRobert L. Stebbins
Chinkapin: Potential New Crop for the SouthJerry A. Payne, George P. Johnson, and Gregory
Miller
New Fruit and Nut Crops for Indiana
Outside links:
Chestnut Factsheets from the Connecticut Agriculture Experiment Station
Chestnutsfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Chestnut Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Castanea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:42 PM]
Ricinus communis
Ricinus communis L.
Euphorbiaceae
Castor, Castorbean, Castor-oil Plant
(Castor seed is not a true bean.)
Castor: Return of an Old CropRaymond D. Brigham
Development of Castor Bean Production in FranceFranoise Labalette, Andr Estragnat, and
Antoine Messan
Evaluation of Castor Germplasm for Agronomic and Oil CharacteristicsHarbans L. Bhardwaj,
Ali I. Mohamed, Charles L. Webber, III, and Gilbert R. Lovell
Castorbeans: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Castor Oil from: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the
United States. .
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ricinus_communis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:42 PM]
Miq.
Casuarinaceae
River sheoak
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
In Egypt, Casuarina is the most important genus in forestry, with C. cunninghamiana and C.
glauca protecting the desert highways, C. equisetifolia, the coastal housing. Annual plantings were
one million seedlings in 1975, four million in 1980, projected at 1015 million in 1990. In South
Africa, used for firewood, poles, reclamation, shelterbelts, timer, and windbreaks. Planted as a
windbreak, superior to pine, in California. The timber is durable and useful for flooring. The wood
is dark, close-grain, and nicely marked. The bark can be used as tanbark. Foliage is liable to be
eaten by livestock (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). In Argentina, it is planted on the Pampas
as a windbreak and shade tree, along stream banks to protect them from erosion. Because of its
importance for protecting stream banks from erosion, it cannot be felled without permit in New
South Wales. In Puerto Rico, grown for ornament, shade and windbreak.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Casuarina_cunninghamiana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:43 PM]
Folk Medicine
No data uncovered.
Chemistry
Once bioflavonyls were thought restricted to gymnosperms and Casuarina, but now they have
been found in other angiospermous genera, both monocots and dicots, o-coumaric acid has been
reported in the genus as well as protocatechuic acid. Asparagine and glutamine accounted for 92%
of the total amino acid in the nodules. In root nodules of legumes, infection increases markedly the
IAA presents but in C. cunninghamiana (as in Myrica cerifera) there is an increase in IAA oxidase
and no detectable IAA. Hence the nodule-roots grow upward rather than downward. Hemoglobin
levels in the root nodules are said to compare with those in the pea (Postgate, 1971). Bark grown
in Natal yields 6.711.3% tannin. The pollen may be allergenic.
Description
Medium sized tree 1520 m or more tall, the trunk straight, to 30 cm in diameter. Closely
resembling C. equisetifolia, but the fruiting cones are much smaller (ca 10 mm long), globular,
very regular, with prominent valves. Scale leaves 810, whorled at the nodes, minute. Male
flowers crowded in rings equipped with grayish scales, each with one exposed brown stamen, less
than 0.5 mm long, with two minute brown scalelike sepals. Seeds pale brown, ca
440,000550,000/kg.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, the river sheoak, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate acid soils, alkaline soils, calcareous soils (perhaps chlorotic), drought, muck, sanddunes,
salt, weeds, and wind. This species is more cold tolerant than the other Casuarinas grown in
Florida (NAS, 1983e). In South Africa, it is said to be hardy to drought and frost. Not as salt
tolerant as Casuarina glauca. (2n = 18)
Distribution
Native to eastern and northern Australia, growing from southern New South Wales (latitude 37S)
to northern Queensland (latitude 12S). It often fringes freshwater streams and rivers on both sides
of the Great Dividing Range. A distinct race., possibly a separate species, occurs along larger
rivers in higher rainfall areas of the Northern Territory (NRC, 1982). Introduced in Argentina,
Arizona, California, Chile, Egypt, Florida, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, South Africa, Zimbabwe.
Ecology
Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Thorn to Dry Forest Life Zones,
the river sheoak is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 15 dm. Has survived
temperatures of -8C with no apparent injury. Said to tolerate up to 50 light frosts per year.
Usually occurs in alluvial soils varying from silty loams to sands and gravels. Casuarina spp. have
been observed as the first higher plant species to populate newly formed coral atolls in the Pacific
(Postgate, 1971).
Cultivation
In Hawaii seed are broadcast in spring and covered lightly with less than one cm soil. A seedling
density of ca 200325/m2 is recommended, but final densities should, of course, be much thinner
(Ag. Handbook 450). Molybdenum is necessary for dinitrogen fixation.
Harvesting
In continental U.S., seed bearing age is 45 years and flowering peaks from AprilJune, fruiting
from SeptemberDecember. Good seed crops occur annually (Ag. Handbook 450). Timber can be
harvested as needed. Litter and firewood is often gathered as the accumulation justifies.

No data uncovered.
Energy
Casuarina spp. have very dense wood, with specific gravity 0.81.2, calorific value of ca 5,000
kcal/kg, splits easily, and burns slowly with little smoke or ash. It also can be burned when green,
an important advantage in fuel short areas. From their fourth year, trees shed ca 4 tons cones/year.
These too make good pellet-sized fuel (NAS, 1983e). Casuarina spp. are good for charcoal, losing
only 2/3 their weight, compared to 3/4 for most woods.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists Perna exposita (Lepidoptera), and Hystrix africaeaustralis (Mammalia).
Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following diseases for Casuarina spp.: Armillaria mella
(root rot), Sorosporium saponariae (flower smut), Synchytrium chiltoni (leaf gall), Synchytrium
stellariae, and Ustilago alsinaea (seed smut). Curly Top, Spotted Wilt, and Yellows viruses are
also listed.
References
Washington.
Washington, DC.
Postgate, J.R. 1971. The chemistry and biochemistry of nitrogen fixation. Plenum Press,
New York.
Casuarina glauca
Casuarina glauca Sieber

Casuarinaceae
Swamp sheoak
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Has been recommended as a good candidate for restoring Haiti's eroded mountainsides and
providing charcoal, fuelwood, and poles so desparately needed there. Grown as an ornamental,
windbreak, and for cattle shade in southern Florida (but some Florida counties have laws banning
its planting). In South Africa it is used for firewood, poles, reclamation, shelterbelts, timber, and
windbreaks. Egyptians use the trees in rows for shelterbelts. To check spread by root suckers, they
dig a ditch between the crop and the shelterbelt, allowing their goats and sheep to eat the exposed
shoots before they become pests. The brownish timber is nicely marked and is used for fencing
rails, shingles, and salt water pilings.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Casuarina_glauca.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:44 PM]
Casuarina glauca
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
Modulated seedlings of C. glauca increased their shoot N-content (proportional to protein content)
by a factor of about 13 following the appearance of the nodules. Pollen may be allergenic.
Description
Erect tree 1015 (-30) m tall, the main stem moderately straight, often buttressed and fluted, the
bark often cracked and flaky, the crown relatively sparse and narrow. Slender deciduous branchlets
(ca 1 mm diameter) have 920 leaf teeth in remote whorls, short and broad, always tightly
appressed. Male spikes dense, 12 1/2 cm long. Cones more or less cylindrical, ca 12 cm in
diameter, much broader than long; valves 35 mm wide, in only 2 or 3 wheel-like rows. Seeds ca
700,000970,000/kg.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, swamp sheoak, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate high pH, limestone, low pH, salt and sanddunes, waterlogging, weeds, and wind.
According to NAS, (1983e), this is a pest, in Florida. In Hawaiian pastures, where it spreads by
root suckers, it is less cold-hardy than C. cunninghamiana. Still, it is said to be hardy to drought
and frost in South Africa (NAS, 1983e). In fine-textured clays, even in waterlogged soils, C.
glauca can develop a deep root system, while C. cunninghamiana and C. equisetifolia develop
shallow roots and grow poorly. (2n = 18)
Distribution
Found in a narrow belt hugging the coast of eastern Australia from Bega in New South Wales to
Rockhampton in Queensland. It has also been successful in the marshes and saline soils of Israel,
Cyprus, India, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Florida, and Egypt. Most common at edges of
swampy flats near estuaries and tidal rivers; sometimes found on or near beach fronts. The flats
may be only marginally above tidal limits; the water table is usually close to the surface (often
with 30 cm of the surface).
Ecology
It grows naturally on estuarine plains that are flooded with brackish tidal water, and also thrives on
dunes at the seaside, often in the path of ocean spray. Ranges from sea level to 900 m in Hawaii.
Reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 40 dm, estimated annual temperature of 18 to
Casuarina glauca
28C, and pH of 5 to 8. Rarely tolerates temperatures lower than -3C. It has grown in Israel under
a soil crust of salt (50,000 ppm). Although most natural stands are on acidic soils, it has grown
well on alkaline clay-loam soils with shallow water tables in hot, semiarid areas of Central
Australia. Thailand seedlings have tolerated high Ca levels and as much as 30% limestone. In
southern Florida it flourishes on oolitic limestone. In Hawaii it is frequently planted on much
weathered parent basalt in eroded blowouts, sometimes in holes blasted by dynamite. It also does
well in pure limestone sand (NAS, 1983e).
Cultivation
In Hawaii seed are broadcast in spring and covered lightly with less than one cm soil. A seedling
density of ca 200325/m2 is recommended, but final densities should of course be much thinner
(Ag. Handbook 450).
Harvesting
In continental U.S., seed bearing age is 45 years and flowering peaks from AprilJune, fruiting
from SeptemberDecember. Good seed crops occur annually (Ag. Handbook 450). Timber can be
harvested as needed. Litter and firewood is often gathered as the accumulation justifies.

In Israel this outperforms other Casuarinas, reaching 20 m in 1214 years, even on saline water
tables. Based on what I read about other species, I would expect about 4 MT of litter and at least 4
MT wood per hectare per year under moderate management.
Energy
Casuarina spp. have very dense wood, with specific gravity 0.81.2, calorific value of ca 5,000
kcal/kg, splits easily, and burns slowly with little smoke or ash. It also can be burned when green,
an important advantage in fuel short areas. From their fourth year, trees shed ca 4 tons cones/year.
These, too, make good pellet-sized fuel (NAS, 1983e). Although N-nodulation is most successful
at pH 6 to 8, some natural stands are well nodulated in acid soils (pH ca 4). Some of the
root-suckering Casuarinas are discouraged except where the wood is needed. But in fuelwood
plantations, cut trees rapidly regenerate from root sprouts and do not have to be replanted.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists the fungus Fomes badius. This species is reported to be less susceptible to the
wilt and dieback attributed to the bacterium Pseudomonas on Casuarina equisetifolia.
Casuarina glauca
References
Washington, DC.
Casuarina junghuhnianaMiq.
Casuarinaceae
Jemara (Indonesian)
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Introduced to Zimbabwe for street and roadside plantings and windbreaks, the species may help
solve the fuelwood shortage. Introduced to Thailand around 1900 as an ornamental tree, now
extensively used to reclaim land abandoned after mining, as well as for village firewood
production. It was taken from Thailand to India ca 1970 for fuel for the tea-drying industry.
Folk Medicine
No data uncovered.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Casuarina_junghuhniana.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:49:44 PM]
Chemistry
No data uncovered.
Description
Tree to 35 m tall, 1 m DBH, the stem rather straight, the crown often symmetrically conical.
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, jemara, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate clay, drought, monsoon, poor soil, salt, sand, screes, and weeds.
Distribution
Native to highlands of eastern Indonesiato East Java, Bali, and the lesser Sunda Islands, where it
occurs in extensive pure stands on mountain summits. It pioneers the natural revegetation of
deforested grassland, volcanic ash and sand, gravelly stream beds, and screes. In manmade
grassland it has extended its area manyfold, at the cost of mixed mountain forest and scrub-forest
that formerly prevailed. Introduced to Thailand around 1900 (NAS, 1983e).
Ecology
There are commercial plantings in salt marsh areas, sometimes inundated with saline water (NAS,
1983e), but in its native habitat it ranges up to 3,000 m. It is reported to tolerate annual
precipitation of 7 to 15 dm.
Cultivation
Propagated by cuttings in India and Thailand. Cuttings allow the perpetuation of superior traits,
and also allow plantings of a single sex, avoiding weed potential through the spread of natural
seedlings (NAS, 1983e). In India, clusters of shoots (sprigs) are dipped in rooting hormone (or not)
and placed in a humid atmosphere, e.g. a sealed plastic tent in light shade under coconut. Rooting
in about 20 days, they can be outplanted. Can be propagated by coppice or root sprouts as well.
Inoculation may be necessary.
Harvesting
Based on experience with other species, I suspect that seed bearing age is 45 years and flowering
peaks from AprilJune, fruiting from SeptemberDecember. Good seed crops occur annually (Ag.
Handbook 450). Timber can be harvested as needed. Litter and firewood may be gathered as the
accumulation justifies.

No data available.
Energy
As with other Casuarina spp.
Biotic Factors
As with other Casuarina spp.
References
Washington, DC.
Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of the Extracts of Khat Callus Cultures
Elhag, H., Jaber S. Mossa, and Mahmoud M. El-Olemy. 1999. Antimicrobial and cytotoxic
activity of the extracts of khat callus cultures. p. 463466. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new
Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of

the Extracts of Khat Callus Cultures
Hamid Elhag, Jaber S. Mossa, and Mahmoud M. El-Olemy*
1. METHODOLOGY
1. Callus Culture
2. Extraction and Isolation
3. Antimicrobial Assays
4. Cytotoxicity and Anti-HIV
2. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1. Extract Identification
2. Antimicrobial Activity
3. Cytotoxic Activity
3. CONCLUSIONS
4. REFERENCES
Khat, (Catha edulis Forssk., Celastraceae) is an evergreen tree indigenous to East Africa and
Yemen. The fresh young leaves are commonly chewed, known as the Khat habit, to alleviate
hunger and to produce stimulating effects (CNS). Such effects were shown to be due to
phenylalkylamine alkaloids, primarily cathinone (Kalix 1990; Crombie et al. 1990). Habitual use
of khat is often associated with social and medical problems (Shadan and Shellard 1972).
Previous work on khat cultures, in our laboratories, has dealt with in vitro micropropagation
(Elhag 1991) and the production of secondary metabolites by micropropagated plantlets and callus
cultures (El-Domiaty et al. 1994). In the course of our work with khat tissue cultures, the
production of dark colored pigments was observed as a typical characteristic of the callus culture
(Elhag and Mossa 1996). The present investigation deals with the isolation, identification, and
biological effects of such pigments.
METHODOLOGY
Callus Culture
Leaves from young twigs of micropropagated greenhouse grown plants (Elhag 1991) were used as
explants for callus induction and as fresh material for extraction and chemical analysis. As
described previously by El-Domiaty et al. (1994) callus induction from leaf sections was best
achieved on MSB5 basal medium (Murashige and Skoog inorganic salts with Gamborg-B5
vitamins) supplemented with 3.0 mg/L of either IBA (indolebutyric acid) or NAA (naphtalene
acetic acid). PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone) at a concentration of 0.1% in the medium was found
beneficial in enhancing callus growth. However, PVP was excluded from the culture medium after
the establishment of proliferating cultures. Callus tissues collected form several subcultures on
IBA or NAA-containing media were used for extraction and analysis of pigments.
Extraction and Isolation

The freeze-dried powdered callus of C. edulis (25 g) was extracted with MeOH at room
temperature. The MeOH extract was evaporated and the residue (3.9 g) was partitioned between
CHCl3 and H2O. The dark brown residue (0.89 g) left after evaporation of CHCl3 was
chromatographed on silica gel column (2 20 cm) and eluted with CHCl3 (300 ml) and CHCl3
containing a trace of acetic acid (10:0.01, 200 ml). Two fractions were collected, fraction A (230
mg) and fraction B (110 mg). Fraction A (containing the pigments) was further chromatographed
on reversed phase silica gel (C-18, 2540 ) using medium pressure column (2 18 cm, 75%
MeOH in 5% aqueous acetic acid) with a flow rate of 3 ml/min. Upon evaporation, fractions eluted
between 2560 ml gave 32 mg of compound 1 (0.13%), while fractions 120175 ml gave 120 mg
of compound 2 (0.48%).
Antimicrobial Assays
Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of callus extracts (petroleum ether, CHCl3, MeOH, and
aqueous successive extracts) and the isolated compounds 1 and 2 was conducted according to the
disk diffusion and agar dilution methods (Mitscher et al. 1972; Jayasuria 1988). Chloramphenicol
and streptomycin were used as positive controls. The solvent DMSO was used as the negative
control for all the experiments. The bacteria used were obtained from the National Collection of
Type Culture (NCTC), Central Public Health Laboratory, London; and the Center for Disease
Control, Atlanta, Georgia, US. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the two
compounds (22-hydroxytingenone and tingenone) was determined by the two-fold serial dilution
assay (Hufford et al. 1975). The MIC was taken as the lowest concentration that inhibited growth
after 48h of incubation at 37C for B. subtilis, S. aureus, and S. durans and after 72 hr for
Mycobacterium strains.
Cytotoxicity and Anti-HIV

The assays were performed according to the standard procedures of the in vitro primary screen of
NCI (Weislow et al. 1989; Grever et al. 1992).
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Extract Identification
Khat callus produced on MSB5 medium containing IBA or NAA continued to proliferate as
compact hard clumps with snow-white top surfaces and dark-pigmented lower parts. The dark
pigments partly diffused into the medium at the point of contact with the agar medium. This dark
pigmentation was thought to result from the high content of polyphenols (tannins) that is known
for the intact plant (El-Sissi and Abdalla 1966). However, the initial TLC (Si gel,
EtOAc-HCOOH-H2O, 90:6:5) screening of the EtOH extract of the callus detected only a trace of
the polyphenolic precursors of tannins gallocatechin and epigallocatechin. On the other hand,
intact khat plants did not show the same pigments detected in the callus (TLC : Si gel,
EtOAc-HCOOH-toluene, 9:1:10).
The MeOH extract of the freeze-dried callus was fractionated between H2O and CHC3. The
colored chloroformic fraction yielded two orange pigments using combined normal and reversed
phase chromatography. Compound 1 gave, []D -317.4; UV spectrum [max MeOH; 420, 286.
and 246 nm], suggested the presence of a chromophore. IR spectrum showed bands at max 3400
(OH), 1710 (carbonyl), and 1580 cm-1 (conjugated C = C). The UV spectrum and IR bands, in
addition to the positive Liebermann-Burchard test suggested a quinone methide triterpene structure
(Gonzalez et al. 1983; Fernando et al. 1988; Likhitwitayawuid et al. 1993). This suggestion was
substantiated by the presence of proton signals at 6.55 (d, J = 2, Hz, H-1), 7.07 (dd, J = 7 & 2
Hz, H-6), and 6.36 (d, J = 7 Hz, H-7) in the 1H-NMR spectrum (CDCl3) (Likhitwitayawuid et al.
1993). The 1H-1H COSY showed a proton signal at 4.56 (d, J = 5 Hz, H-22) correlated to the
signal at 3.66 (which is not directly correlated to any carbon signal in 1H-13C HETCOR), while
the proton at 4.56 correlated to the signal at 76.4 in the 13C NMR spectrum, (C-22). Thus the
proton signal at 4.56 should be assigned to H-22 and the signal at 3.66 to OH proton.
Compound 1 was thus identified as 22-hydroxytingenone; this was confirmed by direct
comparison with the reported spectral data (Kutney et al. 1981; Bavovada et al. 1990;
Likhitwitayawuid et al. 1993).
Compound 2 gave []D-307.4; its UV spectrum [max) MeOH : 420, 286 and 252 nm], was quite
similar to that of compound 1, suggesting the presence of a similar chromophore, IR spectrum of
compound 2 showed the same characterstic bands of 1. 1H- and 13C-NMR data of compound 2
were similar to that of 1 except that 2 showed the absence of hydroxyl group at C-22, as it
appeared at 52.6 in 13C-NMR and one of the H-22 protons appeared at 2.92 (H, d, J= 14 Hz) in
1H-NMR. Compound 2 was thus identified as tingenone; this was confirmed by comparison with
reported data (Gonzalez et al. 1975; Kutney et al. 1981; Ngassapa et al. 1994).
Antimicrobial Activity
Initial antimicrobial screening of the crude callus extracts was conducted using the disk diffusion
method and was confirmed with bioautography (Jayasuria 1988). The highest growth inhibition
was found in the petroleum ether and chloroformic successive extracts, the latter being more
active. Further fractionation and purification of the chloroformic-soluble fraction of the methanolic
extract (as described in Materials and Methods), resulted in the isolation of two active compounds
(1) and (2). The isolated compounds were identified as 22-hydroxytingenone (1) and tingenone
(2) by various spectral methods. Both compounds exhibited significant activities against B.
subtilis, S. aureus, and S. durans (MIC 0.6 g/ml), being more potent than the positive control
chloramphenicol (Table 1). Both compounds were also found to be more potent against
Mycobacterium species (MIC was 5.0 g/ml for both compounds) than the positive controls,
streptomycin and isonicotinic acid hydrazide (Table 1). However, both compounds; were found to
be inactive against the gram-negative bacteria E Coli and the fungus C. albicans (Table 1).
Table 1. MIC values for 22-hydroxytingenone (compound 1) and tingenone (compound 2)
isolated from khat callus cultures.
MIC values (g/ml)
Isonicotinic
Streptomycin Chloramphenicol acid hydrazide
Microorganisms
(1)
(2)
B. subtilis z
0.6
0.6
NTx
4.0
NT
S. aureus z
0.6
0.6
NT
8.0
NT
St. durans z
0.6
0.6
NT
4.0
NT
M. chelonei y
5.0
5.0
10.0
NT
10.0
M. smegmatis y
5.0
5.0
10.0
NT
10.0
M. intracellulare y
5.0
5.0
10.0
NT
10.0
M. xenopi y
5.0
5.0
10.0
NT
10.0
E. coli
inactive
inactive
NT
NT
NT
C. albicans
inactive
inactive
NT
NT
NT
zMIC values after 48 hr of incubation at 37C

yIncubated for 72 hr at 37C
xNT = not tested.
Cytotoxic Activity
Compounds 1 and 2 have been reported to have cytotoxic activity (Kutney et al. 1981, Bavovada
et al. 1990; Ngassapa et al. 1994); however, compound 1 was tested only against a few cancer cell
line systems (Bavovada et al. 1990). In the present study, compound 1 was therefore tested using
NCI (USA) in vitro primary anticancer and anti-HIV screening. Table 2 shows that
22-hydroxytingenone (1) exhibited significant cytotoxic activities against leukemia (ED50 0.54
g/ml) and prostate cancer (ED50 0.85 mg/ml), while the least activity was observed against
non-small cell lung cancer (ED50 4.4 g/ml). While compound 1 showed non-selective broad
cytotoxicity against all tested panels (Boyd and Paul 1995), it was inactive when tested against
HIV virus. Tingenone 2, was also shown to exhibit strong non-selective broad cytotoxicity against
several cancer cell-line systems (Ngassapa et al. 1994).
Table 2. Results of antitumor evaluation of 22-hydroxy-tingenone in the NCI in vitro primary
screen.
Panel
ED50 (g/ml)
Leukemia
0.54
Non-small cell lung cancer
4.4
Colon cancer
1.31
CNS cancer
3.3
Melonama
1.71
Ovarian cancer
2.35
Renal cancer
1.61
Prostate cancer
0.85
Breast cancer
1.11
CONCLUSIONS
The cultural conditions for khat callus induction and growth were established. Best callus
induction and growth occurred on MSB5 medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/L of either NAA or
IBA. The production of dark pigments was observed at the start of callus induction and continued
with subcultures as a typical characteristic of khat callus.
The isolation of 22-hydroxytingenone and tingenone from khat callus cultures is reported for the
first time. They could not be detected in the mother plant grown in the greenhouse. The crude
callus extracts and the isolated compounds, 22-hydroxytingenone (compound 1) and tingenone
(compound 2), showed high antibacterial activity against gram positive and myocbacteria and
broad cytotoxic activity against several cell-line systems.
Large scale production of khat cultures for the commercial production of such biologically active
components is a promising system worthy of further investigation. It would be ironic if khat,
which is considered a plant of abuse, turned out to be a miracle plant with efficacious medical
properties.
REFERENCES
Bavovada, R., G. Blasko, H.L. Sheih, J.M. Pezzuto, and G.A. Cordell. 1990. Spectral
assignment and cytotoxicity of 22-hydroxytingenone from Glyptopetalum sclerocarpum.
Planta Med. 56:380382.
Boyd, M.R. and K.D. Paul. 1995. Some practical considerations and application of the
national cancer institute in vitro anticancer drug discovery screen. Drug Develop. Res.
34:91109.
Crombie, L., W.M.L. Crombie, and D.A. Whiting. 1990. Alkaloids of khat (Catha edulis).
Alkaloids 39:139164.
El-Domiaty, M.M., H.M. Elhag, F.S. El-Feraly, I.A. al-Meshal, and M.M. El-Olemy. 1994.
Studies on (-)-cathinone formation in micropropagated plants and tissue cultures of Catha
edulis (Khat). Int. J. Pharmacog. 32:135141.
Elhag, H.M. 1991. In vitro propagation of Catha edulis. HortScience 26:212.
Elhag, H.M. and J.S. Mossa. 1996. Catha edulis: In vitro culture and the production of
cathinone and other secondary metabolites. p. 7686. In: Y.P.S. Bajaj (ed.), Biotechnology
in agriculture and forestry. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
El-Sissi, H.I. and M.F. Abdalla. 1966. Polyphenolics of the leaves of Catha edulis. Planta
Med. 14:7679.
Fernando, H.C., A.A. Leise Gunatilaka, V. Kumar, and G. Weeratunga. 1988. Two new
quinone-methide from Cassine balae: Revised structure of balaenolol. Tetrahedron Lett.
29:387390.
Gonzalez, A.G., C.G. Francisco, R. Friere, R. Hernandez, J.A. Salazar, and E. Surez. 1975.
Inguesterin, a new quinonoid triterpene from Catha cassinoides. Phytochemistry
14:10671077.
Gonzalez, A.G., B.M. Fraga, C.M. Gonzalez, A.G. Ravelo, and E. Ferro. 1983. X-ray
analysis of netzhaulcoyone, a triterpene quinone methide from Orthosphenia mexicana.
Tetrahendron Lett. 24:30333036.
Grever, M.R., A.A. Sheprtz, and B.A. Chabner. 1992. The National Cancer Institute cancer
drug discovery and development program. Seminars Oncol. 19:622.
Hufford, C.D., M.J. Funderburk, J.M. Morgan, and L.W. Robertson. 1975. Two
antimicrobial alkaloids from heartwood of L. tulipifera. J. Pharm. Sci. 4:789792.
Jayasuria, H. 1988. Biological and chemical investigations of native Mississippi plants. H.

drummondi (grev. and T and G). Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Missippi, Oxford.
Kalix, P. 1990. Pharmacological properties of the stimulant khat. Pharmacol. Ther.

48:397416.
Kutney, J.P., M.H. Beale, P.J. Salisbury, K.L. Stuart, B.R. Worth, P.M. Townsley, W.T.
Chalmers, K. Nilsson, and G.G. Jacoli. 1981. Isolation and characterization of natural
products from plant tissue cultures of Maytenus bachananii. Phytochemistry 20:653657.
Likhitwitayawuid, K., R. Bavovada, L-Z. Lin, and G.A. Cordell. 1993. Revised structure of
20-hydroxytingenone and 13C-NMR assignments of 22 B-hydroxytingenone.
Phytochemistry 34:759763.
Mitscher, L.A., R.P. Leu, M.S. Bathala, W.N. Wu, and J.L. Beal. 1972. Antimicrobial
agents from higher plants. 1. Introduction, rationale and methodology. Lloydia 35:157166.
Ngassapa, O., D.D. Soejarto, J.M. Pezzuto, and N.R. Farnsworth. 1994. Quinone-methide
triterpenes and salaspermic acid from Kokoona ochracea. J. Nat. Prod. 57:18.
Shadon, P. and E.J. Shellard. 1972. An anatomical study of Ethiopian khat (leaf of Catha
edulis Forssk.) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 14:110118.
Weislow, O.W., R. Kiser, D. Fine, J. Bader, R.H. Shoemaker, and M.R. Boyd. 1989. New
soluble-formazan assay for HIV-1 cytopathic effects: Application to high-flux screening of
synthetic and natural products for AIDS-antiviral activity. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 81:577586.
*The authors thank King Abdelaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia, for financial support (Project No. AT-15-39.
back
Asparagus bean
Cowpea
Leguminosae Vigna sinensis (Torner) Savi
Catjan
V. cylindrica (L.) Skeels
Asparagus bean
V. sesquipedalis (L.) Fruwirth
These species are grown as vegetables for food and are listed
there. They are also important hay, pasture and soil
improvement crops. The 3 species are very similar in growth
habit and culture. Cowpea is the one mainly grown and all
three are often termed cowpea in this country. All are annuals
native to southern Asia that have been long grown under
cultivation. Cowpeas were present in the Southeastem States
as early as 1714. Formerly, cowpeas were much more grown
in this country than at present. Near 5,000,000 acres were planted annually during the decade of
the 1930's, while recent plantings are only about 10% of that figure.
The plants are generally near prostrate and vining although
upright varieties are available. The trifoliate leaves are long
stemmed. Leaflets are generally somewhat heai-t shaped, up to
6 inches long and 4 inches wide. Pods are long, slender and
glabrous. Plants require a long, warm growing season, so
cultivation is mainly in the "Cotton Belt." Cowpeas are
palatable and nutritious both for pasture and hay. They also
constitute an important soil improvement crop.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cowpea.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:48 PM]
Asparagus bean
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cowpea.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:48 PM]
Catjang
Catjang
Leguminosae Vigna sinensis (Torner) Savi (Cylindrica group)
The catjang is closely related to southern pea, which see. The plant and
culture are similar. The pod of catjang is smaller, 3 to 5 inches long, and the seeds also are smaller.
Catjang is grown mostly for feed, but is also grown for the seeds, used as food. The seeds are
harvested at the green shell stage or when ripe, as are southern peas.
Season, bloom to harvest: Green shell, 15 to 20 days. Dry beans, 30 or more days.
Production in the U.S.: No separate data - included with southern peas.
Use: Green shell canned or frozen as cooked vegetable. Dry beans as cooked vegetable.
Part consumed: Seeds only as food; whole plant for feed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Catjang.html [5/16/2004 3:49:48 PM]
Nepeta cataria
Nepeta cataria L.
Labiatae
Catnip, Catmint, Catnep
Production of Catnip in North CarolinaJ.M. Ferguson, W.W. Weeks, and W.T. Fike
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Nepeta_cataria_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:49 PM]
Cat's Claw

New Crop FactSHEET
Cat's Claw
Contributors: Kerry Hughes and Tony Worth
acknowledge the contributors.
1. Common and Regional Names

2. Scientific Names
3. Uses
1. Products of Commerce
4. Origin
5. Crop Status
1. Regulatory Status
2. Toxicities
3. Traditional Medicinal Uses
6. Botany
1. Taxonomy
7. Crop Culture (Agronomy/Horticulture)
1. Ecology
2. Cultivars
3. Production Practices
4. Harvesting
5. Processing
8. Germplasm
1. Collections
2. Commercial Seed Sources
9. Selected Experts
10. References
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/catsclaw.html (1 of 9) [5/16/2004 3:49:51 PM]
Cat's Claw
Common and
Regional Names
Common:
Cats claw, ua de gato.
Regional:
Unicaria guianensis - garabato blanco
(Loreto, Peru), ua de gato del bajo
(Ucayali, Peru), ua de gaviln, garabato
gaviln, garabato casha, auri huasca,
tambor huasca, unganangui, ancajsillo,
ancayacu, kugkuukjagki, jijyuwamyuho.
Unicaria tomentosa - Garabato colorado
(Loreto, Peru), ua de gato de altura
(Ucayali, Peru), garabato amarillo (Inca),
samento, tsachik, paotati-msha,
misho-mentis, jipotatsa, unganangui.
Both species- bejuco de agua (Ucayali,
Peru), garabato (San Martin, Peru), garra
gaviln (Inca), deixa paraguayo (Inca),
torn.
Scientific Names
The head of the Yanesha cat's claw council, Walter

Gabriel Camaa, stands next to a cultivated young
cat's claw vine in traditional dress
Species:
Uncaria guianensis (Aublet) Gmeliu
syn: Ourouparia guianensis (Aublet)
Uncaria tomentosa (Willdenow ex Roemer & Shultes) D.C.
syn: Nauclea oculeata H.B.K.; Nauclea tomentosa Willdenow ex Roemer & Shultes; Ourouparia
tomentosa (Willdenow ex Roemer & Shultes) Shumann
Family: Rubiaceae
Uses
Cats claw is used commercially as a medicinal herb primarily for immune system stimulation.
Other therapeutic applications for cats claw are many, which is a common trait of herbs with
immune stimulatory activity, and include: disease prevention, cancer, recovery from chemotherapy
Cat's Claw
side effects, recovery from childbirth, urinary tract infections, wounds, fevers, hemorrhages, and
weakness. Applications for cats claw which have had some clinical research include viral
infections, pain and symptoms of Herpes infections, and for inflammatory conditions, such as
Rheumatoid arthritis. Pharmacological activities that have been found in cats claw are
anti-inflammatory, immune system stimulation, cytoprotection and antioxidant. Recently, a couple
new trademarked products have come into the dietary supplement market in the United States with
new clinical research on new uses for cats claw. One is called C-MED 100TM, and it is a new
proprietary extract which is standardized with much higher levels of carboxyl alkyl esters. In
clinical studies, this extract has been found to have a greater normalizing effect on the immune
system than a regular extract of cats claw.
Products of Commerce
Stem bark (most commonly)

Root bark (rarely)
Origin
Cats claw has been reported growing in the Western countries of the Central and South American
continent as far North as Belize, and South into Paraguay. Maraao, Brazil, is the most Eastern
area cats claw has been reported to grow naturally.
Uncaria tomentosa is found between 02 55' 00"12 50' 00" latitude S., and 69 20' 00"77 00'
00" longitude W.; and U. guianensis is found between 00 09' 00"13 06' 00" latitude S., and 69
04' 00"78 19 00" longitude W.
Crop Status
A perennial vine, or tropical liana; rarely cultivated, cats claw is generally harvested from primary
forest, secondary forest, or managed forest. These species are commonly called "cats claw" (or
ua de gato) because of their claw-like torns. Overwhelmingly, most of the commercial supply of
cats claw comes from Peru, although, other countries are now showing interest in producing cats
claw.
The product sold in international commerce is the bark of both the U. tomentosa and U.
guianensis, although U. tomentosa is the most sought after. This is due to a general belief in the
marketplace that U. tomentosa has a more favorable alkaloid profile, but this is not agreed upon,
nor verified experimentally. There exists small local markets in Peru for furniture made from the
lianas. The market for the bark has gone through a heavy increase in 1996, and then a large drop
off (see Table 1), spurred by concerns in quality and lack of interest in the herb.
Table 1. Exportation of cats claw, according to INRENA*, Peru.
Year
1999
Volume (Kg)
64,457.20
Cat's Claw
1998
282,164.00
1997
275,562.00
1996
347,602.00
1995
726,685.00
1994
20,743.00
values figured through March of that year.

* Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales (INRENA), Lima, Peru.
In Peru, INRENA, the natural resource department of the government of Peru, passed legislation in
March of 1999 which banned the export of the raw material without the approval of management
plans. This halted official trade of the raw material of cats claw from Peru for several months until
management plans began to achieve approval.
Regulatory Status
Cats claw is permitted for use as a dietary supplement because it is an herb, as specified by the
Definition of Certain Foods as Dietary Supplements, in Section 3 of DSHEA (The Dietary
Supplement Health and Education Act; 1994) Furthermore, cats claw is not a new ingredient in
the United States dietary supplement market (it was introduced in the late 1980s), so no DSHEA
section 8 filing on reasonable safety is required.
Toxicities
Cats claw is listed as a class 4 herb by the American Herbal Products Association Botanical
Safety Handbook, which means they believe the published data is insufficient thus far for them to
establish toxicity. However, cats claw is generally thought of as safe, with an LD50 of the aqueous
extract in mice greater than 16 g/kg. Patients on immunosupressive therapy or other treatments
with animal hormone, peptide, or protein products are urged to use caution with cats claw due to
its immune stimulating activity.
Traditional Medicinal Uses

The traditional use of cats claw extends back through untold generations of several indigenous
groups in tropical South America. Though several groups are familiar with cats claw and its uses,
two have received the most amount of attention for its ethnomedical use in Peru, the Ashaninka
and the Yanesha. The medicinal uses of the stem and root bark that are most well-known to
indigenous people are for inflammations (especially rheumatism), arthritis, urinary tract infections
and gastric ulcers. Cats claw has also been used for cleansing the kidneys, recovery from
childbirth, as a wash for wounds to promote healing, skin "impurities", blood purifications,
asthma, disease prevention, hemorrhages, menstrual irregularity, "loose" stomach, fevers, and for a
normalizing effect on body systems. Cats claw is also noted to be used in spiritual illness, to
Cat's Claw
remove disturbances between the body and spirit which are the main cause of disease. In addition,
as our modern understanding of cats claw has evolved, so has it evolved by indigenous peoples
who report cats claw as good for cancer and for lessening side effects of antibiotics and
chemotherapy. Some indigenous groups only use the water stored in the stem to quench thirst, and
as a restorative drink.
Botany
Taxonomy
U. guianensis
A woody perennial vine or creeping shrub found mostly in secondary forest. External bark with
superficial fissures; internal bark is fibrous and golden brown. The sap is watery with an astringent
taste. Terminal branches are quadrangular, with a pale rosy green color; glabrous. Leaves are
simple, opposite and distinct, elliptic to elliptic-oblong in shape; 7.818.5 cm in length, 4.69.5 cm
in width. Leaf margins are entire with an acute apex, and an acute to acute-round base. Stipules are
lanceolate shaped and 814 mm long and 35 mm wide. Spines are woody and strongly curved in
the form of a hook, 426 mm long and 25 mm wide. Inflorescences are arranged in racemes or
apexes of spherical umbels; terminal or axillary; 1020 cm in length (inflorescences) and 1.54 cm
in diameter (umbel), with glabrous peduncles. Flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic on 4 mm
long pedicels. Calyx with jointed sepals, tubular to bell-shaped, 510 mm long and 3-5 mm in
diameter. Corolla has jointed petals; 713 mm long and 35 mm in diameter; red-orange with a
smooth interior and an exterior that is smooth on the bottom, with the top 1/3 with villous hairs.
Adroecium has 5 subsessile stamens, adnate to the throat of the corolla. The pistil has an ellipsoid
stigma, 1.5 mm. in length; inferior ovary. The fruits are dry and dehiscent, elliptical capsules;
1012 mm long and 46 mm wide with numerous seeds, 6-8 mm long and 0.8-1.4 mm wide.
U. tomentosa
A large woody vine or creeping shrub, typical of primary forest, but also found in disturbed forest
and rarely in secondary forest. The external bark has superficial longitudinal fissures, and the
internal bark is fibrous, with the ground bark the color golden yellow. The sap is watery and
astringent in taste. The terminal branchlets are quadrangular and yellow-green in color. The leaves
are simple, opposite and distinct; oblong, oblong-ovate, or elliptic; 7.517 cm in length and 512
cm in width. The leaf margins are entire; apex is acute, or rarely acumate; base is round and/or
cordate. The stipules are deltoid, 612 mm long and 48 mm wide. The spines are woody, occur in
pairs, are slightly curved but straight, and pointy; 810 mm in length and 36 mm in width. The
inflorescences occur in racemes or globular cymes, are axilarary and/or terminal, 718 cm in
length, 1.52.5 cm in diameter. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and sessil. The calyx is
gamosepalous, tubular, 11.5 mm in length and 0.81 mm in diameter. The corolla is
gamopetalous, 713 mm in length, 35 mm in diameter, with 5 round lobes; yellow. Stamens are
sessil; 5-fused to the throat. The anthers are oblong with prolonged and divergent bases; 11.2 mm
in length and 0.30.4 mm in width. The stigma is ellipsoid, 0.5 mm in length, with linear 4 mm
long styles; inferior ovary. The fruits are dry and dehiscent; elliptic capsules; 58 mm long and
36 mm wide.
Cat's Claw
Crop Culture
Ecology
Cats claw is sometimes cultivated or managed in tropical forests of South America. U. guianensis
may be cultivated in secondary forests with full sunlight, but U. tomentosa requires more shade, as
it is found more often in primary forest. U. tomentosa primarily grows naturally in the following
Holdridge life zones: tropical (bh-T and bmh-T), premontane tropical (bh-PT and bmh-PT), and
the subtropical forest (bh-S). U. tomentosa prefers the following soil types: Ortic Acrisols, Distric
Cambisols and Fluvisols; soil texture: 3476% sand, 2040% silt, and 438% clay; and a pH of
5.27.7. U.guianensis is primarily found in the following Holdridge life zones: tropical (bhT and
bmh-T), premontane tropical (bh-PT and bmh-PT), and subtropical (bh-S, bmh-S and bp-S). It
prefers Ortic Acrisols, Distric Cambisols and Fluvisols; soil textures of 3478% sand, 848% silt,
and 438% clay, and a pH of 4.46.2.
Cultivars and Chemotypes

There are no cultivars offered in agricultural trade; however, two chemotypes have been identified
of Peruvian U. tomentosa: a tetracyclic oxindole alkaloid type (tetracyclica) and a pentacyclic
oxindole alkaloid type (pentacyclica). It has been found that the pentacyclic alkaloid type is
immunopotentiating; whereas, the tetraacyclic alkaloid type is immunosuppressing. In the traded
product, these chemotypes have largely been ignored. The subject of which chemical profile is
better, the stem vs. the root, is largely irrelevant due to the difficulty of trade in the root material of
cats claw. The leaves have not been found useful commercially, however, there are groups in
Lima who are researching this for possible commercial uses.
Guisella T. Brell of the Agrarian University of La Molina is involved in the micropropagation of
cats claw (see selected experts). Transgenic cats claw root has been micropropagated in
bioreactors, but this technology is still in the developmental stage, and is not yet commercially
viable.
Production Practices
Generally, the propagation of the seed is difficult because viability rapidly declines after dehiscing,
so cats claw is usually propagated asexually by cuttings. Eight-inch sections of the stem are cut
for planting as cuttings. If the soil of the forest is moist enough, cuttings are said to be easy to
reproduce by directly inserting them into the forest floor. If the conditions are right, the roots
develop soon after transplant. However, others recommend reforesting cats claw through the use
of natural regeneration. For natural regeneration, sufficient sunlight (canopy openings) is needed.
In this case, the forest may be thinned to allow for easier natural regeneration, or cats claw may be
allowed to grow in secondary forests where more sunlight gaps exist. Very few, if any, commercial
plantations of cats claw exist. Most material is harvested in forests. Yield in managed forests
depends on density, and densities that have been reported for U. tomentosa range from 2 to 8
individuals per hectare in natural forest, and 17 individuals per hectare in managed forest.
Cat's Claw
Sustainable management of cats claw is becoming an issue in Peru, due to the popularity of this
botanical medicine. INRENA requires management plans for the harvest and trade of cats claw,
and more studies on the effect of harvest to the natural ecosystem are needed to assure
sustainability.
Harvesting
Today, the root is not normally harvested because of the destructiveness of this method of harvest.
The primary product in trade comes from the stem bark. Although there are different chemotypes
found in the field, there are no known morphological differences to distinguish them. Generally, it
is recommended that the vine is cut at 8 inches to a meter above the ground and left to regenerate.
Vines are only harvested at 8 or more years old, otherwise the diameter of the vine is not sufficient
for bark removal. As a regular practice, the cut vine is stripped of its bark in the field due to the
weight of carrying out the whole vine, and the inner stem is disgarded. In Iquitos, this practice is
currently opposite due to local commercial use of the inner stem for furniture making. The stem
bark is not harvested commercially in Iquitos because it is too expensive to transport cats claw to
Lima.
Processing
The Association for the Conservation of the Patrimony of Cutivireni (ACPC) recommends the
following processing procedure for a quality product: the damaged (infected or punctured) inner
bark is disgarded, and the drying is conducted on clean raised surfaces to avoid molding. It is
generally dried in the sun or shade, and it is then best packaged in waterproof sacks for shipping.
Germplasm
Collections
La Molina Agrarian University, Lima, Peru. Contact: Guisella T. Brell
Commercial Seed Sources

None known.
Selected Experts
Kerry Hughes, M.S.
EthnoPharm
146 Hazel Ave.
Mill Valley, CA 94941
phone/fax: (415) 381-1796
email: kerry@ethnopharm.com
Cat's Claw
Guisella Brell
Universidad Agraria La Molina
Lima, Peru
email: jbar@amauta.rep.net.pe
Javier Arce Garcias
San Juan 519
Urbanizacion Las Gardenias
Lima 33 Peru
Phone: (51-1) 465-1618
e-mail: jarce@net. telematic.com.pe
Ken Jones
Armana Research, Inc.
P.O. Box 1741
Gibsons, British Columbia
Canada V0N 1V0
phone: (604) 885-4713
fax: (604) 885-4784
email: armana@dccnet.com
David Llanos
Projects Director, Association for the Conservation of the Patrimony of Cutivireni (ACPC)
Javier Prado Este 255 of 302
Lima 14, Peru
tel: 011-(511)-421-0946
fax: (511) 4405094
email: daldu@blockbuster.com.pe
Wil de Jong
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Box 6596 JKPWB
Jakarta 10065
Indonesia.
tel: +62 (251) 622622
fax: +62 (251) 622100
Website: http://www.cgiar.org/cifor
email: w.de-jong@cgiar.org
References
Guevara, A. Q. Silvicultura de la Ua de Gato. Alternativa Para Su Conservacin. CRI-IIAP
Ucayali: Pucullpa, Peru.
Jones, K. 1995. Cats Claw- Healing Vine of Peru. Sylvan Press: Seattle, WA.
Cat's Claw
Laus, G.; K. Keplinger; M. Wurm et al. 1998. Pharmacological activities of two chemotypes of
Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. 46th Annual Congress of the Society for Medicinal Plant
Research, Vienna, Austria, 1998, poster presentation, 10 pp.
deJong, W.; M. Melnyk; L.A. Lozano; M. Rosales; and M. Garcia. May 1999. Ua de Gato: Fate
and Future of a Peruvian Forest Resource. Occasional Paper No. 22. Center for International
Forestry Reserach (CIFOR): Jakarta, Indonesia.
McGuffin, M.; C. Hobbs; R. Upton et al. (eds.) 1997. Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
McKenna, D.; K. Hughes; and K. Jones (eds.) 1998-1999. The Natural Dietary Supplement
Desktop Reference. The Institute of Natural Products Research: St. Croix, MN. Website:
http://www.naturalproducts.org
Zavala-Carrillo, C.A. and Zevallos-Pollito, P.A. 1996. Taxonoma, Distribucin Geogrfica y
Status del Genero Uncaria en el Per- Ua de Gato. Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina Facultad de Ciencias Forestales: Lima, Peru.
Contributors:
Kerry Hughes, M.Sc., EthnoPharm , 146 Hazel Ave., Mill Valley, CA, 94941
Tony Worth, MW, International, 225 Long Avenue, Hillside, NJ, 07205-2349
contributors.
Typha ssp.
Typha ssp.
Typhaceae
Cattail
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Most species have been used in many ways by the local cultures, wherever they grow, and they are
widely distributed. Rhizomes, in autumn, are rich in starch and constitute a good rootcrop. The
pithy core, where rootstock and sprouting new stem join, is eaten roasted or boiled. Abenaki
Indians used the juice from the roots; others extracted a jelly. Sprouts are often eaten raw or
pickled (Fernald et al., 1958). Paiute ate the flower stalks, pre-pollen, raw or boiled or steamed.
Fernald et al. suggest that the pre-pollen flowerstalks have a flavor suggesting both olives and
artichokes. Asian Indians, like Amer-indians, are said to make bread from the pollen. The pollen is
sometimes substituted for that of Lycopodium. Floss is a good kapok substitute. Leaves used in
basketry.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Typha.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:52 PM]
Typha ssp.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the roots of Typha angustifolia are used in folk remedies for
tumors in Chile and Argentina. Reported to be anodyne, anticoagulant, astringent, aphrodisiac,
diuretic, emetic, hemostat, refrigerant, sedative, styptic, suppurative, tonic, uterotonic, vermifuge,
and vulnerary, cattails are a folk remedy for amenorrhea, bruises, burns, cystitis, diarrhea, dropsy,
dysentery, ecchymosis, epistaxis, erysipelas, fever, gonorrhea, hematochezia, hematemesis,
hematuria, leucorrhea, measles, metroxenia, ophthalmia, piles, scalds, snakebite, sores, swellings,
tumors, vaginitis, wounds, etc. (Duke and Wain, 1981).
Chemistry
Roots of Typha latifolia contain 30% starch, 7.8% crude protein, 1% crude sugar, 0.7% glucose,
0.7% oxalic acid. Aerial portions contain 1.53.5% fats, 712% crude protein, 3848%
carbohydrates. Leaves contain quercetin-3- neohesperidosid, quercetin- and
kaempferol-3-glucoside, quercetin- and kaempferol-3-galactoside. The pollen, used both as a
medicine and foodstuff, contains 19% crude protein, 17.8% carbohydrates (glucose, fructose,
arabinose, rhamnose, xylose) and 1.1% lipids. In the seed oil, linolenic acid and glycerides
predominate. The plant is said to be rich in vitamin B1, B2, and C.
Description
Typha latifolia is a perennial herb, from a creeping rhizome, 12.7 m tall; leaves flat, sheathing,
pale or grayish-green, 623 mm wide; staminate (713 cm long) and dark brown pistillate (2.520
cm long) parts of the spike usually contiguous, in fruit 1.23.5 cm thick, its surface appearing
minutely pebbled with crowned persistent stigmas and scarcely bristly, pistillate flowers without
branchlets among the bristles; stigmas lance-ovate, fleshy, persistent; denuded axis of old spike
retaining slender pedicles 12 mm long; fruit about 1 cm long, with copious white hairs arising
near the base.
Germplasm
Reported from American, African, and Eurasian Centers of Diversity, cattail is reported to tolerate
poor soil and waterlogging. (2n = 30)
Distribution
Typha latifolia is the common inland species in the USA, inhabiting marshes, shallow water,
ditches, and wet wastes along river. It is said to be native throughout the United States, Eurasia,
and North Africa. It has been classified as a serious weed in Hungary, a principal weed in
Australia, Germany, Italy, Rhodesia, Spain, Tunisia, and a common weed in Argentina, Iran,
Kenya, Portugal, and the US (Holm et al, 1979).
Typha ssp.
Ecology
Ranging from tropical to cool temperate life zones, cattails tolerate annual precipitation of 4 to 40
dm and annual temperature of 6 to 28 (estimated by J. Duke, too few data in computer).
Cultivation
Not currently cultivated, but could be considered as a cultivar for ornament, food, or medicine by
those disposed to use the plant. Propagation is usually by division, but the minute reed can be
planted in pots in water.
Harvesting
If the rhizomes are to be harvested for energy or food, it is suggested that fall might be the best
time for harvesting.

According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity for Typha latifolia ranges
from 6 to 20 MT/ha, other species reporting intermediate yields. In Britain, cattail swamps are said
to produce 10.7 MT/ha/yr.
Energy
In Alcohol Week (October 20, 1980), there is a headline "DOE MAY FUND
CATTAILS-TO-ETHANOL TECHNOLOGY: SEES LOWER COST, BIG YIELDS". The
unsolicited proposal from a Florida Junior College suggests that one cattail crop will produce
1,0001,500 gals/acre/year, while two crops would bring 2,100 to 3,100, and three crops
3,1004,700 gals/acre, the higher figure representing more than 110 barrels ethanol per acre.
While I believe these figures are extremely optimistic, I would endorse a serious study of cattails
as a potential energy source. Douglas Pratt is quoted in the Washington Star to recommend several
advantages to cattails. "Since they grow in wetlands, cattails do not compete for land that could be
used for crops or forests, and drainage is unnecessary. Cattails use some pollutants as nutrients.
Cattail farms near sewage treatment plants could clean troublesome nitrogen and phosphorus from
effluent. Unlike nuclear power and fossil fuels, cattails do not add heat and carbon dioxide to the
earth but recycle them. The plants use the sun's energy and the atmosphere's carbon dioxide to
produce starches and sugars through photosynthesis. This heat and gas are returned to the cycle
when the cattails are used as fuel. Wetlands are extensive and largely unused. According to one
estimate, the United States has 140,000 square miles of wetlands from Alaska to the tip of Florida.
Minnesota is estimated to have 10 million acres where cattail could grow, which theoretically
could supply enough of them to meet the state's entire energy needs. Harvesting cattails in strips is
compatible with preservation of wildlife and makes replanting unnecessary. Cattails spread with
Typha ssp.
underwater stems called rhizomes and each year can recover the harvested strips. Cattails are an
annually renewable resource, whereas coal, oil and peat take thousands or millions of years to
form." (Washington Star, September 4, 1979).
Biotic Factors
The cucumber mosaic virus has been reported from Typha angustifolia, the wheat streak mosiac
from T. latifolia. Among the fungus diseases on Typha latifolia are Cladosporium, Cryptomela
typhae, Didymosphaeria typhae, Gloeosporium sp., Guignardia sp., Hendersonia typhae,
Heterosporium maculatum, Hymenopsis hydrophila, Leptosphaeria spp., Leptothyrium typhina,
Lophodermium typhinum, Mycosphaerella typhae, Ophiobolus sp., Phoma orthosticha,
Phyllosticta typhina, Pleospora typhae, Pythiogeton autossytum, Pythium helicoides, Sclerotium
hydrophilum, Scolecotrichum typhae, Stagonospora typhoidearum, and Typhula latissima. The
nematode Meloidogyne sp. is also reported.

On a % DM basis, the plant contained 71.57% volatiles, 7.90% ash, 20.53% fixed carbon, 42.99%
C, 5.25% H, 42.47% O, 0.74% N, 0.04% S, 0.38% Cl, and undetermined residue.
References
Holm, L.G., Pancho, J.V., Herberger, J.P., and Plucknett, D.L. 1979. A geographical atlas of
world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Agric. 39(5/6):1416.
Pennisetum glaucum
Pennisetum
glaucum (L.) R.
Br.
Syn.: Pennisetum
typhoides (Burm.)
Stapf & Hubb.
Pennisetum
americanum (L.)
Leeke
Poaceae, or
Gramineae
Pearl millet,
Bullrush millet,
Cattail millet
Pearl Millet: New Feed Grain CropDavid J. Andrews, John F. Rajewski, and K. Anand Kumar
The Use of Protogyny to Make Hybrids in Pearl MilletDavid J. Andrews, Barnabas Kiula, and
John F. Rajewski
Advances in Grain Pearl Millet: Utilization and Production ResearchDavid J. Andrews, Wayne
W. Hanna, John F. Rajewski, and Victoria P. Collins
Evaluation of Pearl Millet for Swine and DucksOlayiwola Adeola, Dale King, and Bradley V.
Lawrence
Pearl Millet: A Potential Early Maturing Dryland Feed Grain Crop (Abstract)William D.
Stegmeier, B. Khaleeq, R.L. Vanderlip, and D.J. Andrews
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pennisetum_glaucum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:53 PM]
Pennisetum glaucum
Stand Establishment in Relation to Seedling Mesocotyl and Coleoptile Length in Pearl Millet
(Abstract)B. Khaleeq, W.D. Stegmeier, and R.L. Vanderlip
Progress with Proso, Pearl and Other MilletsDavid D. Baltensperger
New Crops and the International Agricultural Research CentersRobert B. Bertram
Pearl Millet: Double Crop for Northern IndianaCarl Eiche
Pearl Millet: New Feed Grain for Indiana
Weed Control Studies in Pearl MilletSteve Weller
Pearl Millet Alternative Crop Guide
Pearl Millet In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
Outside links:
Pearl Millet from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pennisetum_glaucum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:53 PM]
Kapok oil
Kapok oil
Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Kapok oil is obtained from the seeds of the Kapok tree, which is a very large,
deciduous tropical or semi-tropical tree, now grown in many tropical areas. The fruit is a pod,
about 6 inches long and 2 in diameter, which is lined inside with hairs or lint - the kapok fiber of
commerce, for which the tree is mainly grown. The seeds are free of lint, and are a byproduct of
lint production. Seeds may be crushed for oil locally, or exported. The oil is suitable for the same
purposes as cotton seed oil. The press cake and meal are used for cattle feed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Kapok_oil.html [5/16/2004 3:49:53 PM]
Celandine
Celandine
Chelidonium majus L.
Other common names.Chelidonium, garden celandine, greater
celandine, tetterwort, killwart, wart flower, wartweed, wartwort,
felonwort, cockfoot, devil's-milk, Jacob's-ladder, swallowwort,
wretweed.
Habitat and range.Celandine is found in rich damp soil along
fences and roadsides near towns from Maine to Ontario and
southward. It is common from southern Maine to Pennsylvania.
Description.This erect, branched, sparingly hairy herb is from 1 to
2 feet in height, with thin leaves 4 to 8 inches in length, which have a
grayish-green appearance and are deeply and variously cleft. The
small, sulphur-yellow flowers are produced from April to September,
followed by smooth, slender capsules containing numerous seeds. The
Figure 37.Celandine
plant contains an acrid, yellow juice and when bruised has an
(Chelidonium majus)
unpleasant odor.
Part used.The entire plant, collected when it is in flower.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/celandine.html [5/16/2004 3:49:54 PM]
Malkangni or Peng (Celastrus

paniculatus Wild)
Pankaj Oudhia
Scientific Name: Celastrus paniculatus Wild.
Family: Celastraceae
English Name: Black-Oil tree, Intellect tree, Climbing-staff plant.
Common Indian Names
Gujarati - Malkangana, Velo
Hindi - Malkakni, Malkamni, Malkangni
Canarese - Kangli, Kangodi, Kariganne
Marathi - Kangani, Malkangoni
Sanskrit - Jyotishmati, Kanguni, Sphutabandhani, Svarnalota
Telugu - Teegapalleru, Malaria teega
Bengali - Malkanjri
Malyalam - Polulavam
Tamil - Valuluvai
Botanical Description: It is an unarmed large woody climber; Leaves simple, alternate, very
variable, elliptic, ovate, broadly, obovate or sub-orbicular, glabrous, sometimes pubescent beneath
along the venation, up to 6 11 cm; base cuneate, obtuse or rounded, apex acute, acuminate or
obtuse; panicles large, terminal, pubescent; Male flowers minute, Pale green; Calyx lobes
suborbicular, toothed; Petals oblong or obovate-oblong, entire; Disk copular; Female flowers
having sepals, petals and disk similar to those of male flowers; Capsule subglobose, bright yellow,
trivalved, 3-6 seeded; Seeds ellipsoid, yellowish brown, enclosed in a red fleshy aril.
Useful Parts: Leaves and seeds
Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, leaves are emmenagogue whereas seeds are acrid, bitter,
hot, appetizer, laxative, emetic, aphrodisiac, powerful brain tonic, cause burning sensation. Oil
enriches blood and cures abdominal complains. According on Unani system of medicine, seeds are
bitter, expectorant, brain and liver tonic, cure joint-pains, paralysis and weakness. Oil stomachic,
tonic, good for cough and asthma; used in leprosy, cures headache and leucoderma.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/peng.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:55 PM]
Internet Resources
Interactions with the traditional healers of Chhattisgarh, India specialised in treatment of Joint
Pains
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/126_jointpain.html
Traditional medicinal knowledge about common plants and animals : The results of recently
conducted ethnobotanical surveys in Bastar region, Chhattisgarh, India.
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/185_recent_bastar_surveys.html
Some less known traditional medicinal uses of common herbs used in treatment of Safed Daag
(Leucoderma) in Chhattisgarh, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/377_safed_daag.html
Reference
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay Presidency. Pbl. Scientific Publishers,
Jodhurpur, India. p. 59.60.
Krishnamurthy, T.1993. Minor forest products of India. Pbl. Oxford and IBH publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, India. p. 35.
Lindley, J. 1985. Flora Medica. Pbl. Ajay Book Service, New Delhi, India. p. 198.
Singh, U; Wadhwani, A.M. and Johri, B.M. 1996. Dictionary of Economical Plants of India. Pbl.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. p. 46.
Verma, D.M. Balakrishnan, N.P. and Dixit, R.D. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Vol. I. Pbl.
Botanical survey of India, Kolkata, India. p. 274.
Plant
Unarmed climbing shrub
Leaves Broadly oval or ovate or obovate, usually with
a sudden short acumination, slightly serrated,
glabrous
Flowers Racemes terminal, compound or
supra-decompound, Calyx-lobed rounded,
ciliated, margin of the disk thin, free
Capsule Globose, 3-celled, 3-6 seeded
Seed
With complete arillus
Celastrus maytenus
Small tree
Alternate, simple, coriaceous,
evergreen, ovate-lanceolate, tapering a
little at the base and very much at the
apex, serrated
Axillary, fascicled, herbaceous minute
At the size of a pea, turbinate, cinerous,

coriaceous, 2-valved, 2 seeded
2, erect, with an orange-coloured aril
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/peng.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:49:55 PM]
Celeriac
Celeriac
Celery root, Turnip-rooted celery, Knob celery
Umbelliferae Apium graveolens L. (Rapaceum group)
Celeriac is a plant closely related to celery and like celery in growth habit and general appearance.
However, it develops a thick, tuberous base and root, which is the edible portion, and is used as a
salad and cooked vegetable. The leaves rise directly from this thickened base which may reach 3 to
4 inches in diameter and similar length. Plants are usually started in seed beds and transplanted to
the field. Leaves are not utilized, and the bulbous root is covered with soil during growth. Celeriac
is of minor importance in the U.S.
Season, field setting to harvest: 3.5 to 4 months.
Production in U.S.: No data, quantity limited.
Use: Pot vegetable, salad; not processed.
Part of plant consumed: Tuberous root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Celeriac.html [5/16/2004 3:49:55 PM]
Evaluation of Tropical Leaf Vegetables in the Virgin Islands
Palada, M.C. and S.M.A. Crossman. 1999. Evaluation of tropical leaf vegetables in the Virgin
Islands. p. 388393. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
Evaluation of Tropical Leaf Vegetables

in the Virgin Islands
Manuel C. Palada and Stafford M.A. Crossman
1. AMARANTHACEAE
1. Amaranth
2. Celosia
2. BRASSICACEAE
1. Arugula
2. Chinese Mustard
3. Pak Choi
4. Komatsuna
3. BASELLACEAE
1. Malabar Spinach
4. CONVOLVULACEAE
1. Water Spinach
2. Sweet Potato
5. TILIACEAE
1. Bush Okra
6. SUMMARY
7. REFERENCES
Tropical leaf vegetables are grown in the tropics and are rich sources of nutrients, particularly
minerals, and vitamins (Oomen and Grubben 1978). A number of species and cultivars have been
introduced and grown in the continental US on a limited-scale, particularly in the southern region
(Lamberts 1993). The US is a major market for tropical and specialty greens and most of the
shipments come from the Caribbean and Latin America. For example, in 1998, total US imports
for dasheen leaves (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott, Araceae) was over 90 t. From this total, 70%
came from Jamaica and 30% from the Dominican Republic (Pearrow 1991). In the same year, the
US imported amaranthus (Amaranthus spp. L., Amaranthaceae) at 27 t from the same countries. In
1988, shipments of Oriental, Mexican, tropical, and exotic produce, including specialty leafy
greens, accounted for about 5% of fresh vegetable shipments, whereas in previous years the
volumes have been too low to track (Cook 1990; Lamberts 1990, 1993).
There are several reasons for the increasing demand of tropical and specialty leafy greens in the
US. Growth in ethnic populations contributes to demand for product diversity within the produce
section (Cook 1990) and food, previously considered ethnic or regional in nature is increasingly
being consumed by a broader portion of the population. This trend will likely continue as the
ethnic population continues to grow and more Americans become familiar with and develop the
taste for the new crops.
This research study is undertaken with the following objectives: (1) collect and describe growth
characteristics of minor tropical leaf vegetables; and (2) evaluate yield performance and
commercial potentials in the Virgin Islands and the Caribbean.
AMARANTHACEAE
Amaranth
Amaranthus spp. are common, short-lived annuals, the leaves of which are used as potherb. Some
species are cultivated in home gardens and for marketing. Several species exist depending on the
region in the tropics. For example, A. tricolor L. is mostly found in East Asia, while A. cruentus
(L.) Sauer is common in Africa and A. dubius Mart. ex Thell. in the Caribbean. Amaranths are
probably the most important leaf vegetables of the lowland tropics of Africa and Asia, but scarcely
known in South America. The nutritional value is high where vitamins A and C, and calcium and
iron are found in good quantity. However, the high oxalic acid content may decrease the
availability of calcium (Oomen and Grubben 1978; Martin and Ruberte 1979). Boiling produces a
very acceptable spinach. Some Indian cultivars are markedly short-day plants, so market growers
plant them in the beginning of the summer and harvest over several months by repeated pruning
until plants flower at the end of the season.
Amaranths are upright and branch sparsely. The leaves are relatively small (510 cm long) but
quite variable among cultivars. The flowers are small, and are borne in abundance in terminal or
axillary spikes. The seeds are born in large numbers, small and edible. The flowers are not edible.
The leaves, petioles, and young tips are used in salads and as potherb.
Amaranth is a suitable plant in crop rotation. It is not affected by common soil diseases such as
nematodes, fungal, and bacterial wilt. Serious pests and diseases are damping off, wet rot,
caterpillars, and stemborers. Early flowering may occur as a consequence of a short daylength or
as a result of a short period of water stress.
Considerable differences exist between the three main species. The African cultivars of A.
cruentus are originally grain-amaranths. They have a long stem and a high dry matter content in
the leaves and bear large inflorescence. A. dubius and A. tricolor cultivars have a much lower seed
production and their habit is similar to spinach, with a short stem and succulent leaves.
Commercial cultivars exist in India, Taiwan, the Caribbean, and the US.
Eight cultivars were evaluated at the experiment station during the summer-fall season of 1997.
The cultivars consisted mainly of A. tricolor compared against the local amaranth (A. dubius).
Most of them performed well in terms of plant establishment, but differed in seedling or plant
vigor. Most of the A. tricolor cultivars had poor plant vigor and were susceptible to damage by
cutworms and leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). They also produced seed head (bolting) early
before producing considerable leaf area. The number of days from planting to first harvest ranged
from 40 to 47 days (Table 1). Edible leaf fresh yield was highest (1158 g/m2) for amaranth cv.
Callaloo and lowest (240 g/m) for amaranth cv. Greenleaf. It appears that 'Callaloo' is suitable for
production in the Virgin Islands.
Table 1. Yield and productivity of warm season tropical leaf vegetables in the Virgin Islands,
Summer-Fall, 1997.
Common name Botanical name
Daily
Days to Edible leaf fresh productivity
first harvest wt. SE (g/m2) SE (g/m2)
Amaranth
Local
Amaranthus dubius
42
3652.5
8.700.2
Tigerleaf
Amaranthus tricolor
41
4552
11.10.1
Callallo
Amaranthus cruentus
40
115815
29.00.4
Greenleaf
Amaranthus tricolor
47
2407
5.10.2
Gangeticus
Amaranthus tricolor
41
29512
7.20.3
Merah
Amaranthus tricolor
41
4328.5
10.50.2
Pinang
Amaranthus tricolor
42
4303
10.20.1
Puteh
Amaranthus tricolor
42
36714
8.70.3
USA
Celosia argentia
41
1604584
39.114.2
India
Celosia argentia
41
65017
15.90.4
Quailgrass
Celosia argentia
42
6158
14.60.2
Corchorus olitorius
43
73518
17.10.4
Green
Basella alba
57
3444.5
6.040.1
Red
Basella rubra
57
38581.5
6.751.43
Ipomoea batatas
42
82198.0
14.71.8
Water spinach Ipomoea reptans
57
41268.0
7.231.2
Celosia
Bush Okra
Malabar
Sweet potato
Celosia
Celosia (Celosia argentia L.) is present in Africa and Asia both as a weed and as a cultivated leaf
vegetable resembling amaranth. Some species and cultivars with a wide variation in leaf color are
grown as ornamental plants. The vegetable type celosia is the most important leaf vegetable of
Southern Nigeria and is popular in Benin, Zaire, and Indonesia. It is grown in home gardens and
small farms both for home consumption and marketing. The plants are vigorous annuals that grow
rapidly from seed. They are upright with alternate leaves and few branches until near flowering
time. The flowers are borne in dense heads that yield large numbers of edible seeds. The flowers
are often brilliantly colored, and the green foliage may contain large amounts of anthocyanin
pigments. The leaves, young stems, and young flowers are eaten as a pot herb. Much of the
pigment is lost on cooking, but the leaves retain a pleasant green color.
Three cultivars were evaluated during the 1997 spring season. Celosia argentia cv. USA produced
the highest yield and productivity (Table 1). C. argentia cv. India and C. argentia cv. Quailgrass
have similar yield of edible leaves. All cultivars were resistant to pest and diseases. Celosia
appears to be a good alternative leaf vegetable to local amaranth which is very susceptible to many
insect pests.
BRASSICACEAE
Arugula
Arugula (Eruca sativa Mill.) is a low growing, annual leaf vegetable with dull green, deeply cut,
compound leaves. The edible leaves are characterized by a distinctive spicy, pungent flavor
resembling horseradish. The leaves are used in a young tender stage for salads and sometimes
cooked as a potherb. The plant was considered by early writers as a good salad herb, but not to be
eaten alone. Ancient Egyptians and Romans both have considered the leaves in salads to be an
aphrodisiac. Arugula is a very minor crop in the US. In Florida, it is grown to a limited extent
commercially and in home gardens where it seems to do quite well (Stephens 1988).
In the Virgin Islands, arugula grows best during fall planting, where it takes 61 days from planting
to first harvest. Average edible fresh yield is 840 g/m2 (Table 2). When grown during the hot
summer months, arugula tends to produce flower heads (bolting) and susceptible to insect pest
damage. It is a suitable leaf vegetable for the Virgin Islands where there is demand from local food
stores, restaurants, and hotels.
Table 2. Yield and productivity of cool season tropical leaf vegetables in the Virgin Islands, fall,
1997.
Common name
Botanical name
Arugula
Eruca sativa
Edible leaf
fresh wt. Daily productivity
Days to
first harvest SE (g/m2)
SE (g/m2)
61
84014
9.20.2
Chinese mustard Brassica juncea
38
45142
12.91.2
Mustard
Florida
Brassica juncea
33
2118141
176.511.5
Savanna
Brassica juncea
34
41691612
720.5105
Pak choi
Brassica rapa var. chinensis
38
3577400
32.34.3
Komatsuna
Brassica rapa var. perviridis
51
3843131
19.50.3
Chinese Mustard
Chinese mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.], is a popular leaf vegetable in the Far East. In
contrast to Chinese cabbage the petioles of mustard have no wings and are not swollen, instead the
dented leaf blades are thin and crispy, and the taste is sharp. Some cultivars have a strong pungent
taste. Leaves of Chinese mustard are deeply notched, narrow, and feathery. A single plant may
have as many as 2050 leaves clustered together in a compact bunch. Local mustard cultivars are
used as leaf vegetables in tropical Asia. The leaves may be eaten raw, as in a salad. As a potherb it
is prepared in many ways: as a steamed or boiled well-seasoned green, stir-fried, in soups, or
mixed with other vegetables. Like other mustard, Chinese mustard is rich in vitamins and minerals.
Chinese mustard grows well when planted in the fall season in Virgin Islands. However, it is not as
productive as the common mustard greens. Average edible leaf yield is only 510% of common
mustard greens cvs. Florida Broadleaf and Savanna (Table 2). Nevertheless, Chinese mustard is a
promising specialty crop in the Virgin Islands.
Pak Choi
Pak choi (Brassica rapa L. var. chinensis) is a very popular tropical leaf vegetable. It is a
non-heading Chinese cabbage with prominent white, fleshy petioles and upstanding glabrous
leaves forming a loose rosette as in swiss chard. The large leaves are glossy and dark green. Pak
choi flowers and sets seed very easily at high temperatures and long days are favorable for flower
development (bolting). It is a quick maturing plant which can be harvested 30 to 45 days after
planting. Individual leaves or entire heads are harvested, used raw or cooked. The popularity of
pak choi as a summer vegetable in temperate zones and as an all-year leaf vegetable in the humid
tropics is increasing. In the Virgin Islands, it is one of the most productive leaf vegetables grown
during the fall season with average edible leaf yield of 3577 g/m2 (Table 2). It is being grown by
many home gardeners in St. Croix and St. Thomas. It is seen in local markets and on farmers'
market.
Komatsuna
Otherwise known as Japanese mustard, komatsuna (Brassica rapa L. var. perviridis) is an annual
cool season leaf vegetable. The plant appears similar to common mustard, but grows faster and
bigger than mustard. Leaves are broad and oval in shape with dark green color. It has the
combined flavor of mustard and spinach and remains tender in dry and hot weather. It can be
grown year-round and tolerates cold weather. It is the most productive leaf vegetable in the
evaluation trial at the experiment station. It matures in 51 days after planting with average edible
leaf yield of 3843 g/m2 (Table 2).
BASELLACEAE
Malabar Spinach
Malabar spinach (Basella spp. L.) is also known as Ceylon spinach, vine spinach or Malabar
nightshade. It is a climbing perennial plant, mostly cultivated as an annual vegetable against a
support in home gardens but in some areas as a vine like market vegetable without staking. There
are two common species of Malabar spinach, the red stem and leaves (Basella rubra L.) and the
green leaves and white stem (Basella alba L.). Malabar spinach is not a true spinach (Spinacia
oleracea L., chenopodiaceae), but its leaves, which form on a vine, resemble spinach, and are used
in the same way. The plant is a native of the East Indies, and found its way to the New World from
China. It has spread throughout the tropical world and it is one of the best tropical spinach widely
adapted to a variety of soils and climates. It is particularly abundant in India, Malaysia, and the
Philippines, but it is also seen throughout tropical Africa, the Caribbean, and tropical South
America.
Malabar spinach has thick tender stems and the leaves are almost circular to ovate, alternate, and
short petioled. They are thick, rugose, succulent, and colored from green to purple. The flowers,
borne on axillary spikes or branching peduncles are bisexual and inconspicuous. The fruits are
fleshy and purplish black and the juice is sometimes used as a dye.
The succulent young and mature leaves, and the stems are eaten. The most common method of
cooking is as a pot herb, mixed with stew or other vegetables. On cooking, the green stem/leaf
species retains its fresh green color. The red species loses much pigment to the water and is less
attractive. The leaves have mild flavor or are almost tasteless. The stems may be somewhat bitter,
and become gelatinous or mucilaginous especially when overcooked. Malabar spinach is a good
source of vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron.
Malabar spinach is a perennial that tends to extend itself over time. Seeds can be sown directly or
vines may be established directly from stem cuttings. These need a little shade on transplanting,
but root readily. Malabar spinach can thrive under conditions of moderate soil fertility, but is quite
responsive to nitrogen fertilizer. Evaluation trial at the experiment station indicated that plants can
be harvested at 57 days after planting. The red species is slightly more productive than the green
species (Table 1). Edible leaf yield was
385 g/m2 for the red species compared to 344 g/m2 for the green species. Malabar spinach is one
of the rapidly growing tropical leaf vegetables in the Virgin Islands, responds well to pruning and
nitrogen fertilizer. In addition, it is tolerant to insect pests and diseases. It is definitely one of the
minor tropical leaf vegetables with market potential in the Virgin Islands.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Note on US import restrictions
Water Spinach
Water spinach, kangkong, swamp cabbage, or water convolvulus (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk., or
Ipomoea reptans Poir) is an important green leaf vegetable in most of Southeast Asia. It is a
trailing tropical lowland plant, related to sweet potato. Two main cultivar groups can be
distinguished: var. aquatica and var. reptans. The first is an aquatic plant or paddy vegetable in the
Southern part of India and Southeast Asia, propagated by cuttings and growing in the wild or
cultivated in fish ponds and water courses. The second is an upland vegetable, cultivated on dry or
marshy land and propagated by cutting or seeds. Both types are an important market vegetable in
Malaysia, Indonesia, and other Southeast Asian countries. Several cultivars are known, but the
most important distinction is between upland (dry) forms and paddy (swamp) forms.
Water spinach develops a trailing vine that spreads rapidly by rooting at the nodes. Vertical
branches arise from the leaf axils. It is quite glabrous, with sagitate, alternate leaves. The leaves
are somewhat succulent, particularly in the wet land form, and has a pleasant light green color. A
white flower is produced which matures into a 4-seeded pod.
Almost all parts of the young plant are eaten. Older stems, especially from plants cultivated on dry
land, contain considerable fiber. Therefore, cultural methods emphasize the production of young
succulent tips. These can be eaten fresh in salads. Often they are cooked as spinach. The flavor is
bland and some spicy ingredients or salt are added to enhance flavor. The leaves maintain much of
their green color, but the stems are yellowish when cooked (Martin and Ruberte 1979).
Water spinach is planted either from seed or from cuttings. Seeds do not germinate well under
water, but can be direct seeded. Plants are normally grown in nursery beds for later transplanting in
the field. In evaluation trial conducted at the experiment station, the upland type of water spinach
was harvested 57 days after planting. The average edible leaf yield was 412 g/m2 (Table 1).
Productivity was about similar with Malabar spinach. Under Virgin Islands climatic conditions,
water spinach grows well during summer-fall season and is a suitable leafy green vegetable with
market potential.
Sweet Potato
The leaves of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) are used as a potherb in Southeast Asia, the
Pacific, and locally in Latin America. It is an important foodstuff for the highland population of
New Guinea. Sweet potato leaves are considered as a cheap and coarse vegetable. Stems and
leaves are used as forage. Often considered a poor man's food, sweet potato leaf has a rich protein
content that helps fill the nutritional gap left by eating principally the protein-poor tubers. Sweet
potato leaves are particularly important, and cultivars have been developed that are used only for
the leaves. These cultivars are rich in calcium. However, cultivars differ in general appearance,
flavor, and bitterness. Many cultivars have a resinous flavor that is acceptable unless quite strong.
Sweet potato merits a place in tropical gardens because it is easy to culture and yields edible tubers
as well as leaves. Leaves and tubers can be produced year round and plants are adapted to a wide
range in climatic conditions. Most soils are suitable for sweet potato, but soils rich in organic
matter promote lush growth of leaves. Sweet potato is adapted to calcareous soils of the Virgin
Islands. Leaves and young shoots can be harvested in 42 days after planting (Table 1). It is more
productive than amaranth, Malabar spinach, and water spinach. Frequent harvest stimulates
development of side shoots and vines. Although it is a perennial, its succulent nature restricts its
cultivation to relatively short growing seasons of 3 to 5 months. It is definitely a suitable leaf
vegetable for the Virgin Islands and a good alternative to local spinach.
TILIACEAE
Bush Okra
Bush okra, jew's mallow, or jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius L.) is primarily known as a fiber
crop, however, special types with shorter and more branched stems are frequently cultivated as a
mucilaginous tropical leaf vegetable. Bush okra is one of the popular tropical leaf vegetables in
Africa, Asia, and some parts of the Middle East. The plant belongs to the Tiliaceae and is
characterized as an annual upright, branching, glabrous, slightly woody herb. Leaves are narrow
and serrate, about 513 cm in length. Flowers are small, yellow-petioled, and borne in small
clusters in the leaf axils. The cylindrical capsules of 25 cm are produced in large numbers,
especially during the short days (Martin and Ruberte 1979). Seeds are dark bluish-green, angular,
and about 2 mm long.
Bush okra is one of the leading leaf vegetables in West Africa and is often stored dry. It is also
commonly used in Malaysia, the Philippines, and parts of Latin America. It is the most important
leaf vegetable in Egypt, where it is cultivated from March to Nov. (Oomen and Grubben 1978).
The nutritional value of bush okra compares very well with other common tropical leaf vegetables.
It is high in protein, fiber, calcium, iron, and carotene. The edible shoot tips and leaves are always
eaten and cooked as a potherb. Their edible qualities are widely appreciated in West Africa where
the shoots and leaves are combined in stews to be eaten as a starchy paste. In India the shoots are
cooked with rice.
Although bush okra is a popular leaf vegetable in many countries of the tropics, little research and
development work have been done to improve its culture and production. According to Oomen and
Grubben (1978) seed yields of bush okra are low, and germination is often very poor due to
dormancy which can be overcome by soaking in hot water. Leaf production is also low compared
to other tropical leaf vegetables, but dry matter content is high. Trials at the experiment showed
that bush okra can be harvested in 33 days after planting, however, edible leaf yield is very low
(Table 1). Yield and productivity can be increased by increasing planting density. Studies by
Palada and Crossman (1998) indicated that a planting density of 98,522 plants/ha or a plant
spacing of 50 20 cm was optimum for maximum yield of bush okra. Bush okra is resistant to
damage by pests and diseases. It is one of the most suitable leaf vegetables for growing in the
Virgin Islands.
SUMMARY
The germplasm evaluation trials indicate that under Virgin Islands conditions, most of the cool
season Brassica spp., including the Oriental greens show potentials for adaptability and higher
productivity. The warm season species such as the Malabar spinach, celosia, and sweet potato
performed better than amaranth, bush okra, and water spinach. Planting density study with bush
okra indicated that yield and productivity can be increased with closer spacing. Crop management
trials involving plant spacing and fertilizer application are on-going to improve the yield of the
common species including amaranth, Malabar spinach, celosia, and water spinach. When
outstanding species and cultivars are identified and improved cultural management practices are
developed, local growers will be able to adopt these recommendations to enhance production of
tropical leaf vegetables. Future efforts will be focused on product development and marketing of
these specialty vegetables.
REFERENCES
Cook, R. 1990. Catering to the American consumer. Fresh trends '91. Packer
54:12,14,16,18,20,22,24,26.
Lamberts, M. 1990. Latin American vegetables. p. 378387. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon
(eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Lamberts, M. 1993. New horticultural crops for the Southeastern United States. p. 8292.
In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
Martin, F.W. and R.M. Ruberte. 1979. Edible leaves of the tropics. Antillan College Press,
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico.
Oomen, H.A.P.C. and G.J.H. Grubben. 1978. Tropical leaf vegetables in human nutrition.
Communication 69, Dept. of Agr. Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam,
Netherlands. Orphan Publishing Co., Willemstad, Curacao.
Palada, M.C. and S.M.A. Crossman. 1998. Planting density affects growth and yield of bush
okra. Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Soc. 34:(in press).
Pearrow, J. 1991. U.S. imports of fruits and vegetables under plant quarantine regulations,
Fiscal year 1988. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Economic Research Service. Washington, DC.
Stephens, J.M. 1988. Manual of minor vegetables. Bul. SP-40. Co-op. Extension Service,
Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
Ipomoea aquatica is a federal noxious weed. Under authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act,
the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service prohibits the importation and interstate movement
of this species, except under USDA-issued noxious weed permit. Although I. aquatica is prized as
a vegetable, it is also an agricultural and environmental pest, reducing yields of rice and sugarcane
in other parts of the world, and affecting aquatic ecosystems, irrigation systems, reservoirs, and
navigation and recreation on fresh waterways.

APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) encourages importers to be aware of import
restrictions meant to protect American agriculture and natural areas. Please refer to the APHIS
web site for more information: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/ss/permits.html
Centipedegrass
Centipedegrass
Gramineae Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack.
This grass, native to Asia, was introduced into the United States in 1919. It is
a low-growing perennial, spreading by stolons. It makes a dense mat of stems and leaves. It is of
very low nutritive value, so is of little value for pastures, but is useful for lawns and erosion
control. It is not hardy, but is grown in the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to Texas.
Propagation is by planting stolons or from seed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Centipedegrass.html [5/16/2004 3:49:57 PM]
Monstera deliciosa
Monstera deliciosa L.
Araceae
Ceriman
CerimanJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Last update Tuesday, January 26, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Monstera_deliciosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:49:58 PM]
Ceriops tagal
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob.

Syn.: Ceriops candolliana Arn.
Rhizophoraceae
Tagal mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Andamese are said to sometimes eat the fruit. Asians may use the astringent bark or the old calyx
with their betel quid (Hou, 1958). Bent branches are used (as are the knees) for boats, the trunks
for housebuilding. Regarded as the most durable of the mangroves. (Burkill, 1966). In Indonesia
the wood is used for mine timbers and pit props. Bark used for tanning matter and as a source of a
black dye. Treating nets and sails with the bark extract is said to preserve them from decay
(C.S.I.R., 19481976).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Ceriops_tagal.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:49:59 PM]
Ceriops tagal
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent and hemostat, tagal mangrove is a folk remedy for malaria and sores
(Duke and Wain, 1981). The shoot decoction, used as a hemostat, has served as a quinine
substitute (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). The bark is also used in lotions for malignant ulcers (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). Malays give the bark infusion to women in confinement with abdominal ailments.
Filipinos used the bark to cure diabetes during the Japanese occupation (Perry, 1980).
Chemistry
Bark contains 2340% tannin. Leaves contain 15.45%, twig bark 25.89%, and bole bark 41.22%
tannin (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Twig bark may contain up to 1.77% NaCl.
Description
Evergreen tree 515(-25) m high and 2040 cm in diameter, of ten with unbranched stilt roots and
thin knees 2030 cm high. Bark light gray or reddish-brown, smooth or irregularly fissured; inner
bark orange or reddish. Leaves opposite, clustered at end of twigs, obovate to elliptical, 510 cm
long, 26 cm wide, rounded and emarginate at tip, acute at base, entire, thick, leathery, glabrous,
without visible veins. Petiole 13.5 cm long, stipules paired, narrow, ca 2 cm long. Cymes single
and short-stalked in leaf axils. Flowers 410, short stalked, ca 6 mm long. Calyx yellow-green
with 56 narrow pointed lobes turned back on fruit; petals 56, white, united at base, 2-lobed and
ending in 24 bristles, stamens 1012; pistil with conical, partly inferior 3-celled ovary and short
style. Berry drooping, ovoid, 1.52.5 cm long, leathery. Seed 1, viviparous, becoming
cigar-shaped or club-shaped, sharply angled, 1525(-35) cm long (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the African, Australian, Hindustani, and Indonesia -Indochina Centers of Diversity,
tagal mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate diseases, insects, pests, salt, and
waterlogging (NAS, 1980; Little, 1983).
Distribution
South and East Africa to Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Andamans, Thailand,
Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, Taiwan, through Malaysia to Micronesia, northern Australia,
and Melanesia to New Caledonia. Rare and local in South Africa. Not widely introduced.
Ceriops tagal
Ecology
Zones, tagal mangrove is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 80 dm, annual
temperature of 20 to 26C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Usually on well drained soils, within the reach of
occasional tides in the inner mangrove. Sometimes occurs under Rhizophora or Bruguiera forest,
but may form dense monospecific stands.
Cultivation
Harvesting
Species of Rhizophoraceae, growing only from the tips of the branches, are often killed by
indiscriminate lopping of branches (NAS, 1980a).

Cannell (1982) cites data on a mangrove forest dominated by Rhizophora, Ceriops, and
Sonneratia, averaging 11 m tall, with an LAI of 3.74.2. The stemwood and bark on a DM basis
weighed 74.4 MT/ha, the prop roots 61.2 MT/ha, the branches 15.8, the foliage 7.4, the fruits 0.3,
for a total standing aerial biomass of 157 MT/ha. The CAI (current annual increment) of stem
wood, bark, and branches was 20 MT/ha/yr , foliage 6.7, fruits 0.3. These data, taken from a
mangrove on Phuket Island, Thailand, regenerated following clear felling, suggest annual
productivity may attain 20 MT/ha/yr in Asian mangroves.
Energy
According to the data in the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity of mangroves is
estimated to range from 5 to 25 MT/ha. Tagal mangrove has a very high fuel value, "certainly one
of the best of firewoods" (Burkill, 1966). With calorific value of 5,150 cals, or 9,272 Btu, the
wood is used directly as fuel, or converted to charcoal, described as excellent (C.S.I.R.,
19481976; Little, 1983).
Biotic Factors
No data available.
Ceriops tagal
References
New York.
vols. New Delhi.
New Delhi.
Chaenomeles: Potential New Fruit Crop for Northern Europe
Rumpunen, K. 2002. Chaenomeles: Potential new fruit crop for Northern Europe. p. 385392. In: J.
Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Chaenomeles: Potential New Fruit Crop for

Northern Europe
Kimmo Rumpunen
INTRODUCTION
A number of plant species, that have only rarely been cultivated in the past, are now being investigated for
possible domestication in northern Europe. Species within the Rosaceous genus Chaenomeles (also referred to
as the common name of these species) have received increased attention because of their high yield of fruits,
which are rich in juice, aroma, and dietary fiber, and because of their presumed potential for cultivation with
organic production methods. In the Baltic region, development of Japanese quince (C. japonica) started in
Latvia 1951. In 1993, the interest for growing Japanese quince reached a peak. Plantations in Latvia and
Lithuania at that time comprised more than 400 ha. However, the seed propagated plants were very variable in
several traits, including important fruit characters. This heterogeneity made field management difficult,
cultivation less profitable and prevented the development of high quality products. At the same time the shift
in economical system in the independent Baltic countries contributed to a strong competition on the market
from import of exotic juice concentrates. Consequently the interest in growing Japanese quince dropped
drastically. The need for improved plant material became obvious and a joint Latvian-Lithuanian-Swedish
plant breeding program was therefore initiated. In this paper, the genus Chaenomeles is introduced, and its
potential and utilization as a fruit crop is reviewed.
THE GENUS CHAENOMELES

Systematic Position
The genus Chaenomeles Lindley (chaenomeles) is assigned to the subfamily Maloideae of the ecologically
and economically important Rosaceae (Phipps et al. 1990). Within Maloideae, Chaenomeles is most closely
related to the genera Cydonia (quince), Docynia, Malus (apple) and Pyrus (pear). Chaenomeles has obtained
its name from the Greek chaino, to gape, and melon apple, based on Thunbergs 1784 description of the
type species for the genus: C. japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ex Spach (Weber 1964). This description is not
considered correct, since the fruit very seldom splits (Weber 1964), but is a phenomenon that has been noticed
occasionally.
Taxonomy
Four species, C. cathayensis (Hemsl.) Schneider (Chinese quince), C. japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (Japanese
quince or dwarf Japanese quince), C. speciosa (Sweet) Nakai (flowering quince), and C. thibetica Y (Tibetan
quince) are now recognized in Chaenomeles (Phipps et al. 1990). Four hybridogenous taxa, resulting from
successful ornamental plant breeding, are also discriminated (Weber 1964): C. superba (Frahm) Rehder (C.
japonica C. speciosa, Superba group), C. clarkiana Weber (C. cathayensis C. japonica, Clarkiana
group), C. vilmoriniana Weber (C. cathayensis C. speciosa, Vilmoriniana group), and C. californica
Clarke ex Weber [C. cathayensis (C. superba), Californica group].
Taxonomic confusion has throughout the history been extensive for the genus Chaenomeles. The separation of
the four chaenomeles species from the two quince species (Cydonia oblonga and Cydonia sinensis) is now
supported by morphological studies of the fruits (Rataru and Ponomarenko 1993) and by molecular studies
(Campbell et al. 1995; Kaneko et al. 2000). The taxonomic confusion and the fact that not all Chaenomeles
species had been thoroughly studied were two reasons to re-investigate the genus by morphology and by
various molecular markers (Rumpunen 2001). A large collection of wild Chinese and Japanese Chaenomeles
accessions was therefore assembled and studied. In agreement with previous studies on cultivated
Chaenomeles material (Bartish et al. 1999; Garkava et al. 2000) C. japonica was clearly differentiated from C.
speciosa and C. cathayensis (Bartish et al. 2000a). The recently recognized species C. thibetica appeared to be
rather closely related to C. cathayensis. Populations of C. japonica and C. speciosa were considerably more
diverse than populations of C. cathayensis and C. thibetica. Correspondingly, most of the total variability
could be attributed to within-population differentiation in the case of C. japonica and C. speciosa, and to
between-population differentiation in the case of C. cathayensis. Differences in mating systems among the
species was suggested as a possible explanation for these results (Bartish et al. 2000a). Furthermore, analysis
of diagnostic RAPD markers and of chloroplast DNA haplotypes supported the notion of spontaneous
hybridization between C. cathayensis and C. speciosa in some wild populations (Bartish et al. 2000b).
Cytogenetics, Mating System, and Patterns of Inheritance

The basic chromosome number of x = 17, and the diploid count 2n = 34 for C. cathayensis, C. japonica, and
C. speciosa was reported by Moffett (1931) and has later been confirmed (Weber 1964; Saito and Kaneko
1975; Singhal 1990). The same chromosome number has recently been obtained for C. thibetica (S.
Kauppinen, unpubl. data). Tetraploidy has been reported only in one cultivar with very large flowers (Weber
1964). A large number of C. japonica polyploids have however been developed within the ongoing plant
breeding program (unpubl. results).
Distribution and Ecology

Chaenomeles japonica is a dwarf shrub (0.61.2 m) which occurs in central and south Japan at elevations
from 1002100 m on hillsides, and on riverbanks and lakeshores (Weber 1964). The other three species are
mainly distributed in China, with a presumed center of origin in Yunnan and Tibet, but their precise
distribution and ecology is not yet fully known. Chaenomeles thibetica is a large shrub (1.53 m) and
wild-growing populations have been reported from 2700 m. It has, however, been reported in cultivation at
the remarkable altitude of 3760 m (Y and Kuan 1963). Chaenomeles cathayensis is a large shrub or a small
tree (up to 6 m) which grows at 9002500 m, and C. speciosa is a large shrub (25 m) which grows at
2001700 m (Weber 1964). The Chinese species grow on hillsides, in open thickets, on rocky slopes, in
ravines, and in forests. From the distribution of the species and from their performance in cultivation, it may
be concluded that the Chinese species are mainly continental and the Japanese species is coastal. All species
normally have abundant thorns, terminating short or long shoots. However, mass selection has considerably
reduced the frequency of thorns in the plant material presently cultivated in Latvia and Lithuania. A few
thornless cultivars of C. japonica, C. speciosa, and C. superba are also known (Buchter-Weisbrodt 1992;
Weber 1964).
Floral Biology
On plants of C. cathayensis, C. japonica, and C. speciosa (C. thibetica not yet thoroughly studied), 1 to 6
flower buds occur in clusters, on two-year-old or older branches. The flower buds are normally formed during
late summer and autumn, but may develop as either short shoot type (in the spring and in the late autumn) or
long shoot type (from late spring to late autumn).
The showy flowers of Chaenomeles are usually classified as perfect and homomorphic (Kaufmane and
Rumpunen 2002a). Nevertheless, when screening collections and breeding populations, it was noticed that
almost every plant also had several imperfect flowers with stunted, sterile pistils. This is in agreement with
previous observations (Weber 1964) where every studied species were reported to also form unisexual flowers
(female and male, respectively). The size and shape of the hypanthium forming the base of the flowers may be
used to distinguish unisexual flowers, a short cup-shaped hypanthium being typical for functionally male
flowers (Weber 1964; Kaufmane and Rumpunen 2002a).
The flowers of all species within the genus Chaenomeles normally have five sepals and five petals. The petals
can vary from white to darkest red through pink, orange, and scarlet, and bi-colored petals are frequent
(Weber 1964). The number of stamens is usually large, 4060. The stamens are of somewhat varying length,
and are placed in two circles. The female gametophyte develops in the deeply inferior ovary at the base of the
pistil (Kaufmane and Rumpunen 2002b). In general 5 styles are fused for 1/3 to 2/3 of their length and the
column formed by the styles is characteristic for the genus Chaenomeles (Weber 1964). The stigma is of the
wet type, group III, following the classification of Heslop-Harrison and Shivanna (1977) and is receptive at
anthesis (Kaufmane and Rumpunen 2002a). Pollinating vectors are honeybees and bumblebees, which are
attracted to the nectar-rich but scentless flowers. Each locule in the ovary contains up to about 20 ovules
(arranged horizontally in two rows), of which about 610 functional ovules develop in C. japonica. Within
Maloideae, multiovulate carpels are also found in Cydonia and Docynia (Rohrer et al. 1994), which results in
the development of numerous seeds in each fruit.
Fruit Morphology
The fruits of Chaenomeles are pomes and very diverse in shape (Weber 1964; Mezhenskij 1996; Y and Kuan
1963) (Fig. 1). The fruit of C. japonica is usually the smallest in the genus. It is apple-shaped, about 4 cm in
diameter, with a weight below 50 g. By contrast, C. cathayensis has the largest fruit in the genus. It is ovoid,
up to 15 cm long and 8 cm broad, with a weight of about 180 g, occasionally up to 600 g or more (Shao and
Lu 1995). The fruit of C. thibetica is oblong and pear-shaped, typically 611 cm long and 59 cm in diameter.
The fruit of C. speciosa vary in size and shape. It is typically 47 cm long and 36 cm in diameter, with a
weight of up to 140 g but usually smaller. Typically up to 80 seeds develop in the fruit of C. japonica, up to
100 in C. speciosa and up to 120 in C. cathayensis (no information yet available for C. thibetica) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Typical fruit of C. speciosa (flowering quince), C. japonica (Japanese quince), and C. cathayensis
(Chinese quince), respectively.
Fig. 2. Dissected fruit of A) C. speciosa (flowering quince), B) C.

japonica (Japanese quince), and C) C. cathayensis (Chinese
quince), revealing the numerous seeds in each locule. The length of
the paper strip is 5 cm.
The sticky cuticle of C. japonica fruit, and some of its interspecific hybrids, is a sign of maturity, as are brown
seeds (Weber 1964). The fruit of C. japonica is usually the earliest ripening (at the end of August in the Baltic
climate). The fruit of C. speciosa, and especially C. cathayensis, needs more heat to develop the typical
yellow color (sometimes yellowish green and somewhat red) and does not normally ripen in the Baltic
climate. Fruits of all Chaenomeles species become more or less fragrant during ripening, but do not soften,
and must therefore be processed before consumption.
Utilization as a Fruit Crop

The high content of organic acids in the juice, distinctive aroma, and high amount of dietary fiber, make the
fruits of C. japonica well suited for industrial processing (Lesinska 1986, 1987, 1988). Furthermore, the fruit
is not sensitive to oxidative browning during processing, and the juice contains a high level of vitamin C and
phenolic compounds (Lesinska and Kraus 1996) that act as antioxidants. The antioxidant activity of
flavonoids in C. japonica is just somewhat lower than the antioxidant activity of flavonoids in R. rugosa
(Gabrielska et al. 1997). The phenotypic variation in content of organic acids, soluble solids, and total
antioxidant activity is large (Rumpunen and Kviklys 2001). The flavor components of C. japonica are
considered partly similar to apples and quince, and partly similar to citrus fruits (Lesinska and Kraus 1996;
Lesinska 1988). Based on the chemical composition and characteristics of the fruit, several products have
been proposed and developed (Lesinska 1986; Lesinska and Kraus 1996). It is for instance possible to produce
juice, wine, pure, aroma-extracts, pectin, dietary fiber, etc. Syrup, liqueur, carbonated soft drinks,
marmalades, and candies are the main products that have been available in Latvian and Lithuanian markets
(Ruisa 1996). Furthermore, a sugar-juice aroma extract has recently proven to provide excellent flavor in ice
cream and yogurt.
Propagation
Chaenomeles species can easily be generatively propagated. Germination rates between 95% and 100% are
frequently obtained, provided that seeds are not allowed to dry out before being properly stratified. A month
at 2 to 4C in moist substrate is sufficient (Tiits 1989) but in commercial propagation a period of 23 months
or longer is commonly used. Cultivars must be vegetatively propagated. Whereas chaenomeles cultivars can
be grafted, as well as propagated by root pieces, by layering or by hardwood cuttings, softwood cuttings are
preferred for commercial scale enterprises. There is, however, much variation in rooting ability among
genotypes (Wells 1955; Eley 1970; Kviklys and Rumpunen 1996). Rooting percentage can be strongly
increased by use of growth regulators (typically 30 ppm IBA for 18 h, or a quick dip in 1000 ppm IBA) but
size of the cutting is also important. Large cuttings (above 20 cm) root rapidly, produce more roots, and show
better winter survival (Wells 1955; Kviklys 1998). Etiolation of shoots may retard rooting (Blain and Dixon
1984) and should therefore be avoided. Protocols for micropropagation have also been successfully developed
(Panavas 1994; Stanys 1996, unpubl. data). Due to high costs, micropropagation may be limited to production
of stock material for later propagation of cuttings.
Diseases
There are only few reports of plant pathogens and pests attacking chaenomeles plants. Diseases caused by
Monilinia species (syn. Sclerotinia, conidial state: Monilia) are the most frequently reported (Creelman 1962;
Eliade and Barbu 1963; Heaton 1979; Penrose et al. 1976). Leaf spots may be caused by Coryneum foliicola
and Phyllosticta chaenomelina (Eliade and Barbu 1963), P. chaenomelesicola (Yu and Bai 1995), and
Entomosporium eriobotryae (Horie and Kobayashi 1979). Grey mould, Botrytis cinerea, has been reported on
flowers (Eliade and Barbu 1963) and on twigs causing cankers (Moore 1949). Eliade and Barbu (1963) also
reported fruit fungi: Septoria cydoniae and Cytospora piricola, and a leaf rust fungus, Gymnosporangium
confusum. The fire blight bacteria, Erwinia amylovora (Zeller 1979), and a virus, apple chlorotic leaf spot
virus (Sweet 1980), have also been reported. Among known pests are Grapholita (Cydia) dimorpha (Oku et
al. 1988), Caliroa cerasi (Raffa and Lintereur 1988) and in China the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne
incognita (Ying et al. 1994).
In Sweden symptoms of several fungi, causing leaf spots, fruit spots, and rotting of fruits, have been noticed
(I. Norin, unpubl. data). On fruits Septoria cydoniae, Phlyctaena vagabunda, Phoma glomerata, Phoma
exigua, Alternaria tenuissima, Alternaria alternata, and B. cinerea have been isolated. In addition, common
storage fungi of apple, Penicillium sp., Phlyctaena vagabunda, and B. cinerea have been found on stored
fruits, and Monilia fructigena has been found on fruit in the field. Die back of shoots, and sometimes of whole
plants, has also been noticed, possibly caused by B. cinerea. Botrytis cinerea has been observed to sporulate
on flower parts, on fruits in all stages, and on twigs. Furthermore, a severe attack of grey mold occurred on
seedlings in a greenhouse, when the fungus infected and even killed young plants of all Chaenomeles species.
Among pests, leaf weevils (Phyllobius sp.), larvae of Yponomeuta sp., and Operophtera sp. have been noticed
feeding on the plants during spring and early summer. Later in the season, larvae of Orgyia antiqua and red
spider mites (possibly Panonychus ulmi) were found on some plants.
Among diseases and pests, fungal diseases appear to predominate. Nevertheless, Chaenomeles is a genus with
comparatively healthy plants, amenable to organic growing systems. Despite that chaenomeles fruits are
attacked by some fungi which also cause serious storage diseases on apple, the plants seem not susceptible to
scab or powdery mildew. Unless field resistant genotypes are selected, fungal diseases may, however, become
a problem if clones of various chaenomeles species and hybrids are more widely cultivated.
DOMESTICATION
Chaenomeles species have long been appreciated because of their ornamental value. In Japan, to which C.
speciosa was introduced from China around 1550, several ornamental cultivars, and cultivars of hybrid origin
(also with the endemic C. japonica), were soon selected because of the showy and variable flowers (Weber
1964; Kaneko et al. 2000). Chaenomeles speciosa was introduced to Europe (England) in 1796, C. japonica in
1869, and C. cathayensis in 1880. Through intra- and interspecific crosses, more than 500 ornamental
cultivars have been developed (Weber 1963). Chaenomeles thibetica was not described until 1963 (Y and
Kuan 1963) and has not been used in breeding, and not until recently become introduced to Europe.
Fruits collected in native populations of C. speciosa (and possibly also of C. cathayensis and C. thibetica)
have for a long time been used for medicinal purposes in China (Anon. 1989; Weber 1964; Y and Kuan
1963). These species have also been cultivated in gardens in China but only recently has research aimed at
developing C. speciosa into a fruit crop been reported (Wang et al. 1997, 1998). Attempts to grow C.
cathayensis for production of pectin and malic acid have previously been made in Geneva, New York (Slate
1941). However, two cold winters destroyed the plantation and no more trials were conducted. Later research
and development of C. japonica as a fruit crop has instead taken place in some European countries, as
described below.
In Poland, research was initiated in 1978 (Lesinska 1986). The studies focused on biochemical composition,
processing and potential products. Fruits of C. japonica and C. speciosa were considered most useful for
processing, however, lack of sufficient fruit quantities hampered further development (Lesinska and Kraus
1996, pers. commun.).
In Finland, a breeding project was initiated in 1979 with the primary objective to select high yielding and
winter hardy cultivars of C. japonica. Selected genotypes have been propagated by tissue culture and are
presently being compared in clone tests (Tigerstedt 1996, pers. commun.).
In Ukraine, domestication of chaenomeles began in 1913, which resulted in the first industrial plantation in
1937. However the crop never became very popular, and in 1981 a new project was started for reintroduction
of chaenomeles. In this new project, variability was measured for several fruit morphological and chemical
characters, and possibilities for early selection were estimated through calculation of correlation coefficients
between characters and years (Mezhenskij 1989, 1996). Besides studies on interspecific (C. japonica, C.
speciosa, and C. cathayensis) and intergeneric hybridization (Pyrus), research was conducted on propagation
and marketable products. The crop was considered promising but so far this has not resulted in any new
commercial plantations (Mezhenskij 1996, pers. commun.).
In Moldavia, research on intraspecific variation in morphological characters and in some fruit biochemistry
characters of C. japonica was initiated in the 1980s. Correlation coefficients and variability coefficients were
estimated and it was concluded that C. japonica had good possibilities for improvement through breeding
(Ponomarenko 1996, pers. commun.). So far no commercial plantations have, however, been established.
In Latvia, research on C. japonica was initiated in 1951 (Tiits 1989; Tics 1992) and the first large plantations
were established in the 1970s. In 1993 the plantations in Latvia covered approximately 300 ha, with a
maximum yield of 2030 t/ha (Ruisa 1996) and an average yield of 1215 t/ha. The interest in C. japonica as
a fruit crop had also spread to Lithuania (Ratomskyte 1996; Rumpunen and Kviklys 1996). The plant material
used in the Baltic countries was propagated only by seed and very heterogeneous. A few generations of
mass-selection, however, succeeded in reducing the frequency of plants with thorns (to about 4%), promoting
early ripening, and increasing the yield (Ruisa 1996). Nevertheless, fruit quality was not sufficient to enable
production of high quality and competitive products. The need for improved plant material became obvious,
and a joint Latvian-Lithuanian-Swedish plant breeding program was initiated in 1992 (Rumpunen et al. 1998).
A link between the Swedish-Latvian-Lithuanian program and the Finnish plant breeding project was
established in 1998, and multidisciplinary research was at the same time started, aimed at studying the
potential of C. japonica as a fruit crop (Rumpunen et al. 2000).
In the current plant breeding program, selection has taken place in orchards, the selected plants have been
micropropagated, and clone trials have been established in Finland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, and Sweden. In
addition, breeding populations have been created, including offspring from interspecific and intergeneric
crossings. Floral biology (development of micro- and macrogametophytes, pollen viability, pollen
germination, pollen tube growth, embryo sac viability, fertilization, the effective pollination period, period of
flowering, functionality of flowers with stunted pistils, fruit set following self-pollination, the effect of
emasculation, and bagging on fruit set) has been studied (Kaufmane and Rumpunen 2002a,b). The content and
composition of dietary fiber of the fruit of C. japonica has been investigated (Thomas et al. 2000), and a
method for screening of pectin in chaenomeles fruits has been developed (Rumpunen et al. 2002). The
chemical composition of the fruit fragrance and flavor, and the characteristics of the fruit juice, have been
investigated during development and storage. In addition, consumer preferences have been evaluated for a
number of products based on chaenomeles fruits. Furthermore, an ideotype has been defined for the fruit crop
C. japonica, and breeding strategies have been developed (Rumpunen 2001). Important traits to be
specifically considered during selection and breeding of C. japonica are: adaptation and hardiness, disease
resistance, thorns, suckering, growth, rooting of cuttings, time of ripening, yield, amenability for mechanical
harvesting, and fruit quality.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
The large phenotypic and genetic diversity in the genus Chaenomeles, as inferred from morphological and
biochemical traits, and from molecular markers, is advantageous for crop improvement through breeding and
selection. The high content of dietary fiber and pectin in the fruit makes C. japonica a promising candidate for
the manufacture of dietary fiber-containing food products and pectin. The pleasant flavor and high acidity of
the fruit, make the crop interesting as raw material for development of a range of sweetened food products. At
present, the absence of selected cultivars limits the possibility for large-scale product development. The first
cultivars should be available for marketing within a few years. It will then be possible to establish pilot
plantations, yielding high quality fruits for further product development and marketing of this new crop.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1989. Medicinal plants in Chinaa selection of 150 commonly used species. WHO Regional
Publ., Western Pacific Ser. 2, Manila. p. 7273.
Bartish, I.V., L.P. Garkava, K. Rumpunen, and H. Nybom. 2000a. Phylogenetic relationships and
differentiation among and within populations of Chaenomeles Lindl. (Rosaceae) estimated with RAPDs
and isozymes. Theor. Appl. Genet. 101:554563.
Bartish, I.V., K. Rumpunen, and H. Nybom. 1999. Genetic diversity in Chaenomeles (Rosaceae)
revealed by RAPD analysis. Plant Syst. Evol. 214:131145.
Bartish, I.V., K. Rumpunen, and H. Nybom. 2000b. Combined analyses of RAPDs, cpDNA and
morphology demonstrate spontaneous hybridization in the plant genus Chaenomeles. Heredity
85:383392.
Blain, A., and G. Dixon. 1984. Hardy nursery stockapplying new technology. College Digest, North
Scotland College, Aberdeen. 5:38.
Buchter-Weisbrodt, H. 1992. CIDO - Nordische Zitrone. Obstbau 10:490.
Campbell, C.S., M.J. Donoughue, B.G. Baldwin, and M.F. Wojciechowski. 1995. Phylogenetic
relationships in Maloideae (Rosaceae): Evidence from sequences of the internal transcribed spacers of
nuclear ribosomal DNA and its congruence with morphology. Am. J. Bot. 82:903918.
Creelman, D.W. 1962. Summary of the prevalence of plant diseases in Canada in 1961. Canad. Plant
Dis. Surv. 42:23102.
Eley, F.H. 1970. Propagation by root cuttings. Comb. Proc. Plant Prop. Soc. 20:332333.
Eliade, E. and V. Barbu. 1963. Diseases of Japanese quince (C. japonica) and their control. Studii Cerc.
Biol. 15:531540.
Gabrielska, J., J. Oszmianski, and E. Lamer-Zarawska. 1997. Protective effect of plant flavonoids on
the oxidation of lecithin liposomes. Pharmazie 52:170171.
Garkava, L.P., K. Rumpunen, and I.V. Bartish. 2000. Genetic relationships in Chaenomeles (Rosaceae)
revealed by isozyme analysis. Scientia Hort. 85:2135.
Heaton, J.B. 1979. A new record of Monilinia fructicola on flowering quince at Stanthorpe,
Queensland. Australasian Plant Path. 8:47.
Heslop-Harrison, Y. and K.R. Shivanna. 1977. The receptive surface of the angiosperm stigma. Ann.
Bot. 41:12331258.
Horie H. and T. Kobayashi. 1979. Entomosporium leaf spot of Pomoideae (Rosaceae) in Japan. I.
Distribution of the disease: morphology and physiology of the fungus. Europ. J. Forest Path.
9:366379.
Kaneko, Y., I. Nagaho, S.W. Bang, and Y. Matsuzawa. 2000. Classification of flowering quince
cultivars (genus Chaenomeles) using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Breed. Sci.
50:139142.
Kaufmane, E. and K. Rumpunen. 2002a. Pollination, pollen tube growth and fertilization in
Chaenomeles japonica (Japanese quince). Scientia Hort. (in press).
Kaufmane, E. and K. Rumpunen. 2002b. Sporogenesis and gametophyte development in Chaenomeles
japonica (Japanese quince). Scientia Hort. (in press).
Kviklys, D. 1998. Investigation of quantitative characters and their inheritance within dwarf quince.
Summary of doctoral dissertation, Lithuanian Inst. Hort., Babtai. 2839.
Kviklys, D. and K. Rumpunen. 1996. Preliminary investigations on propagation of Chaenomeles spp.
by softwood cuttings. Rpt. 19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci.
183185.
Lesinska, E. 1986. Characteristic of East Asian quince fruits chemical composition and estimation of
their technologic usability for fruit and vegetable processing (in Polish). Zeszyty naukowe akademii
rolniczej im Hugona Kollataja w Krakowie, Doctoral thesis 100:1118.
Lesinska, E. 1987. Characteristics of sugars and acids in the fruits of East Asian quince. Die Nahrung
31:763765.
Lesinska, E. 1988. Some volatile and non volatile components of the dwarf quince (Chaenomeles
japonica). J. Food Sci. 53:854856.
Lesinska, E. and D. Kraus. 1996. Up to date knowledge on cultivation of Chaenomeles and processing
of its fruits in Poland. Rpt. 19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci.
187192.
Mezhenskij, V.N. 1989. Economical and biological features of Chaenomeles (Chaenomeles Lindl) (in
Russian). Synopsis of thesis, VIR, Leningrad. p. 118.
Mezhenskij, V.L. 1996. Research, cultivation and processing of Japanese quince, Chaenomeles spp. in
Ukraine. Rpt. 19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. p. 193195.
Moffett. 1931. The chromosome constitution of the Pomoideae. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 108:423446.
Moore, M.H. 1949. Note on the association of Botrytis cinerea with an apple canker, and with various
symptoms on sundry other hosts. Rpt. E. Malling Res. Sta. 1948, 101.
Oku, T., Y. Ohira, and M. Wakou. 1988. Preliminary notes on a plum fruit moth, Grapholita dimorpha
Komai (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Bul. Fruit Tree Res. Sta., Series C, Morioka, Japan. 15:4964.
Panavas, T. 1994. Optimization of the growth medium for the micropropagation of Japanese quince
(Chaenomeles japonica Thunb.). Biology (Vilnius) 3:4449.
Penrose, L.J., J. Tarran, and A.L. Wong. 1976. First record of Sclerotinia laxa Aderh. and Ruhl. in New
South Wales: Differentiation from S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm. by cultural characteristics and
electrophoresis. Austral. J. Agr. Res. 27:547556.
Phipps, J.B., K.R. Robertson, P.G. Smith, and J.R. Rohrer. 1990. A checklist of the subfamily
Maloideae (Rosaceae). Can. J. Bot. 68:22092269.
Ponomarenko, N.S. 1996. Intraspecific variation of Chaenomeles japonica in Moldova. In: Rpt.
19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 196199.
Raffa, K.F. and G.L. Lintereur. 1988. New host records and developmental notes on the pear slug
Caliroa cerasi (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), feeding on Cotoneaster and Chaenomeles species.
Great Lakes Entomologist 21:7579.
Rataru, G.I. and N.S. Ponomarenko. 1993. Anatomical features of pericarp structure in Chaenomeles
Lindl. species (in Russian). Bul. Acad. Stiinte a Republicii Moldova, Stiinte Biologice si Chimice.
5:915.
Ratomskyte, G. 1996. Investigation on Japanese quince, Chaenomeles japonica in Lithuania. In: Rpt.
19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 200203.
Rohrer, J.R., K.R. Robertson, and J.B. Phipps. 1994. Floral morphology of Maloideae (Rosaceae) and
its systematic relevance. Am. J. Bot. 81:574581.
Ruisa, S. 1996. Studies on Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica) in Latvia. In: Rpt. 19921994,
Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 204206.
Rumpunen, K. 2001. Diversity in the plant genus Chaenomeles. Acta Agr. Sueciae, Agraria 293:153.
Rumpunen, K. and D. Kviklys. 1996. Breeding of Japanese quince, Chaenomeles spp. (in Swedish). In:
Rpt. 19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 99104.
Rumpunen, K. and D. Kviklys. 2001. Combining ability and patterns of inheritance for plant and fruit
traits in Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica). In: K. Rumpunen, Diversity in the plant genus
Chaenomeles. Acta Agr. Sueciae, Agraria. 293.
Rumpunen, K., D. Kviklys, E. Kaufmane, and L. Garkava. 1998. Breeding Chaenomelesa new
aromatic fruit crop. Acta Hort. 484:211216.
Rumpunen, K., M. Thomas, N. Badilas, and J.-F. Thibault. 2002. Validation of a combined enzymatic
and HPLC method for screening of pectins in fruits of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica).
Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Technologie (in press).
Rumpunen, K., V. Trajkovski, I.V. Bartish, L. Garkava, H. Nybom, M. Gustafsson, I. Norin, I. Grn,
J. Laencina, J.M. Ros, M.J. Jordan, P. Hellin, P.M.A. Tigerstedt, S. Kauppinen, E. Kaufmane, S. Ruisa,
J.-F. Thibault, M. Thomas, V. Stanys, and D. Kviklys. 2000. Domestication of Japanese quince
(Chaenomeles japonica). Acta Hort. 538:345348.
Saito, K. and Y. Kaneko. 1975. Cytological observations on sterility of flowering quince (in Japanese).
Japan. J. Breed. (Ikushugaku Zasshi) 25:101108.
Shao, Z.X. and B. Lu. 1995. Resources of Chinese quince in Yunnan province. J. Fruit Sci.
12:155156.
Singhal, V.K. 1990. Cytology of woody members of Rosaceae. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. Plant Sci.
100:1721.
Slate, G.L. 1941. The limitations of Chaenomeles lagenaria wilsonii as a horticultural plant. Proc. Am.
Soc. Hort. Sci. 38:471.
Stanys, V. 1996. Some experiences on micropropagation of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles spp.). In:
Rpt. 19921994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort. Plant Breeding. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 204206.
Sweet, J.B. 1980. Fruit tree virus infections of ornamental rosaceous trees and shrubs. J. Hort. Sci.
55:103111.
Thomas, M., M.J. Crpeau, K. Rumpunen, and J.-F. Thibault. 2000. Dietary fibre and cell-wall
polysaccharides in the fruits of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica). Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft
Technologie 33:24131.
Tics, A. 1992. Krumcidonijas (in Latvian). Avots, Riga, Latvia. 1112.
Tigerstedt, P.M.A. 1996. Breeding Chaenomeles in Finland. In: Rpt. 1992-1994, Balsgrd-Dept. Hort.
Plant Breed. Swedish Univ. Agr. Sci. 207.
Tiits, A. 1989. Poosaskdonia (in Estonian). Valgus, Tallin, Estonia. 1224.
Wang, J.X., Z.G. Guan, and Z.Q. Teng. 1997. The techniques for high production of Yizhou quince (in
Chinese). China-Fruits 3:3940.
Wang, J.X., X.L. Wang, Z.G. Guan, and Z.Q. Teng. 1998. Preliminary investigation and classification
of Chaenomeles cultivars (in Chinese). J. Beijing Forestry Univ. 20:123125.
Weber, C. 1963. Cultivars in the genus Chaenomeles. Arnoldia 23:1775.
Weber, C. 1964. The genus Chaenomeles (Rosaceae). J. Arnold Arbor. 45:161205, 302345.
Wells, J.S. 1955. The rooting of Chaenomeles. Am. Nurserym. 1:11, 5965.
Ying, Y.Q., B.J. Yang, and Q.L. Wang. 1994. Identification of root-knot nematodes in thirty crops. J.
South China Agr. Univ. 15:2226.
Y, T.T. and K.C. Kuan. 1963. Taxa nova Rosacearum sinicarum I. Act. Phytotaxon. Sin. 8:214220.
Yu, L., and J.K. Bai. 1995. New species and new records of Phoma and Phyllosticta from China. Acta
Myc. Sin. 14:192195.
Zeller, W. 1979. Resistance and resistance breeding in ornamentals. EPPO Bul. 9:3544.
Chaerophyllum bulbosum
Chaerophyllum bulbosum L.
Umbelliferae, Apiaceae
Turnip-rooted Chervil
Tuberous-rooted Chervil: A New Root Vegetable for Temperate ClimatesJean-Yves Pron
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chaerophyllum_bulbosum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:01 PM]
Mirabilis expansa
Mirabilis expansa Ruz &

Pavn
Nyctaginaceae
Mauka, Chago
Mauka, Mirabilis expansa can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Mirabilis_expansa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:02 PM]
Chamaelirium
Chamaelirium
Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray.
Other common names.Helonias, unicorn root, false unicorn root,
Chamaelirium
blazing-star drooping starwort, starwort, devil's-bit, unicorn's-horn.
Figure 38.Chamaelirium
This plant is frequently confused with Aletris farinosa L., not because (Chamaelirium luteum)
it bears much resemblance to the latter but probably on account of a
similarity in some of the common names by which they are sometimes designated. In the drug
trade it is perhaps best known as Helonias, but the use of that name is likely to lead to confusion
because the plant has no relation to the genus Helonias.
Habitat and range.This native plant is found in open woods from Massachusetts to Michigan
and south to Florida and Arkansas.
Description.Chamaelirium is an erect, fleshy herb. The male and female flowers are borne on
separate plants. The male plants grow to a height of 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 feet, while the female plant is
sometimes 4 feet tall and is more leafy. The leaves which are from 2 to 8 inches long, are spoon
shaped, being wider at the top than at the base. The white starry flowers are produced from June to
July. The flowers of the male plant are borne on plumelike spikes from 3 to 9 inches long and
those of the female plant in erect spikes. The rootstock is from one-half to 2 inches in length and
usually curved upward at one end in the form of a horn. The rootlets penetrate to the center of the
rootstock. This and its disagreeable bitter taste distinguish it from Aletris root.
Part used.The rootstock. collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/chamaelirium.html [5/16/2004 3:50:18 PM]
Chamaemelum nobile
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.

Chamomile, Camomile
Nitrogen Application Affects Yield and Content of the Active Substances in Camomile
GenotypesWudeneh Letchamo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chamaemelum_nobile_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:19 PM]
(Pallas) Britt.
Rubber Rabbitbrush, Chamisa
NewCROP has Rubber Rabbitbrush information at:
Chrysothamnus: A Rubber-Producing Semi-Arid ShrubD.J. Weber, W.M. Hess, R.B. Bhat, and
J. Huang
Outside links
Stinky Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) Native Wildflowers of the North Dakota
Grasslands.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chrysothamnus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:20 PM]
New Industrial Crops: Northwestern Argentina Regional Project

Ayerza, R. (h) and W. Coates. 1996. New industrial crops: Northwestern Argentina Regional
Project. p. 45-51. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
New Industrial Crops: Northwestern

Argentina Regional Project
Ricardo Ayerza (h) and Wayne Coates
1. NEW CROP COMMERCIALIZATION
1. Ecosystems
2. Education and Information Exchange
2. IDENTIFICATION OF SUITABLE NEW CROPS
1. Chan (Hyptis suaveolens, Labiatae)
2. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus, Malvaceae)
3. Vernonia (Vernonia galamensis, Asteraceae)
4. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray, Asteraceae)
5. Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneid., Simmondsiaceae]
6. Lesquerella (Lesquerella fendleri, Brassicaceae)
7. Chia (Salvia hispanica, Labiatae)
3. LONG RANGE OUTLOOK
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Table 2
7. Table 3
8. Table 4
9. Table 5
10. Table 6
11. Table 7
The goal of the Northwestern Argentina Regional Project is to identify and bring into commercial
production new industrial crops which can help diversify agricultural production and increase
profits for farmers in northwestern Argentina. Both private and government organizations in the
United States and Argentina have been working cooperatively on this project since its inception.
The project started in 1991 with an agreement between Partners of the Americas Inc., a non-profit
organization headquartered in Washington DC, and Agropecuaria El Valle S.A., an agricultural
enterprise with offices in Buenos Aires and Catamarca, Argentina. This technical cooperation was
made possible through the Farmer to Farmer program, financed by the Congress of the United
States as a part of the 1990-95 Farm Bill (Public Law 480), and the Agency for International
Development (USAID).
Subsequently, The University of Arizona, the University of California, the National University of
Catamarca, the Rural Group Pulares, and the government of the province of Salta joined the
project. In 1995 four grower organizations from the province of Jujuy also joined. These are
CREA Los Lapachos, Union Caneros Independientes de Jujuy and Salta, Cooperativa de
Tabacaleros de Jujuy, and La Camara del Tabaco de Jujuy.
NEW CROP COMMERCIALIZATION

The development of any new crop goes through four distinct phases: (1) market assessment; (2)
identification of the most appropriate species; (3) domestication of the species; (4) commercial
production.
Growers, processors and marketing agencies must be involved and share the risks in all four
phases of this development process for it to be the most effective. Under these conditions all of the
involved parties are unified through contracts, a common information base, and personal
involvement. Because this concept of widespread involvement and responsibility is an integral part
of the Northwestern Argentina Regional project, the growers, processors and marketing agencies
have all assumed a degree of the cost, and hence risk, with it.
Ecosystems
Northwestern Argentina consists of five provinces: Salta, Jujuy, Tucuman, Santiago del Estero,
and Catamarca. The region can be divided into three general ecosystems which run parallel to each
other in a north and south direction. The eastern most ecosystem is called Chaco, and is a wide
plateau approximately 300 to 700 m in elevation. The climate is warm and dry, and naturally
supports an open woodland ecosystem. Directly to the west is a long sloping region which rises
from 200 to 4000 m in elevation, over a distance of 50 to 100 km. This center ecosystem is called
the Yungas, is frost free in most years, and receives more than 1200 mm of rainfall annually. This
area is suitable for tropical fruit production. The western ecosystem is a high plateau called Puna,
and is at an elevation of 4000 m or more. It is a cold and dry grassland, having no naturally
occurring tree species.
The work reported in this manuscript took place in the Yungas and Chaco ecosystems, within the
provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, Salta, and Tucuman. The project began in 1991 and is planned for
continuation at least through 1996, with the objective being to evaluate potential industrial crops
and then bring them into production. Ancillary objectives are to bring about a better public
understanding of how new crops can improve the economic situation in northwestern Argentina,
and to promote closer cooperation between northwestern Argentina and the southwestern United
States.
Education and Information Exchange

Establishing research plots, providing on-farm technical advice, and conducting workshops,
conferences, and seminars for growers, university faculty, and technical personnel have all been
part of the program. During 1995 alone, 12 different topics were presented in a series of
workshops, conferences, and seminars held at various locations in northwestern Argentina.
Seventeen scientists, growers and company managers have been brought from the U.S. to
Argentina to provide technical assistance. Areas of expertise have included agronomy, genetics,
plant physiology, mechanization, processing, economics, and marketing.
Nineteen professors from the National University of Catamarca and three from the University of
La Rioja travelled to the U.S. for specialized training programs lasting from 2 to 3 months. The
time was spent at either the University of Arizona, or the University of California. In 1994, two
members of a women's agricultural cooperative from Catamarca participated in the exchange
program and spent time in California, Arizona and Northern Mexico, where they were able to
exchange ideas on new crop production with growers and researchers.
IDENTIFICATION OF SUITABLE NEW CROPS

The research plots, as well as the demonstration plantings, have been located on private farms,
thus directly involving the farming public in the project. The tests have been conducted in the four
provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, Salta, and Tucuman, (Table 1) providing wide public exposure to
the project.
Through the trials, six species have been identified which appear to hold significant potential for
the region. These are: chia, lesquerella, vernonia, and chan which are sources of industrial oil;
guayule, a source of rubber, resins, and latex; and kenaf, a raw material for paper and newsprint.
Of these crops, only lesquerella and chia have been grown commercially. For the others, trials are
continuing to evaluate cultivars and/or sites in order to identify those crops and locations which
hold the greatest commercial potential for northwestern Argentina. Some of the results are
presented here.
Chan (Hyptis suaveolens, Labiatae)

This plant is native to southern Mexico and Central America, and was used as a food by
pre-columbian people in the region. The seed contain 77%-80% linoleic acid, and little or no
linolenic acid. Yields in Argentina have reached 1770 kg/ha (Coates and Ayerza 1995). The data
in Table 2 summarize the results obtained from four-row plots which were harvested in June 1995.
No statistically significant difference between sites, either in terms of total biomass or amount of
seed harvested, was detected. This tends to indicate that either site would be equally suited for
growing chan. Table 2 also shows that total oil content as well as percent alpha-linoleic fatty acid
in the seed were similar at both locations. This also indicates that either site would prove equally
suitable for growing chan.
The total oil yield is very low compared to other commercially grown oil seed crops. Because this
is a new crop, it is necessary to conduct further tests and examine the analysis techniques which
were used in the laboratory to determine oil quantity and distribution. Environmental factors which
might have affected the results also need to be investigated before a sound conclusion can be
drawn regarding the quantity and quality of oil contained in the seed.
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus, Malvaceae)

Kenaf, a native of tropical Africa, is a fast-growing annual which is grown for its fiber. It can
reach heights of 4 to 6 m in one growing season, and has yielded up to 17.5 t/ha of dry matter in
Argentina (Ayerza and Cook 1996). Table 3 presents results from a series of kenaf trials that were
conducted over a number of years, at five sites. Sumalao and Pichanal were both irrigated, while
the other sites were not. Dry matter yields ranged from 4.3 to 13.3 t/ha, with the yields being quite
variable. Yields have been influenced by both location and climate. One cultivar has not proven
superior to the others at all locations, indicating that site influences are significant and will need to
be taken into account when selecting cultivars for commercial production. These tests clearly
indicate the need for additional cultivar and location trials, and consequently these are underway.
Kenaf was first planted in Argentina on a commercial scale in late 1995. Plans called for planting
25 ha using three cultivars, with the idea being to use the plantings not only to determine the
production potential of the three cultivars which had demonstrated the best performance in the
plots, but also to evaluate alternative harvesting technologies and determine which might be the
most appropriate for the region. After harvest, the material was to be sent to a commercial
operation to be pulped, and was then to be blended with bagasse pulp and made into paper.
Unfortunately early 1996 was one of the driest summers on record in northwestern Argentina, and
the extended trial had to be abandoned. As a consequence only two hectares were sown. Plans still
call for this field to be used to test alternative harvesting methodologies, although in a more
limited scale. Pulping will take place provided that a commercial entity can be located that is
willing to work with a limited amount of material.
Vernonia (Vernonia galamensis, Asteraceae)

Vernonia, a member of the sunflower family, is native to tropical Africa. Its seed contain an
unusual oil which, because of its low viscosity, can be used as a solvent in paint. Over 70 other
potential uses for the oil have been identified. Table 4 presents the results from the vernonia trials
conducted in 1995 at Pichanal and Yuto. At Pichanal significant differences in seed yield were
detected among the cultivars, with more than a ten fold difference being found between the most
and least productive. No statistically significant differences in 1000 seed weight were detected,
and some cultivars had significantly lower oil content than others. As insufficient seed was
available to plant a replicated trial at Yuto, only one block was sown. As a consequence only mean
seed yields are presented in Table 4, and no statistical analysis of the data was conducted. The
mean values, however, indicate that this site may be the best of the two for growing vernonia.
In general the vernonia yields are low, on a per hectare basis, as compared to other oilseed crops.
The values were determined for rows planted 1 m on center. This spacing conforms to USDA test
plots, and allows comparison with their data. In a commercial situation, row spacing would be on
the order of 150-200 mm, significantly increasing yields. Pest and disease problems at both sites
also decreased yield.
Guayule (Parthenium argentatum Gray, Asteraceae)

Guayule, a plant native to the Chihuahuan desert of Mexico, produces rubber that is almost
identical to that from the rubber tree. It also produces several co-products, including resins,
low-molecular weight rubber, and bagasse, each of which have potential uses. The rubber (or
latex) from guayule can be used where synthetic materials are not satisfactory. Table 5 presents the
analysis which was conducted on two year old guayule harvested in Catamarca in 1995.
Significant differences in biomass yields were detected among varieties, however no differences in
rubber yield were found on a dry matter basis. When the biomass yields are combined with the
rubber content, rubber production ranged from 17 to 60 g per plant. Thus although percentage of
rubber in a plant can influence processing costs, total rubber production on an area basis would
probably be the governing factor used to select the best varieties.
Results of this study show that additional trials are required to determine not only the highest
producing varieties, but also to assess yields as influenced by time of harvest. Plans call for these
tests to be undertaken starting in June 1996.
Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneid.,

Simmondsiaceae]
Jojoba, which is native to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, produces seeds
which contain a liquid wax that has uses in the cosmetic industry, and it also serves as high quality
lubricant. Jojoba has been grown commercially for a number of years in La Rioja and Catamarca
provinces. The development of equipment to mechanize its production has been an integral part of
the Northwestern Argentina Regional Project. Equipment has already been developed for
transplanting cuttings, pruning the plants, and preparing the soil surface for harvest. A new type of
jojoba harvester is under development, with a prototype having been built and tested.
Lesquerella (Lesquerella fendleri, Brassicaceae)

Lesquerella is an annual plant native to the southwestern United States. The seed of lesquerella
contain an unusual fatty acid which is similar to that of castor bean. This fatty acid can be
converted to many products which have both industrial and cosmetic potential. The meal
remaining after the oil is removed contains a good amino acid balance, and can be used in
livestock feed.
Chia (Salvia hispanica, Labiatae)

Like chan, chia is native to southern Mexico and has been used by pre-columbian inhabitants of
Central America as a food source and a medicine. Oil from chia was also used in paints. The seed
contain the highest known natural source of linolenic acid (60%), with linolenic acid having many
uses in industry and cosmetics. The meal remaining after the oil is expressed is high in protein and
fiber, and can be used for human and animal food. Seed yields in plots of up to 1602 kg/ha, and oil
contents as high as 38.6% have been reported in Argentine trials (Ayerza, 1995).
Chia and lesquerella have been commercially produced in the provinces of Catamarca, Salta, and
Tucuman. The seed produced has been exported to the United States, with contracts for its
production being signed between the growers and commercial enterprises from Argentina and the
U.S. Table 6 lists the sites and number of growers that have been involved in the commercial
production of these crops.
From Table 6 it can be seen that the number of farms and growers involved in the production of
chia and lesquerella on a commercial basis has varied. The reasons for this have been the degree of
success realized by each grower, and the level of satisfaction arising from being involved with the
introduction of a new crop.
The commercial yields of both chia and lesquerella have varied from year to year, and from
location to location. This is due to a number of factors including cultural practices, climate, weed
infestations and harvesting techniques used. Cultural practices purposely have not been
standardized across farms, as it is the intent of the project to allow farmers to use those cultural
practices with which they are familiar to grow the new crops, while providing them with overall
guidance as to how best to produce each crop.
Analyses of the chia seed which was commercially harvested in 1995 showed viability to range
from 78% to 87%. Purity ranged from 84% to 97.5%. This is considered excellent, especially
given the small size of the seed and the difficulties which were encountered with the harvesting
and cleaning processes. These data demonstrate that chia can be commercially produced in
northwestern Argentina.
Table 7 provides a comparison of the returns that can be realized from chia production, as
compared to two traditional crops found in the region. The higher returns from chia have in large
part prompted a significant increase in acreage planted in 1996.
LONG RANGE OUTLOOK

Over-production of traditional crops continues worldwide. It is therefore likely that prices and
profit margins for these will remain very low, except when shortages arise because of war or
climatic disasters. Furthermore, the consumption of many non-renewable resources continues, and
environmental policies are already beginning to favor markets for many new industrial crops.
The success of the program is clearly demonstrated by the increasing numbers of hectares of chia
being grown in northwestern Argentina. It is anticipated that this trend will continue and that the
same thing will occur for lesquerella and kenaf. Such success is possible because the program is
dynamic. Many organizations and growers are already a part of this project and they expect to take
advantage of the conditions which exist to benefit their own enterprises. Others in the community
benefit as a result of improved economics. The dynamic, open nature of the Northwest Argentina
Regional Project means that other organizations and growers interested in the benefits of new
industrial crops, including diversification of their cropping practices, are welcome to join the
program at any time.
REFERENCES
Ayerza, R. (h). 1995. Oil content and fatty acid composition of chia (Salvia hispanica) from
five northwestern locations of Argentina. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 72:1079-1081.
Ayerza (h), R. and C.G. Cook. 1996. Potential of kenaf in Argentina: III--variety trial in
Catamarca, 1991-1994. Proc. III Int. Conference on New Industrial Crops and Products, and
the IX International Conference on Jojoba and Its Uses. Association for the Advancement of
Industrial Crops, Catamarca, Argentina. Sept. 25-30, 1994. p 276-279.
Coates, W.E. and R. Ayerza (h). 1995. New crops for the Rio Bermejo Rivers Basin - Phase
II. Final Report submitted to COREBE, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Table 1. Locations where the new industrial crops have been evaluated or commercially grown.
Location
Province South latitude Elevation (m) Rainfall (mm)
C. de Valle Catamarca
28 36'
454
437
Sumalao
Perico
Yuto
Chiocoana
El Carril
Metan
Pichanal
Pulares
Guemes
Alberdi
Catamarca
Jujuy
Jujuy
Salta
Salta
Salta
Salta
Salta
Salta
Tucuman
28 28'
24 23'
23 35'
25 06'
25 03'
25 30'
23 17'
25 04'
24 40'
27 36'
546
936
349
1270
1069
858
300
1240
734
369
394
600
802
715
624
841
618
825
507
1092
Table 2. Biomass, seed yield, oil content and composition of chan seed as affected by location.
Biomass Seed
Location
(kg/ha) (kg/ha)
Pichanal
Yuto
zMean
2188az
2125a
Total
Palmitic Palmitoleic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic
oil
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
638a
11
8.4
0.0
2.5
7.8
81.9
0.4
725a
12
8.9
0.0
1.8
8.6
80.4
0.3
separation in columns by Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch multiple range test, 5% level.
Table 3. Production of kenaf at five locations in northwestern Argentina.

Location (no. of years)
Cultivar
Tainung 2
Pichanalz
(t/ha)
7.7 (2 yr) 11.3 (1 yr) 6.0 (2 yr)
Sumalaoz (t/ha) Alberdi (t/ha) Metan (t/ha) Yutoy (t/ha)

13.3 (3 yr)
9.4 (2 yr)
Cubano
Cuba 108
Tainung 1
15-2
Everglades 41
SF 45-9
Everglades 71
SF-192
N-7
19-117-2
Guatemala 51
78-18 RS 10
10.9 (3 yr)
10.0 (3 yr)
9.9 (3 yr)
9.5 (3 yr)
8.9 (3 yr)
8.9 (3 yr)
8.3 (3 yr)
--10.9 (2 yr)
11.6 (2 yr)
7.8 (2 yr)
7.1 (2 yr)
11.4 (1 yr)
6.8 (2 yr)
7.2 (1 yr)
8.28 (2 yr)
6.4 (2 yr)
7.5 (2 yr)
8.2 (2 yr)
7.0 (2 yr)
----
7.2 (2 yr) 7.7 (1 yr) 5.9 (2 yr)

6.9 (1 yr)
-- 4.3 (1 yr)
7.4 (2 yr) 8.4 (1 yr) 4.9 (2 yr)
9.8 (1 yr)
-- 8.0 (1 yr)
7.3 (2 yr) 9.8 (1 yr) 5.6 (2 yr)
7.5 (2 yr) 10.6 (1 yr) 8.4 (2 yr)
8.1 (2 yr) 10.4 (1 yr) 7.3 (2 yr)
8.2 (2 yr) 7.5 (1 yr) 7.7 (2 yr)
5.6 (2 yr) 8.4 (1 yr) 5.2 (2 yr)
----------
zIrrigated
yTwo
sites
Table 4. Yield of vernonia grown at Pichanal and Yuto.

Cultivar
29E-OR2-14
35A-2-9
72A-1-2
48A-10
66C-1-9
15D-10-12
A0399
14D-2-5
AO382
Pichanal
Yuto
Seed yield (kg/ha) Oil (%) 1000 seed wt (g) Seed yield (kg/ha)
229az
188ab
158abc
154abc
139abcd
128abcd
100bcd
82bcd
43.8a
3.23a
457
42.0a
42.6a
41.9a
41.3ab
41.2ab
42.7a
43.2a
3.19a
3.17a
3.17a
3.62a
3.68a
3.22a
3.18a
186
257
143
193
150
186
157
81bcd
41.0ab
3.32a
37d
36.6bc
3.12a
NAy
150
35A-2-10
zMean
yNot

available; did not mature sufficiently prior to frost to permit harvesting.
Table 5. Guayule biomass and rubber content found in two year old plants grown in Catamarca.
Line
AZR1
O16-1
AZ-R2
Biomass (g/plant) Rubber content (%)

1103az
401b
368bc
6.1a
8.8a
8.0a
N9-5
N6-5
P3-1
O16-3
AZ-R3
zMean
337bcd
301cd
273d
268d
171e
5.8a
10.6a
14.1a
12.8a
11.0a
Table 6. Number of growers and area commercially sown to chia and lesquerella in Northwestern
Argentina.
Year
Location
Area Average Yearly

Growers
Province
planted size
total
(no.)
(ha)
(ha)
(ha)
Chia
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Lesquerella
1992
1993
1994
1995
zValle
C. del Valle
C. del Valle
Alberdi
C. del Valle
Sumalao
Alberdi
Catamarca
Catamarca
Tucuman
Catamarca
Catamarca
Tucuman
1
1
1
2
1
1
14
70
4
3
20
5
14
70
4
1.5
20
5
14
V. de Lermaz
C. del Valle
Alberdi
V. de Lerma
Metan
V. de Lerma
Guemes
Perico
Salta
31
Catamarca
Tucuman
Salta
Salta
Salta
Salta
Jujuy
2
1
5
1
6
1
2
3
5
40
10
120
5
20
1.5
5
8
10
20
5
10
58
145
C. del Valle
C. del Valle
Sumalao
Pulares
Catamarca
Catamarca
Catamarca
Salta
1
1
1
4
12
2
1
20
12
2
1
5
12
2
1
20
74
de Lerma: Includes Pulares, Chiocoana and El Carril
Table 7. Economic comparison of chia production to black and white bean production.
Gross Production Gross

Crop
Yield (kg/ha) Price ($/t) income
cost
margin
($/ha)
($/ha)
($/ha)
Chia
1,000
800
800
220
580
Black beans
1,500
400
600
320
280
White beans
1,100
700
700
380
390
Last update June 2, 1997 aw
Potential Nutritional and Health Benefits of Tree Spinach

Kuti, J.O. and E.S. Torres. 1996. Potential nutritional and health benefits of tree spinach. p.
516-520. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.
Potential Nutritional and Health

Benefits of Tree Spinach*
Joseph O. Kuti and Eliseo S. Torres
1. METHODOLOGY
1. Nutritional Composition
2. Possible Antidiabetic Effect
2. RESULTS
1. Nutritional Composition
2. Possible Antidiabetic Effect
3. CONCLUSION
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Table 2
7. Fig. 1
8. Fig. 2
9. Fig. 3
The tree spinach (Cnidoscolus chayamansa McVaughn, Euphorbiaceae), called "chaya" in south
Texas, is popular in Mexico and Central America and has been introduced into the United States
(mainly South Texas and Florida) for potential uses as a leafy vegetable and/or as a medicinal
plant. The plant is an attractive shrub, 3 to 5 m tall (Breckon 1979). The leaves are broad and may
consist of 3 or more lobes with fleshy petioles (Fig. 1). The white-colored flowers, which are
usually borne on cyme-branched inflorescences, may contain 3-forked arrangements in which the
pistillate flowers are located on the basal fork. The staminate flowers are expanded distally from
the base of the lobes. Mature seeds and fruit are rare and unknown (McVaugh 1944).
The young shoots and tender leaves of chaya are cooked and eaten like spinach. They comprise
part of the staple diet and are the main dietary source of leafy vegetable for the indigenous people
of Yucatan peninsula of Mexico and Kekchi people of Alta Verapaz in Guatemala (Harris and
Munsell 1950; Booth et al. 1992). There are many underexploited native leafy plants with potential
as a traditional food source (NAS 1975). With current renewal of interest in household gardens,
attention is being focused on promoting some of these plants as leafy green vegetables among
populations in the developing countries (FAO 1987). The edible parts of chaya plant, which taste
like spinach when cooked, provide important nutritional sources for protein, vitamins (A and C),
minerals (calcium, iron, phosphorus), niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine among populations that
cannot afford expensive foods rich in these nutrients (Yang 1979). The plant may also constitute a
potentially valuable leafy green vegetable here in the United States and elsewhere.
Chaya traditionally has been recommended for a number of ailments including diabetes, obesity,
kidney stones, hemorrhoids, acne, and eye problems (Diaz-Bolio 1975). Chaya shoots and leaves
have been taken as a laxative, diuretic, circulation stimulant, to improve digestion, to stimulate
lactation, and to harden the fingernails (Rowe 1994). Like most food plants such as lima beans,
cassava, and many leafy vegetables, the leaves contain hydrocyanic glycosides, a toxic compound
easily destroyed by cooking. Even though some people tend to eat raw chaya leaves, it is unwise to
do so.
While the nutritional value of chaya has been demonstrated (Martin and Ruberte 1978; Booth et al.
1992), none of the purported therapeutic values of chaya leaves has been substantiated with
scientific experimentation. Therefore, the present study reports on nutritional composition of raw
and cooked chaya leaves and the results compared with the nutritional composition of spinach
leaves. Also a possible antidiabetic effect of the aqueous leaf extracts or chaya tea, administered
through drinking water to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rabbits, was evaluated.
METHODOLOGY
Nutritional Composition
Young leaves and shoots of C. chayamansa were collected from greenhouse-grown plants. Raw
and cooked (in microwave oven for 5 min) samples of the leaves and shoot were analyzed for their
moisture content, crude fiber, fat, and -carotene using the AOAC standard methods (1984), for
the protein content (N2 content multiplied by 6.25) using modified semi micro-kjeldahl method of
Searle (1974), for mineral contents using an atomic absorption spectrohotometer and for total
carbohydrate using gas chromatography. All samples were analyzed in triplicate. Nutritional
components and average nutritive value (ANV) of chaya leaves were compared to spinach leaves.
The ANV was calculated using the empirical formula proposed by Grubben (1978): ANV/100g =
g protein/5 + g fiber + mg Ca++/100 + mg Fe++/2 + mg carotene + mg vit C/40
Possible Antidiabetic Effect

The experimental animals (rabbits) for this study were supplied by Dr. Steven Lukefahr of the
Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, Texas A&M University-Kingsville. All animals
were housed and maintained in compliance with Texas A&M University-Kingsville IACUC policy
on animal care and use. The rabbits were fed with standard rabbit chow and given water ad
libitum. Diabetes was induced by a single subcuteanous injection of 60 mg/kg streptozotocin
(STZ), after fasting for 18 h, according to the method described by Bonner-Weir et al. (1981). The
rabbits exhibited post-STZ blood glucose levels that were at least double that of the pre-STZ levels
one week after diabetes had been induced.
The leaves of C. chayamansa were collected from plants grown in the greenhouse. About 10 g of
the leaves was extracted with boiling water (1000 mL) for 30 min until the volume of the water
had been reduced to 90% of the original. The tea (900 mL) was filtered and used in the subsequent
experiments. Two groups of 8 rabbits each were used. The first group of 8 rabbits were
normoglycemic (non-diabetic). Four of the normoglycemic rabbits recieved water (control) only
and the remaining 4 received chaya tea treatment only. The second group of 8 rabbits were
hyperglycemic (diabetic). Four of the diabetic rabbits received water only and the remaining 4
received chaya tea only.
Before administering the tea or water (control), blood samples were obtained from the ears of 18 h
fasted nondiabetic and diabetic rabbits using a capillary tube. Then the tea or water was
administered orally through drinking water bottles ad libitum. Blood sampling was repeated at
hourly intervals for 6 h after the oral administration. Blood glucose was determined using a blood
glucometer (Miles Inc., Diagnostic Division, Elkhart, IN, U.S.). The mean blood glucose values
SE were determined and the significance of the difference between the means of treated and
control groups was established by Student's t-test.
RESULTS
Nutritional Composition
The nutritional analysis of chaya (C. chayamansa) leaves and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) are
presented in Table 1 for comparison. Chaya leaves were found to contain substantially greater
amounts of nutrients than the spinach leaves. The chaya leaf is especially high in protein (5.7%),
crude fiber (1.9%), calcium (199.4 mg/100 g), potassium (217.2 mg/100 g), iron (11.4 mg/100 g),
vitamin C (164.7 mg/100 g), and carotene (0.085 mg/100 g). The levels of chaya leaf nutrients, in
this study, agree with published reports (Martin and Ruberte 1978; Munsell et al. 1949; Booth et
al. 1992) and are two to threefold greater than most edible leafy green vegetables. In terms of the
average nutritive value, chaya leaves [14.9] is by far superior to other leafy green vegetables such
as spinach [6.4], amaranth [11.3], Chinese cabbage [7.0], and lettuce [5.4] (Grubben 1978). While
some edible leafy green vegetables are usually good sources of mineral macronutrients (Levander
1990), chaya leaf furnishes appreciable quantities of several of the essential mineral
macronutrients necessary for human health maintenance. For example, potassium has been shown
to be an important mineral nutrient in the control of hypertension and in the reduction of risks of
stroke (NRC 1989), calcium is important for ossification and iron is necessary for normal
hematopoiesis (Hodges et al. 1978). Brise and Hallberg (1962) reported that vegetables, such as
chaya, with high vitamin C content may enhance absorption of nonheme iron.
Analysis of raw and cooked samples of chaya leaves revealed that cooking may increase the
relative composition of carbohydrate and fat and decrease relative composition of crude fiber and
protein (Fig. 2). On the other hand, cooked samples of chaya leaves were considerably higher in
calcium, phosphorus and iron while the potassium content was relatively lower than in the raw
samples (Fig. 3). The increase in some of the mineral nutrients may be due to the cooking process,
which allows extraction of the nutrients from the tissues, therefore increasing the percentage of
mineral elements while decreasing moisture content (Booth et al. 1992).
Possible Antidiabetic Effect

Following the oral administration of chaya tea, the blood glucose levels of the diabetic rabbits
were gradually lowered from a high of 118 (baseline at 0.0 h) to 87 six hours after administration.
The blood glucose level of 87 is similar to blood glucose levels of normoglycemic rabbits on
drinking water (Table 2). The blood glucose levels of non-diabetic control rabbits that were given
chaya tea showed a slight increase (i.e. hyperglycemia) above the baseline 85 at 1 to 2 h after
administration, but rapidly stabilized thereafter (Table 2). The reason for this transient
hyperglycemia is unknown and needs to be investigated. The results obtained in this study suggest
that in STZ-induced diabetic rabbits, aqueous leaf extracts of C. chayamansa may be effective for
treatment of non-insulin dependent diabete mellitus (NIDDM) symptomatology. This is a first
report on hypoglycemic effect of chaya plants. The present report is preliminary in nature and
additional studies will be needed to properly characterize the antidiabetic potential of chaya in
diabetic animals. Also further studies will be necessary to determine the effective dosage,
mechanism of the hypoglycemic activity and the active hypoglycemic principle present in the
leaves of C. chayamansa.
CONCLUSION
The potential of C. chayamansa for human food and health has a significant implication for the
plant as a horticultural crop. Although demand for chaya, as a medicinal plant, has recently
increased among the Hispanic population in the United States, the plant has the potential to make a
significant nuritional contribution to the vegetable diet as well, because of its high nutrient content.
The development of chaya as a new horticultural crop would transcend the ethnic popularity and
create a worldwide market for the plant and its products, whether as a leafy green vegetable and/or
as a therapeutic herbal tea.
It is noteworthy that the chaya plant is drought resistant, which is of a particular value in areas
with short seasonal rainfall and shortage of green vegetables (Peregrine 1983). Growth of the plant
is rapid and edible leaves and shoots could be produced within a short period (8 to 10 weeks).
Propagation by cutting is easy and the woody stem sections readily root. Few pests and diseases
are known to be of any significance in the cultivation of chaya plants. One disadvantage is the
presence of toxic hydrocyanic glucosides in the leaves. However, cooking, which is essential,
inactivates the toxic compound. Other Cnidoscolus (chaya) species are being examined in our
laboratory at Texas A&M University-Kingsville to genetically select species with high leaf and
shoot biomass yield and lower hydrocyanic glycoside content. Additionally, we are conducting
research on genetic improvement, propagation, field production, potential for processing and
marketing of chaya and its products in south Texas.
REFERENCES
AOAC. 1984. Official methods of analysis, 14th ed. Assoc. Official Anal. Chem., Arlington,
VA.
Booth, S., R. Bressani, and T. Johns. 1992. Nutrient content of selected indigenous leafy
vegetable consumed by Kekchi people of Alta Verapaz, Guatamela. J. Food Compos. Anal.
5:25-34.
Bonner-Weir, S., D.F. Trent, R.N. Honey, and G.C. Weir. 1981. Responses of neonatal rat
islets to streptozotocin-limited -cell regeneration and hyperglycemia. Diabetes 30:64-69.
Breckon, G.J. 1979. Studies in Cnidoscolus (Euphorbiaceae). Brittonia 31:125-148.
Brise, H. and L. Hallberg. 1962. Effect of ascorbic acid on iron absorption. Acta Med.
Scand. Suppl. 171:51-58.
Diaz-Bolio, J. 1975. Chaya (Cnidoscolus chayamansa, Euphorbiaceae), a marvellous food
(in spanish). Tierra 30:407-408, 427-428.
FAO. 1987. Promoting under-exploited food plants in Africa.: A brief for policy markers.
Food and Agriculture Organization, Food Policy & Nutrition Div., Rome.
Grubben, G.J.H. 1978. Tropical vegetables and their genetic resources. Int. Board Plant
Genetic Resource, FAO-UN, Rome Italy.
Harris, R.S. and H.E. Munsell. 1950. Edible plants of Central America. J. Home Econ.
42:629-631.
Hodges, R.E., H.E. Sauberlich, J.E. Canham, D.L. Wallace, R.B. Rucker, L.A. Mejia, and
M. Mohanram. 1978. Hematopoietic studies in vitamin A deficiency. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
31:876-885.
Levander, O.A. 1990. Fruit and vegetable contribution to dietary mineral intake in human
health and disease. HortScience 25:1486-1488.
Martin, F.W., and R. Ruberte. 1978. Chaya, Cnidoscolus chayamansa includes composition
and nutritional value, culture in Puerto Rico. In: Vegetables of hot humid tropics. USDA,
ARS. New Orleans, LA.
McVaugh, R. 1944. The genus Cnidoscolus: generic limits and intrageneric groups. Bul.
Torrey Bot. Club 71:457-474.
Munsell, H.E., L.O. Williams, L.P. Guild, C.B. Troescher, G. Nightingale, and R.S. Harris.
1949. Composition of food plants of Central America. Food. Res. 14:144-164.
NAS. 1975. Chaya. p. 45-48. In: Underexploited tropical plants with promising economic
value. National Academy of Science, Washington, DC.
National Research Council. 1989. Diet and health. National Academy Press, Washington,
DC.
Peregrine, W.T.H. 1983. Chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius): A potential new vegetable crop
for Brunei. Tropical Pest Manag. 29:39-41.
Rowe, L. 1994. Plant guards secret of good health. Valley Morning Star. Sept. 4, p. A1,
A12.
Searle, P.L. 1974. Automated colorimetric determination of ammonium in soil extracts with
"Technicon Autoanalyzer II" equipment. New Zealand J. Agr. Res. 18:183-187.
USDA. 1984. Agricultural handbook. p. 8-11. USDA, Washington, DC.
Yang, Y.H. 1979. Tropical home gardens as a nutritional intervention. p. 417-436. In: G.E.
Inglett and G. Charalambous (eds.), Tropical food chemistry and nutrition, Academic Press,
New York.
*Sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. Steven Lukefahr, Associate Professor, Department of

Animal and Wildlife Sciences, Texas A&M University-Kingsville for supplying the rabbits and to
Dr. Mo Enigbokan, Associate Professor of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy and Health
Sciences, Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas for verifying and giving helpful advice on
the animal experimentation.
Table 1. Comparisons of nutritional compositions of leaves of "chaya" (Cnidoscolus chayamansa
McVaughn) and spinach (Spinacia oleraceae L.) per 100 g fresh weight.
Component
chaya spinachz
Water (%)
Protein (%)
Fat (%)
Crude fiber (%)
Total CHO (%)
Ash (%)
Calcium (mg/100g)
Phosphorus (mg/100g)
Potassium (mg/100g)
Iiron (mg/100g)
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g)
Carotenoids (mg/100g)
85.3 90.7
5.7
3.2
0.4
0.3
1.9
0.9
4.2
3.8
2.2
1.8
199.4 101.3
39.0 30.0
217.2 146.5
11.4
5.7
164.7 48.1
0.085 0.014
Average nutritive valuey 14.94
6.38
zData
for spinach were obtained from the USDA (1984).

yAverage nutritive value according to Grubben emprical formula (1978).
Table 2. Effect of Cnidoscolus chayamansa leaf extract ("chaya" tea) on blood glucose levels of
non-diabetic and streptozoctocin-induced diabetic rabbits.
Blood glucose level (mg/dL)z
Non-diabetic
Diabetic
Time (h) water "chaya" water "chaya"
0.0
873.1 852.5 1128.3 11813.2
1.0
862.7 913.9 1384.6 1147.3
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
872.6
873.1
883.0
874.7
873.1
994.3
821.6
852.1
844.2
822.7
1436.4
1398.0
1536.3
1587.4
1629.0
1038.7
969.3
925.8
893.6
872.7
zMeanSE.
Fig. 1. A potted chaya plant. The young leaves and shoots are edible after being boiled in water.
Fig. 2. Proximate fat, protein, carbohydrate and crude fiber compositions of raw and cooked chaya
leaves.
Fig. 3. Proximate mineral macronutrient (calcium, phosphorus, potassium and iron) compositions
of raw and cooked chaya leaves.
Sechium edule
Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw.

Cucurbitaceae
Chayote, Buddha's-hand, Chaco, Chayotli,
Chinchayote, Chocho, Choko, Christophene, Christophine,
Chuchu, Custard Marrow, Guispui, Mango Squash, Mirliton,
Pepinella, Sousous, Tallon, Tallote, Vegetable Pear, Xuxu
Neglected Crops : 1492 from a Different Perspective.1994. J.E. Hernndo Bermejo and J. Len
Outside Links
Chayoteby Rafael Lira Saade from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sechium_edule_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:24 PM]
Cudrania tricuspidata
Cudrania tricuspidata (Carr.)

Bur. ex Lavallee
Moraceae
Cudrania, Chinese Mulberry, Che, Cudrang, Mandarin Melon
Berry, Silkworm Thorn, Storehousebush
Note: Intergeneric hybrids exist between Cudrania tricupidata and Maclura pomifera (osage
orange) = Macludrania hybrida
NewCROP has outside links to Cudrania information at:
Cudrania California Fruit Facts - from the California Rare Fruit Growers Inc.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cudrania_tricuspidata_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:24 PM]
Turtlehead
Turtlehead
Chelone glabra L.
Other common names.Balmony, white turtlehead, turtle bloom,
fishmouth codhead, salt-rheum weed snakehead, bitter herb,
shellflower.
Habitat and range.This native plant grows in swamps and along
streams from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Florida and
Kansas.
Description.Turtlehead is an erect, slender herb with a 4-angled
stem 1 to 4 feet in height and short-stemmed, sharp-toothed leaves
from 3 to 6 inches in length. The flower clusters, which are produced
in late summer or early fall consist of showy, whitish or pinkish
flowers about an inch in length, resembling in form the head of a turtle
or a snake.
Part used.The herb, especially the leaves, collected during the
flowering period.
Figure 109.Turtlehead
(Chelone glabra)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/turtlehead.html [5/16/2004 3:50:25 PM]
Wormseed
Wormseed
Chenopodium ambrosioides anthelminticum (L.)
A. Gray.
Synonym.Chenopodium anthelminticum L.
Other common names.Chenopodium, American wormseed,
Jerusalem-oak.
Habitat and range.Wormseed occurs in waste places from New
England to Florida and westward to California.
Description.This common weed has a much-branched stem from 2
to 3 feet in height and numerous, lance-shaped leaves, the lower ones
1 to 3 inches in length and the upper ones much smaller. The greenish
flowers are produced from July to September in closely crowded
spikes mixed with leaves and are followed by small, green, roundish
fruits each of which contains a very small black seed. The entire plant
has a strong, disagreeable odor due to the volatile oil which is present.
Figure 123.Wormseed
(Chenopodium ambrosioides
anthelminticum)
Part used.The fruit, collected when ripe, and the volatile oil
distilled from the fruit or from the entire plant. Wormseed is grown
commercially mainly in central Maryland for the production of the oil.*
Information on the extraction of volatile oils from plants is contained in the following publication:
Sievers, A.F. Methods of extracting volatile oils from plant material and the production of such
oils in the United States. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 16, 36 p. illus. 1928.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/wormseed.html [5/16/2004 3:50:26 PM]
Good King Henry
Good King Henry

Mercury, Markery, Fathen, Wild spinach
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium bonus-henricus L.
The plant is a stout, erect herb, up to 2.5 feet, with broad, triangular or ovate leaves. Leaves have
wide spreading basal points, and are entire or undulate. Plants are sparingly cultivated for the
leaves, used as pot herbs. The plant is similar to spinach both in general growth habit and use.
Season, seeding to first harvest: about 2 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Apparently not commercial.
Use: As pot herb.
Part of plant consumed: Leaves and young stems.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/GoodKingHenry.html [5/16/2004 3:50:27 PM]
Chenopodium quinoa
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.

Chenopodiaceae
Goosefoot, Huauzontle, Inca wheat, Pigweed,
Quihuicha, Quinoa, Quinua
NewCROP has Quinoa information at:
QuinoaDuane L. Johnson and Sarah M. Ward
New Grains and PseudograinsDuane L. Johnson
Quinoa: A Potential New Oil CropMichael J. Koziol
Blue Corn and Quinoa: New Grain for the Southwest
Quinoa: Candidate Crop for NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support SystemsGreg Schlick
and David L. Bubenheim
Schneiter
Quinoa: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Quinoa Saponins: Concentration and Composition AnalysisJos Bernardo Solz-Guerrero,
Diana Jasso de Rodrguez, Ral Rodrguez-Garca, Jos Luis Angulo-Snchez, and Guadalupe
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chenopodium_quinoa_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:27 PM]
Chenopodium quinoa
Mndez-Padilla
And outside links to more Quinoa info:
Quinoa can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Quinoa facts from Waltonfeeds
Chenopodiums A Modern Herbal by Mrs. M. Grieve
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chenopodium_quinoa_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:27 PM]
Prunus cerasus
Index| Search| Home
Prunus cerasus L.
Rosaceae
Sour cherry
Growing Cherries in IndianaCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana
Cherryfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Prunus_cerasus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:28 PM]
Sour cherry kernel oil; Plum oil
Sour cherry kernel oil

Plum oil
Rosaceae Prunus sp.
The pits of sour cherries contain about 28 percent of kernel, and the kernel contains 32 to 40
percent of a semi-drying oil. Pits from cherry processing plants are cracked, and kernels and shells
separated mechanically. The expressed oil, after refining, is used as a salad oil and in the
manufacture of cosmetics. There is some extraction of cherry kernel oil in the U.S.
Plum kernel oil is extracted and used in Europe in ways similar to those for cherry oil, but appears
not to be extracted in the U.S. Plum and prune kernels contain 30 to 40 percent of semi-drying oil.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cherry_s_Plum_oil.html [5/16/2004 3:50:29 PM]
Cherry, Sweet
Cherry, Sweet
Rosaceae Prunus avium L.
The sweet cherry tree is an upright grower, medium in size, up to 40 or more
feet, but usually held to 20 feet or less by pruning. The deciduous leaves are oblong-ovate. Fruits
have smooth, thin skins which adhere to the fleshy pulp. They are globose to heart shaped,
depressed at the stem, 0.75 to an inch in diameter. They are borne on 1 to 3 inch stems, in groups
of 1 to 5. Color varies in different varieties from light red to near black, a few yellow.
Season, bloom to harvest: 80 to 100 days.
Use: Fresh eating, canned, maraschino.
Part consumed: All except pit.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CherrySweet.html [5/16/2004 3:50:30 PM]
Chewing's fescue
Red fescue
Gramineae Festuca rubra L.
Chewing's fescue
F. rubra var. commutata Gaud.
Red fescue was introduced from Europe. It differs from sheep fescue in that it creeps by
underground stems and forms a sod rather than growing in tufts. It is extensively used for lawns
and erosion control in northern parts of the United States. Plants are hardy and vigorous. It is not
highly palatable and is not generally used for pastures or hay. Chewing's fescue is a closely related
kind but grows in clumps instead of forming a dense sod. It is also used for lawns and general
purpose turf in shaded areas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Chewings_fescue.html [5/16/2004 3:50:30 PM]
Mimosa pudica
Chhui-Mui or Lajwanti (Mimosa pudica

Linn.)
Pankaj Oudhia
Scientific Name: Mimosa pudica Linn.
Family: Mimosoideae
English Name: Sensitive Plant, Bashful Mimosa, Humble Plant, Touch-me-not
Hindi Name: Chhui-Mui, Lajwanti, Lajjawati, Lajalu, Lajak
Botanical differences among the major species of Mimosa.
Characters
Plant
Leaves
Flowers
Pods
M. pudica
Small woody herbs or
low-spreading
undershrub with hairy
and prickly branches,
hairs glandular
Bipinnate, sensitive to
touch, pinnae 1-2 pairs,
leaflets 10-20 pairs,
linear, glabrous
Heads small,
peduncled, globose,
axilalry, pink-purple,
Calyx campanulate,
Petals crenate towards
base
1.5-2.5 cm long, closely
prickly on the sutures
M. himalayana
syn. M. rubicaulis
A large straggling shrub,
studded with
straw-coloured, hooked
prickels
M. hamata
A much branched, armed
shrub, branches downy,
with numerous
straw-coloured, curced or
straight prickles
2-pinante, main rachis
pubescent, some timely
prickly, leaflets 6-10 pairs
Bipinnate, main rachis

with hooked prickles,
pinnae 5-11 pairs,
linear-oblong
Numerous, in globose
4-merous in globose
heads, peduncles crowded heads, peduncles axillary,
at the ends of branchlets crowded at the end of
branches
7-10 cm long, falcate,

glabrous, one seeded
joints, persistant but not
prickly
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/mimosa.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:50:31 PM]
5-7 cm long, falcate,

consisting 4-8 one seeded
joints, pubescent
Mimosa pudica
Flowering and
Fruiting time
Sept.-March in Indian
conditions
August-Sept. and October Aug.-Nov. and Dec.-Feb.

in Indian conditions
in Indian conditions
Useful Parts: Roots, leaves and flower heads.

Traditional Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, root is bitter, acrid, cooling, vulnerary,
alexipharmic and used in treatment of biliousness, leprosy, dysentery, vaginal and uterine
complaints, inflammations, burning sensation, fatigue, asthma, leucoderma, blood diseases etc.
According to the Unani system of medicine, root is resolvent, alternative, useful in diseases arising
from blood impurities and bile, bilious fevers, piles, jaundice, leprosy etc.
Chemical Constituent: Contains an alkaloid Mimosine. Roots contain tannin, ash, calcium
oxalate crystals and mimosin.
Other Uses
Grown as garden herb
Useful for green manuring
Fixes nitrogen
Can be used as fodder.
Suitable for growing in wastelands
Seed yield an oil like Soybean oil with similar properties
Internet Resources
Interactions with the natives of Tilda (Chhattisgarh, India) region having rich traditional medicinal
knowledge about common herbs http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/55_tilda.html
Interactions with the natives and traditional healers of Dhamtari region, Chhattisgarh, India having
rich traditional medicinal knowledge about common herbs
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/229_dhamtari.html
Traditional Medicinal Knowledge about common herbs used in treatment of Dast (Diarrhoea) in
Chhattisgarh, India http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/76_dast.html
References
Agharkar, S.P. (1991). Medicinal plants of Bombay Presidency. Pbl. Scientific publishers,
Jodhpur, India: 142-143.
Bhandari, M.M. (1990). Flora of the Indian Desert. Pbl. MPS Repros, Jodhpur, India: 136.
Caius, J.F. (1980). Medicinal and poisonous Legumes of India. Pbl. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur,
India.: 174-177.
Paranjpe, P. (1999). Indian medicinal plants: Forgotten healers. Pbl. Chaukhamba Sanskrit
Pratisthan, Delhi, India.: 155-156.
Singh, U., Wadhwani, A.M. and Johri, B.M. (1996). Dictionary of Economic plants of India. Pbl.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India: 142.
Verma, D.M. Balakrishnan, H.P. and Dixit, R.D. (1993). Flora of Madhya Pradesh (Vol.I), Pbl.
Botanical survey of India, Calcutta, India.: 440-441
Resource Person
Pankaj Oudhia
Mimosa pudica

Salvia spp.
Salvia spp.
Labiatae, or Lamiaceae
Sage, Chia, California Chia, Common sage,
Garden sage, Ghia, Mexican Chia, Rubbed sage
Monograph on Clary sage from J.E. Simon, A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker
Monograph on Sage from J.E. Simon, A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker
New Bedding PlantsLowell C. Ewart
Photoperiodic Control of Flowering of Salvia leucantha L. (Abstract)Allan M. Armitage, J.M.
Laushman, and F. Vogel
New Herbaceous Ornamental Crops ResearchAllan M. Armitage
Introduction of Chia and Gum Tragacanth in the U.S.Howard S. Gentry, Marc Mittleman, and
Peter R. McCrohan
Coates
Sage
Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Salvia officinalis
Salvia sclerea
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Salvia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:31 PM]
Chicken corn
Index| Search| Home
Chicken corn
Gramineae Sorghum drummondii (Steud.) Millsp. & Chase
Chicken corn was apparently introduced by chance and became naturalized
on black soils of Alabama around the middle of the last century. Later it largely disappeared as a
naturalized plant. A selection has been increased recently, primarily for use in wild life plantings.
It is a sweet sorghum of medium size. The seed shatters in late summer, remains dormant over
winter, and germinates the following spring. Seed is in limited commercial production.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Chicken_corn.html [5/16/2004 3:50:32 PM]
Cicer arietinum
Cicer arietinum L.
Leguminosae
Bengal gram, Calvance Pea, Ceci, Chestnut Bean,
Chich, Chich-pea, Chickpea, Dwarf Pea, Garavance, Garbanza,
Garbanzo, Gram, Gram Pea, Gro do bico, Hommes, Hamaz,
Nohud, Lablabi, Pulse, Shimbra, Yellow Gram
FactSHEETcontributed by F.J. Muehlbauer and Abebe Tullu
Alternate Crops for Dryland Production Systems in Northern
IdahoKenneth D. Kephart, Glen A. Murray, and Dick L. Auld
Food and Grain LegumesFredrick J. Muehlbauer
Generation Mean Analysis of Agronomic Traits in Chickpea (Abstract)Saranga P. Kidambi,
Tarlochan S. Sandhu, and Balwant S. Bhullar
Anwar A. Hamama
Chickpea: A Potential Crop for Southwestern ColoradoAbdel Berrada, Mark W. Stack, Bruce
Riddell, Mark A. Brick, and Duane L. Johnson
ChickpeaAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cicer_arietinum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:33 PM]
Cicer arietinum

Extension Service
Outside Links:
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cicer_arietinum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:33 PM]
Cichorium intybus
Cichorium endivia L.
Cichorium intybus L.
Asparagus Chicory, Barbe de capucin, Batavian endive, Belgian
Endive, Broad-leafed endive, Chiccory, Chickory, Chicore,
Curly endive, Endive, Escariola, Frise, Radicchio, Radicchio de
castelfranco, Radicchio de chiogga, Radicchio de treviso,
Radicchio de Verona, Radicchio rosso, Red Chicory, Red-leafed
Chicory, Red Treviso Chicory, Red Verona Chicory, Rosso di
Verona, Scariole, Succory, Witloef, Witloof
Witloof Chicory: A New Vegetable Crop in the United StatesKenneth A. Corey, David J.
Merchant, and Lester F. Whitney
Lettuce and Endive production links
Endive
Chicory
An outside source for cultivation information on Belgium Endive, Chicory or Witloof from
Belgium!
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cichorium_intybus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:34 PM]
Pipsissewa
Pipsissewa
(1) Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Barton; (2) C.
maculata (L.) Pursh.
Synonyms.(1) Pyrola umbellata L., Chimaphila corymbosa Pursh;
(2) P. maculata L.
Pipsissewa
Figure 84.Pipsissewa (A,
Chimaphila umbellata B, C.
maculata)
Other common names.(1) Common pipsissewa, prince's pine

pyrola, rheumatism weed, bitter wintergreen, ground holly, king's-cure,
love-in-winter, noble pine, pine tulip; (2) striped pipsissewa, spotted pipsissewa, spotted
wintergreen, spotted piperidge, ratsbane, dragon's-tongue.
Habitat and range.Common pipsissewa is found in dry, shady woods, especially in pine
forests, from New Brunswick to British Columbia and south to Georgia, Mexico, and California.
Spotted pipsissewa occurs in similar places, but its range extends only to Minnesota and south to
Georgia and Mississippi.
Description.Common pipsissewa is a small herb a foot or less in height with a long, running,
partly underground stem and shining, dark-green, evergreen, somewhat leathery leaves, 1 to 2
inches long, rather crowded toward the top of the stem. From about June to August its handsome,
waxy-white or pinkish fragrant flowers are borne in nodding clusters from the top of the erect
stem.
The spotted pipsissewa is readily distinguished from the former by its leaves, which are olive
green marked with white along the midrib and veins
Part used.The leaves and the herb of both species.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/pipsissewa.html [5/16/2004 3:50:50 PM]
Chinese artichoke
Chinese artichoke
Chorogi, Knotroot
Labiatae Stachys sieboldii Miq.
The plant is mint-like, up to 18 inches, with ovate to lanceolate leaves. It produces numerous
small, slender tubers, the edible part, just under the soil surface. These tubers are white, with crisp
flesh which can be eaten raw or cooked. The plant and edible parts are comparable to potatoes,
both in culture and exposure to pesticides. The tubers do not store well. Chinese artichoke is not
grown commercially in the United States, but may be found occasionally in home gardens.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/ChineseArtichoke.html [5/16/2004 3:50:51 PM]
Cabbage, Chinese
Cabbage, Chinese
Celery cabbage, Wong Bok, Pe-Tsai, Bok Choy, Repollo chino, Peking
cabbage, Kim chee
Cruciferae Brassica campestris L. (Pekinensis group)
The general growth habit of Chinese cabbage is similar to cabbage, but both leaves and heads are
elongated and relatively narrow. Heads are less densely packed, and leaves are much thinner than
in cabbage. Heads range from densely packed (Wong Bok or Chee-foo) to semi- or loose-heading
(Shantung or Santo) varieties. As with cabbage, initial leaves are somewhat spreading. These, as
well as leaves immediately surrounding the edible portion, are usually discarded. The Wong Bok
type head is up to 20 inches long and 4 inches wide and is quite dense. The Chinese word "Bok
Choy" refers to all leaf-heading vegetables.
Production in U.S.: 1,200 acres reported 1959 census. Possibly 10,000 tons.
Use: Fresh, as salad or as pot herb.
Parts of plant consumed: Inner leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/ChineseCabbage.html [5/16/2004 3:50:51 PM]
Jujube
Jujube
Ber, Chinese date
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

The jujube or Chinese date, introduced into this
country from China, is a medium size tree, up to 25
or more feet, with glossy green, deciduous foliage.
It thrives best in warm, dry climates; but will
withstand winter temperatures down to -20 F. Fruit
is generally dark brown when ripe, oval to pyriform
in shape, 1 to 2 inches diameter, with a single stone. Fruit will dry if left on tree, similar to figs.
Skin is smooth and thin until drying of fruit occurs, then becomes wrinkled. Pulp is dryer than in
most fruits.
Season, bloom to mature: 2 to 4 months, depending on kind and
climate.
Production in U.S.: Not commercial. Scattered trees, mostly home
gardens.
Use: Some fresh eating, confections.
Part of fruit consumed: All except stone.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Jujube.html [5/16/2004 3:50:52 PM]
Sapium sebiferum
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb.

Euphorbiaaceae
Chinese tallow tree, Chinese vegetable tallow,
Tallow tree, Vegetable tallow, White wax berry, Stillingia Oil Tree
NewCROP has Chinese tallow tree information at:
Chinese Tallow: Multipurpose Tree Crop (Abstract)Edward Glumac and Joe Cowles
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sapium_sebiferum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:53 PM]
Fringetree
Fringetree
Chionanthus virginica L.
Other common names.American fringetree, white fringe,
flowering ash, poison ash, graybeard tree, old-man's-beard, shavings,
snowdrop tree, snowflower.
Habitat and range.The fringetree is found in moist thickets and
along streams from Delaware to Florida and Texas.
Description.The fringetree is from 6 to 20 feet in height, with the
trunk covered with a light-colored bark. It has smooth entire leaves.
The white flowers, which from their drooping character give a
fringelike appearance, are produced in May and June, are borne in
dense clusters, and are followed by fleshy, bluish-black fruits
containing a 1-seeded nut.
Part used.The bark of the root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/fringetree.html [5/16/2004 3:50:54 PM]
Figure 53.Fringetree
(Chionanthus virginica)
Chloris gayana
Chloris gayana Kunth

Poacea
Rhodesgrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chloris_gayana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:50:55 PM]
Safed Moosli
Safed Moosli (Chlorophytum

borivilianum L.): Medicinal and
Wonder Crop
Pankaj Oudhia
India is bestowed with a wealth of medicinal
plants, most of which have been used in
Ayurveda, Unani systems of medicines, and
by tribal healers. Safed moosli
(Chlorophytum borivilianum L., Liliaceae)
holds an important position in Indian herbal
medicine. The roots are widely used as a
natural "sex tonic" and is an integral part of
more than 100 herbal drug formulations
(Oudhia 2001a). Although Indian forests are
rich in safed moosli demand is increasing
rapidly in Indian and international drug
markets. Foreign demand has been estimated
as 300-700 tonnes annually (Bordia et al.
1995), a quantity that Indian forests cannot
sustain. This has created a pressure on Indian
forests and if steps for timely conservation are not taken, the Indian forests will lose this valuable
plant (Oudhia 2001b). At present the availability of Chlorophytum is decreasing and obnoxious
weeds like Parthenium hysterophons and Lantana are taking its place (Oudhia 1996).
Dried roots of Chlorophytum contain 42% carbohydrate, 809% protein, 34% fiber and 217%
saponin (Bordia et al. 1995). Research studies on Chlorophytum conducted in India and elsewhere
indicate that saponins are responsible for medicinal properties. Saponins are thought to be highest
in roots of forest origin.
More than 175 species of Chlorophytum have been reported in the world. Chloophytum comosum
is widely used as ornamental plant where it is commonly known as spider ivy, spider plant,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/safedmoosli.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:50:56 PM]
Safed Moosli
aeroplane plant, or walking anthericum. Thirteen species of Chlorophytum have been been
reported in India. All these species differ in appearance, native species are sold as sufed moosli in
the Indian drug market. Chlorophytum boriviliahum produces the highest yield and highest
saponin content. Other native Indian Chlorophytum species (Table 1) include C. arundinaceum, C.
tuberosu, C. laxum, and C. breviscapum (Oudhia 2000a).
Table 1. Different species of Chlorophytum available in India.
Species
Distribution
C. arundinaceum Baker
All districts of Chota Nagpur, Vindhya, Satpura and Aravali Hills,

parts of Central India. Taria region of N-E Himalayas in Assam.
West Bengal and Bihar.
C. attenuatum Baker
Western Ghats, southwards to Comibatore, West Peninsula.
C. borivilianum
Dangs Forests (Gujarat). Aravali Hills
C. laxum R.Br.
Katki Hills, Belgaum, Dharwar, North and South Kanara, Deccan

peninsula in India.
C. tuberosum (Rox b.) Baker Parts of Konkan to Travancore in Kerala, Eastern Himalaya, Bihar
and West Bengal.
C. hreviscapum
Sikkim Himalaya, Belgaum and South Peninsula.
In nature, Moosli propagates vegetatively through its fleshy roots., rarely by seed. The black
angular seed is similar to onion seed in appearance. Seed have poor germination and low viability.
Seed rates of 3 quintals/hectare is considered optimum for growers.
Chlorophytum is found in soils rich in organic matter. It requires bright sunlight for good growth
(Oudhia and Tripathi 2001). Many tribal communities of India use the fresh leaves of Safed
Moosli as potherb. (Oudhia and Joshi 2000) but the roots are the useful part of the plant for
medicinal purposes. Once the root is harvested reseeding rarely occurs.
Innovative Indian farmers have initiated commercial cultivation of safed moosli. The crop is a
popular rainy season (kharif crop) in India and a commercial root harvest can be obtained in 34
months. Spacing 30 15 cm is optimum. The crop seems adapted to a wide range of conditions.
Few insect pests have been reported (Oiudhia 2000b, 2001e). Saponin content may be affected by
fungicides and synthetic phyrethroides. Many moosli farms have started selection of cultivars.
There is now a heavy demand of organically grown safed moosli with high saponin content in
national and international drug market. In India moosli-based products are coming regularly to the
market. The area under this crop is increasing rapidly in India.
References
Bordia, P.C., A. Joshi, and M.M. Simlot. 1995. Safed moosli. p. 429451. In:. K.L. Chadha and
Rajendra Gupta (eds.), Advances in horticulture Vol. II. Medicinal and aromatic plants. Malhotra
Publ. House, New Delhi.
Oudhia, P. 1996. Parthenium: A curse for the bio-diversity of Chhattisgarh Plains. National Reen.
Safed Moosli
R.D. Govt. P.G. College, Mandla, Indian, 3032 July. p. 26.

Oudhia, P. 2000a. Can we save the endangered medicinal plant Safed Moosli (Chlorophytum
borivilianum) in Indian forests? http://www.herb.com/poudl.html, JulyAugust, 2000.
Oudhia, P. 2000b. Record of Orange Banded Blister Beetle Zonabris pustulata Thunb (Coleoptera:
Meloidae ) on Safed Moodli (Chlorophytum borivilianum L.). Insect Environment, 6(3):138.
Oudhia, P. 2001a : My experiences with wonder crop Safed Moosli. In: Souvenir. International
Seminar on Medicinal Plants and Quality Standardization, VHERDS, Chennai, India, 910 June.
Oudhia, P. 2001 b. Problems perceived by Safed Moosli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) growers of
Chhattisgarh (India) region: A study. J. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sci. 22/4A &
23/1A:396399.
Oudhia, P. 2001c. My experiences with worlds top ten Indian medicinal plants : Glimpses of
research at farmers field in Chhattisgarh (India). In: Abstract. Workshop cum Seminar on
Sustainable Agriculture for 21st Century, IGAU, Raipur, India, 2021 Jan: 46.
Oudhia, P. 2001e. Medicinal insects of kharif crops and weeds of Chhattisgarh (India). In : Abstr.
VII National Science Conference, Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Samitee, Directorate of Cropping
System Research, Meerut, India 1214 April.
Oudhia, P. and B.S. Joshi. 2000. The decreasing availability of natural medicinal plants in
Chhattisgarh: A study. In: Abstr.. VI National Science Conference, Mahatma Gandhi Gramoday
Chitrakut Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakut, India : 18.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1999. Scope of cultivation of important medicinal plants in
Chhattisgarh plains. p. 7178. In: Proc. National conference on Health care and Development of
Herbal Medicines, IGAU, Raipur (India), 29-30 Aug. 1997: 7178.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. (2001). The possibilities of commercial cultivation of rare medicinal
plants in Chhattisgarh (India). VII National Science Conference, Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan
Samitee, Directorate of Cropping System Research, Meerut, India, 1214 April.
Internet Resources
My experiments with the wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum): Some useful
observations of recently completed experiments at SAMPDA'S research farm
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/146_musli.html
Are two crops of Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) possible in a year?
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/300_multiple_musli_crops.html
Selection of Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) planting material: Are we in right
direction? http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/230_rightdirection.html
My experiments and experiences with wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum):
Recent visit to leading Musli farm of India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/174_muslifarms.html
Safed Moosli
Planting technique of Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) tubers: Some useful tips
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/232_technique.html
Possible uses of wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophylum boriviliamum).
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/201_safed.html
New record of Swarming caterpillar Spodoptera mauritia Boisd. (Lepidoptera; Noctuidae) on
Safed Musli (Chlorohytum sp.) In Chhattisgarh, India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/222_catapillar.html
My experiences and experiments with wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum):
The details of recent visits to Safed Musli fields of different parts of India
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/297_recent_musli_visits.html
National Workshop on Indian Medicinal and Aromatic Plants with special emphasis on Safed
Musli, the Millennium Crop: My observations and views
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/194_workshop.html
Harvesting, Processing and Trading of wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum):
My research and experience
http://www.botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/112_harvestingmoosli.html
The possibilities of establishing Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) as Indoor ornamental
plant http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/323_safed_indoors.html
My Experiences and Experiments with the wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum)
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/110_experiements.html
Allelopathic potential of Safed Musli (Chlorophytum species): Some preliminary observations
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/419_potential.html
Potential markets of wonder crop Safed Musli (Chorophytum borivilianum): Some new
observations http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/390_safed.html
Weed management in commercial cultivation of wonder crop Safed Musli (Chlorophytum
borivilianum): My experiences http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/414_cultivation.html
Interactions with the traditional healers and natives of Bhopalpatnam region, Chhattisgarh, India
having rich traditional medicinal knowledge about common herbs insects and other animals
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/121_bhopalpatnam.html
Importance of Standard Agronomical practices in commercial cultivation of wonder crop Safed
Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum): My experiences.
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/408_standardpractice.html
Possibilities of utilizing Fly Ash in commercial cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops: My
experiences and experiments http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/307_fly_ash.html
Traditional medicinal knowledge about specific soil on which wonder herb Safed Musli
Safed Moosli
(Chlorophytum sp.) Grows, in Chhattisgarh, India

http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/319_ricesoils.html
http://www.botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/gallery/slides/094.html
Xanthium strumarium
Xanthium strumarium
contributor.
Chotagokhru or Kuthua, Xanthium strumarium L.

Xanthium strumarium L., Compositae, is a common weed found in India (Oudhia 2001; Oudhia
and Dixit 1994). In different Indian languages Xanthium is known as banokra, chotadhatura,
chotagokhru, kuthua (Hindi) godrian (Gujrati), aristha, itara, kambu-vanamalini, sarpakshi
(Sanskrit), dumundi, dutundi (Marathi), maruloomatham (Tamil), maruluummatti (Kanarese), and
marulam athangi (Telugu). The reason behind its common name chotagokhru is the shape of its
fruit, which look likes the cow's toe (chota - small; go - cow; khuru - toe). In many parts of India,
it is known as adhasisi (in English adhasisi means hemicrania; as this weed is used for the
treatment of this common disease). In English, Xanthium is known as cocklebur or burweed. The
genus Xanthium includes 25 species, all of American origin X. spinosum Linn and X. strumarium
Linn are used medicinally in Europe, North America and Brazil; X. canadens Mill. is used in
North America and Brazil and X. strumarium Linn in China, India and Malaya (Caius 1986). Two
species of Xanthium, X. indicum and X. strumarium have been reported in India. The origin of X.
strumarium is North America. It was introduced in India and spread like weed. It commonly grows
in wasteplaces and along river banks in warmer parts.
X. strumarium is an annual herb with a short, stout, hairy stem. Leaves broadly triangular-ovate or
suborbicular; flower heads in terminal and axillary racemes; white or green; numerous; male upper
most; female ovoid, covered with hooked bristles; Fruit obovoid, enclosed in the hardened
involucre, with 2 hooked beaks and hooked bristles. Flowering time in India is August-September.
It can be propagated through seeds. This weed is easily dispersed through animals as the fruits
have hooked bristles and 2 strong hooked beaks (Agharkar 1991).
The whole plant, specially root and fruit, is used as medicine. According to Ayurveda, X.
strumarium is cooling, laxative, fattening, anthelmintic, alexiteric, tonic, digestive, antipyretic, and
improves appetite, voice, complexion, and memory. It cures leucoderma, biliousness, poisonous
bites of insects, epilepsy, salivation and fever. The plant of Xanthium yields xanthinin which acts
as a plant growth regulator. Antibacterial activity of xanthinin has also been reported. Seed yields
a semi-drying edible oil (30-35%) which resembles sunflower oil and used in bladder infection,
herpes, and erysipelas. Cake can be used as manure whereas shell can be used as activated carbon
(Oudhia and Tripathi 1998; Sastry and Kavathekar 1990). The plant has been reported as fatal to
cattle and pigs.
References
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. Pbl. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/xanthium.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:57 PM]
Xanthium strumarium
(India). p. 230.
Caius, J.F. 1986. Medicinal and poisonous plants of India. Pbl. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur
(India). p. 375-376.
Oudhia, P. 2001. Phyto-sociological studies of rainy season wasteland weeds with special
reference to Parthenium hysterophorus L. in Raipur (India) district. Asian J. Microbiol. Biotech.
Environ. Sci. 3(1-2):89-92.
Oudhia, P. and A. Dixit. 1994. Weeds in Ambimkapur region (Madhya Pradesh) and their
traditional use. Weed News 1(2):19-21.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1998. Possibilities of utilisation of medicinal weeds to increase the
income of the farmers. In: Abstract. National Seminar on Medicinal Plant Resources Development,
Gandhi Labour Institute, Ahmedabad (India), 4-5 Oct. 1998 p. 3.
Sastry, T.C.S. and Kavathekar, K. Y. (1990). Plants for reclamation of wastelands. Pbl.
Publications and Information Directorate, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi (India) : 421-422.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone : 91-771-253243
Mobile : 91-98271-15642
Fax : 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/xanthium.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:50:57 PM]
Abstracts

Simon, J.E., N. Beaubaire, S.C. Weller, and J. Janick. 1990. Borage: A source of gamma linolenic
acid. p. 528. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland,
OR.
Borage: A Source of Gamma Linolenic

Acid
James E. Simon, Nancy Beaubaire, Stephen C. Weller, and Jules
Janick
Borage (Borago officinalis L.) is an annual herb of recent interest because the seeds are a rich
source of gamma linolenic acid (GLA; gamma-18:3Δ6,9,12). As an intermediate fatty acid
in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, GLA, an unusual fatty acid, is of medicinal value. The oil
also appears promising in treating atopic eczema. GLA is obtained principally from seeds of the
evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) and selected Ribes spp., although borage seed appears to be
the highest known plant source of GLA (17-25% gamma-18:3 from a total seed oil content of
28-38%).
Large-scale commercial production of this crop presents unique challenges because of the plants
indeterminate vegetative growth, lack of concentrated flowering and seed set and non-uniform
seed maturation. Since 1984, we have investigated borage seed production and GLA metabolism.
Field studies were conducted to determine the optimum plant population and nitrogen levels and a
prototype mechanical harvester to vacuum seed from the soil surface was built. Experimental seed
yields of 753 kg/ha were obtained when multiple nondestructive harvests of seeds were
periodically collected from the soil surface, plus a single destructive harvest where plants were cut
and seeds harvested. Simulation of a single destructive harvest yielded only 35-40% of the total
potential seed yield because of significant seed loss due to seed shattering.
Borage is susceptible to a wide range of insects and disease pests, and is a weak competitor with
weeds. Supporting weed control studies identified several promising preemergent herbicides and
other compounds that could eradicate the plant No satisfactory postemergent herbicides were
identified.
Studies on the genetic variation of seed lines indicated a wide range of total fatty acids and GLA
content. Nonshattering types were not found among the more than 50 accessions evaluated. The
development of nonshattering seed fines high in fatty acid and GLA would overcome the present
production limitations. However, in the interim, the refinement of a seed harvesting unit which can
follow a mechanical combine could make the commercial production of borage a more attractive
enterprise.
McDaniel, R.G. 1990. Breeding arid-adapted pyrethrum for insecticide production in the desert
Abstracts
southwest. p. 529. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press,
Portland, OR.
Breeding Arid-adapted Pyrethrum for

Insecticide Production in the Desert
Southwest
Robert G. McDaniel
Dried pyrethrum flowers are a source of biorational insecticides called pyrethrins which show
minimal mammalian toxicity and biodegrade rapidly in the environment. In combination with
synergists, pyrethrins are extremely effective for control of insects in human habitations, dairy and
horse barns, and food manufacture. At present, all pyrethrins used in the United States are
imported. Most are supplied in bulk by East African Countries including Kenya. These sources can
be very unreliable, which in turn precipitates wide swings in supply and price. This limits the
utility of pyrethrins in domestic pesticides.
Following an eight year breeding program we have, developed pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium) germplasm adapted to environmental stresses inherent to desert irrigated
agriculture. Moderate winters, combined with wide differences in day/night temperatures (a result
of the dry desert climate) somewhat mimic the high elevation equatorial environments of East
Africa and Equador where high pyrethrin contents are achieved. Arid adapted, stress-resistant
pyrethrum clones have been bred which show a good balance of pyrethrins and which yield greater
than 2% pyrethrins (dry weight basis) analyzed by HPLC. At Arizona latitude, pyrethrum behaves
as a perennial showing a single flush of blooming in April. Simultaneous flowering makes
mechanized harvesting feasible. Favorable climatic conditions coupled with intensive irrigated
agriculture technology of the American Southwest make it probable that C. cinerariaefolium will
become a viable perennial crop in Arizona. It is hoped that our work will promote new domestic
production of this high value insecticide crop.
Last update March 31, 1997 aw
Crown Daisy/Japanese greens
Japanese greens
Chopsuey greens, Skungiku, Edible-leaved chrysanthemum
Compositae Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Crown Daisy
Garland chrysanthemum
C. spatiosum Bail.
These two species are used sparingly as pot herbs. For that purpose young plants are harvested
when 4 to 6 inches high. Leaves are glabrous, lobed, and grow as a rosette. They are aromatic and
are cooked like spinach. In exposure of edible parts they are comparable to spinach.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CrownDaisyJapaneseGreen.html [5/16/2004 3:50:59 PM]
Chrysanthemum majus
Chrysanthemum majus (Desf.)

Asch.
syn: Chrysanthemum balsamita L.
Compositae
Costmary, Alecost, Balsam herb, Bible leaf, Bible-leaf mace,
Mace, Mint geranium
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chrysanthemum_majus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:00 PM]
Chrysophyllum cainito
Sapotaceae
Star Apple
Star AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Chrysophyllum_cainito_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:00 PM]
Chufa
Chufa
Ground almond, Edible rush, Rush nut
Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus L.
Chufa plants are grown for the edible tubers. The top is grass-like, with simple leaves and flower
stalk rising from the ground surface, up to 3 feet. Tubers are small, 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch long,
cylindrical and hard, produced entirely underground. They are eaten raw or baked. Plants are
propagated by planting the tubers, similar to potatoes. They are a minor crop, grown mainly in the
southern states.
See chufa oil.
Season, planting to harvest: 5 to 6 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Mainly home gardens, a minor crop.
Use: Tubers eaten raw or baked. Sometimes used as coffee substitute.
Part of plant consumed: Tubers only.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Chufa.html [5/16/2004 3:51:01 PM]
Chufa oil
Chufa oil
Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus L.
The tubers of Chufa contain 20 to 28 percent of a non-drying oil. The oil is
obtained by pressing the cleaned tubers and has a mild, pleasant flavor. The separated emulsion of
oil and juice, obtained by pressing, is consumed in quantity in Europe, especially Spain, as a drink
(Horchata de Chufas).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Chufa_oil.html [5/16/2004 3:51:02 PM]
Coriandrum sativum
Coriandrum sativum L.
Coriander, Cilantro, Chinese parsley, Cilantrillo,
Culantro, Mexican parsley, Yuen sai
Coriander Under Irrigation in ArgentinaGustavo Luayza, Roberto Brevedan, and Rosana
Palomo
Greenhouse Production of Garlic Chives and CilantroRobert G. Anderson and Wenwei Jia
Schneiter
Outside Links
Corianderby Axel DiederichsonLink to the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Coriandrum_sativum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:03 PM]
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Canela
Lauraceae Cinnamonium zeylanicum Garc. ex Blume
This is a small semi-tropical tree, 20 to 30 feet high, with thick ovate to lanceolate leaves 4 to 7
inches long. It is hardy in the Gulf States of the U.S. Most of the cinnamon of commerce comes
from Ceylon. It is the ground bark of the tree. The best quality of bark is from branches at least 2
years old. Cinnamon is widely used in cookery and confections. The flavor is due to a volatile oil
contained in the bark. The cinnamon oil of commerce is extracted from inferior bark, not suitable
for grinding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cinnamon.html [5/16/2004 3:51:03 PM]
Governor's plum
Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.
Tropical shrub or small tree, sometimes sparsely armed with sharp, stout thorns. Fruits are
subglobose and may be slightly over 1 inch in diameter. The fruits are purplish red or blackish, and
are surmounted by the remains of the pistils. The reddish juicy pulp encloses 8 to 10 small seeds.
The fruits may be eaten fresh or used in jams and jellies.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CiruelaDeMadagascar.html [5/16/2004 3:51:04 PM]
Cissus quadrangula
Hadjod or Hadjora [Cissus

quadrangula (L.)]
contributor.
Scientific Name: Cissus quadrangula L.

syn. Vitis quadrangula (L.) Wallich ex Wight & Arn.
English Names: edible-stemmed vine
Common (Indian) Names
Sanskrit: asthisonhara; vajravalli Hindi: hadjod; hadjora; harsankari
Bengali: hasjora; harbhanga
Marathi: chaudhari; kandavela
Gujrati: chadhuri; vedhari
Telugu: nalleru
Tamil: pirandai
Canarese: mangaroli
Family: Vitaceae
Related Species
The genus Cissus include over 350 species. Some important species are:
Cissus adnata Roxb. syn. Vitis adnata Wall. ex. Wight. (Malyalam: nadena; Telugu: kokkita
yaralu)
Cissus discolor Blume syn. Vitis discolor Dalz.
Cissus pallida Planch. syn. Vitis pallida W & A. (Canarese: kondage; Telugu: nalltige; Oriya:
takuonoil)
Cissus repanda Vahl. syn. Vitis repanda W & A.
Cissus repens Lan. syn. Vitis repens W & A.
Cissus setosa syn. Vitis setosa Wall.
Distibution: In India, it grow as wild plant. Also under cultivation in fairly large areas.
Botany: Climbing herb, tendrils simple, opposite to the leaves, leaves simple or lobbed,
sometimes 3-folialate, dentate. Flowers bisexual, tetramerous, in umbellate cymes, opposite to the
leaves, Calyx cup-shaped, obscurely 4-lobed. Fruit globose or obovoid fleshy berries, one seeded,
dark purple to black; seeds ellipsoid or pyriform. Flowering and fruiting time May-June.
Medicinal Properties and Uses: It is mainly used as healer of bone fractures. It is one of the very
frequently used herb by traditional bone setters of India. (In Hindi Hadj=bone; Jod=to fix). It is
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cissus.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:04 PM]
Cissus quadrangula
also used for piles, asthma, digestive troubles, cough, and loss of appetite.
Ayurvedic formulations: Asthisamharaka juice, powder and decoction of dried stalks.
Chemical constituents: Stem isolates include 3- keto steroids, onocer-7-en-3, 21-diol (I) and
onecer-7-en-3, 21-diol (II).
Other Uses: Stems and roots yield strong fiber. Young shoots are used in curries.
Cultivation: In India, it is mainly grown in fence and in between tree plantations. The fence wire
and trees act as support to this climbing herbs. In many parts, it is grown as field crop and given
support with the help of Bamboo sticks.
Climate: It requires warm tropical climate.
Soils: It can be grown in various soils but prefers loamy soils.
Planting Season: Kharif (after commence of monsoon rains in June-July in India).
Propagation: Stem cuttings.
Spacing: 30 30 cm.
Nutrients: In general it is grown organically. Initially, farm yard manure is applied (10-12
tonnes/ha.)
Pest Infestation: No major insects or diseases have been reported.
Harvest: It is a perennial crop. Stems are cut and air dried 11 months after sowing. Fresh stem
cuttings are sold as planting material.
Resource person
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/cissus.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:04 PM]
Citrus medica
Citrus medica Linn.

Rutaceae
Citron, Citron melon, Corsican citron, Diamante
citron, Esrog, Ethrog, Etrog, Leghorn citron, Preserving melon,
Stock melon
CitronJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
CitrusDescriptors for CitrusLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
CitrusFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Citrus GermplasmLink to
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_medica_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:05 PM]
Citron
Citron
Stock melon, Preserving melon
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus lanatus var. citrioides (Bailey) Mansf.
Citron is a plant of the same species as watermelon, but the fruit flesh is white, hard and inedible
in the raw state. The plant is prostrate growing. The fruits are round to oval, up to 6 inches long,
with smooth surface, resembling small watermelons. The flesh is used for making conserves and
pickles. Citrons are sometimes used as feed for hogs.
Season, planting to harvest: 4 to 5 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Very minor.
Use: Conserves, pickling, stock feed.
Part of plant consumed: White flesh
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CitronMelon.html [5/16/2004 3:51:06 PM]
Citronella Horsebalm
Citronella Horsebalm
Collinsonia canadensis L.
Other common names.Stoneroot, Collinsonia, knob-root, knob
glass, knobweed, knotroot, horseweed, richweed, richleaf, ox balm.
Habitat and range.Citronella horsebalm is found in moist shady
woods from Maine to Wisconsin and south to Florida and Kansas.
Description.This plant is a tall herb growing as high as 5 feet with a
stout, erect, branched stem, smooth or the upper part hairy. The leaves
are from 3 to 8 inches long, pointed, sometimes heart-shaped at the
base, and coarsely toothed. From July to October the plant produces
large, loose panicles of small pale-yellow, lemon-scented flowers. The
entire flowering herb possesses a pleasant, lemonlike odor. The root,
even when fresh, is very hard, hence the name stoneroot. It is
horizontal, large, thick, and woody, the upper side rough, knotty, and
irregularly branched. It has a rather disagreeable odor and a spicy,
pungent taste.
Figure 39.Citronella
horsebalm (Collinsonia
canadensis)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/citronella.html [5/16/2004 3:51:06 PM]
Citrullus lanatus
Index| Search| Home
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)

Matsun & Nakai
Cucurbitaceae
Watermelon, American watermelon, Jubilee, seeded watermelon,
seedless watermelon
Specialty Melons for the Fresh MarketJames E. Simon, Mario R. Morales, and Denys Charles
Watermelon production links
Cucurbit Resources in NamibiaVassilios Sarafis
Watermelon In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
Watermelon: Marketing and Production Opportunities for Indiana Cooperative Extension
Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. PDF version
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrullus_lanatus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:07 PM]
Citrus aurantifolia
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle

C. acida Roxb.
C. lima Lunan
C. medica var.acida Brandis
Limonia aurantifolia Christm.
Rutaceae
Mexican Lime
Mexican LimeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_aurantifolia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:07 PM]
Citrus aurantium
Citrus aurantium L.
Rutaceae
Sour Orange
Sour OrangeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_aurantium_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:08 PM]
Citrus limon
Citrus limon B.
Rutaceae
Bearss, Bergamot lemon, Citron (archaic), Eureka
lemon, Lemon, Limo, Limn, Limou amarillo, Lisbon lemon,
Meyer lemon
LemonJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_limon_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:08 PM]
Citrus maxima
Citrus maxima Merr.

syn. Citrus grandis Osbeck, Citrus
decumana L.
Rutaceae
Pummelo
PummeloJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside links:
Germplasm Catalogue of Pummelo in Nepal from Fruits for a Future
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_maxima_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:09 PM]
Citrus paradisi
Citrus paradisi M.
Rutaceae
Grapefruit, Marsh grapefruit, Ruby Red, Shaddock,
Thompson grapefruit, Webb grapefruit
GrapefruitJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_paradisi_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:09 PM]
Citrus reticulata
Citrus reticulata L.
Rutaceae
Clementine, Dancy tangerine, Mandarin, Satsuma,
Tangelo, Tangerine
Mandarin OrangeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_reticulata_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:09 PM]
Citrus paradisi Citrus

reticulata
Citrus tangelo
Rutaceae
Tangelo
TangeloJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_x_tangelo_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:10 PM]
Citrus sinensis
Citrus sinensis L.
Rutaceae
Orange
OrangeJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Sweet OrangeFood and feed crops of the United States, Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C.
Compton. 1971.
Outside Links:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Citrus_sinensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:10 PM]
Citrus sp.
Index| Search| Home
Citrus sp.
Rutaceae
Hybrids
Sundry Hybrids and RootstocksJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Outside Links:
Citrusfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Citrus Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/citrus_hybrids_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:10 PM]
Rubus chamaemorus
Rubus chamaemorus L.
Rosaceae
Bakeberry, Baked-apple berry, Cloudberry, Malka,
Moltebeere, Salmonberry, Torfbeere, Yellowberry
FactSHEET contributed by Kre Rapp
Commercialization of the Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) in NorwayKre Rapp, S.
Kristine Nss, and Harry Jan Swartz
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Rubus_chamaemorus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:11 PM]
Cloves
Cloves, Clove Tree, Clavos

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. &
Perry
syn. Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock & Harrison.
syn. E. aromatica (L.) Baill.
syn. Jambosa Caryophyllus (Spreng. Niedenzu)
Myrtaceae Source: Magness et al. 1971
The clove tree is a small, tropical evergreen, up to 20 feet tall, with
oblong leaves, 5 to 10 inches long and 2 to 4 inches wide. It is native
in the Philippines and nearby islands, but has been introduced into all
tropical countries. Zanzibar and Pemba are the principal producers of
cloves and clove oil. The tree is not hardy in continental U.S. The
cloves of commerce are the dried flower buds, which grow in
clusters at the ends of branches and are harvested and dried before
they open. Cloves are widely used in cookery and confections. The
extracted clove oil is widely used in cosmetics and confections. By
oxidation, it produces vanillin.
(pictures: Ben Alkire)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Clove.html [5/16/2004 3:51:12 PM]
Sainfoin
Sainfoin
Esparcet, Holy clover
Leguminosae Onobrychio viriaefolia Scop.
Sainfoin was introduced from Turkey recently and is showing promise as a hay and pasture crop
for the Northern Plains, particularly Montana and Western North Dakota. It is a perennial legume,
growing to three to four feet, with pinnate-compound leaves. Under tests in the above area it has
out-yielded alfalfa and has not caused bloat in cattle. It appears to be about equal to alfalfa in
palatability and nutritive value. It does not compete well with weeds as regrowth after mowing is
limited.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sainfoin.html [5/16/2004 3:51:13 PM]
Alsike clover
Alsike clover
Swedish clover
LeguminosaeTrifolium hybridum L.
Alsike clover is believeed native to northerrn Europe. It was introduced into the United States
about 1839 and is now mainly grown in states bordering on the Great Lakes, in northerrn
California and in Oregon. Its special merit is its adaptation to wet soils, even tolerating some
flooding. It is more tolerant to both acid and alkaline soils than other clovers. The stems are quite
slender, up to 3 feet long, and tend to be prostrate except in dense stands. The trifoliate leaves are
long stemmed with obovate leaflets. Flower heads are not at the terminal of the main stem but are
at the terminals of branch stems. They are white or pink in color. Both stems and leaves are
smooth. Alsike clover is valuable both for pasture and hay on soils too wet or too acid for other
clovers.
Last update June 26, 1996
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Alsike_clover.html [5/16/2004 3:51:13 PM]
Sweet clovers
Sweet clovers
Leguminosae, Fabaceae Melilotits sp.
The sweet clovers are native to temperate Europe and Asia. Although
reported as found in Virginia as early as 1739, it was not until the present century that their great
value for soil improvement, pasture, hay and silage became recognized. During the decade
1948-57, seed production in the United States averaged about 46,000,000 pounds annually with
near 16,000,000 additional pounds imported - sufficient to seed more than 5,000,000 acres. Since
1960, however, seed production has declined in this country to an annual average of about
21,600,000 pounds. Most of the sweet clovers grown here are biennial, although some annual
kinds are grown. They are adapted only to soils that are near neutral in acidity. Major production is
in a belt from the Great Lakes west to Montana and south to the Gulf of Mexico in areas baving 17
inches or more annual precipitation. All the biennial sweet clovers fix large amounts of
atmospheric nitrogen. The deep-penetrating tap roots decompose after the second year, so the
crops are very useful for opening up subsoil. They are therefore probably the best of the crops for
soil improvement.
The sweet clovers have a high content of coumarin which reduces palatability. More important, in
hay spoiled due to excess moisture when stored or in improperly prepared silage, dicoumarol,
which reduces the clotting of blood, is formed. Animals fed such hay or silage are subject to
excessive external or internal bleeding.
The species of Melilotus of most value agriculturally are described as follows.
White sweet clover
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sweet_clovers.html [5/16/2004 3:51:14 PM]
White sweet clover
White sweet clover

Leguminosae Melilotus alba Desr.
Source: Magness et al. 1971 In general, the white-flowered forms of sweet
clover are somewhat ranker growing, heavier yielding, and have coarser
stems than the yellow-flowered. They are later maturing so are generally preferred for pastures in
areas of ample moisture. The more vigorous growth and heavier yields make them somewhat
superior for soil improvement. In growth habit and appearance the two are similar except for
flower color. Most of the M. alba grown is so-called common white. Two selected varieties in
addition to common are in the trade. Spanish is leafier and somewhat more productive than
common and is recommended for higher rainfall grain areas of the Pacific Northwest, as well as
the Great Plains. Evergreen is late maturing, providing long grazing and heavy forage yields. It is
generally adapted in the Corn Belt. Penta is a low-coumarin variety, bred in Wisconsin. Annual
forms of M. alba are also in the trade. Hubam, Floranna, and Israel are such kinds. They are most
useful in the central and southern regions where the growing season is relatively long.
Last update June 26, 1996
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/White_sweet_clover.html [5/16/2004 3:51:14 PM]

Leguminosae Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.
The yellow-flowered sweet clovers grown in the United States are all
biennial. As compared to white-flowered M. alba, the yellow-flowered is finer stemmed, matures
earlier in summer, is more tolerant to drought and competition with companion crops, and gives a
better quality but lower yield of hay. Because of better drought tolerance the yellow-flowered is
better adapted to the Great Plains. The first season, a central much-branched stem is produced with
a deep tap root which becomes fleshy in the fall. The second year, crown buds start growth early
with vigorous, rather coarse stems. Leaves are trifoliate, the leaflets being long-oval in shape. For
hay, the second season crop should be cut early. Several varieties are in the trade. Madrid makes
strong seedling growth, is leafy and later maturing the second year, well adapted to the Great
Plains. Gold Top is vigorous and late maturing, giving longer pasture. Erector, developed in
Canada, makes good growth in the Northeastern Great Plains.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Yellow_floweredSweetClover.html [5/16/2004 3:51:14 PM]
Chinese Medicinals

Leung, A.Y. 1990. Chinese medicinals. p. 499-510. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances
in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Chinese Medicinals
Albert Y. Leung
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORY
1. Wu Shi Er Bing Fang (Prescriptions for Fifty-two Diseases)
2. Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (Shennong Herbal)
3. Tang Ben Cao (Tang Herbal)
4. Ben Cao Gang Mu (Herbal Systematics)
5. Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian (Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica)
3. CONTEMPORARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON CHINESE MEDICINALS
1. Books
2. Journals
4. SCOPE OF CHINESE MATERIA MEDICA
1. Single Drugs
2. Combinations
3. Current Evaluation and Documentation of Chinese Medicinals
5. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHINESE MEDICINALS
1. Mahuang
2. Sour Date Kernel
3. Qian Ceng Ta
4. Detoxicants
6. CONCLUSION
7. REFERENCES
Chinese Medicinals
INTRODUCTION
Natural products have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times. These include
materials from plant, animal, and mineral sources, with the majority derived from plants.
Traditions of materia medica differ among different cultures. Some are rudimentary and primarily
verbal while others are extremely extensive and well documented. Examples of the former include
medicine as practiced in the jungles and remote regions of Asia, Africa, Australia, and tropical
America. This form of medical practice still incorporates a sizable amount of magic or witchcraft
but is the one that has captured and continues to capture a major part of our attention. This is due
to a number of reasons, including the following two. One, it satisfies the pioneering American
spirit where one goes after something exciting that can produce headlines; the end result, which is
to seek leads to effective drugs, often appears to be secondary. Two, due to the lack of easy access
to non-English or non-European medicinal records, jungle medicine seems to be the only
alternative for most American or Western researchers.
In contrast to the primitive practice of herbal medicine and its verbal tradition as currently found in
the jungles, there are some very extensively documented medical traditions that are out of reach of
most Western researchers. This is not due to a separation by physical distance, but rather by the
language barrier. The most extensive and best documented source of materia medica can be found
in traditional Chinese medicine. I hope this paper can serve as an introduction to this so far largely
untapped resource.
HISTORY
Although Chinese materia medica may not have as long a history as those of Egypt or India, it is
the most well-documented and enjoys the most continuous use. Today, the majority of Chinese sill
depend on it regularly for their health care and so far little of it has been "rationalized" out of
existence by modern science, a contrast to traditional medicinals of some other cultures. It is
extremely tempting for us to rationalize the effects of an herb or herbal preparation based on the
often limited chemical or biological data on it. When we cannot capsulize our rationalization in a
familiar mold, we often tend to label the herb as worthless. Conversely, if our rationalization fits a
preset mold that we can understand, we tend to consider the problem solved and pronounce the
medicines either "active" or "inactive." Examples of such medicinals include rhubarb, aconite, and
cinnabar.
When we see the word rhubarb (root/rhizome), we instinctively think of it as a cathartic because
we in America tend to judge the value of a plant drug by its best known chemical components
which in this case happen to be cathartic anthraglycosides. We also associate aconite and cinnabar
with strong poisons because of the toxic chemicals they normally contain (aconitine and mercuric
sulfide). Yet in Chinese medicine, all three are commonly used for purposes other than those most
Westerners know. For example, rhubarb is one of the most used medicinals for upper
gastrointestinal bleeding in China, as evidenced by the large number of clinical reports on this use
(Jiao et al. 1980, Jiao et al. 1988, Sun et al. 1986); processed aconite is an ingredient in some
Chinese tonics; and cinnabar is a commonly used sedative, although we normally would consider
it an antiseptic for external applications only.
Chinese Medicinals
Chinese herbal medicine is empirically based. It is the accumulated knowledge of more than four
thousand years of practical experience. Based on ancient literary records, we now know that back
in 1100 BC during the West Zhou era, Chinese medicine had already developed into different
branches, including disease therapy, ulcer therapy, diet therapy and veterinarian medicine.
The following are some of the most well-known documents on Chinese medicinal plant use:
Wu Shi Er Bing Fang (Prescriptions for Fifty-two Diseases)

The first written record exclusively devoted to disease treatment was compiled sometime between
1065 and 771 BC (Sun 1986). It is the Wu Shi Er Bing Fang (Prescriptions for Fifty-two
Diseases), which was only discovered in 1973 during the excavation of the Ma Wang Dui tomb at
Changsha, Hunan. Prior to that discovery, the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (Shennong Herbal),
compiled sometime between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, had been the earliest
record of Chinese materia medica.
During the excavation of the Ma Wang Dui tomb (dated 168 BC), numerous drugs were found in
sachets, two of which were clutched in the hand of a skeleton. The drugs positively identified
include cassia or Chinese cinnamon, magnolia flower bud (xinyi, Magnolia spp.), sour date kernel
(suanzaoren, seeds of Ziziphus spp.), ginger [ganjiang, Zingiber officinalis (Willd.) Rosc.], gaoben
(rhizome of Ligusticum spp.), eupatorium herb [peilan, Eupatorium fortunei Turcz.], and Sichuan
peppercorn [huajiao, fruit of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.]. Among other finds were some
well-known Chinese classics and the silk scroll copy of the Prescriptions for Fifty-two Diseases.
The Prescriptions lists 52 diseases, with 283 known prescriptions for their treatment; over
two-thirds of the prescriptions contained two or more components (Chen 1987b). Some of the
identified diseases along with the number of prescriptions indicated for each disease are given
below:
No. of
prescriptions
Skin ulcers and carbuncles
42
Urinary problems
29
Hernia
24
Wounds and injuries
17
Frostbite
14
Snake bites
13
Warts/tumors
10
Internal hemorrhoids
9
External hemorrhoids
4
Poison arrow wounds
7
Lacquer sores (dermatitis)
7
Convulsions from wounds
6
Male sexual disease(s)
5
Disease
Chinese Medicinals
Mad dog bites

Infantile convulsions
Malaria
3
2
2
Based on preliminary studies, there are 247 drugs listed, many of which have not been identified
or found in later herbals such as the Shennong Herbal. One third are derived from mineral or
animal sources. Among the identified plant drugs are the following:
Qinghao [herb of Artemisia annua L.]
Magnolia flower bud [Magnolia spp.]
Licorice [root of Glycyrrhiza spp.]
Baizhi [root of Angelica dahurica (Fisch. ex Hoffm.) Benth. et Hook. f.]
Fuling [sclerotium of Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf]
Huangqi [root of Astragalus spp.]
Ginger [rhizome of Zingiber officinale (Willd.) Rosc.]
Aconite [main root of Aconitum carmichaeli Debx.]
Fangfeng [root of Ledebouriella divaricata (Turcz.) Hiroe]
Shaoyao [root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall.]
All above drugs are still commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine. Some have been
extensively studied by modern scientific methods, including chemical analysis and biological
assays, while others have barely been examined. The most extensively studied and well known to
American scientists are probably qinghao, licorice and huangqi. Although modern studies of these
ancient drugs have yielded the new antimalarial qinghaosu (artemisinin) from qinghao, they have
not been able to derive any exciting new "modern" drugs from the other two. Yet, these herbs
continue to be two of the most widely consumed in China.
One of the most widely used drugs in treating rhinitis, including allergic rhinitis (e.g. hay fever), is
magnolia flower bud. Its written use record dates back to the Prescriptions and its efficacy has
been repeatedly reported in modern biomedical literature, though rarely in combinations
containing less than three drugs (Ren 1985). Despite the universal occurrence of hay fever and the
continued interest in treating this condition, the time-tested magnolia flower has not been exploited
by Western drug developers.
Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (Shennong Herbal)

While the Prescriptions is the earliest Chinese record devoted to diseases treated with drugs, the
Shennong Herbal is the earliest record on Chinese drugs. This herbal, compiled about two
thousand years ago, records 365 drugs, describing their sources, properties and uses as well as
many cases of their incompatibilities. The drugs are divided according to properties into three
categories: superior (120 drugs), medium (120 drugs) and inferior (125 drugs). Superior drugs are
those considered at that time to be nontoxic, which could be safely taken in large amounts for
extended periods; they are what we now know as tonics. Medium drugs are those that could be
toxic or nontoxic, depending on usage. Inferior drugs are toxic, and are used for treating diseases
and should not be used for extended periods.
Superior drugs include such well-known ones as ginseng, licorice, gandihuang (root of Rehmannia
glutinosa Libosch.), huangqi (root of Astragalus spp.), huanglian (rhizome of Coptis spp.),
Chinese Medicinals
wuweizi [fruit of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.], sesame seed, magnolia flower, lingzhi
(Ganoderma spp.), fuling or poria [sclerotium of Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf], Chinese date (fruit of
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.), Job's tears [seed of Coix lacryma-jobi L. var. mayuen (Roman.) Stapf] and
duzhong (bark of Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.).
Medium drugs include ginger, mahuang or ephedra herb (Ephedra spp.), danggui [root of
Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels], jixuecao or gotu kola [Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.], kuandonghua
or coltsfoot flower (flower of Tussilaqo farfara L.), yinyanghuo (herb of Epimedium spp.), haizao
(Sargassum spp.), hehuan (bark of Albizzia julibrissin Durazz.), gaoben, and zhuling or polyporus
[sclerotium of Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries].
Inferior drugs include fuzi and wutou, which are lateral and main root respectively of aconite
(Aconitum carmichaeli Debx.), rhubarb root (root and rhizome of Rheum spp.), baitouweng [root
of Pulsatilla chinensis (Bge.) Regel], lianqiao or forsythia fruit [Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.)
Vahl], qinghao, croton seed (fruit of Croton tiglium L.), guanzhong (rhizome of Dryopteris
crassirhizoma Nakai and other ferns), and langdangzi or henbane seed (Hyoscyamus niger L.).
Many of the drugs in the Shennong Herbal are still being used today including all the ones listed
above. Some of these uses have not changed after more than two thousand years and their rationale
can be scientifically justified. For example, the use of haizao (Sargassum spp.) in the treatment of
swelling of the neck (goiter) can be explained by its high content of iodine; the use of guanzhong
(Dryopteris) in the treatment of intestinal worms certainly has its counterpart in the West, so does
the use of langdangzi (henbane seed) as a muscle relaxant.
Tang Ben Cao (Tang Herbal)

The Tang Herbal is considered the first official Chinese pharmacopeia which was compiled in the
7th century (659 AD). It was a work compiled by a team of twenty-two high officials and court
physicians under the edict of the emperor. It describes 850 drugs, including some foreign ones
introduced since the era of the Shennong Herbal, such as benzoin, asafoetida, turmeric, black
pepper and hezi (fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz.). Compared to the Shennong Herbal, the Tang
Herbal records more drugs and in more detail; new uses and properties of old drugs are also
described and the number of drugs more than doubled that in the Shennong Herbal.
Ben Cao Gang Mu (Herbal Systematics)

The most well-known Chinese herbal is the Ben Cao Gang Mu compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the
later part of the 16th century (1590 AD). This work is considered the most extensive work on
materia medica ever compiled by a single author. It took Li 38 years to complete. It was based on
his own medical and herbal expenence and on data from earlier herbals, such as the well-known
11th-century herbal named Zheng Lei Ben Cao. Li's herbal describes 1892 drugs (with 1110
drawings), including 11,096 prescriptions, for treating hundreds of illnesses, ranging from the
common cold to drunkenness and food poisoning (Chen 1982). The prescriptions in this herbal
have recently been categorized and published as a separate volume, making the information much
easier to access (Shaanxi 1983). Now a researcher no longer needs to laboriously search the
original herbal to locate a treatment for a particular condition. All one has to do is to look up the
index in the new book.
Chinese Medicinals
When the Ben Cao Gang Mu was introduced overseas in the 17th century, it was promptly
translated into numerous languages, including Latin, French, German, English, Russian, Japanese
and Korean, indicating its usefulness and importance in the field of materia medica.
Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian (Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica)

Although several well-known herbals had appeared since the Ben Cao Gang Mu, none can be
compared to the Encyclopedia in scope and depth. This encyclopedia was compiled by the Jiangsu
Institute of New Medicine and was published in 1977. It is the most extensive work ever, in the
field of materia medica, consisting of three volumes, one of which is an appendix/index, and
comprising a total of 3518 pages. It describes 5767 drugs with 4500 drawings, many in great
detail. Of these, over 4800 are of plant origin, the remaining being animal and mineral drugs. In
keeping with modern scientific progress, this modern work has many modern features. The
information on each long-used medicinal typically contains the following:
Synonyms
Drug Source [plant family, species, and part(s) used]
Description of Plant Species [including habitat and distribution]
Cultivation Method(s)
Collection [including initial treatment]
Crude Drug Description [including production regions]
Chemical Composition
Pharmacology
Processing
Traditional Taste Properties
Traditional Channel Affiliations
Traditional Properties and Uses
Dosages and Methods of Administration Precautions
Selected Traditional Prescriptions Clinical Reports
Quotations/Comments from Traditional Herbals or Medical Treatises
Historical Identification and Sources
The modern botanical, chemical, pharmacological and clinical data included in this book are from
the world literature up to and including 1972. It provides the reader with concise information on
most Chinese medicinals currently used in traditional medicine. The detailed Appendix/Index
allows the researcher to identify drugs of a particular pharmacologic category or drugs that treat a
particular disease; it also provides chemical structures of compounds reported present or isolated
from drugs described in the Encyclopedia.
CONTEMPORARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

ON CHINESE MEDICINALS
During a period of 2500 years, more than 2000 volumes of herbal records have been written by
some 330 herbalists/physicians (Hao 1986). The works described above constitute only a few of
the dozens of wellknown texts that are frequently consulted by traditional physicians, herbalists
and modern researchers who read Chinese.
Chinese Medicinals
Books
In addition to the Encyclopedia, contemporary works on Chinese medicinals are abundant. They
include treatises on general materia medica such as Zhong Yao Zhi (Manual of Chinese Materia
Medica) and Quan Guo Zhong Cao Yao Hui Bian (National Collection of Chinese Herbal Drugs)
as well as works on regional medicinals such as Sichuan Zhong Yao Zhi (Manual of Chinese
Drugs of Sichuan), Hubei Zhong Cao Yao Zhi (Manual of Chinese Herbal Drugs of Hubei), Hunan
Yao Wu Zhi (Manual of Materia Medica of Hunan), Chang Bai Shan Zhi Wu Yao Zhi (Manual of
Plant Drugs of Chang Bai Mountain), Fujian Yao Wu Zhi (Manual of Materia Medica of Fujian),
and Chinese Medicinal Herbs of Hong Kong (Chinese/English; 5 volumes; total 943 pp.). These
are all sizable compilations covering information generally contained in the Encyclopedia, but
with a slightly different approach and/or regional accent; some also contain medicinals not found
in the Encyclopedia. Compared to others, the Chinese Medicinal Herbs of Hong Kong is the least
extensive as it describes in brief only 500 herbs, each with a colored photograph.
Like books on single herbal drugs, there is an equally large number of books that are exclusively
devoted to herbal formulas, some of which date back at least 2000 years. Many well-known
classical formulas can now be found in the Zhong Yi Da Ci Dian: Fang Ji Fen Ce (Encyclopedia
of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Prescriptions), published in 1980. This formulary incorporates
and describes from traditional medical treatises and formularies 7500 selected prescriptions,
including 1320 that have duplicate names but different ingredients. Information in each formula
includes its classical literature source, the amounts of its component herbs, conditions for which it
is used, method(s) of preparation, and method(s) of administration and dosages. The prescriptions
included in this work have been selected from such well-known classics as the Pu Ji Fang
(Prescriptions for Healing the Masses, published in the 14th century with 61,739 formulas) and
the Tai Ping Sheng Hui Fang (published in 992 AD with 16,834 formulas). Examples of
well-known classical formulas that are still widely used today include the Yu Ping Feng San Oade
Screen Powder) and Yin Qiao San (Honeysuckle Forsythia Powder) for the prevention and
treatment of the common cold and other illness; and the Da Huang Mu Dan Tang (Rhubarb Peony
Decoction) for treating conditions known as changyong ("intestinal carbuncle") which includes
acute appendicitis. For more recent formulas, one can consult the Zhong Yao Zhi ji Hui Bian
(Collection of Chinese Herbal Preparations) and Qian lia Miao Fang (One Thousand Superb
Prescriptions). The former describes 3873 prescriptions collected from published data during the
past 50 years while the latter, published in 1982, describes some 1 100 formulas collected from
600 famous traditional Chinese physicians and/or clinics throughout China.
For those who are interested in herbal veterinarian medicinals, there is the recently published Min
jean Shou Yi Ben Cao (Folk Veterinarian Herbal). It describes over 600 herbs (with 461 drawings)
and about 10,000 prescriptions for treating more than 1000 diseases in domesticated animals,
including pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, donkeys, mules, rabbits, dogs, cats, chickens, ducks, geese,
and camels, among others. Information contained in this herbal is based on traditional works on
herbal veterinarian medicine compiled over the past 2000 years plus the experience of the author
who is a leading authority in herbal veterinarian medicine in China.
For those with mycological interests, Zhong Guo Yao Yong Zhen Jun (Chinese Medicinal Fungi)
has become a standard reference in this field since its publication in 1974. This book documents
Chinese Medicinals
121 fungi used in Chinese traditional medicine, including such highly priced edible fungi as the
Morchella spp. (for indigestion, excessive phlegm and shortness of breath) to the highly toxic
Amanitopsis volvata Sacc. (in combination with other fungi for treating backache, numbness in the
limbs, and muscle tightness/spasms).
Another area of popular interest is diet therapy A very useful book on this field is the Zhong Guo
Shi Liao Xue (Chinese Diet Therapy). Published in 1987, this book deals with the treatment and
prevention of illnesses by using common Chinese medicinals that serve the dual functions both as
food and medicine. Information in this book is derived from close to 200 books on diet therapy
and related fields, which have been published over the past 2500 years. Food/medicinal plants
described in this volume include lily buds (Hemerocallis fulva L.), mung bean, chrysanthemum
flower, black sesame seed, green onion (Allium fistulosum L.), and many other common
food/medicinal substances. This book should be useful to both the health products industry and to
regulatory agencies as it might help answer some questions relating to the history of herbal foods.
Also, the currently official Chinese Pharmacopeia of natural drugs (1985), containing monographs
on 506 single drugs and 207 formulas, can serve as a handy reference on common Chinese
medicinals.
Journals
In addition to contemporary books, there are at least 100 journals that deal directly with traditional
Chinese medicine and the use of Chinese herbal drugs. They include those published at the
national, provincial, and city levels as well as those published by traditional medical institutions.
The following is a partial list of these journals.
National:
Acta Botanica Sinica (some English abstracts)botanical and chemical
Acta Chimica Sinica (most with English abstracts)chemistry
Acta PhartnaceuHca Sinica (most with English abstracts)general
Acta Phartnacologica Sinica (most with English abstracts)general
Bulletin of Chinese Materia Medicageneral
Chinese Journal of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine (some English
abstracts)clinical & pharmacological
Chinese Medical Abstracts-Traditional Medicinegeneral
Chinese Pharmaceutical Bulletingeneral
Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugschemical & pharmacological
Journal of New Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine (English version available)general
National Medical Journal of China (some English abstracts)clinical &
pharmacological Plantsbotanical sources
Regional:
Acta Botanica Yunnanica (most with English abstracts)botanical and chemical
Beijing Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Fujian Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Henan Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Chinese Medicinals
Hubei Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical

Jiangsu Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Jiangxi Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacologyclinical
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Chinese Materia Medica of
Jilinclinical
Liaoning Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Shaanxi Journal of Chinese Traditional Medicineclinical
Shandong Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Shanghai Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Shanxi Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Sichuan Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Tianjin Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Yunnan Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Zhejiang Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicineclinical
Institutional:
Journal of Anhui College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Beijing College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Chengdu College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Guiyang College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Hunan College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Nanjing College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Shaanxi College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Shandong College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Shenyang College of Pharmacygeneral
Journal of Yunnan College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Journal of Zhoiang College of Traditional Chinese Medicinegeneral
Reports published in these journals are mostly on clinical use of herbs and herbal combinations,
although there are a sizable number of research reports as well. The latter can be found primarily
in nationally published joumals at the top of the above list.
Apart from above journals that primarily deal with natural drugs, reports on these medicinals can
also be found in national, regional and institutional joumals that cover general medical and
pharmaceutical topics. A partial list of such journals follows.
Chinese Journal of Cancer (some Enghsh abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Cardiology (some English abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Clinical Pharmacology Chinese Journal of Dermatology (some
Enghsh abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Hematology (some English abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Internal Medicine (some English abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Microbiology and Immunology (most with English abstracts)
Chinese Journal of Oncology (most with English abstracts)
Journal of Marine Drugs (some Enghsh abstracts)
National Medical Journal of China (some English abstracts)
Chinese Medicinals
SCOPE OF CHINESE MATERIA MEDICA

Single Drugs
The Chinese constitute a fifth of the world's population. Due to the empirical nature of traditional
Chinese medicine, most of the effective Chinese medicinals and their combinations as we now
know them have been well tested in humans over a period of hundreds to thousands of years. A
rough estimate based on available information indicates that there are at least 5000 single plant
drugs used in China that have readily accessible documentation. The ones that have not yet been
recorded in major works probably also number in the thousands.
One major feature that distinguishes Chinese medicinals from those of most other countries is the
specific and often elaborate treatment given Chinese medicinals. Over a period of centuries, crude
drugs have often been processed according to specific methods to yield the desired effects.
Whether they are simply boiled or heated or mixed with other herbs such as licorice, ginger, or
black beans, the purpose is often to reduce toxic side effects and/or accentuate the drugs' beneficial
effects. Thus, for example, unprocessed aconite is rarely used internally. In order to render it less
toxic and yet retain its desired cardiac effects, it is usually soaked for days and boiled for hours.
Recent studies have revealed that under these processing conditions, the most toxic alkaloid,
aconitine, can be destroyed or greatly reduced. The resulting processed aconite has cardiotonic
activities and is used to treat cardiac failure and other heart diseases. Another processed aconite
(lateral root), called fuzi, is also used in tonic preparations. Consequently, when one intends to
study Chinese medicinals, one should bear in mind the nature of their source, because simply
knowing their correct taxonomic origin is not enough. The same plant part from the same species,
if obtained by different processing methods, can produce widely different pharmacological effects.
Combinations
Chinese drugs are normally used in combinations for various reasons. Two major ones are: to
enhance the action of the main drug(s); and to mitigate the toxic side effects of principal
component drugs. Since Chinese medicinals are normally used in combinations, the number of
herbal prescriptions used by the Chinese people are countless. An educated guess is that they are in
the low to middle six figures, as prescriptions in the Pu Ji Fang (Prescriptions for Healing the
Masses) alone number close to 62,000.
Current Evaluation and Documentation of Chinese Medicinals

Drugs of practically any pharmacological category can be found among Chinese medicinals.
During the past twenty-five years, the Chinese have made much progress in bringing their
traditional medicines into a modern environment. While scrutinizing traditional medicines with
modern methods on the one hand, they continue to expand their traditional uses on the other. Thus,
one finds a steady flow of a considerable number of research publications and at the same time
huge numbers of clinical reports on use of traditional prescriptions in treating diseases ranging
from the common cold to cancer. Most of the published information during the past 150 years has
so far been abstracted in a series of three volumes called Zhong Yao Yan Jiu Wen Xian Zhai Yao
Chinese Medicinals
(Research on Chinese Materia Medica: Literature Abstracts, 1820-1961, 1962-1974, 1975-1979).

Also, research and clinical data on about 250 important Chinese medicinals are summarized in the
Zhong Yao Yao Li Yu Ying Yong (Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Drugs). The most
active areas of current research and practice in Chinese materia medica include medicinals used in
the treatment of cancer and cardiovascular, viral and irnmunological diseases.
The following are some data on recent studies on Chinese medicinals. As the information is so
extensive, the examples given in the following only represent a very small fraction of what
actually is available.
Antitumor drugs. There must be thousands of herbal formulas currently used for treating cancer
in China. Over 400 of these can be found in three recently published books on anticancer
medicinals (Chang 1987, Yang 1981, Hu and Xuan 1982), which were compiled primarily from
modern published data; they are prepared from more than 200 single drugs. The prescriptions
range from ones that contain medicinals with known antitumor chemicals to those whose
components have not yet been chemically and/or pharmacologically studied. Examples are many
and the f ollowing are a few selected at random (Cheng and Xu 1985, Cheng et al. 1984, Guo et al.
1985, Huang 1987, Jiang 1984, Jiang and Yan 1986, Li 1982, Liu et al. 1985, Ren and Hong 1986,
Wang 1987, Yu 1983):
Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook. f, C. sinensis (Relid. et Wils.) Li, C. hainanensis Li
[bark, root, twigs]hainanolide, harringtonines, etc.
Camptotheca acuminata Decne. [root, bark fruit, twigs, leaves]camptothecine, etc.
Iphigenia indica Kunth [bulb]colchicine
Curcuma zedoaria Rosc., C. aromatics Salish., C. kwangsietisis S. Lee et C.F. Liang
[rhizome]curdione, curcumol
Crotalaria sessiliflora L., C. assamica Benth. [whole plant]monocrotaline
Sophora subprestrata Chun et T. Chen, S. flavescens Ait. [root/rhizomelmatrine,
oxymatrine, sophocarpine, etc.
Trichosanthes kirilozvii Maxim, T. uniflora Hao [root]trichosanthin
Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) O. Kuntze, Isatis indigotica Fort., Indigofera suffruticosa
Mill., Polygonum tinctorium Ait., etc. [qingdailnatural indigo]indirubin
Rabdosia rubescens (Hemsl.) Hara and other Rabdosia spp. [whole
plant]diterpenoids (rubescensines, oridonin etc.)
Cucumis melo L. [pedunclelcucurbitacins B and E
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle [root/stem bark, fruit]lactones
Cardiovascular drugs. A considerable number of traditional drugs and prescriptions are used in
conditions related to the heart and blood. They include those grouped under the categories of huo
xue hua yu (invigorating blood circulation and dispersing stasis), blood tonics, and hemostatics.
The following are a few examples of such medicinals (Chai et al. 1985, Chen 1987a, Deng and
Gong 1987, Huang 1986, Jiang 1984, Li et al. 1983, Liu and Chen 1984, Ou et al. 1987, Shan
Chinese Medicinals
1988, Shan et al. 1986, Song et al. 1988, Wang and Ba 1985, Wang and Jing 1984, Yang 1988,
Yue et al. 1985, Zhang 1985, Zhou 1984):
Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi [root]antiarrhythmia, hypotensive, hypoglycemic
(e.g. puerarin.)
Ephedra spp. [root/rhizome]hypotensive (ephedranin A, mahuanin A & B,
alkaloids)
Aconitum carmichaeli [fuzi, lateral root]cardiotonic, anti-thrombin, etc. (e.g.
higenamine)
Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge [root]anticoagulant, vasodidator (e.g. tanshinones,
danshensu)
Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. [rhizome]-vasodilator, anti-thrombin,
anti-atherosclerotic (e.g. tetramethylpyrazine)
Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. [fruiting body]antiplatelet aggregation, etc.
(hydro-alcoholic extract).
Panax pseudo-ginseng Wall. var. notoginseng (Burk.) Hoo et Tseng
[rhizomelanti-arrhythmia (saponins)
Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. [root tuber]anti-atherosclerotic (alcohol
extractives)
Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. et Zucc. [rhizome]antiplatelet aggregation (polydatin)
Antivital drugs. Antivital drugs can be found in several categories of traditional medicinals. They
include the so-called heat-dispersing drugs (antipyretics) and those for treating "exterior symptom
complex" (diaphoretics). These drugs are frequently used in prescriptions along with tonics
(immunomodulating drugs). The following two formulas are worth noting as they have been in use
for centuries:
1. Yu Ping Feng San (Jade Screen Powder)
Huangqi (astragalus root)
Fangfeng (root of Ledebouriella divaricata)
Baizhu (rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.)
2. Yin Qiao San (Honeysuckle Forsythia Powder)
Honeysuckle flower (Lonicera spp.)
Forsythia fruit (Forsythia suspensa)
Mint (Mentha haplocalyx Brig.)
Jingjie (herb of Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq.)
Dandouchi (fermented black soybean)
Niubangzi (fruit of Arctium lappa L.)
Jiegeng [Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC]
Danzhuye (herb of Lophatherum gracile Brongn.)
Licorice root
Jade Screen Powder was first recorded in 1481 AD. It has tonic properties and is used to build up
Chinese Medicinals
body resistance in the prevention of the common cold and influenza. Due to its antivital as well as
immunomodulating activities, it has drawn much attention in the past few years. So far, studies
have demonstrated it to lower the incidence of cold and influenza, prevent the recurrence of
chronic bronchitis, and enhance host immunity. After treatment with this prescription, patients'
IgA, IgG, and rate of T-lymphocyte transformation and E-rosette formation are all markedly
increased (Geng 1986, Li 1988, Liu 1987).
Honeysuckle Forsythia Powder was first recorded in 1798 AD. Currently it is probably the most
widely used cold remedy in China and in overseas Chinese communities. It is used in treating the
common cold, influenza, and other febrile viral infections. Its multiple pharmacological effects
have been reported, which include antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic (Deng et al.
1986).
Immunomodulating drugs. There are dozens of well-known Chinese medicinals with
immunomodulating activities that have been traditionally used as tonics; some are now also used
in cancer to counteract the toxic side effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The following are
a few examples of these medicinals (Chen 1985, Chinese 1985, Deng and Liao 1984, Du et al.
1986, Geng 1986, Li et al. 1986, Lin et al. 1985, Liu and Xu 1985, Wang 1987, Zang et al. 1985).
Tremella fuciformis Berk [fruiting body]polysaccharides
Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries [sclerotium]polysaccharides
Poria cocos [sclerotium]polysaccharides
Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing. [fruiting body]polysaccharides
Cordyceps sinensis (Berk) Sacc. [whole fungus plus host remains]polysaccharides
Oriental ginseng polysaccharides
Astragalus polysaccharides
Others. I cannot leave this topic without mentioning another category of traditional drugs that are
of keen interest not only to the Chinese but to Americans as well. These are the anti-aging
medicinals. The newly published Kang Shuai Lao Fangji Ci Dian (Encyclopedia of Anti-Aging
Formulas) records 1018 formulas, mostly selected from classic formularies, with only a few from
modern sources. Over the past few years, I have seen a steady increase in reports on anti-aging
research in the Chinese literature. Using modern criteria relating to aging such as immune
functions, free radical formation, superoxide dismutase activity, monoamine oxidase activity, and
blood lipid levels, many traditional tonics have been shown to have anti-aging effects. They
include ginseng, Siberian ginseng [root/rhizome of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.)
Harms], Schisandra chinensis fruit, lingzhi (fruiting body of Ganodertna spp.), fuzi (processed
lateral root of Aconitum carmichaeli), Epimedium herb, heshouwu (root of Polygonum
multiflorum), danggui (root of Angelica sinensis), baizhu (rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala),
and luobuma (leaf of Apocynum venetum L.), among others (Jiangsu 1988, Li et al. 1986).
EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHINESE

MEDICINALS
Chinese Medicinals
Mahuang
The most well-known Chinese medicinal that has been frequently quoted as a classic example of
an herbal drug yielding a modern medicine (ephedrine) is mahuang (Ephedra spp.). It is the dried
stems of one of three Ephedra species (E. sinica Stapf; E. equisetina Bunge; E. intermedia
Schrenk et C.A. Mey) found in China, primarily in northem regions. It has been used in China as a
diaphoretic, anti-asthmatic, and diuretic for at least 2000 years, with written records dating back to
at least the Shennong Herbal (100 BC-200 AD.). Prescriptions based on mahuang for treating
asthmatic conditions are countless, some of which date back to ancient formularies, such as the
3rd-century medical classic, the Shang Han Lun (Theory on Febrile Diseases). Other less known
uses of mahuang include the treatment of influenza and rheumatism. In contrast to the diaphoretic
properties of mahuang (stem), the root and rhizome of Ephedra species, known as mahuanggen,
has antiperspirant properties. It is used to treat night sweat and spontaneous perspiration as well as
excessive perspiration. For the latter, it is often used topically in the form of a powder for dusting
or decoction for washing affected areas. Furthermore, recent studies have shown it to contain
hypotensive flavonoids and alkaloids. The completely different medicinal properties of
aboveground and underground parts of Ephedra species serve as another example to highlight the
importance of specificity when evaluating and reporting on plant drugs.
Sour Date Kernel

One of the most commonly used sedative/hypnotic in Chinese prescriptions for treating insomnia
and neurasthenia is suanzaoren (sour date kernel). It is the dried ripe kernels of Ziziphus jujube
Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H.F. Chow (syn. Ziziphus spinosa Hu). Although first recorded
3000 years ago, this medicinal has only recently been evaluated by modern scientific methods and
found to indeed possess sedative and hypnotic effects in various experimental animals (Hong and
Cao 1987). Spinosin, a flavonoid glycoside, is only partially responsible for these effects (Li and
Zhang 1983, Yuan et al. 1987, Zeng et al. 1987). Other active components in this drug still await
further investigations.
Sour date kernel is also traditionally known to "calm the heart." Recent studies have demonstrated
it to have anti-arrhythmic and other cardiovascular activifies (Xu et al. 1987).
Qian Ceng Ta
Qian ceng ta is the whole plant of Huperzia serrata (Thunb.) Trev [syn. Lycopodium serratum
Thunb.]. Although not as common as the previous two, it is traditionally used as a detoxicant to
reduce swelling, break up blood stasis, and to stop bleeding. During its clinical use, patients were
observed to exhibit cholinergic-type reactions in varying degrees. Subsequently, two new
alkaloids, huperzine A and huperzine B, were isolated from it and shown to have strong and
reversible anticholinesterase activity. The action of huperzine A against acetylcholinesterase was
found to be three times stronger than that of physostigmine and thirty times that of galanthamine,
with lower toxic side effects. Favorable results from a series of studies conducted in rats and mice
plus a preliminary study on human subjects over the past two years indicate that these new
alkaloids show promise in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders (Liu et al.
1986, Wang et al. 1986, Wang et al. 1988, Tang et al. 1986, Xu and Tang 1987, Zhu and Tang
Chinese Medicinals
1987, Yan et al. 1987, Lu et al. 1988).
Detoxicants
"Detoxicant" is a rather vague term that can mean several things in traditional Chinese medicine. A
detoxicant can be used to treat "toxic conditions" such as external sores and ulcers or internal
conditions characterized by fevers or inflammations, results of viral or bacterial infections.
Well-known Chinese medicinals used for such conditions include honeysuckle flower, qingdai
(natural indigo), houttuynia herb [Houttuynia cordata Thunb.], forsythia fruit [Forsythia suspensa,
and andrographis herb [Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Nees.]. Most of these have been
extensively studied chemically and pharmacologically Modern drugs such as indirubin for
leukemia and andrographolides for various bacterial infections have been the results of these
studies.
Another type of detoxicants that so far have not been examined by modern technics include ginger,
mung bean, soybean, and licorice that are routinely used in traditional Chinese medicine for
treating drug or food poisoning as well as toxic side effects of cancer chemotherapy and heavy
metal poisoning. There is no lack of clinical reports on these uses in the Chinese literature.
However, reports on relevant chemical and pharmacological studies on these medicinals are
lacking.
CONCLUSION
The Chinese people have been using their medicinals for several thousand years. Over this long
period, they have accumulated a sizable pharmacopeia based on actual human trials, and have
faithfully recorded their experience and knowledge of these medicines for posterity. Thus,
compared to those of other countries, Chinese medicinals are unsurpassed in number,
sophistication, and documentation.
Considering the billions of Chinese who have lived and died since ancient times, it is highly
probable that for every disease known to mankind, there exists in the Chinese formularies and
herbals an effective remedy to treat it. The disease may not bear the modern name familiar to us,
but if one knows how and where to search one will most likely find the diseased condition and the
drug or prescription for treating it. In fact the treasure house of Chinese medicinals can offer
modern science sucha fertile field in which to look for leads to new drugs that we simply can no
longer afford to ignore it. The data are there. But it will take industrial and/or government
executives with foresight to initiate the efforts to make effective use of this information.
Considering the poor results of conventional screening programs, obtaining new drug leads among
Chinese medicinals may well be the most cost effective strategy and should be the concern of
every executive who is interested in inexpensive and effective ways of developing new drug leads.
Since most Chinese medicinals have withstood centuries of safe use, new active principles isolated
from them are viewed favorably by the Chinese who rarely hesitate to experiment with them
directly on humans. They also continue to experiment with new herbal prescriptions and document
them as they have for thousands of years, making the field of Chinese medicinals virtually a
continuous massive clinical trial of which Western pharmaceutical and medical researchers should
Chinese Medicinals
take advantage. With the huge sums of federal money now being spent in AIDS and cancer
research, a minute fraction of it spent in tapping this Chinese resource would be most cost
effective in obtaining leads to new drugs in these areas.
Lastly, many Chinese medicinals are derived from rather common plant sources. Some of these
plants, such as Pueraria lobata, Lonicera spp., Ailanthus altissima, and Polygonum cuspidatum,
have already been naturalized in America. They could be tumed into cash crops with minimal
research should a medicinal market be developed.
REFERENCES
All references are in Chinese unless otherwise indicated.
Chai, X.S., Z.X. Wang, P.P. Chen, L.Y. Wang, et al. 1985. Anti-Arrhythmic action of
puerarin. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 3:166-168. [Enghsh. abstr.]
Chang, M.Y. 1987. Kang Ai Ben Cao [Anticancer Herbal], 1st ed. Hunan Scientific and
Technical Publishers, Changsha.
Chen, C.X. 1985. Pharmacological and chemical studies on polysaccharides of Poria cocos
(Schw.) Wolf and their preliminary clinical evaluation. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 4:40-44.
Chen, F.C. 1987a. Recent status on chemical and pharmacological research on natural
hypoglycemic drugs. Chinese Trad Herbal Drugs 8:39-44.
Chen, X.P. 1987b. Research status on "Prescriptions for 52 Diseases'" J. Trad Chinese Med
5:61-63.
Chen, X.Q. 1982. Ben Cao Gang Mu and later works. Chinese Pharm. Bul. 9:38-42.
Cheng, P.Y., and M.J. Xu. 1985. Research progress on antitumor activities of diterpenoids.
Chinese Trad Herbal Drugs 7:3644.
Cheng, X.J., P.Z. Li, X.H. Sheng, B.J. Li, and C.L. Zhu. 1984. Antitumor and
immunological activities of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Harms
polysaccharides. Chinese J. Cancer 3:191-193. [English abstr.]
Chinese Pharmaceutical Bulletin Editorial Committee. 1985. Evaluation and
recommendation of new drugs: zhuling polysaccharides. Chinese Pharm. Bul. 2:74-75.
Deng, W.L., and S.R. Gong. 1987. Progress in research on heshouwu (Polygonum
multiflorum Thunb.). Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 3:4246.
Deng, W.L., and Y.Y. Liao. 1984. Study on the immunopharmacology of Tremella
fucifortnis Berk polysaccharides. Chinese Trad Herbal Drugs 9:23-26,22.
Deng, W.L., W.L. Wang, J.Y. Liu, S.J. Ye, et al. 1986. Studies on the pharmacological
effects of Yin Qiao San (Honeysuckle Forsythia Powder). J. Trad Chinese Med. 3:59-62.
Du, X., Z.L. Zhang, Y.J. Wu, Z.L. Zhou, et al. 1986. Antisenility effect of "Vita-Rev"A
report on clinical observations on 507 middle-age and aged patients in a double blind study.
Chinese J. Integr. Trad West. Med. 5:271-274. [English abstr.]
Geng, C.S. 1986. Progress in research on immunopharmacology of astragalus root
(huangqi). Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med 1:62-64.
Guo, Y.Z., X.S. Meng, and Q.P. Gao. 1985. Research on the development of anticancer
Chinese Medicinals
plant drugs. I. Anti-cancer components from chunpi [Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle].
Chinese Trad Herbal Drugs 7:46.
Hao, J.D. 1986. Research on ben cao (herbals) should be stressed and intensified. Bul.
Chinese Materia Med 6:3-6.
Hong, G.X., and B. Cao. 1987. Progress in the research on suanzaoren. Bul. Chinese
Materia Med. 8:51-53.
Hu, Y.Y, and M.S. Xuan. 1982. Yunnan Kang Ai Zhong Cao Yao [Chinese Antitumor
Herbal Drugs of Yunnan], 1st ed. Yunnan People's Press, Kunming.
Huang, J.Y. 1986. Cardiovascular effects of the traditional Chinese drug fuzi (lateral root of
Aconitum carmichaeli Debx.). Jiangxi J. Trad Chinese Med Pharmacol. 6:32-33.
Huang, Y.L. 1987. A clinical study on treatment of malignant trophoblastic neoplasia with
trichosanthin. Chinese J. Integr. Trad West. Med. 3:154-155. [English abstr.]
Jiang, J.W. 1984. Achievements in new drug development from Chinese herbal drugs during
a 35-year period since the establishment of the People's Republic. Chinese Trad Herbal
Drugs 10:1-10,19.
Jiang, T.L., and Yan, S.C. 1986. Research on Chinese anticancer herbal drugs-current status
and future prospects. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med. 11:698-704.
Jiangsu Provincial Study Group for the Clinical Evaluation of the Anti-aging effects of
luobuma. 1988. Doubleblind clinical study on the anti-aging effects of luobuma (leaf of
Apocynum venetum L). Bul. Chinese Materia Med 2:46-49.
Jiao, D.H., Y.H. Ma, S.J. Chen, C.T. Liu, et al. 1980. Resume of 400 cases of acute upper
digestive tract bleeding treated by rhubarb alone. Pharmacology (Suppl. 1) 20:128-130.
[English]
Jiao, D.H., H.M. Zhou, S.S. Min, G.Z. Ge, et al. 1988. Clinical study on treatment of acute
upper digestive tract bleeding with rhubarb aloneAnalysis of therapeutic results in 1150
cases. Zhoiang J. Trad. Chinese Med 4:179-181.
Li, C.L. 1982. Research status on antitumor drugs of plant origin. Chinese Pharm. Bul.
2:19-23.
Li, C.Z., S.C. Yang, F.T. Zhao, Y.Q. Yang, et al. 1983. Experimental study on the
anticoagulant action of danshensu. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med. 5:297-299. [English
abstr.]
Li, J. 1988. Current status on pharmacological research and clinical applications of Yu Ping
Feng San (Jade Screen Powder). Zhejiang J. Trad. Chinese Med. 6:281-283.
Li S.Z., and B. Zhang. 1983. Review on chemical and pharmacological studies of Ziziphus
jujube Mill. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 10:39-43.
Li, Z.H., Z.X. Li, and C.S. Ji. 1986. Review of research on anti-aging activities of Chinese
traditional drugs. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 10:37-41.
Lin, M.A., Z.B. Wu, R.F. Yang, P.H. Yang, et al. 1985. Clinical observations on the effect
of lentinan (776) on cellular immune function in patients with leukemia. Chinese J. Intern
Med. 10:592-595. [English abstr.]
Liu, C.X., Z.L. Zhang, G.Z. Ye, and Q.Z. Wen. 1985. Pharmacological studies on
Chinese Medicinals
cucurbitacins B and E. Chinese Trad Herbal Drugs 10:21-23.

Liu, G.T, and G.L. Xu. 1985. Immunopharmacological effects of Cordyceps sinensis (Berk)
Sacc. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med. 10:622-624,637.
Liu, J.S., C.M. Yu, and Y.Z. Zhou. 1986. The structure of huperzine A and B, two new
alkaloids exhibiting marked anticholinesterase activity. Canad. J. Chem. 64:837-841.
[English]
Liu, K.M. 1987. Observations on therapeutic effects of Fang Gan Plan (Cold/Flu
Prevention TabletsClinical analysis of 210 cases. Shanghai J. Trad. Chinese Med.
2:18-20.
Liu, S., and J.X. Chen. 1984. Anti-arrhythmic effects of total saponins of Panax
notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2:100-103. [English abstr.]
Lu, W.H., J. Shou, and X.C. Tang. 1988. Improving effect of huperzine A on discrimination
performance in aged rats and adult rats with experimental cognitive impairment. Acta
Pharmacol. Sin. 1:11-15. [English abstr.]
Ou, X.C., J.Y. Ding, and L. Zhang. 1987. Study on the anti-thrombin effects of 126
traditional Chinese drugs. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 4:21.
Ren, F.B., and M. Hong. 1986. Current status on the pharmacology and clinical applications
of cucurbitacins in the treatment of hepatitis and primary liver cancer. Chinese J. Integr.
Trad. West. Med. 10:633-635.
Ren, Y. 1985. Observations on therapeutic effects of magnolia flower (xinyi) in the
treatment of 120 cases of allergic rhinitis. Bul. Chinese Materia Med. 5:45.
Shaanxi Provincial Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine. 1983. Categorized
prescriptions from Ben Cao Gang Mu, 1st ed. Commercial Press, Hong Kong.
Shan, C.W. 1988. Effects of polydatin on platelet aggregation of rabbits. Acta Pharm. Sin.
5:394-396. [English abstr.]
Shan, C.W., Q.X. Liang, C.N. Zhong, and B.H. Huang. 1986. Effects of extracts of Lentinus
edodes (Berk.) Sing. on platelet aggregation in rabbits. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs.
12:12-14.
Song, X.P., P.P. Chen, and X.S. Chai. 1988. Effects of puerarin on blood pressure and
plasma renin activity in spontaneous hypertensive rats. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 1:55-58.
[English abstr.]
Sun, D.A., H.Q. Zhuang, A. Deng, and L.Z. Wang. 1986. Clinical evaluation of crude
rhubarb powder and cimetidine in upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding. Chinese J. Integr.
Trad. West. Med. 8:458-459. [English abstr.]
Sun, Q.M. 1986. Dating of the "Prescriptions for 52 Diseases" by comparing its ancient
characters with those of the "Book of Song." Chinese J. Med. Hist. 4:243-246.
Tang, X.C., Y.F. Ham X.P. Chen, and X.D. Zhu. 1986. Effects of huperzine A on Teaming
and retrieval process of discrimination performance in rats. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 6:507-511.
[English abstr.]
Wang, L.B. 1987. Recent research on anticancer Chinese medicinals. Shanghai J. Trad.
Chinese Med. 1:39-41.
Chinese Medicinals
Wang, W. and H.D. Jing. 1984. Effect of alcoholic extract of prepared radix polygoni
multiflori on preventing atherosclerosis in Japanese quail. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West.
Med. 12:748-750. [English abstr.]
Wang, Y.E., J. Feng, W.H. Lu, and X.C. Tang. 1988. Pharmacokinetics of huperzine A in
rats and mice. Acta Phartnacol. Sin. 3:193-196. [English abstr.]
Wang, Y.E., D.X. Yue, and X.C. Tang. 1986. Anticholinesterase activity of huperzine A.
Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2:110-113. [Enghsh abstr.]
Wang, Y.L., and Y.K. Ba. 1985. Pharmacodynamic and electrophysiological studies of
tetramethylpyrazine on cardiovascular tissue-A new calcium antagonist? Chinese J. Integr.
Trad. West. Med. 5:291-294,320. [English abstr.]
Xu, H., and X.C. Tang. 1987. Cholinesterase inhibition by huperzine B. Acta Pharmacol.
Sin. 1:18-22. [English abstr.]
Xu, S.Y., J.Y. Tao, K.L. Tian, Z.G. Sun, et al. 1987. Study on the anti-arrhythmia activities
of suanzaoren extract. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 12:18-20.
Yan, X.F., W.H. Lu, W.J. Lou, and X.C. Tang. 1987. Effects of huperzine A and B on
skeletal muscle and electroencephalogram. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2:117-123. [English abstr.]
Yang, J.W. 1988. Treatment of 12 cases of angina pectoris with tetramethylpyrazine.
Liaoning J. Trad. Chinese Med. 5:26-27.
Yang, J.X. 1981. Kang Ai Zhong Cao Yao Zhi Ji [Anticancer Chinese Herbal Preparations],
1st ed. People's Health Publications, Beijing.
Yu, R.C. 1983. Progress in the clinical and experimental treatment of cancer by integrated
traditional and western medicine. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med. 3:188-191.
Yuan, C.L., Z.B. Wang, Y Jiao, A.M. Cao, et al. 1987. Study on sedative and hypnotic
flavonoids of suanzaoren. Bul. Chinese Materia Med. 9:34-36.
Yue, X.S., X.F. Liu, Y.L. Sun, J.Z. Liao, et al. 1985. Preliminary studies on the antiplatelet
aggregation effects of 53 Chinese herbal drugs. Bul. Chinese Materia Med. 1:44-45.
Zang, Q.Z., G.X. He, Z.Y. Zheng, J.H. Xu, et al. 1985. Pharmacological effects of
polysaccharides of Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. Chinese Trad. Herbal Drugs 7:18-23.
Zeng, L., R.Y. Zhang, and X. Wang. 1987. Studies on the constituents of Zizyphus spinosus
Hu. Acta Pharm. Sin. 2:114-120. [English abstr.]
Zhang, H.L. 1985. Hypotensive plant consfituents and hypotensive plant drugs. Chinese
Trad. Herbal Drugs 1:38-45.
Zhou, Y.P. 1984. Research progress on the pharmacological effects of root of Pueraria
lobata (Willd.) Ohwi and its clinical applications. Chinese J. Integr. Trad. West. Med.
11:699-702.
Zhu, X.D., and X.C. Tang. 1987. Facilitatory effects of huperzine A and B on learning and
memory of spatial discrimination in mice. Acta Pharm. Sin 11:812-817. [English abstr.]
New Opportunities in the Cucurbitaceae

Ng, T.J. 1993. New opportunities in the Cucurbitaceae. p. 538-546. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon
(eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.
New Opportunities in the

Cucurbitaceae*
Timothy J. Ng
1. NEW OPPORTUNITIES WITH COMMONLY GROWN CUCURBITS
2. CUCURBITS OF POTENTIAL ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Old World Cucurbits
2. New World Cucurbits
3. POTENTIAL BIOCHEMICAL AND MEDICINAL USES
4. GERMPLASM RESOURCES
5. REFERENCES
6. Table 1
7. Table 2
The Cucurbitaceae consists of nearly 100 genera and over 750 species (Yamaguchi 1983).
Although most have Old World origins (Whitaker and Davis 1962), many species originated in the
New World and at least seven genera have origins in both hemispheres (Esquinas-Alcazar and
Gulick 1983). There is tremendous genetic diversity within the family, and the range of adaptation
for cucurbit species includes tropical and subtropical regions, arid deserts, and temperate locations.
A few species are adaptable to production at elevations as high as 2000 m.
The genetic diversity in cucurbits extends to both vegetative and reproductive characteristics.
There is considerable range in the monoploid (x) chromosome number (Jeffrey 1990), including 7
(Cucumis sativus), 11 (Citrullus spp., Momordica spp., Lagenaria spp., Sechium spp., and
Trichosanthes spp.), 12 (Benincasa hispida, Coccinia cordifolia, Cucumis spp. other than C.
sativus, and Praecitrullus fistulosus), 13 (Luffa spp.), and 20 (Cucurbita spp.).
Archaeological evidence has indicated that cucurbits were present in ancient and prehistoric
cultures. Lagenaria was associated with man as early as 12,000 BC in Peru (Esquinas-Alcazar and
Gulick 1983). Archaeological expeditions in the Oaxaca region of Mexico have reported Cucurbita
pepo to be associated with man as early as 8500 BC and cultivated by 4050 BC (Esquinas-Alcazar
and Gulick 1983). Written Chinese records describing the use of cultivated cucurbits have been
found from as early as 685 BC (Herklots 1972). American Indians cultivated squash in
pre-Columbian times (Whitaker and Davis 1962), and chayote was a common vegetable among
the Aztecs prior to the Spanish conquest (Herklots 1972). Depending upon the species, virtually all
parts of the plant can be used for food, including leaves, shoots, roots, flowers, seeds, and
immature and mature fruits. Starch can be extracted from roots, and the seeds are a rich source of
oils and proteins (Jacks et al. 1972). In addition, some cucurbits have been used for ornamental
purposes (e.g., gourds), for utensils (e.g., bowls, ladles, sponges, boxes, birdhouses, musical
instruments), and for fuel and pharmacological uses in certain areas of the world.
NEW OPPORTUNITIES WITH COMMONLY

GROWN CUCURBITS
Cucurbit crops commonly grown in the United States include cucumber (Cucumis sativus), melon
(Cucumis melo), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), and squash and pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.). Due
to intensive breeding efforts, particularly with cucumber and melon, numerous new cultivars have
been developed, some of them quite different from the traditional forms for these crops.
Cucumbers have been traditionally grown for either pickling or slicing purposes. Newer forms
which are increasing in importance include hothouse cucumbers, which are elongated, seedless,
and "burpless" (putatively reducing eructation). Nerson et al. (1990) reported on the development
of melofon, a genotype of Cucumis melo which is suitable for pickle production.
Until recently, melon production has been limited in most parts of the United States to the
reticulated (netted), orange-fleshed muskmelon. However, the smooth-skinned, green-fleshed
honeydews have increased in popularity over the past decade, and varied displays of casaba and
canary (smooth-skinned with yellow or mottled rinds, white-fleshed), Persian (lightly-netted,
pink-fleshed), and crenshaw (smooth-skinned, pale orange-fleshed) melons are becoming an
increasingly common sight in major markets. The genetic diversity within the species for fruit
characteristics has resulted in recent cultivar developments such as orange-fleshed honeydews and
green-fleshed netted melons. Additionally, producers are showing interest in forms cultivated in
other countries, including the smooth-skinned, delicately-fleshed "Charentais" types in Europe and
the dark green smooth-skinned "hami gua" melons of Asia.
Watermelon types have traditionally been red-fleshed and seeded. There is genetic variation for
flesh color in the species, however, and colors can range from white or yellow to orange,
depending upon the genetic constitution. Yellow-fleshed cultivars are now available, and there
may be a market for white-fleshed cultivars if quality could be assured, since consumers tend to
associate white flesh with immaturity. A relatively recent development in watermelon breeding has
been the use of ploidy manipulations to produce seedless triploid genotypes (Kihara 1951). A
number of seedless cultivars have been developed, but they tend to be more susceptible to
physiological problems such as poor seed germination and hollow heart. In northwest China,
edible seed watermelons are an important crop (Zhang and Jiang 1990); these melons are small in
size (2.5 to 3.5 kg) with low soluble solids content, but have a high ratio of seed to flesh in the
fruits. The seeds are roasted before eating.
Squash, derived from Algonquin Indian "askoot asquash" which means "eaten green," is a generic
term to describe cultivars of four Cucurbita species: C. argyrosperma (= C. mixta), C. maxima, C.
moschata, and C. pepo. These species are New World in origin, with all but C. maxima originating
in central to southern Mexico (C. maxima originated in South America and was the only species
not cultivated in the United States until post-Columbian times). Traditional forms of the Cucurbita
spp. include summer squash, winter squash, pumpkins, and gourds. Production has recently
increased with specialty forms such as spaghetti squash (C. pepo), whose internal flesh texture
resembles strands of spaghetti following cooking. Another specialty crop is calabaza (C.
moschata), a hard-shelled squash with bright orange, fine-grained flesh and excellent nutritive
properties (Wessel-Beaver and Varela 1991). There has also been recent interest in edible pumpkin
seed, particularly in genotypes with the hull-less trait (Loy 1990).
Although the new forms of these commonly grown cucurbits represent an increase of diversity
within each commodity, they will probably not expand the market substantially (with the
exception of niche markets) since consumers will probably elect to purchase them in place of the
more traditional forms. Where the true opportunity for increased diversity and market growth
exists is with cucurbit crops which are grown on an international scale, but are cultivated to only a
limited extent in the United States.
CUCURBITS OF POTENTIAL ECONOMIC

IMPORTANCE
Although by no means exhaustive, Table 1 lists cucurbit species which are cultivated to a
significant extent in other parts of the world. Loosely grouped according to Old World and New
World origins, Table 1 also lists the more frequently used common names for each of these
species, along with growth habit and the parts of the plant which are used on an economic basis.
Many of these species are described in detail by Chakravarty (1990), Herklots (1972), Tindall
(1983), Whitaker (1990), Whitaker and Davis (1962), and Yamaguchi (1983).
Old World Cucurbits

Benincasa hispida. The winter melon has been reported to have been grown as a vegetable in
China since 500 AD; even today, however, it is cultivated little outside of Asia. It was one of two
cucurbit species identified by the National Academy of Sciences (1975) as being an
underexploited tropical crop. Exhibiting relatively rapid growth, B. hispida grows best in
temperate climates with adequate but not excessive rainfall. In Sri Lanka, the plant produces fruit
from seed in two months during the rainy season. The distribution of staminate and pistillate
flowers is influenced by temperature and daylength. Plants may be grown recumbent or trellised.
The mature fruit is the primary harvested plant part, although seeds are sometimes extracted, fried
and eaten like pumpkin seeds. The fruit is covered by a white, chalky wax which deters
microorganisms and helps impart an extraordinary longevity to the melon. Winter melon fruits can
be stored for as long as a year without refrigeration. Fruits may weight up to 35 kg and consist of
more than 96% water. They are usually sold whole in domestic markets, but are commonly
displayed and sold by the slice in Asian markets. Somewhat bland in flavor when eaten fresh, the
flesh is often used to make soup stock. Canned winter melon soup and dehydrated winter melon
slices represent two of the processed products made from this species.
Citrullus colocynthis. A relative of watermelon, egusi is native to tropical Africa and highly
drought tolerant. Productivity is enhanced during dry, sunny periods and reduced during periods of
excessive rainfall and high humidity. It is suitable for production in "marginal growing areas." The
fruits are extremely bitter, but the seeds are can be removed and roasted as an edible commodity
(Soliman et al. 1985). The seeds are rich in oils, which can be extracted for cooking purposes, and
the seeds can also be ground into a powder and used as a soup thickener or flavoring agent (Badifu
and Ogunsua 1991).
Coccinia cordifolia. Ivy gourd is a semi-perennial which grows best under conditions of adequate
rainfall and high humidity. One of the few dioecious cucurbits, with a hetermorphic (XY)
chromosome pair determining sex, it produces best when a 1:10 ratio of male to females is used.
Plants are commonly trellised. The leaves, shoots, and immature fruits are cooked and eaten;
mature fruits are sometimes preserved.
Cucumis anguria. The West Indian gherkin grows and is used in a similar fashion as the
cucumber. It was introduced into the United States in the early 1800s, but remains cultivated to
only a limited extent. Oval in shape with a round cross-section, it has a highly warted skin, long
spines and a large cavity with many seeds.
Lagenaria siceraria. The origin of the bottle gourd is acknowledged to be Africa, although
archaeological evidence has placed it in Peru around 12000 BC, in Thailand about 8000 BC, and in
Zambia around 2000 BC (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick 1983). It has traveled widely, perhaps
because the hard, dry skin of the mature fruits is impervious to water; they are capable of floating
on salt water for the better part of a year without any loss in seed viability (Herklots 1972; Tindall
1983). Tolerant to a wide range of rainfall, it may be grown either on the ground or trellised.
Young fruits are used as a cooked vegetable similar to zucchini. The flesh is white, firm, and has
an excellent texture and a mild taste. Young shoots and leaves can be cooked, and seeds can be
used in soups. Flesh of immature fruits can also be used in making icing for cakes, and the hard
skin is sometimes sliced into thin, dry strips for cooking.
Some forms of L. siceraria are grown for non-food uses. Mature fruits, whose inside may be
poisonous, contain an extremely hard and waterproof rind when dried. They can be used as
multi-purpose containers (bowls, boxes, water jugs, cups, planters), utensils (ladles, pipes),
musical instruments (e.g., sitars), floats for fishnets and rafts, or for ornamental purposes such as
masks or native artifacts. Designs lightly scratched into the skin of developing fruit will develop
into scars that remain intact in the mature fruits.
Luffa acutangula. The angled loofah is commonly grown in hot, humid tropical areas in Asia.
Plants are generally grown on a trellis. Immature fruits, which are dark green with tender ridges,
are used in soups and curries or as a cooked vegetable. They generally grow up to 0.6 m in length,
and the flesh is spongy although the skin is coarse. The mature fruits are bitter and inedible, but
the fibrous skeleton can be used as a sponge. However, the reticulated inner tissue is not as easily
separated from the outer skin and inner flesh as L. aegyptiaca (= L. cylindrica).
Luffa aegyptiaca. Along with Lagenaria siceraria, L. aegyptiaca probably has the most diverse
uses of any of the cultivated cucurbits. Immature fruits of the non-bitter genotypes are eaten fresh,
cooked, or in soups, although they are inferior to immature L. acutangula fruits. The mature fruits
are the source of the spongy reticulated material known as the domestic loofah. These loofahs are
used for sponges and filters, and for stuffing pillows, saddles, and slippers. They can also be used
for insulation and are attractive sources for packing materials because of their biodegradability.
There is an increasing interest in domestic production (Davis 1991) since the United States is the
major market and imports millions of loofahs from Asia each year.
Normally, mature fruits are left on vine to dry and the dry, thin outer skin is removed. The fruit is
then soaked in running water for several days, after which the softer tissue is removed. After
further soaking, then drying, the seeds are shaken out and the loofah is bleached either chemically
or by the sun prior to marketing.
Momordica charantia. The bitter melon is adapted to a wide variation of climates, although
production is best in hot, humid areas such as tropical Asia. The bitter immature fruits are usually
soaked to remove some of the bitterness, then boiled or fried. Volatile components released during
cooking enhance the flavor (Binder et al. 1989). Bitter melons can also be pickled or used in
curries. Relative to other cucurbits, the fruit is highly nutritious due to the iron and ascorbic acid
content. Plants are usually trellised, and fruits are protected from flies by tying a paper cylinder
around the stalk. Some forms have bright red seeds due to a high lycopene content; Yen and
Hwang (1985) have proposed using this pigment as an artificial food colorant.
Praecitrullus fistulosus. Primarily grown in India, the round melon was long considered to be
Citrullus lanatus but was recently given its own taxonomic category due in part to its difference in
monoploid chromosome number (Sujatha and Seshadri 1989). Growth conditions and
requirements are similar to those of watermelon, but the entire immature fruit is used as a cooked
vegetable. The seeds can also be removed and eaten.
Telfairia occidentalis. A dioecious perennial grown at elevations up to 2,000 m in West Africa, the
fluted gourd is drought tolerant and is usually trellised. Shoots from the female plants can be
cooked and eaten (Lucas 1988). The fruits are large (up to 13 kg) and inedible, but the seeds
contain up to 30% protein and can be boiled and eaten, or ground into powder for soup. Seeds can
also be fermented for several days and eaten as a slurry (Badifu and Ogunsua 1991).
Telfairia pedata. The oyster nut is a perennial grown in Central and East Africa. It is drought
tolerant, can grow at elevations up to 2,000 m, requires 18 months to flowering, and is usually
trellised. It produces very large, long, flat seeds which taste similar to almonds when roasted.
Trichosanthes cucumerina. The snake melon is an annual which requires high levels of soil
moisture and trellising. A long growing season is necessary, and the flowers open late in the
afternoon. Immature fruits are usually harvested when they are 0.3 to 0.4 m long; mature fruits can
grow up to 1.5 m in length. Some of the fruits remain straight, while others may curl to resemble a
snake. Immature fruits are boiled and eaten, while mature fruits are used in soups.
New World Cucurbits

Cucurbita ficifolia. The fig-leaved gourd grows in temperate highlands at elevations up to 2,000
m. One of the earliest cultivated plants in America, archaeological evidence indicates it was
cultivated in Peru around 3000 BC (Herklots 1972). The immature fruits can be prepared and eaten
similar to summer squash. Mature fruits can be preserved, and the black seeds are edible. In Latin
America, the flesh is impregnated with sugar to make a candy or it can be fermented to make beer
(Whitaker 1990).
Cucurbita foetidissima. Identified as an underexploited tropical crop by the National Academy of
Sciences (1975), the buffalo gourd has multiple food and non-food uses (Bemis et al. 1975;
Gathman and Bemis 1990). It is a perennial and is found growing wild in marginal lands in the
southwestern United States. Some plants have been reported to be over 40 years old. It has a very
large, fleshy storage root which can grow to depths up to 5 m and weigh as much as 30 kg after
two growing seasons. Roots of older plants can weigh over 100 kg. Buffalo gourd primarily
reproduces by asexual reproduction, but also produces small yellow, hard shelled fruits which are
considered inedible.
American Indians have used the ripe fruit as a soap substitute and as ceremonial rattles. The seeds,
which contain an abundant quantity of polyunsaturated fats and protein, are edible. The large
storage roots contain large amounts of starch (up to 56% of the dry weight), and can also be used
as fuel. Air-dried roots burn with the heat equivalent of wood and are being tested in Afghanistan
as an alternative fuel to decrease deforestation (Winrock International 1991).
Cyclanthera pedata. Korila is relatively cold tolerant and adapted to elevations up to 2,000 m, but
is also easy to cultivate in the tropics and subtropics. It is currently cultivated in the Carribean and
in Central and South America. The foliage is glabrous and odoriferous. Fruits are pale green,
flattened, and mostly hollow. The seed cavity is spongy, and the seeds are attached to a single
placenta. Seeds are usually removed and the fruits are eaten raw or cooked. They are often used
stuffed with meat, fish or cheese, then baked and eaten similar to stuffed peppers. The shoots are
also edible.
Sechium edule. Chayote was a common vegetable among the Aztecs prior to Spanish conquest of
Mexico. It is still one of the most widely cultivated of the cucurbits in Costa Rica. It requires high
levels of soil moisture and can grow at elevations up to 1,500 m. Unlike most cucurbits, it has a
daylength requirement of 12 to 12.5 h for flowering. The plants grow best on hillsides and are
usually trellised. Parthenocarpic fruit set can be induced by gibberellin.
Unlike other cucurbits, the fruit contain only a single, large seed. The immature fruits can be eaten
raw in salads and provide a good source of vitamin C (Herklots 1972). They can also be boiled,
fried, steamed, or stuffed and baked. Young leaves and tendrils are also eaten, and seeds can be
sauteed in butter as a delicacy. The large storage roots represent a rich source of starch
(Chakravarty 1990).
POTENTIAL BIOCHEMICAL AND MEDICINAL

USES
Cucurbits are a well-recognized source of secondary metabolites. The cucurbitacins, tetracyclic
triterpenoids which impart a bitter flavor to many cucurbits, have been well-studied as attractants
of beetles such as Diabrotica (Whitaker and Davis 1962). Alkaloids have been reported in
Momordica, and saponins have been found in Cucurbita, Citrullus, Lagenaria, and Momordica
(Schultes 1990).
As biochemical isolation techniques become more sophisticated and refined, new compounds of
interest are being isolated. For instance, Mukherjee et al. (1986) isolated amarinin from Luffa
amara; amarinin inhibits plant cell growth in culture, and its action cannot be overcome with
gibberellin.
Perhaps of greatest current interest are the compounds of potential medicinal interest present
within cucurbits. Table 2 lists reported pharmacological properties of many cultivated cucurbits;
similar properties have been ascribed to other cucurbit species not currently under cultivation
(Schultes 1990). Putative properties include purgative actions and treatment for physical ailments,
diseases, and infectious organisms. "Infusions" (minced tissue suitable for steeping) of selected
cucurbits are sold in some markets and reported to be able to alleviate or cure certain human
ailments.
Recently, abortifacient proteins with ribosome-inhibiting properties have been isolated from
several cucurbit species (Ng et al. 1991). Some of these species have been used to induce second
trimester abortions in China since the 1920s. The abortifacient proteins include momorcharin
(from Momordica charantia), luffaculin (from Luffa operculata), trichosanthin (from
Trichosanthes kirilowii), and beta-trichosanthin (from Trichosanthes cucumeroides). Trichosanthin
is of particular interest because its ribosome-inhibiting properties have been shown to be effective
in inhibiting the replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in infected lymphocyte and
phagocyte cells, indicating potential as a therapeutic agent for AIDS (McGrath et al. 1989). These
proteins vary in their level of action and effectiveness, and further germplasm evaluation of
cultivated and wild species may identify related compounds with greater efficacy for ribosome
inactivation.
GERMPLASM RESOURCES
Few of these Old World and New World species have been subjected to major, intensive breeding
efforts. However, extensive germplasm collections are maintained by the USDA Plant Germplasm
System at the Plant Introduction Station in Iowa (Clark et al. 1991) and by the Vavilov Institute in
Leningrad, USSR (Robinson 1989). Another major germplasm repository is maintained by the
Peoples' Republic of China (Robinson 1989), and smaller gene banks are located in Mexico, India,
Spain, Nigeria, Costa Rica, and the Philippines (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick 1983). These
germplasm collections represent a valuable resource for breeding adapted cultivars of these exotic
cucurbits for domestic production.
REFERENCES
Badifu, G.I.O. and A.O. Ogunsua. 1991. Chemical composition of kernels from some
species of Cucurbitaceae grown in Nigeria. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 41:35-44.
Bemis, W.P., L.C. Curtis, C.W. Weber, J.W. Berry, and J.M. Nelson. 1975. The buffalo
gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima HBK): a potential crop for the production of protein, oil, and
starch on arid lands. Office Agr., Tech. Assistance Bureau, USAID Washington, DC.
Binder, R.G., R.A. Flath, and T.R. Mon. 1989. Volatile components of bittermelon. J. Agr.
Food Chem. 37:418-420.

Chakravarty, H.L. 1990. Cucurbits of India and their role in the development of vegetable
crops, p. 325-334. In: D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (eds.). Biology and
utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY.
Clark, R.L., M.P. Widrlechner, K.R. Reitsma, and C.C. Block. 1991. Cucurbit germplasm at
the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Ames, Iowa. HortScience
26:326,450-451.
Davis, J.M. 1991. Development of a production system for Luffa sponge gourds.
HortScience 26:708 (Abstr.)
Esquinas-Alcazar, J.T. and P.J. Gulick. 1983. Genetic resources of Cucurbitaceae. Int.
Board for Plant Genet. Resources, Rome.
Gathman, A.C. and W.P. Bemis. 1990. Domestication of buffalo gourd, Cucurbita
foetidissima, p. 318-324. In: D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (eds.). Biology and
utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY.
Herklots, G.A.C. 1972. Vegetables in south-east Asia. George Allen & Unwin, London.
Jacks, T.H., T.P. Hensarling, and L.Y. Yatsu. 1972. Cucurbit seeds: I. Characterizations and
uses of oils and proteins, a review. Econ. Bot. 26:135-141.
Jeffrey, C. 1990. Systematics of the Cucurbitaceae: An overview, p. 3-28. In: D.M. Bates,
R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (eds.). Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. Cornell
Univ. Press, Ithaca.
Kihara, H. 1951. Triploid watermelons. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 58:217-230.
Loy, J.B. 1990. Hull-less seeded pumpkins: a new edible snackseed crop, p. 403-407. In: J.
Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Lucas, E.O. 1988. The potential of leaf vegetables in Nigeria. Outlook Agr. 17:163-168.
McGrath, M.S., K.M. Hwang, S.E. Caldwell, I. Gaston, K.C. Luk, P. Wu, V.L. Ng, S.
Crowe, J. Daniels, J. Marsh, T. Deinhart, P.V. Lekas, J. Vennari, H.W. Yeung, and J.D.
Lifson. 1989. GLQ223: an inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus replication in acutely
and chronically infected cells of lymphocyte and mononuclear phagocyte lineage. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 86:2844-2848.
Morton, J.F. 1971. The wax gourd, a year-round Florida vegetable with unusual keeping
quality. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 81:104-109.
Mukherjee, S., A.K. Shaw, S.N. Ganguly, T. Ganguly, and P.K. Saha. 1986. Amarinin: a
new growth inhibitor from Luffa amara. Plant Cell Physiol. 27:935-938.
Nagao, T., R. Tanaka, Y. Iwase, H. Hanazono, and H. Okabe. 1991. Studies on the
constituents of Luffa acutangula Roxb. I. Structures of acutosides A-G, oleanane-type
triterpene saponins isolated from the herb. Chem. Pharm. Bul. 39:599-606.
National Academy of Sciences. 1975. Underexploited tropical plants with promising
economic value. Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, DC.
Nerson, H., H.S. Paris, and M. Edelstein. 1990. Melofon: a new crop for concentrated yield
of pickles, p. 399-402. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). Advances in new crops. Timber
Ng, T.B., Z. Feng, W.W. Li, and H.W. Yeung. 1991. Improved isolation and further
characterization of beta-trichosanthin, a ribosome-inactivating and abortifacient protein
from tubers of Trichosanthes cucumeroides (Cucurbitaceae). Int. J. Biochem. 23:561-567.
Robinson, R.W. 1989. Genetic resouces of the Cucurbitaceae, p. 85a-85j. In: C.E. Thomas
(ed.). Proc. Cucurbitaceae `89: Evaluation and enhancement of cucurbit germplasm. USDA
Vegetable Lab., Charleston, SC.
Schultes, R.E. 1990. Biodynamic cucurbits in the New World tropics, p. 307-317. In: D.M.
Bates, R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (eds.). Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae.
Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY.
Soliman, M.A., A.A. El Sawy, H.M. Fadel, F. Osman, and A.M. Gad. 1985. Volatile
components of roasted Citrullus colocynthis var. colocynthoides. Agr. Biol. Chem. Tokyo
49:269-275.
Sujatha, V.S. and V.S. Seshadri. 1989. Taxonomic position of round melon (Praecitrullus
fistulosus). Cucurbit Genet. Coop. Rpt. 12:86-88.
Tindall, H.D. 1983. Vegetables in the tropics. AVI, Westport, CT.
Wessel-Beaver, L. and F. Varela. 1991. Performance of parents and progenies in Caribbean
x temperate crosses of Cucurbita moschata. HortScience 26:740. (Abstr.)
Whitaker, T.W. 1990. Cucurbits of potential economic importance, p. 318-324. In: D.M.
Bates, R.W. Robinson, and C. Jeffrey (eds.) Biology and utilization of the Cucurbitaceae.
Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca.
Whitaker, T.W. and G.N. Davis. 1962. Cucurbits. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York.
Winrock International. 1991. Development: the changing landscape--Winrock International
Annual Report 1990. Winrock International, Morrilton, AR.
Yamaguchi, M. 1983. World vegetables. AVI, Westport.
Yen, G.C. and L.S. Hwang. 1985. Lycopene from the seeds of ripe bitter melon (Momordica
charantia) as a potential red food colorant. II. Storage stability, preparation of powdered
lycopene and food applications. J. Chin. Agr. Chem. Soc. 23:151-161.
Zhang, X. and Y. Jiang. 1990. Edible seed watermelons (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)
Matsum. & Nakai) in northwest China. Cucurbit Genet. Coop. Rpt. 13:40-42.
*Scientific Article No. A6250, Contribution No. 8419 of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station.
Table 1. Old World and New World cucurbit species with potential for cultivation in the United
Statesz.
Species
Origin
Common names
Primary
plant parts
used
Old World
Other plant
Growth habit
parts used
Winter melon, ash

Benincasa
SE Asia & pumpkin, wax gourd,
hispida
Indonesia white gourd, dong gua,
(Thunb.) Cogn.
tallow gourd
Young
leaves,
flower
Mature fruits buds,
seeds,
immature
fruits
Citrullus
Tropical
colocynthis (L.)
Africa
Schrad.
Seeds
Egusi
Leaves,
shoots,
Coccinia
Trop. Asia Ivy gourd, scarlet-fruited
immature
cordifolia Cogn. & Africa gourd
fruits
(preserved)
West Indian gherkin, bur
Cucumis
Tropical
Immature
gherkin, maroon
anguria L.
Africa
fruits
cucumber
Lagenaria
Tropical
siceraria (Mol.)
Africa
Standl.
Luffa
acutangula (L.) India
Roxb.
Luffa
aegyptiaca
Muell.
India
Momordica
charantia L.
Tropical
Africa
Praecitrullus
fistulosus
(Stocks) Pang.
Telfairia
occidentalis
Hook. f.
Bottle gourd, calabash

gourd, white-flowered
gourd, trumpet gourd,
Zucca melon
Angled loofah, towel
gourd, dish-cloth gourd,
ridged gourd, silk gourd,
long okra, ribbed loofah,
ribbed gourd
Smooth loofah,
dish-cloth gourd,
vegetable sponge,
sponge gourd, rag gourd,
hechima
Bitter melon, balsam
pear, carilla fruit, carilla
gourd, bitter gourd,
alligator pear
Annual
Annual
Mature
fruits
Semi-perennial
Annual
Young
Young fruits, shoots,
mature
young
leaves,
fruitsy
seeds
Annual
Immature
fruits, leaves
Annual
Immature
fruits,
mature
fruitsy
Annual
Immature
Young
fruits young
leaves,
shoots
Annual
Tropical
Africa
Round melon, squash

melon
Mature fruit Seeds
Annual
Tropical
Africa
Fluted gourd, fluted

pumpkin
Female
shoots, seeds
Perennial
Telfairia pedata Tropical

(Sims) Hook.
Africa
Oyster nut, fluted

pumpkin, Zanzibar oil
vine
Trichosanthes
cucumerina L.
Immature
Snake gourd, club gourd
Young
fruits, young
mature fruits
leaves,
shoots
India
New World
Cucurbita
ficifolia Bouche
Cucurbita
foetidissima
HBK
Cyclanthera
pedata Schrad.
Sechium edule
(Jacq.) Sw.
Central
Mexico
Mexico &
Southern
US
South
America
Fig-leaved gourd,
Malabar gourd
Buffalo gourd, mock
orange, stinking wild
gourd, chilicote
Korila, wild cucumber,
caihua, achoccha
Chayote, choyote,
So.
cho-cho,christophine,
Mexico &
choke, choko, sou-sou,
Central
chaka plant, chayotl
America
vegetable pear, mirliton
Seeds
Perennial
Mature
Immature
fruits, seeds fruits
Annual
Annual
Mature
fruitsy
Rootsy,
seeds
Perennial
Immature
fruits
Shoots
Annual
Young
Immature
leaves,
fruits, tubers,
young
seeds
tendrils
Perennial
zModified
from Chakravarty 1990; Herklots 1972; Tindall 1983; Whitaker 1990; Whitaker and
Davis 1962; and Yamaguchi 1983.
yNon-food uses such as soaps, fuels, sponges, utensils, containers, musical instruments.
Table 2. Putative medicinal and pharmacological properties of cultivated cucurbitsz.
Therapeutic medications
Species
Benincasa
hispida
Citrulus
colocynthis
Citrullus
lanatus
Cucumis
anguria
Cucumis
melo
Cucurbita
maxima
Purgative
Diuretic, laxative
Diuretic
Physical ailments
Diseases
Dermatological,
fever
Paralysis, muscle
spasms
Epilepsy,
gonorrhea
Liver
Malaria
Stomach, edema,
hemorrhoids
Emetic
Infectious Other purported

organisms
uses
Intestinal
Aphrodisiac
worms
Ringworm
Intestinal
worms
Intestinal
worms
Freckle
removal
Cucurbita
moschata &
Cucurbita
pepo
Lagenaria
siceraria
Luffa
acutangula
Luffa
cylindrica
Momordica
charantia
Sechium
edule
Diuretic
Ulcers, fever,
jaundice
Laxative
Kidney, flatulence, Intestinal

dermatological
worms
Emetic
Stomach, fever
Emetic, laxative
Asthma, sinusitis
Colic, arthritis,
Laxative, emetic, hypertension, colds
emmenogogue
& fever, kidney &
liver
Bladder, intestinal,
hypertension,
Diuretic
arteriosclerosis,
dermatological
Measles,
smallpox
Intestinal
worms
Intestinal
worms
Intestinal
worms
Eczema,
herpes,
influenza,
diabetes
zModified
Intestinal
worms
Abortifacient
Aphrodisiac
from Chakravarty 1990; Herklots 1972; Morton 1971; Nagao et al. 1991; Ng et al.
1991; Schultes 1990.
Last update April 28, 1997 aw
Dactylis glomerata
Dactylis glomerata L.
Poaceae
Orchardgrass, Cocksfootgrass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dactylis_glomerata_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:19 PM]
Sea grape
Sea grape
Seaside grape, Uva de playa
Polygonaceae Coccoloba uvifera L.
The sea grape is native to sandy shores of the American tropics. The plant is a small tree,
sometimes reaching to 30 feet with stiff near-round leaves up to 8 inches across. Fruits are globose
to pyroform, about 0.75 inch diameter and borne in clusters. The skin is pubescent, enclosing an
edible pulp and single seed. The pulp is eaten directly and makes an excellent jelly. Ripening is
mainly in midsummer. The sea grape appears not to be grown commercially, but some fruit from
native plants is harvested.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/SeaGrape.html [5/16/2004 3:51:19 PM]
Solanum sessiliflorum
Solanum sessiliflorum Dunal.

Solanaceae
Cocona, Topiro
CoconaJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
The Naranjilla, the Cocona and Their HybridCharles B. Heiser
"New" SolanumsCharles Heiser and Gregory Anderson
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Solanum_sessiliflorum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:20 PM]
Cocos nucifera
Cocos nucifera L.
Arecaceae
Coconut, Coco, Cokernut, Narel
Coconut
Coconut oil
Outside Links
CoconutFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Coconut
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cocos_nucifera_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:21 PM]
Xanthosoma spp.
Xanthosoma spp.
Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.)
Schott
Araceae
Cocoyam, Abalong, Arvi, Barbados edoe, Chinese eddoe,
Curcas, Dagmay, Dalo, Dasheen, Eddo, Eddoe, Keladi, Koko,
Kolkas, Malangay, Malangu, Taioba, Tannia, Taro, Taro de Chine,
Ya, Ya bene, Yautia, Yu-tao
We have information from several sources: Evaluation of Macabo Cocoyam Germplasm in
CameroonO.U. Onokpise, J.G. Wutoh, X. Ndzana, J.T. Tambong, M.M. Meboka, A.E. Sama,
A. Aguegia, S. Nzietchueng, J.G. Wilson, and M. Burns
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xanthosoma_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:21 PM]
Coffea arabica
Coffea arabica L.
Rubiaceae
Arabica coffee, Arabian coffee, Abyssinian coffee,
Brazilian coffee, Colombian coffee, Expresso, Hawaiian Kona,
Jamaican Blue Mountain, Java, Joe, Kaffe, Kahve, Kahwa,
Mocha, Robusta, Supremo coffee, Turkish coffee
Outside Links:
CoffeeDescriptors for Coffee (Coffea spp. and Psilanthus spp.)Link to the publication on the
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Coffea_arabica_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:22 PM]
Coffee
Coffee
Cafe
Rubiaceae: Coffea arabica L.
C. liberica Bull ex Hiern
These two species constitute most of the coffee of
commerce. The plants are woody, tropical, evergreen shrubs
up to 15 feet in height. The leaves are elliptical, glossy, up to
6 inches long and 1/3 as wide. The fruit is a fleshy berry, in
which 2 seeds are imbedded. Blossoming and fruit setting
occur mainly 2 to 3 times per year. About 6 to 7 months are
required to ripen the fruit, so fruits at various stages of
maturity are on the plants at the same time. Ripe berries are
picked at about 2-week intervals. The pulp is removed by
machines. Seeds are dried in the sun or in dehydrators and roasted before being marketed. U.S.
production was given as 5,000 tons, 1959 census (Hawaii only). Imports total about 1,450,000 tons
annually.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Coffee.html [5/16/2004 3:51:23 PM]
Coix lacryma-jobi
Coix lacryma-jobi L.
Poaceae
Job's-tears, Adlay, Millet
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Weed to some, necklace to others, staff-of-life to others, job's tear is a very useful and productive
grass increasingly viewed as a potential energy source. Before Zea became popular in South Asia,
Coix was rather widely cultivated as a cereal in India. Still taken as a minor cereal, it is pounded,
threshed and winnowed, as a cereal or breadstuff. The pounded flour is sometimes mixed with
water like barley for barley water. The pounded kernel is also made into a sweet dish by frying and
coating with sugar. It is also husked and eaten out of hand like a peanut. Beers and wines are made
from the fermented grain. Chinese use the grain, like barley, in soups and broths.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coix_lacryma-jobi.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:51:24 PM]
Coix lacryma-jobi
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (1967-1971), the fruits are used in folk remedies for abdominal tumors,
esophageal, gastrointestinal, and lung cancers, various tumors, as well as excrescences, warts, and
whitlows. This folk reputation is all the more interesting when reading that coixenolide has
antitumor activity (List and Horhammer, 1969-1979). Job's tear is also a folk remedy for abscess,
anodyne, anthrax, appendicitis, arthritis, beriberi, bronchitis, catarrh, diabetes, dysentery, dysuria,
edema, fever, gotter, halitosis, headache, hydrothorax, metroxenia, phthisis, pleurisy, pneumonia,
puerperium, rheumatism, small-pox, splenitis, strangury, tenesmus, and worms (Duke and Wain,
1981). Walker (1971) cites other medicinal uses.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 380 calories, 11.2 g H2O, 15.4 g protein, 6.2 g fat, 65.3 g
total carbohydrate, 0.8 g fiber, 1.9 g ash, 25 mg Ca, 435 mg P, 5.0 mg Fe, 0 ug beta-carotene
equivalent, 0.28 mg thiamine, 0.19 mg riboflavin, 4.3 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.
According to Hager's Handbook (List and Horhammer, 1969-1979), there is 50-60% starch 18.7%
protein (with glutamic-acid, leucine, tyrosine, arginine, histidine, and lysine) and 5-10% fatty oil
with glycerides of myristic- and palmitic-acids.
Description
Annual (in the temperate zone) but perennial where frost is absent or mild, freely branching
upright or ascending herb 1-2 m tall, the cordate clasping leaf blades 20-50 cm long, 1-5 cm broad.
Spikelets terminal, and in the upper axils, unisexual, staminate spikelets two-flowered, in twos or
threes on the continuous rachis; pistillate spikelets three together, one fertile, and two sterile;
glumes of the fertile spikelet several-nerved, all enclosed finally in a bony beadlike involucre, the
grain, white to bluish white, or black, globular orvoid, 6-12 mm long.
Germplasm
Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Job's Tears or cvs thereof is reported
to tolerate laterite, low pH, photoperiodic latitude, poor soil, slope, virus, and waterlogging. (2n =
10, 20) (Duke, 1978)
Distribution
Native perhaps to southeast Asia, but now rather pantropical as cultigen and weed. Listed as a
serious weed in Polynesia, a principle weed in Italy and Korea, a common weed in Hawaii, Iran,
Japan, Micronesia, and Puerto Rico, also in Australia, Borneo, Burma, Cambodia, China, Congo,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Hong Kong,
India, Iraq, Melanesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Rhodesia, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan,
Coix lacryma-jobi
Thailand, United States, and Venezuela (Holm et al, 1979).
Ecology
Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
Job's Tears is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.1 to 42.9 dm (mean of 31 cases = 17.9)
annual temperature of 9.6 to 27.8C (mean of 31 cases = 21.5) and pH of 4.5 to 8.4 (mean of 23
cases = 6.2). (Duke, 1978, 1979)
Cultivation
Propagation by seeds, sown during monsoon (in India) at rate of 6-10 kg/ha. Seed dibbled 2.5 cm
deep, at spacing of 60 x 60 cm. One intercultivation, before the plants tiller, and shade on ground
may be necessary. Sufficient rains in early stage of growth and a dry period when grain is setting
are necessary for good yields. Plants respond well to liberal applications of organic manure.
Harvesting
Crop harvested in 4-5 months after sowing. Plants are cut off at base and grain separated by
threshing. Seeds are dried in sun prior to milling. Adlay flour milled and used with wheat flour for
baking purposes.

Yields vary as to strains cultivated in different countries: yield of unhusked grains in Philippine
Islands is about 3.5 T/ha; in Sri Lanka, 2.1 T/ha. In some areas 40-75 bu/acre is considered good
under average conditions. Loss in hulling is about 30-40% in Philippine Islands and 70% in Sri
Lanka. Adlay is extensively cultivated in Philippine Islands, Indochina, Thailand, Burma, and Sri
Lanka, and is used as an auxiliary food crop, especially as a substitute for rice. It does not enter
international trade, although it is used locally in large quantities.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges around 5 MT/ha, but
few data are available. Duke's field observations in Panama suggest that in Tropical Fresh Water
Swamp situations, standing biomass visually suggests closer to 10 20 MT/ha. In Mali, it provides
only 45-53 MT fresh fodder/ha. If perennial in the tropics, there is the good possibility that 2 MT
grain and 10 MT biomass could be harvested renewably, with proper soil management.
Coix lacryma-jobi
Biotic Factors
Following fungi attack adlay: Cladosporium herbarum, Curvularia coicis, Diplodia coicis,
Epicoccum hyalopes, Fusarium equiseti, F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. semitectum,
Helminthosporium coicis, Ophiobolus graffianus, Phyllachora coicis, Phyllosticta coixicola, Ph.
coix-lacrimae, Puccinia operta, Nigrospora sphaerica, Trilletia okudaire, T. taiana, Uredo operta,
Ustilago coicis, U. lachrymae-jobi. Leaf-gall virus and the nematode Meloidogyne incognita
acrita also attack this plant. Most losses are due to rats and parrots.
References
Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1-61. In: ASA Special Symposium
17(3-4):91-110.
Holm, L.G., Pancho, J.V., Herberger, J.P., and Plucknett, D.L. 1979. A geographical atlas of
world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Walker, G. 1971. Job's tears. Lasca Leaves 21(1):14-18.
Cola
Cola
Kola
Sterculiaceae Cola acuntinata (Beauv.) Schott & Endl.
C. nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl.
The cola seeds of commerce are from medium size spreading trees, up to 40 feet, native to tropical
Africa, but now cultivated in the West Indies and other tropical countries. The seeds or nuts are
borne in leathery or woody oblong capsules, about 6 inches long. Seeds are near globose, about an
inch in diameter. They, or preparations from them, are widely used in tropical countries as a
stimulant and appetizer. Preparations from the seeds are widely used for flavoring the cola drinks,
very popular in the U.S. and other countries.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cola.html [5/16/2004 3:51:24 PM]
Colocasia esculenta
Colocasia esculenta (L.)

Schott
Araceae
Taro, callaloo, cocoyam, dasheen, eddo, eddoe, eddy root,
Egyptian taro, elephant's-ear, poi, swamp taro, tara, tarro,
tarrow, true taro
Taro
Dasheen
Outside Links:
TaroDescriptors for Taro (Colocasia esculenta)Link to the publication on the International
Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
Edible AroidFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Edible Aroid
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Colocasia_esculenta_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:25 PM]
Coltsfoot
Coltsfoot
Tussilago farfara L.
Other common names.Coughwort, assfoot, horsefoot, foalfoot,
bull's-foot, horsehoof, colt-herb, clayweed, cleats, dove-dock,
dummyweed, ginger, gingerroot, hoofs, sowfoot, British tobacco,
gowan.
Habitat and range.Coltsfoot is found along brooks and in wet
places and moist clayey soil along roadsides from eastern Quebec to
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Minnesota.
Description.The white woolly, scaly flowering stalks of this plant
with their yellow blossoms appear in the spring before the leaves.
There are several stalks, from 3 to 18 inches in height, arising directly
from the rootstock and each one bearing at the top a single yellow
flower head having in the center numerous tubular disk flowers which Figure 41.Coltsfoot
(Tussilago farfara)
are surrounded by ray flowers. The flowers open only in sunny
weather. The ripe seed head looks somewhat like that of a dandelion. Some time after the flowers
appear the leaves are produced on long erect stalks directly from the rootstock. They are from 3 to
7 inches wide and in shape resemble a horse's hoof. The lower surface is white with densely
matted woolly hairs.
Part used.The leaves and roots, the former collected when they are nearly full size.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/coltsfoot.html [5/16/2004 3:51:26 PM]
Symphytum
Symphytum spp.
Boraginaceae
Comfrey, Knit-bones
Handbook of Energy CropsJames A. Duke. 1983. unpublished
Comfrey: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Symphytum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:27 PM]
Kaua-kaini (Commelina benghalensis

Linn.)
Pankaj Oudhia
contributor.
Scientific Name: Commelina benghalensis Linn.
Family: Commelinaceae
English Name: Day Flower, Dew Flower.
Hindi Name: Kanchara, Kaua-kaini, Kanuraka.
General Description: It grows as common weed in crop fields particularly in rice fields in India. It is
popularly used as folk medicine.
Botanical differences among the major Commelina species.
Characters
Plant
C.
benghalensis
A large,
straggling
annual,
rooting at
basal nodes
and covered
on all parts
with a
colourless
pubescens
C. albescens
A perennial
diffuse or
suberect herb
from a woody,
knotted
rhizomotous
stock
C.
C. paludosa
forskalae
A variable,
A much A. scadent,
straggling
branched, perennial herb
annual with
diffuse
glabrous,
annual,
arching
rooting at
internodes,
lower
rooting at lower nodes
nodes
C. diffusa
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/commelina.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:51:27 PM]
C. erecta
A perennial
much
branched,
decumbent or
ascending
herb
Stem
Leaves
Flowers
Fruit
Seeds
branches
many, some
of them
growing
under ground
and bearing
reduced
leaves and
spathes with
apetalous
closed
flowers and
capsules
Ovate-elliptic
or oblong,
shortly
triangular or
subobtuse
apex.
Annual, much
branched, clothed
below with many,
white,
membranous
sheaths with or
without
whittering leaves
Linear-lanceolate,
broadest a little
above base,
gradually
tapering to an
acute apex
Bluish-violet, Pale blue

cyme
branches 1 or
2, one often
suppressed,
when 2, inner
bearing one
male flower,
outer bearing
2-3 perfect
flowers
Capsule
Capsule 5mm
broadly
long
ovoid-oblong
Ovoid
Obliquely ovoid
Broadly
lanceolate or
ovate-lanceolate,
abruptly
acuminate
Branches
slender,
glabrous
or
puberulent
Stem stout,
branched from the
base, rooting at
basal nodes,
glabrous
Narrowly
oblong or
scarcely
elliptic,
obtuse or
subacute
at apex
Subsessile,
elliptic-lanceolate
or
oblong-lanceolate,
some what
oblique at base,
glabrous
Deep
cobalt-blue
Capsule
Capsule
elongate, 7 mm sub-cubic,
long
buff
coloured.
Ovoid elongate
Lanceolate,
entire,
somewhat
pubescent
above,
glabrous and
greyish-green
below, acute
or acuminate
White, in simple
or branched
cymes.
Capsules
oblong
Black with
membranous
margin. One
in each cell
Useful Parts: Whole herb.

Traditional Medicinal Uses: According to Ayurveda, it is bitter and useful in treatment of leprosy, and
nervous system related disorders.
Internet Resources
Traditional Medicinal Knowledge about Common herbs used for hair care in Chhattisgarh, India.
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/17_hair_care.html
Traditional knowledge about medicinal rice soils in Chhattisgarh (India).
http://botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/13_rice_soils.html
References
Bhandari, M.M. (1990). Flora of the Indian Desert. Pbl. MPS Repros, Jopdhpur, India. : 320-323.
Caius, J.F. (1986). Medicinal and poisonous plants of India. Pbl. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India. :
126-127.
Resource Person
Pankaj Oudhia
Sweetfern
Sweetfern
Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coulter.
Synonyms.Comptonia asplenifolia Gaertn.; Myrica asplenifolia L.
Other common names.Ferngale, fern bush, meadow fern, shrubby
fern, Canada sweetgale, spleenwort bush, sweet bush, sweet ferry.
Habitat and range.Sweetfern is usually found on hillsides, in dry
soil, from Canada to North Carolina and west to Indiana and
Saskatchewan.
Description.Sweetfern is a shrub from 1 to 3 feet high with slender,
erect, or spreading branches and reddish-brown bark. The thin, narrow
leaves are from 3 to 6 inches long, from one-fourth to one-half an inch
wide, deeply divided into many lobes and in general resembling the
leaves of a fern. Both male and female flowers are produced. The
former are borne in cylindrical catkins in clusters at the ends of the
Figure 104.Sweetfern
branches and the latter in egg-shaped catkins. The whole plant has a (Comptonia peregrina)
spicy, aromatic odor, which is more pronounced when the leaves are
bruised.
Part used.The entire plant, especially the leaves and tops.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/sweetfern.html [5/16/2004 3:51:28 PM]
Poison Hemlock
Poison Hemlock
Conium maculatum L.
Other common names.Spotted parsley, spotted cowbane, poison
parsley, St.-Bennet's-herb, bad-man's-oatmeal, wode-whistle, cashes,
bunk, heck-how, poison root, spotted hemlock, spotted conium, poison
snakeweed, beaver poison.
Habitat and range.This poisonous weed is occasional in waste
places and along roadsides, principally in the Eastern States.
Description.Poison hemlock is a very dangerous weed, the close
resemblance of the leaves to those of parsley often causing it to be
mistaken for the latter with fatal results, all parts of the plant being
extremely poisonous. It has a smooth, hollow, purple-spotted stem
about 2 to 6 feet in height with muchbranched, and large, parsleylike
leaves. In June or July it produces showy, flat-topped clusters of small
Figure 85.Poison hemlock
white flowers. The fruit, which ripens in August and September, is
(Conium maculatum)
grayish green and about an eighth of an inch m length The entire plant
has a disagreeable, mouselike odor which is especially noticeable when the plant is bruised.
Part used.The fruit, collected when fully developed but still green, carefully dried and stored in
tight containers to protect it from air and light. It is of no value after it has been kept more than
two years. The leaves are also used to some extent.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/poisonhemlock.html [5/16/2004 3:51:29 PM]
Eucalyptus microtheca F.
Muell.
Myrtaceae
Flooded box, Coolibah
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. References
Uses
This tall tree, featured in the song, "Waltzing Matilda", produces one of the hardest and strongest
timbers in the world. The wood is, however, difficult to work because of the interlocking grain.
Unsuitable for construction, it makes durable poles and fence posts. Little (1983) suggests that the
wood is suitable for bearings, bushings, bolts, shafts, frames, and wheel parts for heavy vehicles.
The tree is esteemed for erosion control, shade and soil conservation in hot arid climates.
Aborigines obtained water from the superficial roots, by cutting forearm-sized root segments, then
holding them vertically, after debarking. Sometimes they blew into the distal portion to enhance
the flow. Aborigines use the branch and leaf as a fish poison (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_microtheca.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:51:30 PM]
Folk Medicine
Reported to be antiseptic and disinfectant, the inner bark is a folk remedy poulticed onto snakebite.
Chemistry
Leaves contain 0.49% essential oil with cineol, phallandrene, and pinene. The bark contains ca 6%
tannin (Watt and Breyer Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Evergreen tree 620 m high, usually crooked or irregular, 30100 cm in diameter. Bark gray or
brackish, thick, fibrous, rough, not shedding. Leaves alternate, narrowly lanceolate, 620 cm long,
13 cm wide, acuminate apically, basally acute, not entire, glabrous, slightly thick, leathery, dull
green, slightly paler underneath. Panicles mostly near ends of twigs, short, branched with slightly
angled slender stalks ending in umbels of 37 short stalked fragrant flowers. Flowers very small,
the bud 46 mm long. Stamens many, spreading, white, short, 34 mm long, anthers rounded with
small round gland. Pistil with inferior 34-celled ovary and stout style. Capsules short-stalked,
hemiglobose or turbinate, very small, 34.5 mm long and wide. Seeds many, tiny, 2 mm long,
blackish (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, coolibah, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
alkalinity, clay, drought, fungus, heat, heavy soil, high pH, insect, savanna, waterlogging, and
wind (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983). Trees will not tolerate fires, especially when young.
Distribution
Widely distributed in Australia (except Victoria and Tasmania) in open woodlands, floodplains,
seasonally flooded areas, and the edges of swamps, coolibah has been successfully introduced to
Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sudan, and Tanzania.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Thorn to Tropical Very Dry (Little also suggests Tropical Moist)
through Warm Temperate Thorn to Dry Forest Life Zones, coolibah is estimated to tolerate annual
precipitation of 2 to 12 dm, annual temperature of 17 to 25C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.2. Mean
maximum temperatures in the hottest months are 3538C; mean minimum in the coolest, ca 5C.
It can withstand a few light frosts. In its native range it grows between 80700 m elev. on clays or
silty clay loams, often alkaline.
Cultivation
Easily propagated by seeds, seedlings are outplanted at ca 6 mos. when they are ca 4 dm tall. Seeds
must be exposed to light during germination. Trees must be carefully weeded until they are well
established.
Harvesting
The tree coppices well. In the Gezira, the seedling crop is harvested in 8 years, then harvested on a
6-year coppice rotation.

The tree may grow 3 m a year (in height). Wood yield of 5 to m3/ha/yr are reported (Webb et al.,
1980).
Energy
Making an excellent firewood, coolibah is cultivated as such in the Sudan, for example. It makes a
fairly good charcoal with a relatively high ash content (26%).
References
Copaifera langsdorfii Desf.

Caesalpiniaceae
Diesel tree
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Harvesting
10. Energy
11. Biotic Factors
12. References
Uses
That the oleoresin called copaiba could be obtained by incising the trunk was first reported in
England in 1625, in a work published by Purchas, "...a single tree is said to yield about 40 litres."
(Grieve, 1931, reprinted 1974). Quoting nobel-laureate Calvin, Maugh says (1979), "Natives ...
drill a 5 centimeter hole into the 1-meter thick trunk and put a bung into it. Every 6 months or so,
they remove the bung and collect 15 to 20 liters of the hydrocarbon. Since there are few Rabbit
diesels in the jungle, the natives use the hydrocarbon as an emollient and for other
nonenergy-related purposes. But tests have shown, he says, that the liquid can be placed directly in
the fuel tank of a diesel-powered car." (Maugh, 1976). The copal is used in lacquers, massage
preparations, medicines, and paints. Wood and resin can be used for fuel. The wood is used in
carpentry (Burkart, 1943).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Copaifera_langsdorfii.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:51:31 PM]
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (1967-1971), balsam of one species is used in folk remedies as a
fomentation, for tumors of the prostate gland. Grieve (1931) describes the balsam as stimulant,
diuretic, carminative, laxative; in large doses purgative, causing nausea, vomiting, strangury,
bloody urine, and fever. A good remedy for chronic catarrh and bronchitis, as it assists
expectoration and is antiseptic; given with advantage in leucorrhoea, chronic cystitis, diarrhea, and
hemorrhoids. It is chiefly used in gonorrhea (though not advocated for chronic cases), often
combined with cubebs and sandal. It has also been recommended externally for chilblains. Both
the volatile oil and resin are greatly altered when expelled in the urine, and when precipitated by
nitric acid might be mistaken for albumen; it is considered a valuable hydragogue diuretic in
obstinate dropsy. It creates an irritant action the whole mucous membrane, imparts a peculiar odor
to the urine and breath, causes an eruption resembling measles attended with irritation and
tingling; it is the resin, not the oleoresin, that is used as diuretic. Duke and Wain (1981) note that
this species is a folk remedy for dermatosis, eczema, and gonorrhea. In Panama, Yaviza negros
mix cabismo resin with honey and give it to the newborne, to impart knowledge and ward off
hexes. The gum is also used for treating venereal diseases, for massage, and for hair oil (Duke,
1972, under "cabismo").
Chemistry
In what could as well apply to other species, Hager's Handbuch lists delta-elemene, copaene,
alpha- and beta-cubebene, cyperene, alpha-bergamoten, beta- and gamma-elemene, beta-farnesene,
alloaromadendrene, alpha- and beta-humulene, beta-bisabolene, alpha- and beta-selinene, deltaand gamma-cadinene, ar-curcumene, calamenene. From the wood, Langenheim (1981) reports the
following diterpenoids: polyalthic acid; (-)-jkaur-16-en-19-oic acid, (-) 16 betakauren- 19-oic acid
and eperu-8(20)-en-15,18-dioic acid. In 1980, Calvin published the chromatogram of products
obtained from Copaiba oil.
Langenheim (1981) compares the sesquiterpenes of Hymenaea, shall we call it the "kerosene tree,"
and Copaifera, Calvin's "diesel tree."
Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbons
Allo-arodendrene
alpha-Bergamotene
beta-Bisabolene
delta-Cadinene
gamma-Cadinene
Hymenaea
--wood
leaf-pod-stem cortex
leaf-stem cortex
Copaifera
wood
wood
wood
wood, leaf
leaf
Calamenene
Calarene
Caryophyllene
alpha-Copaene
-pod
leaf, pod-stem cortex
leaf-stem cortex
wood
-wood, leaf
wood, leaf
beta-Copaene
alpha-Cubebene
beta-Cubebene
Curcumene
Cyclosativene
Cyperene
beta, delta, and gamma-Elemene
beta-Farnesene
alpha-Himachalene
beta-Humulene
alpha-Muurolene
beta-Muurolene
leaf-stem cortex
leaf-stem cortex
--pod
leaf
--pod
leaf-stem cortex
pod
--
wood*, leaf*
wood, leaf*
wood
wood
-wood, leaf
wood
wood
-leaf*
-wood
gamma-Muurolene
alpha-Selinene
beta-Selinene
Selina-4(14), 7(1l)-diene
Selina-4(14), 7-diene
leaf-stem cortex
leaf-stem cortex
leaf-stem cortex
pod
pod
wood, leaf*
wood, leaf*
wood, leaf*
---
*probably present Langenheim (1981)
Description
Evergreen tree to 35 m tall, to 1 m in diameter, otherwise rather resembling Copaifera officinalis,
which see. In Argentina (Territorio de Misiones) it is 6-12 m tall, with paripinnate glabrous,
subcoriaceous leaves 5-10 cm long; leaflets 2-4 pairs, opposite or semialternate petiolulate, elliptic
ovoid, 2-6 cm long, 1.2-2.5 cm broad with finely pinnate reticulate nervation, glandular-punctate.
Flowers in terminal racemes to compound panicles with numerous, subsessile whitish flowers.
Sepals 4 lanceolate, concave, firm, glabrous outside, pubescent inside. Petals absent. Stamens free,
(8-)10, the anthers elliptic, versatile. Ovary hirsute; briefly stipitate; fruit ovoid, compressed, ca 2
x 3 cm, coriaceous, with one large seed partially covered with a thick aril (Burkart, 1943). There is
some question about the distinctness of the species. This species, called "Copaiba" in Brazil, is
called "Cabismo" in Venezuela, a name applied in Darien Panama to what was identified by Duke
(1972) as Copaifera officinalis, but has since been relegated to another species. Duke describes
"cabismo" as one of the finest timbers in Darien. Calvin (1980) mentions another similar species,
Copaifera multijuga.
Germplasm
Reported from the Middle and/or South America Center of Diversity, the diesel tree, or cvs
thereof, is reported to tolerate some waterlogging. Seedlings germinate well in dense shade. In his
lecture at Beltsville, Calvin states that he has obtained somatic fusion of Copaifera and Euphorbia.
Perhaps he has changed his mind since then. (2n = 2)
Distribution
Because of the taxonomic obscurity of the species, I cite only northern and Amazonian South
America.
Ecology
Probably ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
this copaiba probably tolerates annual precipitation of 10 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 20 to
27C (with no frost), and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Early USDA publications suggest that most copaiba
comes from regions with annual precipitation of 3500 mm or more and annual temperature ca
27C.
Harvesting
A cross section of the trunk shows that the hydrocarbons collect in thin capillaries that may extend
the full 30-meter height of the tree. A holedrilled into the tree probably collects hydrocarbons from
capillaries ruptured by the drilling, Calvin speculates, so that it may be possible to increase the
yield by drilling additional holes. An acre of 100 mature trees might thus be able to produce 25
barrels of fuel per year. Unfortunately, in the United States the tree would probably grow only in
Southern Florida. The Brazilian government has already established experimental plantations.
Calvin concedes that copaifera will probably never represent a significant source of diesel fuel for
the U.S. It is of interest chiefly as an example of the great diversity of materials produced by plants
(Maugh, 1979). Old USDA information summaries give a slightly different harvesting story. "The
wood of the tree is honeycombed with a network of connected cavities in which the oleoresin
forms. To tap the tree, a drainage reservoir is hollowed out near its base by cutting inward and
downward into the center of the trunk. The cavities containing the oleoresin gradually drain into
these hollowed-out wells. This process is repeated several times during the season. When first
obtained, copaiba is thin and clear but on aging becomes thicker and acquires a yellowish tinge."

USDA once reported per tree yields as high as 53 liters (14 gallons). A tree yields 53 liters of
"diesel" and diesel sells for $1.00 per liter, it would pay the natives to gather the material.
Apparently this is not happening to any great extent. Back in 1938, the U.S. imported from Brazil
nearly 100 tons worth only ca $30,000 then, 106 tons worth ca $34,000 in 1939, and 102 tons
worth ca $36,000 in 1940.
Energy
Although not specifically recommended as a firewood, the balsamiferouswood, with density of
700-900 kg/m3, should burn readily, perhaps even when green. Calvin (1980) reports yields of 40
liters of hydrocarbon per tree per year, which can be "used directly by a diesel-powered car."
Calvin sent a sample to Mobil Corporation to obtain a cracking pattern. "It produces the same kind
of mixture in general as the oil from the E. lathyris [mostly aromatics (50%), LPG (25%), and
low-molecular-weight fuel gas (3 to 4%) and coke]." (Calvin, 1980). In his seminar at Beltsville,
Calvin (1982) seems to favor the terpenes of Copaifera to those of Euphorbia and hopes, by
somatic hybridization to develop a Euphorbia, suitable for our climates, which will produce the
sesquiterpenes. Apparently N-fixation has not been reported for this species.
Biotic Factors
No data available.
References
Burkart, A. 1943. Las leguminosas Argentinas. Acme Agency. Buenos Aires.
Calvin, M. 1980. Hydrocarbons from plants: Analytical methods and observations.
Naturwissenschaften 67:525-533.
Calvin, M. 1982. Oil from plants. Lecture at Beltsville, MD., September 8, 1982.
Baltimore.
Langenheim, J.H. 1981. Terpenoids in the Leguminosae. p. 627-655. In: R.M. Polhill and
P.H. Raven (eds.), Advances in legume systematics. 2 vols. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Maugh, T.H., II. 1979. Unlike money, diesel fuel grows on trees. Science 206:436.
Goldthread
Goldthread
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb.
Other common names.Coptis, cankerroot, mouth root, yellowroot.
Habitat and range.Goldthread is found in damp, mossy woods and
bogs from Canada and Alaska south to Maryland and Minnesota. It is
most common in the New England States, northern New York and
Michigan, and in Canada, where it frequents the dark sphagnum
swamps, cold bogs, and the shade of dense forests of cedars, pines,
Figure 57.Goldthread
and other evergreens.
(Coptis trifolia)
Description.This plant, which in its general appearance somewhat resembles the strawberry
plant, is of low growth, being only 3 to 6 inches in height. Its shiny, evergreen leaves, which are
divided into three parts, grow directly from the base of the plant. A single small, white, star-shaped
flower, which appears from May to August, is borne at the end of each flowering stalk. The plant
is appropriately named after the long, slender, creeping, much-branched and frequently matted,
bright golden-yellow root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/goldthread.html [5/16/2004 3:51:32 PM]
Erythrina berteroana Urb.

Fabaceae
Coralbean, Macrette
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Cultivated here and there as an ornamental, as a living fence post, as fuelwood species, and cork
substitute (Duke, 1972). Resides living fenceposts and hedges, the trees have been grown as
support in vanilla plantations. According to Little and Wadsworth, it is seldom used for anything
but fuel in Puerto Rico. The wood is whitish, soft, lightweight (specific gravity 0.3) and has been
used for carving toys and figurines. Cattle and rabbits graze the young shoots and leaves. In
Guatemala, flower buds, young leaves, and young twigs are eaten like stringbeans though deemed
potentially harmful (Little and Wadsworth, 1964). Poisonous seeds have been strung into
bracelets, necklaces, and novelties. Bark yields a yellow dye. Crushed branches are used to
intoxicate fish. Corollas of this and other species, placed in hollow leaf stalks, serve as a children's
whistle.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Erythrina_berteroana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:51:33 PM]
Folk Medicine
Reported to be narcotic, piscicidal, poisonous, and soporific, coralbean is a folk remedy for
dysmenorrhea and other female ailments (Duke and Wain, 1981). According to Morton (1981), the
sedative flower decoction is used for dysentery, hemorrhages and nervousness. Guatemalans
believe that tucking the flowers and leaves under ones pillow will make one sleep well. Recently
we acquired large quantities for further research in the now-defunct cancer-screening program.
Bayano Cuna of Panama use the plant for female ailments (Duke, 1972).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the leaves and young buds are reported to contain 48 calories, 84.2 g H2O, 4.4 g protein,
0.2 g fat, 10.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 108 mg Ca, 80 mg P, 2.2 mg Fe, 220 ug
beta-carotene equivalent, 0.19 mg thiamine, 0.19 mg riboflavin, 1.2 mg niacin, and 37 mg ascorbic
acid. (Duke and Atchley, 1984). On a zero-moisture basis, leaves contain 304 calories, 27.8 g
protein, 1.3 g fat, 63.3 g total carbohydrate, 15.2 g fiber, 7.6 g ash, 684 mg Ca, 216 mg P, 9.7 mg
Fe, 12,433 ug beta-carotene equivalent, 1.3 mg thiamine, 0.92 mg riboflavin, 25.43 mg niacin, and
16 mg ascorbic acid (Duke, 1981b). Seeds contain erysodine, erysoline, erysopine, erysothiopine,
erysothiovine, erysovine, alpha- and beta-erythroidine (also in the wood), and hypaphorine.
Hypaphorine, the betaine of tryptophane is a curare-like convulsive poison. Chawla et al., (1982)
report one new alkaloid in the seed extract, 8-oxo-alpha-erythroidine, and 8-oxo-beta-erythroidine
in the leaf extract.
Description
Armed tree to 10 m tall, the leaves alternate, trifoliate, 10-35 cm long, the leaflets ovate or deltoid,
5-12.5 cm long, 4-12.5 cm wide, entire shortly acute or acuminate at the apex. Flowers pinkish to
red, appearing with the leaves, in terminal racemes, each flower ca 5-10 cm long, embracing 10
stamens, the anthers protruding. Ovary stalked, pubescent. Pod dark brown, curved, moniliform,
10-30 cm long, 1-1.5 cm broad, the beak 2-4 cm long, the several seeds oblongoid, bright orange
red, with a conspicuous black hilum (Morton, 1981; Little and Wadsworth, 1964).
Germplasm
Reported from the Central American (and possibly West Indian) Center of Diversity. (2n = 42)
Distribution
According to Krukoff (1970) E. berteroana is by far the most common species in Central America.
It is the common lowland species ascending to nearly 1500 m in drier regions, like the Oriente of
Guatemala. Morton (1981) extends the range to 2000 m and to Colombia, noting that it is wild or
naturalized in Cuba and Hispaniola, cultivated and naturalized in Panama.
Ecology
this coralbean is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 40 dm, annual temperature of
20 to 28C, and pH of 6 to 8.
Cultivation
According to Martin and Ruberte (1975), this is one of the easiest species of Erythrina to grow.
Like most Erythrinas, this probably roots readily from large fence-post sized cuttings. Seeds
germinate rather rapidly.
Harvesting
For those risking them as vegetables, the young buds and leaves are probably at their tenderest
when leafing out, often in tandem with the commencement of the rainy season.

No data available.
Energy
With no hard data available to me, I have no reason to suspect that this species would be any less
productive than E. poeppigiana, which probably returns ca 25 MT/ha/yr in monoculture, 10 MT/ha
in intercropping.scenarios. Nitrogen fixing nodules are reported in Hawaii (Allen and Allen,
1981).
Biotic Factors
No data available.
References
812 p.
Chawla, A.S., Jackson, A.H., and Ludgate, P. 1982. Erythrina alkaloids 6. Isolation and
characterization of alkaloids from Erythrina berteroana seeds and leaves--formation of oxo
erythroidines. J. Chem. Soc. Perkins Trans. I 0 (12):2903-2908.
Baltimore.
Krukoff, B.A. 1970. Supplementary notes on the American species of Erythrina. IV. Field
studies in Central American species. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 20(2):159-177.
Martin, F.W. and Ruberte, R.M. 1975. Edible leaves of the tropics. Antillian College Press,
Mayaguez.
Corchorus olitorius
Corchorus olitorius L.
Tiliaceae
Nalta jute, Tussa jute
M.A. Crossman
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Corchorus_olitorius_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:33 PM]
Introduction and Domestication of Rare and Wild Fruit and Nut Trees for Desert Areas

Nerd, A., J.A. Aronson, and Y. Mizrahi. 1990. Introduction and domestication of rare and wild
fruit and nut trees for desert areas. p. 355-363. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in
Introduction and Domestication of

Rare and Wild Fruit and Nut Trees for
Desert Areas*
Avinoam Nerd, James A. Aronson, and Yosef Mizrahi
1. INTRODUCTION
2. METHODOLOGY
3. PROMISING SPECIES
1. Cordeauxia edulis
2. Ricinodendron rautanenii
3. Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra
4. Stenocereus gummosus
5. Casimiroa edulis
6. Ziziphus mauritiana
4. PROBLEMS
5. REFERENCES
6. Table 1
7. Table 2
8. Table 3
9. Table 4
10. Fig. 1
11. Fig. 2
12. Fig. 3
13. Fig. 4
14. Fig. 5
15. Fig. 6
16. Fig. 7
17. Fig. 8
18. Fig. 9
19. Fig. 10
20. Fig. 11
21. Fig. 12
INTRODUCTION
The range of crops that can be grown commercially in hot desert regions is very limited. This is
specially true for orchard crops. The purpose of our research program is to develop new crops for
hot desert area's through introduction and domestication. Our approach is based on perennial
plants from two sources: wild plant species from arid and semiarid areas, yielding nutritious fruits
or nuts eaten by the local people (Wehymeyer 1966, Felger and Moser 1976, Biesele et al. 1979,
Felger 1980, Fox and Norwood-Young 1982, Taylor 1986); and rare fruits that can be obtained in
local markets or from growers of rare fruits. Israel's Negev desert, with its broad spectrum of
climatic conditions and types of soil and water, is an appropriate site for such a project. We have
set out to exploit the Negev's variation to test the suitability of a number of plant candidates for
introduction and domestication in desert areas. This is our first report on the project, and
summarizes four years of work starting from 1984. We will describe our activities in general and
give some details regarding six of our plant candidates.
METHODOLOGY
Suitable plant candidates, i.e., wild or semi-domesticated perennials yielding tasty, nutritious fruits
or nuts as well as fruit trees not commonly cultivated in developed countries, were selected on the
basis of information collected from rare fruit growers and investigators. The common and
botanical names and families of the plant candidates are listed in Table 1. With the exception of
Opuntia ficus-indica and Ziziphus mauritiana, which were introduced as cuttings and grafted
plants, respectively, all the plant material was obtained from seeds collected in the wild or
obtained from growers of rare fruits.
Seeds were germinated and plants established under quarantine conditions, then transferred to a
nursery. Introduction orchards were established throughout the Negev desert (Fig. 1). Each of the
introduction orchards has distinct climate and water quality characteristics (Table 2, 3, 4). To
eliminate the effect of random local conditions each species was planted in three separate blocks at
each site. Five to ten plants were used for each species per block.
All orchards are equipped with drip irrigation systems. Each tree is supplied with a 2-liter/hour
dripper. When the canopy has developed either the dripper is replaced with one of larger capacity
or additional drippers are added. Fertilization with NPK is given via the irrigation system.
Sequestrene 134 is applied to correct iron deficiency symptoms. All irrigation and fertilization
regimes were adapted from the recommendations of the Extension Service for mango trees grown
in the Negev area (Frenkel and Zohar 1987). The following operations relevant for plant
establishment are being carried out at all locations: growth measurements; phenological
observations; climate, soil, water, and mineral analyses.
At the next stage, fruit and nut yields and quality will be determined, followed by clonal
propagation of the selected clones and rootstocks.
This research was partially supported by the following agencies: US-AID CDR;
GIARA-Germany-Israel Agriculture Research Agreement; PEF-Israel Endowment Fund;
New-jersey Freedom From Hunger Campaign (Headed by Mr. Brach); and the Israeli Ministry of
Agriculture.
PROMISING SPECIES
Cordeauxia edulis
Yehib is an evergreen shrub native to and zones on the borders of Somalia and Ethiopia. The plant
produces pods usually containing a single seed weighing 2-3 g and rich in starch and sugars. The
seed is tasty and is used by nomads as a staple food. It is also sold in local markets. The yehib has
been described as a drought tolerant plant and is an endangered species (Miege and Miege 1979,
National Research Council 1979).
Seeds germinated well, and seedlings grew under quarantine conditions and then in the nursery.
Upon transfer to the various locations growth was inhibited, followed in many cases by death.
With the exception of a few survivors at Qetura, the yehib plants did not become established in
most of the orchards. Growth of the survivors occurred from May until October but was very slow
both in the nursery and in the orchard (Fig. 2 and 3). Yellowing of leaves was common in many
plants, generally followed by death. The survivors also showed some yellowing of leaves; this
phenomenon was particularly marked in mid-summer, when temperatures can reach up to 48C,
but it was also observed in winter.
Mongongo is a large, dioecious, deciduous tree which grows in the wild on sandy soils between
latitudes 15 and 21 S in southern Africa. The fruit of the tree has a thin edible flesh and a
pleasant-tasting kernel contained in a hard-walled stone. The kernel weighing about 1.2 g is rich in
fats (~40%) and proteins (~38%) and plays a central role in the diet of the Kung San food
gathering and hunting people of the Kalahari desert (Biesele et al. 1979, Fox and Norwood-Young
1982). The mongongo fruits abscise green when mature, and start ripening (skin color change to
brown, flesh softening and taste development) a few days later.
Seeds germinated after treatment with (2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid (ethephon) (Keegan and
Van Staden 1981). Seedlings were transplanted successfully in all orchards. At Neot Hakikar after
a brief growth spurt in June the plants turned yellow, showed the typical leaf bum symptoms of
NaCl damage, and subsequently died. At Qetura the main growth period occurred during the
spring; in mid-summer growth slowed down. At the Besor location winter dormancy broke very
late (in June), and growth continued until November (Fig. 4, 5). This location is much cooler than
Qetura (Table 2). In all locations some of the trees showed signs of leaf yellowing, which was
diagnosed as iron deficiency and corrected by applications of iron. The healthiest looking trees are
those growing at the Besor plot (Fig. 5).
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra

Marula is a large, dioecious, deciduous tree which grows wild in northern South Africa and parts
of eastern Botswana. The flesh of its fruit is very juicy and aromatic and is eaten fresh or
processed, yielding quality jams, juices and alcoholic beverages. Inside the stone is a very small
tasty nut. The fruit serves as an important source of vitamin C for the rural people (Shone 1979,
Taylor 1986). When mature, the green fruit abscise followed by a skin color change to yellow,
flesh softening and aroma development. These changes occur 7-10 days after abscission. Recently
Prof. Holtzhausen (pers. commun.) of the University of Pretoria selected improved clones
producing large fruits up to 100 g in weight and with a variety of skin colors.
Seeds germinated after the operculum had been opened (Teichman et al. 1985). All plants were
transferred successfully to the orchards. Breaking of winter dormancy occurred at Qetura first,
then at Besor and Neot Hakikar. The slowest growth rate was recorded at Neot Hakikar. While
growth was steady at Besor, at Qetura, rapid growth occurred from June to August followed by
slower growth in September and October (Fig. 6, 7). Neot Hakikar is characterized by high salinity
due mainly to NaCl, and many plant species failed to survive there. Marula did not show any signs
of salinity leaf burns. At Qetura three-year-old male and female trees started to flower and fruit
developed.
Pitahaya agria, a columnar cactus which grows wild in the Sonora and Baja California deserts of
Mexico, produces variously colored edible fruits resembling those of prickly pear. In many cases
the thorns of the fruits abscise upon ripening. The seeds are small and can be eaten without
difficulty, unlike those of the prickly pear (Felger and Moser 1976).
The seeds germinated rapidly; however, first development was very slow, and it took two years for
seedlings to reach a size suitable for transplanting (a height of ca. 10-15 cm). The slowest growth
rate was at Neot Hakikar. Cessation of growth occurred only during the mid-winter months
(December, January, and February). At Qetura three-year-old plants reached a total shoot length of
160 cm (Fig. 8, 9).
Casimiroa edulis
White sapota is a medium-sized evergreen tree from central America which can be found in
backyard gardens. Growers of rare fruits in California and Florida have selected a number of
high-yielding cultivars with improved fruits. The fruits are medium to large with a thin
green-yellow skin and cream-white sweet flesh (Batten, 1984). Our seeds were obtained from the
collection of Mr. and Mrs. Chambers of Fallbrook, California and from trees growing in Israel.
The seeds germinated easily and seedlings transplanted well at all locations. At Neot Hakikar the
plants turned yellow with severe symptoms of NaCl leaf burn; they survived for a while and then
died. Fig. 10 shows plant growth at Besor and Qetura. At Qetura growth started in March/April
and slowed down in the hottest months, namely July and August. At this time the leaves showed
some symptoms of yellowing and tip burns, which vanished in the autumn. Despite these
difficulties, development at Qetura is satisfactory (Fig. 11). At Besor the fastest growth occurred in
May-August, and damage to leaves was not observed.
Ziziphus mauritiana
Ber is a medium-sized evergreen thorny tree believed to be of African origin. Ber is grown
commercially on a wide scale in the hotter areas of India, and is reported to be salt- and
drought-tolerant (Alexander 1984). The fruits can reach the size of a plum and when ripe develop a
thin, yellow-brown skin enclosing a tasty, white, sweet flesh.
Many cultivars are known in India of which two, 'Gola' and 'Seb', were introduced by us to Israel.
They were grafted onto Z. spina-cristi (native to our region) and onto Z. abysscinica. Development
at the various sites on each of the two rootstocks is successful; a one-year-old plant at Qetura is
shown in Fig. 12.
PROBLEMS
The first problem one faces when seeds are collected from the wild is that they often fail to
germinate or that the germination rate is low. In the wild it is sufficient for some seeds to
germinate every few years to ensure a steady population. Indeed, one of the mechanisms by which
a population maintains itself under drought conditions is by staggering germination over a long
period of time (Koller 1972). This is the case for the mongongo and marula which we collected
from Botswana. Some work has already been done by various authors for both species. Mongongo
can germinate efficiently if the exocarp is removed and the seed treated with either ethylene or
ethephon (Keegan and Van Staden 1981). Marula can be forced to germinate by opening the
operculum found in the very hard and thick exocarp (Teichman et al. 1985). Using these
techniques we obtained over 80% germination for mongongo and 100% for marula. All other
species germinated without special difficulty. The next stage after establishment in the nursery is
planting the seedlings at the various locations. Among the species studied, yehib showed a very
high mortality rate. While the reason has not yet been established, we speculate that damage to the
very long roots in the shallow nursery containers may have been partially responsible. We found
that growth rate of the roots was 15 times faster that of the shoots. It appears that Besor is too cold
for yehib, since during two consecutive years it died in the spring after a spell of low temperatures.
In any case, this shrub grows very slowly. Despite these difficulties, several yehib plants at Qetura
are now three years old and are continuing to grow. Vegetative propagation will be considered in
the future. In addition, as soon as seeds become available from these plants we will try to sow
seeds directly in the field in order to avoid damage to the root system.
There is no way of predicting the success of the various species at each locations. Both marula and
mongongo were introduced from Botswana (a semiarid zone), yet there are considerable
differences in performance between the two species. Mongongo failed at Neot Hakikar, probably
due to NaCl salinity. Marula is growing well in all locations despite some inhibition of growth at
Neot Hakikar. In the latter orchard only a few species have survived and are still growing. These
include ber (which was introduced from India) and various cacti including pitahaya agria but
excluding Hylocereus species, which suffered both from the extreme light and from the extreme
salinity. Ciruelo is also growing very well at this location. The sulfate salinity at Qetura is less
harmful to the new plant introductions than the NaCl salinity characteristic of Neot Hakikar.
Mango and pummelo on a proper rootstock (13-1 and sour orange, respectively) are grown
commercially at Qetura, but are unable to survive at Neot Hakikar. White sapota grows well at
Besor. It seems to tolerate cold weather but not very high temperatures. Given special care and
proper selection of rootstocks and cultivars, the plant might also be grown at Qetura. To draw
definite conclusions about the performance of a species at a particular location it is obligatory to
test in situ. Aside from simple survival, successful economic performance, which depends on
yields and product quality, requires evaluation.
Selection of rootstocks and scion cultivars will have to be performed for promising species in the
future. Correspondingly, proper vegetative techniques will have to be developed for each of the
plant species that grows successfully. These rare and wild fruit trees deserve much more attention
from the scientific community than they have so far received.
REFERENCES
Alexander, D. McE. 1979. Rhamnaceae. p. 161-163. In: P.E. Page, (compiler). Tropical tree
fruits for Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Information Series
Q183018 ISBN 0-7242-2200-6.
Batten, D.J. 1979. White sapote p. 171-174. In: P.E. Page (compiler). Tropical tree fruits for
Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Information Series.
Biesele, M., J. Bousquet, and G. Stanford. 1979. A Kalahari food staple: Ricinodendron
rautanenii. p. 341-355. In: J.R. Goodin and D.K. Northington, (eds.). Arid land plant
resources. International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech. Univ.,
Lubbock.
Felger, R.S. 1980. Ancient crops for the twenty-first century In: G.A. Ritchie (ed.). New
agricultural crops. Westview, Boulder.
Felger, R.S., and M.B. Moser. 1976. Seri Indian food plants: Desert subsistence without
agriculture. J. Ecol. Food Nutr. 5:13-27.
Fox, F.W., and M.E. Norwood-Young. 1982. Food from the wild-edible wild plants of
Southern Africa. Delta, Johannesburg.
Frenkel, M. and Y. Zohar 1987. Irrigation and fertilization recommendations for mango
grown in the Northern Negev. Extension Service Bulletin. Ministry of Agriculture, Israel.
(In Hebrew).
Keegan, A.B., and J. Van Staden. 1981. Dormancy and germination of the manketti nut
Ricinodendron rautanenii Schinz. S. African J. Sci. 77:262-264.
Koller, D. 1972. Environmental control of seed germination. p. 2-101. In: T.T. Kozbisski
(ed.). Seed biology. Academic Press, New York and London.

Miege, I., and M.N. Miege. 1979. Cordeauxia edulis: A. Caesalpineaceae of arid zones of
East Africa. Caryologic, blastogenic and biochemical features. Potential aspects of nutrition.
Econ. Bot. 32:336-345.
National Research Council 1979. Tropical Legumes: Resources for the future. National
Academy of Sciences, Washington DC.
Shone, A. K. 1979. Notes on the marula. Dept. of Forestry, Pretoria Bul. 58.
Taylor, F.W. 1986. The potential for utilization of indigenous plants in Botswana. p.
231-242. In: G.E. Wickens, J.R. Goodin and D.V. Field (eds.). Plants for and lands. George
Allen & Unwin, London.
Teichman, I. von, J.G.C. Small, and P.J. Robbertse. 1985. A preliminary study on the
germination of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra. S. African Tydskr. Plantk. 52:145-148.
Wehymeyer, A.S. 1966. The nutrient composition of some edible wild fruit found in the
Transvaal. Southern Africa Medical J. 40:1102-1104.
*The authors express their thanks and appreciation to Mr. Ehud Tzeeri from Neot-Hakikar, Elaine
Soloway from Kibbutz Qetura, Mr. Rafi Rotem from the Besor Experimental Station, and
Avraham Karadi of the Institutes for Applied Research for their skillful help in this research.
Table 1. List of candidate species.
Botanical name
Fruits
Casimiroa edulis
Crytocarpa edulis
Diospyros digyna
Dovyalis caffra
Hylocereus undatus
Inga vera
Manilkara zapota
Mimusops angel
Opuntia ficus-indica
Pachycereus pringlei
Santalum acuminatum
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra
Common name
Family
White sapota
Ciruelo
Black sapota
Kei apple
Pitaya
Ice cream bean
Sapodilla
Angel
Prickly pear
Cardon
Quandong
Morula (Marula)
Rutaceae
Anacardiaceae
Ebenaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Cactaceae
Mimosaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Cactaceae
Cactaceae
Santalaceae
Anacardiaceae
Stenocereus thurberi
Strychnos cocculoides
Vangueria infausta
Ziziphus mauritiana
Pitahaya agria
Pitahaya dulce
Monkey orange
Mmilo
Ber (Indian jujube)
Cactaceae
Cactaceae
Loganiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rha.mnaceae
Nuts
Bombax glabra
Cordeauxia edulis
Malabar
Bombacaceae
Yehib
Caesalpiniaceae
Mongongo (Manketti) Euphorbiaceae
Table 2. Climatic data for the four introduction sites.

Parameter
Qetura Neot Hakikar Besor Ramat Negev
Mean daily temperature (C)
Hottest month (August)
30-32
32-34 26-28
26-28
Coldest month (January)
14-16
14-16 12-14
8-10
Annual number of days with temperature of:
35C or more
125-150
126-150 0-10
11-25
10C or less
1-25
Average pan evaporation rate (mm/day)
Hottest month
15
Coldest month
4
Annual rainfall (mm)
<40
1-25 76-100
14
5
<40
126-150
8
3
200
10
3
90
Table 3. Water quality at the four introduction sites.
Parameter Qetura
EC (dS/m) 3.2+/-0.6y
pH
7.7+/-0.3
ion content (mg/1)
Na+
259+/-90
Ca++
262+/-9
Mg++
103+/-13
Cl588+/-52
SO4- 823+/-228
Ramat-Negevz
Brackish
Fresh water
water
Neot Hakikar Besor

3.7+/-0.2
0.9
0.9 6.1+/-0.1
7.6+/-0.2 7.4+/-0.1
7.5+/-0.1 7.2+/-0.3
300+/-10 95+/-7
208+/-11 51+/-1
133+/-3 29+/-4
885+/-22 290+/-25
360+/-43 49+/-2
95+/-7
45+/-2
29+/-4
240
47+/-2
1080+/-5
227+/-9
83+/-7
1800+/-5
490+/-5
zAt
this location we are in the process of establishing plants for comparison of fresh and saline
water irrigation
yValues in the table are means +/-SD of samples taken throughout the last year.
Table 4. Soil properties at the four introduction sites.
Parameterz
Qetura
Neot Hakikar Besor
Ramat Negev
Texture
Conductivity (dS/m at 25C)
pH
Total CaCO3 (%)
zSoil
sandy loam sandy loam

0.63-3.39 1.34-6.13
7.4-7.7
7.3-7.7
sandy loam loam

0.6-2.1
0.7-2.3
7.7-8.3
7.9-8.5
6-10
2-12
14-32
8-27
was analyzed to depth of 120 cm.

Fig. 1. Site of experimental orchards established in the Negev
desert.
Fig. 2. Surviving yehib plant at Qetura (3 years

old) (October 1988).
Fig. 3. Growth of individual yehib

plants at Qetura during 1987.
Seedlings were planted in 1985.
Plants died at all other locations.
Fig. 4. Growth of mongongo plants

at three locations during 1987.
Seedlings were planted in 1986.
After initial growth at Neot Hakikar,
all plants showed leaf yellowing
followed by leaf burns from NaCl
salinity and died. No. of plants: 29
(Qetura), 13 (Neot-Hakikar), 27
(Besor).
Fig. 5. Well-developed 3-year-old mongongo tree at Besor (October 1988).
Fig. 6. Growth of marula plants at three

locations during 1987. Seedlings were
planted in 1986. No. of plants: 30
(Qetura), 29 (Neot Hakikar) and 30
(Besor).
Fig. 7. Fast-development 3-year-old marula tree at Qetura

(October 1988).
Fig. 8. Growth of pitahaya agria plants at three

locations during 1987. Seedlings at Neot-Hakikar
and Besor were planted in 1986. Since seedlings
at Qetura were planted one year earlier, growth in
1986 is included. No. of plants: 30 (Qetura), 20
(Neot-Hakikar), 30 (Besor).
Fig. 9. Pitahaya agria cactus (3 years old) at

Qetura (October 1988).
Fig. 10. Growth of white sapota plants

at two locations during 1987. Seedlings
were planted in 1986. No. of plants: 14
(Qetura), 30 (Besor). All the white
sapota plants died at Neot Hakikar after
showing symptoms of severe leaf bum
from NaCl salinity. At Qetura some
plants showed leaf yellowing,
especially during midsummer months.
Fig. 11. White sapota (3 years old) at Qetura

(October 1988).
Fig. 12. One-year-old ber tree, 'Gola' cultivar, grafted on Ziziphus spina-cristi at Qetura (October
1988).
Ti Palm
Ti Palm
Liliaceae Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth
The plant is low, slender and palm-like, to 6 feet, with leaves up to 30 inches
long and 5 inches wide, native in the East Indies. There it is cultivated for the large, tuberous roots,
up to 14 pounds, which contain much sugar. Roots are usually baked or roasted. Baked, macerated
roots are also fermented in water and an intoxicating liquor is obtained by distillation. So far as
known, Ti Palm is not grown in the U.S. outside of Hawaii.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/TiPalm.html [5/16/2004 3:51:40 PM]
Productive Shelterbelts
prev | next
index for this volume | New Crops News | NewCROPS home page
New Crops News, Spring 1994, vol. 4 no. 1
Productive Shelterbelts
Decorative branches from woody perennial shrubs are becoming extremely popular for use by the
florist industry in floral arrangements. Trends in floral design have increased the demand for
branches from a number of shrubs with decorative flowers and fruits, as well as branch form and
color. A study is underway under the leadership of Bruno Moser, head of Purdue's Department of
Horticulture, to develop a sustainable system to produce economic shoots of a number of plant
species including the Salix caprea (pussy willow) and S. matsujdana tortuosa (corkscrew willow).
Pussy willow is a large (8-12' high), multistemmed perennial woody shrub with attractive flowers
in early spring. It has been used in landscapes for years, and its branches are often found in floral
arrangements during the months of March through May as a signal of the spring season. Popularity
of the pussy willow has outstripped supply, and the availability of high quality branches is limited.
Large scale growing of this new crop has been shown to be feasible on marginal wet areas. The
crop becomes an economically viable filter strip between agronomic crops and waterways and
streams running through farmland. Plants are grown 6' apart in rows with rows 10' apart to
facilitate access by equipment. The filter strip approach utilizes three rows of plants occupying a
50-60' wide strip of land parallel to watercourses. The result is an environmentally sound planting
on marginal land which absorbs runoff from adjacent agricultural fields and limits contamination
of surface watercourses from soil and agricultural chemicals.
Branches are harvested in February when most farmers would have time to devote to this new
crop. Shrubs are pruned to within 18" of the ground. The harvested branches are trimmed, graded
into appropriate lengths, and tied in bundles of 50 each. Markets are primarily wholesale florists,
but limited sales can be made directly to individual retail florists in a grower's area. Results
indicate that each plant will produce between 60 to 80 branches per plant each year (about 50,000
shoots per acre). Research efforts are now being directed towards forcing systems for branches and
other postharvest techniques to broaden the market window and provide added value in the form of
longer shelf life. Decorative branches for the florist trade offer new entrepreneurial opportunities
for those with marketing skills who are looking for a niche crop in which most of the work is done
during the winter and early spring.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/NewCropsNews/94-4-1/pwillow.html [5/16/2004 3:51:41 PM]
Zea mays
Index| Search| Home
Zea mays L.
Poaceae
Bactrian typha, Barbary corn, ble de Turquie,
Corn, Cornmeal, Cucurutz, Dent maize, Egyptian corn, Flint
maize, Floury maize, Guinea corn, Indian corn, Indian meal,
Kana, Maize, Mealies, Milbo, Popcorn, Roman corn, Sara chulpi,
Sicilian corn, Spanish corn, Sweet corn, Syrian dourra, Turkie
corne, Turkish wheat, Virginia wheat, Waxy maize, Welsch corn,
Yellow maize
We have information from several sources: Blue CornDuane L. Johnson and Mitra N. Jha
New Grains and PseudograinsDuane L. Johnson
Thomas P. Schuman
International Repercussions of New CropsLowell S. Hardin
Blue Corn and Quinoa: New Grain for the Southwest New Crops News
New Opportunities for SH-2 Sweet Corn New Crops News
Corn Stover Potential: Recasting the Corn Sweetener IndustryDavid Glassner, James
Hettenhaus, and Tom Schechinger
Specialty-Corn Types
Popcorn: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Zea_mays_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:42 PM]
Zea mays
Field corn
Sweet corn
Corn oil
Outside links: Sweet Corn production links

Kingcorn the Corn Growers' Guidebook
Purdue (Indiana) Extension Publications
Popcorn Production and Marketing
Baby Corn production from Washington State University
Baby Corna Pacific Northwest Extension Publication
MaizeDescriptors for MaizeLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Zea_mays_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:42 PM]
Corn Salad
Corn Salad
Lambs lettuce, Fetticus
Valerianaceae Valerianella olitoria (L.) Pohl
Italian Corn Salad

V. eriocarpa Desv.
Corn salad is extensively grown in Europe as a salad vegetable, but little grown in the U.S. The
plant is a biennial, forming a rosette of leaves the first year, and a seed stalk the second. Leaves are
spoon shaped to round, up to 6 inches long. Exposure of leaves is comparable to that of spinach.
Leaves are used both as raw salad and as pot herbs.
Italian corn salad is similar in growth and use. Leaves are slightly smaller, somewhat pubescent
and toothed near the base. The plant is more southern in adaptation than corn salad.
Season, seeding to usable leaves: 2 to 3 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Very limited.
Use: Salad, pot herb.
Part of plant consumed: Leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CornSalad.html [5/16/2004 3:51:42 PM]
Flowering Dogwood
Flowering Dogwood
Cornus florida L.
Other common names.Cornus, American dogwood, Virginia
dogwood, Florida dogwood, American cornelian tree, flowering
corner, Florida cornel, white cornel, Indian arrowwood,
nature's-mistake.
Habitat and range.Dogwood occurs in woods from southern
Maine and southern Ontario to Florida, Texas, and Missouri, but
grows most abundantly in the Middle Atlantic States.
Description. The dogwood sometimes grows to a height of 40 feet,
but more frequently is a shrub. In the early spring the naked, leafless
branches support numerous large, showy white flowers, so-called. The
four showy parts of these "flowers" are petallike bracts which
surround the true flowers, which are small, greenish-yellow, and
Figure 50.Flowering
inconspicuous. The leaves, which develop after the flowers have
dogwood (Cornus florida)
disappeared, turn a bright red in autumn, and this with the scarlet fruit
makes the tree very attractive at that time of the year.
Part used.The bark of the root, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/dogwood.html [5/16/2004 3:51:43 PM]
Coronilla varia
Coronilla varia L.
Leguminosae
Crown vetch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Coronilla_varia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:44 PM]
Corylus avellana
Index| Search| Home
Corylus avellana L.
Betulaceae
Filbert, Hazelnut, American hazelnut, Beaded
hazel, Chinese filbert, Chinese hazel, Chinese hazelnut, Cob,
Cobnut, Curri, European filbert, European hazel, Giant filbert,
Haselnuss, Himalayan hazel, Lambert's filbert, Noisette, Siberian
hazel, Tibetan filbert, Tibetan hazelnut, Turkish filbert, Turkish
hazel
Nuts with Commercial Potential for America's HeartlandJoseph Lukasiewicz
Outside links:
Articles & Books About Hazelnuts
Corylus accessions and genetic resources at the National Germplasm Repository, Corvallis
Oregon.
Hazelnut or Filbert, Corylus avellana
Beaked Hazelnut, Corylus cornuta
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Corylus_avellana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:45 PM]
Costus speciosus
Keukand (Costus speciosus Koen ex.

Retz.) Sm.
contributor.
Common (Indian) Name

Hindi: Keukand, Keu, Kust
Gujrati: Pakarmula
Canarese: Changalkashta, Chikke,Karikattu,
Marathi: Penva, Pinga, Pushkarmula
Sanskrit: Kustha, Kashmira, Kemuka, Shura, Pushkarmula
Malyalam: Narum canna, Cannakkuvva, Cannukkilannu
Tamil: Kostam
Telugu: Cengalva Kostu
Family: Zingiberaceae
Botany: An erect plant, up to 2.7 meters high; root stock tuberous; stem sub-woody at the base;
Leaves 1530 5.77.5 cm sub sessile, oblong, spirally arranged, silky-pubescent beneath;
sheaths coriaceous; flowers in very dense spikes, many; bracts ovate, mucronate, bright red;
corrolla tube short, lobes ovate-oblong subequal; lip white with yellow center, crisped, concave;
disk with a tuft of hair at the base. Fruits capsule, globosely trigonus, red; seeds black with white
aril. Flowering time in Indian condition is August to October.
Useful parts: Roots
Medicinal Properties: According to Ayurveda the rhizomes are bitter, astringent, acrid, cooling,
aphrodisiac, purgative, anthelmintic, depurative, febrifuge, expectorant and tonic and useful in
burning sensation, constipation, lepsory, worm infection, skin diseases, fever, asthma, bronchitis,
inflammatians and anaemia.
Chemical Constituents: Tigogenin and diosgenin from rhizomes (2.6% diosgenin) and stems
have been isolated. -amyrin stearate, -amyrin and lupeol. Palmitates from leaves have been
isolated.
Cultivation: Costus is under cultivation in isolated patches in different parts of India. It is
cultivated as rainy season (Kharif) crop. About 1520 quintal rhizomes are used for sowing per
hectare. Standard cultivation practices of Costus have yet not been developed.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/costus.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:45 PM]
Costus speciosus

Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/costus.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:45 PM]
Cotton seed oil
Cotton seed oil

Malvaceae Gossypium sp.
Cotton is grown primarily for the fibers or lint, but the oil containing seeds
are highly important. World production of cotton seed oil averaged 2,673,000 tons, 1964-66. The
cotton plant is a stiff growing herbaceous annual outside the tropics, with fairly large, lobed
leaves. The fruits are capsules which dehisce as they ripen. Each capsule contains up to 40 or 50
obovate, rounded or angular seeds, to which are attached the fibers or lint. The lint and seeds are
harvested from the dehiseed bolls, partly by hand but now largely by machine in the U.S. The
longer lint is removed from the seeds mechanically at cotton gins, then baled. The seeds of most
varieties are still covered with short fibers or linters after the ginning. The seeds consist about half
of hull and half of kernel. The kernels contain 28 to 40 percent oil. In extracting the oil the seeds
are cleaned, delinted, and pressed or put through expellers either whole or after dehulling. A ton of
seeds yields around 300 pounds of oil. The meal or press cake is a valuable high-protein livestock
feed and the cotton fields, after the harvest, may be used for livestock pasturage. The oil is used
mainly for shortenings. Smaller quantities are used for cooking and salad oils, margarines, and
soap manufacture.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cotton_seed_oil.html [5/16/2004 3:51:45 PM]
Hymenaea courbaril
Hymenaea courbaril L.
Caesalpiniaceae
Coubaril, Kerosene tree, West Indian locust
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Important timber tree, used for furniture, (sometimes compared with mahogany), carpentry,
general construction, wheels and cogs, dugouts, shipbuilding, crossties, posts, looms, cartwheels,
etc. The wood should be attractive for cabinet work, interior trim, plywood, turnery, and veneer.
Indians made canoes from the smooth, hard, thick bark by stripping in one piece the bark of a large
tree, sewing the ends together, waterproofing the seams with gum or resin, and inserting wooden
crosspieces. The roots and trunk yield a pale yellow or reddish resinlike gum known commercially
as South American copal. The gum exudes and forms hard lumps which become buried in the soil
at the base of a tree. Sometimes as much as a barrel of gum has been found around the roots of a
large tree or at the site of a former tree. The gum is used mainly in varnish but also for incense and
local medicines (Little and Wadsworth, 1964). The copal is also used for patent leather and in
stains for tin ware (Uphof, 1968).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Hymenaea_courbaril.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:51:46 PM]
Hymenaea courbaril
Folk Medicine
Reported to be anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, expectorant, laxative, pectoral, purgative, sedative,
stomachic, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, coubaril is a folk remedy for arthritis, asthma, beriberi,
blenorrhagia, bronchitis, bruises, catarrh, cystitis, diarrhea, dyspepsia, emphysema, fractures.,
headache, laryngitis, lungs, malaria, nephritis, rheumatism, sore, spasms, stomatitis, ulcers, and
venereal disease (Duke and Wain, 1981). According to Ayensu (1981), the bark infusion is used as
a depurative stomachic in exanthema; smoke from rosin used for headaches and rheumatism.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the dry fruit pulp is reported to contain 309 calories, 14.6 g H2O, 5.9 g protein, 2.2 g fat,
75.3 g total carbohydrate, 13.4 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 28 mg Ca, 143 mg P, 3.2 mg Fe, trace of
-carotene equivalent, 0.23 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 4.1 mg niacin, and 11 mg ascorbic
acid. Langenheim (1981) compares the sesquiterpenes of Hymenaea the tongue-in-cheek
"kerosene tree" and Copaifera, Calvin's "diesel tree".
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons Hymenaea
Allo-arodendrene
--
Copaifera
wood
-Bergamotene
--
wood
-Bisabolene
wood
wood
-Cadinene
leaf-pod-stem cortex wood, leaf
-Cadinene
Calamenene
Calarene
Caryophyllene
leaf-stem cortex
-Copaene
leaf-stem cortex
wood, leaf
-Copaene
leaf-stem cortex
wood*, leaf*
-Cubebene
leaf-stem cortex
wood, leaf*
-Cubebene
Curcumene
Cyclosativene
Cyperene
--
wood
-pod
leaf
wood
-wood, leaf
-, - and -Elemene
--
wood
-Farnesene
--
wood
-Himachalene
pod
--
-Humulene
leaf-stem cortex
leaf*
leaf
-wood
pod
-leaf, pod-stem cortex wood, leaf
Hymenaea courbaril
-Muurolene
pod
--
-Muurolene
--
wood
-Muurolene
leaf-stem cortex
wood, leaf*
-Seliene
leaf-stem cortex
wood, leaf*
-Seliene
Selina-4(14), 7(1l)-diene
Selina-4(14), 7-diene
leaf-stem cortex
wood, leaf*
pod
pod
---
*probably present
Wood contains the diterpene copalic acid. The wood and copal may cause dermatitis.
Description
Tree to 20 (30) m tall and 50 (200) cm DBH; outer bark brown, closely lenticellate, bitter tasting;
wood reddish-brown, hard. Leaves bifoliolate; petioles 12 cm long; leaflets narrowly oblong to
elliptic-lanceolate, asymmetri- cal, short-acuminate, unequally rounded at base, 410 cm long, 25
cm wide, coriaceous, punctate, the midrib conspicuous below. Inflorscences terminal,
sub-corymbose, to ca 8 (12) cm long, the branches puberulent, jointed and articulate;flowers white
or purplish, soon falling, probably opening at night; bracts caducous; pedicels thick, ca 7 mm long;
calyx tube ca 8 mm long, 4-lobed, the lobes ovate to oblong, expanding to ca 15 mm long,
coriaceous, densely tomentose inside, easily caducous; petals 5, white, sometimes tinged with
purple, rounded, 1.52 cm long, ca 9 mm wide, clawed below, the claw ca 1.5 mm long; stamens
10, alternately short and long, the long ones to 2 cm long; style attached laterally at apex of ovary,
directed somewhat to one side of the flower; stigma held above the lower anthers and at some
distance from the divergent longer set. Legumes oblong, flattened, to 17 cm long and 6.5 cm wide,
turgid, hard, reddish-brown; seeds (2) 46, embedded in sticky pulp (Croat, 1978).
Germplasm
Reported from the South American (Amazonian) Center of Diversity, the courbaril, or cvs thereof,
is reported to tolerate shade and slope (Duke, 1978). (2n = 24)
Distribution
Throughout West Indies from Cuba and Jamaica to Trinidad and Tobago. Also from central
Mexico to Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, and French Guiana. Rarely planted in southern Florida (Little and
Wadsworth, 1964).
Hymenaea courbaril
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones (Duke,
1978). Coubaril is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 642 dm, annual temperature of 22
to 28C, and pH of 5.57.5. Rare in the young forest. Flowers during the dry season and the early
rainy season (December to May) in Panama. The fruits mature chiefly during the rainy season,
especially late in the rainy season (Croat, 1978).
Cultivation
Shade is required at first if the tree is to produce a straight trunk.
Harvesting
No data available.

Trees underplanted in a forest near Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico attained heights ranging up to 6.5 m
in 13 years. Plantings in the open, for shade and ornamental purposes, pruduce attractive and
spreading trees more rapidly.
Energy
I presume the wood can be used as firewood (density 7501050 kg/m3) the pods for alcohol
generation, but there is some question as to whether this is an important nitrogen-fixing tree.
Isolated from nodules on a large Hawaian specimen reacted like a typical cowpea rhizobium.
Large rough-surfaced nodules were observed on 10 of 15 Philippine specimens. In Trinidad,
nodulated specimens were not found (Allen and Allen, 1981). I am surprised this has not yet been
labelled the "kerosene tree." According to Pereira (1929), this species, closely related to the "diesel
tree" Copaifera, contains a medicinal oil (the resin) which burns like kerosene. I doubt that it
would produce significantly more or less resin than the Copaifera, but would not write either of
them off without an examination of the facts.
Biotic Factors
Flowers are believed to be bat pollinated. Browne (1968) lists: Isoptera. Coptotermes
curvignathus.
Hymenaea courbaril
References
812 p.
Ayensu, E.S. 1981. Medicinal plants of the West Indies. Reference Publications, Inc.
Algonac, MI. 282 p.
Croat, T.B. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press., Stanford, CA.
Langenheim, J.H. 1981. Terpenoids in the Leguminosae. p. 627655. In: R.M. Polhill and
P.H. Raven (eds.), Advances in legume systematics. 2 vols. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Pereia, H. 1929. Pequena contribuicao para um diccionario das plantas uteis do estado de S.
Paulo. Typographia Brasil de Rothschild & Co., Sao Paulo.
Uphof, J.C., Th. 1968. Dictionary of economic plants. Verlag von J. Cramer. Lehre.
Mucuna pruriens
Kapikachu or Cowhage (Mucuna

pruriens)
Pankaj Oudhia
Mucuna pruriens Bak., Leguminosae, is one of the popular
medicinals of India. and is constituent of more than 200
indigenous drug formulations It is widespread over most of the
subcontinent and is found in bushes and hedges and
dry-deciduous, low forests throughout the plains of India. (Sister
and Kavathekar 1990; Agharkar 1991; Singh et al. 1996 ). All
parts of Mucuna posses valuable medicinal properties (Pandey
1998; Pandey 1999; Caius 1989 ) and there is a heavy demand of
Mucuna in Indian drug markets. After the discovery that Mucuna
seeds contain L-dopa, an anti-parkinsons disease drug, its
demand in international market has increased many fold (Farooqi
1999) and demand has motivated Indian farmers to start
commercial cultivation.
Botany
Mucuna is an annual twinning plant.. Leaves are trifoliate,
gray-silky beneath; petioles are long and silky, 6.311.3 cm.
Leaflets are membranous, terminal leaflets are smaller, lateral
very unequal sided. Dark purple flowers (6 to 30) occur in drooping racemes. Fruits are curved,
46 seeded. The longitudinally ribbed pod, is densely covered with persistent pale-brown or grey
trichomes that cause irritating blisters. Seeds are black ovoid and 12 mm long (Sastry and
Kavathekar 1990; Agharkar 1991; Verma et al. 1993).
Uses
Roots, according to the Ayurveda, are bitter, thermogenic, anthelmintic, diuretic, emollient,
stimulant, aphrodisiac, purgative, febrifuge, tonic. It is considered useful to relieve constipation,
nephropathy, strangury, dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, elephantiasis, dropsy, neuropathy,
consumption, ulcers, helminthiasis, fever, and delirum (Lindley 1985; Ramnath 1992; Warrier
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/mucuna.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:51:48 PM]
Mucuna pruriens
1995; Shalini 1997; Upadhyay 2000).

Leaves are popular potherbs and are used as a fodder crop. Leaves are useful in ulcers,
inflammation, cephalagia and general debility.
The trichomes of pods contain mucunain and serotonin and as a result pod causes itching, blisters,
and dermatitis. Pods are also used as vegetable. Pod hairs (trichomes) are used as anthelmintic.
Hairs mixed with honey have been used as vermifuge. As ointment prepared with hairs act as a
local stimulant and mild vesicant. (Shastry and Kavathekar 1990; Chandra 1993; Shastry 1995)
Beside medicinal properties, Mucuna fixes nitrogen and is as a green manure and covercrop.
Seeds contain L-DoPA (4-3,4-dihydroxy phenylalanine),
glutathione, lecithin, gallic acid, glycosides, nicotine,
prurenine, prurenidine, dark brown viscous oil. It is a
source of minerals (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991a,b; Singh
et al. 1995). According to Ayurveda, seeds are astringent,
laxative, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, alexipharmic and
tonic.
Cultivation
Mucuna is a popular kharif crop in India. Seeds are sown
at rate of 50 kg/ha between 15 June to 15th July with plant
spacing of 60 60 cm. Delayed sowing may result in
infestation of aphids (Aphis craccivora) (Oudhia 2001a ).
Although, no named cultivar of Mucuna is available, locally available seeds possess good viability
and higher germination (Oudhia 2001b). Plant support increases yield 25% and reduces pest
infestation. Normally flowering begins 4550 days after sowing. (Oudhia and Tripathi 2001).
Yields of 5000 kg/ha have been recorded from well managed irrigated crop having supports.
(Singh et al. 1995; Farooqi et al. 1999)
References
Agharkar, S.P. 1991. Medicinal plants of Bombay presidency. p. 12. Scientific Publ. Jodhpur.
India.
Caius, J.F. 1989. The medicinal and poisonous legumes of India. p. 7071. Scientific Publ.,
Jodhpur, India.
Chandra, S. 1993. Jadi-Butiyan. Sadhana Pocket Books, Delhi.
Farooqi, A.A., M.M. Khan, and M. Asundhara. 1999. Production technology of medicinal and
aromatic crops. p. 2628. Natural Remedies Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, India
Lindley, J. 1985. Flora medica. Ajay Book Service, New Delhi.
Oudhia, P. 2001a. Record of Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on medicinal crop
Mucuna pruriens L. Chhattisgarh (India). Insect Environ. 7(1):24.
Oudhia, P. 2001b. My experiences with worlds top ten Indian medicinal plants : Glimpses of
Mucuna pruriens
research at farmers field in Chhattisgarh (India). In: Abstract Workshop- cum-Seminar on

Sustainable Agriculture for 21st Century, IGAU, Raipur, India. 2021 Jan.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 2001. The possibilities of commercial cultivation of rare medicinal
plants in Chhattisgarh (India). In: Abstract. VII National Science Conference, Bhartiya Krishi
Anusandhan Samittee, Directorate of Cropping System Research, Meerut (India), 1214 April.
Pandey, G. 1998. Chamatkari Jadi-Butiyan. Bhasha Bhavan, Mathura, India.
Pandey, U. 1999. Chamatkari Paudhe. Bhagwati Pocket Books, Agra, India.
Ramnath, V. 1992. Vanoshadhi Shatak. Serve-Seva Sangh Prakashan, Varanasi, India.
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991a. Compendium of Indian medicinal plants. Vol. I.
(196069). Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow and Publications and Information
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991b. Compendium of Indian medicinal plants. Vol. I
(19701979).Central Drug Research, Institute, Lucknow and Publications and Information
Sastry, C.S.T. and Y.Y. Kavathekar. 1990. Plants for reclamation of wastelands. Publications and
Information Directorate, New Delhi. p. 317318.
Shalini, K. 1997. Vedic leguminous plants. Classical Publ. Co., New Delhi.
Shashtry, R.K. 1995. Bhartiya Jabi-butiyon tatha vrikcho ke chamatkar. Dehati Pustak Bhandar,
Delhi.
Singh, B.M., V.K. Srivastava, M.A. Kidwai, V. Gupta, and R. Gupta, 1995. Aloe, psoralea and
mucuna. p. 515525. In: K. L. Chadha and Rajendra Gupta. (eds.), Advances in horticulture Vol.
11. Medicinal and aromatic plants, 1995. Malhotra Publ, House, New Delhi.
Singh, U., A.M. Wadhwani, and B.M. Johri. 1996. Dictionary of economic plants in India. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. p. 45146.
Upadhyay, R.K. 2000. Upyogi Jadi Butiyan. Randhir Prakashan, Haridwar, India.
Verma, D.M., N.P. Balakrishnan, and R.D. Dixit. 1993. Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Botanical
Survey of India. p. 190191. Lucknow, India.
Warrier, P.K., V.P.K. Nambiar, and C. Ramankutty. 1996. Indian medicinal plants Vol. 4. p.
6872. Orient Longman, Chennai, India.
Crabapple
Crabapple
Rosaceae Pyrus sp.
The term crabapple is applied to native species of apple like fruits, as well as
to hybrids of these with the larger fruited apples. Bailey lists 27 species of apple type fruits, 10 of
which are native in some part of the U.S. Some American and Asiatic species are beautiful
ornamentals, and fruit from these or native trees may be used in homes for jellies. The crabapples
of commerce are probably all hybrids of native species with apples. These are fruits 1 to 2 inches
in diameter, which in culture and general exposure are in all respects similar to apples, which see.
In general, the trees are hardier than most apple varieties.
Season, bloom to harvest: About 4 months.
Production in the U.S.: No separate data; 1000-2000 tons.
Use: Mainly jelly or pickling.
Part consumed: Whole fruit; for jelly, whole fruit cooked - with core tissue and peel sieved out.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Crabapple.html [5/16/2004 3:51:48 PM]
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.)

Engl.
Sonneratiaceae
Crabapple Mangrove
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The heavy wood (800 kg/m3) is used for boatbuilding, construction, piles, and posts. Sour young
fruits, used in or for vinegar, are widely used in Oriental chutnies and curries. Ripe fruits, said to
taste like cheese, are eaten raw or cooked. A clear jelly can be prepared from the pectinaceous
fruits. Pneumatophores cut up and used as corks or floats for fishing nets. The pulp is suitable for
kraft paper production. Flowers, in anthesis, contain abundant honey (Backer and van Steenis,
1951).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sonneratia_caseolaris.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:51:49 PM]
Folk Medicine
Reported to be hemostat, crabapple mangrove is a folk remedy for sprains, swellings, and worms
(Duke and Wain, 1981). Burmese use the fruits for poultices, Indochinese poultice crushed leaves
with salt onto cuts and bruises. Malayans use old fruit walls for worms, half-ripe fruits for coughs,
and pounded leaves for hematuria and smallpox (Perry, 1980).
Chemistry
Fruits yield 11% pectin (ZMB). Wood yields 52.7% brown pulp (8.5% lignin, 17.6% pentosan).
Emodin and chrysophanic acid may be the coloring matter in the crude drug (Perry, 1980). Bark
from Africa assayed at 17.1% tannin, of the pyrogallol class. Indian stem bark assayed 917%,
twig bark 11-12%. Wood yields two coloring principles, archin (C15H10O5) and archinin
(C15H14O12 ) (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Description
Evergreen tree 515(20) m high without buttresses or stilt roots, with rather open spreading
crown, glabrous throughout. Pneumatophores 5090 cm high, to 7 cm in diameter. Bark gray,
coarsely flaky. Leaves opposite, without stipules, nearly sessile, elliptical, oblong or ovate, 513
cm long, 25 cm wide, with broad or tapering base and blunt or rounded tip, entire, with 812
widely spreading fine side veins on each side, leathery. Flowers 13 at end of drooping twigs
malodorous, nocturnal. Hypanthium with 68 calyx lobes; petals 68, 23.5 cm long, 1.53.5 mm
wide, dark or blood-red, stamens numerous, with threadlike filaments 2.53.5 cm long, pistil with
1621-celled ovary with many ovules; style long, stout (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australia, Indonesia-Indochina, and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, crabapple
mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate coral, disease, insects pests, salt, and waterlogging
(NAS, 1980; Little, 1983). (2n = 24 in other Sonneratia).
Distribution
Sri Lanka to Malay Peninsula and northern Australia. Also Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes,
Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Hebrides. Not widely
introduced (Little, 1983).
Ecology
Zones, crabapple mangrove is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 80 dm, annual
temperature of 20 to 27C, and pH of 6.0 to 6.5. Usually on the less salty parts of mangrove forests
on a deep muddy soil, never on coral banks, often along tidal creeks with slow moving water,
ascending these as far as the flood mounts (Backer and van Steenis, 1951).
Cultivation
According to the NAS (1980), planting is usually not needed because natural regeneration is so
Harvesting
Harvested as needed from wild stand. Trees recover rapidly after branches are lopped off for fuel.
it is said to suffer little from removal of much of the branchwood (NAS, 1980).

Cannell (1982) cites data on a mangrove forest dominated by Rhizophora, Ceriops, and
Sonneratia, averaging 11 m tall, with an LAI (leaf area Index) of 3.74.2.The stemwood and bark
on a DM basis weighed 74.4 MT/ha, the prop roots 61.2 MT/ha, the branches 15.8, the foliage 7.4,
the fruits 0.3, for a total standing aerial biomass of 157 MT/ha. The CAI (current annual
increment) of stem wood, bark, and branches was 20 MT/ha/yr, foliage 6.7, fruits 0.3. These data,
taken from a mangrove on Phuket Island, Thailand, regenerated following clear felling, suggest
annual productivity may attain 20 MT/ha/yr in Asian mangroves.
Energy
Although the calorific value of the wood is above average, it is inferior to true mangrove, and has a
high ash and salt content.
Biotic Factors
Heartwood is said to be very resistant to teredos.
References
Backer, C.A. and van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 1951. p. 280-289. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (ed.),
Flora malesiana. Vol. 4.
New York.
C.S.I.R. (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1948-1976. The wealth of India. 11
vols. New Delhi.
N.A.S. 1980b. Proceedings international workshop on energy survey methodologies for
developing countries. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Crambe abyssinica
Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex

R.E. Fries
Brassicaceae
Crambe
Crambe: A New Industrial Crop in LimboKoert J. Lessman
Crambe: New Crop SuccessKenneth D. Carlson, John C. Gardner, Vernon L. Anderson, and
James J. Hanzel
Crambe: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Isolation and Functional Properties of Proteins from Crambe abyssinica Oil SeedsE. Massoura,
J.M. Vereijken, P. Kolster, and J.T.P. Derksen
Climatic Evaluation for Crambe (Abstract)Yunus Gul and S.E. Taylor
White
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Crambe_abyssinica_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:50 PM]
Crambe maritima
Crambe maritima L.
Cruciferae, Brassicaceae
Seakale
Seakale: A New Vegetable Produced as Etiolated SproutsJean-Yves Pron
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Crambe_maritima_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:50 PM]
Cranberry
Cranberry
Ericaceae Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.
This native American fruit grows on a prostrate evergreen
"vine" though not a climber. The stems are actually rather
tender to cold, but stand winter covering with water well.
Thus in commercial culture where most are grown (Mass.,
Wisc., NJ) they are planted on peat bogs prepared so they can
be covered with water in winter. The berries are borne on
short uprights 6 to 8 inches in length, rising from the dense
mass of stems prostrate on the soil surface. Fruit has a smooth skin, is generally round, eliptical, or
bell shaped and about 0.33 inch in diameter and 0.5 to 1 inch long. Inconspicuous seeds are
attached at the center of the fruit and surrounded by the tart pulp. Plantings persist for many years
if properly managed. Weed control is a major problem.
Season, bloom to harvest: 100 to 130 days.
Use: Fresh, canned, frozen, juice, jellied.
Part of fruit consumed: Whole fruit or interior pulp and
juice. Skins and seeds are screened out in juice and jelled
products, after heating.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Cranberry.html [5/16/2004 3:51:52 PM]
Viburnum opulus
Viburnum opulus L.
syn. Viburnum trilobum Marsh.
Caprifoliaceae
Cranberry bush
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Viburnum_opulus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:52 PM]
Mayhaw: A New Fruit Crop for the South

Payne, J.A. and G.W. Krewer. 1990. Mayhaw: A new fruit crop for the south. p. 317-321. In: J.
Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Mayhaw: A New Fruit Crop for the

South*
Jerry A. Payne and Gerard W. Krewer
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HORTICULTURE
1. Propagation
2. Rootstocks
3. Cultivars
4. Orchards
5. Pest Problems
3. PROSPECTS
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Fig. 1
7. Fig. 2
INTRODUCTION
The mayhaw, an edible early ripening hawthorn, is a relatively unexplored and underutilized
indigenous fruit tree of the lower southern states. Mayhaws (Crataegus aestivalis [Walter] Torrey
& Gray C. opaca Hook. & Arn., C. rufula Sarg.) are members of the Rosaceae, subfamily
Maloideae, tribe Crataegeae. This arborescent shrub or round-topped small tree (8-10 m) has
outstanding ornamental characteristics (attractive foliage, showy blossoms, clusters of brilliantly
colored fruits) and is often armed with thorns. Mayhaws are locally abundant in low, wet areas in
the alluvial acid soils of rivers, streams and swamps from North Carolina to Florida and west to
Arkansas and Texas, (Fig. 1) (Clewell 1985, Coker and Totten 1945, Correll and Correll 1975,
Correll and Johnston 1970, Godfrey and Wooten 1981, Kurz and Godfrey 1962, Mohr 1969,
Phipps 1988, Radford et al. 1974, Sargent 1965, Small 1913, West and Arnold 1952). Hawthorns
are easily recognized as a group, but species are extremely difficult to distinguish due to
polyploidy and apomixis (Cronquist 1981, Phipps 1983). Over 800 species have been described
from North America (Bailey 1960, Render 1960) but only those early ripening edible southern
U.S. Crataegus, series Aestivales, are considered mayhaws.
Mayhaw trees flower profusely and early (late February to mid-March in southern Georgia, Zone
9A) and the fruit ripens mostly in early May, hence the name mayhaw. Some clones (selections)
ripen through June. The fruit is a small pome (8-19 mm diameter), yellow to bright red, fragrant,
acid and juicy, resembling cranberries in appearance and crabapples in taste (Fig. 2). Until recently
the fruit has only been used locally in marmalades, butters, preserves, jellies, condiments, syrups,
wines, desserts and as food for wildlife (Elliot 1971, Gibbons 1974, Halls 1977, Hedrick 1919,
Morton 1963, Reynolds and Ybarra 1984, Wood 1864). However, during the last 5-10 years
mayhaws have begun to receive attention as a possible source of income for cottage industries.
Fruit sells for $2.75-$4.40/kg ($5-$8/gallon) and jelly for $18-00/liter ($8.50/pint). Because
demand exceeds supply, many farmers and entrepreneurs are showing interest in the culture and
utilization of this crop.
HORTICULTURE
Propagation
Under natural conditions seed do not germinate until overwintered (Hartmann and Kester 1983).
Crataegus species have embryo dormancy and require treatment in a moist medium at low
temperature before germination will occur (Schopmeyer 1974). Seeds may be an easy way to
propagate clones since nucellar seedlings, which produce fruit like the mother tree, are common in
mayhaws (Wayne Sherman pers. commun.).
Mayhaw softwood stem cuttings can also be rooted under intermittent mist or in a humidity
chamber during the summer. Dipping the cuttings in a root promoting hormone (8000 ppm K-IBA
+ 2000 ppm K-NAA) has promoted rooting success of 36.4% for 'Super Spur': and 34.4% for 'T.O.
Super Berry' (G.W. Krewer, and J. Gibson, unpubl.). Propagation from hardwood and root cuttings
have also been reported by nurserymen, however, no details were revealed.
Mayhaws are easily grafted during dormancy (late winter). A whip and tongue or simple whip
graft can be used. Cleft grafting can be used on larger trees.
Rootstocks
Mayhaw appears to be initially compatible with any hawthorn species. In Mississippi the parsley
haw (C. marshallii Eggl.) is considered an excellent rootstock for C. opaca. Good results have
been reported using cockspur (C. crusgalli L.) and Washington hawthorn (C. phaenopyrum [L.f.]
Med.) rootstock in Texas for C. opaca. Trials in Louisiana, however, have produced variable
results with Washington hawthorn. In Georgia, the hoghaw (C. flava Aiton) which grows on our
sand ridges can be used but due to its slow growth rate the mayhaw scions may overgrow the
hoghaw rootstock. C. aestivalis can also be grafted onto commercially available Washington
hawthorn seedlings, but it is not known how they will perform at maturity Mayhaw seedlings are
probably the best choice as a rootstock in damp soils.
Cultivars
About a dozen mayhaw selections have been collected from the wilds (river bottoms, lime sinks,
swamps, sloughs) of Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas with attention given to size of
fruit, harvest or ripening period and yield (Table 1), but information from field trials is very
limited. Most ripen over a 30-day harvest period, but 'Lori' may have 80% of the fruit ripe at one
time. Little comparative cultivar information is available at this time, 'Super Spur' appears to be
the best from a yield and tree form standpoint. Yields of 30 kg/tree have been reported for 30-40
year old wild mayhaws in Georgia and 60 kg for a 15-year-old 'Super Spur' in Louisiana.
Preliminary reports indicate that selected mayhaw clones are adaptable to USDA zones 8 and 9.
Although some cultivars have a low chilling requirement and bloom early, other cultivars should
be adapted to the piedmont of the southeast. C. aestivalis cultivars may bloom a few days later
than C. opaca cultivars and may be better choices further north. Bloom occurs over an extended
period of time and the fruit are reported to be fairly frost hardy once past the bloom period. Winter
hardiness may be good. There are reports of mayhaws fruiting after -25C (-13F) (1981) and two
year old trees survived -32C (-25F) (1985) without damage (Akin 1985).
Orchards
Although tolerant of wet, very acid soils, better growth has been observed when mayhaws are
planted on well drained, slightly acid soils. Mayhaw trees are long-lived and may have a 9m
canopy diameter after 20 years. Therefore current suggested tree spacing for a permanent orchard
is 4.6-6.1 m (15-20 ft) in the row and 5.5-6.1 m (18-20 ft) between rows giving (270-400 trees/ha
or 109-161 trees/A). Row spacing must be adjusted to fit the equipment if mechanical harvesting
of mayhaw is desired. Mayhaws should be trained to a single trunk at the base with the first
branches at 45 cm or higher so orchard equipment can be operated under the tree. Yearly pruning
to open up the tree canopy for greater light penetration may be necessary with most cultivars.
Central leader and modified central leader training systems like those used on apples are
suggested.
Pest Problems
There is limited information on the pest management of mayhaws; however, it is known that they
are susceptible to many of the insects and diseases that attack other pome fruits (Crops Res. Div.
1960, Forest Service 1985). Several insects including plum curculio, hawthorn lace bug, flower
thrips, roundheaded appletree borer, whitefringed beetle, leafminers, scales and mealybugs feed on
the foliage, flower, fruit and wood of mayhaw. The plum curculio in particular has caused
extensive damage to fruit in some locations and will probably need to be controlled in future
commercial orchards.
There are numerous diseases known to occur on various hawthorn species but little information is
available on diseases of mayhaws. Quince rust, (Gymnosporangium clavipes Cke. & Pk.), has been
quite severe on some southern Georgia native mayhaws and several C. aestivalis and C. opaca
cultivars since 1983. Presently no rust control recommendations are available except the planting
of rust-free selections. At this time only two natural pesticides, insecticidal soap and
rotenone/pyrethrin, can be utilized for pest control on mayhaws destined for food use.
PROSPECTS
Although mayhaw appears to be initially compatible on most Crataegus rootstocks, our knowledge
of mayhaw rootstocks is rudimentary at best. There is little published information available on the
productivity and long term compatibility since mayhaw orchard plantings have existed for less
than 5 years. Existing information on methods of propagation is also very limited. Cultivar
evaluations have not been conducted in replicated orchard plantings and low-chilling requirements
of many cultivars may limit their commercial adaptability to zone 9A or 9B.
While only the jelly manufacturing has been investigated by university or industry personnel, there
are many other products made from mayhaws such as juices, jellies, preserves, candies, pastries
and wine that could have commercial potential. Thus, the opportunity exists for a greatly expanded
market based upon a consistent supply of fruit. If the industry is to seriously develop, cultivars
adapted to mechanical harvesting will be needed. Unless problems associated with production are
solved, supplies will be too short to allow for alternate product development.
REFERENCES
Akin, J.S. 1985. Mayhaw coming out of the swamp. Pomona 18:70-73.
Bailey, L.H. 1960. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. Macmillan, New York, NY
Clewell, A.F. 1985. Guide to the vascular plants of the Florida panhandle. Florida State
Univ. Press, Tallahassee.
Coker, W.C. and H.R. Totten. 1945. Trees of the southeastern states. Univ. of North
Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Correll, D.S. and H.B. Correll. 1975. Aquatic and wetland plants of southwestern United
States. Vol. 2. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, CA.
Correll, D.S. and M.C. Johnston. 1970. Manual of the vascular flora of Texas. George Banta
Co., Menasha, MN.
Cronquist, A. 1981. An integrated system of classification of flowering plants. Columbia
Univ. Press, New York, NY.
Crops Research Division-USDA. 1960. Index of plant diseases in the United States. Agr.
Handb. 165. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Elliott, S. 1971. A sketch of the botany of South Carolina and Georgia. Vol. 1. Hafner
Publishing Co., New York, NY. (Reprint of 1821 edition).
Forest Service-USDA. 1985. Insects of eastern forests. Misc. Publ. 1426. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Gibbons, E. 1974. Stalking the healthful herbs. David McKay Co., New York, NY.
Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United
States: Dicotyledons. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens.
Halls, L.K. 1977. Southern fruit-producing woody plants used by wildlife. U.S. Department
of Agriculture-Forest Service, New Orleans, LA.

Hartmann, H.T. and D.E. Kester. 1983. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hedrick, U.P. 1919. Sturtevant's notes on edible plants. J.B. Lyon Co., Albany, NY.
Kurz, H. and R.K. Godfrey. 1962. Trees of northern Florida. Univ. of Florida Press,
Gainesville.
Mohr, C. 1969. Plant life of Alabama. Vol. 2. J. Cramer, New York.
Morton, J.F. 1963. Principal wild food plants of the United States excluding Alaska and
Hawaii. J. Econ. Bot. 17:319-330.
Phipps, J.B. 1983. Biogeographic, taxonomic, and cladistic relationships between east
Asiatic and North American Crataegus. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 70:667-700.
Phipps, J.B. 1988. Crataegus (Maloideae, Rosaceae) of the Southeastern United States, I.
Introduction and series Aestivales. J. Arnold Arbor. 69:401-431.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles and C.R. Bell. 1974. Manual of the vascular flora of the
Carolinas. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Rehder, A. 1960. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. Macmillan
New York, NY.
Reynolds, S. and P.W. Ybarra. 1984. So easy to preserve. Georgia Extension Service, Univ.
of Georgia, Athens.
Sargent, C.S. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America. Vol. 2. Dover Pub., New York,
NY.
Schopmeyer, C.S. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture Handbook
450. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Small, J.K. 1913. Flora of the southeastern United States. Published by the author, New
York, NY.
West, E. and L.E. Arnold. 1952. The native trees of Florida. Univ. of Florida Press,
Gainesville.
Wood, A. 1864. Class-book of botany. A.S. Barnes & Burr, Chicago, IL.
*Acknowledgements. We thank Sherwood Akin, Jerry Baron, Major Collins, Tom Crocker,
Herbert Durand, Joseph Elsom Harvey Gaskamp, Wayne McLaurin, Charles Mims, Jane and
Maurice Palmer, Bob Stewart, Burl Turnage and T.O. Warren for freely sharing their knowledge,
experience and unpublished data on mayhaw products, culture, plantings, propagation and
processing.
We gratefully acknowledge the following for input in native mayhaw distribution: AlabamaJohn
D. Freeman; ArkansasEdwin B. Smith; FloridaLoran C. Anderson, Robert K. Godfrey,
GeorgiaNancy Coile, Laurie Consaul; LouisianaF. Dale Thomas, Lowell E. Urbatsch;
MississippiSidney McDaniel; North CarolinaJ.R. Massey; South CarolinaCynthia
Aulbach-Smith, Victoria Hollowell; TexasHerbert Durand, Elray Nixon. We are especially
indebted to J.B. Phipps, Ontario, Canada for sharing his unpublished distribution of mayhaw.
Table 1. Major mayhaw selections with information on fruit appearance, size and peak harvest
based on southern Georgia conditions.

Fruit
Cultivar
Appearance
Peak
Size
harvest
(mm)
(May)
Comments
'Lori'z
Crataegus aestivalis
Skin red; elongated; white

flesh
13
1 80% ripe at one time
'Lindsey'z
C. aestivalis
Skin red; elongated; white

flesh
13
6 Concentrated ripening
'Big Red' ('#1 Big')y C.

Skin red; round; red flesh
opaca
16-19
1 Large fruit, late blooming
'Red & Yellow'y C.

opaca
Skin red & yellow; oblong

13-16
or sub-globose; yellow flesh
1 Heavy bearer, precocious
'Heavy'y C. opaca
Skin red; round; white flesh
'Mason's Super Berry'

Skin red; round; reddish
('Texas Super Berry')x
flesh
C. opaca
'T.O. Super Berry'x
C.opaca
'Highway Super
Berry'x C. opaca
'Super
opaca
Spur'w
C.
13
Twiggy growth habit, Heavy

bearer; rust susceptible
16-19
Attractive fruit, early

1 blooming; fruit hangs well
on tree

flesh
16-19
1 Attractive fruit

flesh
16-19
Thorny tree
Skin red & yellow, round;

yellow flesh
16-19
zSelections
Excellent production;
spur-type tree; rust
1
susceptible; fruit drops when
ripe
from the wild by Thomas Crocker & Tom Stone, Thomas County, GA.
ySelections from the wild by T.O. Warren, Hattiesburg MS.
xSelections from the wild by Durand, Mason, Warren, and Akin, Buna, TX.
wSelections from the wild by J.S. Akin, Sibley, LA.
Fig. 1. Native range of mayhaw, Crataegus aestivalis, C. opaca, C. rufula, in North America.
Fig. 2. Fruit clusters of mayhaw, (a) 'Heavy'
(b) 'Mason's Super Berry'
(c) 'Big Red'
(d) 'Red and Yellow'.

Orconectes virilis
Orconectes virilis
Crayfish
Soft-shell Crayfish: A New Crop for the MidwestPaul B. Brown
Articles in New Crops News, the Newsletter of the New Crops Center
Soft-Shell Crayfish: A New Crop for IndianaPaul B. Brown
Soft-Shell Crayfish Production in IndianaPaul B. Brown
Crayfish: New Aquatic Crop for the MidwestPaul B. Brown
Aquaculture Network Information Center (AquaNIC) AquaNIC is a gateway to the world's
electronic resources for aquaculture. AquaNIC is maintained at Purdue University in the
Department of Animal Sciences.
last update Tuesday, May 05, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/crayfish_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:57 PM]
Lepidium sativum
Lepidium sativum L.
Garden Cress, Pepper-grass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lepidium_sativum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:57 PM]
Nasturtium officinale
Nasturtium officinale L.
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Watercress
Last update Monday, January 6, 1998 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Nasturtium_officinale_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:58 PM]
SAFFRON
SAFFRON
Family: Iridaceae, Crocus sativus L.
Saffron, Crocus sativus L. is a perennial herb known ,only in cultivation. The plant has been
prized since antiquity for the yellow-colored dyestuff that comes from the flower stigmas. Also
known as saffron crocus, the species is principally grown in Spain, but is also cultivated in Greece,
Turkey, India, France, Italy, and the People's Republic of China. The low-growing, cormous plant,
whose linear upright leaves reach heights of 0.15 to 0.3 meters, has fragrant flowers.
The reported life zone of saffron is 6 to 19 degrees centigrade with an annual precipitation of 0.1
to 1.1 meter and a soil pH of 5.8 to 7.8 (4.1-31). The crop grows best in well-drained soils of
medium fertility (14.1-31). Planted from early spring to autumn from corms, the plants can remain
undisturbed for three to five years before they need to be divided. Blossoming lasts only a few
weeks, and flowers must be collected daily as they open in order to remove the stigmas.
Approximately 210,000 dried stigmas from 70,000 flowers make one pound of true saffron
(11.1-128).
Saffron contains a volatile oil, picrococin, crocin, a fixed oil, and wax (1.1-275, 14.1-35). The
volatile oil consists of safranal, oxysafranal, pinene, 1,8-cineole isophorone, napthalene and other
compounds (1.1-275). Extracted saffron is a red-orange color, and has an aromatic odor and a
bitter taste. Principal coloring pigments of saffron include crocin, crocetin, carotene, lycopene,
zeaxanthin, and picrocrocin (11.1-126).
Saffron, available commercially as individual stigmas, ground, or crushed, is used in cookery as a
spice, in flavoring aperitif beverages, and to color such foods as butter, cheese, rice, sauces, and
soups (11.1-75). The high cost of saffron production encourages the use of turmeric and the
synthetic colorant tartrazine as alternatives to saffron (11.1-75).
As a medicinal plant, saffron has traditionally been considered an anodyne, antispasmodic,
aphrodisiac, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, and sedative (11.1-101). The plant has been
used as a folk remedy against scarlet fever, smallpox, colds, insomnia, asthma, tumors, and cancer
(14.1-16). Saffron is reported to contain a poison of the central nervous system and kidneys that
can prove fatal (11.1-136, 11.1-101).
Autumn or meadow crocus, Colchicum autumnale L., is a poisonous plant not related to saffron.
Fake or American saffron actually refers to safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., whose flower
heads yield a dye used as an adulterant to true saffron.
Saffron is generally recognized as safe as a natural seasoning or flavoring and plant extract (21
CFR sections 182.10, 182.20 [1982]).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/SAFFRON.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:58 PM]
SAFFRON
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/SAFFRON.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:51:58 PM]
Crotalaria
Crotalaria
Leguminosae Crotalaria sp.
Striped crotalaria C. mucronata Desv.
Showy crotalaria C. spectabilis Roth
Slenderleaf crotalaria C. intermedia Kotschy
Lanceleaf crotalaria C. lanceolata E. Mey.
All are upright growing summer annuals. Stems are coarse and well branched except in thick
stands. Leaves are trifoliate, the leaflets varying in shape from linear to ovate. Crotalarias are
adapted only to warm climates with a long growing season. They are resistant to the rootknot
nematode and are valuable to reduce the nematode population in infested soils. They do well on
soils of low fertility and are most used to turn into the soil for soil improvement. C. spectabilis
contains an alkaloid poisonous to livestock. The other three species can be used for pasture or
silage though palatability is low. According to the 1960 census, seed was harvested in 1959 from
2,657 acres in this country, and sufficient seed was produced to plant around 35,000 acres.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Crotalaria.html [5/16/2004 3:51:59 PM]
Crotalaria juncea
Crotalaria juncea L.
Fabaceae
Sunnhemp, Indian hemp, Madras
hemp, Brown hemp, Sannhemp
Crotalaria juncea: A Potential Multi-Purpose Fiber CropCharles G. Cook and George A. White
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Crotalaria_juncea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:51:59 PM]
Croton tiglium
Croton tiglium L.
Euphorbiaceae
Purging croton, Physic-nut, Croton-oil plant
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Studying insecticidal activity of 20 plants to adult females of Uroleuron cathami, Deshmukn and
Borle (1975) reported the petroleum ether extracts of purging croton seeds to be most effective
(0.125% as toxic as nicotine sulfate). Hager's Handbuch (List and Horhammer, 1969-1979) says it
is more effective than Derris extract. Himalaya tribes use the bark in arrow poisons. Bark has been
used as a tannin source. Mashiguchi et al. (1977) report on the molluscididal activity of the seed
against Oncomelania quadrasi. It is also used to poison fish. When Croton oil was evaluated for
possible effects on the P-388 lymphocytic leukemia in mice, significant inhibitory activity was
noted. Fractionation of the oil led to characterization of the major component, the phorbol diester,
phorbol 12-tiglate 13-decanoate which exhibits significant inhibitory activity at dosages of 60-250
ug per kg body weight against P-388. There is a paradoxical similarity in structure between the
cocarcinogenic and antileukemic principles of the Euphorbiaceae and the Thymelaeaceae
(Kupchan et al., 1976). Croton oil, a fixed oil expressed from seeds by methods similar to those
used to obtain castor oil, is used in human and veterinary medicine as a cathartic, irritant, and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Croton_tiglium.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:52:00 PM]
Croton tiglium
rubefacient. Internally, it is a drastic, very rapid purgative or cathartic; applied externally to the
skin, it is a powerful local irritant, causing pustular eruptions. When diluted, oil is used as a
counter-irritant, and is usually administered with sugar and bread crumbs. In Malaysia, the oil is
used more for illumination and soapmaking than for medicine. According to the Wealth of India
(C.S.I.R. 1948-1976), "Croton oil appears no longer any place in medical practice." Crushed seeds
and leaves, pulverized and put in sacks, are placed in ponds and rivers to stupefy fish.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (1967-1971), the seed oil and bark are used in folk remedies for cancerous
sores and tumors. Reported to be cathartic, diaphoretic, ecbolic, emetic, emmenagogue, purgative,
rubefacient, and vesicant, purging croton is a folk remedy for apoplexy, cancer, carbuncles, colds,
dysentery, fever, flux, paralysis, ranula, scabies, schistosomiasis, skin, snakebite, sore, throat, and
toothache (Duke and Wain, 1981). Leaf poulticed onto snakebite in Sumatra. Seed, POISONOUS,
employed as purgative in lead colic and cancer; recommended as a revulsive in colds and fever for
obstinate diarrhea and dysentery, delayed menstruation, edema, ranula, apoplexy, paralysis,
scabies, throat afflictions, toothache. Seed oil recently used in schistosomiasis. Bruised root
applied to cancerous sores and carbuncles. Seeds contain one of the most purgative substances
known; also quite vesicant; once used as emmenagogue. Homeopathically used for gastroenteritis,
pustulose eczema, conjunctivitis, and mastitis. Here the reader should be warned that homeopathic
practitioners use some very poisonous plants in very dilute concentrations. Like so many plants,
this contains both cancer-causing and cancer correcting compounds. According to Pettit (1977),
phorbol is the cocarcinogenic substance of Croton tiglium. For a man, about four seeds, for a
horse, about 15 seeds represent a lethal dose. On the other hand, Pettit and Cragg (1978) list
Phorbol 12-tiglate 13-decanoate as active at doses of 60-250 ug/kg against the PS-tumor system
(Duke and Ayensu, 1984). In Malaya a single kernel is eaten as a purgative; when purging has
gone far enough, coconut milk is drunk to stop it.
Chemistry
C.S.I.R. reports that the oil contains 3.4% toxic resin. Of the acids, 37.0% is oleic, 19.0% linoleic,
1.5% arachidic, 0.3% stearic, 0.9% palmitic, 7.5% myristic, 0.6% acetic, 0.8% formic, with traces
of lauric, tiglic, valeric, and butyric, plus some unidentified.
Description
Small shrub or tree up to 12 m tall, evergreen; leaves alternate, membranous, ovate with broadly
rounded, sometimes slightly decurrent base, acuminate, acute or blunt, very shallowly serrate,
glabrous above, with few stellate hairs beneath, 7.5-17 cm long, 4-9.5 cm broad, metallic green to
bronze or orange; petiole slender, about 4 cm long; stipules caducous, subulate, 1.5- 3.5 mm long;
axis of inflorescence glabrous; flowers small, inconspicuous; male flowers stellately hairy with
narrowly oblong petals and 15-20 stamens; female flowers apetalous; capsule scabrid with stellate
hairs, triangular, 15-20 mm long, 10-15 mm broad, oblong or ellipsoid, 3-lobed; seeds 3 per fruit,
oblong-ovoid, orange, about 12 mm long, smooth, about 4160/kg. Fl. summer; fr. Nov.-Dec.
Croton tiglium
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, purging croton or cvs thereof is reported to
tolerate drought, insects, and poor soil. (Duke, 1978). In Java, two forms are distinguished: var.
tiglium, with ovary and fruit trigonous, and petals of female flower consisting of a glabrous stalked
bud, found in West Java; and var. globosus, with ovary subglobose, subtrigonous, with petals
linear and hairy at apex, found in East Java. (2n = 10)
Distribution
Native to tropical Asia from India to New Guinea and Java, north into Indonesia and China. Wild
throughout the Philippine Islands, where it is also cultivated to a limited extent; often becoming
naturalized after cultivation. Grown in southern California and elsewhere as an ornamental and
curious plant.
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Very Dry throught Wet Forest Life Zones, purging
croton is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.0 to 42.9 dm (mean of 8 cases = 20.6),
annual temperature of 21.0 to 27.5C (mean of 8 cases = 25.3), and pH of 4 5 to 7.5 (mean of 6
cases = 6.1). (Duke, 1978, 1979) A dry land plant, adaptable to most tropical climates, up to 1,500
m elevations, not particular as to soil type or texture. Often grown in mixed forests, and commonly
planted in and about towns.
Cultivation
Propagated from seed, the seed sown directly in the forest, or in seedbeds and the young plants
planted in desired places. It may be cultivated as a pure crop or as an intercrop with cacao or
coffee, providing some shade (Reed, 1976).
Harvesting
Plants begin bearing seed in 3 years after planting, and are full-bearing in 6 years. Seeds ripen in
November and December, and should be collected before capsules open.

Yields in the third year may be 200-750 kg seed/ha, but at full bearing 750-2,000 kg/ha, assuming
the cwt/ha in our reference is a metric quintal rather than 100 pounds. Otherwise, the yield
reported by Duke (1978) may be the high report at 900 kg seed/ha. Croton oil is produced in India
and Europe, with most of the commercial supply of seed being obtained from Sri Lanka and India.
Market value of seeds fluctuates considerably depending on demand. United States imports ca 1.5
Croton tiglium
MT/a oil from Germany and United Kingdom. Export of seeds from Sri Lanka in 1933 was 73,150
cwt.
Energy
If seed yields of 900 kg/ha are all that can be expected, this does not seem a promising energy
species, especially if it can only be used outdoors. According to Burkill, "the fumes of burning oil
indoors are intolerable."
Biotic Factors
Plants are attacked by the following fungi: Cercospora tiglii, Fomes lignosus, Macrophomina
phaseoli, Placosphaeria tiglii, and Polyporus hirsutus. They are also attacked by root knot
nematodes: Meloidogyne acronea, M. arenaria thamesi, M. hapla, M. incognita acrita, and M.
javanica. Trees sometimes attacked by caterpillar, Amyna punctum.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Deshmukh, S.D. and Borle, M.N. 1975. Studies on the insecticidal properties of indigenous
plant products. Indian J. Entomology 37(1):11-18 (publ. 1976).
Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1-61. In: ASA Special Symposium
17(3-4):91-110.
Duke, J.A. and Ayensu, E.S. 1985. Medicinal plants of China. Reference Publications, Inc.
Algonac, MI.
Kupchan, S.M., Uchida, I., Branfman, A.R., Dailey, R.C., Jr., and Fei, B.Y. 1976.
Antileukemic principles isolated from euphorbiaceae plants. Science 191:571-572.
Mashiguchi, J., Yasuraoka, K., Tanaka, H., Santos, A.T., Jr., and Bias, B.L. 1977.
Molluscicidal activity of the seed of Tuba Croton tiglium against Oncomelania quadras.
(Jap.) Jap. J. Parasitology 26(5)Sullp.:37-38.
Pettit, G.R. 1977. Biosynthetic products for cancer chemotherapy. vol. 1. Plenum Press.
New York.
Pettit, G.R. and Cragg, G.M. 1978. Biosynthetic products for cancer chemotherapy. vol. 2.
Croton tiglium
Plenum Press. New York.

the USDA.
Asian Vegetables

Yamaguchi, M. 1990. Asian vegetables. p. 387-390. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances
Asian Vegetables
Mas Yamaguchi
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ASIAN VEGETABLES
3. REFERENCES
4. Table 1
INTRODUCTION
Recent Asian immigrants have brought about dramatic changes in the kinds of vegetables
consumed in the United States, especially in localities where these peoples are concentrated.
Thirty-seven years ago, Porterfield (1951) described vegetables in New York City's Chinatown
and 15 years ago Yamaguchi (1973) reported on the production of oriental vegetables in the
United States. At present, these vegetables as well as new ones, especially those originating from
Southeast Asia, are finding a home as new crops in the United States. In this paper, I will present
some of the more interesting of these "new crops" and some which I think have potentials as new
exotic vegetables in western culinary recipes. Nutritional values of some of the vegetables are
presented in Table 1.
ASIAN VEGETABLES
Zizania latifolia Turcz. (Z. aquatica L.). [Common names: water bamboo, Manchurian wild rice;
coba, kuw-sun, kwo-bai, jiao-bai (China, Taiwan); makomo dake (Japan)]. Water bamboo belongs
to the Poaceae (-Gramineae), the same family as the common bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.) and is
closely related to wild rice (Zizania aquatica L.) of North America. Grown since ancient times,
this aquatic plant is cultivated in all parts of Asia from Manchuria in the north through eastern
China to Indo-China on the south and east to Japan and Taiwan. A perennial water bamboo can be
grown in stagnant ponds and in poorly drained soils. Plants grow from 1.2 to 2.4 m in height and
the fully elongated leaves measure from 30 to 60 cm in length. Enlarged stems are harvested, the
upper leaves cut off and only the stem with husk-like wrapper leaves sent to market. The edible
portion is the succulent stem after the husks are removed.
Asian Vegetables
There are three types of water bamboo in China:

Green stem-a small plant with fine leaves, early maturing.
White stem-large plant, mid to late season.
Pink or red stem-large plant, mid to late season.
Water bamboo is propagated by tillers. The most vigorous plants with short stout stems, large
abundant leaves and no signs of floral initiation are selected for propagation. Tillers are planted in
a nursery and allowed to grow for a year before transplanting to the field. Also, clumps of 4 to 5
tillers may be transplanted directly into the field. Tops are trimmed to about 40 cm height before
planting.
Preparation of the field is sin-similar to that for paddy rice. Clay type soil, high in organic matter
and pH range of 5.5 to 6.0 is preferred. Transplants are put into the mud about 6 cm deep at 30 to
40 cm spacing and in rows 90 to 100 cm apart. After planting the water is raised to a depth of 10 to
15 cm. Fifteen cm water depth is optimum, but in hot weather, the level is raised to 20 cm.
Field plantings in the sub-tropics are made in January through March and in the temperate regions,
in March through April. If plantings are made late, the growing season is shortened so yields are
reduced. High light intensity is desirable and mean temperatures of 25C is optimal. At 20C, the
plant grows poorly and the harvested stems are not tender. The crop is fertilized with nitrogen four
times during the season, twice with phosphorus and once early with potassium containing
fertilizer.
Stem enlargement occurs after about 4 months growth. Harvest is made in about 150 days from
planting with the green type and about 170 days with the white and pink types. Stem enlargement
is due to the fungus, Ustilago esculenta P. Henn. Evidently, the fungus prevents floral initiation
but allows the stem to elongate and enlarge. Harvest must be made before the fungus goes into the
reproductive phase when the black smut (spores) is produced. With time there appears black
longitudinal streaks in the swollen stem and eventually the entire stem turns black, very much like
the corn ear smut. Because water bamboo is a perennial and asexually propagated, the fungal
organism is apparently transferred from mother plant to the daughter tillers.
In Taiwan, the harvested swollen stems with leaves trimmed off are placed in large vats filled with
water. This is done to keep the temperature down and keep the stalks moist in order to retard the
formation of black streaks. Lack of nutrients in the plant or low water level in the field causes the
fungus to go into the reproductive phase much earlier reducing quality and yield. In Beijing in
Northern China, transplants are brought from the southern province near Guangzhou (Canton)
every 2 or 3 years because production declines. Plants can survive the freezing temperatures of
December and January in Beijing.
Water bamboo is a very popular vegetable in China. The swollen stem is sliced and eaten raw or
cooked. Although water bamboo has a much softer texture than regular bamboo, the tissues remain
crisp when stir-fried.
If water bamboo is brought into the United States, would the fungus which is necessary to cause
the stem to swell, infect the wild rice and reduce production? Tests need to be made to determine
whether infection can take place. I think that water bamboo would do well in the swampy regions
of the Southern United States and in areas where paddy rice is produced.
Asian Vegetables
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Nelumbium nelumbo Druce). [Common names: Lotus root (rhizome),
East Indian lotus, Egyptian lotus; lian, lin ngau (China, Taiwan); hasu (Japan for the plant), renkon
(Japan for the edible storage rhizome)]. A perennial aquatic plant of East Indian origin and
belonging to the Nymphaceae, the lotus was brought to China and Egypt thousands of years ago.
From China it was taken to other parts of Asia including Japan and northern Australia.
The plant, long known for its beautiful flowers, is mainly grown for the edible storage rhizomes
(60 to 120 cm long and 6 to 9 cm in diameter). The storage rhizomes appear segmented because
the diameter at the node is from 1/3 to 1/2 the diameter of the internode. The proximal segment
(internode) is long and somewhat tapered, the diameter at the distal end being larger than the
proximal end. Lengths of the segments decrease with increasing distance from the origin. The
number of segments vary from 2 to 6.
Longitudinal circular passages are present in each segment. There is one central passage
surrounded by 7 larger diameter and 2 medium diameter passages at about middistance from the
center to the epidermis. Alternately to 7 large passages are small diameter passages near the outer
perimeter of the rhizome. These passages probably function as ducts for gaseous exchange to the
atmosphere.
Although seeds are very long lived, (there are reports of germination after 500 years in the soil)
propagation is usually from recently harvested or stored rhizomes. Rhizomes are planted in
paddies similar to that for rice. In Taiwan, rhizomes with at least 3 segments are planted 9 cm deep
into the mud at an angle of about 20 to 30C with the proximal end above water level. At planting
time water level is kept at 6 cm depth. With growth the water level is gradually raised to about 30
cm and is maintained at this level. With the first two leaves that emerge, the blades float on the
surface of the water. Petioles of subsequent leaves subtend above the surface and the blades unfurl
in the air. The leaves are peltate and the blades are 30 to 90 cm in diameter on long slender tubular
petioles.
The first growth is vegetative. The stem diameter is small and the internodes long so that the
rhizomes do not appear segmented. From each vegetative node a leaf is produced, each petiole
taller than the previous one. However, the last leaf that emerges before the onset of storage
rhizome formation, is shorter than the previous one. The rhizomes grow in about 30 cm deep in the
mud. Flower stalks emerge in July from the vegetative nodes.
The segmented storage rhizomes begin to form about the beginning of August. Large healthy
leaves produce many segments; small or diseased leaves produce few segments. No leaves are
produced from these. By late September the storage rhizomes are fully developed.
Storage rhizomes can be harvested after 120 days in warm climates and after 150 to 180 days or
after the leaves die in cold weather in cool climates. At harvest, the water is drained and the fragile
rhizomes are dug carefully. In some farms in Japan, high pressure water stream is used to wash
away the mud and expose the storage rhizomes. Yields vary from 3.5 to 4.5 metric tons per ha.
Higher yields can be obtained if flowers are removed.
Lotus rhizome retain their crisp texture even when cooked. Thread-like mucilaginous strands
exude from cut or broken surfaces when the pieces are pulled apart. Starch obtained from the
storage rhizome has properties similar to that from arrowroot. Immature leaves including the
Asian Vegetables
petioles are used as greens. Mature seeds and carpets are eaten, both are reported by the Chinese to
have medicinal qualities.
Lotus has been grown in the Imperial Valley of California and I believe it can be successfully
grown in the southeastern United States.
Ipomoea aquatic Forsk (I. reptans Poir.). [Common names: Water convulvulus, water spinach,
swamp cabbage; ung tsoi, weng kai (China, Taiwan); kang kong (S.E. Asia); asagao na, yu sai
(Japan)]. Water convulvulus belongs to the Convulvulaceae (morning glory family) and the same
genus as the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) Probably of Chinese origin, cultivation dates back
to at least 300 AD It is a very important green vegetable in Southeast Asia, because it is easy to
grow, high yielding, and very nutritious.
The plant is herbaceous, an aquatic or semi-aquatic annual with hollow stems and ovate to elliptic
shaped leaves. It has a creeping growth habit but may grow erect in water.
There are two main cultivars, the white flowered green stemmed type used in dry land (moist soil)
culture and the pink colored purple centered flowers with white stems which are planted in flooded
lands.
The green stem type is usually propagated by sowing seeds directly in the bed. Plants are spaced
12 cm apart and fertilized heavily with organic materials. When rainfall is not adequate, the crop is
irrigated. Harvest of the entire plant can be made 50 to 60 days after planting.
Propagation is by stem cuttings for the white stem cultivar. Cuttings about 30 cm long with 7 to 8
nodes are obtained from the existing crop or from a nursery. The field is prepared as for paddy
rice. Cuttings are planted 3 to 5 cm deep into the mud at about 40 cm spacing. Water is allowed to
flow into the field as the crop grows, the depth is gradually increased to 15 to 20 cm. High rates of
fertilizer are applied throughout growth; the water drained before application and flooded again a
day afterwards. First harvest can be made a month after planting. Shoots are cut at about water
level and bunched. After the first cutting, harvests can be made every 7 to 10 days. Annual yield of
90 metric tons per ha can be made from wet culture plantings.
Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Fruw. (V. unguiculata (L.) Walp. sub spec. sesquipedalis (L) Verd.).
[Common names: Yard long bean, asparagus bean; chang jiang dou, cheung kung tau (China,
Taiwan); sitao (Philippines); zuyu roku sasage (Japan)]. Possibly of tropical African origin, the
yard long bean (Fabaceae-Leguminosae), is a close relative of the cowpea. The crop is an annual
trailing vine usually grown on poles or interplanted with corn for support of vines. Long slender
immature pods which grow from 30 to 90 cm in length and about 0.9 to 1.0 cm in thickness are
harvested.
There are two cultivars, a long white podded type which is harvested in the spring and the green
podded type which is harvested from spring through fall in Southeast Asia. The crop is tolerant to
high temperature and acid soils common in the tropics. It is intolerant to cold temperatures and
under low soil moisture the pods are short and fibrous. Yard long beans can best be tried in regions
where high temperatures prevent flower set of the common snap bean.
Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk. (C. canadensis D.C. var. japonica Makino). [Common names:
Asian Vegetables
Mitsuba, Japanese honeworts.] Probably of Japanese origin, n-mitsuba, meaning 3 leaflets is

cultivated in Japan, Korea, and China. It is a member of the carrot family
(Apiaceae-Umbelliferae). Like celery but a much smaller plant, it is grown for its long slender
petioles and leaflets. The petioles are 10 to 15 cm long and 2 to 4 mm in thickness. When blanched
or grown under crowded conditions, the petioles elongate to 30 cm or more in length.
In Japan, mitsuba is grown all year round in plastic houses, with the main production from fall
through winter. Some growers culture the crop on polyfoam blocks which are floated on nutrient
solution. Mitsuba is grown commercially near Los Angeles, California, in plastic houses for the
oriental people in that area.
Mitsuba has a very distinct flavor; it is eaten raw in salads or as garnish and is used as flavoring in
soups or cooked as greens.
Raphanus sativas L., cultivar 'Sing li mei'. [Common name: red fleshed radish]. In 1979, while
visiting an agricultural experiment station in Japan, I saw some red flesh winter radish grown from
seed brought from mainland China. While in China this summer, I saw this radish again. It was
developed by a breeder at the Beijing Vegetable Research Center. The cultivar is named 'Sing li
mei', meaning "the heart is beautiful" in Chinese. The roots I saw were grown the previous fall and
put into storage and kept until mid June. The pigment is probably an anthocyanin.
The radishes are eaten raw as a snack food; they are crisp and sweeten somewhat during storage.
This radish cultivar should prove popular in the western world in adding color to salads and for
vegetable hors d'oeuvres.
REFERENCES
Edie, H.H. and B.W.C. Ho. 1969. Ipomoea aquatica as a vegetable crop in Hong Kong.
Econ. Bot. 23:32-36.
Herklots, G.A.C. 1972. Vegetables in South-east Asia. Hatter Press/MacMillan Publishing
Co., New York.
Howard, F.D., J.H. MacGillivray, and M. Yamaguchi. 1962. Nutrient composition of fresh
California-grown vegetables. Calif. Agric. Exp. Stat. Bull. 788. Univ. of Calif., Berkeley,
CA.
Huang, H. and L. Hung. 1988. Description and illustration in color of vegetables in Taiwan
(in Chinese). Dept. of Hort. National Taiwan Univ., Taipei, Taiwan.
Knott, J.E. and J.R. Deanon, Jr. 1967. Vegetable production in Southeast Asia. Univ. of
Philippines Press, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
Kumazawa, S. 1965. Vegetable crops (in Japanese). Yokendo Publishing Co. Tokyo, Japan.
Leung, W-T.W., R.K Pecot and B.K. Watt. 1952. Composition of foods used in far eastern
countries. Agr. Handb. 34, USDA, Washington, DC.
Porterfield, W.M., Jr. 1951. The principal Chinese foods and food plants of Chinatown
markets. Econ. Bot. 5:3-37.
Terrell, E.E., and L.R. Batra. 1982. Zizania latifolia and Ustilago esculenta, a grass-fungus
Asian Vegetables
association. Econ. Bot. 36:274-285.

Thrower, L.B., and Yuk-Sim Chan. 1980. GauSan: A cultivated host-parasite combination
from China. Econ. Bot. 34:20-26.
Yamaguchi, M. 1973. Production of oriental vegetables in the United States. HortScience
8:363-370.
Yamaguchi, M. 1983. World Vegetables. AVI/Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. New York NY.
10003.
Zhang, Y.T. editor, 1966. Introduction to agronomy, horticulture series 8, Vegetable Crops
Book II (in Chinese). Government of Taiwan, Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry. Taipei,
Taiwan.
Table 1. Nutritive composition per 100 g edible portion of some Asian vegetables.
Constituent
Water (%)
Energy (Cal)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Fiber (g)
Ash (g)
Minerals
Ca (mg)
P (mg)
Fe (mg)
Na (mg)
K (mg)
Mg (mg)
Vitamins
A (I.U.)
Bl (mg)
B2 (mg)
Niacin (mg)
C (mg)
zLeung,
Water
bambooz
(Zizania
latifolia)
92.6
26
1.2
0.2
5.5
1.0
0.5
Water
convulvulusy
(Ipomoea
aquatica)
92
25
2.6
0.2
3.4
-
Lotus
Yardlong
y
rhizome
beansy
(Nelumbo (Vigna sesqui
nucifera)
pedalis)
75
89
69
30
2.6
2.8
0.1
0.4
14.7
3.8
-
Radishy
(Raphanus
sativus)
94
13
0.6
0.1
2.7
-
5
36
0.6
-
95
40
2.2
6
370
49
45
100
1.6
40
730
25
50
59
1.0
4
210
51
27
24
0.4
30
190
22
0
0.09
0.04
0.2
2
3500
0.03
0.10
0.9
55
0
0.16
0.22
0.4
44
1400
0.13
0.11
1.0
32
0
0.02
0.02
0.2
22
W.W. et al. (1952).
Asian Vegetables
yHoward,
F.D. et al. (1962).
The fungus Ustilago esculenta, which causes stem enlargement of Manchurian wild rice, Zizania
latifolia is a regulated organism. Bringing infected Z. latifolia into the United States is a violation
of the Federal Plant Pest Act regulations. The fungus poses a threat to native species of wild rice.
One illegal planting of Manchurian wild rice was eradicated in California in 1991. Infected wild
rice has been detected in Louisiana and authorities are developing recommendations to address the
issue.
Ipomoea aquatica is a federal noxious weed. Under authority of the Federal Noxious Weed Act,
the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service prohibits the importation and interstate movement
of this species, except under USDA-issued noxious weed permit. Although I. aquatica is prized as
a vegetable, it is also an agricultural and environmental pest, reducing yields of rice and sugarcane
in other parts of the world, and affecting aquatic ecosystems, irrigation systems, reservoirs, and
navigation and recreation on fresh waterways.
APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) encourages importers to be aware of import
restrictions meant to protect American agriculture and natural areas. Please refer to the APHIS
web site for more information: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/permits/
Cucumis sativus - Cucumber
Cucumis sativus L.
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumber, American gherkin, Cassabanana,
Cuke, Gherkin, Hothouse cucumber, Lemon cucumber, Mandera
cucumber, Pickling cucumber, Serpent cucumber, Slicing
cucumber, Snake cucumber, West Indian gherkin
We have cucumber information from several sources:
Melofon: A New Crop for Concentrated Yield of PicklesHaim Nerson, Harry S. Paris, and
Menahem Edelstein
Cucumber In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
Cucumber production links.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucumis_sativus_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:02 PM]
Cucumber, Armenian
Cucumber, Armenian
Japanese cucumber, Snake melon, Snake cucumber, Uri
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo L. (Flexuosus group)
The plant on which this melon or cucumber is grown is closely related and similar to muskmelon.
Fruits are very long and slender, up to 36 inches long and 3 inches in diameter. They are grown
mainly as curiosities, but are used to some extent for preserves.
Season, seeding to harvest: 4 or more months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Limited.
Use: Preserves.
Part of plant consumed: Whole fruit.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CucumberArmenian.html [5/16/2004 3:52:02 PM]
Cucumis anguria
Cucumis anguria L.
Cucurbitaaceae
Concombre des Antilles, Jamaican cucumber,
Jamaican gherkin, Oriental pickling melon, Pepinito, Pepino,
West Indian gherkin, West Indian gourd
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucumis_anguria_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:03 PM]
Cucurbita ficifolia
Index|Search|Home
Cucurbita ficifolia Bouch

Cucurbitaceae
Fig-leaved gourd, Malabar gourd,
Zambo
Outside links
Zambo can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucurbita_ficifolia_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:04 PM]
Squash, Pumpkins
Index| Search| Home
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne

Cucurbita mixta Pang.
Cucurbita moschata
(Duchesne) Poir.
Cucurbita pepo L.
Cucurbitaceae
Calabaza, New England pie pumpkin, Pepitas, Pompion,
Pumpion, Pumpkin, Squash, Sugar pumpkin
Hull-less Seeded Pumpkins: A New Edible Snackseed CropJ. Brent Loy
Production of Pumpkin for OilF. Bavec, L. Gril, S. Grobelnik-Mlakar, and M. Bavec
Production, Fruit Quality, and Nutritional Value of Spaghetti SquashAudrey H. Beany, Peter J.
Stoffella, Nancy Roe, and David H. Picha
Squash, Pumpkins and Gourds production links
Pumpkin
Summer Squash
Winter Squash
Cucurbita moschata
Cucurbita pepo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucurbita_pumpkin_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:04 PM]
Squash, Pumpkins

Outside links:
Pumpkin Diseases and Their Control
Zapallo (Winter squash) and Crookneck squash can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from
National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cucurbita_pumpkin_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:04 PM]
Culantro: A Much Utilized, Little Understood Herb
Ramcharan, C. 1999. Culantro: A much utilized, little understood herb. p. 506509. In: J.
Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Culantro: A Much Utilized, Little

Understood Herb
Christopher Ramcharan
1. NOMENCLATURE
2. ECOLOGY AND CULTURE
3. CULINARY USES AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE
4. MEDICINAL USES
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
Culantro (Eryngium foetidum L., Apiaceae) is a biennial herb indigenous to continental Tropical
America and the West Indies. Although widely used in dishes throughout the Caribbean, Latin
America, and the Far East, culantro is relatively unknown in the United States and many other
parts of the world and is often mistaken and misnamed for its close relative cilantro or coriander
(Coriandrum sativum L.). Some of its common names descriptive of the plant include: spiny or
serrated coriander, shado beni and bhandhania (Trinidad and Tobago), chadron benee (Dominica),
coulante (Haiti), recao (Puerto Rico), and fit weed (Guyana).
Culantro grows naturally in shaded moist heavy soils near cultivated areas. Under cultivation, the
plant thrives best under well irrigated shaded conditions. Like its close relative cilantro, culantro
tends to bolt and flower profusely under hot high-light long days of summer months. Recent
research at UVIAES has demonstrated that it can be kept in a vegetative mode through summer
when treated with GA3 sprays.
The plant is reportedly rich in calcium, iron, carotene, and riboflavin and its harvested leaves are
widely used as a food flavoring and seasoning herb for meat and many other foods. Its medicinal
value include its use as a tea for flu, diabetes, constipation, and fevers. One of its most popular use
is in chutneys as an appetite stimulant. The name fitweed is derived from its supposedly
anti-convulsant property. The presence of increasingly large West Indian, Latin American, and
Asian immigrant communities in metropolises of the US, Canada and the UK. creates a large
market for culantro and large quantities are exported from Puerto Rico and Trinidad to these areas.
Culantro is increasingly becoming a crop of international trade mainly to meet the demands of
ethnic populations in the developed countries of the West. Large immigrant communities in
London, New York, and Toronto represents a vast potential market for the herb. One exporter from
Trinidad alone packages and air freights up to 2.4 t of fresh culantro weekly to the US. In 1988,
Puerto Rico reportedly produced 165,000 kg of culantro for a value of $201,000 (Dept. of
Agriculture 1988). The herb is used extensively in the Caribbean and in Asia particularly in India
and Korea. It is used mainly as a seasoning in the preparation of a range of foods, including
vegetable and meat dishes, chutneys, preserves, sauces, and snacks. Although used in small
quantities, its pungent unique aroma gives the characteristic flavor to the dishes in which it is
incorporated and this is responsible for its increasing demand among ethnic populations. Culantro
is also widely used in herbal medicines and reportedly beneficial in the treatment of a number of
ailments (Wong 1976).
NOMENCLATURE
The derivation of culantro and recao, by which the plant is commonly known in Central America,
is unknown but many of its names outside its natural habitat compare it to the common coriander
or cilantro, e.g. Hindi bhandhanya, broad dhanya, or coriander, and Thai pak chi farang "foreign
coriander." The botanical genus name Eryngium is derived from the Greek sea holly, Eryngium
vulgare, and its specific name comes from the Latin foetidum meaning stink or bad odor; its smell
is sometimes equated to a crushed bedbug. Some of the common names of culantro in the
Caribbean area are: shado beni (Trinidad), chadron benee (Dominica), fitweed (Guyana), coulante
or culantro (Haiti), recao (Puerto Rico) (Seaforth et al. 1983; Morean 1988; Seaforth 1988).
Names in different languages include: langer koriander (German); ketumbar java (Malay); pak chi
farang (Thai); ngo gai (Vietnamese); culantro, racao, recao (Spanish); bhandhanya (Hindi), and
long leaf or spiny coriander (English).
Eryngium comprises over 200 tropical
and temperate species (Willis 1960).
Most are spiny ornamental herbs with
thick roots and fleshy waxy leaves with
blue flowers in cymose heads.
Eryngium foetidum is a tap-rooted
biennial herb with long, evenly
branched roots (Fig. 1). The
oblanceolate leaves, arranged spirally
around the short thick stem, form a
basal rosette and are as much as 30 cm
long and 4 cm broad. The leaf margin
is serrated, each tooth of the margin
containing a small yellow spine. The
plant produces a well-branched cluster
of flower heads in spikes forming the
characteristic umbel inflorescence on a
long stalk arising from the center of the
leaf rosette (Morton 1981; Moran

1988). The calyx is green while the
corolla is creamy white in color.
Fig. 1. The culantro plant, Eryngium foetidum.
ECOLOGY AND
CULTURE
Culantro is native to continental tropical America and the West Indies (Adams 1971). It grows
naturally throughout many Caribbean islands including Trinidad and Tobago, where it is abundant
in forests particularly in disturbed areas as in slash and burn sites. The herb is also commonly
found along moist or shaded pathways and near cultivated areas where heavy soils predominate
(Seaforth et al. 1983; Morean 1988). Although the plant grows well in full sun most commercial
plantings occur in partially shaded moist locations. Shaded areas produce plants with larger and
greener leaves that are more marketable because of their better appearance and higher pungent
aroma. In a study on the effects of light intensity on growth and flowering of culantro, a significant
delay in flowering and increased fresh weight of leaves were found in plants grown under 63% to
73% shade (SantiagoSantos and CedenoMaldonado 1991). Shaded plants also had fewer
inflorescences with lower fresh weight. Although culantro grows in a wide variety of soils, it does
best in moist well drained sandy loams high in organic matter particularly under full light. Precise
fertilizer recommendations have not been made but high nitrogen fertilizers or manures promote
leaf growth. Plants are usually started from seed which germinate in about 30 days, and for home
or backyard gardens can be cultivated in containers or wooden boxes. For such cultivation, a slow
release fertilizer such as Osmocote (141414) can be incorporated in the soil mix at the rate of
1.8 kg/m3.
Like many of its relatives, culantro tends to bolt and flower profusely under long day conditions
resulting in reduced leaf growth and market value, and increasing costs for flower pruning. In a
study to reduce bolting and increase leaf:flower size, ProGibb (PG) 4% a vegetative growth
promoter was applied in increasing concentrations as a foliar spray to 1-month old culantro plants
grown under 54% shade in a poly greenhouse (Ramcharan 1998). While leaf length increased with
increasing levels of PG, leaf dry weight increased up to the 150 ppm PG level but was reduced at
200 ppm. Concomitantly, both fresh and dry weights of inflorescences were reduced by increasing
levels of PG. Flowers produced in treated plants were less woody and spiny and leaf-like in
appearance, making them easier for pruning. Pro Gibb 4% at 100 ppm concentration was therefore
found to be optimum for maximizing leaf production and minimizing flower growth in culantro.
Culantro is relatively pest- and disease-free but the author has seen root knot nematodes on plants
that have been grown for 23 years in box containers. A leaf spot problem which appears to be
bacterial black rot (Xanthomonas sp.) has also been observed on such long-lived plants. Anecdotal
reports mention that the flower heads are attractive to ladybugs, green lacewings, and other
beneficial insects. Plants around the garden have also reportedly provided excellent defense
against aphids.
While there are few reports on cultivation and fertilizer requirements for culantro, there has been
considerable research on postharvest techniques for the herb. In a refrigerated storage trial, Sankat
and Maharaj (1991) found that unpackaged culantro became unmarketable within 4 days of storage
regardless of temperature. Storage at 10C extended shelf life up to 2 weeks and chilling injury
was observed at 3C after 8 days in storage. In another postharvest study, the combination of
polyethylene packaging, gibberellic acid (GA3) in a 200 ppm dip treatment and reduced storage
temperature (2022C) extended the shelf-life of culantro up to 22 days (Mohammed and
Wickham 1995). Freeze drying of harvested leaves is another alternative being considered to
extend postharvest life.
CULINARY USES AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE

The appearance of culantro and cilantro are different but the leaf aromas are similar, although
culantro is more pungent. Because of this aroma similarity the leaves are used interchangeably in
many food preparations and is the major reason for the misnaming of one herb for the other. While
relatively new to American cuisine, culantro has long been used in the Far East, Latin America,
and the Caribbean. In Asia, culantro is most popular in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore where it
is commonly used with or in lieu of cilantro and topped over soups, noodle dishes, and curries. In
Latin America, culantro is mostly associated with the cooking style of Puerto Rico, where recipes
common to all Latin countries are enhanced with culantro. The most popular and ubiquitous
example is salsa, a spicy sauce prepared from tomatoes, garlic, onion, lemon juice, with liberal
amounts of chiles. These constituents are fried and simmered together, mixed to a smooth paste
and spiced with fresh herbs including culantro. Salsa is usually consumed with tortilla chips as an
appetizer. Equally popular is sofrito or recaito, the name given to the mixture of seasonings
containing culantro and widely used in rice, stews, and soups (Wilson 1991). There are reportedly
as many variations of the recipe as there are cooks in Puerto Rico but basically sofrito consists of
garlic, onion, green pepper, small mild peppers, and both cilantro and culantro leaves. Ingredients
are blended and can then be refrigerated for months. Sofrito is itself the major ingredient in a host
of other recipes including eggplant pasta sauce, cilantro garlic butter, cilantro pesto, pineapple
salsa, and gazpacho with herb yogurt.
Culantro is reported to be rich in calcium, iron, carotene, and riboflavin. Fresh leaves are 8688%
moisture, 3.3% protein, 0.6% fat, 6.5% carbohydrate, 1.7% ash, 0.06% phosphorus, and 0.02%
iron. Leaves are an excellent source of vitamin A (10,460 I.U./100 g), B2 (60 mg %), B1 (0.8 mg
%), and C (150200 mg %) (Bautista et al. 1988). On a dry weight basis, leaves consist of
0.10.95% volatile oil, 27.7% crude fiber, 1.23% calcium, and 25 ppm boron.
MEDICINAL USES
The plant is used in traditional medicines for fevers and chills, vomiting, diarrhea, and in Jamaica
for colds and convulsions in children (Honeychurch 1980). The leaves and roots are boiled and the
water drunk for pneumonia, flu, diabetes, constipation, and malaria fever. The root can be eaten
raw for scorpion stings and in India the root is reportedly used to alleviate stomach pains. The
leaves themselves can be eaten in the form of a chutney as an appetite stimulant (Mahabir 1991).
CONCLUSION
Although used widely throughout the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Far East, culantro is still
mistaken for and erroneously called cilantro. The herb is rapidly becoming an important import
item into the US mainly due to the increasing ethnic immigrant populations who utilize it in their
many varied dishes from around the world. It is closely related botanically to cilantro but has a
distinctly different appearance and a much more potent volatile leaf oil. Recent research to prevent
bolting and early flowering will increase its leaf yields and consequently its demand. Successes in
prolonging its postharvest life and storage under refrigeration will undoubtedly increase its export
potential and ultimately its popularity among the commonly used culinary herbs.
REFERENCES
Adams, C.D. 1971. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Univ. West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, W.I.
Bautista, O.K, S. Kosiyachinda, A.S.A. Rahman, and Soenoeadji. 1988. Traditional

vegetables of Asia. Asian Food J. 4:4758.
Honeychurch, P.N. 1980. Caribbean wild plants and their uses. Letchworth Press, Barbados,
W.I.
Mahabir, K. 1991. Medicinal and edible plants used by East Indians of Trinidad and
Tobago. Chackra Publ. House, El Dorado, Trinidad, W.I.
Mohammed, M. and L.D. Wickham. 1995. Postharvest retardation of senescence in shado

benni (Eryngium foetidum L.). J. Food Quality 18:325334.
Morean, F. 1988. Shado benni: A popular Caribbean seasoning herb and folk medicine.
Trinidad Guardian, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, W.I.
Morton, J.F. 1981. Umbelliferae. In: Atlas of medicinal plants of middle America.
Springfield Illinois: C.C. Thomas.
Ramcharan, C. 1998. The effects of progibb sprays on leaf and flower growth in culantro
Eryngium foetidum L. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 7:(in press).
Sankat, C.K. and V. Maharaj. 1991. Refrigerated storage of shado benni (Eryngium
foetidum L.). Proc. Agr. Inst. of Canada. Annu. Conf. July, 1991, Fredericton, New
Brunswick, Canada.
SantiagoSantos, L.R. and A. CedenoMaldonado. 1991. Efecto de la intensidad de la luz

sobre la floracion y crecimento del culantro, Eryngium foetidum L. J. Agr. Univ. P.R.
75(4):383389.
Seaforth, C.E., C.D. Adams, and Y. Sylvester. 1983. Eryngium foetidumfitweed, shado
beni (Umbelliferae). In: A guide to the medicinal plants of Trinidad and Tobago. Pall Mall,
London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Seaforth, C.E. 1988. Eryngium foetidumfitweed (Umbelliferae). In: Natural products in

Caribbean folk Medicine. Trinidad Univ., W.I.
Willis, J.C. 1960. A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
Wilson, P.L. 1991. Cilantroheart of the ubiquitous sofrito. p. 1213. Food section. San
Juan Star, June 16, 1991. San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Wong, W. 1976. Some folk medicinal plants from Trinidad. Econ. Bot. 30:103142.
Culvers-Physic
Culvers-Physic
Veronica virginica L.
Synonym.Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt.
Other common names.Culvers-root, blackroot, bowmansroot,
beaumont root, Brinton root, tall speedwell, tall veronica, physic-root,
whorlywort.
Habitat and range.This common native herb is found abundantly
in moist rich woods, mountain valleys, meadows, and thickets from
Nova Scotia to British Columbia and south to Alabama, Missouri, and
Nebraska.
Description.Culvers-physic is a tall, slender-stemmed herb from 3
to 7 feet in height. The long, narrow, pointed leaves, which are
arranged around the stem at intervals, in groups of from three to nine,
are 3 to 6 inches in length and 1 inch or less in width. The tube-shaped
Figure 45.Culvers-physic
flowers, produced from June to September, are borne in several
(Veronica virginica)
densely crowded, slender, terminal, spikelike heads from 3 to 9 inches
long. The flowers are usually white, but at times are pink to bluish or purple.
Part used.The rootstock and roots, collected in the fall of the second year.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/culvers-physic.html [5/16/2004 3:52:07 PM]
Cuminum cyminum
Cuminum cyminum L.
Cumin, Comino, Cummin, Jintan
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cuminum_cyminum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:08 PM]
Prosopis chilensis
Prosopis chilensis (Molina)

Stuntz
Mimosaceae
Cupesi, White algarobo
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
White algarobo used for shade, timber, fuel, and concentrated forage or food (sweet, pulpy fruits).
Pods eaten as sweets "patay" or drunk as "aloja". A staple food for cattle in arid regions.
Sometimes cultivated in Argentina and Chile; promising reforestation species (Burkart, 1976).
South Africans believe the ripe pod makes excellent fodder but the green pod is bitter and
valueless. Reddish mesquite gum may be used as a substitute for gum arabic as an adhesive and in
the manufacture of gumdrops (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Wood is said to have good
acoustical properties (Allen and Allen, 1981).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_chilensis.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:52:09 PM]
Prosopis chilensis
Folk Medicine
A ten percent infusion of the leaves shows some antibiotic activity.
Chemistry
Like P. alba this species contains apigenin 8-glucoside, apigenin 6-glucoside, quercitin
3-glucoside, quercitin 3-rhamnoside, quercitin 3-rutinoside, and traces of myricetin 3-rhamnoside,
luteolin, kaempferol-3-OMe quercetin, and quercitin 3-OMe (Simpson, 1977). Pipecolic and
4-hydroxy pipecolic acid also occur in both, but varying concentrations of pipecolic acid and
proline are interpreted as reflecting a plastic response to changing environmental conditions. The
consistent patterns of flavonoid distributions in several species groups, on the other hand,
apparently reflects genetic fixation independent of known environmental factors (Simpson, 1977).
Patay (ground beans filtered to remove the endocarp, and made into flour for breadstuffs) contains
1012% water, 46% fiber, 0.84.3% protein, and 5565% carbohydrates (44% sugar, 11% starch,
plus cellulose) and is relatively high in calcium. Fresh pods, but not dry pods, are said to be
harmful to horses. Seeds contain small quantities of saponins. Bark and root contain tannin. Young
leaves contain 1.8% alkaloids, intermediate leaves, 1.7%, and mature leaves, 0.9% (Simpson,
1977).
Dm CP
Fresh young leaves, USA
23.5
Pods, Chile
91.5 11.0
Pods, Sudan
94.4 11.5
Dried pod meal, Hawaii 89.2 9.5
Seeds, Hawaii
35.2
Pod husks, Hawaii
5.6
As % of dry matter
CF Ash EE NFE Ca P
24.7 4.7 2.9 44.2 0.86 0.25
11.9 7.3 2.2 67.6 0.44 0.16
26.9 5.4 2.2 54.0
23.2 7.9 1.5 57.9
9.1 5.1 5.2 45.4
27.3 3.8 0.2 63.1
Digestibility (%)
Animal CP CF EE NFE ME
Pod meal Cattle 70.0 54.0 75.0 70.0 2.30
Source: Gohl, B. 1981.
Description
Tree, becoming large in age, with short trunk, 310 m tall, treetop rounded; branchlets flexuous,
knotty, partly spinous; spines on strong shoots, axillary, geminate, uninodal, hard, conic-subulate,
up to 6 cm long. Leaves deciduous, glabrous, uni- to bi- or trijugate, elongate, but giving only
slight shade, mostly fascicled; petiole (rachis when extant included) 1.512 cm long; pinnae
824.5 cm long; leaflets 10 to 29 pairs per pinna, long-linear and distant on the rachis (412 mm
Prosopis chilensis
apart), glabrous throughout or with some cilias on the margins at base, 1.15.4 cm long x 1.13
mm broad, pale green, nearly enervate or only the costa prominent, but not of a different color.
Racemes spiciform, densiflorous, ca 712 cm long; flowers greenish-white to yellowish, ca 250
per raceme; calyx 1 mm; petals 3 mm long, villous within; stamens 56 mm long; ovary
pubescent. Legume linear, compressed, with parallel margens, strawyellow, stipitate and
acuminate, nearly straight, thick; mesocarp sugary, edible; endocarp segments
transverse-rectangular, broader than long, subcoriaceous, easy to open numbering 20 to 32; seeds
ovoid, compressed, brown, 67 mm long (Burkart, 1976).
Germplasm
Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, cupesi, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate drought. Simpson (1977) reports selfincompatibility. (2n = 28, 56).
Distribution
Extending from Peru and Bolivia to central Chile and northwestern Argentina. In southern Peru it
is found at elevations of up to 2900 m (Burkart, 1976).
Ecology
Our computer entries for Prosopis spp. are unreliable, partly due to past taxonomic confusion. I
estimate this species ranges from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist
Forest Life Zones. At the Bolson de Pipanaco, elevation ca 1072 m, annual precipitation ca 3 dm,
annual temperature ca 18.6C, Prosopis chilensis often forms dense stands along the broad
washes. Associated species are mentioned in Simpson (1977). In Argentina, the species leafs out in
spring (September) with mean temperature ca 16C staying in leaf until fall (April). Blooms in
October in Andalgala for about two weeks.
Cultivation
Felker et al. (1981) reported water requirements of 535.3 cm3 per g of dry matter making this one
of the more water efficient species of Prosopis.
Harvesting
Commonly cut for fuel as needed.
Prosopis chilensis

According to Simpson (1977) a mature tree produces ca 10,000 inflorescenses per year, each with
about 279 flowers, but setting only 1.65 fruits per inflorescence. Each inflorescence is estimated to
produce 12.89 mg sugar or ca 13 g from all 10,000; and 26.50 mg pollen (26 g in all per tree). At
Riverside, #0009 P. chilensis average measured (not projected from regression equations) oven dry
biomass corresponded to a 41 MT/ha 3-season yield or a 13.7 MT/ha/yr. This yield was obtained
with total irrigation plus rainfall of 1,390 mm or a seasonal average of 460 mm. Others showed an
average annual production of 14.5 MT/ha in the Imperial Valley, but the total DM production for
all 55 accessions tested averaged an annual increment of 8.2 MT/ha. Under similar conditions,
Felker et al. (1981) report:
P. alba (0039)
P. alba (0132)
P. alba (0166)
P. articulata (0016)
P. chilensis (0009)
P. glandulosa
glandulosa (0028)
P. glandulosa
torreyana (000 )
P. juliflora
P. kuntaii (0130)
P. laevigata (0114)
P. nigra (0038)
P. pallida (0041)
P. pubescens (0245)
P. ruscifolia (0131)
P. tamarugo (0042)
P. tamarugo (0317)
P. velutina (0020)
Cercidium floridium
Leucaena
leucocephala
Olneya tesota
Parkinsonia aculeata
UCR
Imp. vall.
biomass tree
biomass/
(kg)
tree (kg)
6.8
10.6
4.3
7.8
9.2
15.9
29.0
18.5
18.3
1.7
Pods Pods/
Coppice (%) Salinity Na/hr?
(g) tree(s)
48
41
0.0
52
100
34
68
0.0
100
75
25
75
1.8
1.2
139
8.1
134
0.7
50
0.0
0.4
3.2
4.8
0.0
10.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.7
25
2.5
5.0
2.6
1.0
1.7
0.0
464
1.2
0.60
0.23
0.25
86
75
0
25
0.0
0.0
0.2
3.7
0.63
0.71
0.12
4.9
3.0
0.18
35
100
75
2.4
15.5
75
0.3
13.0
75
100
1.8
0.60
1.05
0.18
0.13
1.8
0.6
0.0
0.33
No
Prosopis chilensis
Energy
Felker et al (1981) report that small plots with 1.5 x 1.5 m spacing yielded 11.7 MT/ha the first
year, 16.9 MT/ha the second year.
Biotic Factors
Some specialists (Brachyphatnus sp. and Noctuid sp.) and some generalists (Melipotis bisinuata,
Oiketicus geyeri, Semiothisa sp.) are reported to "graze" the species in Argentina. The major
Prosopis bee visitors are Bicolletes sp., Centris brethesi, Collates spp., Eremapis pravula,
Exomalopsis sp., Liopoeum argentina, Megachile spp., Oediscelis, Svastrides zebra, and Xylocopa
splendidula (Simpson, 1977). Among bruchids, Rhipibruchus picturatus, R. prosopis, and
Scutobruchus ceratioborus are reported. Bruchids may destroy 90% of the seed. Phoradendron
hieronymi, P. liga, P. pruinosum, Prosopanche americana, Psittacanthus cuneifolius, and
Tapinanthus sp., possibly even Ximenia americana are hemiparasitic or parasitic flowering plants
on the algarrobo. The desert cavy eats leaves and pods and may strip bark from small tender
branches. Many other Prosopis eaters are listed and discussed in Simpson (1977). Golden (p.c.
1984) lists the nematode Rotylenchus reniformis. Felker et al (1981) review the pest infestations of
their Prosopis plantings with suggestions for their control.
References
812 p.
Simpson, B.B. (ed.). 1977. Mesquite, its biology in two desert scrub ecosystems. Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. Stroudsburg, PA.
Last update January 8, 1998 by aw
Cuphea spp.
Cuphea spp.
Lythraceae
Cuphea
Breakthroughs Towards the Domestication of CupheaSteven J. Knapp
Cuphea Growth and Development: Responses to TemperatureRuss W. Gesch, Nancy W.
Barbour, Frank Forcella, and Ward B. Voorhees
Rooting Characteristics and Water Requirements of CupheaBrenton S. Sharratt and Russell W.
Gesch
New Temperate Oilseed CropsSteven J. Knapp
Cuphea glutinosa Selections for Flowering Ornamental Ground Cover in Southeast United
StatesCasimir A. Jaworski and Sharad C. Phatak
Perspective from a Large Industrial CompanyJoseph S. Boggs
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cuphea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:09 PM]
Schumann
Sterculiaceae
Cupuau, Cupuassu
Cupuassu: A New Beverage Crop for BrazilChristiane Cabral Velho, Anna Whipkey, and Jules
Janick
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Theobroma_grandiforum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:10 PM]
Turmeric
Turmeric, Tumeric
Tumerico
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L.
The plant is a large-leaved herb, closely related to ginger. It is cultivated in tropical countries for
the thick, rounded, underground stems or rhizomes, which constitute the spice, turmeric. Turmeric
contains an oil, which consists in part of curcumin, which on oxidation is changed into vanillin, the
active principle in vanilla. The rootstocks of turmeric, both fresh and dried, are also used as
flavoring in curries and other cookery.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Tumeric.html [5/16/2004 3:52:11 PM]
Cultural Studies in Ornamental Ginger
Kuehny, J.S., M.J. Sarmiento, and P.C. Branch. 2002. Cultural studies in ornamental ginger. p. 477482. In: J. Janick and A.
Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Jeff S. Kuehny, Mauricio J. Sarmiento, and Patricia C. Branch
INTRODUCTION
Hedychium species (butterfly ginger) and Alpinia zerumbet (shell ginger) have been grown in the Southern United States since at
least the turn of the century (Burch 1998). Curcuma and Kaempferia are two other genera in the Zingiberaceae family that have
recently gained much notoriety. Kaempferia species have unique foliage and Curcuma species colorful, long-lasting inflorescences,
both with a 90- to 100-day production cycle and few pest problems. These gingers have great potential for use as flowering pot
plants, both indoors and as patio and landscape plants. They are herbaceous perennials with short fleshy rhizomes and tuberous
roots, often with a dormancy period (Burch et al. 1987). Inflorescence stalks arise either from a short pseudostem or independently
from buds on the rhizome. The inflorescence of Curcuma species are a compressed spike of colorful long lasting bracts subtending 2
to 7 true flowers (Luc-Cayo and Fereol 1997). Kaempferia species, however, have short lived flowers with attractive,
colored/patterned leaves that vary in size and shape. Burch (1998) reported that between 150,000 to 250,000 rhizomes of ginger
would be sold in 1998. Because of the new genera of ginger continuing to enter the market, the value of ornamental ginger has not
been well documented. The number of rhizomes sold has probably doubled (E. Welch, pers. commun.) since 1998 and this does not
account for number of plants sold from tissue culture.
There is little information on the optimum production environment, postproduction longevity, and landscape survivability of
commercially available gingers. The objectives of this research were to determine the effects of light intensity, photoperiod, and
plant growth regulator application on various cultures of Curcuma and Kaempferia species (Fig. 15).
Fig. 1. Curcuma alismatifolia Chiang

Mai Pink.
Fig. 2. Curcuma spp. Precious Petuma.
Fig. 4. Curcuma petiolata.
Fig. 5. Kaempferia spp. Grande.
Fig. 3. Curcuma cordata.
METHODOLOGY
All plants were grown in the greenhouse using a medium consisting of 1/2 peat moss, 1/3 pine bark, and 1/6 perlite, amended with
dolomite limestone (5.1 kg/m3) and superphosphate 0180 (2.7 kg/m3). Immediately after planting containers were drenched with a
tank mix of metalaxyl (Subdue 2E, Novartis, Greensboro, North Carolina) at 15.6 ml/100 L and PCNB quintozene (Terraclor 75%
WP, Uniroyal Chemical, Middlebury, Connecticut). Plants were spaced on 21 21 cm centers and fertigated with 24N3.5P13.3K
(Peters 24816 Tropical Foliage, Scotts-Sierra, Marysville, Ohio) at 150 ppm N as needed.
Data was analyzed using PROC GLM. Comparisons between means was conducted by Tukeys studentized range test.
Light Levels and Plant Growth Retardants

Curcuma spp. Precious Petuma, C. parviflora White Angel, and C. alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink rhizomes were planted one
per 14 cm container on 4 April 2000. Plants were grown in a greenhouse at temperature setpoints of 27/21C day/night. When shoot
height was 10 cm, the plants were drenched with 118 ml of paclobutrazol or uniconazole at 0, 10 or 20 mg a.i. per container and
grown under a 0% (1,860 mol/s/m2), 30% (922 mol/s/m2) or 60% (352 mol/s/m2) shade. Average daily temperatures for the
three light levels were 30C. Days to emergence, days to bloom, number of flowers, height of the flowering stalk, and days to
anthesis (postproduction longevity) were determined for all plants.
There was no significant effect of shade level on days to emergence or days from emergence to first flower for Curcuma spp.
Precious Petuma. Flower height was 22% taller for those plants grown under both shade levels. Application of paclobutrazol and
uniconazole at 20 mg a.i./pot reduced the flower height of Precious Petuma by 27% and 54% respectively. Because flower height
was acceptable (approximately 25 cm) at all shade levels, the use of a growth retardant is not recommended. Shade level had no
affect on flower longevity, with an average 29 day postproduction longevity. The number of days from first flower to second flower
were extended by approximately 12 days when plants were grown under 60% shade.
Days from emergence to first flower of C. parviflora White Angel was significantly extended by approximately 13 days when
grown under 60% shade. Flower height was 23% taller at 30% shade; however, due to the short stem of this flower, this height was
still acceptable (less than 25 cm). Thus, the use of a growth retardant is unnecessary. Shade level did not affect flower longevity or
days to second flower. Flower longevity was favorable at approximately 30 days and days to second flower was approximately 40
days for all treatments.
Days from planting to emergence and emergence to first flower of C. alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink were unaffected by shade level
or rate of growth retardant. Days from first flower to second flower was significantly extended by both shade levels with no second
flower produced at 60% shade. Thus, these plants must be grown under full sun for best quality. When grown at 30% or 60% shade,
flower height was significantly taller by 9 and 13 cm respectively. The flower height of these plants, regardless of shade treatment,
was not of marketable quality. The results from this study indicate that for production of a marketable flowering Chiang Mai Pink
ginger, application of uniconazole at 10 mg a.i./pot and a rate greater than 20 mg a.i./pot of paclobutrazol is recommended.
Postproduction longevity of this ginger is approximately 40 days.
Gibberellic Acid
Curcuma alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink, C. gracillima Violet, and C. thorelii one cm rhizomes were planted one per 14 cm
container on 17 April 1999. Prior to planting, rhizomes were soaked for 10 min in a solution containing 2% GA4+7 (Provide, Abbot
Labs, North Chicago, Illinois) at 0, 200, 400, or 600 mg/L, 10% Physan 20 (10% dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, 10%
dimethyl ethyl ammonium chloride, 80% inert, Maril Products, Tustin, California) and distilled water. Rhizomes were dried and
planted in a greenhouse with average minimum and maximum temperatures of 23 and 30C night/day. Treatments were arranged in
a complete randomized design.
Plants were harvested once a week when they reached a stage characterized by the opening of the last bract and one flower
(marketable stage). Days to bloom, number of flowers, and height of the flowering stalk were recorded for all plants.
GA at 200, 400, and 600 ppm delayed shoot emergence of C. alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink (Table 1). GA at 400 ppm delayed
flowering but did not increase the number of inflorescences. All plants had one inflorescence per container. Application of GA at
600 ppm reduced flower height (data not shown). GA concentrations of 600 ppm delayed shoot emergence of C. gracillima Violet
and C. thorelii (Table 1). Days to bloom and flower height was unaffected for either Curcuma, and plants developed no more than
one flowering stem.
Table 1. Effect of gibberellic acid (GA) on days to emergence and days to bloom of Curcuma alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink, C.
gracillima Violet, and C. thorelii.
Days to emergence
Days to bloom
Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma

GA (ppm) alismatifolia gracillima thorelii alismatifolia gracillima thorelii
0
43.5 az
40.5 a
40.2 a
113 a
108 a
113 a
200
400
53.1 b
57.1 b
44.6 ab
44.6 ab
43.7 ab
45.0 ab
115 ab
128 b
114 a
109 a
115 a
113 a
600
55.4 b
47.9 b
51.2 b
126 ab
121 a
131 a
zMean
separation of GA rates by HSD test, P=0.05. Means within columns with different letters are significantly different.
Photoperiod
Tissue culture plants of Curcuma petiolata Emperor, C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp. Grande were planted one per 15 cm
container in the greenhouse on 16 Aug. 1999. Tissue culture plants of C. cordata were planted two per 15 cm container on 9 Sept.
1999. Rhizomes of C. alismatifolia Siam Tulip White were planted one per 12.5 cm container on 27 Aug. 1999. All ginger species
were arranged in a complete randomized design under each photoperiod treatment.
Photoperiod treatments were initiated 17 d after transplanting for C. alismatifolia C. petiolata, C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp.
Grande and 18 d after transplanting for C. cordata. On 2 Sept. 1999 photoperiod treatments of 8, 12, 16, and 20 hr were initiated.
Plants received 8 hr of natural light from 0900 to 1700 hr. Zero, four, eight, and twelve hours of supplemental light were provided
for the 8, 12, 16, and 20 hr photoperiod, respectively. Light source was 100 watt incandescent light bulbs at an irradiance of 11
mol/s/m2 (14 to 50 foot candles). Average minimum and maximum temperatures were 18 and 26.5C. Curcuma petiolata, C.
thorelii, Emperor, and Kaempferia sp. Grande completed 21 weeks in the photoperiod treatment, C. cordata was 19 weeks and C.
alismatifolia 18 weeks.
Each week, the number of newly unfolded leaves was counted as a measurement of plant growth. On 1 Dec. 1999, the height of the
plants was measured from the medium surface to the tip of the longest leaf. On 1 Feb. 2000, the photoperiod treatment ended. Plants
which did not go dormant during the course of the experiment were forced to dormancy by terminating irrigation. After all plants
were dormant, the number of rhizomes and t-roots was counted for each treatment.
Dormancy was induced on all ginger grown under an 8 hr photoperiod. The number of weeks required for plants to go dormant
under an 8 hr photoperiod was 9.00.17 weeks for C. cordata, 150 weeks for C. petiolata, 11.61.2 weeks for C. thorelii, and 120
weeks for Kaempferia.
Plant height of C. alismatifolia increased as length of photoperiod increased to 20 h (Table 2). Curcuma cordata plants grown at 20
and 16 hr were significantly taller than plants grown at 12 hr. Plants grown at 8 hr became dormant. Curcuma petiolata plants grown
under 8 and 12 hr were significantly shorter than plants under 20 and 16 hr. Curcuma thorelii plants grown under 16 and 20 hr were
significantly taller than plants at 12 hr. There were no significant differences in height between 12, 16, and 20 hr treatments for
Kaempferia.
Table 2. Effect of photoperiod on plant height for Curcuma alismatifolia Chiang Mai White, C. cordata, C. petiolata Emperor,
C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp. Grande.
Plant height (cm)
Photoperiod Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma Curcuma Kaempferia
(hr)
alismatifolia cordata petiolata thorelii 'Grande'
8
20.7 az
12
30.0 b
42.7 a
16
20
38.8 c
35.6 bc
50.2 b
49.0 b
zMean
yPlants
dormanty 35.6 a
dormant
dormant
41.6 a
32.0 a
31.6 a
65.3 b
70.3 b
37.3 b
38.0 b
46.6 a
46.6 a
separation of photoperiods by HSD test, P=0.05. Means within columns with different letters are significantly different.
were dormant prior to measurement.
The number of leaves unfolded increased during the 16 and 20 hr photoperiod for C. alismatifolia (Table 3). Curcuma cordata plants
under 16 and 20 hr photoperiods produced more new leaves than 8 and 12 hr photoperiods. Curcuma petiolata Emperor plants
grown at 16 and 20 hr produced more new leaves than plants grown at 8 and 12 hr (Table 3). Photoperiod did not significantly affect
the number of new leaves C. thorelii produced. Kaempferia sp. Grande plants in the 16 and 20 hr photoperiod produced more new
leaves than those in 8 hr.
Table 3. Effect of photoperiod on total number of new leaves unfolded Curcuma alismatifolia Chiang Mai White, C. cordata, C.
petiolata Emperor, C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp. Grande.
Number of leaves unfolded
(hr)
0.5 a
2.6 a
2.0 a
2.0 a
12
1.6 az
2.1 a
2.8 a
3.3 a
4.6 a
3.3 ab
16
6.8 b
10.0 b
17.3 b
4.3 a
10.0 c
20
8.6 c
9.1 b
21.0 b
5.3 a
8.6 bc
zMean
Curcuma alismatifolia, C. cordata, and C. petiolata plants grown under 16 and 20 hr produced a greater number of rhizomes than
those plants grown under 8 and 12 hr (Table 4). Photoperiod did not affect the number of rhizomes produced by C. thorelii or
Kaempferia. Curcuma alismatifolia grown under a photoperiod of 16 hr or less produced approximately two t-roots per plant and
approximately one t-root at 20 hr (Table 5). Curcuma cordata, C. petiolata, and Kaempferia produced approximately 5 t-roots or
more when grown at a photoperiod of 12 and 8 hr, and almost no t-roots at 16 and 20 hr. Curcuma thorelii responded to changes in
photoperiod by producing a large number of t-roots for all treatments, producing the greatest number of t-roots at 16 hr.
Table 4. Effect of photoperiod on number of rhizomes of underground organs for Curcuma alismatifolia Chaing Mia White, C.
cordata, C. petiolata Emperor, C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp. Grande.
Number of rhizomes
(hr)
8
1.0 az
1.0 a
1.0 a
1.0 a
1.0 a
12
1.0 a
1.0 a
1.0 a
1.0 a
1.0 a
16
1.9 b
1.9 b
1.6 ab
1.0 a
1.0 a
20
2.3 c
2.1 b
3.0 b
1.0 a
1.3 a
zMean
Table 5. Effect of photoperiod on number of t-roots of underground organs for Curcuma alismatifolia Chaing Mia White, C.
cordata, C. petiolata Emperor, C. thorelii, and Kaempferia sp. Grande.
Number of t-roots
(hr)
8
2.1 bz
5.9 a
6.3 b
6.0 a
8.3 b
12
2.1 b
5.3 a
6.3 b
8.3 ab
4.6 b
16
20
1.9 b
0.6 a
0.0 b
0.0 b
0.3 a
0.6 a
11.6 b
10.6 ab
0.0 a
0.0 a
zMean
COLCLUSIONS
Curcuma spp. Precious Petuma, C. parviflora White Angel, and C. alismatifolia Chiang Mai Pink produce marketable
flowering pot plants requiring no application of shade. Precious Petuma and White Angel can be grown under shade levels of up
to 60% without use of growth retardant and no deleterious affect on plant quality. Chiang Mai Pink should be grown in full sun and
an application of either 10 mg a.i./pot of uniconazole or over 20 mg a.i./pot of paclobutrazol for production of a quality flowering
pot plant. These ornamental gingers have an excellent postproduction longevity of up to 40 days.
GA did not increase the number of inflorescences of Curcuma alismatifolia but did delay shoot emergence and flowering. GA
applied (as a spray) at concentrations of 1.44 and 2.88 mm suppressed shoot emergence of field grown edible ginger (Zingiber
officinale Roscoe) (Furutani and Nagao 1986). GA usually stimulates stem lengthening however, GA at 600 ppm significantly
reduced flower height of C. alismatifolia. Soaking rhizomes in GA at 200, 300, 400, and 600 ppm did not inhibit shoot sprouting but
delayed it. GA has been recommended for extending dormancy, thereby inhibiting sprouting in storage of yams (Dioscorea
cayenensis rotundata Lam. and D. alata L.), an edible tuber (Girardin et al. 1998). Thus, GA could be used to prolong storage of
ornamental ginger rhizomes prior to planting. It should not be used to promote or increase flowering.
Photoperiod affected height of all species of ginger evaluated. The plants grown under 20 or 16 hr photoperiods were taller than
those grown under 12 or 8 hr photoperiods. Photoperiod affected the number of unfolded leaves of all plants except for C. thorelii.
The 16 and 20 hr photoperiods increased number of leaves unfolded compared to 12 and 8 hr. Effect of photoperiod on number of
rhizomes and number of t-roots was dependent upon the species of ginger. Kaempferia sp. Grande, C. petiolata, C. cordata, and C.
alismatifolia Siam Tulip White produced more t-roots when grown under 8 or 12 hr than 20 or 16 hr photoperiods. The exception
was C. thorelii, where more t-roots where produced on the plants growing at 20 or 16 hr photoperiod than in 12 or 8 hr.
Siphonichilus decora did not produce t-roots under any of the 4 photoperiods. Curcuma petiolata, C. cordata, and C. alismatifolia
Siam Tulip White produced more rhizomes under the long day photoperiods (20 and 16 hr) than under 12 or 8 hr.
Ginger shoot and rhizome growth were optimized when plants were grown under 16 or 20 hr photoperiods, whereas an 8 hr
photoperiod promoted dormancy. The best production strategy for growers of gingers as flowering potted plants is to plant in the
spring (April) and grow the plants throughout the summer, finishing production in the fall. If production in the winter is desired, 16
hr photoperiod must be used.
REFERENCES
Burch, D. 1998. The commercial market for gingers in the U.S. Heliconia Soc. Int. Bul. 9(3):14.
Burch, D., E.W. Demmy, and H. Donselman. 1987. Gingers for Florida gardens. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 100:153155.
Fereol, L., S. Louis, and L. Luce. 1996. Effects of gamma radiation on in vitro plantlets of Alpinia purpurata. J. Hort. Sci.
71:243247.
Furutani, S.C. and M.A. Nagao. 1986. Influence of daminozide, gibberellic acid and ethephon on flowering, shoot growth and
yield of ginger. HortScience 21:428429.
Girardin, O., C. Nindjin, Z. Farah, F. Escher, P Stamp, and D. Otokore. 1998. Use of gibberellic acid to prolong dormancy and
reduce losses during traditional storage of yams. J. Sci. Food Agr. 77:172178.
Luc-Cayo F. and L. Fereol. 1997. Alpingera martinica (Zingiberaceae): An intergeneric hybrid between Alpinia purpurata
and Etlingera elatior. HortScience. 32(5):914915.
Curly mesquite
Curly mesquite
Gramineae Hilaria belangeri (Steud.) Nash
This is a warm climate grass native from Central Texas and Arizona south
throughout Mexico. It is stolon forming and grows on dry soils that may range in texture from clay
to gravelly. The plant grows in tufts, new tufts developing at the nodes of the stolons. Stems are
slender, up to a foot tall, with short narrow leaves. It is highly drought resistant, palatable both
green and when dry, thus is a valuable range grass for warm dry areas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Curly_mesquite.html [5/16/2004 3:52:14 PM]
Ribes species
Index| Search| Home
Ribes sativum Syme, R.

rubrum L., R. nigrum L.
Currant, Aka-suguri, Black currant, Common red
ribes, European black currant, European red
currant, Garden currant, North American red currant, Northern
red currant, Red currant, White currant
and
Ribes uva-crispa L., R. hirtellum

Michx.
Gooseberry, English gooseberry, European gooseberry,
Groseille maquereau, Old gooseberry, Orange gooseberry,
Wolf currant
Grossulariaceae, Saxifragaceae
NewCROP has currant & gooseberry information at:
CurrantMagness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
GooseberryMagness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Currants and GooseberriesCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana
Outside Links:
CURRANT "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Currants and Gooseberries Ribes nigrum, R. sativum; R.rubrum, R. grossularia, R.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ribes_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:15 PM]
Ribes species
hirtellumfrom the University of Georgia Horticulture Crop Site

'Jahns Prairie' Gooseberry, Ribes oxyacanthoidesA new release by the USDA and Agri-Food
Canada. This plant is disease resistant and produces high quality, dark red, dessert gooseberries.
The Small Fruits of New York, 1925 by U. P. Hedrick.The Small Fruits of New York was
published by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. It has become a classic reference for
those working with cultivated varieties of Rubus, Ribes and Fragaria.
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ribes_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:15 PM]
Effect of Storage Temperature on the Nutritional Value of Curry Leaf
Palaniswamy, U.R., J.D. Stuart, and C.A. Caporuscio. 2002. Effect of storage temperature on
the nutritional value of curry leaf. p. 567569. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in
new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Effect of Storage Temperature on the

Nutritional Value of Curry Leaf
Usha R. Palaniswamy, James D. Stuart, and Christian A. Caporuscio
INTRODUCTION
Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii Spreng., Rutaceae), is a popular leafy-spice used in Asian-Indian
cuisine for its characterizing authentic flavor and distinct aroma (Fig. 1). The curry leaf is used by
Asian Americans originating from South Asia almost daily in its fresh form when available and is
preserved as dried or frozen for long-term storage. Interest in greater use of curry leaf has been
stimulated since its high antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potential were reported (Khan et al.
1997; Khanum et al. 2000), as well as the changing demographics nationwide that have created a
ready market and greater demand for this spice (Palaniswamy 2001). Curry leaf is used in very
small quantities for its distinct aroma due to the presence of volatile oils and as a result most
studies report on the concentrations of volatile oils and not on the nutritional value and functional
properties attributed to antioxidant vitamins and plant pigments. The objective of this study was to
evaluate the locally available curry leaves as a source of -tochopherol, -carotene, and lutein and
study the effect of storage temperature on the concentrations of these vitamins and plant pigments.
Fig. 1. Curry leaf.
METHODOLOGY
Postharvest Treatments for Study
Curry leaf was purchased from local Asian grocery stores, pooled, divided into four lots, and
sampled as (1) freshly bought, (2) oven-dried at 60C for 1 day, (3) air-dried for 10 days spread on
a table at 22C, and (4) sealed in polythene bags and frozen at 15C for 10 days. The freshly
bought leaf was analyzed the same day of purchase, while the other samples were analyzed ten
days after purchase when all the treatments were completed. The air-dried and the oven-dried
samples were put in glass bottles when completely dried to imitate the traditional method of home
storage for culinary use.
Leaf Vitamin Extraction and Sample Preparation

The vitamins were extracted form the leaf tissue as given by Sommerburg et al. (1998). Leaf tissue
(1 g) was homogenized for 3 min in 20 mL sodium phosphate (10 mm) containing 0.15 N sodium
chloride (pH 4.7); 2 mL of methanol containing 0.5 mg/mL butylated hydroxytoluene and 10 mL
internal standard (1 mg/mL) in hexane were added, vortexed for 5 min, and centrifuged for 10 min.
The upper layer was collected and stored. The remaining extract was vortexed again for 2 min and
centrifuged for 5 min. The upper layer was collected and combined with the first extract. The
combined extracts were passed through sodium sulfate to remove moisture. All extracts were
transferred and stored in 4 mL amber vials, sealed, and refrigerated.
Chlorophyll Measurement
At the time of chemical analysis, the fresh curry leaves as well as the leaf samples that received the
different postharvest and storage treatments were extracted with N, N-dimethylformamide and the
chlorophyll content was determined by the method of Inskeep and Bloom (1985).
High Performance Liquid Chromatography

A Restek reversed phase Ultra C18 column (150 mm, 4.6 mm i.d., 5 mm particle size; Restek
Corporation, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania) with a 20% carbon load, along with a Ultra C18 Guard
column (10 mm, 4 mm i.d, 5 mm packing) and 50 mL injection loop (Rheodyne Inc, Cotati,
California) were used with a HPLC (Perkin Elmer Binary LC Pump Model 250, PE Biosystems,
Norwalk, Connecticut) fitted with a Perkin Elmer Diode Array Detector Model 235, set at the
wavelengths of 270 nm for -carotene and lutein, and 290 nm for -tocopherol and -tocopherol
acetate as internal standard with an attenuation of 0.2 absorbance units. Monitoring at higher
wavelengths caused detector saturation. The column was placed in a Perkin Elmer Oven Model
101 set at 35C, and the data collected on a computer (PE Nelson Model 1022 LC computer). Two
solvents were prepared for the mobile phase. A rapid 20 min gradient of 90% solvent mixture A:
85% acetonitrile, 2.5% hexane, 2.5% methylene chloride, and 10% methanol followed by 20
minutes of 100% solvent B: 50% acetonitrile, 20% hexane, 20% methylene chloride, and 10%
methanol at a flow rate of 1 mL min-1 was used. The column was allowed to equilibrate prior to
the next injection with a 25-min gradient of 90% solvent A.
Prior to injection into the HPLC, the extract was filtered through a 4 mm, 0.2 mm nylon syringe
filter (Alltech, Deerfield, Illinois). After filtering 200 mL extract was injected into the HPLC. The
detector was optimized at 270 nm for -carotene and lutein, and 290 nm for -tocopherol. The
peaks were identified with standards lutein (X6250), -carotene (C4582), -tocopherol (T3251),
and -tocopherol acetate (T3376) purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Missouri) and
confirmed by LC/MS.
Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectra were monitored in the mass range m/z 300700 on a Quattro II mass spectrometer
equipped with an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) interface (Micromass, Beverly,
Massachusettes). The capillary temperature was set to 150C, the APCI vaporizer temperature was
set to 450C. The corona discharge voltage was optimized at 3 kV. The same column and LC
conditions used in the HPLC-UV diode array experiments were also used for the LC-MS
experiments, however the flow rate was reduced to 0.3 mL min-1.
RESULTS
Lutein
The fresh curry leaves had the highest concentration of lutein and the frozen leaves had the lowest
concentration of lutein (Table 1). Frozen curry leaves contained 70% less lutein than fresh leaves.
Curry leaves subjected to oven-drying and air-drying contained 60% less lutein compared to fresh
leaves.
Table 1. Anti-oxidant vitamin contents in curry leaves and post harvest storage temperature and
treatment (mean concentration per gram dry weightSD).
Lutein -tocopherol
Post harvest storage
temperature and treatment (g/g)
(ng/g)
Fresh
272.8 59210.1
Oven-dried (60C)
111.9 2968.2
Air-dried (22C)
102.1 5158.5
Frozen (-15C)
82.5 58911.2
-carotene
(ng/g)
51110.5
1481.2
3571.3
3981.5
Chlorophyll
(mg/g)
27.81.2
9.91.2
18.91.1
26.91.1
-Tocopherol
The -tocopherol concentrations of the fresh leaves were unaffected by freezing at 15C (Table
1). Air-drying at 22C resulted in a lower loss of -tocopherol (13%) compared to oven-drying
where 50% of -tocopherol was lost.
-Carotene
The -carotene concentration was highest in fresh leaves and lowest in the oven-dried leaves
(Table 1). The loss of -carotene were 22% in frozen, 30% in air-dried, and 71% in oven-dried
samples.
Chlorophyll
The fresh and the frozen curry leaves had similar chlorophyll concentrations (Table 1).
Oven-drying resulted in a greater loss (~64%) of chlorophyll compared to air-drying (~32%).
DISCUSSION
Our results report a lower loss of -carotene and apparently no loss of -tocopherol and
chlorophyll concentration in curry leaf frozen at 15C compared to air-drying or oven-drying.
However, the loss of lutein in the frozen samples was higher perhaps due to destruction of lutein
during the freezing process. The loss of -carotene, -tocopherol, and chlorophyll when air-dried
or oven-dried may be attributed to loss of these compounds due to oxidation. Our results identify
freezing at 15C as an acceptable practical way of storing curry leaves. Air-drying resulted in
higher retention of vitamins -carotene and -tocopherol compared to oven-drying.
REFERENCES
Inskeep, W.P. and P.R. Bloom. 1985. Extinction coefficients of chlorophyll a and b in N,
N-dimethylformamide and 80% acetone. Plant Physiol. 60:606608.
Khan B.A., A. Abraham, and S. Leelamma S. 1997. Anti-oxidant effects of curry leaf,
Murraya koenigii and mustard seeds, Brassica juncea in rats fed with high fat diet. Indian J.
Expt. Biol. 35(2):148150.
Khanum F., K.R. Anilakumar, K.K.R. Sudarshana, K.R. Viswanathan, and K. Santhanam.
2000. Anticarcinogenic effects of curry leaves in dimethylhydrazine-treated rats. Plant
Foods Hum. Nutr. 55:347355.
Lisiewska Z. and W. Kmiecik. 1997. Effect of freezing and storage on quality factors in
Hamburg and leafy parsley. Food Chem. 60:633637.
Palaniswamy U.R. 2001. Asian horticultural crops and human dietetics. HortTechnology
11:504509.
Sommerburg O., J.E. Keunen, A.C. Bird, and F.J. van Kuijk. 1998. Fruits and vegetables
that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: The macular pigment in human eyes. British J.
Ophthalmol. 82:907910.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)

Traub
Leguminosae
Guar, Clusterbean, Gwaar ki phalli
Guar: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/C_tetragonoloba_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:16 PM]
Cydonia oblonga
Index| Search| Home
Cydonia oblonga Mill.

Rosaceae
Coines, Coing, Cydonian apple, Elephant apple,
Maja pahit, Ma-tum, Pineapple quince, Quince, Quitte, Vilvam
NewCROP has information from:
Food and feed crops of the United StatesMagness J.R. et al. 1971.
Outside links:
Insect Pollination of Quince from BeeCulture
Quince from Agroforestry News
Quince University of Georgia
Quince accessions available from the National Germplasm Repository, Corvallis, Oregon.
Quince from M. Grieve's Modern Herbal.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cydonia_oblonga_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:17 PM]
LEMONGRASS
LEMONGRASS
Family: Poaceae (Gramineae), Cymbopogon species
Lemongrass, a perennial herb widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics, designates two
different species, East Indian, Cymbopogon flexuosus (DC.) Stapf., and West Indian, Cymbopogon
citratus (DC. ex Nees) Stapf. East Indian lemongrass, also known as cochin or Malabar grass is
native to India, while West Indian lemongrass is native to southern India and Ceylon. The
lemongrasses are cultivated commercially in Guatemala, India, the People's Republic of China,
Paraguay, England, Sri Lanka, and other parts of Indochina, Africa, Central America, and South
America (11.1-73). The plant grows in dense clumps up to 2 meters in diameter and has leaves up
to 1 meter long.
The reported life zone for lemongrass is 18 to 29 degrees centigrade with an annual precipitation
of 0.7 to 4.1 meters with a soil pH of 5.0 to 5.8 (East Indian) or 4.3 to 8.4 (West Indian) (14.1-9).
The plants need a warm, humid climate in full sun. They grow well in sandy soils with adequate
drainage. Since the plants rarely flower or set seed, propagation is by root or plant division. The
plants are harvested mechanically or by hand about four times each year with the productive
populations lasting between four and eight years (14.1-9). Extensive breeding programs have
developed many varieties of lemongrass.
The quality of lemongrass oil is generally determined by the content of citral, the aldehyde
responsible for the lemon odor. Some other constituents of the essential oils are -terpineol,
myrcene, citronellol, methyl heptenone, dipentene, geraniol, limonene, nerol, and farnesol
(14.1-9). West Indian oil differs from East Indian oil in that it is less soluble in 70 percent alcohol
and has a slightly lower citral content (14.1-9).
Lemongrass is used in herbal teas and other nonalcoholic beverages in baked goods, and in
confections. Oil from lemongrass is widely used as a fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics, such as
soaps and creams. Citral, extracted from the oil, is used in flavoring soft drinks in scenting soaps
and detergents, as a fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics, and as a mask for disagreeable odors in
several industrial products. Citral is also used in the synthesis of ionones used in perfumes and
cosmetics (11.1-73, 14.1-9).
As a medicinal plant, lemongrass has been considered a carminative and insect repellent. West
Indian lemongrass is reported to have antimicrobial activity (1.8-84, 1.8-130). Oil of West Indian
lemongrass acts as a central nervous system depressant (7.6-187). Oil of East Indian lemongrass
has antifungal activity (1.8-132). The volatile oils may also have some pesticide and mutagenic
activities (11.1-96, 11.1-136).
Cymbopogon nardus is a source of citronella oil. Cymbopogon martinii is reportedly toxic to fungi
(1.8-53).
Lemongrass is generally recognized as safe for human consumption as a plant extract/essential oil
(21 CFR section 182.20 [1982]).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/LEMONGRASS.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:17 PM]
LEMONGRASS
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/LEMONGRASS.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:17 PM]
Cyperus rotundus
Motha or Nut Grass (Cyperus

rotundus)
Pankaj Oudhia
Scientific name: Cyperus rotundus L. syn. C. hexastachyos Rottb.
Family: Cyperaceae
English Name: Nut Grass
Common Indian Names
Gujarati: Motha
Hindi: Motha, Mutha
Canarese: Koranarigadde, Tungegaddo, Tungehullu
Marathi: Bimbal, Nagarmotha, Motha
Sanskrit: Bhadramusta, Granthi, Kachhda, Mustako, Sugandhi-granthila
Tamil: Korai
Telugu: Tungagaddi
Botanical Description: A perennial, stolaniferous, rhizomatus, halophytic sedge. Rhizome many,
slender; Tuber-white, succulent when young, hard and black when mature; stem-leafy at base
arising from a tuber. Culm-dark green, glabrous. Leaf dark green above, with reddish brown
sheaths, clustered at the base of stem. Inflorescence 3-9 spreading rays bearing tassels of few, large
spikelets; spikelet 20-40 flowered, red brown to almost black. Fruit oblong ovate.
Useful Parts: Tubers
Medicinal Uses: According to the Ayurveda, root is pungent, acrid, cooling, astringent, appetizer,
stomachic, anthelmintic and useful in treatment of leprosy, thirst, fever, blood diseases,
biliousness, dysentery, pruritis, pain, vomiting, epilepsy, opthalmia, erysipelas etc. According to
the Unani system of medicine, the root is diuretic, emmenagogue, diaphoretic, anthelmintic,
vulnerary and useful for ulcers and sores, fevers, dyspepsia, urinary concretions etc.
Other Uses
Useful in checking soil erosion.
The tuber yields an essential oil (0.5-0.9%), which is used in perfumery and incense.
Other Links
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/motha.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:18 PM]
Cyperus rotundus
Interactions with the traditional healers of Bagbahera region specialized in use of Gondla (Cyperus
rotundus) as medicine botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/133_gondla.html
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/motha.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:18 PM]
Cyperus papyrus
Cyperus papyrus L.
Cyperaceae
Papyrus
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Very important in ancient Egypt (as early as 2,400 BC), papyrus was used for food, medicine, fiber
and shelter. According to Tackholm and Drar (1973), Egyptians have used papyrus additionally for
formal bouquets funeral garlands, boats, cordage, fans, sandals, mattings corkage, boxes, and
paper. It was one of the most favorite plants of Ancient Egypt. The pith of papyrus was
recommended for food, while the starchy rhizomes and lowermost parts of the stem were cut off
and consumed raw, boiled or roasted. They were also chewn, sucked, and spit out, much as sugar
cane is done today. Papyrus was also a favorite ornament in ancient art and craft. Umbel
impressions were often used as handles for mirrors, fans, doors, chairs and various household
furniture. Papyrus stems were used for caulking seams in wooden ships. Papyrus mats are used for
making fences and huts. For paper, the ancients stripped the fibrous coverings off the stem, and slit
the inner pith into waferlike strips. Laid side by side, with others placed crosswise on top, the
strips were dampened, pressed, so the glue-like sap cemented them together, and dried into a sheet.
(NAS, 1976)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cyperus_papyrus.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:52:19 PM]
Cyperus papyrus
Folk Medicine
Galen, Dioscorides and later Islamic pharmacologists, e.g. Ibn Gulgul and El Ghafiqi, included
papyrus among medicinal plants. The pith was recommended for widening and drying of fistula.
The main use, anyhow, seems to have been confined to burnt papyrus sheets, the ash of which was
reputed to have the action of pulverised charcoal and used for certain eye diseases. Dioscorides (in
78 AD) writes that its ash checks malignant ulcers from spreading in the mouth or elsewhere.
Galen (129-200 AD) says that the plant is not used in a raw state but if macerated in vinegar and
burnt, the ash heals wounds. Europeans also list this among their folk cancer cures.
Chemistry
Glucose, fructose, unreduced polysaccharides and xylan are (List and Horhammer, 1969-1979). A
sample of the stems of papyrus representing the new growth of 1917 was forwarded to the Imperial
Institute, London, by the Ministry of Agriculture next year. The Institute reported that the results
of the investigation indicated that these stems only furnish a moderate yield of pulp of fair quality
which contained a quantity of parenchyma and was rather difficult to bleach. Pulp suitable for
brown paper was prepared from the stems by mild treatment, but only cream-colored paper could
be produced by treating the stems under more drastic conditions similar to those employed
technically for the manufacture of white paper.
Description
Tall, robust, leafless aquatic, up to 4 m high. Culms stout, smooth, trigonous, surrounded at base
with coriaceous, large acuminate sheaths. Umbel-rays numerous, filiform, 10-45 cm long, each
surrounded at base with a narrow, brown, cylindrical sheath, up to 3 cm long. Secondary umbels
3-5-rayed, supported by narrow, elongated bracts. Spike 1-2 cm long, 6-10 mm broad. Spikelets
6-10 mm long, 1 mm broad, 6-16-flowered.
Germplasm
The plant cultivated in Egypt belongs to the subsp. antiquorum (Willd.) Chiov. It differs from the
type by its lax, shortly peduncled spikes, also by the connective which is not or hardly exserted
above the anther halves (in type producing a point 1-3 times as long as the breadth of the anther).
(2n = ca 102)
Distribution
The papyrus reeds form vast stands in swamps, in shallow lakes, and along stream banks
throughout Africa. It is considered a weed in the Sudan, Dahomey and Egypt. Uganda has ca 6,500
km2 of permanent swamp or wetlands, much of it covered in papyrus. Occurs also in Sicily and
Palestine. According to Baumann (1960) the plant grows over a wide area bounded roughly by the
Cyperus papyrus
38th and 26th parallels on the north and south, and by the 65th and 32nd on the east and west, but
is virtually absent in the lower Nile marshes where it flourished in ancient times.
Ecology
Many African swamps known as the Sudd in Central Africa, are dominated by papyrus thickets,
which totally block navigation. It is estimated that the Sudd areas of the White Nile, and the
"Papyrus Swamps" around Lake Kioga and Victoria are responsible for the loss of 50% of that
river's water through evaporation and plant transpiration. Engineers plan to shortcut the Sudd and
hence increase Egypt's summer water supply. In Egypt the plant flowers throughout the year,
except winter. Papyrus is estimated to range from Subtropical to Tropical Desert to Wet Forest
Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 1-42 dm, annual temperatures of 20-30C, and pH of
6.0-8.5.
Cultivation
Propagation is done in Egypt by rootstock divisions any time in spring and summer. It is recorded,
however, to produce fertile seeds under our climatic conditions. In Egypt, it is sufficient to keep
seed pots under boxes covered with glass to obtain the required result. Seedlings can be raised
from seed. No escape seedlings, however, have been found in Egypt, and it is said that under the
most favorable conditions seeds do not germinate without the intervention of man. The rootstock
should remain submerged under water, especially during summer, or at least, the soil must be kept
sufficiently moist during the growing season to obtain a remunerative crop of fairly thick and long
shoots. Plants grown in ordinary field beds are weaker than those grown in deeper channels at the
same garden.
Harvesting
No data available.

A C4 plant, this species has reported to produce above-ground biomass of 30-50 MT/ha/yr, highest
of ten emergent species studied by Kresovich et al. (1981), and higher than the 15-33 MT they
report for corn and sweet sorghum. They estimate, in 1979 dollars, the costs of cultivating such
emergents as $70-580/ha for planting 138-297 for crop maintenance, 37-199 for harvesting, and
55-234/ha for drying and densification.
Energy
Since early this century, Egypt has devoted great effort to clear the swamp vegetation which could,
of course, be converted to an energy resource. Cleared channels are blocked again with the
Cyperus papyrus
vegetation. Still harvesting papyrus for commercial use is seldom seriously considered, Westlake
(1963) reports standing DM biomass as high as 70 MT/ha.
Biotic Factors
No data available.
References
Baumann, B.B. 1960. The botanical aspects of ancient Egyptian enbalming and burial.
Econ. Bot. 14(1):84-104.
Kresovich et al. (1981)
N.A.S. 1976. Making aquatic weeds useful. National Academy of Sciences, Washington,
DC.
Tackholm, V. and Drar, M. 1973. Flora of Egypt. vol. II. Otto Koeltz Antiquariat. Reprint.
Originally published 1950.
Westlake, D.F. 1963. Comparisons of plant productivity. Biol. Rev. 38:385-425.
Cyphomandra betacea
Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.)

Sendt.
syn. Solanum betaceum Cav.
Solanaceae
Tamarillo, Tomarillo, Tree tomato, Palo de
tomate, Tomate de arbol
NewCROP has Tamarillo - Tree tomato information at:
Tree TomatoJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
"New" SolanumsCharles Heiser and Gregory Anderson
Outside links:
Tamarillo can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
TREE TOMATO "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the California Rare
Tamarillo info from the Department of Food and Agriculture, California.
Fruit nutritional information from Freida's Inc.
There are about 30 Cyphomandra species from the American tropics. Other Cyphomandra species
sometimes cultivated are:
Cyphomandra casana - Casana
C. crassifolia - Mountain tomato
C. fragrans - Guava tamarillo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Cyphomandra_betacea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:19 PM]
Ladyslipper
Ladyslipper
(1) Cypripedium pubescens Willd.; (2) C.
parviflorum Salisb.
Other common names.(1) Common yellow ladyslipper, large
yellow ladyslipper, yellow ladyslipper, yellow moccasin flower,
Venus's-shoe, Venus's-cup, yellow Indian shoe, American valerian,
nerveroot, male nervine, yellow Noah's-ark, yellows, monkeyflower,
umbil-root, yellow umbil; (2) small yellow ladyslipper.
Habitat and range.Both of these species frequent bogs and wet
places in deep shady woods and thickets. The large yellow ladyslipper
may be found from Nova Scotia south to Alabama and west to
Nebraska and Missouri. The range for the small yellow ladyslipper
extends from Newfoundland south along the mountains to Georgia and
west to Missouri, Washington, and British Columbia.
Description.These plants are readily recognized by the peculiar
shape of their flowers. These appear in May and June, are very showy,
and have a curiously formed lip which resembles an inflated bag, pale Figure 71.Common yellow
ladyslipper (Cypripedium
or bright yellow in color, variously striped or blotched with purple. In pubescens)
Cypripedium pubescens this lip is 1 to 2 inches in length, while in C.
parviflorum it is smaller and somewhat more prominently striped. Both species grow from 1 to 2
feet in height and have rather large leaves from 2 to 6 inches long and from 1 to 3 inches wide,
with numerous parallel veins. The rootstock is horizontal, crooked, and fleshy with numerous
fibrous roots. It has a heavy disagreeable odor and a sweetish, bitter, and somewhat pungent taste.
Part used.The rootstock and roots, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/ladyslipper.html [5/16/2004 3:52:20 PM]
Dalbergia sissoo
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC.

Fabaceae
Sisu, Sissoo, Indian rosewood
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Timber tree, the young branches and foliage eaten by livestock. After teak, it is the most important
cultivated timber tree in India, planted on roadsides, and as a shade tree for tea plantations. Sissoo
makes first class cabinetry and furniture. It is used for plywood, agricultural, and musical
instruments, skis, carvings, boats, floorings, etc. The leaves are used for fodder. In the U.S.
(Arizona, Florida) it is said to be one of the most desirable shade trees for streets and backyards. It
is grown in the sewage-irrigated greenbelt arount Khartoum, Sudan.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be stimulant, sissoo is a folk remedy for excoriations, gonorrhea, and skin ailments
(Duke and Wain, 1981). Ayurvedics prescribe the leaf juice for eye ailments, considering the wood
and bark abortifacient, anthelmintic, antipyretic, apertif, aphrodisiac, expectorant, and refrigerant.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Dalbergia_sissoo.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:52:21 PM]
Dalbergia sissoo
They use the wood and bark for anal disorders, blood diseases, burning sensations, dysentery,
dyspepsia, leucoderma, and skin ailments. Yunani use the wood for blood disorders, burning
sensations, eye and nose disorders, scabies, scalding urine, stomach problems, and syphilis. The
alterative wood is used in India for boils, eruptions, leprosy and nausea (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975).
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the leaves contain on a zero-moisture basis 12.6-24.1 g protein, 2.0-4.9 g fat, 42.1-54.8
g N-free extract, 12.5-26.1 g fiber, 6.6-12.0 g ash, 840-2870 mg Ca, 120-420 mg P. On a dry basis,
the silage contain 14.0% CP 3.6% EE, 30.0% CF, and 34.1% NFE. Fresh leaves from Nigeria
contained (ZMB) 21.8% CP, 15.6 g CF, 8.7 g ash, 3.6 g EE, 50.3 g NFE, 1,180 mg Ca, and 250
mg P per 100 g (Gohl, 1981). Pods contain 2% tannin.
Description
Tree 15-35 m tall, deciduous, the sometimes >2m, the clearbole up to 12 m, more often with
crooked trunk and light crown. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, the leaflets 3-5, alternate,
orbicular, abruptly acuminate, puberulous but glabrescent, 3.5-6.5 cm long, not quite so broad.
Flowers sessile, or short-stalked in axillary panicles shorter than the leaves. Sepals 4-5 mm long,
pubescent, the lobes short. Petals yellow, 6-8 mm long. Ovary pubescent; ovules 2-4. Pods to 10
cm long, 1.5 cm broad, the stipe longer than the calyx. Seeds 1-4.
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, sissoo, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
disease, drought, frost, insects, porous soils, salt, sand, savanna, sewage, and wind. On clay soils
the growth is stunted. (2n = 20)
Distribution
Indigenous to India, Nepal, and Pakistan, the tree is now widely planted in the tropics. Said to be
escaping from cultivation in tropical Florida. It is grown at Cayey, El Verde, and Guayabol in
Puerto Rico.
Ecology
Ranging from sealevel to >1500 m, it can stand temperatures from below freezing to nearly 50C.
Apparently adapted to savanna woodlands where annual rainfall is 7-20 dm with droughts of 3-4
months duration (NAS, 1979). Sometimes gregarious in alluvial forests along the rivers of the
subhimalayan tract (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976). Ranging from Subtropical Thorn to Moist through
Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, sissoo is expected to tolerate annual precipitation of 6 to
40 dm, annual temperature of 21 to 28C, and pH of 6-8.
Dalbergia sissoo
Cultivation
Directly sown seed attain 15-25 cm after the first rains, 90-120 cm after the second rains in India.
For seedling transplantation, only tender plants with small taproots should be used. Root suckers
transplant satisfactorily in dry climates. Planting should be in spring (March in India). Raising of
monocultural sissoo is discouraged. Stump planting is widely employed in irrigated plantations in
India. Trenches are dug ca 1.5 m apart, earth thrown a little away from the trenches and the berms
used for sowing seed or pod segments. Sowing is done on both sides of the trenches, between
middle March and middle June, earlier sowing being preferred. Plants are big enough by the
beginning of the next season to yield stumps. Plants are pulled out and stems and roots chopped
off leaving 3-5 cm of the former and 22-35 m of the latter; ther lateral roots are also removed.
Stumps thicker than 2.5 cm and thinner than 2 cm diam. at the collar are rejected. The yield of
stumps is 160,000 per ha. For transport over long distances, stumps are made into bundles,
wrapped in leaves or grass, sprinkled with water, and carried in gunny bags. Stumps are planted in
spring, not earlier than the third week of March, perhaps April. In no case should it be put off to
August. Where subsoil water is low or rainfall poor and uncertain, irrigation is essential. Stumps
are planted along trenches or on berms of pits and the field is irrigated. Shallow and frequent
irrigation or constant flooding is harmful and induces superficial root formation. Depending upon
the weather and the condition of plants, 10-15 irrigations are adequate in the first season and 4-6 in
the second. Under proper irrigation, sissoo roots tap the subsoil water within 2 years. Irrigation in
later years is required only for supplementing subsoil water supplies.
Harvesting
Trees may be grazed or cut as needed. Young trees coppice vigorously and reproduce vigorously
from suckers.

According to the Wealth of India, irrigated plantations yield fair quantities of timber and high
returns of fuel. In irrigated plantations trees may attain a girth of 1.2 m in ca 25 years. A height of
7 m has been reported in 20 months. Based on studies of 40 natural riverine sites, it was concluded
that 10 year stands yield about 10 m3/ha, 20 year ca 100 m3/ha (5m3/ha/yr), 30 year old stands ca
210 m3/ha (7 m3/ha/yr), 40 year old stands ca 2 80 m3/ha (7 m3/ha/yr), 50 year old stands 370
m3/ha (7.5 m3/ha/yr), and 60 year old stands 460 m3/ha (ca 7.5 m3ha/yr) (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976).
Pakistan has more than 100,000 ha of sissoo plantation.
Energy
The calorific value of the sapwood is 4,908 calories or 8,835 Btu, the heartwood 5,191 calories or
9,326 Btu (probably per cu. ft., but not specified in WOI). The wood is an excellent fuel,
eminently suitable for making charcoal. Heartwood yields 5.35% of an oil which, on cooling,
Dalbergia sissoo
approaches the texture of vaseline. It is suitable as a lubricant for heavy machinery.
Biotic Factors
Roots are said to be so astringent as not to be eaten by ants or rodents, at least rats. Browne (1968)
lists: Fungi. Auricularia auricula-judae, Colletoglocum sissoo, Diplodia dalbergiae, Fomes
durissimus, Fomes robiniae, Fusarium oxysporum, Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma lucidum,
Hypoxylon hypomiltum, Hypoxylon investiens, Hypoxylon rubiginosum, Irpex flavus, Marasmius
equierinis, Maravalia achroa, Meliola bicornis, Mycosphaerella dalbergiae, Nectria
haematococca, Phellinus gilvus, Phyllachora dalbergiae, Phyllachora spissa, Phyllactinia guttata,
Phyllosticta sissoo, Polysporus anebus, Poria ambigua, Rosellinia aquila, Schizophyllum
commune, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Trametes corrugata, Uredo sissoo. Angiospermae. Cuscuta
reflexa, Dendrophthoe falcata, Loranthus pulverulentus, Tapinanthus dodoneifolius, Tapinanthus
sp., Tolypanthus involucratus. Coleoptera. Adoretus caliginosus, Amblyrrhinus poricollis,
Anomala dalbergiae, Apate monachus, Apate terebrans, Apoderus blandus, Apoderus sissu,
Aulacophora foveicollis, Batocera rufomaculata, Bruchus pisorum, Dorysthenes hugeli,
Gonocephalum depressum, Halyzia sanscrita, Illeis cincta, Mimastra cyanura, Myllocerus
blandus, Myllocerus cardoni, Myllocerus discolor, Myllocerus lefroyi, Myllocerus sabulosus,
Myllocerus setulifer, Myllocerus transmarinus, Myllocerus undecimpustulatus, Perissus
dalbergiae, Platymycterus sjoestedti, Rhinyptia indica, Sinoxylon anale, Tanymecus hispidus.
Hemiptera. Acaudaleyrodes rachipora, Aleurolobus marlatti, Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidoproctus
bifurcatus, Atelocera stictica, Dialeuropora decempuncta, Drosicha dalbergiae, Drosicha
mangiferae, Drosicha octocaudata, Drosicha stebbingi, Gargara mixta, Gargara varicolor,
Hemaspidoproctus cinerea, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Kerria lacca, Myzus persicae, Nipaecoccus
vastator, Oxyrhachis formidabilis, Oxyrhachis mangiferana, Toxoptera aurantii. Isoptera.
Bifiditermes beesoni. Lepidoptera. Anomis sabulifera, Archips micaceanus, Ascotis selenaria,
Bucculatrix mendax, Buzura suppressaria, Caloptilia tetratypa, Charaxes fabius, Cladobrostis
melitricha, Cusiala raptaria, Cydia jaculatrix, Dasychira dalbergiae, Dasychira mendosa,
Dichomeris eridantis, Eresia hylas, Euproctis scintillans, Euproctis sulphurescens, Euproctis
virguncula, Hamodes propitia, Heliothis zea, Hypena iconicalis, Hypoglaucitis benenotata,
Hyposidra talaca, Leucoptera stenograpta, Pandesma anysa, Philodoria laeta, Plecoptera
ferrilineata, Plecoptera reflexa, Sataspes scotti, Thosea cana, Trichoplusia orichalcea. Orthoptera.
Brachytrupes portentosus, Chrotogonus spp., Gymnogryllus erythrocephalus, Gymnogryllus
humeralis, Kraussaria angulifera, Schistocerca gregaria. Mammalia. Bos taurus, Ovis aries,
Presbytis entellus. Nematoda. Meloidogyne javanica. The tree is sometimes killed by mistletoe.
Fusarium wilt is often fatal in India, especially in monoculture, or in polyculture with other
susceptible species (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976).
References
vols. New Delhi.
Dalbergia sissoo

New Delhi.
Washington, DC.
Dallisgrass
Dallisgrass
Gramineae Paspalum dilatatum Poir.
This is a major pasture grass in the Cotton Belt. It was introduced from South
America around 1875. It is an upright-growing bunchgrass, which requires moist soil. It is not
hardy north of the Cotton Belt. It does not form a dense sod, so is well suited to mixed planting
with legumes or other grasses. It is palatable and nutritious. It tolerates fairly close grazing, and
should be grazed to prevent accumulation of dead leaves and stems. It is susceptible to ergot
fungus which is poisonous to livestock.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Dallisgrass.html [5/16/2004 3:52:22 PM]
Taraxacum officinale
Taraxacum officinale Wiggers

Dandelion
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Taraxacum_officinale_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:22 PM]
Ziziphus jujuba
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

Rhamnaceae
Jujube, Ber, Chinese Date, Chinese jujube,
Chinese red date, Common jujube, Cottony jujube, Indian jujube,
Tsao
NewCROP has Jujube information at:
Chinese MedicinalsAlbert Y. Leung
And outside links to more Jujube info:
JUJUBE "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare Fruit
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ziziphus_jujuba_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:23 PM]
Phoenix dactylifera
Phoenix dactylifera L.
Arecaceae
Date, Bahri date, Date palm, Deglet Noor date, Dry
date, Madjool date, Red date, Semisoft date, Soft date, Zahidi
date
DateJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phoenix_dactylifera_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:23 PM]
Datura spp.
Datura spp.
Datura stramonium L.
Solanaceae
NewCROP has the following information:
Jimson weed A.F. Seivers, The Herb Hunters Guide
Datura or Dhattura, Datura stramonium L.Pankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/datura.html [5/16/2004 3:52:24 PM]
Pongamia pinnata
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Syn.: Pongamia glabra Vent.
Derris indica Bennet
Fabaceae
Pongam, Indian beech
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The pongam tree is cultivated for two purposes: (1) as an ornamental in gardens and along avenues
and roadsides, for its fragrant Wisteria-like flowers, and (2) as a host plant for lac insects. It is
appreciated as an ornamental throughout coastal India and all of Polynesia. Well-decomposed
flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. In the Philippines the
bark is used for making strings and ropes. The bark also yields a black gum that is used to treat
wounds caused by poisonous fish. In wet areas of the tropics the leaves serve as green manure and
as fodder. The black malodorous roots contain a potent fish-stupefying principle. In primitive areas
of Malaysia and India root extracts are applied to abscesses; other plant parts, especially crushed
seeds and leaves are regarded as having antiseptic properties. The seeds contain pongam oil, a
bitter, red brown, thick, non-drying, nonedible oil, 2736% by weight, which is used for tanning
leather, soap, as a liniment to treat scabies, herpes, and rheumatism and as an illuminating oil
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pongamia_pinnata.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:52:25 PM]
Pongamia pinnata
(Burkill, 1966). Also used for lubrication and indigenous medicine. Pongam oil showed inhibitory
effects on Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus pulilus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas
mangiferae, Salmonella typhi, Sarcina lutea, Staphylococcus albus, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Xanthomonas campestris, but did not inhibit Shigella sp. (Chaurasia and Jain, 1978). The oil has a
high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid
constituents, pongamiin and karanjin. The wood is yellowish white, coarse, hard, and beautifully
grained, but is not durable. Use of the wood is limited to cabinetmaking, cart wheels, posts, and
fuel (Allen and Allen, 1981). Both the oil and residues are toxic. Still the presscake is described as
a "useful poultry feed." Seeds are used to poison fish. Still it is recommended as a shade tree for
pastures and windbreak for tea. The leaves are said to be a valuable lactagogue fodder, especially
in arid regions. It is sometimes intercropped with pasture, the pasture grasses said to grow well in
its shade (NAS, 1980a). Dried pongam leaves are used in stored grains to repel insects. Leaves
often plowed green manure, thought to reduce nematode infestations. Its into ground as spreading
roots make it valuable for checking erosion and stabilizing dunes. Twigs are used as a chewstick
for cleaning the teeth. The ash of the wood is used in dyeing.
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the fruits and sprouts are used in folk remedies for abdominal
tumors in India, the seeds for keloid tumors in Sri Lanka, and a powder derived from the plant for
tumors in Vietnam. In sanskritic India, seeds were used for skin ailments. Today the oil is used as
a liniment for rheumatism. Leaves are active against Micrococcus; their juice is used for colds,
coughs, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, gonorrhea, and leprosy. Roots are used for cleaning gums,
teeth, and ulcers. Bark is used internally for bleeding piles. Juices from the plant, as well as the oil,
are antiseptic. It is said to be an excellent remedy for itch, herpes, and pityriasis versicolor.
Powdered seeds are valued as a febrifuge, tonic and in bronchitis and whooping cough. Flowers
are used for diabetes. Bark has been used for beriberi. Juice of the root is used for cleansing foul
ulcers and closing fistulous sores. Young shoots have been recommended for rheumatism.
Ayurvedic medicine described the root and bark as alexipharmic, anthelmintic, and useful in
abdominal enlargement, ascites, biliousness, diseases of the eye, skin, and vagina, itch, piles,
splenomegaly, tumors, ulcers, and wounds; the sprouts, considered alexeteric, anthelmintic,
apertif, and stomachic, for inflammation, piles and skin diseases; the leaves, anthelmintic,
digestive, and laxative, for inflammations, piles and wounds; the flowers for biliousness and
diabetes; the fruit and seed for keratitis, piles, urinary discharges, and diseases of the brain, eye,
head, and skin, the oil for biliousness, eye ailments, itch, leucoderma, rheumatism, skin diseases,
worms, and wounds. Yunani use the ash to strengthen the teeth, the seed, carminative and
depurative, for chest complaints, chronic fevers, earache, hydrocele, and lumbago; the oil, styptic
and vermifuge, for fever, hepatalgia, leprosy, lumbago, piles, scabies, and ulcers.
Chemistry
Reported to contain alkaloids demethoxy-kanugin, gamatay, glabrin, glabrosaponin, kaempferol,
kanjone, kanugin, karangin, neoglabrin, pinnatin, pongamol, pongapin, quercitin, saponin,
-sitosterol, and tannin. Air-dry kernels have 19.0% moisture, 27.5% fatty oil, 17.4% protein,
Pongamia pinnata
6.6% starch, 7.3% crude fiber, and 2.4% ash. Fatty acid composition: palmitic, 3.77.9%, stearic
2.48.9, arachidic 2.24.7, behenic 4.25.3, lignoceric 1.13.5, oleic, 44.571.3, linoleic
10.818.3, and eicosenoic 9.512.4%. Destructive distillation of the wood yields, on a dry weight
basis: charcoal 31.0%, pyroligneous acid 36.69, acid 4.3%, ester 3.4%, acetone 1.9%, methanol
1.1%, tar 9.0%, pitch and losses 4.4%, and gas 0.12 cu m/kg. Manurial values of leaves and twigs
are respectively: nitrogen 1.16, 0.71; phosphorus (P2O5), 0.14, 0.11; potash (K2O), 0.49, 0.62; and
lime (CaO), 1.54, 1.58%. Such manure reduces the incidence of Meloidogyne javanica.
Description
Fast growing, glabrous, deciduous, tree to ca 25 m tall, branchesdrooping; trunk diameter to 60
cm; bark smooth, gray. Leaves imparipinnate, shiny; young leaves pinkish red, mature leaves
glossy, deep green; leaflets 59, the terminal leaflet larger than the others; stipels none; stipules
caducous. Flowers fragrant, white to pinkish, paired along rachis in axillary, pendent, long
racemes or panicles; calyx campanulate or cup-shaped, truncate, short-dentate, lowermost lobe
sometimes longer; standard suborbicular, broad, usually with 2 inflexed, basal ears, thinly
silky-haired outside; wings oblique, long, somewhat adherent to the obtuse keel; keel petals
coherent at apex; stamens monadelphous, vexillary stamen free at the base but joined with others
into a closed tube; ovary subsessile to short-stalked, pubescent; ovules 2, rarely 3; style filiform,
upper half incurved, glabrous; stigma small, terminal. Pod short stalked, oblique-oblong, flat,
smooth, thickly leathery to subwoody, indehiscent, 1-seeded; seed thick, reniform (Allen and
Allen, 1981).
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, pongam, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
drought, frost, heat, limestone, salinity, sand, and shade. (2n = 22)
Distribution
An Indomalaysian species, a medium-sized subevergreen tree, common on alluvial and coastal
situations from India to Fiji, from sealevel to 1200 m. Now found in Australia, Florida, Hawaii,
India, Malaysia, Oceania, Philippines, and Seychelles, for example.
Ecology
Probably ranges from Tropical Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones.
Withstanding temperatures slightly below 0C to 50C and annual rainfall of 525 dm, the tree
grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, but will grow in most soil types,
even with its roots in salt water.
Pongamia pinnata
Cultivation
Seeds, remaining viable for sometime, require no special scarification. Direct sowing is usually
successful. Seedlings transplant easily from the nursery after about a year. Root suckers are rather
plentiful as well. It is a rapid-growing coppice species that can be cloned.
Harvesting
Pods are collected and shells removed by hand. Grown in 30-year rotations for fuel in West
Bengal.

Trees of ten reach adult height in 4 or 5 years, bearing at the age of 47 years. A single tree is said
to yield 990 kg seed per tree, indicating a yield potential of 9009000 kg seed/ha, 25% of which
might be rendered as oil (assuming 100 trees/ha). In general, Indian mills extract 2427.5% oil,
village crushers, 1822% oil.
Energy
Wherever it is grown, the wood (calorific value 4,600 kcal/kg) is burned for cooking fuel (NAS,
1980a). The thick oil from the seeds is used for illumination, as a kerosene substitute, and
lubrication. It would seem that with upgraded germplasm one could target for 2 MT oil and 5 MT
firewood per hectare per year on a renewable basis. The oil has been tried as fuel in diesel engines,
showing a good thermal efficiency (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Biotic Factors
Two rhizobial strains produced nodules on 18 species of 12 different genera in the cowpea
miscellany. The strains, culturally and physiologically typical of slow-growing rhizobia, elicited
ineffective responses on Clitoria ternatea and Stizolobium utile. One was ineffective on Lespedeza
stipulacea and Samanea saman. Browne (1968) lists: Viruses. Sandal Spike Virus. Fungi.
Fusicladium pongamiae, Ganoderma lucidum, Phyllachora pongamiae, Ravenelia hobsoni,
Ravenelia stictica. Angiospermae. Cuscuta reflexa, Loranthus sp. (?). Acarina. Eriophyes cheriani.
Diptera. Microdiplosis pongamiae, Myricomyia pongamiae. Hemiptera. Coptosoma cribrarium,
Drosicha stebbingi, Drosichiella tamarinda. Lepidoptera. Acrocercops anthracuris, Amphion
floridensis, Cydia balanoptycha, Cydia perfricta, Eresia jumbah, Indarbela tetraonis, Jamides
celeno, Phyllonorycter virgulata. Orthoptera. Schistocerca gregaria. Thysanoptera.
Megalurothrips distalis.
Pongamia pinnata
References
812 p.
Chaurasia, S.C. and Jain, P.C. 1978. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of four medicinal
plants. Indian J. Hosp. Pharm. 15(6):166168.
vols. New Delhi.
(Forsk.) Stapf.
Poaceae
Diaz bluestem, Marvel
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dichanthium_annulatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:26 PM]
Digitalis spp.
Digitalis spp.
Scrophulariaceae
Foxglove
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Digitalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:26 PM]
Digitaria decumbens
Digitaria decumbens Stent

Poaceae
Pangola grass, Slenderstem,
Transvala digitgrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Digitaria_decumbens_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:27 PM]
Dimocarpus longan
Dimocarpus longan Lour.

syn: Euphoria longan (Lour.) Steud.
Sapindaceae
Cat's-eye, Dragon's-eye, Longan, Long an, Longyen, Lungan
LonganJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dimocarpus_longan_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:28 PM]
Dimorphotheca pluvialis
Dimorphotheca pluvialis (L.)

Moench
Asteraceae or Compositae
Dimorphotheca pluvialis: A new source of hydroxy fatty acid. Lysbeth Hof, 1996.In: J. Janick
(ed.), Progress in new crops. p. 372-377. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.
See: Dimorphotheca In: Economic evaluation of new oilseed crops for The Netherlands.
Boswinkel, G., J.T.P. Derksen, and F.P. Cuperus. 1996. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops.
p. 296-299. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Dimorphotheca See: Perspective from Europe, by Louis J.M. van Soest Centre for Plant Breeding
and Reproductive Research
Dimorphotheca See: Characterization and Processing Research for Increased Industrial
Applicability of New and Traditional Crops: A European Perspective W.M.J. van Gelder, F.P.
Cuperus, J.T.P. Derksen, B.G. Muuse, and J.E.G. van Dam
Dimorphotheca seeds contain about 20% oil, with 60-65% of dimorphecolic acid - a highly
reactive C18 fatty acid with one hydroxy-group and two conjugated double bonds. Experimental
seed yields are about 1.2-1.7 tons/hectare.
last update April 23, 1998 by bha
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dimorphotheca_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:28 PM]
Dioscorea batatas
Dioscorea batatas Deene.

Dioscorea alata L.
Dioscorea cayenesis Lam.
Dioscorea rotundata Poir.
Dioscoreaceae
Yam
Outside Links:
YamFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Yam GermplasmLink to the
publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
YamDescriptors for YamLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Dioscorea_batatas_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:29 PM]
Name Mapuey
Name Mapuey
Cush Cush, Yampie, Napi
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea trifida L.f.
Tropical herb with large leaves which are 10 inches in length and 3 to 5 lobed. The edible
subterranean tubers are small but of superior quality.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/NameMapuey.html [5/16/2004 3:52:29 PM]
Wild Yam
Wild Yam
Dioscorea villosa L.
Synonym.Dioscorea paniculata Michx.
Other common names.Dioscorea, colicroot, rheumatism root,
devil's-bones.
Habitat and range.Wild yam grows in moist thickets, trailing over
adjacent shrubs and bushes, its range extending from Rhode Island to
Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. It is most common in the
central and southern portions of the United States.
Description.The wild yam is a vine growing to a length of 15 feet
with a smooth stem and heart-shaped leaves from 2 to 6 inches long
and 1 to 4 inches wide, hairy on the under side, borne on long, slender
stems. The small, greenish-yellow flowers are produced from June to
July, the male flowers being borne in drooping clusters about 3 to 6
Figure 120.Wild yam
inches long and the female flowers in drooping, spikelike heads. The (Dioscorea villosa)
fruit, which is a yellowish-green 3-lobed capsule, ripens in September and remains on the vine for
some time during the winter. The rootstock runs horizontally underneath the surface of the ground.
It is only about one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter.
Part used.The rootstock, generally collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/yam.html [5/16/2004 3:52:30 PM]
Diospyros kaki
Diospyros kaki L.f.

Ebonaceae
Kaki, Japanese Persimmon, Oriental
Persimmon, Sharon Fruit
NewCROP has Kaki information at:
Japanese PersimmonJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
New Subtropical Tree Crops in CaliforniaLouise Ferguson and
Marylu Arpaia
And outside links to more Kaki info:
KAKI "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the
the California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including
Growing Oriental Persimmons in North Carolina
Link to Diospyros virginiana,

the American Persimmon:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Diospyros_kaki_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:31 PM]
Diospyros virginiana
Index| Search| Home
Diospyros virginiana L.
Ebonaceae
Persimmon
NewCROP has Persimmon information at:
Persimmons HO-108 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
And outside links to more Persimmon info:
Statistical Persimmon Information
Link to Diospyros kaki, Kaki, or the Japanese or Oriental Persimmon:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Diospyros_virginiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:32 PM]
Diplotaxis
Index|Search|Home
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.

Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC.
Arrugula, Rocket, Roquette, Rucola, Rughetta
Two species along with Eruca sativa known under the collective name Arrugula, Rocket,
Roquette, Rucoloa, Rughetta.
Arugula: A Promising Specialty Leaf VegetableMario Morales and Jules Janick
Outside links:
Rocket: A Mediterranean Crop For The World from the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.: a diploid and perennial species, in the sense that the roots can
survive winters and produce new sprouts in the next spring; it flowers from late spring to autumn
and its seeds are generally ready for collecting in autumn. It seems to be very well adapted to harsh
and poor soils, and often it can compete well with other species in calcareous shallow soils. This
species has succulent leaves and is much apprciated in cuisine. In some Italian areas D. tenuifolia
is also cultivated, but it is mostly collected from the wild and sold in small bunches in local
markets.
Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC.: polyploid and perennial, in the same sense as D. tenuifolia. It flowers
from summer to autumn and its seeds are ready for sollecting in autumn. It grows in similar
habitats as D. tenuifolia and is also collected from the wild to be sold in the markets. It seems less
adapted to cultivation because of its procumbent growth habit, which is the main character
distinguishing it fromD. tenuifolia.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Diplotaxis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:32 PM]
Tonka bean oil
Tonka bean oil

Leguminosae Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd.
The oil is obtained from the seed of the above species, a tree native to Central
and South America, but now cultivated to some extent in other tropical areas. The fruit is a pod
about 2 inches long, containing a single fragrant seed. The seed after curing is used chiefly for
scenting tobacco and snuff. The non-drying oil is used in flavoring.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Tonka_bean_oil.html [5/16/2004 3:52:33 PM]
DITTANY OF CRETE
DITTANY OF CRETE
Family: Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Origanum dictamnus L.
Dittany of Crete, Origanum dictamnus L. (formerly Amaracus dictamnus Benth. or Amaracus
tomentosus Moench.), is one of the best-known healing herbs of folklore. Native to the mountains
of Crete and also called dittany or dictamnus, this perennial plant can reach a height of 0.3 meters.
Procumbent white, woolly stems, usually trailing, develop pink or purplish flowers in the summer.
The small gray leaves have a velvety texture.
Of minor importance today, dittany of Crete is primarily used as a potted plant or as an ornamental
plant in garden borders. The flowers have been used in herbal teas, but the plant has no culinary
value. As a medicinal plant, the herb has been utilized to heal wounds, soothe pain, cure snake
bites, and ease childbirth. In addition, it has been used as a renedy against gastric or stomach
ailments and rheumatism.
Dictamnus albus L. (Dictamnus fraxinella Pers.), known as dittany and fraxinella, is often
confused with dittany of Crete. This perennial plant is of the Rutaceae family and reaches a height
of approximately one meter. Grown as a garden plant with showy pink, purple or white flowers, its
dried leaves can be used in teas. The plant has been used medicinally as a diuretic, emmenagogue,
and expectorant. However, the seed pods can cause contact dermatitis. The plant is known as the
gas plant because it will often give a burst of flame when a lighted match is held beneath the
flower cluster (14.1-3).
Cunila origanoides Britt. is called dittany, Maryland dittany, and stone-mint. This low-growing
perennial with a minty flavor is native to the eastern United States. The plant, which has been
classified as Satureja origanoides L. and Cunila mariana L., is primarily used as an ornamental
border in gardens, although the leaves may be used in herbal teas.
Dittany of Crete is generally recognized as safe for human consumption as a natural flavoring (21
CFR section 172.510 [1982]).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/DITTANY_OF_CRETE.html [5/16/2004 3:52:33 PM]
Dock
Dock
Spinach dock, Herb patience
Polygonaceae Rumex patientia L.
Spinach dock is a strong growing perennial, reaching 5 feet when in flower. Rosette leaves are 8 to
12 inches long, tapering at both ends. Stem leaves are rounded at the base. Leaves are used as
greens, especially leaves which develop in early spring. Leaf exposure is similar to that of spinach.
Season, seed to harvest: 4 to 5 months. Leaves available in early spring from established roots.
Production in U.S.: No data. Negligible.
Use: Pot herb greens.
Part of plant consumed: Leaves only Last update February 18, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Dock.html [5/16/2004 3:52:34 PM]
Leucas cephalotes
Dronpushpi or Guma (Leucas

cephalotes): A Useful Weed
Pankaj Oudhia
Leucas cephalotes (Roxb.) Spreng, Labiatae. is one of the common weeds found in Central and
South India. It is upland rainy season weed. In India, it is commonly known as Dronpushpi (Dron
= bunds, Pushpi = flowering plant). It is commonly occur in Drona (earthen berm). Other names in
different Indian languages include Barahalkura (Bengali); Gubo, Kubi (Gujrati); Dhurpisag,
Guma, Gumma, Goma (Hindi); Devakhumba (Marathi) and Peedalumni (Telugu) (Krishnamurthy,
1993). The genus Leucas includes about 100 Asiatic and African species. Common species found
in India are L. aspera Spreng., L. linifolia Spreng, and L. uritcaefolia R. Br. (Caius 1986).
Although Dronpushpi is a problematic weed for farmers, it is a tasty potherb for many rural people
and a valuable medicinal herb for herbalists and is cultivated for herbal drugs in some parts of
India. In village markets. Dronpushpi can be seen easily in rainy season. (Oudhi 1999, 2000;
Oudhia and Tripath 1998, 1999, 2000; Oudhia et al. 1999). In tribal regions of India, Dronpushpi
is a valuable drug for snake bite. a property reported in ancient Indian literatures, and is used both
externally and internally. In many parts of India, people plant this weed in front of their homes to
repel snakes and other venomous animals. The juice extracted from leaves is used to cure skin
problems. In rainy season, many Indian tribal communities take bath with water having
Dronpushpi leaf extract. They also wash their cattle and other domestic animals with this water.
According to Ayurveda, the plant is mild stimulant and diaphoretic and used in fevers and coughs.
The flowers mixed in honey is used as domestic remedy for cough and colds (Caius 1986). The
seed also yields medicinal oil. Labellenic acid (Octadeca 5, 6-dienoic acid) has been reported in
seed oil. Beta sitosterol have been isolated from the plant of Leucas cephalotes. Anti bacterial
activity of Leucas aspera leaf extract against Micrococcus pyogenes and Escheria coli have also
been reported (Rastogi and Mehrotra 1991). Dronpushpi is valuable homoeopathic drug and as
such is used for the treatment of chronic malaria and asthama (Ghosh 1988). In many parts of India
particularly in North India.
References
Caius, J.F. 1986. The medicinal and poisonous plants of India. Scientific Publ., Jodhpur, India. p
397-399.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/guma.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:35 PM]
Leucas cephalotes
Ghosh, N.C. 1988. Comparative materia medica. Hanneman Publ. Co. Private Ltd. Kolkata, India.
Krishnamurthy, T. 1993. Minor forest products of India. Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Mumbai, India .p.69.
Oudhia, P. 1999. Medicinal weeds in groundnut fields of Chhattisgarh (India). Int. Arachis
Newslett. 19:62-64.
Oudhia, P. 2000. Medicinal weeds in Kodomillet fields: A source of an additional income for
Chhattisgarh farmers. Ecol. Env. Conserv. 6(2):171-174.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1998. Medicinal weeds of Kharif crops in the plains of Chhattisgarh.
Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika. 13(1/2):33-38.
Oudhia, P. and R.S. Tripathi. 1999. Medicinal weeds of Raipur and Durg (Madhya Pradesh)
region. p.71-78. In: Proc. National Conference on Health Care and Development of Herbal
Medicines, IGAU, Raipur. India, 29-30 Aug. 1997
Oudhia, P and R.S. Tripathi. 2000. Medicinal weed flora of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) fields
in Chhattisgarh (India) Crop Res. 20(3):482 488.
Oudhia, P; R.S. Tripathi, S. Puri, and D.S. Chandel. 1999. Traditional knowledge about medicinal
weeds in Chhattisgarh. Vasundhara. The Earth 1(1):12-15.
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra. 1991. Compendium of Indian medicinal plants (vol. II,
1970-1979). Central Drug Res. Inst. Lucknow and Publications and Information Directorate, New
Delhi.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/guma.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:35 PM]
Prunus spp
Prunus sp.
Rosaceae
Stone Fruit
Outside Links:
Stone FruitsFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm
No.16Link to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Prunus_spp_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:35 PM]
Leather Woodfern
Leather Woodfern
(1) Dryopteris marginalis (L.) A. Gray; (2) D.
filixmas (L.) Schott.
Synonyms.(1) Aspidium marginale Sw.; (2) A. filixmas Sw.
Other common names.(1) Marginal-fruited shield fern, evergreen
woodfern; (2) male fern, male shield fern, sweet brake, knotty brake,
basket fern, bear's-paw root.
Habitat and range.These ferns are found in rocky woods, the male
shield fern inhabiting the region from Canada westward to the Rocky
Mountains and Arizona. The marginal-fruited shield fern, one of our
most common ferns, occurs from Canada southward to Alabama and
Arkansas.
Description.Both of these plants are tall handsome ferns. They
differ little in their general appearance, although the male shield fern,
which grows to a height of about 3 feet, is somewhat larger than the Figure 72.Leather woodfern
other. The principal difference is in the arrangement of the fruit dots (Dryopteris marginalis)
on the backs of the fern leaves. In the male shield fern these are located along the midrib, while in
the marginal-fruited shield fern they are placed on the margins of the divisions of the fronds. These
ferns have stout, erect rootstocks from 6 to l2 inches in length and 1 to 2 inches thick, covered with
brown, closely overlapping leaf bases and soft, brown, chaffy scales. The inside of the rootstock is
pale green. It has a disagreeable odor and a bitter-sweet, astringent, nauseous taste.
Part used.The rootstock, collected from July to September, which should be carefully cleaned,
but not washed, dried out of doors in the shade as quickly as possible, and marketed at once. The
drug deteriorates rapidly unless carefully preserved,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/woodfern.html [5/16/2004 3:52:37 PM]
Durio species
Durio zibethinus L.
Bombacaceae
Durian, Civet-cat fruit, Lahong, Tutong
Also: D. dulcis - Lahong, Tutong. From Kalimantan D. graveolens - Tabelak, Durian Mah. From
Indonesia D. kutejensis - Lai. Southeast Asia D. species - Isu. From Kalimantan
We have information from:
DurianJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
DurianMagness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United
States.
And outside links:
DURIAN POSTHARVEST INFORMATION BULLETIN
A comprehensive list of Durian varieties - from Malaysia.
DURIAN ONLINE:
"The best durian I think, comes from Sarawak, Malaysia [I am biased because I used to live there],
where they are naturally grown. The cultivated varieties are not as tasty as the wild ones. A lot of
people find the smell disgusting. A tourist brochure compared eating durian to 'eating custard in a
dirty public lavatory'!
- Kron Aken from Australia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Durio_spp_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:37 PM]
Triticum species
Index| Search| Home
Triticum species
Poaceae or Graminae
Alaska wheat, bearded wheat, bread wheat,
bulgur, common wheat, cone wheat, cracked wheat, durum
wheat, emmer, English wheat, farina, German wheat, hard wheat,
macaroni wheat, Mediterranean wheat, non-bearded wheat,
Poulard wheat, red wheat, rice wheat, river wheat, rivet wheat,
rolled wheat, soft wheat, spring wheat, starch wheat,
two-grained spelt, two-grained wheat, wheat flakes, white wheat,
wild emmer wheat, wild wheat, winter wheat
Common Wheat, Triticum aestivum L. subsp. aestivum.
Club Wheat, T. aestivum subspecies compactum (Host)MacKey.
Durum wheat, T. durum Desf.
Spelt, T. spelta L.
Emmer, T. dicoccon Schrank.
Wild Emmer, T. dicoccoides (Koern. ex Ascb. & Graebn.)Aaronsohn.
Poulard Wheat, T. turgidum L.
Polish Wheat, T. polonicum L.
Persian Wheat, T. carthlicum Nevski.
Macha Wheat, T. aestivum subsp. macha (Dek. and Men.) MacKey
Vavilovi Wheat, T. aestivum subsp. vavilovi (Tuman)Sears.
Shot Wheat, T. aestivum subsp. sphacrococcum(Perc.) MacKey.
Oriental Wheat, T. turanicum jakubz.
Timopheevi Wheat, T. timopheevii (Zbuk.) Zbuk.
Einkorn, T. monococcum L.
Wild Einkorn, T. boeoticum Boiss.
NewCROP has WHEAT information at:
Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut, and TriticaleG.F.
Stallknecht, K.M. Gilbertson, and J.E. Ranney
Triticum aestivum L., Common wheat, Bread wheat. Poaceae. Source: James A. Duke. 1983.
Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
Kamut: Ancient Grain, New CerealRobert M. Quinn
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Triticum_spp_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:38 PM]
Triticum species
International Repercussions of New CropsLowell S. Hardin

Durum Wheat in Virginia. See: Alternative Crops Research in VirginiaBhardwaj, H.L., A.
Hankins, T. Mebrahtu, J. Mullins, M. Rangappa, O. Abaye, and G.E. Welbaum
Wheat, durum wheat, winter wheat, spelt and triticale in New Crops for Canadian
AgricultureErnest Small
Spelt: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
And outside links to more wheat info:
Wheat Production and Fertilization in Indiana
Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
Emmer
Einkorn
Spelt
KAMUTA Variety of Ancient Wheat for Wheat-Sensitive Allergy Patients.
Hulled WheatPromoting the conservation and use of underutillized and neglected crops. 4.
Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled wheats 21-22 July 1995, Castelvecchio
Pascoli, Tuscany, ItalyLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Triticum_spp_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:52:38 PM]
Petroselinum crispum
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.)

Nym.
Curly parsley, Italian parsley, Parsley
Lowman, M.S. and M. Birdseye. 1946. Savory Herbs: Culture and Use.
Parsley
Turnip Rooted Parsley
Essential Oils and Culinary HerbsJames E. Simon
Parsley: A Production GuideCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Petroselinum_crispum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:52:39 PM]
Echinacea species
Echinacea species
Compositae
Echinacea
A Review of the Taxonomy of the Genus EchinaceaKathleen A. McKeown
Assembling and Characterizing a Comprehensive Echinacea Germplasm CollectionMark P.
Widrlechner and Kathleen A. McKeown
Echinacea angustifolia: An Emerging MedicinalAli O. Sari, Mario R. Morales and James E.
Simon
Cichoric Acid and Isobutylamide Content in Echinacea purpurea as Influenced by Flower
Developmental StagesW. Letchamo, J. Livesey, T.J. Arnason, C. Bergeron, and V.S. Krutilina
Factors Affecting Echinacea QualityW. Letchamo, L.V. Polydeonny, N.O. Gladisheva, T.J.
Arnason, J. Livesey, and D.V.C. Awang
The Use of RAPDs for Assessment of Identity, Diversity, and Quality of EchinaceaJ. Kapteyn
and J.E. Simon
In Vitro Regeneration and Agrobacterium Transformation of Echinacea purpurea Leaf
ExplantsA. Koroch, J. Kapteyn, H.R. Juliani, and J.E. Simon
Immune Stimulants and Antiviral Botanicals: Echinacea and GinsengDennis V.C. Awang
Outside links:
Echinacea Southern Crop Protection and Food Research Centre Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Echinacea_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:21 PM]
Eclipta alba
Bhringraj or Bhengra
[Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.]
contributor.
Common (Indian) Names:

Hindi: Balari, Bhangra, Bhringraj, Bhengra, Mochkand.
Gujerati: Bhangro, Dadhal, Kalobhangro
Canarase: Ajagara, Garagadasoppu, Kadigga-garaga
Marathi: Bhangra, Maka
Sanskrit: Bhringraj, Markara, Pitripriya, Sunilaka, Keshrangana
Family: Compositae
Habitat/Occurrence: In paddy growing areas of India, it occur as common weed. In many parts
of India it is grown commercially as a medicinal crop.
Related Species: Four species have been reported so far in warmer parts of America, Africa, Asia
and Australia.
Botany: An annual herb.
Stem: Stems and branches are strigose and hairy.
Leaves: Opposite, sessile, oblong- lanceolate; also strigose and hairy.
Flowers: In heads, involucral bracts, axillary, ray flowers ligulate; disk ones tubular.
Fruit: Achene.
Flowering Time: October to December in Indian conditions.
Useful Parts: Whole plant.
Medicinal Properties and Uses: The herb is an Ayurveda and Yunani medicine. According to
Ayurveda philosophy Eclipta is bitter, hot fattening, alterative, anthelminticum, and alexipharmic.
It is useful in inflammations, hernia, eye diseases, bronchitis, asthama, leucoderma, anaemia, heart
and skin diseases, right blindness, syphilis etc. It is reported as beneficial for complexion, hair,
eyes, and teeth.
Popular Ayurvedic Formulations: Bhringraj ghrit, Bhringraj taiil, Bhringrajadi churana etc.
Chemical Constituents: The plant contains the alkaloid ecliptine. Other chemicals identified are
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/eclipta.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:58:22 PM]
Eclipta alba
wedelolactone, wedelic acid, apigenin, luteolin, -amyrin etc.

Cultivation
Season: Kharif (JuneJuly in Indian conditions)
Propagation: Through seeds
Seed Rate: 3 kg/ha
Major Insects & Diseases: No major insect and diseases have been reported in India conditions.
Manures: In India, Bhringraj is grown organically. No chemical inputs are used, only 1520
tonnes farm yard manure/ha at the time of sowing is applied.
Maturity: 33.5 months after sowing.
Yield: Average yield 5 tonnes dry herbage/ha.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone : 91-771-253243
Mobile : 91-98271-15642
Fax : 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/eclipta.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:58:22 PM]
Glycine max
Index| Search| Home
Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Fabaceae
Soya, Soybean, Edamame
NewCROP has soybean information at:
Soybeans: The Success StoryTheodore Hymowitz
The Importance of Biological Nitrogen Fixation to New Crop DevelopmentPeter M. Gresshoff
New Markets for AgricultureShelby F. Thames and Thomas P. Schuman
Diversifying U.S. Crop Production,Jules Janick, Melvin G. Blase, Duane L. Johnson, Gary D.
Thomas P. Schuman
Intercropping Stokes Aster: Seedling Growth under a Soybean CanopyE.J. Callan and C.W.
Kennedy
SoybeanMagness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Soybean OilMagness, J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
Edamame, tofu, soyfood:
Potential New Specialty Crops from Asia: Azuki Bean, Edamame Soybean, and AstragalusT.A.
Lumpkin, J.C. Konovsky, K.J. Larson, and D.C. McClary
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Glycine_max_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:58:22 PM]
Glycine max

Edamame: A Vegetable Soybean for ColoradoDuane Johnson, Shaoke Wang, and Akio Suzuki
Edamame: A Nutritious Vegetable CropS.R. Mentreddy, A.I. Mohamed, N. Joshee, and A.K.
Yadav
Transforming Soybeans to Improve TofuDan Evans
Special Purpose Soybean VarietiesNiels Nielsen, Evan Evans, and James Wilcox
Edible Soybeans Niels Nielsen
Modification of Protein Content in Soybean to Improve Seed QualityNiels C. Nielsen
New Technology for Making Tempeh: A Cultured SoyfoodGunter Pfaff and Betsy Shipley. In:
J. Janick (ed.).1996. Progress in New Crops ASHS Press, Alexandria Va.
Outside Links:
Purdue University (Indiana) Extension Publications
Stratsoy(The Strategic Soybean System) Stratsoy is a U.S. communication and information
system about soybean organizations, resources, and databases.
Soy StatsSoy Stats has links to soybean information about uses, trade, prices.
Edamame production, harvesting, and marketing information from Washington State University
Edamame: The Vegetable Soybean
Edamame a Pacific Northwest Extension Publication
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Glycine_max_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 3:58:22 PM]
Gramineae, Poaceae Ehrharta calycina J.E. Smith
This is a cool season bunchgrass native to South Africa and introduced via
Australia in 1929. It is a highly palatable, drought resistant grass adapted to light soils. The leafy
stems reach to 3 feet in height. It has proved valuable on sandy, coastal soils in California where it
is used for range reseeding.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Perennial_veldtgrass.html [5/16/2004 3:58:23 PM]
Leucaena leucocephala
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.)

deWit.
Mimosacea
Leadtree, Loa haole, Ekoa, Hediondilla, Zarcilla,
Tanta, Jumbie bean
FactSHEET contributed by: James L. Brewbaker
New Tree Crops from Interspecific Leucaena HybridsJames L. Brewbaker and Charles T.
Sorensson
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Leucaena_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:39 PM]
Sambucus canadensis
Sambucus canadensis L.
Caprifoliaceae
American Elder, American elderberry, Blueberry
elder, Blue elderberry, Eastern elderberry, Red elderberry,
Western elderberry
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sambucus_canadensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:40 PM]
Inula helenium
Inula helenium L.
Compositae
Elecampane
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Inula_helenium_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:41 PM]
Water chestnut
Water chestnut
Jesuit nut, Water caltrops, Ling
Cyperaceae Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Henschel, Trapa natans
L.
Two types of aquatic plants are grown under the name water chestnut: One, E. dulcis, is a rush-like
plant grown extensively in China for its near round turnip-shaped tubers. They are grown in ponds,
and the tubers are harvested by scooping them off the bottom with forks. This is the water chestnut
or "ling" widely used in Chinese foods. The other plant also called water chestnut, or Jesuit nut, or
Water caltrops, is T. natans, a water plant with large leaves that float on the water surface. It is
grown to some extent in Southern Europe and Asia. The edible part is the nutlike fruit, 1 to 2
inches in diameter, with 4 spined angles, which grows below the leaf blade. It is roasted and eaten
like chestnuts. Neither type of water chestnut is produced commercially in the U.S., although there
has been some effort with E. dulcis.
Season: Perennial plants, with a crop harvested annually.
Production in the U.S.: No data. Negligible.
Use: Cooked, eaten out of hand, or in other foods.
Parts consumed: Tuberous bulbs in E. dulcis; nut-like fruits in T. natans.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/WaterChestnut.html [5/16/2004 3:58:42 PM]
Pennisetum purpureum
Pennisetum purpureum K.
Schumach.
Poaceae, Gramineae
Elephant grass, Napier grass, Uganda grass
NapiergrassIn: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and feed crops of the
United States.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pennisetum_purpureum_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:42 PM]
Phytomedicines as a New Crop Opportunity

Israelsen, L.D. 1993. Phytomedicines as a new crop opportunity. p. 669-671. In: J. Janick and J.E.
Phytomedicines as a New Crop

Opportunity
Loren D. Israelsen
1. IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANTS
2. CONCLUSIONS
3. REFERENCES
Phytomedicines, simply defined, are a special category of plant drugs. They are standardized,
which means that certain compounds in the plant material are quantified and elucidated so as to
have a replicable final product, batch after batch. One of the criticisms traditionally leveled against
natural medicines is the lack of standard levels of biological materials from the natural plants.
In many parts of the world, the United States is considered a third world country when it comes to
phytomedicines. Unfortunately, our European colleagues are far ahead of us; they have a
multi-billion dollar industry in phytomedicines, whereas ours is only a two hundred million dollar
industry. Even so, there are a lot of exciting developments in the United States. Over the last five
years, I estimate that the American medicinal herb industry has grown at a rate exceeding 20% per
year and this trend continues today.
Phytomedicines represent new crop opportunities for several reasons. First, the companies who use
these products are very keen to get high quality, sanitary material. This is becoming quite a serious
problem. One example we have seen quite recently relates to problems in Eastern Europe, the
source of many of these plants. Would you buy plant material which has been growing next to a
steel plant in Eastern Europe? Most people would not. The United States is a good growers market
because it has a stable political environment, has many different growing climates and conditions,
excellent choice of growers, and the ability to grow according to industrial specifications. The
Appalachian region, in particular, is very rich in medicinal flora.
Of growing concern is the extinction of medicinal plant species in this country. Given the growing
demand for these botanicals and current problems in over-collecting, it is quite likely that some of
the last populations of these plants will be collected over the next five to ten years if we don't
begin to cultivate them commercially. Finally, these specialty crops could provide profitable
growing opportunities for small farmers. Some of these crops appear to be ideally suited to the
small farmer.
IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANTS

Ginkgo biloba. The nuts of this tree are quite tasty when properly roasted. An extract (Fnfgeld
1988) derived from the leaf of this tree is the single largest selling drug in Germany and France
today (Foster 1991). The extract is used for peripheral circulation and has the unique property of
making red blood cells more elastic and selectively dilating capillaries. Consequently, this extract
is used in Europe for treating conditions of tinnitus, vertigo, cold hands, cold feet, macular
degeneration, and dementia. In order to meet the demand for the leaf, there is a 400 hectare farm in
South Carolina which produces over a million kilograms of dried leaves a year. There are other
plantations now being developed to meet the international demand for this product.
American ginseng (Panax quinquifolium). In Marathon County, Wisconsin, alone, this crop
represents a one hundred million dollar a year crop (raw and finished product) which is primarily
exported to China where it is widely used and appreciated. Oddly enough, we buy Panax ginseng
from China because Americans prefer their material and they ours.
Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). The berries of the Saw Palmetto are quite useful for benign
prostatic hypertrophy. This is a very big pharmaceutical in Germany and France. There is a well
developed industry in Florida which produces berries for export to Europe.
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). This is one of the fastest growing products in the United
States in the natural products industry and used to be in the United States Pharmacopoeia until
about 40 years ago. It is native to Appalachia and is one of the crops that is most threatened by
extirpation because of growing demand. Ginseng growers in Wisconsin have been contacted to see
if they could grow Goldenseal. To date, the project is showing signs of success, and it seems likely
that a large percentage of this product will come from cultivated plots rather than naturally
occurring populations.
Bloodroot (Sanguanaria canadensis). This is very popular and is the active ingredient in a
toothpaste product called Viadent. It is used to control plaque and gingivitis (Bennet et al. 1990).
Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus). This is a very popular and interesting product. It
is called an adaptogen. It was developed in Russia by Dr. Breckman. Adaptogens are body
regulators which promote proper balance. Many medical doctors question this hypothesis, but
there is a significant amount of empirical and clinical data from Russia to support this (Farnsworth
et al. 1985).
Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea). This is a popular nonspecific immunostimulant in Germany
and much of Europe. There are hundreds of hectares of cultivated Echinacea in Europe. There is
also a large organic farm, Trout Lake Farm in Washington State, which grows significant amounts
of this product. Echinacea is used as a preventative for colds and flues and is quite effective when
used in this way. It is one of Europe's most popular natural products.
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum). This is used in Europe for liver conditions, treatment of acute
mushroom poisoning, and other hepatoxic compounds.
Black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa). This is an interesting native American plant. It has a rich
tradition among Native Americans and by people who live in the Appalachian region. It is used by
women for regulation of hormonal cycles (Foster and Duke 1990).

Valerian (Valeriana officinalus). This is one of the more popular sleep aids in Europe and has
been widely used for hundreds of years. There is no reason why this cannot be grown in the United
States.
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium). Research in England has shown promising results in the
treatment of migraine. A small amount of feverfew when taken orally can reduce the frequency
and severity of migraine. It has great medical potential and could most definitely be grown in this
country (Awang 1989).
St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum). This is a popular European product. It has antiviral
properties and also antidepressant properties (Hobbs 1988/1989).
Catnip (Nepeta cataria). Not only is it my cat's favorite play thing, but it is also used as a mild
sedative (Tyler 1987). This is currently being grown in the United States as a sedative, although
not commercially.
Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). At the moment, this is a most controversial and interesting
phytomedicine. The pacific yew tree is the source of taxol which shows great promise for the
treatment of ovarian and other cancers. However, there are not enough trees. These trees grow very
slowly, and if harvested for taxol, the natural stands of the yew tree would be exhausted. The
ability to obtain taxol from ornamental sources of Taxus as well as planting nurseries of the
western yew for taxol extraction are underway.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale). It is not only a well known spice, but it has been proven to be as
effective as dramamine in reducing nausea and motion sickness (Holtman et al. 1989). It has also
been quite useful for pregnant women who are suffering nausea in early pregnancy and is quite
safe (Bone et al. 1990).
CONCLUSIONS
In the United States, the policies of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), historically, have
been unhelpful to natural products. These plant products are polypharmaceutics, meaning they
have multiple compounds, and FDA is not presently prepared to review products containing more
than one compound. Demanding evidence that each individual component in an extract is safe and
effective is a matter of scientific curiosity, but has little to do with the inherent questions of safety
and effectiveness of the extract. Unfortunately, FDA still struggles with this concept.
The natural healthcare market is a very fast growing one. It is projected that at current inflation
rates for health care, by the year 2030, health care costs could consume 100% of the gross national
product. Something must be done. People are turning more and more to prevention and wellness
programs, including natural medicines. As this trend develops, phytomedicines could become an
important new alternative crop in the United States.
REFERENCES
Awang, D. 1989. Feverfew. Can. Pharm. J. 122(5):266-70.

Bennett, B.C., C.R. Bell, and R.T. Boulware. 1990. Geographic and variation in alkaloid
content of Sanguinaria canadensisi (Papaveraceae). Rhodora 92(870):57-69.
Bone, M.E., D.J. Wilkinson, J.R. Young, J. McNeil, and S. Sharlton. 1990. Ginger-root--a
new antiemetic. The effect of ginger root on postoperative nausea and vomiting after major
gynaecological surgery. Anesthesia 45(8):669-671.
Farnsworth, N.R., A.D. Kinghom, D.D. Soejarto, and D.P. Waller. 1985. Siberian ginseng
(Eleutherococcus senticosus): Current status as an adaptogen, p. 155-215. In: H. Wagner, H.
Hikino, and N.R. Farnsworth (eds.). Economic and medicinal plant research. Vol. 1.
Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Foster, S. 1991. Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba). American Botanical Council. Botanical Series
#304. Austin, TX.
Foster, S. and J. Duke. 1990. A field guide to medicinal plants: Eastern and Central North
America. Houghton Mifflin Co, Boston.
Fnfgeld, E.W. (ed). 1988. Rkan (Ginkgo biloba), recent results in pharmacology, and
clinic. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Hobbs, C. 1988/1989. St. John's Wort Hypericum perforatum. L.A. Review. HerbalGram
18/19:24-33.
Holtman, S., A.H. Clarke, H. Schereer, and M. Hohn. 1989. The anti-motion sickness
mechanism of ginger. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 108:168-174.
Tyler, V.E. 1987. The new honest herbal. George F. Stickley Company, Philadelphia.
Giant wild-rye
Giant wild-rye
Gramineae Elymus condensatus Presl
This grass, native throughout the western states, is the most robust of the
native rye grasses, reaching to 10 feet. It is a perennial bunchgrass, forming large clumps. Leaves
are large, up to 2 feet long and 0.75 inch wide. It grows abundantly on wet and saline soils, but
also occurs on moderately dry soils. Giant rye is suitable for grazing while succulent. The ripened
clumps provide winter sustenance feed for cattle and horses. Propagation is by seed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Giant_wild-rye.html [5/16/2004 3:58:44 PM]
Russian wild-rye
Russian wild-rye
Gramineae, Poaceae Elymus junceus Fisch.
This is a cool season bunch grass introduced in 1927 from Russia. It has
proved adapted to the Northern Great Plains and Intermountain Regions, where it is used primarily
for pasture. Growth starts early in spring. Plants are leafy and nutritious, with dense basal leaves.
Seedling vigor is low, but once established, plants are deep rooted, drought resistant and salt
tolerant.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Russian_wild-rye.html [5/16/2004 3:58:44 PM]
Wild-rye grasses
Wild-rye grasses
Gramineae Elymus sp.
Wild-rye species are well distributed among the native grasses of the Western
States. Most species are perennial bunch growers, but some form sods. These grasses are coarse
and of low palatability for livestock. Because of their vigor and ease of establishment they form a
quick cover and are useful in mixtures with slower growing kinds. Wild-rye grasses are susceptible
to ergot fungus, which replaces the seed kernel and is highly toxic to livestock. The most useful
wild-rye species are Canada wild-rye, giant wild-rye, blue wild-rye, Russian wild-rye, and basin
wild-rye.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Wild-rye_grasses.html [5/16/2004 3:58:45 PM]
Ephedra species
Ephedra species
Ephedraceae
Ma huang
Chinese MedicinalsAlbert Y. Leung
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ephedra_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:58:46 PM]
Trailing-Arbutus
Trailing-Arbutus
Epigaea repens L.
Other common names.Gravel plant, Mayflower, shadflower,
ground laurel, mountain pink, winter pink.
Trailing-arbutus
Figure 108.Trailing-arbutus
(Epigaea repens)
Habitat and range.Trailing- arbutus spread out on the ground in

sandy soil, being found from Newfoundland to Michigan and Saskatchewan and south to
Kentucky and Florida.
Description.This plant, generally referred to in the drug trade as gravel plant but more
popularly known as ''trailing-arbutus" spreads on the ground with stem 6 or more in length. It has
rust-colored, hairy twigs bearing leathery, evergreen leaves from 1 to 3 inches long and about half
as wide. The flower clusters, which appear from March to May, consist of fragrant, delicate, shell
pink, waxy blossoms.
Part used.The leaves, gathered at flowering time.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/arbutus.html [5/16/2004 3:59:02 PM]
Eragrostis curvula
Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.)

Nees
Poaceae
Weeping lovegrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eragrostis_curvula_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:03 PM]
Lehmann lovegrass
Lehmann lovegrass
Gramineae Eragrostis lehmanniana Nees
This is a warm season, slightly spreading grass introduced from South Africa
in 1932. It is used for range reseeding in the warm semidesert areas of Southwestern United States.
It forms prostrate stems which root at the nodes and is readily established by seeding. The plants
are smaller and less cold-tolerant than Boer or Weeping lovegrasses.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Lehmann_lovegrass.html [5/16/2004 3:59:04 PM]
Sand lovegrass
Sand lovegrass
Gramineae, Poaceae Eragrostis trichodes (Nutt.) Wood
This is a vigorous, long-lived, native bunchgrass occurring on sandy soils of
the Central and Southern Great Plains. it is drought resistant, with a deep root system. Stems may
reach to 6 feet. Leaves are abundant, slightly hairy, 12 inches long and 0.25 inch wide. Plants start
growth early in spring and continue through the summer. This grass is highly palatable and
nutritious, and often is overgrazed. It is easily established from seed.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sand_lovegrass.html [5/16/2004 3:59:05 PM]
Horseweed
Horseweed
Erigeron canadensis L.
Synonym.Leptilon canadense (L.) Britton.
Other common names.Erigeron, mare's-tail, Canada erigeron,
butterweed, bitterweed, cow's-tail, colt's-tail, fireweed, bloodstanch,
hogweed, prideweed, scabious.
Horseweed
Figure 68.Horseweed
(Erigeron canadensis)
Habitat and range.Horseweed is common in fields and waste places and along roadsides
throughout almost all of North America.
Description.This weed varies greatly in height according to the soil it grows in. The erect stem,
sometimes smooth, but usually bristly hairy, is generally branched near the top. The leaves are
usually somewhat hairy, the lower ones 1 to 4 inches long and toothed, those scattered along the
stem are rather narrow and smooth. From June to November the plant produces numerous heads of
small, inconspicuous white flowers, followed by an abundance of seed.
Part used.The entire herb, collected during the flowering period. Oil of erigeron, obtained from
the plant by distillation, is produced commercially in Michigan and Indiana.
Information on the extraction of volatile oils from plants is contained in the following publication:
Sievers, A.F. Methods of extracting volatile oils from plant material and the production of such
oils in the United States. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 16, 36 p. illus. 1928
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/horseweed.html [5/16/2004 3:59:20 PM]
Eriobotrya japonica
Index| Search| Home
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.)

Lindl.
Rosaceae
Advance, Champagne, Early Red, Japanese medlar, Japanese
plum, Loquat, Nispero, Premier, Tanaka, Thales
NewCROP has Loquat information at: LoquatJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
And outside links to more Loquat info: LOQUAT "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of
publications of the the California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual
fruits, including botanical identification, description and culture notes based on California
research, and characteristics of cultivars).
Loquat Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
Loquat, Eriobotrya japonica from Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Loquat nutritional information provided by Frieda's
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eriobotrya_japonica_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:21 PM]
Yerba Santa
Yerba Santa
Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. and Arn.)
Greene.
Synonym.Eriodictyon glutinosum Benth.
Other common names.Mountain balm, consumptive's weed,*
bear's-weed, gum plant, tarweed.
Habitat and range.Yerba santa is common on the Pacific coast
along the coastal ranges from central California north to Oregon.
Description.This evergreen shrub, which reaches a height of from 3
to 4 feet, has a smooth stem which exudes a gummy substance. The
narrow, dark-green, leathery leaves are from 3 to 4 inches in length
and are covered with a resinous substance which makes them appear
as if varnished. The rather showy, whitish, or pale-blue flowers are
borne in clusters at the top of the plant.
Part used.The leaves.
*This is a popular but misleading name.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/yerbasanta.html [5/16/2004 3:59:22 PM]
Figure 128.Yerba santa

(Eriodictyon californicum)
Eruca sativa
Index|Search|Home
Eruca sativa Miller

Rocket, Roquette, Arrugula
Arugula: A Promising Specialty Leaf VegetableMario Morales and Jules Janick
M.A. Crossman
Outside links:
Rocket: A Mediterranean Crop For The World from the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute
Eruca sativa Miller: a diploid, annual, species which flowers in spring and whose seeds are ready
for collecting in late spring. It seems to prefer rather rich soils even through it can be found mixed
with ruderal flora in very marginal areas. It is frequently cultivated, although demestication cannot
be considered complete. A wild type, known as subspecies vesicaria (L.) Cav., is also rather well
represented in the Mediterranean flora.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eruca_sativa_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:23 PM]
Erythrina poeppigiana (Walp.)

O.F. Cook
Fabaceae
Poro
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Allen and Allen (1981) describe the tree as invaluable shade for coffee and cocoa. Since they are
readily propagated from cuttings, they are also used for living fence posts. Both the shade trees
and fence posts can be lopped as green manure, a system in use in Costa Rica and perhaps
elsewhere. With its handsome orange-red f lowers, it is sometimes planted as an ornamental.
Unpruned trees grew too large for coffee shade trees in Puerto Rico, according to Little and
Wadsworth (1964), so its recommendation for coffee shade has been discontinued in Puerto Rico.
It is still a popular coffee shade tree in the Andes. Flowers are said to be eaten in salads and soups
(Little and Wadsworth, 1964).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Erythrina_poeppigiana.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:24 PM]
Folk Medicine
According to Little and Wadsworth (1964), the bark, twigs, and seeds of various Erythrina
species, more or less toxic, have provided local drugs and medicines. I have no specific data on
this species.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 36.8 g protein, 12.4 g fat, and 5.5 g ash. The seeds,
possibly poisonous, proved negative for starch test, alkaloid test, and tannin test (Earle and Jones,
1962). Willaman and Schubert (1961) report the alkaloids erysodine, erysopine, erysothiovine,
erysovine, and hypaphorine from the seeds.
Description
Deciduous tree to as much as 25 m tall, 1 m DBH, the crown spreading. Bark is greenish brown to
gray brown, smooth or slightly furrowed, warty, or spiny. Leaves trifoliate, 2030 cm long
including the pubescent petioles, the leaflets with paired cupular glands near the bases of the
lateral leaflets. Racemes 1020 cm long, the flowers caducous, orange red; petals 5; stamens 10,
the anthers brown. Pods 1225 cm long, several seeded, falcate, slightly depressed between the
seeds, long-stalked, pointed at both ends. Seeds 12 cm long, weighing ca .183 g each.
Germplasm
Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, poro, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
acid soils as well as moist limestone soils. (2n = 42)
Distribution
Probably native from Venezuela to Panama, south to Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru.
Cultivated in Florida, Guatemala to Costa Rica, the West Indies, and the Old World Tropics.
Ecology
I estimate that the species ranges from Tropical Moist to Tropical Wet through Subtropical Dry to
Subtropical Rain Forest Life Zones, where annual precipitation is 15 to 40 dm, annual temperature
is 20 to 28C, and pH is 4.0 to7.5. Studied at Turrialba, mean annual temperature 22.3C, the
annual precipitation 2639 mm with only one month with less than 100 mm. The relative humidity
is 87.6%, the mean monthly evaporation 92.3 mm, and the mean daily radiation 432 cal/m2/day.
Soils were alluvial with moderate to deficient drainage, the pH 4.6, organic matter 6.77.2%,
nitrogen 0.250.43% exchangeable potassium 0.45.
Cultivation
In Costa Rica, the trees are spaced roughly at 6 x 6 m, with > density of ca 280 trees/ha,
interspersed with ca 4300 coffee plants/ha (Russo, 1982).
Harvesting
The trunks, some nearly 30 cm in diameter, are lopped ca head height or higher twice a year. The
prunings are added to the soils as green manure (Russo, 1982).

The addition of organic matter due to the biennial loppings can run to 10 MT/yr, improving, if
anything, the yield of the coffee intercrop (Russo, 1982).
Energy
Although not producing very good fuel, the biomass production could probably approximate or
surpass 25 MT/ha/yr in monoculture, fixing N all the while.
Biotic Factors
The following diseases are reported from species of Erythrina: Cercospora erythrinae (on leaves),
Cercospora erythrinicola, Clitocybe tabescens (root rot), Colletotrichum erythrinae (on leaves),
Dicheirinia binata (rust), Meliola bicornis, Meliola crenatissima, Meliola erythrinae (black
mildew), Meloidogyne sp. (root knot nematodes), Mycosphaerella erythrinae (on leaves), Nectria
cinnabarina (on stems), Pellicularia kolerogna (thread blight), Phoma erythrinicola (on stems),
Phyllosticta erythrinicola (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (root rot), Rhizoctonia ramicola
(thread blight), and Verticillium sp. (probably albo-atrum) (wilt) (Agriculture Handbook 165).
References
Washington.
812 p.
Earle, F.R. and Jones, Q. 1962. Analyses of seed samples from 113 plant families. Econ.
Bot. 16(4):221250.
Russo, R.O. 1982. Resultados preliminares de biomesa de la poda de Erythrina poeppigiana
(Walpers) O.F. Cook (poro) en Turrialba, Costa Rica. Typescript. CATIE, Turrialba, Costa
Rica.
Willaman, J.J. and Schubert, B.G. 1961. Alkaloid-bearing plants and their contained
alkaloids. USDA Tech. Bul. 1234.
Xylopia aethiopica
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.

Rich
Annonaceae
Ethopian pepper
Identification of the Key Aroma Compounds in Dried Fruits of Xylopia aethiopicaA.O. Tairu,
T. Hofmann, and P. Schieberle
New Antimicrobials of Plant OriginMaurice M. Iwu, Angela R. Duncan, and Chris O. Okunji
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xylopia_aethiopica_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:25 PM]
Eucalyptus sp.
Eucalyptus sp.
Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus
Woody Fiber CropsStanley L. Krugman
Article from:
Outside Links:
Eucalyptus spp.FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of germplasm No.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eucalyptus_sp_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:25 PM]
Schlecht.
Myrtaceae
Redgum eucalyptus
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Important timber, firewood, shelter belt, and honey tree. In the Sudan, it is planted to protect crops
from blowing sands. The wood, durable, easy to saw, yet resistant to termites, is widely used in
Australia for strong durable construction, interior finish, flooring, cabinetry, furniture, fenceposts,
cross-ties, sometimes pulpwood. Australian aborigines made canoes from the bark. Survivalists in
Australia and elsewhere might learn how the aborigines obtained water from the superficial roots,
usually those ca 3 cm in diameter. The roots were excavated or lifted to the soil surface. Then the
root was cut into segments ca 45 cm long, debarked, held vertically, and blown into, the water then
draining into the receptacle provided.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_camaldulensis.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:59:27 PM]
Folk Medicine
Reported to be anesthetic, antiseptic, astringent, the redgum eucalyptus is a folk remedy for colds,
colic, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhage, laryngalgia, laryngitis, pharyngitis, sore throat,
spasm, trachalgia, and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981).
Chemistry
Leaves contain 0.10.4% essential oil, 77% of which is cineol There is some cuminal,
phellandrene, aromadendren (or aromadendral), and some valerylaldehyde, geraniol, cymene, and
phellandral (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Leaves contain 511% tannin. The kino contains 45%
kinotannic acid as well as kino red, a glucoside, catechol, and pyrocatechol. Leaves and fruits test
positive for flavonoids and sterols. The bark contains 2.516% tannin, the wood 214%, and the
kino 46.276.7% (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Large evergreen tree 2440(-50) m high with stout trunk often short and crooked, to 2 m in
diameter; crown open, widely spreading, irregular. Bark smoothish, white, gray, or buff. Twigs
reddish, long, slender, angled, drooping. Trunk can form air roots. Root system deep and
spreading. Leaves alternate, drooping, narrowly lanceolate, 822 cm long, 12 cm wide, often
curved or sickle-shaped, tapering to long point, short-pointed at base, entire glabrous, dull pale
green on both surfaces or occasionally grayish. Umbels single at leaf base, ca 2.5 cm long on
slender stalk 619 mm long. Flowers 510, each on slender stalk 512 mm long from ovoid buds
610 mm long, 45 mm wide. Stamens many, threadlike, white, 56 mm long; anthers with small
round gland. Pistil with inferior, long-pointed, 34-celled ovary and long, stout style. Capsules
several, clustered, hemiglobose or ovoid, 78 mm long, 56 mm wide, light brown, with wide
raised disk and 34 prominent triangular teeth almost 2 mm long. Seeds many, tiny, 1.5 mm long,
light brown (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, redgum eucalyptus, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate alkali, drought, fire, light frost, heat, high pH, poor soil, salt, savanna, and waterlogging. It
is rather intolerant of weeds. The NAS catalogs four outstanding provenances, 'Katherine' and
'Petford' for tropical climates, 'Lake Albacutya' for Mediterranean climates, and 'Broken Hill' for
arid climates. Some Provenances can tolerate -5C and up to 20 frosts per year. (2n = 22)
Distribution
This is said to be the most widely distributed eucalypt, ranging over 23 lat. in most of arid and
semiarid Australia but not the humid eastern and southwestern coasts. It is regarded as one of the
most widely planted eucalypts in the world (ca 500,000 ha planted) (NAS, 1980a). Plantations
occur in Argentina, Arizona, California, Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal,
Sierra Leone, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Upper Volta, Uruguay, and Zimbabwe.
Ecology
Ranges from tropical through subtropical and warm temperate, and from arid to semiarid.
Tolerates temperatures from 3 to 5C in winter with 050 frosts according to locality. Annual
rainfall from minimum of about 250625 mm to as high as 10001250 mm (Little, 1983). In
Duke's ecogeographic data base, redgum eucalyptus is estimated to range from Tropical Thorn
Forest to Dry through Warm Temperate Desert to Dry Forest Life Zones, and is reported to
tolerate annual precipitation of 10.3 to 20.6 dm (mean of 9 cases = 15.9) and annual temperature of
18.0 to 26.6C (mean of 9 cases = 24.7). It is reported in areas with only 2 dm rainfall, but the
lower limit for commercial plantations is 4 dm. Some provenances tolerate many different soil
conditions, high calcium, high salt, periodic waterlogging. Occasionally pure stands may develop
naturally along flood plains and stream banks. The mean maximum temperature of the warmest
month where it grows well is ca 29C. The dry season lasts 48 mos or more and may be severe.
Frosts are rare (520 days/yr) (Mariani et al., 1981).
Cultivation
Seeds, long lived when sealed in dry cold storage, are usually started in nursery containers, then
transplanted to the field (as close as 2 x 2 m for firewood). Extensive weeding may be mandatory.
During the seedling stage, this species develops gall-like structures, at least in the Philippines,
which offer resistance to drought and fire (Agpaoa, 1980).
Harvesting
Some provenances coppice well for six or more rotations, on good sites, plantations are managed
on coppice rotations of 710 years.

According to NAS (1980a), annual wood yields or 2025 m3/ha in Argentina, 30 m3 from Israel,
1720 from Turkey in the first rotation, and 2530 in subsequent coppice rotations. On poor arid
sites, yields are only 211 m3 (ca 15 cords) on 14 or 15 year rotations. Litterfall ran about 3.65.8
MT/ha/yr in an Australian redgum swamp (Briggs and Maher, 1983).
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), standing biomass in an Israeli plantation is ca
110 MT/ha. At Calistoga, California, this was calculated to yield 4.3 m3/ha/yr or 2 cords and total
energy yields of 15,000,000 kcal/ha/yr (Standiford and Donaldson, 1982). "As firewood, the
timber from Eucalyptus camaldulensis has few equals. It is also a good charcoal wood, and the
steel industry in Argentina, for example, relies on its charcoal for steel-making. The fuel value of
the wood (sp. grav. 0.6) is 4,800 kcal/kg. In World War II, Australians used the charcoal for their
producer gas plants." (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Biotic Factors
According to Browne (1968), the following affect Eucalyptus camaldulensis: (Bacteria)
Agrobacterium tumefaciens. (Fungi) Cercospora eucalypti, Corticium salmonicolor, Fomes
setulosus, Gymnopilus junonius, Hypholoma fasiculare, Inonotus chondromyelus, Polyporus
portentosus, Sclerotinia fuckeliana. (Angio-spermae) Tapinanthus sp. (Coleoptera) Alcidodes
biangulatus, A. haemopterus, Anaemerus tomentosus, Apate monachus, Chrysolagria neavei,
Dicasticus affinis, Gonipterus scutellatus, Opseotrophus sufflatus, Phoracantha recurve, P.
semipunctata, Siderodactylus sagittarius, Sinoxylon transvaalense, Systates pollinosus, Xyleborus
truncatus. (Hemiptera) Agonoscelis pubescens, Atelocera stictica. (Hymenoptera) Perga affinis,
Phylacteophaga eucalypti. (Isoptera) Ancistrotermes amphidon, Odontotermes feae. (Lepidoptera)
Archips occidentalis, Cleora dargei, Desmeocraera cyprianrii, Eumeta cervina, Kotochalia
junodi, Nadasia amblycalymma, Nola lugens, ophiusa tirhaca, Orgyia basalis, Parasa ananii,
Strepsicrates rhothia. (Orthoptera) Staurocleis magnifica. (Mammalia) Lepus whytei. Young
and/or drought-weakened shrubs can be badly infested by the eucalyptus snout beetle, eucalypt
borer, moth larvae, and termites. Even the young trees are not favored by livestock and wildlife.
The tree is said to kill other tree species (NAS, 1980a). This is one of the few species whose leaves
are eaten by sheep (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The litter may provide an important food
source for detritivorous invertebrates and hence for waterfowl in redgum swamps (Briggs and
Maher, 1983).

On a % DM basis, the wh.plant contained 81.42% volatiles, 0.76% ash, 17.82% fixed carbon,
49.00% C, 5.87% H, 43.97% O, 0.30% N, 0.01% S, 0.13% Cl, and undetermined residue.
References
Agpaoa, A.C. 1980. Murray red gum: A drought and fire resistant species for reforestation.
Canopy International 6(10): 1, 8, 10.
Briggs, S.V. and Maher, M.T. 1983. Litter fall and leaf decomposition in river red gum
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Swamp. Aust. J. Bot. 31(3):307316.

vols. New Delhi.
Agric. 39(5/6):1416.
Mariani, E.O., Mariani, C.E., and Lipinsky, S.B. 1981. Tropical eucalyptus. p. 373386. In:
McClure, T.A. and Lipinsky, E.S. (eds.), CRC handbook of biosolar resources, vol. II.
Resource materials. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Standiford, R.B. and Donaldson, D.R. 1982. Trees as energy crops. Cal. Agr. May/June
1920.
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.

Myrtaceae
Lemon-scented gum
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Leaves yield a lemon-scented oil rich in citronellal, and favored in perfumery. The wood is good
for saw-timber, used for general construction, poles, railroad ties, and tool handles. Bark may
contain up to 12% tannin. Kenyans favor the honey produced by this species.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be antiseptic and fumigant. Cubans place the leaves under the sheets of fever patients,
and inhale the steam from boiled leaves for cold and various pulmonary problems. Cubans also
poultice the leaves onto ulcers, wounds, and other skin ailments. Guatemalans decoct the leafy
shoots for coughs (Morton, 1981). Orally administered leaf extracts in rabbits artifically diabetic,
produced temporary hypoglycemia and reduced the blood sugar levels (Watt and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_citriodora.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:27 PM]
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Myrtillin, in the leaf extract, is said to induce a temporary hypoglycemia
(Atal and Kapur, 1981).
Chemistry
Dayal reported betulinic and ursolic acids, eucalyptin and -sitosterol in the leaves. Glabrous
leaves may contain oil with 65.5% citronellal, 12.2% citronellol, and 3.6% isopulegol; hairy leaves
contain more oil with 86.690.1% citronellal, 4.66.0% citronellol, and 0.70.8% isopulegol,
1-pinene, -pinene, and isovaleric aldehyde are also recovered (Morton, 1981). Bark contains ca
9% tannin (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The young leaf is reported to contain citric-,
glutaric-, malic-, quinic-, shikimic- (carcinogenic), and succinic-acids (Watt and Breyer
Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves and fruits test positive for flavonoids and sterols.
Toxicity
Citronellal found in Eucalyptus and Melissa is reported to be mutagenic (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis,
1977).
Description
Evergreen tree 2440 m high with tall straight trunk 0.61.3 m in diameter, and thin, graceful
crown of drooping foliage. Bark smooth, gray, peeling off in thin irregular scales or patches and
becoming mottled, exposing whitish or faintly bluish inner layer with powdery surfaces appearing
dimpled. Twigs slender, slightly flattened, light green, tinged with brown. Leaves alternate,
narrowly lance-shaped, 1020 cm long, 12.5 cm wide, apically acuminate, basally acute, entire,
glabrous, thin, light green on both surfaces, with many fine parallel straight veins and with vein
inside edge. Corymbs terminal and at leaf ba"s, to 6 cm long, branched. Flowers many, 35 on
equal short stalks (umbels) from ovoid buds 812 mm long, 58 mm wide. Stamens many,
threadlikes, white, 6 mm long, spreading ca 12 mm across, anthers with long gland. Pistil inferior
3-celled ovary and long, stout style. Capsules few, urn-shaped or ovoid, narrowed into short neck,
1012 mm long, 810 mm wide, brown with scattered raised dots. Seeds few, irregularly ellipsoid,
45 mm long, shiny black (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, lemon-scented gum, or cvs thereof, is reported
to tolerate clay, drought, gravel, laterites, light frosts, podzols, poor soil, and slopes, but is not very
tolerant of waterlogging. The hybrid with E. torelliana is showing promise in Nigeria (NAS,
1980a). Gupta et al. (1981) obtained multiple shoots from 20-year old terminal bulbs in culture.
Shoots were also obtained from seedling explants. They estimate they can produce 100,000 plants
from one mature tree bud in one year.(2n = 20, 22, 28)
Distribution
Said to occur naturally only on the central and northern coasts of Queensland, Australia, but to fare
well in much of Africa, Brazil, California, Hawaii, India, even Portugal.
Ecology
Said to grow where the rainfall, mostly summer, is 6 to 13 dm, with 57 month dry season,
withstanding high temperatures (2935C mean monthly maximum) and light frosts. In tropical
and subtropical arid to semiarid zones, in infertile clays, laterites, poor and gravelly soils and
podzols, preferrably well drained.
Cultivation
In Zimbabwe, seeds are broadcast successfully on the ashes of recently burned tracts. More usually
seedlings are transplanted from the nursery. Seed require no special treatment.. Though needing
protection from frost and weeds when young, older saplings show more tolerance to both.
According to Irvine (1961), seedlings transplant badly.
Harvesting
For oil extraction, trees are not allowed to mature to the timber stage. Instead, they are lopped for
the foliage; sucker shoots produce copious foliage.

Tanzania plantations, harvested on an 8-year coppice, produced an annual 15 m3/ha. Back in 1925,
the essential oil from this species commanded twice the price of that of E. globulus (MacMillan,
1946).
Energy
Firewood yields run 1021 m3/ha/yr (Fenton et al., 1977). The hard heavy wood (sp. grav.
0.751.1) burns steadily and makes a good charcoal with an ash content of 12%. This is the chief
charcoal species of the Brazililan steel industry.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists the following as affecting this species: (Bacteria) Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
(Fungi) Armillaria mellea, Fusarium spp., Ganoderma colossum, G. lucidum, Phytophthora
parasitica, Polyporus rubidus, Puccinia psidii, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Trametes cubensis,
Verticillium albo-atrum. (Coleoptera) Anomala cupripes, Dicasticus affinis, Elytrurus griseus,

Entypotrachelus meyeri, Systates surdus, Xyleborus truncatus. (Hemiptera) Atelocera stictica,
Eucalyptolyma maideni. (Isoptera) Ancistrotermes amphidon, Coptotermes truncatus, Microtermes
spp., Pseudacanthotermes militaris. (Lepidoptera) Carea angulata, Colocleora divisaria,
Neocleora nigrisparsalis, Nudaurelia krucki, Strepsicrates holotephras, Sylepta balteata,
Thalassodes sp., Uzucha borealis. (Orthoptera) Schistocerca gregaria.
References
Atal, C.K. and Kapur, B.M. 1982. (eds.) Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants.
Regional Research Laboratory. Jammu - Tawi, India. 877 p.
Gupta, P.K., Mascarenhas, A.F., and Jagannathan, V. 1981. Tissue culture of forest
treesclonal propagation of mature trees of Eucalyptus citridora Horsk. by tissue culture.
Plant Science Letters 20(3):195201.
Irvine, F.R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana. Oxford University Press, London.
Lewis, W.H. and Elvin-Lewis, M.P.F. 1977. Medical botany. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
MacMillan, H.F. 1946. Tropical gardening and planting. MacMillan & Co., London.
Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

Myrtaceae
Eucalypt, Tasmanian bluegum
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
A handsome ornamental shade, most widely planted of the subtropical/eucalypts. Grown for
firewood in India (C.S.I.R., 1948 1976). This is one of the best eucalypts for pulp production. The
timber is used for carpentry, construction, fences, piles, platforms, plywood, poles, sheds, and
stations, tool handles, veneer, etc. Essential oil, widely used in cough drops, is antiseptic,
rubefacient, and stimulant (Morton, 1981). A type of kino extracted from the tree in Argentina.
Eucalyptus hybrid 'Mysore' is a promising source of pinenes, which are used in synthetic camphor,
pine oil, terpineol, and in dry cleaning fluids, solvents, and cheap deodorants (Verma et al., 1978).
The leaves have proven antibiotic acitivty. Their decoction is used for repelling insects and vermin
(Morton, 1981). Africans use finely powdered bark as an insect dust. Mexicans chew the leaves to
strengthen the gums. Said to be a good honey plant, Portuguese bee farmers like to raise their bees
near this eucalyptus.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_globulus.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 3:59:28 PM]
Eucalyptus globulus
Folk Medicine
Reported to be anodyne, antiperiodic, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, deodorant, diaphoretic,
expectorant, febrifuge, hemostat, inhalant, insect repellant, rubefacient, sedative yet stimulant,
suppurative, and vermifuge, the bluegum eucalyptus is a folk remedy for abscess, arthritis, asthma,
boils, bronchitis, burns, cancer, catarrh, cold, cough, croup, cystitia, diabetes, diptheria, dysentery,
dyspepsia, fever, flu, grippe, inflammation, laryngitis, leprosy, malaria, miasma, phthisis, rhinitis,
sores, sorethroat, spasms, tuberculosis, tumors, vaginitis, wounds, and worms (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Duke and Wain, 1981; List and Horhammer, 19691979; Morton, 1981).
Venezuelans take leaf decoction for cheat airments or colds, inhaling the vapors or drinking the
decoction. Guatemalans use the leafy shoots for coughs and grippe, Jamaicans put the leaves in the
bed, the bath, or the teapot for colds and fever. Cubans use the essential oil for bronchitis, bladder
and liver infections, lung ailments, malaria, and stomach trouble. Mexicans chew the fresh leaves
to strengthen the gums. Mexicans also use the leaf decoction as a vaginal douche. They argue that
daily drinking of the leaf infusion can reverse diabetes in 8 days. Leaves are placed in the bath for
rheumatism (Morton, 1981). Homeopaths use the plant for bronchitis, colds, flu, laryngitis, and
rheumatism. In Asia, the leaf oil, clearly poisonous in large quantities, is regarded as anesthetic,
antibiotic, antiperiodic, expectorant, febrifuge, and vermifuge, and it is used for asthma, bronchitis,
influenza, and tuberculosis (Perry, 1980). In Australila, the leaves of the bluegum are still widely
used as a household remedy in the treatment of many diseases and minor complaints. In Britain
and Europe the essential oil, which is powerfully antiseptic, was given for fevers and febrile
conditions, for pulmonary tuberculosis, and was applied or inhaled for relieving asthma,
bronchitis, sorethroat, croup, whooping-cough, scarlet fever, and even diptheria and typhoid. The
dried leaves were also smoked like cigarettes for asthma while the oil in the form of an aperitif was
taken as a digestive (Brooker et al., 1981). Europeans in Africa and Africans themselves may wear
the leaf in the hat or place it around the residence as a flu preventative. It is also regarded as a
malaria preventitive. African herbalists believe the root is purgative.
Chemistry
Leaves contain 7080% eucalyptol (cineol). Also includes terpineol, sesquiterpene alcohols,
aliphatic aldehydes, isoamyl alcohol, ethanol, and terpenes (Morton, 1981). Tannin is not so
copious in the leaves as of many other Eucalyptus species. The kino, containing 28.7% kino-tannin
and 47.9% catechin contains the very antibiotic citriodorol (Watt and Bryer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Verma et al. (1978) found 20.2% -pinene, 25.2% -pinene, and only 16.8% cineole in the cv
'Mysore'. Fresh leaves contain caffeic and gallic acids, dry leaves, ferulic and gentisic (Boukef et
al., 1976), and quercetol, quercitrine, rutin, and a mixture of quercetol hyperoside and glaucoside.
N-titriacontan-16, 18-dione was identified as the compound responsible for antioxidant activity in
the leaf wax (Osawa and Namik, 1981).
Eucalyptus globulus
Toxicity
In large doses, oil of eucalyptus, like so many essential oils has caused fatalities from intestinal
irritation (Morton,1981). Death is reported from ingestion of 424 ml of essential oils, but
recoveries are also reported for the same amount. Symptoms include gastroenteric burning and
irritation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, oxygen deficiency, ,weakness, dizziness, stupor, difficult
respiration, delirium, paralysis, convulsions, and death, usually due to respiratory failure (Duke,
1984b). Reported to cause contact dermatitis (Brooker et al, 1981). Sensitive persons may develop
urticaria from handling the foliage and other parts of the plant (Watt and Bryer- Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Evergreen tree 4070 m tall with straight massive trunk 0.62 m in diameter with narrow, irregular
crown of large branches and drooping aromatic, camphoraceous foliage. Root system deep and
spreading. Bark smoothish, mottled gray, brown, and greenish or bluish, peeling in long strips, at
base becoming gray, rough and shaggy, thick, and finely furrowed; inner bark light yellow within
thin green layer. Leaves alternate, drooping on flattened yellowish petioles 1.54 cm long,
narrowly lanceolate, 1030 cm long, 2.55 cm wide, mostly curved, acuminate at tip, acute at
base, entire, glabrous, thick, leathery, with fine straight veins and vein inside marlin, shiny dark
green on both surfaces. Flowers 1 (rarely 23), at leaf base, more than 5 cm across, the very
numerous, white stamens ca 12 mm long. Buds top-shaped, 1215 mm long, 1225 mm wide.
Stamens many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong opening in broad slits with round gland. Pistil
with inferior 35-celled ovary and long stout style. Capsules single at leaf base, broadly
top-shaped or rounded, 11.5 cm long, 22.5 cm wide, 4-angled, warty. Seeds many, irregularly
elliptical, 23 mm long, dull black (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, bluegum, or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate
narrower extremes of temperature and soil than many of the more tropical species. (2n = 20, 22,
28)
Distribution
The most extensively planted eucalypt species in the world...a total of 800,000 ha in dozens of
countries...About half the world's plantation area is in Portugal and Spain (Little, 1983). Also
cultivated in California, Arizona, and Hawaii.
Ecology
Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones,
bluegum eucalyptus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 16 dm and annual
Eucalyptus globulus
temperature of ca 16 to 20C. Major successes have been in mild temperate climates and in cool
highlands. Elsewhere it fails (NAS, 1980a).
Cultivation
Propagated by seed and basket transplants ca 6 mos old. No seed treatment is required. Fresh seeds
germinate well but deteriorate rapidly. The tree is readily established, easily reproducing from
self-sown seed. In California, seed collections from a single tree exhibit wide variation (280%) in
germinative capacity after a 30-day germination period (Ag. Handbook 450). Seedlings like the
adults are susceptible to drought, fire, and frost. Grasses need to be weeded, as the tree does not
compete well with grasses (NAS, 1980a). Tree grows rapidly and coppices readily (reaching a
meter or more in a few months).
Harvesting
Usually grown on rotations of 515 years. In India's Nilgiris, bluegum plantations are worked for
fuel purposes on a 15-year coppice (C.S.I.R., 19481976).

Annual wood production of 1030 m3 has been reported from sites in Italy, Peru, Portugal, and
Spain (NAS, 1980a). Verma et al (1978) estimated essential oil yields between ca 40 and 45 kg/ha
from 68 MT green leaves. Completely dry leaves contain 1.27% oil in the cv 'Mysore'. The
Wealth of India suggests 30 MT biomass/ha/yr in the Nilgiris (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Energy
About 30 MT/ha biomass are reported. Verma et al. (1978) calculated little more than 7 MT leaves
per hectare, green, or 68 MT for the cv 'Mysore', 34 MT dry leaves. In his compilation, Cannell
(1982) cites data on trees 9.5 years old, spaced at 2,196 trees/ha. The stem wood on a DM basis
weighed 1958 MT/ha, the stem bark 511, the branches 2.65.5, the foliage 4.06.7, for a total
standing aerial biomass of 35110 MT/ha. The CAI (current annual increment) of stem wood was
2.97.7 m3/ha/yr, stem bark 0.71.5, branches 0.50.7, foliage 2.6ca 6 for a total aerial CAI of
6.715.6 MT/ha/yr, the low figures representing unfertilized trees, the high reflecting ca 200 kg/ha
N and 90 kg/ha P. These data were taken at Victoria, Australia (3820'S, 14620'E, elev. 150 m).
The wood burns freely, leaving little ash, and carbonizes easily, making good charcoal. With
calorific value of 4,800 kcal/kg, the heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.81.0) is widely used for fuelwood
and charcoal (NAS, 1980). Even the dead leaves and fallen bark are highly flammable. The
charcoal is used for producer gas plants (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Cromer and Williams (Austr. J.
Bot. 30:265. 1982) report that it took 9.5 years to accumulate 30 MT/ha biomass unfertilized, but
only 4 years in heavily fertilized plots.
Eucalyptus globulus
Biotic Factors
Listed as affecting Eucalyptus globulus are the following: Actinopelte dryina, Armillaria mellea,
Cercospora epicoccoides, C. eucalypti, Corticium salmonicolor, Cryptosporium eucalypti,
Cytospora australiae, C. eucalyptina, Diaporthe medusaea, Didymosphaeria circinnans, Diplodia
australiae, Fomes applanatus, F. scruposus, Fusarium oxysporum var. aurantiacum, Ganoderma
lucidum, Harknessia uromycoides, Hendersonia eucalypticola, Laetiporus sulphureus,
Macrophoma molleriana, Macrophomina phaseoli, Monochaetia desmazierii, Mycosphaerella
molleriana, Pestalotia truncata, Pestalotiopsis funerea, Pezizella carneo-rosea, Pezizella
oenotherae, Phellinus gilvus, Phyllostica extensa, Physalospora latitans, P. rhodina, P.
suberumpens, Polyporus gilvus, P. hirsutus, P. schweinitzii, P. sulphureus, P. versicolor, Poria
cocos, P. versipora, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Septonema multiplex, Septosporium scyphophorum,
Stereum hirsutum, and Valsa eucalypti (Ag. Handbook 165; Browne, 1968). Also listed in Browne
(1968) are the following: Angiospermae: Dendrophthoe, neelgherensis, and Viscum album.
Coleoptera: Gonipterus scutellatus, Paropsis obsoleta, Phoracantha semipunctata, and
Triphocaris mastersi. Hemiptera: Ctenarytaina eucalypti and Eriococcus coriaceus. Hymenoptera:
Rhinopeltella eucalypti. Lepidoptera: Metanastria hyrtaca, Mnesampela privata, and Spilonota
macropetana. Foliage unpalatable to livestock. The oil rich wood is resistant to termites (NAS,
1980a).
References
Washington.
Boukef, K., Balansard, G., Lallemand, M., and Brenard, P. 1976. Study of flavonic
heterosides and agylcones isolated from leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. (Hort. Abstract
47:1899.)
Brooker, S.G., Cambie, R.C., and Cooper, R.C. 1981. New Zealand medicinal plants.
Heinemann Publishers, Auckland.
vols. New Delhi.
New York.
Duke, J.A. 1984b. Borderline herbs. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL
Eucalyptus globulus

Osawa, T. and Namiki, M. 1981. A novel type of antioxidant isolated from leaf wax of
eucalyptus leaves. Agr. Biol. Chem. 45(3):735739.
Verma, V.P.S., Shiva, M.P., Subrahmanyam, I.V., and Suri, B.K. 1978. Utilization of
eucalyptus hybrid oil from forest plantations. Indian Forester 104(12):846850.
A. DC.
Myrtaceae
Tuart
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Widely planted as a windbreak and sandstabilizer, as well as an avenue and shade tree. Seasoning
well, the wood works nicely and is good for boxcars, construction, fenceposts, stakes, trucks, and
wagons (NAS, 1980a; Little, 1983). Bees working the flowers produce a choice light creamy
honey.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_gomphocephala.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:29 PM]
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
The leaf is reported to contain only 0.03% essential oil, rich in -phellandrene and -pinene
(C.S.I.R., 19481976); the bark and kino contain tannin (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Evergreen tree 1242 m high. Trunk short, 12.3 m in diameter; crown dense, broad, with large
spreading to nearly upright branches. Bark light ashy-gray, fibrous, finely fissured, not shedding.
Leaves alternate, narrowly lanceolate, 1217 cm long, 1.52.5 cm wide, slightly curved,
acuminate, acute at base, entire, glabrous, thick, both surfaces shiny gray-green with faint regular
veins. Umbels single at leaf base, with broad flat stalk 2.53.5 cm long and 11.5 cm wide.
Flowers 37, stalkless from buds 2025 mm long. Stamens many, long, threadlike, white, with
oblong anthers and oblong gland. Pistil with inferior 4-celled ovary and short style. Capsules
1320 mm long, 1115 mm in diameter. Seeds many, tiny, 23 mm long, light brown (Little,
1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, tuart, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
calcareous soil, limestone, salt, sand, and wind (NAS, 1980a). While tolerating slightly saline
soils, it will not tolerate water-logging. This species is one of the best for winter rainfall areas.
Distribution
Grows naturally in pure or almost pure stands, less commonly in mixed forests with other
eucalypts, restricted to a narrow sandy coastal plain behind the coastal dunes near Perth, from sea
level to 30 m. Cultivated and/or promising in Cyprus, Ethiopia, Greece, Israel, Italy, Libya,
Morocco (66,000 ha), Tunisia, Turkey, and Uruguay (NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Tuart is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 10 dm and annual temperature of ca 16 to
18C, with 6 dry summer months. It grows naturally on neutral yellow or brown sand over
limestone. Growing well on coarse, well-drained sands, it will tolerate 25% active Ca. Still it is
said to be unsuitable for high lime soils and for frosty areas. It tolerates lower fertility than E.
camaldulensis.
Cultivation
Easily propagated from seed and coppice (Little, 1983). Cultivation by dry farming techniques is
best in the first year or two to suppress weed growth.
Harvesting
Rotations of 710 years are used. Trees regenerate readily from coppice.

Irrigated fertile Moroccan soils have yielded annually 2144 m3/ha, but yields of 67 are more
usual on difficult sites.
Energy
One of the densest woods known (sp. grav. 1.17), tuart burns well and makes good firewood.
Biotic Factors
The eucalypt borer (Phoracantha semipunctata) may be a pest, especially in drier sites. In
addition, Browne (1968) lists the following as affecting this species: (Fungi) Armillaria mellea,
Fusarium oxysporum. (Coleoptera) Systates surdus, Triphocarisa acanthocera. (Hemiptera)
Apiomorpha egeria.

48.18%C, 5.92%H, 44.18% O, 0.39% N, 0.01% S, 0.20% Cl, and undetermined residue.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Agric. 39(5/6):1416.

Eucalyptus grandis
Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex

Maiden
Myrtaceae
Flooded gum
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
This is a rather widely planted ornamental shade tree, also useful as a honey plant. The pale red
timber is softer and lighter than that of many eucalypts. Easily worked, the wood is extensively
used for medium-quality joinery in offices and hotels. They are good for crafts, and older trees, for
telephone poles. It is occasionally used for veneer.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_grandis.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 3:59:30 PM]
Eucalyptus grandis
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
The bark and kino contain tannins (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Evergreen tree 4060 m high with a tall straight trunk and 12 m in diameter. Crown spreading
and thin in open; small and compressed in dense plantations. Bark white, gray or green, smooth,
shedding in long narrow strips. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, 1020 cm long, 24 cm wide,
acuminate, inaequilateral, wavy, glabrous. Umbels single at leaf base, 2.53 cm long with flattened
stalk of 12 mm. Flowers 512, short-stalked or stalkless. Buds pyriform, 10 mm long, 5 mm wide.
Stamens many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong with large round gland. Pistil with inferior
46-celled ovary. Capsules several, short-stalked, pyriform or conical, 8 mm long, 6 mm wide
(Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, flooded gum, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate frost, heat, and poor soil. Adapted to a rather wide range of soil types, the species is
relatively free of disease but somewhat frost tender. The tree grown in Africa and Brazil, possibly
a hybrid with E. saligna, is superior to wild types in yield and bole straightness (NAS, 1980a).
Distribution
Ranging spottily from 17S to 30S in Australia, the plant is widely planted. It is so important in
Brazil that it is said to be planted at the rate of 100,000 ha/yr. Mariani et al. (1981) mention its
cultivation in Angola, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Ghana, Indonesia, Papua, Peru, Sri
Lanka, and Zimbabwe.
Ecology
Seedlings of E. grandis are more resistant to waterlogging than those of E. robusta, which are
more resistant than those of E. saligna. Estimated to range from Tropical Thorn to Moist through
Warm Temperate Thorn to Moist Forest Life Zones, flooded gum is reported to tolerate annual
precipitation of (6.0-)7.0 to 17.3(-25) dm (mean of 3 cases = 11.8), annual temperature of 18.8 to
27.5C (mean of 3 cases = 23.2), and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 2 cases = 6.2). Grows where
summer temperatures reach 40C, winter minima -1 to -3C. While tolerating gradual temperature
falls to frost, sudden freezing is very damaging. Does best where the rain is mostly in summer/fall
Eucalyptus grandis
with a spring dry period. Does well in moist, well-drained soils from shales, slates, sandstones,
even granites and basalts. Seems to tolerate poor soils with low P content.
Cultivation
Since weeds severely limit growth, mechanical or chemical site preparation is essential if rapid
rates of growth are to be achieved and maintained." (NAS, 1980a). The plant is sensitive to boron
deficiency. Fertilizer applied at the time of planting can have a spectacular effect. Seedlings 25
months old are outplanted, best at the beginning of the wet season, spaced at 2 x 2 m to 5 x 5 m
(NAS, 1980a).
Harvesting
Usual rotations in Kenya are 6 years for domestic fuelwood, 1012 years for industrial fuelwood,
78 years for telephone poles. Forests are commonly regenerated by coppice from stumps,
sprouting within 3 months, then thinned to 23 shoots per stump.

In Kenya, the initial crop averages ca 30 m3/ha/yr over the first 6 years, the coppice crop closer to
46 m3/ha/yr over the same period. Irrigated stands in Zimbabwe yield; 40 m3, good stands in
Uganda 1745, and up to 35 m3/ha in S. Africa. At Dehra Dun the MAI was 22 m3/ha (Fenton et
al., 1977). Webb et al. (1980) report yields of 2470 m3/ha/yr.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges to 22 MT/ha in
California. Introduced into E. Africa as railroad fuel early this century, flooded gum provides a
lightweight (sp. grav. 0.400.55) fuelwood. In New South Wales, total biomass increases with age
to 394 MT at 27 yrs. old, with foliage biomass increasing gradually to 6.2 MT. Though variable,
understory biomass increased through recruitment to 42 MT at 27yrs-old, the stick and bark
component having reached a steady state 7 MT at age 15, the leaf component rather steady around
2, the humus content stabilizing at 1718 (Bradstock, 1981). The Sri Lanka apellation
turpentine-gas certainly suggests energy implications. Although this species produces more wood
than Acacia mearnsii, it is inferior to that species for fuel and charcoal (Duke, 1981a). Eucalyptus
scored lower than Melaleuca on yield (ca 6 MT/ha/yr cf 28 MT/ha/yr) and nothing had as high a
heating value as the bark of Melaleuca (>25,000 kj/kg). The bark of Eucalyptus grandis has a
relatively low heat value (14,683 kj/kg), perhaps due to a plethora of inorganic noncombustibles in
the bark. The average ash content is 10.1%. The stem wood had a heat value of 19,213 kj/kg.
Eucalyptus grandis
Biotic Factors
In Brazil, the fungus Diaportha cubensis attacks the flooded gum. Termites may be a problem in
savanna plantations. Root rot is a serious problem (Fungi) in Zambia. Browne (1968) lists the
following as affecting this species: Cylindrocladium scoparium, Daldinia concentrica.
(Coleoptera) Anomala cupripes, Automolus depressus, Phoracantha recurva, P. semipunctata,
Triphocaris acanthocera, T. mastersi. (Hemiptera) Cardiaspina fiscella, C. maniformis. (Isoptera)
Macrotermes natalensis. (Lepidoptera) Neocleora herbuloti, Nola lugens, Xyleutes boisduvali.
(Mammalia) Trichosurus vulpecula.

48.33% C, 5.89% H, 45.13% O, 0,15% N, 0.01% S, 0.08% Cl, and undetermined residue.
References
Bradstock, R. 1981. Biomass in an age series of Eucalyptus grandis plantations. Australian

For. Res. 11(2):111127.
NewYork.
Agric. 39(5/6):1416.
Eucalyptus grandis

Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl.

Myrtaceae
Swamp yate
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Reported as one of the hardest and straightest timbers of the world, with a tensile strength only
slightly below that of wrought iron. The wood is used for wheelwright work (frames, vehicles,
wheel parts) and construction. In Western Australia, the tree is recommended as a shade tree,
suitable for parks because its light shade doesn't prevent grass. The bark was once used as a source
of tannin.
Folk Medicine
No data available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_occidentalis.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:59:30 PM]
Chemistry
The leaf is reported to contain 0.95% oil with aromadendren (or aromadendrol), pinene, cineol,
and sesquiterpenes. The bark is reported to contain 3552% tannin (Watt and Breyer Brandwijk,
1962).
Description
Evergreen tree 1528 m high, with stout erect trunk to 80 cm diameter; flat-topped or umbrellalike
crown. Bark dark gray or almost black, thick, rough, fissured, fibrous, not shedding. Leaves
alternate, narrowly to broadly lanceolate, 1014 cm long, 23 cm wide, acute at both ends, sides
nearly equal, entire, glabrous, thick, shiny dark green on both surfaces, petiole to 2 cm long.
Umbels single at leaf base, the stalk 1525 mm long. Flowers 37, short-stalked, the bud to 20 mm
long. Stamens many, long, 820 mm long, yellowish-white, thread-like, with tiny gland-dots,
oblong anthers with oblong gland. Pistil with inferior conical 4-celled ovary and long slender style.
Capsules short-stalked, bell-shaped, 1018 mm long, 812 mm wide. Seeds few, tiny, 2 mm long,
brown (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, swamp yate, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate alkalinity, drought, heavy soils, salinity, sand, and brief waterlogging (NAS, 1980a; Little,
1983). It is reported to fare well on soils with 8% chlorides. (2n = 22)
Distribution
Native to the southwestern part of Western Australia (elev 50300 m), the species has been
introduced to northern Africa and southwestern Asia. Successful plantations are reported from
Algeria, California, Hawaii, Iran, Israel, Morocco, and Sri Lanka (NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Subtropical Thorn to Dry through Warm Temperate Thorn to Dry Forest
Life Zones, swamp yate is estimated or reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 10 dm,
annual temperature of 16 to 23C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.2. Summers where the species naturally
grows may attain 38C, with a dry season up to 7 months; the winters may dip down to 2C, with
up to 20 frosts. Trees often occur in seasonally flooded alluvial flats and adjacent to salt lakes, on
clays.
Cultivation
No data available.
Harvesting
No data available.

Compared to other species of eucalypt, this is a slow grower. Webb et al. (1980) reported wood
yields of 38 m3/ha/yr.
Energy
The wood burns steadily with a hot fire.
Biotic Factors
NAS (1980a) reports no pests or diseases.
References
Eucalyptus robusta
Eucalyptus robusta Sm.

Myrtaceae
Swamp mahogany, Iron bark
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. References
Uses
One of the most widely planted eucalypts, this has moderately hard and heavy wood (sp. grav.
0.51) which is strong but brittle and stiff, elastic, coarse-textured, and fairly straight-grained but
with some interlocking. Difficult to season and split, it works well and takes a good polish, and is
durable in contact with the ground. The wood is employed in general construction, for
underground piling, utility poles, fenceposts, and firewood. An attractive ornamental
honey-producing tree, it is also planted as a windbreak. The plant is used as an insecticide in China
(Perry, 1980).
Folk Medicine
Reported to be preventitive, swamp mahogany is a folk remedy for abscesses, boils, cellulitis,
colds, dysentery, encephalitis, enteritis, erysipelas, flu, gangrene, mastitis, and sores (Duke and
Wain, 1981).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_robusta.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:31 PM]
Eucalyptus robusta
Chemistry
The kino contains the antibiotic citriodorol. Leaves and fruits were positive for flavonoids, sterols,
and tannins. The bark contains only 1.4% tannin, while the leaves may contain 12% (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves contain 0.16% essential oil, with aromadendren (or
aromadendral) and pinene.
Description
Evergreen tree 2440 m with relatively large, short, straight, trunk 11.2 m in diam. ca half the
height of the tree. Trunk may have air roots. Bark gray or brown, reddish brown beneath surface,
very thick, rough, deeply furrowed, fibrous. Leaves alternate, blades broadly lanceolate, 1018 cm
long, 36 cm wide, acuminate, acute at base and often with curved, unequal sides, glabrous, thick,
leathery, stiff, shiny or dull dark green upper surface, dull light green beneath. Petiole to 25 mm,
umbels single at leaf base, to 6 cm long, peduncle 23 cm. Flowers 510, equally short-stalked,
large, 3 cm across. Buds pyriform, 1220 mm long, 710 mm wide. Stamens many, threadlike,
spreading, white or cream-colored, ca 12 mm long, anthers oblong with large oblong gland. Pistil
with inferior 34-celled ovary and straight, stout style. Capsules several in rounded cluster,
stalked, 1215 mm long, 1012 mm wide. Seeds tiny, dull light brown, 12 mm long (Little,
1983).
Germplasm
The hybrid with E. grandis is regarded as having better firewood potential.
Distribution
Native to southeastern Australia on a very narrow coastal strip (0100 m elev.), but now widely
introduced in tropical and subtropical areas. According to Little (1983), it is the best adapted
species to Puerto Rico. Cultivated, for example, in Angola, Argentina, Arizona, Brazil, California,
Cameroon, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Florida, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Israel, Ivory Coast,
Malagasy, Malaysia, Mauritus, New Hebrides, Nigeria, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sri Lanka,
Tanzania, and Vietnam.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Moist through Frostfree Subtropical Very Dry to Moist
Forest Life Zones, swamp mahogany is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 15 dm,
annual temperature of 18 to 25C, and pH of 5 to 7.5. Where native, this species is found mainly in
swamps and at the edge of brackish estuaries. It grows better on slopes, but doesn't compete as
well as the mixed forest species (Little, 1983).
Eucalyptus robusta
Cultivation
Out of a gram of seed, about 100 germinate. Seed is usually sown, immediately after collecting
and sundrying.
Harvesting
In Malaysia, it starts fruiting as early as year 4. Fruits take two years to ripen in China. Fruits are
collected when the capsules start to turn black.

In Argentina, 5 year old stands 9 m tall (1,583 trees/ha) had a basal area of 10 m2 and a volume of
89 m3 for an average of 18 m3/ha/yr. Webb et al. (1980) report wood yields of 1428 m3/ha/yr. In
Malaysia, the MAI was 4 cm planted under shade, 6 planted in slash/burn situation, and 11 planted
in an abandoned vegetable garden (Fenton et al., 1977).
Energy
Little (1983) mentions the use of the species for fuel, but it was not recommended by NAS
(1980a). Planted for fuel reserves at 1,0002,000 m elevation in Sri Lanka (MacMillan, 1925).
Comparing potential energy trees for Panama, Curtis and Duke (1982) cite Puerto Rico studies
showing green weight of 14,556 kg/ha for Eucalyptus robusta, 8,922 for Albizia procera, 6,932 for
Casuarina equisetifolia, 4,360 for Leucaena (K-8), 599 kg only for native Leucaena, and only 402
for Cassia siamea. The data from Puerto Rico were provided by a team promoting energy grasses
as energy sources. They concluded that energy grasses will produce 67.5 times more green
biomass. They cited 53 MT for sordan, 82 for napier grass, and 84 MT/ha DM for sugarcane (in 12
months). Perhaps the data of Smith and Dowd, in Florida, are equally reliable. They projected only
ca 6 MT/ha for Eucalyptus (perhaps E. grandis, robusta, or viminalis) with ca 60 for napier grass,
3254 for sugarcane, and 1637 for sorghum, only 22 for sordan. Both the Puerto Rican and
Florida tabulations suggest that the energy grasses may be 10 times as productive of DM as
Eucalyptus. Eucalyptus scored lower than Melaleuca on yield (ca 6 MT/ha/yr) and nothing has as
high a heating value as the bark of Melaleuca (>25,000 kj/kg). The stemwood (density 0.53 g/cm3)
ofi E. robusta had a heat value of 19,628 kj/kg, the stembark (0.22 g/cm3), 18,074 (Wang et al.,
1982).
References
Curtis, C.R. and Duke, J.A. 1982. An assessment of land biomass and energy potential for
the Republic of Panama. vol. 3. Institute of Energy Conversion. Univ. Delaware.
Eucalyptus robusta
MacMillan, H.F. 1925. Tropical gardening and planting. 3rd ed. Times of Ceylon Co., Ltd.,
Colombo.
Wang, S.L., Huffman, J.B., and Rockwood, D.L. 1982. Qualitative evaluation of fuelwood
in Floridaa summary report. Econ. Bot. 36(4):381388.
Eucalyptus saligna
Eucalyptus saligna Sm.

Myrtaceae
Saligna eucalypt
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Often confused with E. grandis, a bottomland species, this slope species is an important general
purpose hardwood and construction timber in Australia. Also used for cabinetry, crossties,
furniture, shipbuilding, turnery, veneers. Since it is not a "greasy" wood, the Australians favor it
for floorings and steps. A good honey plant, is often grown as an ornamental and/or shade tree
(Little, 1983). Much used in South Africa for paper pulp and artificial silk (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The oil has insecticidal properties against bedbugs, black beetles, flies,
lice, and mosquitoes (Kambu et al., 1982).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_saligna.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:32 PM]
Eucalyptus saligna
Folk Medicine
No data available.
Chemistry
Leaves contain 0.12% essential oil, largely composed of -pinene and p-cymene. Kambu et al.
(1982) add 1,8-cineole, borneol, -terpineol, and linalol. The bark contains 5.9-8.4% tannin.
Description
Evergreen tree 4070 m high with open, spreading, irregular crown. Trunk 1.21.8 m in diameter,
straight. Bark dull, bluish or greenish-gray, smooth, peeling off slightly and exposing yellow layer.
Roots may have lignotubers near the surface. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, 1020 cm long, 1.53
cm wide, often curved, acuminate, acute at base, glabrous, dull green or dark green above, dull
light green below. Petiole 1225 mm long. Umbels single at leaf bases and along twigs, 22.5 cm
long. Flowers 39, usually 7, equally short-stalked or nearly stalkless, 1219 mm across. Buds 89
mm long, 45 mm wide. Stamens many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong with large round gland.
Pistil with inferior 35-celled ovary and short style, Capsules on short stalk or subsessile,
campanulate or conical, 56 mm long and wide, dark brown. Seeds many, tiny, 12 mm long, dull
light brown (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity and is reported to tolerate slopes. (2n = 22)
Distribution
Native to southeastern Australia, from sea level to 1,000 m. Introduced in Argentina, Brazil,
California, Guyana, Hawaii, India, Indonesia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Sri Lanka.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest
Life Zones, saligna eucalypt is reported or estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 15 dm,
annual temperature of 16 to 22C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Inhabits soils derived from shales and deep
well drained clays in valleys.
Eucalyptus saligna
Cultivation
No data available.
Harvesting
No data available.

This is the fastest growing eucalypt in Hawaii where one 71 m specimen represents the tallest
hardwood species in the US.
Energy
A 4-year old stand in Brazil had standing biomass of 56 MT/ha (38 aboveground, 8 litter, and 10
belowground). But annual biomass productivity was estimated at 1517 MT/ha (Andrae and
Krapfenbauer, 1979). Fenton et al. (1977) report wood yields of 19 m3/ha/yr; Webb et al. (1980),
2038.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) lists the following as affecting this species: (Fungi) Fomes robustus, Sclerotinia
fuckeliana, Thanataphorous cucumeris. (Coleoptera) Chaetastus tuberculatus, Doliopygus
kenyaensis, Entypotrachelus meyeri, Nematocerus lindblomi, Phoracantha semipunctata,
Triphocaris acanthocera, T. solida, Xyleborus truncatus. (Hemiptera) Cardiaspina pinnaeformis,
Glycaspis baileyi. (Hymenoptera) Phylacteophaga eucalypti. (Isoptera) Macrotermes natalensis,
Pseudacanthotermes militarism (Lepidoptera) Acrocercops laciniella, Agrapha limbirena,
Axiologa pura, Cleora dargei, Eumeta junodi, Nola lugens, Nudaurelia gueinzii, Oenetus
virescens, Pachypasa subfascia, Spilonota macropetana, Spodoptera littoralis, Strepsicrates
rhothia, Zelotypia staccyi. (Orthoptera) Brachytrupes membranaccus. (Mammalia) Lepus whytei,
Tragelaphus scriptus.
References
Andrae, F. and Krapfenbauer, A. 1979. Studies on biomass and nutrients in 4-yr. old
Eucalyptus saligna plantation in Santa Maria, Brazil. Centralblatt fur Gesamte Forstwesen
96(1):129.
Eucalyptus saligna
Kambu, K., D. Phanzu, N., Coune, C., Wauters, J.N., and Angenot, L. 1982. Contribution to
the study of the insecticidal and chemical properties of Eucalyptus saligna of Zaire. Plant.
Med. Phytother. 16(1):3438.
Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm.

Myrtaceae
Forest redgum
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Recommended as a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid tropical regions, this shade and
shelterbelt species has heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.751.05), is hard, durable, and strong but difficult
to work. It is used for fuel, pulp, pilings, fiberboard, and construction; also for crossties and
fenceposts.
Folk Medicine
No data available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_tereticornis.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 3:59:34 PM]
Chemistry
Leaves contain 0.480.66% essential oil, 010.4% of which is cineol. The bark and kino contain
tannin.
Description
Evergreen tree 1846 m high with straight stout trunk 11.8 m in diameter, large and open or fairly
dense crown. Bark smooth, whitish, peeling in irregular thin sheets or large flakes, becoming
mottled with white, gray, or blueish patches. Leaves alternate, lanceolate, 1021 cm long, 1225
mm wide, often curved, acuminate, acute at base, slightly thickened, shiny green on both surfaces,
glabrous. Umbels single at leaf base, 2.53 cm long including the rounded stalk of 1 cm. Flowers
512, spreading on equal stalks on 57 mm. Buds 1216 mm long, 5 mm wide. Stamens many,
threadlike, white, 1012 mm long, anthers small and elliptical, with small round gland. Pistil with
inferior 45-celled ovary and long stout style. Capsules several, hemiglobose or turbinate, 69 mm
long, 810 mm in diameter. Seeds many, tiny, 1 mm long and broad, shiny dark brown to black
(Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, forest redgum, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate drought and light frosts. It does not tolerate acidic soils or waterlogging. (2n = 22)
Distribution
With a wide latitudinal range (638S) of ca 3,000 km from sea level to 1,800 m, the forest
redgum is native from eastern Australia into New Guinea and Papua, the species is widely
introduced, faring notably in South Africa for example. Reported in Argentina, Botswana, Brazil
(national average yield 18 m3/ha/yr), Congo, Cuba, Fiji, Ghana, Guyana, India, Indonesia,
Pakistan, Papua, Paraguay, Peru, Sudan, Uruguay, and Zimbabwe (Mariani et al., 1981; Fenton et
al., 1977).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Warm Temperate Dry to Moist
Forest Life Zones, forest redgum is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 20 dm, annual
temperature of 16 to 25C, and pH of 6.5 to 7.5. Where it grows naturally, it may tolerate 015
frosts a year. The dry season may extend for 7 months. The mean maximum temperature of the
warmest month is ca 27C, while the mean minimum of the coolest month is 7C. Soils, usually
not acidic, are rather rich, moist, alluvial, sandy loams and gravels, not usually waterlogged
(Mariani et al., 1981).
Cultivation
No data available.
Harvesting
In Argentina it is harvested on 78-year rotations for charcoal, 912-year cycles for construction
timber (Mariani et al., 1981).

On good sites in Argentina, an MAI of 1830 m3/ha/yr is obtainable, but in poor sites in India, the
MAI may be closer to 3. At Dehra Dun, the 'Mysore' hybrid yielded only 3 m3/ha/yr compared to
22 for E. grandis (Fenton et al., 1977).
Energy
In his compilation, Cannell (1982) cites data showing that trees 5 years old, spaced at 1,670
trees/ha, averaged a basal area of 18 m2/ha. The stemwood and bark on a DM basis weighed 53.7
MT/ha, the branches 10.1, the foliage 6.7, and the roots were estimated at 10.6 MT/ha for a total
standing biomass of 81.1 MT/ha. Nine-year olds spaced at 840 trees/ha averaged basal area of 42
m2/ha. The stemwood and bark weighed 139.2 MT/ha, the branches 30.9, the foliage 8.0, and the
roots were estimated at 18.6 for a total standing biomass of 196.7; suggesting an annual increment
exceeding 20 MT/ha. The wood is used for firewood and charcoal. In Argentina, it is grown for the
charcoal iron industry on a 78-year rotation. Calorific values were measured of different parts of
59-year old trees and their litter. Values for living material ranged from 3.2 to 5.7 kcal/g, similar
to published values for forest communities. Energy content, annual production, retention and
release through litter fall are tabulated for each stand age. Net annual production (in kcal/ha x 108)
increased from 0.93 (of which 0.83 is retained in the tree and 0.10 released as litter) at 5 yr old to
1.56 (1.32 retained and 0.24 released) at 9 yr old. Energy fixation by E. tereticornis appears more
efficient than in some other tree species reported in the literature (Singh, 1980).
Biotic Factors
Fenton et al. (1977) mention Alternaria tenuissima, Corticium salmonicolor, Cylindrocladium
scoparium, Ganoderma lucidum, and Sclerotinia fuckeliana among diseases. Scarab beetles may
defoliate this and other species. The coreid, Amblypelta cocophaga, has been associated with trees
suffering dieback.
References
New York.
Singh, R.P. 1980. Energy dynamics in eucalyptus tereticornis smith plantations in western
Uttar Pradesh. Indian Forester 106(9):649658.
Eucalyptus viminalis Labill.

Myrtaceae
Manna eucalyptus
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The wood (51 lb/cu ft) is used for building, construction, joinery, and vehicles. It is considered
suitable for paper pulp (C.S.I.R., 19481976). The red gum or manna exuding from cracks in the
bark is eaten eagerly by South African boys and has been used for making adhesives and birdlime
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Eucalyptus manna, which exudes from punctures in summer
months, is sometimes consumed. The essential oil shows the same antiviral (influenza) effect as
that of E. dalrympleana (Vichkanova et al, 1973). Leaves inhibit Staphylococcus aureus.
Folk Medicine
The leafy twig decoction was used to bathe rheumatic limbs in South Africa.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_viminalis.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 3:59:34 PM]
Chemistry
Leaves contain 0.350.75% essential oil, of which 5065% is cineol, 5% is pinene, and 10% is
eudesmol. The "manna" contains arabinose, raffinose, dextrose, and sucrose. The bark contains
4.88% tannin, the kino 92.7% (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The kino contains 7.1%
moisture, 0.25% ash, and 92.7% catechin + tannin (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Toxicity
The species is suspected to cause poisoning in koala bears, perhaps due to HCN (0.09% HCN has
been reported) (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Description
Seedling phanerocotylar, the cotyledons reniform.
Germplasm
Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, manna eucalyptus, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate more frost than most species of eucalypt. (2n = 22)
Distribution
Native to Southeastern Australia, but cultivated in Argentina, California, Hawaii, India, Peru, et al.
Ecology
No data available.
Harvesting
No data available.

At Calistoga, California, Standiford and Donaldson (1982) calculated 7.8 m3/ha/yr, equivalent to
3.2 cords or 20 million kcals/ha/yr.
Energy
NAS (1980a) suggested this as a promising firewood species. Webb et al. (1980) report wood
yields of 1030 m3/ha/yr.
Biotic Factors
Browne (1968) reports the following as affecting this species: (Fungi) Fomes robustus, F.
setulosus, Inonotus chondromyelus, Phytophthora parasitica, Polyporus portentosus, P. zonatus.
(Coleoptera) Entypotrachelus meyeri, Gonipterus scutellatus, Paropsis obsoleta, Phoracantha
semipunctata, P. tricuspis. (Hemiptera) Eriococcus coriaceus. (Lepidoptera) Spilonota
macropetana.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Standiford, R.B. and Donaldson, D.R. 1982. Trees as energy crops. Cal. Agr. May/June
1920.
Vichkanova, S.A., Dzhanashiya, N.M., and Goryunova, L.V. 1973. Antiviral activity
displayed by the essential oil of Eucalyptus viminalis and of some other frost hardy
eucalypti. Farmakol. Toksikol (Moscow) 36(3):33941.
Syzygium jambos
Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston

Syn. Eugenia jambos L.
Myrtaceae
Jambos, Jambu, Malabar plum, Plum rose, Pomarosa, Rose
apple, Wax apple
NewCROP has Pomarosa information at:
Rose AppleJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
And outside links to more Rose apple info:
ROSEAPPLE "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Syzygium_jambos_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:35 PM]
Klotzsch ex O. Berg.
Myrtaceae
Pitomba
PitombaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
MyrtaceaeR.J. Campbell, South American fruits deserving further attention
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eugenia_luschnathiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:35 PM]
Syzygium malaccense
Syzygium malaccense (L.)

Merrill & L.M. Perry
syn. Eugenia malaccensis L. not Lour.
syn. Jambosa malaccensis (L.) DC.
Myrtaceae
Malay Apple, Rose apple, Large-fruited rose apple, Pomerac
Jambos, Malay Pomarosa, Tahiti apple, Jambu merah (tree)
NewCROP has Malay Apple information at:
Malay Apple Julia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Syzygium_malaccense_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:36 PM]
Eugenia uniflora
Eugenia uniflora L.
Myrtaceae
Surinam Cherry
Surinam CherryJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eugenia_uniflora_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:37 PM]
Wahoo
Wahoo
Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq.
Other common names.Burningbush, spindle tree, Indian
arrowwood, bursting-heart, strawberry-tree, strawberry bush,
American spindle tree, bitter ash, pegwood.
Habitat and range.Wahoo is found in woods and thickets from
Ontario and the eastern United States to Montana.
Description.This shrub or small tree, which is from 6 to 26 feet in
height, more often reaching only 10 feet, has an ashy gray bark and
rather thin, pointed leaves from 1 1/2 to 5 inches in length and about
half as wide. The purple flowers are produced in June in loose,
slender-stemmed clusters of from 6 to 15 flowers each. The
pale-purple fruit consists of four deeply cleft, flattened lobes. In
autumn the capsules open and disclose the seed surrounded by a red,
false seed coat, giving the bush a bright and showy appearance
Figure 113.Wahoo
(Euonymus atropurpureus)
The name wahoo is applied indiscriminately to Euonymus atropurpureus and E. americanus L.,
the latter a low and trailing bush having roughened, crimson capsules, to which the name
burningbush more properly belongs.
Part used.The bark of the root and the stem.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/wahoo.html [5/16/2004 3:59:38 PM]
Euphorbia lagascae
Euphorbia lagascae L.
Euphorbiaceae
Potential of Fanweed and Other Weeds as Novel Industrial Oilseed CropsPatrick M. Carr
Schneiter
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Euphorbia_lagascae_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:39 PM]
Vitis vinifera
Index| Search| Home
Vitis vinifera L.
Vitaceae
Old world, European, or California
grapes
Establishing New Crops Industries: The Indiana Grape and Wine Industry ModelBruce
Bordelon, Theresa Browning, and Cheri Wagner
The Indiana Wine Grape Council
Growing Grapes in IndianaCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Grape Varieties for IndianaCooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Outside Links:
GrapevineFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Grapevine
site
GrapevineDescriptors for GrapevineLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
Grapesfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Grape Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vitis_vinifera_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:39 PM]
Eustoma
Eustoma
Gentiaceae
New Floral Crops in the United StatesMark S. Roh and Roger H. Lawson
New Floricultural CropsMark S. Roh and Roger H. Lawson
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eustoma_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:40 PM]
Eutrema wasabi or Wasabia japonica - Wasabi or Japanese Horseradish
Index| Search| Home
Wasabia japonica (Miq.)

Matsumara
syn=
Eutrema wasabi (Sieb.) Max.; Eutrema japonica;
Cochlearia wasabi Sieb.; Alliaria wasabi Prantl.;
Lunaria japonica Miq.)
Wasabi, Japanese horseradish, mountain hollyhock
A related species, Eutrema tenuis syn. Wasabia tenuis Matsum. is yuri-wasabi, a smaller
version of cultivated wasabi.
Wasabi. See: New Crop Development in New Zealand by James A. Douglas In: New crop
development in New Zealand. p. 51-57. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley,
New York. 1993.
Outside Wasabi links:
Wasabi (Wasabia japonica)
New Zealand Wasabi Limited - The Home of Namida Wasabi - Clean, Green & Hot.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Eutrema_wasabi_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:41 PM]
Vicia faba
Vicia faba L.
Fabaceae
Broadbean, Fava bean, Horsebean,
Windsorbean, Tickbeans (small types)
FababeanAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Anwar A. Hamama
Extension Service
Outside Links:
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vicia_faba_nex.html [5/16/2004 3:59:41 PM]
American False-Hellebore
American False-Hellebore
Veratrum viride Ait.
Other common names.True veratrum, green veratrum American
veratrum green hellebore, swamp hellebore, big hellebore, false
hellebore, bear corn, bugbane, bugwort, devil's-bite, earth gall, Indian
poke, itchweed, tickleweed, duck-retter.
Habitat and range.American false-hellebore is native in rich wet
woods, swamps and wet meadows, its range extending from Canada,
Alaska, and Minnesota south to Georgia and Tennessee.
Description.The large bright-green leaves of this plant make their
way through the ground early in spring, followed later in the season by
a stout, erect leafy stem, sometimes growing as tall as 6 feet. It is round
and solid, pale green, closely surrounded by the sheathing bases of the
leaves and unbranched except in the flowering head. The large leaves, Figure 5.American
the lower ones of which are from 6 to 12 inches in length and 3 to 6
false-hellebore (Veratrum
inches in width, are hairy and pleated like a fan. The numerous
viride)
greenish-yellow flowers are produced from May to July in rather open
clusters. The plant is very poisonous.
Part used.The rootstock, dug in autumn when the leaves have died down.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/falsehellebore.html [5/16/2004 3:59:42 PM]
New Crops for Canadian Agriculture
Small, E. 1999. New crops for Canadian agriculture. p. 1552. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on
new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

Ernest Small
1. CANADIAN AGRICULTURE
1. Limiting Factors for Agriculture in Canada
2. History of Dominant Crops in Canada
3. Crop Specialization by Region
4. Relative Importance of Types of Crops
2. GRAINS
1. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
2. Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum L. = T. durum)
3. Winter Wheat
4. Spelt Wheat (Triticum spelta L.)
5. Triticale (Triticosecale Widdmark)
6. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)
7. Malting Barley
8. Oats (Avena sativa L.)
9. Maize (Zea mays L.)
10. Canary Seed (Phalaris canariensis L.)
11. Rye (Secale cereale L.)
12. Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
13. False Melic Grass [Schizachne purpurascens (Torr.) Swallen]
14. Wild Rice (Zizania palustris L.)
15. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)
16. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
17. Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. = A. leucocarpus S. Watson)
3. OILSEEDS
1. Canola (Brassica napus L., B. rapa L.)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-015a.html (1 of 26) [5/16/2004 4:00:01 PM]
2. Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]

3. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)
4. Mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss., Sinapis alba L.]
5. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
6. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)
7. Other Oilseeds
4. PULSE CROPS: DRY BEANS AND PEAS
1. Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
2. Adzuki Bean [Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi]
3. Mung Bean [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek]
4. Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
5. Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.)
6. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
7. Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.)
8. Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus L.)
5. GRASS FORAGE AND FODDER
1. Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]
2. Use of Native Grasses for Grassland Restoration and Maintenance
6. LEGUME FORAGE AND FODDER
1. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.)
2. Cicer Milkvetch (Astragalus cicer L.)
3. Crownvetch (Coronilla varia L.)
4. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.)
5. Lupins (Lupinus species, especially white lupin, L. albus L.)
7. VEGETABLES
1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
2. Mushrooms
8. CULINARY HERBS
9. GREENHOUSE CROPS
10. FRUITS
11. NUTS
12. AROMATIC CROPS
13. MEDICINAL CROPS
14. NUTRACEUTICAL CROPS
15. TEXTILE FIBER CROPS
16. PULP, BIOMASS, AND ENERGY CROPS

1. Pulp
2. Straw-Based Particleboard
3. Biodiesel
4. Ethanol
17. LANDSCAPE PLANTS AND CHRISTMAS TREES
18. AQUACULTURE
1. The Fishery
2. Seaweeds
19. ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
20. TRANSGENIC CROPS
21. SUMMARY ANALYSIS
22. REFERENCES
The designation "new crop" may be applied to virtually any useful plant that in some respect is new. The
following categories of newness (which are not all mutually exclusive) are economically important in
discussing new crops: (1) gathering new wild crops from nature; (2) cultivating an undomesticated plant
not previously grown; (3) domesticating (changing genetically) an undomesticated plant; (4) breeding
improved cultivars of domesticated plants; (5) growing crops in new areas; (6) growing crops for new
uses; (7) growing crops with new management techniques; (8) selling crops in new markets.
Category 2 and (especially) category 3 represent "new crops" in the narrow sense perhaps most widely
understood. Although all domesticated crops originally came from the wild, in recent times the
domestication of wild plants relatively infrequently produces crops of notable economic significance.
Based on 160 crops grown and/or imported in the US that had a value of at least $1 million,
PrescottAllen and PrescottAllen (1986) found that only six crops with this value were domesticated
since 1900, a rate of success of less than 7 per century. Almost all potentially important new crops for a
political or agronomic region are cultivated elsewhere, and indeed the leading domesticated crops of
Canada all originated in foreign lands. Crop diversification, especially involving new crops, is
considered to be a fundamental area deserving support in Canada (Small, in 1999; note Fig. 1).
The following reviews what is significantly
new (for any of the eight kinds of newness
pointed out above) with respect to the major
classes of crops in Canada, such as cereals,
oilseeds, forages, vegetables, and fruits. These
crop classes represent arenas of competition,
and new crops generally can only compete
within one of these arenas. As will be noted,
some of these arenas thrive on the introduction
of new entities, while others are like clubs that
are very hostile to the entry of new members.
Given the breadth of the topic, only a limited
amount of detail and selected examples will be
presented for the crop categories, and minor

crops that either have had very limited success
in Canada or show little potential will not be
discussed or will be given only incidental
mention. For those seeking additional
information on new crop development in
Canada, it should be noted that the following
present a wealth of information on the World
Wide Web: (1) the federal department of
agriculture, i.e. Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada (AAFC), Canada's primary plant
breeding institution, which has research
stations in all provinces; (2) the provincial
agriculture or resource departments; and (3) a
wide variety of farm-oriented organizations.
CANADIAN
AGRICULTURE
Fig. 1. A vision of agriculture in Canada,

conceptualizing crop diversification as one of four
essential supporting pillars (Agriculture Canada
1989).
Agriculture is the most important of the industries dealing with the biological resources of Canada,
exceeding the value of forestry, fishing, and trapping. Agriculture and the allied agri-food industry are
respectively responsible for about 2 and 6% of the Gross National Product (GDP), and about 14% of
Canada's employment. In 1996 (the year of the last comprehensive census) the agri-food industry of
Canada was worth over $70 billion* (about 8.8% of Canada's GDP), of which 24% represented on-farm
production, the remainder accounted for by allied food industries, commercial sales, and the food service
industry. The equivalent of 70% of Canada's agricultural production, with a value of about $20 billion,
was exported in 1996, while the value of imported agricultural and food products was about two-thirds
of this. This overall trade surplus shows that Canadian agriculture is dependent on world markets, and
suggests that new crops represent an important measure to address market fluctuations and declines. The
most important commodities exported by Canada are grains and grain products (35% of total agri-food
exports), red meat and live animals (20%), and oilseeds and oilseed products (13%). The US is Canada's
most important trading partner, taking about half of Canada's agri-food exports. In return, about 60% of
Canada's agri-food imports are from the US. Imports include fruits and nuts (19% of total agri-food
imports), vegetables (10%), and red meats (8%). The relatively short growing season of Canada
necessitates a wide variety of agricultural imports, most notably hot-region plantation crops such as
coffee, tea and spices (10% of all imports).
Fig. 2 shows the distribution of farmland in Canada. More than 40% of Canada is forested; about half of
this area is capable of producing timber, and about a quarter is currently managed for timber production.
Adverse climate, soil, and other circumstances prevent profitable agriculture in most of the country.
Although Canada has close to 10 million square kilometers, making it the world's second largest country,
only 67.7 million ha (0.677 million square kilometers) are arable (Canadian Federation of Agriculture
1995; Reid 1995). By comparison, total land in farms in the US in 1997 was 392 million ha, about six
times the area used for farming in Canada. (The value of US crops in this year was about 109 billion
dollars, about 10 times the value of Canadian production.) The arable area of Canada, about 7% of the
country, is equal to about three times the land area of Great Britain. However, it has been estimated that
less than 5% of Canada's land is actually capable of producing crops, and most of this is already in
production (Environment
Bureau 1997a). Moreover,
only half of this land capable
of producing crops is prime
agricultural land, and much
of this has succumbed to
urban development (Science
Council 1991). Canada may
already be approaching its
upper limit of farmland
development (Acton 1995).
An additional 6% of Canada's
land can be used for grazing Fig. 2. Distribution of cropland in Canada (blackened area).
(Environment Bureau 1997a).
Limiting Factors for Agriculture in Canada

All crops grown in Canada (with the exception
of greenhouse and cultured mushroom crops)
and all potentially new crops are strongly
constrained by climate and soil factors (Fig. 3).
Of course, length of season, distribution of
temperature and precipitation, soil fertility, and
physical aspects of land are universal
determinants of what crops can be grown. Land
use inventories that assess the suitability of
land for agriculture, forestry, recreation, and
wildlife have been in use for several decades
(Statistics Canada 1986). For example, the soil
regions of Western Canada differ in the
capacity to grow crops. The brown soil in the
semi-arid region of the Prairies varies
Fig. 3. Principal soil zones of the Western Canadian
considerably from year to year in crop yield
prairies, Canada's most important agricultural region.
depending on degree of drought, while dark
These zones heavily influence which crops are
brown soil is not as vulnerable to drought. The advisedly cultivated.
black soil retains moisture better than the
brown soil, is rarely subject to drought, and produces higher yields. The gray soil zone has higher
moisture levels, cooler temperatures, and a shorter growing season. Management practices in the
different zones are necessary, since climatic conditions influence the susceptibility of crops to disease
and pest infestation.
Ideally, knowledge of three factors can be used to produce an excellent identification of what crop
should be grown where and when. First, an agricultural knowledge of the growth requirements of crops
is necessary. Second, measures of the comparative extent to which local soil, climate, and pests and
diseases match the needs of the crops. And third, predictions of markets for the crops, both domestic and
foreign. In fact, such detailed budgets are issued by Canada's federal and provincial agriculture
departments for various regions (Spak 1998b), and are helpful in making decisions as to what major
crops should be planted, especially in the prairie regions described above, for which there are only a few
major crops and detailed information is available. In theory, such elegant prediction could be done for
every possible crop, so that everyone, everywhere would know exactly what crop to grow. Of course,
this is a Utopian scenario, since such detailed knowledge is not available and is only acquired after fairly
expensive studies. Nevertheless, it is well to keep in mind that knowledge of both old and new crops is a
key to resolving the universal question of farmers, "What should I plant this year?" and indeed the
NewCROP website (www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop) of which this article is a contribution is perhaps the
premier source of needed information.
History
of
Dominant
Crops
in
Canada
Because
cereals and
oilseeds
dominate
Canadian
agriculture,
it is
instructive
Figure 4
to examine
the
historical
importance
of these
during this
century in
Canada. As
can be seen
from Fig. 4,
wheat, oats,
barley,
maize and
flax have
been major
crops in
Canada for
at least the Fig. 4. Areas of the principal cereals and oilseeds grown in Canada for which records are
available for all of the comprehensive 10-yearly (19211951) and 5-yearly
last 75
(1951present) agricultural censuses (data from Statistics Canada 1997a).
years, and
while their
relative
importance
has varied,
all have
remained
prominent
for many
years. No
other cereal
has become
important
in Canada,
but canola
(rapeseed)
and
soybeans,
discussed
below, have
been the
leading
Canadian
oilseeds for
just the last
several
decades.
Fig. 5. Progressive cumulative values of the 68 Canadian crops for which national farm
Fig. 5
gate value or farm receipt statistics are available (compiled from Statistics Canada 1996,
illustrates
1998a,b).
the
progressive
cumulative value of the 68 Canadian crops for which national statistics are compiled (these range from
over 4 billion dollars for wheat to less than 2 million dollars for apricots). This shows that the increased
value becomes progressively less as one adds crops to the economy, and superficially it suggests that
new crops are not needed. This is an incorrect conclusion for the following reasons: (1) one cannot
predict the future value of new crops, which are needed for many reasons; (2) the crops with the highest
national incomes are not necessarily profitable; (3) some of the most important crops are not suitable for
some regions; (4) farm gate values do not measure the very high value of on-farm use of many crops; (5)
farm gate values do not measure the very high value-added aspect of many crops.
Crop Specialization by Region

For simplicity, five regions are discussed, as follows (west to east): British Columbia specializes on
fruits (particularly apples) and vegetables, and also has strong livestock and dairy production. The prairie
provinces are specialized in grain and oilseeed farms, particularly wheat, oats, barley, canola, rye, and
flax. Most of Canada's grazing lands occur in the prairies, and there is a very large red meat industry,
with Alberta alone producing half of Canada's beef. Ontario and Quebec are the best areas for maize, and
there are strong livestock, dairy, and horticultural sectors. Ontario is the center of soybean cultivation,
and there is substantial greenhouse and fruit cultivation. The Maritime (Atlantic) area is particularly
suitable for forage crops and an associated livestock industry, as well as potato and fruits such as
blueberry. Tables 1 and 2 and Fig. 6 provide summary data for Canada's most important crops, for the
five regions, based on crop area and farm receipts.
Table 1. Area of crops grown in Canada in 1996 (based on comprehensive 5-yearly census; excludes
Territories; data from Statistics Canada 1997b; in some cases sums for Canada are not additive because
of method of data collection).
Area (ha)
Crop
British
Columbia
Prairie
provinces
Ontario
Quebec
Maritime
provinces
Canada
Grains
Wheat
40,146
12,013,427
315,231
34,661
15,801 12,419,264
Barley
45,116
4,877,886
134,688
125,225
58,263 5,241,179
Oats
34,083
1,867,116
39,804
85,106,
18,642 2,044,748
Maize (for grain)
642
29,134
767,142
331,775
3,465 1,132,157
Maize (for silage)
9,636
17,615
119,799
40,149
4,161
191,359
Rye
2,849
156,150
26,500
4,010
2,390
191,899
49
25,347
281
180
--
25,857
2,232
134,503,
113,216
32,019
11,626
293,596
Canary seed
56
248,635
55
--
248,752
Buckwheat
27
13,777
2,755
2,875
292
19,726
25,821
3,480,691
21,571
3,211
141 3,531,435
Soybean
--
666
776,209
96,693
3,323
876,901
Flaxseed
189
591,183
640
90
--
592,104
--
238,833
13
175
--
239,021
109
36,230
433
208
121
37,099
--
1,496
--
--
--
1,611
Alfalfa (including
mixtures)
161,485
2,602,126
598,711
210,949
25,112 3,598,383
All other tame

hay and fodder
186,487
1,160,016
419,416
670,730
175,839 2,612,488
Forage seed for

seed
18,987
158,661
4,820
967
400
183,833
Potato
3,642
43,883
16,149
18,722
67,912
150,309
Other vegetables
(excluding
greenhouse)
7,117
7,987
64,131
40,313
8,151
127,697
Triticale
Mixed grains
Oilseeds
Canola (rapeseed)
Mustard seed
Sunflower seed
Safflower
Forages and Fodders
Vegetables
Dry legumes
Dry field peas
3,606
531,872
386
388
65
536,319
284
303,107
--
--
303,401
27
44,543
43,927
5,133
250
93,949
10,453
106
19,046
7,958
4,104
41,668
6,887
1,032
8,480
10,706
12,707
39,812
Tobacco
--
--
27,597
1,831
--
29,428
Sugar beet
--
23,866
85
--
--
23,953
Other field crops
702
25,724
2,638
296
135
29,494
Nursery products
3,213
3,784
10,610
3,500,
415
21,521
936
4,251
9,525
5,689
1,562
21,964
Christmas trees
9,453
1,852
11,285
12,342
16,138
51,070
Total crop area
574,234
Lentil
Dry field bean
Fruits and Nuts
Tree fruits and
nuts
Berries and grape
Miscellaneous
Sod
28,645,499 3,555,100 1,745,956
431,015 34,951,977
Table 2. Gross value of farm receipts in Canada for Canadian crops for 1997 (in thousands of Canadian
dollars; based on Statistics Canada 1998a). (Note that gross farm receipts include transfer payments from
governments for a few crops, and for such crops represent a slight over evaluation of farm gate value).
Value (Canadian $)
Crop
British
Columbia
Prairie
Provinces
Ontario
Maritime
Provinces
Quebec
Canada
Grains
Wheat
11,885
4,127,359
71,325
13,163
3,237
4,226,969
Barley
5,908
919,576
11,612
17,855
6,858
961,809
Maize
--
16,666
425,200
246,010
54
687,930
Oats
1,659
257,705
5,201
8,998
573
274,136
Rye
19
28,967
5,410
--
--
34,396
--
49,650
--
--
--
49,650
6,840
1,974,553
17,196
Soybean
--
--
726,158
87,403
417
813,978
Flaxseed
--
333,207
--
--
--
333,207
Mustard seed
--
91,214
--
--
--
91,214
Canary seed
Oilseeds
Canola
- 1,998,589
Sunflower seed
--
16,950
--
--
--
16,950
Forages and Fodders (n.b.: mostly used on farm, and so farm receipts do not reflect large quantities
grown)
Hay and clover
13,823
63,291
4,996
3,535
141
85,786
4,375
30,395
1,664
76
--
36,510
15,839
165,096
53,292
88,018
196,770
519,015
173,168
76,633
462,139
251,949
37,363
1,001,252
Dry peas
--
196,495
--
--
196,495
Lentil
--
99,712
--
--
--
99,712
Dry bean
--
11,874
28,640
--
--
40,514
Apple
32,467
--
81,270
25,104
15,160
154,001
Other tree fruits
13,852
--
42,822
520
57,194
4,481
3,355
17,351
16,376
7,811
49,374
79,517
1,743
45,032
27,716
23,061
177,069
265,254
109,660
540,893
140,899
65,189
1,121,895
--
--
328,727
22,437
--
351,164
Forest products
32,300
6,565
16,988
58,707
19,990
134,550
Maple products
--
--
10,108
86,457
5,043
101,608
Sugar beet
--
34,483
--
--
--
34,483
7,019
84,172
32,354
30,651
14,473
168,669
Forage, grass seed

Vegetables
Potato
Other vegetables
Dry legumes
Fruits
Strawberry
Other berries &
grapes
Miscellaneous
Floriculture &
nursery
Tobacco
Other crops
Total crop value
709,016
8,699,321 2,973,578 1,125,354
396,660 13,903,929
Total livestock
945,324
5,963,192 3,659,289 3,367,328
603,388 14,538,521
Relative Importance of Types of Crops

The relative percentage crop area categorized by type of crop (based on Table 1) is shown in Fig. 7.
Grains occupy over 60% of Canada's farmland. The oilseeds have about 15% of Canada's farmland, but
are a higher-value crop. Forages and fodders occupy about 18% and, along with the coarse grains
(barley, oats, maize) and presscake from the oilseeds, contribute to the feeding of the very large livestock
population. Vegetables and dry legumes (peas and beans) have only about 3% of the land, but represent
very high value crops. In the following discussion of what is new in the crop groups, the length of the
treatment is approximately proportional to the importance of the groups in Canada.
Fig. 6. Relative percentage for crop area

and farm receipts for the five regions of
Canada discussed in text.
Fig. 7. Relative percentage crop area

occupied by the major types of crop in
Canada.
GRAINS
Canada produces about 5% of the world's wheat, 9.9% of the world's barley, 14% of the world's oats, and
1.4% of the world's maize. Canadian grains are used for domestic food consumption, animal feeds and
industrial uses, with about half of cereal production exported. The dominance of Canadian crops by the
major cereals has been overwhelming throughout this century. As shown in Fig. 4, the total area seeded
to wheat increased from 8.2 million ha to 30.7 million ha between 1921 and 1996. Of the 276,548 farms
surveyed in the 1996 census, 94,000 (29.4%) grew wheat. The total area of barley increased almost six
times to 5.2 million ha between 1921 and 1996; the total area of maize for grain increased more than 12
times to 1.1 million ha. By contrast, the area occupied by oats decreased by over 70% to 2.0 million ha
(with an associated drop in the number of horses and ponies from 3.5 million to 444,000). These four
cereals represent over 60% of the area currently devoted to crops in Canada, and over 44% of current
total crop farm receipts. Most of Canada's maize is grown in Ontario and Quebec, while most wheat,
barley and oats are grown in theprairie provinces (Tables 1, 2). Wheat, barley, and oats account for
65.5% of the crop area and 61% of the farm receipts of the prairie region, and canola accounts for
another 12.2% of the crop area and 22.7% of the farm receipts. Such dependence on only four crops in
the prairies is of particular concern, and not surprisingly it is this important region, which accounts for
62.6% of crop farm receipts of Canada, that one finds the greatest support in Canada for crop
diversification. Indeed, in the last decade there has been a concerted effort among grain producers to
diversify production to overcome market fluctuations, drought, early frost, and trade wars.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Wheat and rye are the only grains with the potential to make raised (leavened) breads because their
gluten content gives strength and elasticity to bread dough; wheat by far is the most important crop for
this purpose. Canada is the world's largest exporter of hard red spring wheat, well known for its excellent
milling and baking qualities and for its suitability in blending with lower protein wheats. The typical
Western Canadian growing season of short cool nights and long, sunny dry days is ideal for the
production of consistent, high-protein wheat, and normally this type of wheat is priced at a premium to
softer and lower-protein wheats. In 1903, William Saunders developed the 'Marquis' cultivar, which set a
standard not surpassed until the 1980s by 'Neepawa' of 198788. Canadian breeding of superior hard red
spring wheat has since been constant. 'AC Barrie', a new, hard red spring wheat was recently released
and has proven to be very popular. The three Canadian prairie provinces are the chief wheat-producing
provinces of Canada. Canada produces about 5% of the world's wheat, but because of its relatively small
population, exports over 75% of its annual production, and accounts for about 20% of the world's wheat
exports.
Although hard red spring wheat dominates Western Canada, there have been concerted attempts to breed
other types of wheat cultivars, to meet the changing needs of world markets (Dietz et al. 1998). Only a
small amount of the class known as "Western Canadian Soft White Spring" wheat is produced in
Canada, in part because it requires irrigation in Western Canada. However, there is a very good market
for soft wheats, which go into cookies, cakes, crackers, specialty breads, and noodles. The cultivar 'AC
Reed' was released from AAFC at Lethbridge in 1994 in an attempt to expand into the soft spring wheat
market. AAFC at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, is responsible for the breeding of several recent wheat
cultivars of the "Canadian Prairie Spring class:" 'AC Crystal', a high-yielding semi-dwarf red wheat with
intermediate protein, and stronger gluten than its predecessors, improving its milling qualities for
bread-making (due for release in 1999); and 'AC Karma' and 'AC Vista', white wheats for the
oriental-noodle market.
For 199899, Canadian
non-durum wheat area,
mostly spring wheat,
declined to 7.7 million
ha, the smallest area
since 1972 (Fig. 8). In
response to wheat
surpluses and
associated trade
problems, many
western Canadian
farmers have turned to
alternative crops
(popularly called
"specialty crops").
Indeed, this has been
the single most
important stimulus to
crop diversification in
Canada, next to the
trend of tobacco
replacement (Loughton
et al. 1991). Figure 8
shows that while wheat
area was decreasing,
strong compensating
increases occurred in
the cultivation of the

chief specialty crops of Fig. 8. Recent increasing cultivation of "specialty crops" (common bean,
sunflower, canary seed, mustard, lentil, and pea) in response to decreasing
the prairie provinces
wheat cultivation (above) in Canada.
(common bean,
sunflower, canary seed,
mustard, lentil, and pea).
Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum L. = T. durum)

Most types of common wheat can be used to produce bread and Asian-style noodles. For example, bread
is produced in most countries from a blend of hard and soft wheats, and where high-protein hard wheat is
unavailable, wheat gluten can be added. Durum wheat has an amber yellow endosperm (from which
semolina is produced), unlike the white endosperm of common wheat, so that pasta from durum
semolina is amber colored. The flavor and cooking qualities of durum pasta are superior, and durum
wheat is preferred for the production of pasta products, such as spaghetti and macaroni, and for
couscous, the staple food in North Africa. Durum is suited to a dry climate, with hot days and cool
nights, and does well under dry conditions. About 8% of the world's wheat production is durum wheat.
The leading producers of durum wheat are the European Union, Canada, and the US. Canada is the
leading exporter (Lennox 1998). For 199899, Canadian durum wheat area rose to a record high 2.9
million ha. In North America, Western North Dakota and southern Saskatchewan are particularly suited
to durum wheat, and it is also grown under irrigation in Arizona and the California deserts. Durum
wheat, as a crop, compares to common wheat much as alternative and new crops do. It is a relatively
high-value commodity with a more stable future in Canada than common wheat. Recently, new
technology and consumer taste changes have altered the pasta market toward a stronger, less elastic
gluten, particularly in Italy, the main manufacturer of pasta-making equipment, and the country with the
most prodigious appetite for pasta. To meet this altered market, new Canadian durum cultivars with
stronger gluten content are in the process of being registered for market testing (Anon. 1998b).
Winter Wheat
Winter wheat is the fourth largest crop in Ontario (behind soybean, maize, and tobacco). Ontario is the
main producer of winter wheat in Canada, producing about 1 million tonnes annually, using cultivars
(e.g. 'Augusta', 'Harus') that can survive the relatively mild winters. Soft white winter wheat is most
commonly grown, and this is used for producing soft gluten flour for confectionery products such as
cakes, cookies, breakfast cereals, and crackers. Ontario red spring wheat is used primarily for domestic
feed, and to a lesser extent for domestic human consumption. Spring wheat is grown somewhat in
eastern Ontario, using Western Canadian cultivars, but the quality has often been below the standards
demanded by North American millers. In recent years, Ontario wheat growers have been shifting away
from traditional soft white winter wheat into both soft red winter and hard red winter wheat cultivars.
The shift into hard red wheat is due to the recent availability of new cultivars able to achieve the high
protein levels required by the North American milling industry. Improved soft red winter wheat cultivars
have also become recently available, and although soft white winter wheat is preferred for the production
of breakfast cereals, cakes, and pastry flour, the soft white winter wheat that has traditionally been grown
in Ontario suffered a severe fusarium outbreak in 1996, decreasing its popularity. For a review of the
changing wheat situation in Ontario, see Lennox (1996) and McKinnon (1997a).
Spelt Wheat (Triticum spelta L.)

Spelt is an ancient wheat that has been a staple grain in Ethiopia for centuries. It has become a
top-selling organic and health food, grown as a specialist crop, often for people with allergies, and for
pasta. Although minor, spelt is increasingly cultivated in Canada, with 825 ha reported in the 1996
Census of Agriculture, mostly in Ontario. Several thousand ha are cultivated in the US.
Triticale (Triticosecale Widdmark)

Triticale is the stabilized hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale). Poland, Germany, China, and
France account for nearly 90% of world triticale production. Globally, triticale is used primarily for
livestock feed. In Mexico, which grows the crop, triticale is used mostly for whole-grain tricale breads
and tortillas. In the US, triticale is harvested mostly for forage, but there is a small market for pancake
mixes and crackers due to a savory, nutty flavor. Ethanol plants will pay a premium for triticale over
barley since it has more starch and no hull, making alcohol production more efficient. Although
wheat-rye hybrids date back to 1875, it was only in 1953 that the first North American triticale breeding
program was initiated, at the University of Manitoba. Although improved cultivars have been bred,
triticale has remained unimportant in Canada. However, triticale does well in regions where wheat
performs poorly, notably on cold and infertile soils, extremely sandy soils, soils with high levels of
boron, salty soils, acidic soils, manganese-deficient soils, and dry soils. Canada does not have large area
of such soil types, but there are about 2 million ha of marginal, light mineral, low productivity land in
Western Canada where triticale has the potential to displace or supplement traditional feed grain
production. Winter triticale is a higher-yielding, earlier-maturing alternative to spring triticale for short
season areas of the prairies. 'Pika' and 'Wintri' are the only cultivars found to be suitable for use in
Western Canada. Canadian triticale is mostly used for feed and forage. Triticale production in Eastern
Canada is growing, with most production in Saskatchewan, followed by Alberta and Manitoba. Forage
triticale equals or outperforms barley, oats, rye, and mixed grain in areas of Western Canada, so that
there is a reasonable probability that it will become more important. For a review of the triticale situation
in Canada, see McKinnon (1996).
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Barley is basically a livestock feed, and is the major feed grain in Canada. Barley is well suited to the
Canadian prairies, where most of this crop is grown, while other feed grains such as maize and sorghum
are not. Barley is also a good rotation crop with wheat, tends to be higher yielding, matures earlier, and
is more resistant to drought and salinity problems. It is also used in brewing beer (see below). Hulless
barleys have hulls that are easily removed by threshing, as with wheat. Some hulless cultivars are
produced in Canada (such as the two-rowed 'Condor', 'Phoenix', and 'CDC Dawn', and the six-rowed
'Tupper', 'Buck', and 'Falcon'), resulting in more digestible, higher-protein feed, especially for swine and
poultry feeding. Pigs and chickens are monogastric (non-ruminant) animals, which are unable to digest
the fibrous hull. Barley is useful for most classes of livestock, although poultry lack the enzyme to digest
beta-glucans, a water-soluble fiber (this viscous polysaccharide is denatured by adding the enzyme
beta-glucanase to the rations; beta-glucans from barley have been shown to reduce cholesterol in
people). Although not as palatable as other cereals, some barley is consumed by humans. Barley kernels
are polished to remove the inedible part of the grain. "Pearled" barley is highly polished barley; by
contrast, "pot barley" is less polished, hence slightly larger than pearled barley. Pearled barley is used in
breakfast cereals and infant foods. Hulless barley grains of course already lack much of the inedible
portion. Various health advantages have been claimed for human consumption of barley, including
benefits for regulating blood sugar levels in diabetics, and for lowering cholesterol and heart disease. A
market is emerging for the fractionated components of barley kernels as pharmaceuticals (see
Nutraceuticals). Because it is such a major Canadian crop (third-ranking in terms of farm receipts),
breeding of Canadian cultivars is given high priority, and new cultivars are constantly emerging. For
example, in Eastern Canada where there are frequent strong wind and rain storms and barley often
lodges, recent cultivars (the six-rowed 'AC Alma' and the two-rowed 'AB162-9') have strong stems to
keep the plants upright.
Malting Barley
About 10% of world barley production is malted, and the other 90% used as animal feed. Malting barley
is simply high-quality barley with appropriate characteristics to produce good malt for making beer.
Most barley cultivars can be used to make barley malt, but some are specifically bred for the purpose.
Two-row malting barley represents the international industry standard outside North America and also in
some South American markets. However, six-row barleys are also used. Most malting cultivars are in
fact used for feed. About half of Canadian malting barley is two-row. In Canada, three-quarters of the
area seeded to barley consists of malting cultivars, the other quarter being feed cultivars, which tend to
have higher yields. Growing conditions in western Canada are usually cooler and drier than the US for
producing superior six-row malting barley, and so the US has been Canada's major export market for this
type of malting barley in recent years. The variable climate on the Prairies sometimes results in only a
proportion of the malting barley crop meeting specific malting barley requirements, but as most of the
crop is fed to livestock this generally does not compromise the supply for export. China is an increasing
importer of Canadian 2-rowed malting barley. The creation of new two-row barley cultivars with
improved malting and agronomic performance desired by the export market has been an important
development in Canada in the last two decades. Hulless barley cultivars with higher energy content,
discussed above, are not suitable for the malting barley process, so that hulled cultivars continue to be
grown in Canada. A recent review of the malting barley situation in Canada is McKinnon (1997b).
Oats (Avena sativa L.)

Before 1910, the area seeded to oats often exceeded the area for wheat in Canada, in order to feed
horses. Up until 1920, the area for oats was similar to wheat area in Canada, but from the early 1920s to
the late 1970s, with the introduction of tractors and the replacement of horse power by machine power,
the area seeded to oats decreased steadily until the 1970s. Since the 1980s, Canada has consistently
captured a significant share of the world export market. Oats are still used primarily as animal feed, but
human consumption is increasing, especially in North America, where oats are considered healthy,
especially oat bran (see Nutraceuticals). In the US (and to a lesser extent in Canada), oats is used
somewhat for pasture, silage, and haylage, and especially as a cover crop to protect soil, notably on
marginal land subject to erosion, and as a nurse crop to protect newly planted forages. The world's
leading oat producers are Russia, the European Union, Canada, the US, and Australia. Canada is a
leading exporter, in 199798 accounting for almost half of all world oat exports, excluding products,
95% of this to the US. In 199798, about 1.9 million ha were seed to oats, an area exceeded only by
wheat, barley, and canola. Over 90% of production is in Western Canada, and this represents a shift from
Eastern Canada where oat cultivation has become less economical as a feedstuff. A further shift has been
from the Western to the Eastern Prairies, closer to the major oat market in Minneapolis. The cool
growing season on the northern Prairies where oat production is concentrated is a problem, being
addressed by continuing plant breeding. Alberta is Canada's major oat producing province, and most of
the crop is grown in the north in the grey woodland soil, which is quite acidic, freeing up aluminum,
which reduces yield by up to 40%. There is currently research (at AAFC at Lacombe) to breed
aluminum-tolerant oats to meet this problem. Oat breeding in Eastern Canada, incorporating new
molecular techniques, is a specialty of AAFC at Ottawa. Oats are less likely to be traded than other
grains because their bulky nature increases transport costs. Oats are about 25% hull, and offer less
energy than barley and maize, limiting their use primarily to starting feedlot rations and for feeding
horses. Hulless or naked oats, which lose their hull during harvest, have promise as a feed ingredient.
'AC Lotta', 'AC Percy', and very recently 'Cavena' from AAFC at Ottawa are Canadian cultivars. Hulless
oats have higher protein and fat than conventional oats, as much energy as maize, and a better balance of
amino acids, and have good prospects as a new Canadian crop. Another new trend is the industrial use of
oats in Canada, with the establishment of a processing plant in Saskatoon that refines oat extracts used in
products such as animal coat washes and diabetes screening tests. In the past 15 years, oat products have
increased from virtually nothing to an estimated 200,000 tonnes for 199798. A recent review of trends
in the Canadian oat crop is McKinnon (1998).
Maize (Zea mays L.)

Maize has a very long history of cultivation in Central Canada, dating back over a thousand years. With
the introduction of US higher-yielding maize hybrids in the mid 1950s, commercial production expanded
in the southernmost regions of Ontario. New cultivars of maize have been instrumental in Canada in
lowering susceptibility to early frosts and avoiding harvest problems. With the continual development of
Canadian hybrids for cooler and shorter growing seasons, commercial maize production spread beyond
southern Ontario, and today maize is widely cultivated in Ontario and Quebec, with limited production
in Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and Alberta. About three-quarters of Canada's maize is produced in Ontario
and Quebec. Maize is primarily a feed ingredient in Canada, with Central Canada accounting for the
bulk of consumption (barley is the major feed grain in Western Canada). Fodder maize, used mainly for
silage, requires less heat units and has a wider growing range than grain maize. Fodder maize is
generally grown for on-farm use. There is a trend for increasing food and industrial use of maize in
Canada (see discussion of ethanol production, below). Canada is normally a net importer of maize, with
western Canada acquiring it from the US. For a review of the maize industry in Canada, see Kurbis
(1996b).
Canary Seed (Phalaris canariensis L.)

Canada is the world leader in the production and export of canary seed from annual canary grass, used in
caged and wild bird food mixtures. Commercial production of canary seed started in the US after World
War II, concentrated in Minnesota and North Dakota, and production moved to Manitoba and
Saskatchewan to become commercially viable in the early 1980s. In 1996, Canada produced 90% of the
world supply of canary seed, about 90% in Saskatchewan, the remainder in Manitoba and Alberta.
Canary grass is extremely well adapted to the hard red spring wheat of the Prairies, although more
sensitive to heat and drought. Ten to 30% of production is used domestically, the remainder, about
125,000 tonnes, is annually exported, largely to Europe, South America, and the US. Canary seed is
suited to and mainly produced in the brown soil zone of Western Canada. Substitute bird seeds with the
quality of canary seed are generally unavailable (there is occasional substitution with proso millet from
the northern US) and, with increasing interest in birds as pets, long term growth of the industry seems
assured. A new cultivar known as 'CDC Maria' was recently developed by the University of
Saskatchewan's Crop Development Centre. This is expected to revolutionize the industry, eliminating
problems such as itchiness and dust associated with the hairy seed coat of older cultivars. 'CDC Maria'
and other "hairless" cultivars are expected to replace the traditional canary seed cultivars, which can not
be used by humans for food because of the hairs. Dehulled canary seed can be processed into flour and
bran, and in addition to this food potential for humans there is some potential for cosmetic purposes. A
recent review of the canary seed situation in Canada is Gray (1997b).
Rye (Secale cereale L.)

Rye is a relatively minor cereal in Canada, which is perhaps surprising since it has the ability to
withstand unfavorable growing conditions and often thrives where other cereals fail. Although rye can
have a higher feed value than barley, the high soluble fiber content (pentosans) reduce feed value for
poultry and swine. Although Canada is one of the world's major rye exporters and produces high-quality
rye, the world market is small, and Europe grows the crop well, mostly for making bread. In Canada, rye
is grown mainly for grain, but also for pasture and hay. Fall rye also provides soil cover from fall
through spring. There is limited domestic use of rye in Canada for distilling and for food use, compared
to the other cereals discussed above. Several new breeding lines of winter rye were recently bred at
AAFC at Lethbridge.
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)

Proso millet has long been a staple grain in Africa, and has been grown as a forage crop. This sorghum
relative is used mostly in the pet food and birdseed industries in North America, but may have some
potential as a Canadian grain for human consumption. 'AC Prairie Gold', a millet line adapted to prairie
growing conditions, was recently released by AAFC at Morden. While only 10002000 ha are currently
grown in western Canada, the potential for proso millet has been estimated to be 10,00015,0000 ha or
more (Kiehn and Reimer 1992).
False Melic Grass [Schizachne purpurascens (Torr.) Swallen]

This widespread native grass of Canada produces large grains. It has been suggested that it could be
developed into a special cereal like wild rice (Dore and McNeill 1980), although this would require
considerable development.
Wild Rice (Zizania palustris L.)

Wild rice (not to be confused with wild forms of Oryza sativa L.), Canada's only native cereal, is
collected from natural or planted stands, particularly by indigenous people (Aiken et al. 1988; Crop
Development Centre 1991). It requires considerable development, but is well suited to Canada. Wild rice
is an economically attractive crop in that the supply is limited while market demand is increasing, a
premium price can be obtained, and the climate and natural aquatic habitats of portions of Canada
provide competitive advantages. Semi-domesticated paddy wild rice is in commercial production in
California and Minnesota, and provides competition for Canadian producers. However, a natural
advantage for Canada is the availability of extensive shallow lake and river systems, which usually do
not require much if any drainage control. For wild rice to expand as a crop in Canada, development of
non-shattering, disease-resistant cultivars is needed. Fast-maturing strains would be an added advantage
for northern regions so that seeds would mature before frost.
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)

Common buckwheat is grown in many major grain producing countries, especially Russia and China.
Major exporters are China, Brazil, France, the US, and Canada. Japan accounts for almost all of the
world's buckwheat imports. Buckwheat has been grown in Canada for many years as a special crop, and
is an important cash crop in Manitoba, but production is currently low. However, this crop presents
opportunities for diversification and value-added activities because the Japanese market is growing. In
Japan, buckwheat flour is employed in combination with wheat flour to prepare buckwheat noodles
(soba), a traditional dish. In some cases, Japanese noodle manufacturers add ground leaves to the
buckwheat flour, producing a green noodle. Only about 10% of Canada's buckwheat production is used
domestically for human consumption, but this could increase if processors develop new buckwheat
products such as snack foods and flour for crpes. Buckwheat can be grown as a green manure crop,
companion crop, cover crop, and as a source of dark buckwheat honey. The grain and straw can be used
for livestock feed, but the nutritive value is lower than that of cereals. The protein in buckwheat flour is
of exceptional quality, containing a high amount of lysine, which is deficient in cereals. Foods are
prepared from the groats (dehulled seed) or from the flour. The low gluten content of the flour makes it
ideal for crpes, and in mixtures with wheat flour for bread, pancakes, noodles, and breakfast cereals.
Groats and grits (groat granules) can be used for porridge and other breakfast cereals. Dehulled groats
can be baked or steamed and eaten as a vegetable like rice, or used in appetizers, soups, salads, breads,
and desserts. Development of new Canadian cultivars is occurring to counter climatic disadvantages
associated with buckwheat production in Canada. The main buckwheat cultivars grown in Canada are
'Mancan' and 'Manor', developed by AAFC at Morden. 'Mancan' is employed as a quality standard by
Japanese millers because of its soft white starch. 'Manisoba' is a new, higher-yielding cultivar with a
larger seed that is easier to dehull, leaving behind high whole groat content. 'Manisoba' also facilitates
popping the seed, like popcorn, to prepare some specialty products. Western Canadian cultivars are not
well adapted to eastern Canada, and a high portion of growers in Ontario and Quebec cultivate
buckwheat simply as a green manure crop or a cover crop to crowd out weeds. Research is underway to
improve buckwheat cultivars in Quebec and Ontario, where lodging is a frequent problem due to excess
moisture. Unlike most cereal crops, buckwheat cannot recover from lodging. There has been
considerable recent governmental and grower association encouragement to increase production and
marketing of buckwheat in Canada. New proposed value-added activities include dehulling,
flour-making, noodle making, and roasting for snacks. Buckwheat produces rutin, which increases the
elasticity of arteries and prevents their hardening, and is in demand by the pharmaceutical industry.
Scientific research on buckwheat is centered at AAFC Morden. Recent achievements include the
development of a self pollinating buckwheat with extremely low seed abortion and better frost tolerance.
This is expected to result in a new cultivar in the next several years. A high-yielding self-pollinating
experimental strain was recently bred in Manitoba (Henckes and Dietz 1997). A good review of
buckwheat in Canada is Vincent and Longmuir (1996).
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

Quinoa originated in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia, where it became a staple crop of the Inca empire.
By comparison with most cereals it is rather primitive, requiring dehulling to remove bitter seed coat
saponins. Considerable quinoa is sold in Canada as a gourmet item in health food stores, in the form of
whole grain, pasta, or flour. Quinoa is considered to have some promise for Canada, and there is a
Canadian Quinoa Association (Anon. 1992). Currently available forms are late-maturing, therefore
vulnerable to frost, and are also susceptible to insect damage. Quinoa would appear to have some
possibility for development through germplasm selection in Canada, but is likely to find a more
receptive area of cultivation in other countries. In the US, quinoa seems to represent one of the relatively
few apparently successful introductions of a new food plant (Johnson 1990).
Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. = A. leucocarpus S.

Watson)
Grain amaranth, a pseudo-cereal, is another ancient grain used similarly to quinoa. This dietary staple of
Aztec and Mayan civilization is still grown in South and Central America, where it originated, and is
used as a vegetable in India and China. The seed can be popped like popcorn and flaked like oatmeal,
and is notably high in protein. Amaranth is enjoying a renaissance in popularity in North America. It is
sold in health food stores, particularly when organically grown, but has achieved little market status.
Amaranth has been experimentally cultivated as an annual grain at AAFC at Morden, and has been
thought to have fair long-term potential in the southern Canadian prairies (Kiehn and Reimer 1992). Its
future in the US has been considered debatable by some (Lehmann 1991), promising by others (see
articles in previous proceedings, particularly Advances in New Crops, 1990).
OILSEEDS
Oilseeds tend to be higher-value crops than cereals, and are useful as alternatives in crop production and
market diversification. Canola, flaxseed, and sunflower seed are particularly considered to be major cash
crops for Western Canadian producers, especially when grain markets are poor. In 1996 the farm value
of oilseed production in Canada was estimated at $2.883 billion. In addition, oilseed processing
contributed $0.5 billion in direct value-added and over $1 billion in spinoff benefits to the Canadian
economy. The meal left after oil extraction is also of considerable importance as livestock feed and, as
noted below, the grain itself may be a useful animal or human food. In 1997, total vegetable oil
production in Canada reached a record level of 1.6 million tonnes, with canola oil accounting for 77%,
soybean oil for 17%, linseed oil for 3%, and sunflower oil for 1%. Several of the world's major edible
oils, including palm oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, olive oil, and palm kernel oil, simply
cannot be produced in the climate of Canada, which imports these commodities. Nevertheless, Canada
has been a net exporter of vegetable oil since 1992, but this is mostly due to canola exports, especially to
the US. In 1997, Canada was responsible for 43% of total world rapeseed/canola oil exports, 10% of
linseed oil exports, and less than 1% of soybean and sunflower oil exports. Generally, there is strong
regionalization of cultivation of Canada's oilseed species, as noted below. Attempts are underway in
Canada to breed new oilseeds (most notably edible oil mustard and edible oil flax, as discussed below).
There is also considerable research in Canada to develop new and improved cultivars, which may result
in the major oilseeds being cultivated in regions where they are now absent or little grown.
Most of the world protein meal supply is derived from oilseed production. Oilseeds tend to produce meal
that differ in their ability to meet the nutritional requirements of the different livestock categories. For
example, non-ruminant livestock such as hogs and poultry need high protein feed without the high fiber
content suitable for ruminant animals. Small but growing markets for protein meal include the fish feed
market (aquaculture) and direct human consumption. Good dietary practice for livestock involves a
complementary balance of the base grains of feed rations (such as wheat, barley, and maize), the various
high-protein meal supplements, and grass and legume forage/silage crops. Canola meal, Canada's major
meal, can be used up to maximum levels in feed rations of 20% for poultry, 15% for grower and finisher
hogs, and 25% for dairy cattle.
Canola (Brassica napus L., B. rapa L.)

Oilseeds in Canada are currently dominated by canola (rapeseed), a high value crop cultivated by some
80,000 farms, that has become Canada's second most important crop after wheat. Canola (a trade-marked
name) is primarily used in salad and cooking oils, margarine and shortening, and the mealy residue after
the oil is extracted is used in livestock feeds. The 1996 census data show that canola accounts for 75% of
all vegetable oils produced in Canada, 87% of salad oils, 49% of margarine oils, and 64% of shortening.
The development of the canola industry is the premier example of a successful new crop for Canada. The
breeding of new edible oil cultivars occurred as a focussed investment strategy that involved over 200
scientist years, costing $40,000,000, spread over 30 years (Jolliff and Snapp 1988). Canola is a relatively
new Canadian crop, having begun with rapeseed cultivation in 1942 in Western Canada as a source of
lubricants for the allied war effort. Today, a small area of high erucic acid rapeseed in still produced in
Canada to satisfy the industrial market. Limitations of nutritional composition of available wartime
cultivars restrained human consumption in Western countries. In the mid-1970s, AAFC and the
University of Manitoba produced new cultivars, now known as canola, with less than 2% erucic acid and
less than 30 micromoles/g of aliphatic glucosinolates in the meal (current levels have been further
reduced, respectively to less than 1% and less than 20 micromoles/g). From 1976 to 1996, the total area
of canola increased over five times to 3.5 million ha, representing 10% of Canada's total land in crops. In
1985, The US Food and Drug Administration granted canola GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)
status, and in the light of its superior nutritional characteristics, canola oil sales to the US increased from
virtually nil to over 400,000 tonnes annually. About two-thirds of Canada's exports of canola are to the
US. Canola seed and meal sales to the US also increased along with canola oil sales. Canola oil's
nutritional properties are responsible for its domination of the salad oil market: of the commercially
available edible oils, canola contains the lowest levels of saturated fats (6%), the second highest level of
monounsaturated fats (58%), and the highest level of the essential fatty acid, linoleic acid (10%).
Globally, Canada produces about 17% of the world's rapeseed.
Given the controversy over the public acceptance of genetically-engineered foods, it is perhaps
surprising to learn that close to 50% of the cultivated canola area in Canada consists of transgenic
cultivars carrying selective resistance to specific herbicides. There are several new types of canola that
are currently being bred and may well have a place in Canadian agriculture. "Super-high erucic acid
rapeseed" is a type of genetically modified oilseed. A derivative of erucic acid, eruacmide, is used as a
slip agent and plasticizer in the manufacture of plastic films. Other types of products that may be
produced include cosmetics, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, plasticizers, and surfactants. "Odyssey 500"
high stability oil is another product that may become useful. This is over 20 times more stable than
conventional vegetable oils. It remains liquid at lower temperatures than other highly stable oils, and has
no flavor or color. It may be useful as a moisture barrier, viscosity modifier, gloss enhancer, anti-duster,
and band releaser. Still another new type of canola oil that offers stability, long shelf life, and fresh
flavor is a high oleic oil, "Clear Valley 75." This has been praised for its desirable combination of taste
and nutrition. It has the lowest level of saturated fats, no trans fatty acids from hydrogenation, and bland
neutral taste that makes it ideal for cereals, popcorn, dried fruit, and crackers (Beckman 1998).
The most exciting new prospect in Canada for canola is the breeding of mustard (Brassica juncea Coss.)
into a new canola species. To date, canola has been represented by the two Brassica species B. napus
(Swede rape) and B. rapa (B. campestris L., turnip rape). For the past decade, research has been in
progress in Canada toward the breeding of a drought-resistant canola-grade mustard. Canola cultivars
presently available are not well suited for many of the relatively dry regions of Western Canada. By
contrast, mustard cultivars have several advantages: higher-yielding in all but the short season regions of
Western Canada, early maturing, more resistant to late spring frosts, more heat and drought tolerant,
more resistant to seed shattering, and more resistant to blackleg disease. Brassica juncea is in fact used
as an edible oil crop in China, India, Russia, and Eastern Europe, where an oil with higher levels of
erucic acid is permitted, but this is not accepted in most Western countries. Moreover, the high
glucosinolate meal has limited use for animal feed. Researchers at AAFC, Saskatoon have developed a
mustard plant whose seeds contain meal and oil indistinguishable from canola (Anon. 1998a). A new
cultivar may be available by 1999. Given the spectacular success of canola, this could represent an
important new crop that would extend the region of the Prairies where canola-class plants can be grown.
For marketing purposes, this new crop could be represented as canola, since the products are about
identical. A hurdle that remains is the obtainment from the US of a GRAS designation, a necessity to
remove trade restrictions. The fortunes of canola rose dramatically after it obtained GRAS status in
1985.
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]

Soybean was first cultivated in Canada in 1893, but not in significant amounts until the late 1920s. Most
soybeans are currently grown in Ontario (90%) and Quebec (9%). In the mid-1970s, it was almost
impossible to find soybean growing in Eastern Ontario because of the inhospitable climate. 'Maple
Arrow', a cultivar bred at AAFC Ottawa, provided the key adaptation for soybean to be transformed into
the biggest cash crop in Ontario, where it is known as the "miracle crop." Most soybeans are used
domestically in Canada, and the increase in the domestic supply has meant that imports from the US are
usually equaled by exports. Soybean oil is used in a huge number of products, for example in the
manufacture of edible oils, and in industrial products such as paint, varnish, resins, and plastics. Soybean
meal is an important livestock feed, although half of Canada's supply is imported (unlike canola which is
crushed mainly for its oil, soybeans are processed primarily for the meal). Most of Canada's soybean
feed goes to the hog and chicken industries. Due to the presence of enzymes, soybeans must be roasted
before being fed to livestock. Canadian research is attempting to eliminate the need for roasting, and has
resulted in a reduction in the levels of the deleterious enzymes so that whole unroasted soybeans have
become a significant constituent of livestock rations in Eastern Canada. Canadian cultivars have been
bred with qualities required by specific soyfood markets of the Asia Pacific region. The large-seeded,
white, high-protein types are prized by southeast Asian markets. Cultivars such as 'Special Quality White
Hilum Beans' are exported for processing into tofu, natto, misto, and tempe in Asian markets. 'AC Onrei'
is a very large-seeded high-protein cultivar suitable for top-quality nigari tofu. 'OX756' is another line
produced by AAFC at Harrow designed to expand exports into the premium Asian soy food market. This
is low in enzymes that cause a grassy-beany flavor that some consumers dislike. Genetically modified
soybean cultivars are prevalent in the US, and are likely also to be established in Canada. As with other
genetically modified crops, there is some public resistance to acceptance of human foods produced from
transformed plants, especially in Europe, and this may affect the future development of export markets.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)

Flaxseed is generally known as linseed outside of North America, where the name flax refers to the fiber
form of the crop used for the linen textile industry. Flaxseed was the first oilseed widely grown in
Western Canada, and today the fiber form is cultivated only in very small amounts. Canada is the world's
largest producer and exporter of flaxseed. Only a small proportion of Canadian flaxseed is crushed
domestically. Canadian flaxseed is produced entirely in Western Canada, mostly in Saskatchewan.
Flaxseed represents only 1% of the world supply of oilseeds, but as noted in the following is considered
to have high potential for increased industrial use, as well as for human food and feed markets. Flaxseed
(linseed) oil is a non-edible drying oil used in manufacturing paints, varnishes, linoleum, printing ink,
oilcloth, putty, and plastics. The introduction of petroleum-based floor coverings and latex-based paints
resulted in a worldwide decrease of the industrial use of linseed oil for paint and floor covering over the
last several decades. Nevertheless, industrial use is expected to increase because of the development of
new products. The biodegradability and non-allergenic characteristics of linoleum, coupled with quality
improvements, have resulted in a resurgence of demand for linoleum in some parts of Europe. There has
also been interest in using a linseed oil based concrete sealant. More significantly, there has been recent
research into the development of edible oil-type flaxseed or "Linola" as a vegetable oil, and this market
is likely to increase in Canada. Linola lines lack the high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids of conventional
flaxseed lines, which makes them less nutritional, but they are more stable at high temperatures and less
likely to go rancid, and so more competitive in the vegetable oil market. There has been much interest in
Canada in the pharmaceutical value of edible linseed. It is well known that hardening of the arteries,
heart disease, and strokes have been dietarily linked to overconsumption of saturated fats. It is much less
well known that an unbalanced ratio of polyunsaturated fats has the same effects. The ratio of two
polyunsaturated fats is considered particularly importantomega-6 and omega-3, recommended in an
intake ratio of 3:1. Average dietary ratios in North America range between 12:1 and 20:1. Flaxseed is
generally high in alpha linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid, and has an omega-6/omega-3 ratio of 0.3/1,
and so is extremely helpful in balancing the ratio to a healthy level. Omega-3 fatty acids lower levels of
triglycerides in the blood, thereby reducing heart disease, and also show promise in the battle against
inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Poultry eating feed rations enriched with flaxseed
produce eggs that are notably lower in saturated fat in the yolk. Full-fat (whole) flaxseed is in demand by
the laying hen market. About 5% of Canadian laying hens are in fact consuming 1020% flax in their
rations, and so producing eggs that are relatively desirable in their balance of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
About a dozen Canadian companies are now selling omega-3 eggs, and several US companies are
following suit (Henckes 1998a). Dairy cows fed with flaxseed can produce omega-3 enriched milk and
butter, and beef and chicken can be similarly enriched, although how practical this is remains to be
determined. Crushing flaxseed for linseed oil produces meal/cake that serves as protein supplements in
livestock rations, mainly in Western Europe. Flaxseed has been used extensively in baking in Germany
and other central European countries, and there is a growing and highly profitable niche for flaxseed
bakery products in North America, especially for specialty breads. Since the early 1990s, there has been
some cultivation of 'Solin', a light-colored low-linolenic acid type of flaxseed that has a fatty acid profile
similar to sunflower oil. New uses for flaxseed fiber are currently being developed. About $20 million of
flaxseed fiber and tow were exported from western Canada to the US in 1995, but only 1520% of
available Canadian flaxseed straw is so used because of high transportation costs in moving the flaxseed
straw to the processing plant, and the majority of straw is usually burned on the field. There is increasing
interest in Canada in using high-quality fiber for fiberboard and similar application (see discussion
below), so that a larger market for flax fiber may develop. For a review of flaxseed in Canada, see
Beckman (1997).
Mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Coss., Sinapis alba L.]
Mustard is both a condiment and an oilseed crop, and has been grown in Canada since 1936. There are
two species grown, Brassica juncea (brown and oriental mustard), and Sinapis alba (yellow or white
mustard). Mustard has been an exceptional success in Canada, with an average of about 200,000 ha
producing an average of 250,000 tonnes of seeds, most of which is exported. How much growth there
remains for this crop remains to be seen. A small percentage of Canadian mustard is crushed locally, and
some is ground to produce mustard flour, mostly for export. Canada is the world's largest supplier of
mustard seed, exporting the seed to Japan, the US, Europe, and Bangladesh for use as a condiment.
Nearly 40% of Canada's exports of mustard seed goes to the US, but America is increasing its seeded
area. Bangladesh, Canada's second-ranking export destination, crushes mustard seed to produce a hot
edible oil that is popular in the Indian sub-continent. A small shift from yellow mustards to brown and
oriental mustards has been predicted in Canada (Gray 1998).
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

The first official government breeding program of sunflower in Canada was initiated in 1930. However,
as for rapeseed, commercial cultivation began during World War II as a response to the vegetable oil
shortage. Sunflower is grown in relatively small amounts, mainly in southern Manitoba and southeastern
Saskatchewan, and it has become a minor "specialty" crop in the cereal areas, serving as an excellent
rotation crop for wheat that reduces diseases of the latter. About half of current sunflower production is
destined for the confectionery market, 40% is crushed for oil, and 10% is used for bird feed. The residual
oil-cake or high-protein meal produced after oil extraction is used for animal feed. About 30% of
Canadian production is exported, the US accounting for about 70% of exports, the remainder largely to
Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Turkey. Confectionery type seeds have striped hulls, and the
largest forms are used for human food. Sunflower seeds can be roasted and salted or baked into bread
products for human consumption. Oil-type Canadian sunflower seed cultivars (which can also be used
for birdseed) are characterized by black hulls. In the early 1990s, sunola, a short-stemmed
drought-resistant type of oilseed sunflower that can be grown as a field rather than a row crop, was
introduced into the Canadian prairies, and production of this has since been expanding (Anon. 1994).
However, the area of sunflower seed cultivation has been fluctuating, generally declining in Canada for
the last decade. Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas are presently superior sites for
growing sunflower. Sunflower has not become a major source of vegetable oil in Canada because it is
susceptible to diseases, has a longer growing period than desirable (120130 days), needs specialized
equipment, and is relatively expensive to produce. The latter two problems are due to the need to row
crop sunflower, because of its tall height, and this requires specialized seeding and harvesting
equipment, which represents additional capital costs to the producer. New types of sunflower are needed
to overcome these problems. To some extent recent sunflower hybrids with earlier maturity, increased
yields, and shorter stalks have generated some expansion, but Canadian production remains limited due
to the high heat and moisture requirements of the plant. The sunflower situation in Canada is reviewed
by Christie (1995a).
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)

Safflower is a crop that is deserving of attention because of its versatility. It can be grown for edible oil,
meal, or whole seed for dairy cattle, birdseed, and oil for industrial uses. Safflower oil is a wholesome
oil, high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, that because of its high linoleic acid content commands a
premium price among edible oils, and is competitive from a health viewpoint with canola and olive oil.
The cool climate of the Canadian Prairies tends to increase the level of oleic acid (e.g. to over 80%,
compared to about 73% in California). Industrial uses are limited, but the drying oil produced by
safflower, which is intermediate between soybean and linseed oils, can be used in non-yellowing drying
paints, alkyd resins in enamels, and caulks and putties. Because it is a long season crop, safflower
extracts water from the soil for a longer period than cereal crops, and the long taproot can draw moisture
from deep in the subsoil. These properties can help prevent the spread of dryland salinity, using up
surplus water from recharge areas that otherwise would contribute to the development or expansion of
saline seeps.
Commercial cultivation of safflower began in Alberta in 1943 when wartime new crop adaptation
research was in progress, and currently is concentrated in Alberta and southern Saskatchewan.
Production on the Prairies was sporadic from the 1950s through to the 1970s, but in the early 1980s
contracts were obtained in southern Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan to produce safflower for
processing facilities in Culbertson, Montana. The US cultivars used up to that point were too late in
maturing and had severe disease susceptibility, and these problems led to a drastic reduction in
cultivation in Manitoba. Most current Canadian cultivars are low in oleic acid and high in linoleic acid,
and therefore more appropriate for the birdseed market, and in fact the Canadian safflower crop is
currently used as birdfeed, mostly in the US. Oilseed safflower expansion depends on the development
of adapted, high-oleic cultivars with high content of oil, improved seedling establishment, and active
export efforts and/or a local oil processor becoming established. 'Saffire', the first Canadian safflower
cultivar, is a good birdseed cultivar released in 1985, that has a total oil content of only 32%, generally
too low for the oilseeed market. A more recent (1991) cultivar, 'AC Stirling', is a dual-purpose
birdseed/oilseed cultivar averaging 35% oil, and is considered to have the capability of expanding the
oilseed market.
Other Oilseeds
Crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex R.E. Fries = C. hispanica L.), a cool-season annual originating
from Ethiopia, has been raised in large areas in North Dakota. Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Hartw.), a
winter annual, originates from and is adapted to the Pacific Northwest of the US, where it has been
grown. It has also been grown on Vancouver Island. Both crops seem suitable for Canada. It is too early
to judge the potential of these experimental oilseed crops, although the relatively large investments in
relation to limited commercial success to date in the US and other countries are discouraging.
PULSE CROPS: DRY BEANS AND PEAS

Pulses grown in Canada as dry beans include common bean, lentil, field pea, chickpea, and faba bean.
Pulses are low in fat, rich in fiber and complex carbohydrates, and good sources of vitamins, and
consumption of these healthy foods has been increasing. Additionally, these legumes fix nitrogen,
reducing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer required, and generally improving the yield of crops that
follow in a rotation. Some pulses, most notably peas, have become an important livestock feed. Pulses
have been the chief new successful crops that have served to diversify Western Canadian agriculture
since the 1980s.
Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Dry edible beans have been a commercial crop in Canada since the mid-19th century, and while not
particularly new, recent bean cultivars have allowed the area seeded to expand somewhat from
traditional growing areas. Demand for dry common bean has been increasing with world population. In
Canada, beans are grown mostly in Ontario (which accounts for about 70%), Alberta, Manitoba, and to a
lesser extent in Saskatchewan and Quebec, all areas which provide the necessary warm growing season.
White and colored beans are produced in about equal amounts, but this represents a noticeable switch
from white to colored bean production, primarily due to increased demand for colored cultivars for
export. Indeed, colored bean production continues to increase in Canada, because of the creation of new
disease-resistant cultivars, strong promotion and market development, and increasing processing
capacity in Western Canada. Ontario produces most of Canada's white beans (also known as white pea
beans, navy beans, and alubia chicas). Colored beans are grown mostly in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba,
and Saskatchewan, and in Alberta under irrigation. Most (7585%) of Canada's beans are exported,
about half to Europe, and about 40% to the US. Bean yields are quite variable because of the
requirement for warmth and sensitivity to adverse weather, so that new cultivars better adapted to
Canadian conditions are desirable. For a more detailed analysis of the bean crop in Canada, see Vincent
(1995) and Gray (1997a).
Adzuki Bean [Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi]

A new adzuki (azuki) bean cultivar, 'AC Gemco', was recently produced by AAFC at Harrow (Ontario),
and has genetic consistency that growers have sought, as well as large seed size and high yields. This
annual pulse is a major crop in Asia (second only to soybean in Japan), and a limited crop has been
produced to date in North America.
Mung Bean [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek]

Another area of growth for beans is the sprout market, especially mung bean. Canada currently imports
almost 2 million kg annually of mung beans for sprouting. The cultivar 'AC Harrowsprout' was recently
produced by AAFC at Harrow to meet the demand for a domestic supply of mung beans.
Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

In 199798, Canada produced about 14% of the world's dry peas (about 13 million tonnes), and most of
this was exported to Europe. Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba respectively account fr about 70, 20,
and 10% of the dry pea seeded area. Field pea has become Caada's sixth most important crop. The area
cultivated has been rising for the past 20 years, especially recently, due to an expanding export market,
particularly in the European Economic Union, where peas are a traditional feed ingredient for hogs. In
eastern Canada, where only 1,000 ha were seeded o peas in 196, the crop is used mainly for on-farm
livestock feed, and the prospects for peas as a new crop in areas other than the prairies seem limited. A
detailed analysis of the pea crop in Canada is Skrypetz (199).
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.)

Canada produces about 13% of the world's lentils (about 2.9 million tonnes for 19998),and is the third
largest producing country after India and Turkey. About 85% are grown in Saskatchewan, the remainder
in Manitoba and Alberta. Lentil is a relatively new crop for Canada, produced on the prairies in
significant quantities only since the late 1960s. Canadian cultivars ('Laird', 'Eston', 'Richlea', and others)
are all green with yellow cotyledons, unlike the red-cotyledon lentils that comprise the bulk of the
world's lentil production. 'CDC Redwing', a new red cultivar, is considered promising in part because of
its disease resistance. Lentils have some prospect for being used as livestock feed, like peas. For
additional information on the lentil crop in Canada, see Gray (1998).
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Chickpeas (garbanzo beans) have a wide variety of food uses, and the lower grades can be used as
livestock feed. In 199798 Canada produced 14,500 tonnes on 10,500 ha. This crop requires a fairly long
growing season and prefers dry conditions because of susceptibility to ascochyta blight (caused by
Ascochyta rabiei, a devastating seed-borne fungal disease) and a need for heat to set seed. Chickpea is
well adapted to the brown soils of Western Canada, and its deep, extensive root system provides good
drought tolerance. The Crop Development Centre of the University of Saskatchewan has been concerned
with breeding shorter season and ascochyta-resistant cultivars suited to the southern Prairies. Although
there is appreciable international competition, there does seem to be a good prospect that chickpea could
become a more significant crop in Canada.
Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.)

The faba bean is a small-seeded form of broadbean, an ancient vegetable bean of Europe. A
smaller-seeded type of broadbean (known as "la gourgane") is grown in commercial amounts in the St.
Jean region of Quebec, mainly for soup (Munro and Small 1997). Faba bean cultivation started in
western Canada in 1972, and the area under production has fluctuated widely since then. Protein content
of 2430% makes faba bean an attractive on-farm protein supplement for livestock feeding, and there is
also good potential for use as silage. While faba bean is a very minor crop in Canada, it could well
become more important.
*In this paper Canadian dollar figures are reported in Canadian currency, and American dollar figures in
American currency.
back
part 2 of New Crops for Canadian Agriculture
Feijoa sellowiana
Feijoa sellowiana Berg syn.

Acca sellowiana
Myrtaceae
Feijoa, Guava, Pineapple Guava
NewCROP has Feijoa information at:
FeijoaJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Outside links:
FEIJOA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the .California Rare Fruit
Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits,including botanical identification,
description and culture notes based on California research, and characteristics of cultivars)
Feijoa Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information Center
Feijoa nutritional information provided by Frieda's
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Feijoa_sellowiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:02 PM]
Foeniculum vulgare
Foeniculum vulgare
Fennel, Finocchio, Florence fennel, Meetin' seed,
Roman fennel, Sweet anise, Sweet fennel, Wild fennel
Fennel: A New Specialty Vegetable for the Fresh MarketMario R. Morales, Denys J. Charles,
and James E. Simon
Essential Oil Content and Chemical Composition of Finnochio FennelDenys J. Charles, Mario
R. Morales, and James E. Simon
Schneiter
Fennel: A New Specialty Vegetable
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.Florence Fennel
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.Fennel
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. var. piperetum (DC.) Bail.Italian Fennel
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Foeniculum_vulgare_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:02 PM]
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Leguminosae
Fenugreek, Foenugreek, Methi
Schneiter
Food and Feed Crops of the United StatesMagness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/T_foenum-graecum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:03 PM]
Fescue grasses
Fescue grasses
Gramineae Festuca sp.
Some 100 species of Festuca are known, generally found in temperate or
cool climates. They vary widely in texture and growth habit. Some are annuals, others perennial.
Annual kinds may be troublesome weeds, while perennial kinds are excellent for forage, pasturage
and turf. The most valuable are tall fescue, meadow fescue, Idaho fescue, sheep fescue, red fescue,
and Chewing's fescue
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Fescue_grasses.html [5/16/2004 4:00:03 PM]
Idaho fescue
Idaho fescue
Gramineae Festuca idahoensis Elmer
This is a native bunchgrass found from Washington and Montana south to
California and Colorado. The large bunches reach to 3 feet with numerous smooth leaves. This is a
valuable range grass, palatable while green, and also curing well for fall and winter forage. It has
potential for seeding on range lands.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Idaho_fescue.html [5/16/2004 4:00:04 PM]
Meadow fescue
Meadow fescue
Gramineae Festuca pratensis Huds. (= F. elatior L.)
This is a hardy perennial bunchgrass, introduced from England and adapted
to cool climates. On rich soils it reaches up to 30 inches in height. Leaves are long and slender,
bright green and succulent. It is now grown less than in the past for pasturage and hay because of
the general superiority of tall fescue. It is not as heavy yielding nor as persistent as tall rescue.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Meadow_fescue.html [5/16/2004 4:00:05 PM]
Sheep fescue
Sheep fescue
Gramineae, Poaceae Festuca ovina L.
This is a bunchgrass that forms dense clumps, with numerous stiff, sharp,
bluish grey leaves. It is cold and drought tolerant and is better than most grasses on sandy or
gravelly soils in northern states. It is useful for grazing in early spring, but its greatest value is
providing a durable turf on sandy or gravelly soils.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sheep_fescue.html [5/16/2004 4:00:06 PM]
Festuca arundinacea
Festuca arundinacea Schreb.

Gramineae, Poaceae
Tall fescue
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Festuca_arundinacea_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:06 PM]
Festuca pratensis
Festuca pratensis Huds.

Syn.: Festuca elatior L., pro partem
Meadow fescue
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Festuca_pratensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:07 PM]
Ficus carica
Index| Search| Home
Ficus carica L.
Moraceae
Fig, Adriatic fig, Black Mission fig, Brown Turkey
fig, Calimyrna fig, Common fig, Higo, Kadotta fig,
Poor-man's-food, Smyrna fig, Sycamore fig
NewCROP has fig information at:
FigJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
And outside links to more fig info:
Fig Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information Center
FIG "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare Fruit
Figfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
From the FAO Tropical Feeds Database.
Folk lore and other fig information from Grieve's Modern Herbal
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ficus_carica_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:07 PM]
Field pea
Field pea
Leguminosae Pisum sativum L.
The term field pea designates peas used
as forage for livestock rather than for human food. The plants
are annuals, adapted to cool climates. They have weak,
semi-vining stems. The leaves usually consist of 3 pairs of
broad, ovate leaflets and terminate in a tendril. They are
borne along the whole length of the stem. Seeds are usually
near round, smooth, and produced several to a pod. Field peas
are grown for livestock feed in northern states from New
York west to Oregon, where they are seeded in early spring. In the South they are seeded in the fall
for winter pasture and green manure. For harvesting dried peas, fields are mowed, the vines
windrowed to dry, then threshed with combines. The dry beans are grown on about a quarter
million acres. Straw after threshing, as well as the peas, are nutritious feeds.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Field_pea.html [5/16/2004 4:00:08 PM]
Figwort
Figwort
Scrophularia marilandica L.
Synonym.Scrophularia nodosa var. marilandica A. Gray.
Other common names.Maryland figwort, heal-all, pilewort, carpenter
square.
Habitat and range.This plant, often galled Maryland figwort, is found
in woodlands from Maine to Kansas and south to Georgia and Tennessee.
Description.The figwort is 3 to l0 feet high with 4-angled stems widely
branched above and slender-stemmed, somewhat egg-shaped or
lance-shaped sharply toothed leaves 3 to 9 inches long. The numerous
small, greenish-purple flowers are produced from July to September in
rather open panicles.
Part used.The herb.
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA,
Washington DC.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/figwort.html [5/16/2004 4:00:09 PM]
Figure 49.Figwort
(Scrophularia
marilandica)
Linum usitatissimum
Linum usitatissimum L.
Linaceae
Flax
Flax: New Uses and DemandsDuane R. Berglund
Flax Fiber: Potential for a New Crop in the SoutheastJonn A. Foulk, Danny E. Akin, Roy B.
Dodd, and David D. McAlister III
Flax: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Outside links:
Flax Council of Canada
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Linum_usitatissimum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:10 PM]
Fortunella
Fortunella sp. Swingle

Rutaceae
Cumquat, Golden orange, Kin-kan, Kumquat,
Limau pagar, Marumi, Meiwa, Nagami
KumquatJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Fortunella_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:11 PM]
Vitis rotundifolia
Vitis rotundifolia Michx.

Vitaceae
Muscadine grape, Southern Fox
Grape
Muscadine GrapeMagness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the United States.
Outside Links:
Mucadine Grape Fruit Factsfrom the California Rare Fruit Growers Association.
GrapevineFAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Grapevine
site
GrapevineDescriptors for GrapevineLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vitis_rotundifolia_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:11 PM]
Meadow foxtail
Meadow foxtail
Gramineae Alopecurus pratensis L.
This grass is native to temperate Europe and Asia, and was introduced into
the United States around the middle of the last century. It is a long-lived perennial, which forms a
few short rootstocks and underground branches. It produces a medium dense sod. Leaves are
medium in width, dark green and numerous. Stems generally reach about 3 feet. The species is
especially adapted to cool moist climates, such as west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and
Washington; but is useful in other northern states. It is especially useful as pasture, growing
throughout a long season. In combination with legumes it is made into silage in the Pacific
Northwest, but is rarely harvested for hay.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Meadow_foxtail.html [5/16/2004 4:00:12 PM]
Setaria italica
Index| Search| Home
Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.

Poaceae, or Graminae, Tribe Paniceae
Foxtail Millet, Italian Millet, German
Millet, Hay Millet
NewCROP has Foxtail Millet information at:
Foxtail and Proso Millet. D.D. Baltensperger 1996. p.182-190.
In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press,
Alexandria, VA.
Progress with Proso, Pearl and Other MilletsDavid D.
Baltensperger
Millets: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of
Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products
Variation in electrophoregrams of total seed protein and Wx protein in foxtail millet. Afzal, M., M.
Kawase, H. Nakayama, and K. Okuno. 1996. p. 191-195. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops.
ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.
Foxtail Millet In: Magness J.R. et al. 1971. Food and feed crops of the United States.
And outside links to more Foxtail Millet info:
Millet Production Guide by: R. D. Baker, Extension Agronomist, New Mexico State University.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Setaria_italica_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:13 PM]
Fragaria virginiana
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne

Rosaceae
Strawberry, European strawberry, garden
strawberry, Virginia strawberry
Growing StrawberriesHO-46 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
Year-Round Strawberry Weed ControlHO-46 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
Fertilizers for StrawberriesHO-64 Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
Outside Links:
site
Strawberryfrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Strawberry Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Fragaria_virginiana_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:13 PM]
White Ash
White Ash
Fraxinus americana L.
Synonyms. Fraxinus alba Marsh.; F. acuminata Lam.
Other common names.Ash, American white ash, cane ash.
White
ash
Figure 114.White ash
(Fraxinus americana)
Habitat and range.The white ash is native in rich woods, from

Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas, but chiefly in the Northern States and
Canada
Description.This tree usually attains a height of from 60 to 80 feet, but occasionally reaches
120 feet. The leaves, which appear late in the spring, are about 12 inches long and consist of from
five to nine leaflets from 3 to 5 inches long and about half as wide. The small, whitish-green
flowers which appear from April to June are arranged in loose clusters, and the fruits which follow
are in the form of clustered, winged seeds each of which is from 1 to 3 inches long, narrow, flat,
and 1-seeded.
Another species.The black ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh., syn. F. sambucifolia Lam.) is also a
native, inhabiting swamps and wet woods from Canada to Virginia and Arkansas. Other names
applied to it are hoop ash, swamp ash, water ash and basket ash. It reaches a maximum height of
100 feet and has leaves about 16 inches long composed of 7 to 11 leaflets 3 to 6 inches long.
Part used.The bark of the trunk and root of both species.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/ash.html [5/16/2004 4:00:29 PM]
Tobosa grass
Galleta grass
Gramineae, Poaceae Hilaria jamesii (Torr.) Benth.
Tobosa grass
H. mutica (Buckl.) Benth.
Both of these native species are slightly spreading range grasses. Galleta grass occurs from
Wyoming to California and West Texas while Tobosa is in West Texas and Arizona and south into
Mexico. The bases of the stems of both are rhizome like. Stems may reach to 2 feet, with small,
narrow leaves. Both are found under arid conditions and are highly drought resistant. They are
moderately palatable while succulent, but not when dry.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Tobosa_grass.html [5/16/2004 4:00:30 PM]
Imbe
Imbe
Guttiferae Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders.
The Imbe is a small tree up to 20 feet, native to East Africa. Leaves are
leathery, dark green, oblong, up to 6 inches in length. Fruits are up to 2 inches long, nearly as
broad, and ripen in mid-summer. The skin is tender and encloses a thin, tart, watery pulp, with
generally a single seed. There is no commercial production in the United States, but occasional
trees may be found in tropical areas.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Imbe.html [5/16/2004 4:00:30 PM]
Garcinia mangostana
Garcinia mangostana L.
Guttiferae
Mangosteen, King-of-fruits, Maggistan, Manggis,
Manggusta, Mangostan, Men-gu
MangosteenJulia Morton
South American Fruits Deserving Further Attention Richard J. Campbell
Outside links:
Bibliography of Garcinia mangostana from Fruits for the Future.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Garcinia_mangostana_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:32 PM]
Pisum sativum
Pisum sativum L.
Leguminosae, or Fabaceae
Pea, dry pea, Chinese pea, Chinese pea pod,
Chinese snow pea, edible-podded pea, edible pod pea, podded
pea, snow pea, sugar snap pea (UK, USA), Batani (Ind), Erbese
(Ger), Ater (Eth), pois (Fra), Takarmany borso (Hun), Pisello (Ital),
ho loan, mange-tout, papdi
Midwest Vegetable Production Guide for Commercial Growers
2000
Dry Field PeaAlternative Field Crops Manual, University of
Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant & Animal Products
Dry Pea and Lentil as New Crops in Saskatchewan: A Case StudyA.E. Slinkard, R.S. Bhatty,
B.N. Drew, and R.A.A. Morrall
Grain Yield of Oat-Pea IntercropPatrick M. Carr, Eric D. Eriksmoen, Glenn B. Martin, and N.
Rick Olson
Grain LegumesTheodore Hymowitz
Peas and Beansproduction links
Food and Feed Crops of the United States. Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971.
Garden Pea
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pisum_sativum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:33 PM]
Pisum sativum
Edible-podded Pea
Field Pea
Outside links:
Pea vine reportWashington State University
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pisum_sativum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:33 PM]
Gaultheria procumbens
Gaultheria procumbens L.
Ericaceae
Wintergreen, checkerberry, teaberry
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Gaultheria_procumbens_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:33 PM]
Huckleberry
Huckleberry
Ericaceae Gaylussacia sp.
In the United States, the name huckleberry is often used for blueberry, which
see. While the two fruits are similar in appearance and flavor, the huckleberry which is a drupe has
a 10-celled ovary, each cell (drupelet) normally containing a seed large enough to be
conspicuously noticeable when the whole fruit is eaten. Blueberries, in contrast, contain many
seeds so small as not to be noticeable when the fruit which is a berry is consumed. Only
blueberries are a cultivated crop, but quantities of huckleberries are harvested from native plants.
The huckleberry plant is a shrub, to 6 feet, with small, entire oval leaves. Fruits are borne in small
clusters. Individual fruits are generally one-third inch or less in diameter, mainly blue to black in
color, sweet or slightly tart when ripe. Several species, mainly in Eastern United States, produce
fruits valued locally.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Huckleberry.html [5/16/2004 4:00:34 PM]
Genipa americana
Genipa americana L.
Rubiaceae
Genipap, Genip, Genipe, Genipop, Jagua,
Marmalade box
GenipapJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Genipa_americana_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:34 PM]
GERANIUM
GERANIUM
Family: Geraniaceae, (Pelargonium graveolens L'Her. ex Ait.)
Rose geranium, Pelargonium graveolens L'Her. ex Ait., is one of the many fragrant species of
Pelargonium used as a source of geranium oil. The woody, perennial herb is native to South Africa
and is produced in Egypt, France, the People's Republic of China, Algeria, South Africa, Morocco,
and Spain. Reaching a height of one meter, the plant has pubescent, fragrant, green, deeply lobed
leaves and rose-colored flowers.
The geranium flourishes in the full sun of temperate and subtropical climates. Best growth is
obtained on well-drained, fertile soils and under a high relative humidity. The species are cold
sensitive but tolerant of drought.
The essential oil accumulates in small glands found in the foliage and flowers. Harvesting, usually
done by hand two or three times annually, begins as the plant starts flowering. The herb is cut in
the morning in sunny, dry weather. Distillation begins after a few hours of field drying.
There are several types of geranium oil, the main ones being Reunion or Bourbon, Algerian,
Moroccan, and French. The oils are composed chiefly of geraniol, citronellol, linalool, citronellyl
formate, and several other compounds (7.5-124, 8.2-13, 8.2-33, 14.1-9). Reunion oil is very rich in
citronellol and has a heavy rose and minty odor. Algerian oil has a delicate odor. Moroccan oil is
similar to Algerian oil. French oil is thought to possess the finest rose-like odor. The concrete and
absolute of geranium are also available commercially.
The oil of geranium, widely used in perfumery and cosmetics, is stable and blends well with other
fragrances. Dried leaves are used in sachets and potpourris. Leaves of geranium are also used in
herbal teas and the oil is used in baked goods and fruit desserts. The geranium of florists comes
from many annual and perennial geranium species that vary in fragrance, growth habit and leaf and
flower color. The scented geraniums are extensively used in flower gardens and as potted herbs.
As a medicinal plant, geranium has traditionally been considered an astringent and used as a folk
remedy in the treatment of ulcers (11.1-50). A terpine hydrate synthesized from geraniol is known
to be, an effective expectorant (11.1-96). Leaves are reported to have antifungal activity (7.5-124).
Scented geranium and oil of geranium are reported to cause contact dermititis (8.2-79, 11.1-96).
Geranium is reported to repel insects because of its citronellol content.
Several forms, varieties, and hybrids of geranium exist. Rose-scented geranium, Pelargonium
capitatum (L.) L'Her. ex Ait.; nutmeg geranium, Pelargonium fragrans Willd.; apple geranium,
Pelareonium odoratissimum (L.) L'Her. ex Ait. and crowfoot geranium Pelargonium radens H. E.
Moore, represent the wide diversity of plants that contribute to the production of geranium oil.
Geranium macrorrhizum L., an aromatic plant, and wild geranium, Geranium maculatum, are
members of the Geraneaceae family and should not be confused with the scented geraniums.
Although used in flavoring and perfumery, East Indian geranium is actually Cymbopogon martini
Stapf., of the Poaceae family.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/GERANIUM.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:35 PM]
GERANIUM
Pelargonium species are generally recognized as safe for human consumption as natural
seasonings/flavorings and as plant extracts/essential oils (21 CFR sections 182.10, 182.20 [1982].
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/GERANIUM.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:35 PM]
Wild Geranium
Wild Geranium
Geranium maculatum L.
Other common names.Crane's-bill, spotted crane's-bill, wild
crane's-bill, stork's-bill, spotted geranium, alumroot, alum-bloom,
chocolate-flower, crowfoot, dove's-foot, old-maid's-nightcap,
shameface
Habitat and range.Wild geranium flourishes in low grounds and
open woods from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south to Georgia
and Missouri.
Description.This plant, although generally only about a foot in
height will sometimes reach a height of 2 feet. It is erect, usually
unbranched, and hairy. The leaves, which are 3 to 6 inches wide, are
deeply parted into three or five divisions, each of which is again cleft
and toothed. The rose-purple, pale or violet-purple flowers, which
appear from April to June, are borne in loose clusters and are from 1 to
Figure 118.Wild geranium
1 1/2 inches wide. The fruit capsule, which springs open when ripe,
(Geranium maculatum)
consists of five cells each containing one seed. The rootstock is 2 to 4
inches long, thick, with numerous branches and with sears showing the remains of stems of
previous years. When dry it has a somewhat purplish color internally.
Part used.The root, collected just before the flowering period.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/geranium.html [5/16/2004 4:00:36 PM]
Helianthus tuberosus
Helianthus tuberosus L.
Asteraceae
Jerusalem artichoke, Girasol,
Gerasole, Girsole, Sunchoke
Jerusalem Artichoke: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative
Extension Service, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant &
Animal Products
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Helianthus_tuberosus_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:37 PM]
Gerbera Daisies: A Potential Field-produced Cut Flower Crop for Coastal South Carolina

Dufault, R.J., T. Phillips, and J.W. Kelly. 1990. Gerbera daisies: A potential field-produced cut
flower crop for coastal South Carolina. p. 457-459. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances
Gerbera Daisies: A Potential

Field-produced Cut Flower Crop for
Coastal South Carolina
Robert J. Dufault, Tyron Phillips, and John W. Kelly
1. INTRODUCTION
1. Need for Alternative Crops
2. Potential of Field Cut Flowers
2. FIELD STUDIES ON GERBERA DAISY CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION
1. Population and Fertility Research
2. Research To Improve Stem Length and Earliness
3. POTENTIAL OF GERBERA AS AN ALTERNATIVE CROP
4. REFERENCES
5. Table 1
6. Fig. 1
INTRODUCTION
Need for Alternative Crops
Historically, the coastal area of South Carolina has been a region of great agricultural importance
in the Southeast. Dating back to the seventeenth century, many crops, once considered alternative
crops or new crops were introduced and became strong industries. Rice, then indigo, and finally
sea island cotton were important crops in the region for two centuries. Vegetable production
supplanted cotton production by the turn of the twentieth century. During the last eighty years,
crops such as beans, lettuce, carrots, cabbage, greens, and potatoes were considered major crops;
however, through a variety of reasons, competition eroded these markets. Presently, fresh market
tomatoes are the major vegetable produced in coastal South Carolina, but the future of this
industry is threatened by strong competition from Florida's growers, who are extending their
production periods.
Potential of Field Cut Flowers

The search for new crops to supplement the income from traditional crops has followed many
routes. Cut flowers are one of the alternatives being considered. Presently, a few growers in South
Carolina produce snapdragons, gladiola, daylilies, and statice. Most of these flowers are sold
directed to retail florists. Surveys of local retail and wholesale florists in Columbia, South Carolina
have indicated that there is potential for local growers to produce and sell more diverse types of
cut flowers. Barberton or Transvaal daisies, or simply Gerbera daisies (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus)
are one of the top cut flower crops in Europe and in recent years have been steadily exported to the
United States from the Netherlands, France, Italy, Japan, India, Australia, and New Zealand (Tjia
1984). Gerbera daisies are produced also in South America (Colombia), but the majority of these
are exported to Europe and Japan (Tjia and Rogers 1982).
Gerbera daisies are a high value cut flower crop with retail prices as high as $3.50/stem. Growers
could sell Gerbera cut flowers to a wholesaler for 25 to 40 cents/stem who would, in turn, sell the
same stems to a retail florist for 40 to 70 cents/stem. Demand and price paid for Gerbera
cutflowers is highest from Valentine's Day to Mother's Day.
Most gerbera cut flowers are produced in some form of protected structure. In the Netherlands,
Gerbera cut flowers are produced on raised beds in heated greenhouses to protect from severe
winter weather. Domestically, Gerbera daisies are produced in Florida in sawtooth or saran houses
(Behnke 1984). Shade cloth is needed to reduce temperatures and to enhance stem length (Auman
1980). While some production is in open fields, the majority is produced under some permanent
protective structure (B. Tjia, personal communication).
The coastal area of South Carolina has many aspects about its geography and climate that can be
considered favorable to the production of field gerbera cut flower production. The area is an 8 to 9
on the hardiness zone. The summers are sub-tropical with sub-temperate winters. However, to
capture the early Valentine's Day market demand, some form of protection is needed. The region
has ample water, warmth, and productive soils unusually high in phosphate. Gerbera daisies are a
popular bedding plant in the home landscape and over-winter without plant loss. They are one of
the earliest to flower in spring, are extremely heat tolerant blooming through the intense heat and
humidity of the summer months, and will bloom continuously to late November. As bedding
plants, they are considered "easy" to grow. Geographical benefits include close proximity to the
large metropolitan areas of Charleston and Columbia, South Carolina and Atlanta and Savannah,
Georgia, and within easy reach of metropolitan areas north or south along the eastern corridor.
Recently, local "pick-your own," vegetable farms have diversified their product lines and sell
annual cut flowers, such as zinnia, marigold, and cosmos with great success. Customers are drawn
to these stands by the splashes of bright colors of cutflowers. Perennial cut flowers, such as
Gerbera daisies, could be a welcome addition.
FIELD STUDIES ON GERBERA DAISY CUT

FLOWER PRODUCTION
Population and Fertility Research
Potential factors working against the success of this new crop are uncertainties of the cultural
practices needed to produce high quality gerbera cut flowers in open fields. The basic fertility and
population considerations to produce quality cuts are unknown and awareness of pest problems
needs close scrutiny The floral industry has defined the level of quality the grower needs to satisfy.
Florists demand large, showy blooms preferably 7.5 cm in diameter or greater. The many different
types of gerbera flower forms include singles, doubles, crested doubles, full-crested doubles, and
quilled types (Clay 1983). Florists seldom use singles in arrangements, preferring the fancier
flower types. Stems should be sturdy and at least 30 cm, but preferably 60 cm in length. Blooms
must be insect- and disease-free. Work was initiated in 1987 at Clemson's Coastal Research Center
in Charleston to determine the appropriate cultural practices to produce quality cut flowers in
unprotected culture in the open field (Fig. 1).
A two-year study evaluated the influence of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) fertility and plant
populations on quality cutflower production. Three levels of N (55, 110, and 220 kg/ha) and plant
populations of 24,000, 36,000, and 72,000 plants/ha were factorially combined to produce 27
unique cultural systems. In the first year of production, we found that populations of 72,000
plants/ha can be used to produce cut flowers without loss of flower size and quality. At least 110
kg N/ha, was needed to enhance high yields (Table 1). Increasing the N rate to 220 kg/ha increased
cull production with negligible increases in marketable yields. Nitrogen rate did not affect flower
size or quality. At least 220 kg K/ha is needed to increase marketable yield, individual flower fresh
weight and vase life and to decrease cull flower production.
Marketable and cull yield also increased with N rate applied in the second year (Table 1). In
contrast to the first year's work, production was highest with 220 kg N/ha while K had no effect on
yield. High populations of 72,000 plants/ha increased marketable yields. Levels of N, K or plant
populations had no effect on flower diameter, stem length, flower fresh weight or overall quality.
To obtain high yields of marketable quality, fertility regimes of 220 kg N/ha with at least 55 kg
K/ha are needed. High plant populations of 72,000 plants/ha win maximize flower yields without
adverse effect on flower quality and production.
Research To Improve Stem Length and Earliness

Short stem length was a persistent problem in the fertility/population experiments. Stem lengths
averages about 31 cm and 34 cm in 1987, and 34 cm in 1988. Fertility and plant spacing did not
affect stem length. Research is ongoing to study the utility of shade cloth of 30, 47, 63 or 80%
light exclusion to induce greater stem length. Portable shade cloth houses are placed over the beds
during the growing season. The benefits to production and economics of utilizing shade cloth
remain to be determined.
Normally in Charleston, gerberas bloom in early April. The use of row covers could increase early
production to mid-February, and are currently being investigated. Although all row cover materials
tested resulted in earlier production in January, 1989, the lengthening stems were abraded by the
row cover materials and seriously damaged. Better designs combining row covers with higher
clearance tunnels are needed.
POTENTIAL OF GERBERA AS AN
ALTERNATIVE CROP
Thrip-induced petal striations and streaks are the major hindrance to quality flower production in
coastal South Carolina. Various systemic and non-systemic insecticides evaluated were ineffective
in controlling thrips and these compounds are not yet labeled for use with these crops. Before this
new crop can be grown commercially, entomological studies are needed to learn how to control
thrips.
The success of this crop in the market place will depend ultimately on the aggressiveness of the
grower to pursue retail and wholesale floral markets. Quality must be demonstrated and price set
to undersell the competition. Only a limited number of Gerbera daisies can be absorbed by local
market outlets. Retailing through "pick-your-own" farmstands and farmers markets may be the
best ways for the small grower to become familiar with growing the crop, developing a quality
product, and establishing a good reputation in the market.
Floral trade experts expect that the boom in flower use by Americans will continue to increase.
Americans spent about $21 per capita in 1986 for cut flowers (Levin 1987). Although our use of
flowers still lags behind the Europeans, the trend of buying flowers for the home is moving the
country closer to the European tradition. We expect that field-production of cut flowers will
increase significantly in the coming years.
REFERENCES
Auman, C.W. 1980. Minor cut crops. p. 183-211. In: R. Larson (eds.). Introduction to
floriculture. Acad. Press, Boston.
Behnke, M. 1985. Gerbera (Transval daisy), p. 510-514. In: V. Ball (eds.). Red book,
greenhouse growing. Prentice Hall, Reston, VA.
Clay, H. 1983. Gerberas. Georgia Coop. Ext. Serv. Lft L 368.
Levin, T. 1987. Flower power. Sky (magazine). February.
Tjia, B. 1985. Gerbera production and its problems. Proc. Intern. Plant Prop. Soc.
34:365-375.
Tjia, B. and M.N. Rogers. 1982. Culture and evaluation of Florida gerberas for pots, beds
and vases. Florists' Rev. July.
Table 1. Effect of fertility and plant populations on gerbera cut flower yield.
Cut flower yield (1000's/ha)
Marketable
Cull
Variable
N (kg/ha)
55
110
220
K (kg/ha)
55
110
220
Plants/ha
72,000
36,000
24,000
zMeans
1987
1988
1987
1988
76.7bz 187.9c 146.1c 122.0c

92.9a 259.7b 168.9b 145.0b
96.2a 305.1a 197.2a 190.2a
79.4b 224.0a 180.1a 231.1a
91.4a 278.8a 175.6a 228.6a
95.0a 249.6a 156.6b 223.4a
131.4a 289.0a 227.1a 146.7b
78.5b 228.2b 161.8b 166.2a
55.9c 235.5b 123.4c 144.4b
within columns separated by LSD .05 level.
Fig. 1. Field production of gerbera in South Carolina.

Prosopis cineraria
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce

Syn.: Prosopis spicigera L.
Mimosaceae
Ghaf (Arabic), Jand (Punjab), Jandi (Pakistan), Shum (India)
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
According to Burkart (1976) Prosopis cineraria is not used commercially. During India's
Rajputana famine (186869), many lives were spared, using the sweetish bark as a food. It was
ground into flour and made into cakes. Wood used for boat frames, houses, posts, and tool
handles; the poor form of unimproved trees limits use as timber. Containing 31% soluble
potassium salts, the wood ash may serve as a potash source. Pods and lopping provide valuable
fodder during the dry season. According to the NAS (1980a), it "does not compete for moisture
with crop plants, which may be grown close to its trunk." Pakistanis and Indians believe, quite
properly, that it increases fertility under its canopy. Bark and leaf galls used for tanning. The gum
exuding from the trunk is suggestive of gum arabic.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_cineraria.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 4:00:40 PM]
Prosopis cineraria
Folk Medicine
Reported to be astringent, demulcent, and pectoral, ghaf is a folk remedy for various ailments. In
India, the flowers are mixed with sugar and administered to prevent miscarriage. In Las Bela,
India, the ashes are rubbed over the skin to remove hair (perhaps Leucaena ashes should be tried as
well). The bark, considered anthelmintic, refrigerant, and tonic, is used for asthma, bronchitis,
dysentery, leucoderma, leprosy, muscle tremors, piles, and wandering of the mind. Smoke from
the leaves is suggested for eye troubles, but the fruit is said to be indigestible, inducing biliousness,
and destroying nails and hair. Punjabis consider the pod astringent. Central Province Indians use
bark for rheumatism. Although recommended for scorpion sting and snakebite, the plant has not
proved out (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975).
Chemistry
The heartwood, contains sugars, five flavonones, fatty acids, and tannins (Burkart, 1976). Fresh
leaves (ZMB) contain 15.3% CP, 17.5% CF, 10.0% ash, 3.2% EE, 54.0% NFE, 2.65% Ca, and
0.24% P (Gohl, 1981). Wealth of India reports that leaves contain 2.9% N, 0.4% P2O5, 1.4% K2O,
and 2.8% CaO. The flavone glycoside patulitrin has been isolated from the flowers (C.S.I.R.,
19481976). A novel variant on the piperidine-3-ol alkaloid recently reported is spicigerine
(Jewers et al., 1976).
Description
Tree to 6.5 m high; cortex cinereous; prickles internodal, scattered, straight, somewhat acroscopic,
conical with broad bases. Taproot to more than 3 m long. Leaves 13-jugate, glabrous or
puberulous; petiole and rachis 0.54 cm long, the pinnae 27 cm long; leaflets 714-jugate, ovate,
straight to subfalcate, without nerves (or 24-nerved at base, the midrib excentric), mucronate,
415 mm long x 24.5 mm broad, grayish when dry; stipules foliaceous, deciduous. Racemes
spiciform, 513 cm long, several together, subpaniculate; peduncle with amplexicaul bract (or 2
bracts united), this caducous and leaving an oblique scar, 1.52 mm long; bractlets ovate, sessile,
0.50.8 mm long, caducous; pedicels 0.5 mm, to 1.5 mm long when mature; flowers yellow,
glabrous; calyx truncate, 0.81.2 mm long; corolla 3.5 mm long, glabrous, the petals rolled back in
age; anthers 0.81 mm long; pistil glabrous. Fruit slender, elongate, 819 cm long (including the
stipe 0.82 cm), subcylindric-torulose, 47 mm in diameter, glabrous; pericarp thin, brittle;
endocarp segments thin, longitudinal, little developed; seeds distant, longitudinal, ovate, 6 mm
long, the tegument with open horse-shoe fissural line on faces (Burkart, 1976), 1015 in a pod,
brown (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Germplasm
Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, ghaf, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate
alkalinity, drought, grazing, heat, high pH, poor soil, sand, and salt. Young seedlings are sensitive
to frost (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Prosopis cineraria
Distribution
In dry and arid regions of northwestern India in Punjab, West Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, in
dry parts of central and southern India, extending into Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Arabia.
Usually at low elevations. Introduced in Abu Dhabi, where plantings totaling 2,000 ha have been
made on flat, silty, gravelly plains and in shifting sand dunes (NAS, 1980a).
Ecology
Withstands slight frost (-6C minimum) and high temperatures (4050C maximum shade).
Sometimes gregarious but scattered in open dry forest. Seems to require light. Our computer
entries for Prosopis spp. are unreliable, partly due to past taxonomic confusions. I estimate this
species to range from Tropical Thorn to Moist through Subtropical Thorn to Moist Forest Life
Zones. I estimate it tolerates annual precipitation of 1 to 20 dm and pH of 6.59.8. The chief
Indian tree species in the Punjab, where rainfall is less than 750 mm.
Cultivation
Reproduces freely by root suckers and establishes well from seed, which remain viable for
decades. Seeds, which should be soaked for 24 hours, may be processed and planted like P. alba.
They retain their viability for at least one year. An initial spacing of 2 x 2 m is recommended.
Should be weeded until well established.
Harvesting
Tree coppices readily.

Standing crops yield 770 m3 fuel/ha, averaging 21 m3 stacked. Annual yields of stacked firewood
approach 3 m3/ha. The heartwood is very hard and heavy (769945 kg cu m).
Energy
In the Punjab, its rather scanty, purplish brown heartwood is preferred to other kinds for firewood
(Burkart, 1976). It is an excellent fuel, also giving high-quality charcoal (5,000 kcal/kg).
According to the Wealth of India, the calorific value of the sapwood is 5,003 kcal (9007 BTU)
(C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Prosopis cineraria
Biotic Factors
NAS (1980a) reports that "one fungus and five insect species are known to attack the tree."
Species of Chrysobothris and Sinoxylon bore into the dead wood, causing wood rot. Felker et al.
(1981) review the pest infestations of their Prosopis plantings with suggestions for their control.
Browne (1968) lists the following: AngiospermaeCuscuta reflexs; ColeopteraCaryedon
gonagra, celosterna scabrator; HemiptraDrosicha stebbingi, Laccifer lacca, Oxyrhachia
tarandus, Perisopneumon tamarinda; and Orthoptera Schistocerca gregaria.
References
vols. New Delhi.
Jewers, K., Nagler, M.J., Nirvi, K.A., and Amir, F. 1976. Lipids, sterols, and a piperidine
alkaloid from Prosopis spicigera leaves. Phytochemistry 15:238240.
New Delhi.
Zingiber officinale
Index| Search| Home
Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zingiberaceae
Ginger, Gingerroot, Jamaica ginger
NewCROP has information from the following sources:
Outside links to Ginger info:
Illustration of Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae from Hermann A. Khler's 3-part tomes
Medizinal Pflanzen (1887) plates.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Zingiber_officinale_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:40 PM]
Ginkgo biloba
Ginkgo biloba L.
Ginkgoaceae
Ginkgo, Maidenhair tree
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ginkgo_biloba_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:41 PM]
Panax spp.
Panax spp.
Araliaceae
Ginseng, American ginseng,
Dwarf ginseng
Ginseng: Old Crop, New DirectionsJohn T.A. Proctor
Commercial Production of Ginseng and GoldensealL.P. Stoltz
Ginseng: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Immune Stimulants and Antiviral Botanicals: Echinacea and GinsengDennis V.C. Awang
Outside links:
Woods-Grown Ginseng West Virginia University Extension Service
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Panax_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:43 PM]
Panax spp.
"Wild-Simulated" Forest Farming for Ginseng Production

Canadian ginseng
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Panax_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:43 PM]
Salsola kali
Salsola kali L.
Chenopodiaceae
Russian thistle, Prickly saltwort, Tumbleweed, Glasswort
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. References
Uses
Young plants serve as useful fodder, as long as they are not too high in nitrites or oxalic acids. As
a low-water-use plant, germinating quickly on minimally disturbed soils, and relatively free of
diseases and parasites, this has been suggested as a fuel source for arid lands (Foster et al., 1980).
This is one of several plants burned to make soap, even in Biblical times, at least so we read in
WSSA. Soap made in this fashion is still traded at Joppa and other Mediterranean ports [WSSA
Newsletter 9(4): 12. 1981]. On account of its high alkali content, the plant has also been used in
making glass (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Salsolin has been used to regulate the blood
pressure, said to resemble papaverine in its effect on vasoconstriction, hydrastine in its effect on
the smooth muscles of the uterus (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Salsola_kali.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 4:00:44 PM]
Salsola kali
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the plants are used in folk remedies for that cancerous
condition he terms superfluous flesh. Reported to be cathartic, diuretic, emmenagogue, poisonous,
stimulant, and vermifuge, Russian thistle is a folk remedy for dropsy and excrescences (Duke and
Wain, 1981). Navaho used a decoction of the ashes, both internally and externally for influenza
and smallpox (Duke, 1983c).
Chemistry
Of 21 samples, the average DM content was 39.4% (20.080.2). On a Zero Moisture Basis (ZMB),
CP, ran 4.925.0% (mean of 31 = 12.3), EE 0.63.8 (mean of 23 = 1.8), CF 20.243.1% (mean of
21 = 31.7), ash, 5.422.8% (mean of 30 = 15.2), and the NFE averaged 39.0%. Ca ranged from
1.64.14 (mean of 48 = 2.47%), P from 0.040.27 (mean of 48 = 0.17%), K from 4.636.83%
(mean of 6 = 6.46%), Mg from 0.600.93 (mean of 17 = 0.81%), with ca 19 mg/kg Cu, 33 mg/kg
Mn, 08 mg/kg carotene (Miller, 1958). Seeds contain 40.5% protein, 27.0% fat, on a ZMB (Duke
and Atchley, 1983). Fruiting plants may contain 0.2% alkaloids, among them salsolidine and
salsoline. Hager's Handbuch reports the fatty oils from the plant contain linolenic-, oleic-,
arachidic-, palmitic-, and stearic-acids, along with glucose, arabinose, fructose, and rhamnose,
with eicosanol and -sitosterol. The ash contains ca 20% K, 18% Ca, 3% Mg, 1.5% Al, 1.5% Fe,
6% phosphate, 6% sulfate, 40% carbonate, and 2% chloride (List and Horhammer, 19691979).
Toxicity
The plant can contain as much as 5% oxalic acid. This oxalic acid, or excess of KNO3 may lie
behind reports of toxicity to grazing animals.
Description
Annual herb with spreading taproot; stems bushy, much-branched, 1.512 dm tall, 315 dm in
diameter, rigid, spiny, spherical, often reddish in age, young stems and leaves green and succulent;
leaves alternate, the first-formed fleshy, cylindrical or awl-shaped, 0.5 mm broad, 1.26.5 cm long,
apically pointed, the latter-formed shorter, stiff, dilated and thickened at the base, ending in a hard
sharp spine. Flowers small, greenish, mostly solitary in the axils; petals none; sepals 5, papery and
persistent; stamens 5; pistil 1, bracts at the base of each flower 2, rigid, spine-tipped; fruit
surrounded by the 5 enlarged sepals, each developing a fan-shaped, strongly veined wing on its
back, 39 mm broad. Seeds numerous (to one million per plant), top-shaped, ca 2 mm broad, with
a yellowish coiled embryo, visible through the thin gray wall (Reed, 1970).
Salsola kali
Germplasm
Reported from several arid Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, Russian thistle, or cvs thereof, is
reported to tolerate drought, grazing, heat, and poor soils. I predict it will also tolerate salinity and
high pH, as do so many desert xerophytes. (2n = 36)
Distribution
Disturbed areas, roadsides, ditchbanks, fallow abandoned grain-fields, overgrazed ranges, and
pastures. Common to abundant in Western and parts of the Central States of the US, occasional
along the eastern and southern coasts, where it is spreading rapidly (Reed, 1970). Treated as a
serious weed in Afghanistan and Argentina, a principal weed in Canada and Hungary, a common
weed in Iran, Italy, Morocco, South Africa, and the United States. Listed also as weed in Australia,
Chile, China, Egypt, Greece, Hawaii, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, Norway, New
Zealand, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey, and the USSR (Holm et al., 1977).
Ecology
Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Desert to Steppe to Subtropical Very Dry to Thorn Forest
Life Zones, Russian thistle is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.6 to 9.7 dm (mean of 4
cases = 4.9), annual temperature of 9.2 to 23.8C (mean of 4 cases = 15.3), and pH of 7.0 to 7.9
(mean of 2 cases = 7.4) (Duke, 1978, 1979).
Cultivation
A self seeding annual, producing up to a million seed a plant, the Russian thistle doesn't really
need to be cultivated, except perhaps as a desert fuel candidate.
Harvesting
Spread of the weed is encouraged by the long-viable seed. Harvesting of the tumbleweed and
processing it for fuel is treated in various papers by Karpiscak and/or Foster.

Productivity of natural stands in Avra Valley, ca 32 km northwest of Tucson, averages more than 3
MT/ha. Hence this weed has been suggested as desert fuel crop for 240,000 ha of arid or fallow
land retired as the cost of irrigation increases (Foster, Rawles, and Karpiscak, 1980). With its C4
photophysiology, it has a high water use efficiency. Currently, this is an economic negative.
Tumbleweeds block irrigation canals. They are a traffic hazard which cost the California
transportation department hundreds of thousands of dollars to eliminate (Anon., 1982a). It costs
about $250 a hectare to haul away the brush, while application of an herbicide (e.g. Brominal)
Salsola kali
costs closer to $100.
Energy
According to the phytomass files (Duke, 1981b), annual productivity ranges around 3 MT/ha but
yields of ca 610 MT/ha forage are reported for Salsola orientalis (with Eurotia and Kochia) in
Kazakhstan (USSR) (Pryanishikov and Alimaev, 1977. Proc. 13th Internat. Grassland Cong.
Leipzig) [CAB V81(10)]. In dry regimes, Salsola kali has higher biomass in mixed than in
monoculture (Allen, 1982). Karpiscak et al (1980) report on the feasibility of agricultural
production as a source of burnable biomass. Foster et al. (1980) discuss the processing into
artificial fireplace logs whose economic potential is substantial. Energy content in field-dried
tumbleweed ranges from 6,5006,800 Btu/lb cf 5,5807,920 for lignite. Wild stands yield 310
MT/ha; irrigated plots up to 15 MT/ha. The value of the fireplace logs made from compressed
tumbleweed is $14 to $20 per million Btu. It costs $4.336.40 to prepare the product (Foster et al,
1983). The most common means of eradication is by burning, which only perpetuates the problem
by releasing up to 1,000,000 fire-resistant seeds per plant (Anon., 1982a).
Biotic Factors
Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following as affecting this species: Melanospora townei
(on stems), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (root rot), Pleospora lecanora (on stems), Puccinia
aristidae (rust), Pyrenophora salsolae (on stems), Pythium deparyanum (root rot), and curly top
virus Ruga verrucosans. Golden (p.c. 1984) lists the "false root-knot" nematode, Nacobbus
aberrans.
References
Allen, E.B. 1982. Water and Nutrient competition between Salsola kali and two native grass
species (Agropyron smithii and Bouteloua gracilis). Ecology 63(3):732741.
Anon. 1982a. Here's how to control those tumbleweeds before they blow out of control.
Agricultural Age (Jan. 1982:10H).
17(34):91110.
Salsola kali

Foster, K.E., Karpiscak, M.M., Taylor, J.C., and Wright, N.G. 1983. Guayule, jojoba,
buffalo gourd, and russian thistle: plant characteristics, products and commercilization
potential. Desert Plants 5(3):113117, 126.
Foster, K.E., Rawles, R.L., and Karpiscak, M.M. 1980. Biomass potential in Arizona. Desert
Plants 2(3):197200.
Holm, L.G., Plunknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V., and Herberger, J.P. 1977. The world's worst
weeds. Univ. Press of Hawaii. Honolulu.
Karpiscak, M.M., Rawles, R.L., and Foster, K.E. 1980. The feasibility of using Salsola kali
L. (Russian thistle) as a renewable energy resource. Arizona-Nevada Acad. Sci. J.
15:(abstr.) Proceedings Supplement.
Karpiscak, M.M., Rawles, R.L., Foster, K.E., Meinel, A.B., and Meinel, M.P. 1980. The
feasibility of using Russian thistle Salsola kali L. for bioconversion. Fifth Quartly Report.
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies.
Miller, D.F. 1958. Composition of cereal grains and forages. National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, Washington, DC. Publ. 585.
Reed, C.F. 1970. Selected weeds of the United States. Ag. Handbook 366. USDA,
Washington, DC.
Gleditsia triacanthos L.
Caesalpiniaceae
Honeylocust
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Widely introduced as a fast-growing tree for fuel and fodder and fence posts, for ornament, shade
and soil reclamation. The wood is said to be coarse-grained, durable, hard, and resistant to soil
decay. Hence it is used for fence posts, railroad ties and tubs for wheels. South Africans sometimes
plant orchards of the tree for fodder. The gum from the seeds has been suggested as an emulsifying
substitute for acacia and tragacanth. Flowers very attractive to bees. The pulp has always attracted
the sweet tooth of animal and man alike, when better sweets were not available. A potable or
energy alcohol can be made by fermenting the pulp. Seeds have been roasted and used as a coffee
substitute. Wood is hard, coarse grained, reddish-brown and takes a high polish; the wood resists
decay and makes good fence posts. Lumber is used for various purposes, but the chief use is as an
ornamental. The pods are readily eaten by cattle, goats, deer, squirrel, rabbits, quail, and starlings
(Brown and Brown, 1972).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gleditsia_triacanthos.html (1 of 6) [5/16/2004 4:00:45 PM]
Folk Medicine
Sokoloff et al. (1964) note that recently, Soviet investigators have been studying the biological
factors present in the fruit and leaves of Gleditsia triacanthos. The alcoholic extract of the fruits of
the Kirgis honey locust, after elimination of tannin, considerably retarded the growth, up to 63% of
Ehrlich mouse carcinoma. However, the cytotoxicity of the extract was quite high and the animals,
besides losing weight, showed dystrophic changes in their liver and spleen. The alcoholic extract
of the fruit exerted moderate oncostatic activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma at the
total dose 350 mg/kg/body weight/mouse. Weight loss was considerable.
Epicatechol-3-D-glucoside dihydride, isolated from the flowers, exhibited no oncostatic or
cytotoxic activity. The Pigment tentatively identified as dihydroxy-4-methoxyisoflavone, isolated
from the fruit, exerted considerable oncostatic activity (and cytotoxicity). Triacanthine from the
leaves was highly toxic (LD50 ca 35 mg/kg) and of questionable oncostatic activity (Sokoloff et
al., 1964). In Lesotho, fruit pulp is used for catarrh of of the lung. Powdered seed used as a snuff
for head cold. Some people, probably having seen the erroneous report of cocaine in the leaves,
state that "ingestion of a suitable preparation of the leaf increases the capacity for muscular work
and delays the onset of fatigue." Reported to be anodyne, mydriatic, narcotic, and experimentally
oxytocic (Duke and Wain, 1981), honeylocust pods are a folk remedy for dyspepsia and measles
among the Cherokee. The bark tea is used for whooping cough. Delaware Indians used the bark for
blood disorders and coughs, the Fox for colds, fevers, measles, and smallpox. Chinese probed
tumors and abscesses with the thorns of Gleditsia sinensis, considering them counterirritant.
Chemistry
Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain (ZMB): 23.1 g protein, 4.6 g fat, 66.9 g total
carbohydrate, 12.7 fiber, 5.4 g ash. The seed is said to contain 10.6 g protein, 0.8 g fat, 84.7 g total
carbohydrate, 21.1 g fiber, 3.9 g ash, 280 mg Ca and 320 mg P. Scanlon (1980), interested in the
potential of honeylocust for alcohol production, presents the following analytical data. Differences
in sugar content are possible in trees of the same clone grown in different locations. 'Millwood'
pods from trees grown in Beltsville, Maryland, contained 21.07% total sugars, while 'Millwood' at
Auburn, Alabama, contained 36.8%. Small differences in sugars were found in pods from the same
clonal trees collected in different years.
Constituents
of 'Millwood'
Ash
Crude fat
(ether
extract)
Crude
protein (%N
x 6.25)
Crude fiber
Whole pods Pods without seeds Seeds only

3.75
3.82
10.23
0.81
0.52
3.06
10.15
8.21
28.74
14.19
13.81
11.02
Nitrogen-free
extract
Reducing
sugars
(glucose)
Nonreducing
sugars
(sucrose)
Total sugars
71.10
73.64
2.86
3.32
29.12
32.22
31.98
35.54
46.95
Air-dried leaf yields 0.5% of an alkaloid triacanthine C8H10N4 which in intravenous doses of 0.1
mg/kg, depresses the action of the cat heart, the intensity apparently depending on the intensity of
effect on the vasomotor centre (145). Heart-wood contains 44.8% tannin and also fustin and
fisetin (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The alkaloid gleditschine is said to produce stupor and
loss of reflex activity in a frog. Stenocarpine has been used for local anesthesia (Grieve 1931). "It
also contains cocaine" (Grieve 1931). To the best of my knowledge it does not contain cocaine!
Description
Tree 2030 m tall with trunk 36 dm in diameter, occasionally reaching a maximum of 50 m tall,
diameter to 1.5 m; bark with many large plates, loose at edges, grayish-brown. Twigs brown,
glabrous; buds small, glabrous, superposed, the upper one producing a thorn or an inflorescence.
Thorns axillary, lustrous, reddish-brown, ca 58 cm long, with 2 short branches near base, those
on trunk often longer and more branched, with new ones produced for many years. Leaves 1.62
dm long; if bipinnate, composed of 47 pairs of pinnae, each pinna 1828 leaflets, or the ultimate
sections of the leaf pinnate. Leaflets oval to ovate-oblong, 1.53 cm long, 1.25 cm wide, dark
green and glossy above, yellowish-green and essentially glabrous beneath; margins nearly entire,
obtuse at both ends. Racemes 512 cm long, flowers about 5 mm broad, greenish. Pod dark brown
24 dm long, 2.53.5 cm wide, about 1 cm thick, smooth and shining. Space between the seeds
filled with sweet edible pulp.
Germplasm
Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, honeylocust or cvs thereof is reported to
tolerate drought, frost, pests, poor soil and slope. Germplasm is covered rather thoroughly in the
SERI symposium on Tree Crops for Energy Co-production on Farms, especially the papers by
McDaniel (1980) and Scanlon (1980). 'Moraine' and 'sunburst' locusts are nursery selections of the
unarmed types.
Distribution
Native to the central United States, now naturalized east of the Appalachian Mountains from South
Carolina to New England. Also introduced, established and possibly spreading, sometimes as a
weed tree in India, New Zealand and South Africa.
Ecology
Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Cool Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life
Zones, honeylocust is speculated to tolerate annual precipitation of 6 to 15 dm, annual temperature
of 10 to 21C, and pH of 6 to 8.
Cultivation
Pretreated seeds (hot water or sulfuric acid) are drilled in rows 1525 cm apart and covered with
12 cm soil with 3040 seed per linear meter. Seedlings reach suitable size for outplanting in one
year. Clonal reproduction of select germplasm is often recommended. (2n = 28)
Harvesting
There is a trend toward biennial production in the cultivars, a hectare of Millwood yielding ca
8000 kg/ha in 1946, but only 550 kg/ha in 1947. Harvesting of pods is rather difficult, especially in
thorny cvs.

'Calhoun' 3 yrs old yielded ca 0.5 kg/tree, 4-yr-olds ca 2 kg/tree, and 5-yr-olds ca 12 kg. 'Millwood
3-yr-olds yielded ca 0.6 kg/tree, 4-yr-olds ca 2 kg/tree, and 5-yr-olds ca 27 kg/ha. With such low
yields (Scanlon, 1980) it is difficult to see how we could get 50 barrels of ethanol per ha. Older
'Millwoods' averaged 33 kg which would give only 3,300 kg/ha if spaced at 100 trees/ha. In
Alabama, nearly 6.5 MT Lespedeza sericea hay was produced annually in the shade of
honeylocust spaced at ca 85 trees/ha.
Energy
Freedman (1980) cited figures suggesting yields of only 3 MT/ha which would yield only ca 5
barrels ethanol. The wood has been described as good fuel wood (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Williams
(1980) ranks this as a highly feasible (high yield, low maintenance) woody perennial for ethanol
production in Applachia, along with blackberry, blueberry, cranberry, elderberry, hawthorn,
mulberry, persimmon, raspberry and serviceberry. He estimated yields at ca 1058 barrels alcohol
per ha, much higher than is consonant with fruit dry weights of 3.3 MT/ha/yr, which is closer to
the lower barrel figure (Scanlon, 1980; Williams, 1980). Avgerinos and Wang (1980) were more
pessimistic about honeylocust than mesquite pods for alcohol production.
Biotic Factors
Allen and Allen (1981) report the invasion of honeylocust root hairs by rhizobia from Erythrina,
Glycine, Leucaena, Lupinus, Pisum, and Vigna species. The infection threads did not penetrate
beyond the epidermal wall. Disk assay tests using aqueous root extracts showed the presence of
antirhizobial substances that were suggestive of flavones in other tests. Nodulation was not
inhibited or diminished on diverse species of other leguminous genera grown in association with
honeylocust. It was concluded that the nodule-inhibitory principle was root-contained, or
nonfunctional, if exuded into the rhizosphere (Allen and Allen 1981). In the middle Atlantic states,
the mimosa webworm is beginning to cause problems. Grazing animals may damage young plants,
while other animals and birds may eat the pods. Agriculture Handbook 165 lists quite a few
diseases: Aglaospora anomia, Agrobacterium rhizogenes, B. ribis, Cercospora condensata, C.
olivacea, Curcurbitaria elongata, C. recuperata, Cytospora gleditschiae, Daelalea ambigua, D.
elegans, Dothiorella gleditschiae, Eutypella fraxinicola, Fomes spp., F. applanatus, F. connatus,
F. igiarius var. laevigatus, F. marmoratus, F. meliae, Ganoderma curtisii, G. lucidum, Glomerella
cingulata, Haplosporella gleditschiae, H. gleditschiicola, Hendersonia sp., Libertella gleditschiae,
Linospora gleditsiae, Macrophoma mamillaris, Melasmia hypophila, Microsphaera alni, M.
ravenelii, Mycosphaerella sp., Nectria cinnabarina, Parodiella perisporioides, Phoradendron
flavescens Phymatotrichum omnivorum Physalospora obtusa, P. rhodina Phytophthora
citrophthora, Polyporus spp., P. adustus, P. Albus, P. arcularius, P. hydnoides, P. pargamenus, P.
pulchellus, P. sulphureus, P. supinus, P. tulipiferus, P. versicolor, Poria ambigua, Ravenelia
opaca, Schizophyllum commune, Septobasidium curtisii, Sphaeropsis gleditschiae, S.
gleditschiicola, Sphaeropsis mamillaris, S. triacanthi, Thyronectria austro-americana, Xylaria
mali and Chlorogenus robiniae. Nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne may be present.
References
Washington.
812 p.
Avgerinos, G.C. and Wang, D.I.C. 1980. Utilization of mesquite and honey locust pods as
feedstocks for energy production. p. 209217. In: Tree crops for energy co-production on
farms. Nov. 1214, 1980. SERVCP-622-1086, 260 p.
vols. New Delhi.
Freedman, D. 1980. Preliminary analysis of the potential for ethanol production from
honeylocust pods. p. 121134. In: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. Nov.
1214, 1980. SERVCP-622-1086.

McDaniel, J.C. 1980. A plant breeder looks at some American tree crops: Morus, Gleditsia,
and Diospyros. p. 113118. In: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. Nov. 1214,
1980. SERVCP-622-1086.
Scanlon, D.H., II. 1980. A case study of honeylocust in the Tennessee Valley Region. p.
2123. In: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. Nov. 1214, 1980.
SERVCP-622-1086.
Sokoloff, M.D., Funaoka, K., Toypmizu, M., Saelhof, C.C., and Bird, L. 1964. The
oncostatic factors present in Gleditschia triacanthos, a critical study. p. 97103. In: Growth,
1964 28.
Williams, G. 1980. Tree crops for energy production in Appalachia. p. 720. In: Tree crops
for energy co-production on farms. SERVCP-622-1086.
Gliricidia sepium
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.)

Steud.
Fabaceae
Madre de cacao
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
According to the National Academy of Sciences (1980a), the leaves contain over 20% crude
protein and are nutritious for cattle though TOXIC to most other animals including horses. The
tree is widely planted as shade for chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla. There are few "living fence"
species that strike root from cuttings more readily, also widely planted as a hedge and/or
windbreak. Tilth and fertility of the soil beneath the trees are greatly improved from the leaf- and
flower-fall. The timber is said to finish smoothly and be used for furniture, agricultural
instruments, posts, railroad ties, and heavy construction. Flowers are a good source of forage for
bees. Flowers are consumed by Mexican rural inhabitants who use the pods for rat poison. In the
Philippines, the foetid leaves are crushed and rubbed onto cattle. In Indonesia, the tree is planted as
a firebreak. This and other fast-growing leguminous trees have the vigor to outgrow or compete
with the Imperata grass. In the shade of Gliricida, the grass finally dies, leaving nothing that can
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 4:00:46 PM]
Gliricidia sepium
sustain a grass fire (NAS, 1980a).
Folk Medicine
Reported to be expectorant, insecticidal, rodenticidal, sedative, suppurative, Madre de Cacao is a
folk remedy for alopecia, boils, bruises, burns, colds, cough, debility, eruptions, erysipelas, fever,
fractures, gangrene, head-ache, itch, prickly heat, rheumatism, skin, sore, tumors, ulcers, urticaria,
and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981).
Chemistry
According to Roskoski et al. (1980), studying Mexican material, the seeds contain 11.93%
humidity, 1.90% ash, 33.00% CP, 16.50% CF EE, 9.07% CF, 27.60% carbohydrates with a
52.42% in vitro digestibility. The foliage contains 11.96% humidity, 12.09% ash, 19.92% CP,
2.34% crude fat, 11.04% CF, 42.65% carbohydrates, and 69.69% in vitro digestibility. Low levels
of alkaloids were found in the seed and saponins in the foliage, but the plant is still used for forage.
Allen and Allen (1981) cite data suggesting that fallen leaves emit the new-mown-hay odor,
because of the occurrence of coumarin compounds.
Description
Smooth deciduous tree to 10 m tall, 2030 cm DBH. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 1530
cm long, the 913 leaflets 36 cm long, opposite, oblong-ovate, bluntly pointed at the tip, rounded
at the base, entire. Flowers on numerous lateral racemes, often on leafless branches, the clusters
5125 cm long; flowers pinkish, ca 2 cm long; stamens 10, 9 united in a tube, one separate, white.
Pods yellow-green when immature, turning blackish 1014 cm long, 12 cm broad, with 38
elliptic, flat, shiny, blackish seed (ca 4,400/kg).
Germplasm
Reported from the American Center of Diversity, Madre de Cacao, or cvs thereof, is reported to
tolerate drought, limestone, slope, and weeds. (2n = 20)
Distribution
Native from Mexico to Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas, widely introduced and naturalized
throughout the tropics.
Gliricidia sepium
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Thorn to Wet through Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life Zones, Madre
de Cacao is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 41.0 dm (mean of 79 cases = 16.2),
annual temperature of 21.3 to 28.5C (mean of 61 cases = 25.3), and pH of 4.3 to 5.0 (mean of 2
cases = 4.6) (Duke, 1978, 1979).
Cultivation
Soak seeds 24 hours in lukewarm water and sow directly in potting soil in prepared pots (10 x 15
mm) wrapped in polyethylene. Move to shade for three weeks after germination, watering as
needed. Use insecticide/fungicide once a month or as needed. Hardened 23 month old seedlings
may be outplanted, avoiding midday heat, at the beginning of the rainy season (Fabian, 1981).
Roskoski et al. (1980) note that the tree is easily propagated from seeds (which require no special
treatment) or cuttings. Cuttings are used to make living fences throughout the tropics.
Harvesting
Living fences may be lopped for fuel or fodder as needed.

In Sri Lankan tea plantations, an average tree gave 64 kg green loppings per year (Allen and Allen,
1981). Studying Mexican material, Roskoski et al (1980) concluded that there were 44.1 ( 14.9)
moles N2 fixed per gram of nodule per hour in one assay, 11.7 2.6 in another. One stand was
fixing N at the rate of 13 kg/ha/yr.
Energy
Wood coppiced from living fences of Gliricidia sepium is burned for fuel by the rural population
of Veracruz, Mexico. Annual productivity has not yet been determined here. The calorific value of
the wood is 4,900 kcal/kg.
Biotic Factors
In Puerto Rico, the foliage is often attacked by aphids that secrete a sweet honeydew which attracts
ants, causing the leaves to fall. On the other hand, the wood is said to be highly resistant to
termites and decay.
Gliricidia sepium
References
812 p.
17(34):91110.
Roskoski, J.P., Gonzalez, G.C., Dias, M.I.F., Tejeda, E.P., and Vargas-Mena y Amezcua.
p. 135155. In: SERI: Tree crops for energy co-production on farms. SERI/CP-622-1086.
USGPO. Washington.
Gloriosa superba
Glory Lily or Kalihari (Gloriosa

superba L.)
contributor.
Common (Indian) Names:

Hindi: Kalihari, Kathari, Kulhari, Languli
Gujerati: Dudhio Vacchonag
Canarase: Akkitang hall, Huliyuguru, Nangulika, Sivasaktibalb
Marathi: Indai, Karianag, Khadyanag
Sanskrit: Agnimukhi, Garbhapatani, Kalikari
Family: Liliaceae
Habitat: Common in forests. Under cultivation in fairly large areas of India.
Botany: Herbaceous, tall, stout climbing herb. Root-stock of arched, solid, fleshy-white cylindric
tubers. Leaves sessile. Ovate lanceolate, tip ending in a tendril-like spiral. Flowers large solitary,
axillary, changing colors from greenish yellow, orange, scarlet and crimson from blooming to
fading. Fruits cupsule. Flowering time July in October to Indian conditions.
Related Species: Six tuberous-rooted species in tropical Africa and Asia have been reported.
Difference between two major varieties G. superba and G. rothschildiana are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison of Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana
Particulars
Gloriosa superba
Gloriasa rothschildiana
Height
Climbing 1.5 m or more
Tall climbing
Leaves
Long-lanceolate to narrowly
ovate-lanceolate
Broad lanceolate to broadly ovate

lanceolate
Leaf length
10.2-12.7 cm
12.717.8 cm
Leaf width
1.32.5 cm
3.85.1 cm
Flowers
linear to narrow lanceolate
oblong-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate
Flower length 5.17.6 cm
5.17.6 cm
Flower color Yellow changing to red
Whitish and yellow at the base, crimson

and more or less margined above
Origin
Tropical Africa
Tropical Africa and Asia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/gloriosa.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:47 PM]
Gloriosa superba
Useful Parts: Tubers, leaves, and flowers.

Medicinal Properties and Uses: In Ayurveda and Yunani systems of medicine it is a reputed
medicine. According to Ayurveda, tuber is pungent, bitter, acrid, heating, anthemirtic, laxative,
alexiteric, abortifacient, and useful in ulcers, leprosy, piles, iflommations, abdominal pains, itching
and thirst.
Chemical Constituents: Seed contain high level of colchicines. Cornigerine,
3-demethyl-N-formyl-N-deacetyl--lumicolchicine, 3-demethyl--lumicolchicine, 3-demethyl
colchicines have been isolated from plant. -sitosterol, its glucoside, a long chain fatty acid, and
-lumiccolchicines from fresh tubers and luteolin, colchicines, N-formyldeacetylcolchicines and
glucosides of 3-demethylcolchicine have been isolated from flowers.
Cultivation: Kalihari is under cultivation in many states of India particularly in South India.
Propagation: From its 'V' shaped tubers.
Spacing: 60 45 cm.
Season: Kharif (June-July in Indian conditions)
Manures and Fertilizers: In general, it is raised under organic farming. Initially before sowing
1520 tonnes of farm yard manure is applied.
Insects & Diseases: No insect or disease have been reported in Indian conditions.
Maturity: 170180 days after sowing.
Yield: 200 kg seed and 150 kg pericarp.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
28-A, College Road, Geeta Nagar,
Raipur- 492001 India.
Homepage: http://www.celestine-india.com/pankajoudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/gloriosa.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:00:47 PM]
Glycycrhiza glabra
Glycycrhiza glabra L.
Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
American licorice, Licorice, Licorice root, Wild
licorice
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Glycycrhiza_glabra_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:00:47 PM]
Gmelina arborea
Gmelina arborea Roxb

Verbenaceae
Gmelina, White teak
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
The wood is one of the best timbers of the tropics, useful for particle board, plywood core stock,
pit props, matches, and saw timber for light construction, furniture, general carpentry, and packing.
Also used in carriages, carvings, musical instruments, and ornamental work. Graveyard tests
indicate that the untreated timber may last 15 years in contact with the soil. With pulping
properties superior to most hardwood pulps, gmelina has been planted by the millions, e.g. in the
Rio Jari region of Brazil to feed a 750 MT/day kraft pulp mill. In Gambia there are dual purpose
plantings, for firewood and for honey. It is often planted as an ornamental avenue shade tree. The
wood makes a fairly good charcoal. According to Little (1983), the leaves are harvested for fodder
for animals and silkworms; the bittersweet fruits were once consumed by humans.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 4:00:48 PM]
Gmelina arborea
Folk Medicine
According to Hartwell (19671971), the root decoction is used in folk remedies for abdominal
tumors in India. Reported to be anodyne, demulcent, lactagogue, refrigerant, stomachic, and tonic,
gmelina is a folk remedy for anasarca, anthrax, bilious disorder, bites, blood disorders, cholera,
colic, convulsions, delirium, diarrhea, dropsy, dyspepsia, epilepsy, fever, gout, ,gravel, headache,
hemorrhage, intoxication, madness, phthisis, ratbites, rheumatism, rinderpest, septicemia,
smallpox, snakebite, sores, sorethroat, splenitis, stomachic, swelling, and urticaria (Duke and
Wain, 1981). Deeming the fruits alterative, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, and tonic, Ayurvedics
prescribe them for alopecia, anemia, consumption, leprosy, strangury, thirst, and vaginal
discharges; the flowers for blood disorders and leprosy; the root, deemed anthelmintic, apertif,
laxative, and stomachic, for abdominal pains, burning sensations, fever, hallucinations, piles, thirst
and urinary discharges (Duke, 1984 in ed.).
Chemistry
The drupes are reported to contain butyric acid traces of tartaric acid and resinous and saccharine
matter, the latter two also in the roots, which contain traces of benzoic acid.
Description
Deciduous tree 1230 m high and 60100 cm in diameter. Bark light gray or gray-yellow, smooth,
thin, somewhat corking, becoming brown and rough; twigs stout, often slightly 4-angled. Leaves
opposite, broadly ovate, 1020 cm long, 713 cm wide; base with 24 glands beneath, acuminate,
entire, with 3 or 5 main veins from near base and 25 pairs of side veins, underneath velvety with
yellow-brown hairs. Petiole 512 cm long, hairy. Cymes paniculate at ends of twigs, 1530 cm
long, branched, densely hairy. Flowers many, short-stalked, nodding, 4 cm long, densely hairy.
Calyx bell-shaped, 5 mm long, 5-toothed; corolla bright orange-yellow or brownish-yellow, with
short narrow tube, 2-lipped; stamens 4 in 2 pairs inserted near base of tube. Pistil with elliptical
4-celled ovary having 1 ovule in each cell. Stigma often slightly 24-forked. Drupes ovate or
pyriform, 22.5 cm long, smooth, becoming orange-yellow, pulpy, with large egg-shaped stone,
having 14 cells. Seeds 14 (Little, 1983).
Germplasm
Reported to tolerate disease, drought, fire, heat, laterite, light frosts, and slope. Although casting a
dense shade itself, it is intolerant of shade as a seedling (Little, 1983).(2n = 36, 38)
Distribution
Native to tropical moist forest from India, Burma, and Sri Lanka to southern China, Gmelina is
widely introduced, e.g. in Brazil, Gambia, Honduras, Ivory Coast, Malaysia, Malawi, Nigeria,
Gmelina arborea
Panama, Philippines, and Sierra Leone.
Ecology
Estimated to range from Tropical Very Dry to Wet through Subtropical Very Dry to Wet Forest
Life Zones, gmelina is reported or estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 45 dm (NAS,
1980a), annual temperature of 20 to 26C, and pH of 6 to 8. It can tolerate a 67-month dry
season. Grows on many soils, acidic laterites to calcareous loams, doing poorly on thin or poor
soils with hardpan, dry sands, or heavily leached acidic soils, well-drained basic alluviums.
Cultivation
Seeds, retaining their viability for only about 12 months, will benefit from soaking if rain or
irrigation is not expected. Direct seeding is cheap but tubed seedlings are also outplanted,
sometimes intercropped with beans, cashew, corn, peanuts, and tobacco. For fuelwood, spacing at
2 x 2 m is recommended, wider spacings for timber plantations. For the first year or so, weeding is
necessary, but the canopy is soon dense, like the litter layer, quickly arresting the weed growth.
Harvesting
Trees coppice well, with 5-year coppice rotations for fuel, longer rotations for timber.

The NAS (1980a) reports annual increments; >30 m3/ha, on fertile sites. Rotations of 58 years
may produce 2035 m3. Occasionally trees may start dying out at only 10 years age.
Energy
Destructive distillation of the wood yields 31.8% charcoal, 47.1% total distillate, 37.1%
pyroligneous acid, 10.0% tar, 2.4% pitch, and losses, 4.47% acids, 3.42% esters, 2.38% acetone,
and 1.28% methanol on a dry weight basis. The non-condensable gases (1.88 ft3/lb) contain 59%
CO2, 31.75% CO, 4.5% methane, 4.15% H, and 0.6% unsaturated hydrocarbons. Many of these
have energetic potential (C.S.I.R., 19481976). Reynolds and Lawson (1978) concluded that the
heating value of Gmelina wood was less than that from the local eucalypts. Although the calorific
values of the samples studied were almost identical (4.53 mcal/kg and 4.54 respectively), the DM
contents were 45 and 56%. The fresh weight of Gmelina firewood brought in cubic-meter lots was
significantly correlated with butt size. The NAS (1980a) suggests 4.8 mcal/kg for the sapwood,
spec. grav. 0.420.64. The charcoal burns well, without smoke, leaving a lot of ash. The Wealth of
India (C.S.I.R., 19481976) puts the calorific value at 4.763 mcal (8,547 BTU) with silica free ash
of 1.54%. In a 10-year-old Philippine stand, the aboveground biomass was 127 MT/ha, leaf
biomass was 1.4 MT, leaf litter ca 5.2 MT, constituting ca 62% of the total litter. Annual
Gmelina arborea
productivity was 18 MT/ha. Annual stem increment was about 10 MT/ha or 30 M3/ha, little
influenced by the age of the stand over the first 15 years (Kawahara et al., 1981). Akachuku's data
(1981) show annual yields of 2050 m3/ha/yr but he cites other studies on poor sandy soil yielding
only 7, on laterites only 18; on the best of savanna sites 25, on rainforest sites 3136, on Malaysia
sites 2838, and on Philippine sites 36 m3. MAI in 7-year trees was 32 m3 (15 MT) to 47 m3 (23
MT)/ha (Akachuku, 1981).
Biotic Factors
Cattle may eat the foliage and bark; seeds and foliage are consumed avidly by rabbits and deer. In
Latin America, the leaves are gathered by the leaf-cutter ants. In India, other insects may defoliate
the plant. Calopepla may defoliate, while the borers, Dihamnus and Alicide, may damage the trees.
The "machete disease", Ceratocystis fimbriata, is sometimes severe in moister climates. Poria
rhizomorpha may cause stem and root diseases in wet situations with heavy soils. Browne (1968)
lists the following as affecting Gmelina arborea: (Fungi) Armillaria mellea, Cercospora ranjita,
Fomes roseus, Polyporus baudni, Poria rhizomorpha, Sclerotinia rolfsii, Trametes straminea.
(Angiospermae) Tapinanthus sp. (Mollusca) Limicolaria aurora. (Myriapoda) Odontopyge sp.
(Coleoptera) Alcidodes ludificator, Apion angulicolle, A. armipes, Apophyllia chloroptera, A.
sulcata, Calopepla leayana, Dihammus cervinus, Empecamenta calabarica, Lagria villosa, Lixus
camerunus, L. spinimanus, Macrocoma candens, podagrica dilecta, Prioptera punctipennis,
Xyleborus fornicatus. (Hemiptera) Agaeus pavimentatus, Anoplocnemis tristator, Chunrocerus
niveosparsus, Dysdercus superstitiosus, Tingis beesoni, Trioza fletcheri. (Isoptera) Coptotermes
curvignathus, C. niger, Macrotermes goliath. (Lepidoptera) Acrocercops telestis, Endoclita
undulifer, Eupterote geminata, E. undata, Evergestis aureolalis, Gonodontis clelia, Indarbela
quadrinotata, Metanastria hyrtaca, Phostria caniusalis, Psilogramma menephron, Sahyadrassus
malabaricus, Selepa celtis, Xyleutes ceramica. (Orthoptera) Heteropternis thoracica, Kraussaria
angulifera, Phaneroptera nana, Phymateus viridipes, Zonocerus elegans. (Mammalia) Axis axis,
Strepsiceros strepsiceros, Sylvicarpa grimmia, Thryonomys swinderianus, Tragelaphus scriptus.
References
Akachuku, A.E. 1981. Estimation of volume and weight growth in Gmelina arborea with
X-ray densitometer. p. 105113. In: Kyoto biomass studies. Univ. of Maine at Orono.
Maine.
vols. New Delhi.
Duke, J.A. 1984. in ed. An herb a day ... Ayurvedic. Typescript.
Kawahara, T., Kanazawa, Y., and Sakura, S. 1981. Biomass and net production of
Gmelina arborea
man-made forests in the Philippines. J. Jap. For. Soc. 63(9):320327.

Reynolds, L. and Lawson, E.C. 1978. A comparison of the fuelwood value of Gmelina
arborea and Eucalyptus spp. from the Bunda Forest. Res. Bul. Bunda Coll.of Agr. Uni. of
Malawi, 9:7175.
Sweet Cudweed
Sweet Cudweed
Gnaphalium obtusifolium L.
Synonym.Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx.
Other common names.Fragrant life everSievers, A.F. 1930. The
Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington DC.
Sweet
cudweed
Figure 103.Sweet cudweed
(Gnaphalium obtusifolium)
Lasting, sweet balsam, white balsam, feather-weed, rabbit-tobacco.

Habitat and range.This plant grows in dry, mostly open places from Nova Scotia to Manitoba
and south to Florida, Kansas, and Texas.
Description.Sweet cudweed, which is better known in the drug market as life everSievers, A.F.
1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington DC.
Lasting, is a fragrant herb 1 to 3 feet high, white-woolly nearly throughout, with an erect stem,
simple or branched above. The leaves are narrow, one-sixth to one-third of an inch wide, and 1 to
3 inches long dark green above and densely white-woolly underneath. The flowers, produce] about
August to September, are borne in numerous barely crowded heads consisting of one to five
individual flowers.
Part used.The herb.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/cudweed.html [5/16/2004 4:01:04 PM]
Simmondsia chinensis L.
Simmondsiaceae, (also sometimes
listed within the Buxaceae)
Jojoba, Goatnut
Jojoba FactSHEET contributed by: Aliza Benzioni
Jojoba: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Jojoba: A Unique Liquid Wax Producer from the American DesertHimayat H. Naqvi and Irwin
P. Ting
Variation and Broad Sense Heritability of Branching Frequency of JojobaDamian A. Ravetta
and David A. Palzkill
Irrigation Effects on Growth, Cold Tolerance of Flower Buds and Seed Yield of JojobaJ.M.
Nelson and D.A. Palzkill
Coates
Food Intake Inhibitory Activity of Simmondsin and Defatted Jojoba Meal: Dose-Response Curves
in RatsMarnix M. Cokelaere, Gerda Flo, Paul Daenens, Eddy Decuypere, Maurits Van Boven,
and Sabien Vermaut
Producing Wax Esters in Transgenic Plants by Expression of Genes Derived from
JojobaMichael W. Lassner, Kathryn Lardizabal, and James G. Metz
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Simmondsia_chinensis_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:04 PM]
And NewCROP has outside links to other Jojoba info sources:

Photographs of Jojoba.
The History and Promise of Jojoba By Gary Tremper
Jojoba Growers and Processors, Inc.
2267 S. Coconino Dr.
Apache Junction, Arizona USA
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Simmondsia_chinensis_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:04 PM]
Golden Groundsel
Golden Groundsel
Senecio aureus L.
Other common names.Life root, golden ragwort, swamp
squawweed, coughweed, grundy-swallow.
Habitat and range.Golden groundsel is found in swamps and
meadows from Newfoundland to Ontario, and Missouri, Florida, and
Texas.
Golden
groundsel
Figure 55.Golden groundsel
(Senecio aureus)
Description.This plant is a smooth herb with rather slender, solitary or tufted stems one-half to
2 1/2 feet high. The basal leaves, which are 1 to 6 inches long, are heart-shaped or kidney-shaped
with long stems and often purplish beneath. The lower stem leaves are lance-shaped and deeply
out and the upper most small and clasping. The flower heads, from two-thirds of an inch to about 1
inch broad, consisting of disk and deep yellow ray flowers, are borne several in a flat-topped open
cluster during the early summer.
Part used.The herb and the root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/groundsel.html [5/16/2004 4:01:20 PM]
Solidago odora
Solidago odora Schoepf.

Goldenrod, Blue mountain tea, Sweet
goldenrod
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Solidago_odora_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:21 PM]
Hydrastis canadensis
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Ranunculaceae
Goldenseal
Commercial Production of Ginseng and GoldensealL.P. Stoltz
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hydrastis_canadensis_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:21 PM]
Gourds
Gourds
Sing kwa, Luffa, Dishcloth gourd, Strainer vine, Chinese okra, Vegetable
sponge, California okra
Cucurbitaceae Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb., L. cylindrica (L.) Roem,
Lagenaria sp.
Plants are running vines, similar to cucumber and melon. Leaves are rounded. Fruits are strongly
ribbed, elongated, pyriform or cylindrical in shape, 1 foot or more in length, gourd-like.
Sometimes young fruits are consumed as cooked vegetables. When ripe shell is hard and interior is
fibrous, sponge-like, and inedible.
Season, seeding to harvest as vegetable: 3 or 4 months.
Production in U.S.: No data. Very limited.
Use: Immature fruits as cooked vegetable.
Part of plant consumed: All of young fruits.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Gourds.html [5/16/2004 4:01:22 PM]
Lycium chinense
Lycium chinense Mill.

Solanaceae
Gow kee, go qi zi, wolfberry,
martimony vine
Chinese Medicinal Herbs: Opportunities for Domestic ProductionLyle E. Craker and Jean
Giblette
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lycium_chinesne.html [5/16/2004 4:01:23 PM]
Punica granatum
Index| Search| Home
Punica granatum L.
Punicaceae
Chinese apple, Dalima, Granada, Grenade,
Grenadine, Melograno, Pomegranate
NewCROP has Pomegranate information at:
PomegranateJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Outside links:
POMEGRANATE "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the California Rare
Pomegranatefrom Mark Reiger, Dept of Horticulture, University of Georgia.
Pomegranate Information from the University of California Fruit & Nut Research and Information
Center
Nutritional information on Pomegranate from Freida's Inc.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Punica_granatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:24 PM]
Passiflora species
Passiflora species Passifloraceae

There are over 60 true species with edible fruits - promising interspecific
hybrids also exist.
(Those listed with green type have cultivated

varieties)
Passiflora adenopoda Granadilla de monte

P. alata Fragrant Granadilla, Maracuja grande
P. ambigua Granadilla de monte
P. ampullacea White-flowered Tacso
P. antioquiensis Banana passionfruit
P. caerulea Blue-crown passionflower
P. coccinea Red Granadilla
P. cumbalensis Red Banana Passionfruit
P. edulus Sims Purple passionfruit, Purple granadilla
P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg. Yellow passionfruit, Yellow granadilla
P. exoniensis
P. herbertiana Austrailian passionfruit
P. incarnata Maypop
P. laurifolia Yellow Granadilla, Jamaica honeysuckle
P. ligularis Sweet Granadilla, Sweet Passionfruit
P. maliformus Sweet Calabash, Chulupa
P. manicata
P. mixta Curuba de Indio
P. mollissima Bananapassionfruit, Tacso
P. platyloba Acid granadilla
P. quadrangularis L. Giantgranadilla
P. rubra Pomme de liane zombie
P. seemannii Guate-guate
P. serrato-digitata Tagua-tagua
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Passiflora_spp_nex.html (1 of 3) [5/16/2004 4:01:24 PM]
Passiflora species
P. suberosa Cork-stem Passionfruit

P. trifoliata
P. tripartita Tacso
P. trisecta
P. vitifolia Grape-leaf passionfruit
P. warmingii Maracuja mirim
NewCROP has Passion Fruit information at:

Passionfruit Julia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Golden Berry, Passionfruit, and White Sapote: Potential Fruits for Cool Subtropical
AreasRichard McCain
MaypopSievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, Washington
DC.
Outside links:
Passionfruit can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
Curuba Passiflora mollissima
Sweet Grandilla Passiflora ligularis
Columbian Passionfruit Passiflora antioquiensis
Curubejo Passiflora popenovii
Galupa Passiflora pinnatistipula
Chulupa Passiflora maliformis
Rosy Passionfruit Passiflora cumbalensis
Passiflora schlimiana
Passiflora ampullacea
Passiflora tripartita
Passiflora mixta
Passiflora ambigua
Passiflora mandonii
Passion Fruit "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Ethnobotanical and phytochemical information on Passiflora spp.
Passiflora species
The Passiflora Discussion Group:

Send an email message to BIHOREL@cris.com, put the word PASSIF in the subject line, in the
message portion of the letter, put the word SUBSCRIBE your name.
Grape, American
Grape, American
Slip skin grape
Vitaceae Vitis sp., mostly V. labrusca L.
These are grape varieties developed in whole or in part from species
indigenous in this country. They are hardier and more disease resistant
than the Old World grape, and are grown at least in home gardens in all
mainland states except Alaska. Plants are perennial and long-lived vines,
in commerce supported on trellises. Fruit is produced in bunches.
Individual berries, from 0.5 inch to near 1 inch diameter, vary in shape
from oval to slightly oblate and in color from green to red or black. Skin
is thin and waxy, and separates readily from pulp, hence the name "slip
skin." Fruits generally contain contain 2 to 4 seeds.
Production in U.S.: About 300,000 tons commercially; extensively grown in home plantings.
Use: Fresh, juice, wine, jelly and jam.
Part of fruit consumed: Generally pulp only, but skin included by some people when eating
fresh, or is separated from the pulp in the mouth.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/GrapeAmerican.html [5/16/2004 4:01:26 PM]
Grape seed oil
Grape seed oil

Vitaceae Vitis sp.
Large quantities of grape seeds are available from grapes processed for wine,
seeded raisins and grape juice. The seeds, up to 0.5 inch long, are enclosed near the center of the
fleshy pulp. They contain about 12 percent of a drying oil. The oil is obtained by expression or
with solvents. The oil, after refining, is used mainly for edible purposes. Oil from raisin grape seed
is used for coating the raisins to improve appearance and keep them pliable. Grape seed oil is also
used in industry.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Grape_seed_oil.html [5/16/2004 4:01:26 PM]
Lathyrus sativus
Lathyrus sativus L.
Leguminosae
Grasspea, Chickling pea, Indian vetch
(UK and N. America), Almorta (Spain), khesari or
Batura (India), Alverjas (Venezuela), Gilban
(Sudan), Guaya (Ethiopia), Matri (Pakistan),
Gesette (France), Pisello bretonne (Italy).
Outside Links
Grass peaby Clayton G. CampbellLink to the publication on the International Plant Genetic
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Lathyrus_sativus_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:27 PM]
Garlic, Great-headed
Garlic, Great-headed
Elephant garlic
Amaryllidaceae Allium ampeloprasum L. (Great-headed garlic group)
Plants have appearance of very robust garlic plants. Great-headed garlic forms large flower heads
which usually lack bulblets. It may produce a cluster of several cloves similar to garlic, or a single
massive bulb, with small bulblets around its main bulb. The bulb flavor is intermediate between
onion and garlic. Cultural practices are similar to those for garlic. The bulbs are developed entirely
underground. Great-headed garlic is grown in many home gardens, but rarely as a commercial
crop.
Season, setting to harvest: About 8 months.
Production in U.S.: No data separate from garlic. Mainly in home gardens.
Use: Culinary, and as part of stews and soups.
Part of plant consumed: Bulb only. Last update February 18, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/GreatHeadedGarlic.html [5/16/2004 4:01:27 PM]
Green needlegrass
Green needlegrass
Feather bunchgrass
Gramineae Stipa viridula Trin.
This native bunchgrass is most abundant on the upland prairie and ranges of the Northern Plains. It
frequently invades abandoned cropland. It grows on most soil types but thrives best on sandy soils.
It grows up to 3 feet. Leaves are mostly basal, up to 12 inches long and 0.5 inch wide. Seed spikes
have bent awns about an inch long but are less troublesome to livestock than those of
Needle-and-thread grass. Growth starts early in the spring and continues through summer when
moisture is available. The grass is palatable and nutritious and makes excellent hay. It also cures
well on the ground so is useful for winter grazing. It is useful for revegetation as seedlings are
vigorous and drought resistant. Seed of some improved varieties is available.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Green_needlegrass.html [5/16/2004 4:01:28 PM]
Grewia asiatica
Grewia asiatica L.
Tiliaceae
Phalsa, Pharsa
PhalsaJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Phalsa: A Potential New Small Fruit for GeorgiaAnand K. Yadav
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Grewia_asiatica_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:29 PM]
Grindelia camporum
Grindelia camporum
Asteraceae
Gumweed
FactSHEET contributed by: Steven P. McLaughlin
Schneiter
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Grindelia_camporum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:30 PM]
Gum Plant
Gum Plant
Grindelia robusta Nutt.; (2) G. squarrosa (Pursh)
Dunal.
Other common names.(2) Broad-leafed gum plant, scaly grindelia.
Habitat and range.The gum plant (Grindelia robusta) grows in California,
while the broad-leafed gum plant (G. squarrosa) is more widely distributed,
being of common occurrence on the plains and prairies from Saskatchewan to
Minnesota and south to Texas and Mexico.
Description.The name " gum plant " is applied especially to Grindelia
robusta on account of the fact that the entire plant is covered with a resinous
substance, giving it a gummy, varnished appearance. It is an erect herb with a
round, smooth stem about 1 1/2 feet in height. The leaves, about 1 inch in
length, are green, leathery, rather rigid, and covered with resin. The plant
branches freely near the top, each branch terminating in a yellow flower about
three-fourths of an inch in diameter.
The broad-leafed gum plant, Grindelia squarrosa, is similar to G. robusta,
except that it is smaller and less gummy in appearance. The leaves are much
smaller and thinner and less rigid.
Part used.The leaves and flowering tops of both species, collected when
the plants are in full bloom.
Figure
59.Broad-leafed
gum plant (Grindelia
squarrosa)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/gumplant.html [5/16/2004 4:01:31 PM]
Physalis ixocarpa
Physalis ixocarpa Brot.

Solanaceae
Tomatillo, Chinese lantern, fresadilla, green
tomato, husk tomato, jamberry, Mexican green tomato, husk
tomato, jamberry, Mexican green tomato, Mexican husk tomato,
miltomate, tomate de bolsa, tomate de cascara, tomatillo
enteros, tomatillo ground cherry, tomatitos verdes, tomatl,
tomatoe verde
Tomatillo: A Potential Vegetable Crop for LouisianaD.N. Moriconi, M.C. Rush, and H. Flores
Tomatillo Julia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Food and feed crops of the United StatesMagness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971
Tomatillo production links (see bottom of page)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Physalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:31 PM]
Ground-Ivy
Ground-Ivy
Nepeta hederacea (L.) Trev.
Synonym.Nepeta glechoma Benth.; Glecoma hederacea L.
Other common names.Field balm, gill-over-the-ground, gill,
creeping Charlie, robin-runs-away, cat's-foot.
Habitat and range.Ground-ivy is found in dams and shady places,
especially in thickets, from Newfoundland and Ontario to Georgia,
Tennessee, Kansas, and Colorado.
Figure 58.Ground-ivy
Description.This small herb has numerous creeping, leafy, hairy
(Nepeta hederacea)
stems sometimes 18 inches long, commonly branching at the base.
The opposite leaves are round kidney-shaped, bluntly toothed, green on both sides, and one-half to
1 1/2 inches in diameter. The stems of the lower leaves are commonly longer than the leaves. The
blue and white tube-shaped flowers are borne, few in a cluster, in the axils of the leaves from
March to May.
Part used.The herb.

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/ground-ivy.html [5/16/2004 4:01:32 PM]
Inga spp.
Inga spp.
Fabaceae
James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
Inga edulis
Inga vera
Outside links:
Pacay (Ice-Cream Beans) can be found in Lost Crops of the Incas from National Academy Press
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Inga_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:33 PM]
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)

Benth.
Mimosaceae
Guamachil, Manila tamarind
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Often planted for living fence or thorny hedge, eventually nearly impenetrable, guamachil
furnishes food, forage, and firewood, while fixing a little nitrogen. The pods, harvested in Mexico,
Cuba, and Thailand, and customarily sold on roadside stands, contain a thick sweetish, but also
acidic pulp, eaten raw or made into a drink similar to lemonade. Pods are devoured by livestock of
all kinds; the leaves are browsed by horses, cattle, goats, and sheep; and hedge clippings are often
gathered for animal feed. The plants withstand heavy browsing. The seeds contain a greenish oil
(20%), which, after refining and bleaching, can be used for food or in making soap. The presscake,
rich in protein (30%), may be used as stockfeed. Bark used as a fish poison in the Philippines
(Perry, 1980). Known in the Philippines as "Kamachil", the wood, malodorous when cut, is used
for boxes, crates, fuel, and wagon wheels. The gum exuding from the trunk can be used for
mucilage, the tannin for tanning. The bark is harvested for tanning in Mexico. Tree seems
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pithecellobium_dulce.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 4:01:34 PM]
promising for the cultivation of the lac insect. Flowers make good honey.
Folk Medicine
Reported to be abortifacient, anodyne, astringent, larvicidal, guamachil is a folk remedy for
convulsions, dysentery, dyspepsia, earache, leprosy, peptic ulcers, sores, toothache, and venereal
disease (Duke and Wain, 1981). The bark of P. avaremotem, the "avaremo-temo" from Brazil, is a
folk cancer elixir (Hartwell, 19671971).
Chemistry
The fruit, more probably the aril, is reported to contain, per 100 g, 78 calories, 77.8% water, 3.0%
protein, 0.4% fat, 18.2% total carbohydrate, 1.2% fiber, 0.6% ash, 13 mg Ca, 42 mg P, 0.5 mg Fe,
19 mg Na, 222 mg K, 15 mg -carotene equivalent, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 0.60 mg
niacin, and 133 mg ascorbic acid. The essential amino acids in the aril are 143 mg/100 g valine,
178 lysine, 41 phenylalanine, and 26 tryptophan. An Indian aril (60% of the pod) contained 21.0
mg Ca/100 g, 40.0 Mg, 58.0 P, 1.1 Fe, 3.7 Na, 377 K, 0.6 Cu, and 109 S. As calcium pectate,
pectin occurs as 0.96% of the sugars (mostly glucose) analysis of the aril (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
The whole fruit, with husk and seeds (58% refuse) contains 33 calories, 32.7% moisture, 1.3 g
protein, 0.2 g fat, 7.6 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 5 mg Ca, 18 mg P, 0.2 mg Fe, 8
mg Na, 93 mg K, 5 mcg -carotene equivalent, 0.10 mg thiamine, 0.4 mg riboflavin, 0.2 mg
niacin, and 56 mg ascorbic acid (Leung et al, 1972). Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 13.5
g H2O, 17.7 g protein, 17.1 g fat, 41.4 g starch, 7.8 g fiber, 2.6 g ash. On alcoholic extraction, the
seeds yield a saponin, a sterol glucoside, a flavone, and lecithin. The fatty acid composition of the
seed is 24.3% saturated acids, 51.1% oleic, and 24.0% linoleic. Hager's Handbook (List and
Horhammer, 19691979) reports 0.3% caprylic, 0.3% caprinic, 0.3% lauric, 0.8% myristic, 12.1%
palmitic, 6.9% stearic, 3.1% arachidic, 13.1% behenic, 4.9% lignoceric, 32.2% oleic, and 26.0%
linoleic acids in the fatty acids. Further listed is a saponin containing oleanolic- and echinocytic
acids, with the sugar sequence xylose, arabinose, and glucose; also pithogenin, (C28H44O4),
hederagenin and sodium nimbinate (which latter two are said to be antiarthritic and antiedemic in
rats). Wax, hexacosanol, L-proline, L-leucine, L-valine, and asparagine, are also reported from the
fruit, leucoro-binetinidin, leucofisetinidin, and melacacidin from the wood. After extraction of ca
20% edible oil, the seed cake, with 29.7% protein, can be used as animal feed. Bark contains up to
37% of a catechol type tannin. Bark also yields a yellow dye and 1.5% pectin. It is said to cause
dermititis and eye inflammation. According to Roskoski et al (1980), studying Mexican material,
the seeds contain 14.00% humidity, 2.66% ash, 25.69% CP, 8.12% EE, 22.16% CF, 26.97%
carbohydrates with a 80.84% in vitro digestibility. The foliage contains 6.46% humidity, 15.34%
ash, 17.17% CP, 6.83% EE, 3095% CF, 23.25% carbohydrates, and 71.46% in vitro digestibility.
For comparison, the Wealth of India reports (ZMB): 29.0% CP, 4.4% EE, 17.5% fiber, 43.6%
NFE, 5.6% ash, 1.14% Ca, and 0.35% P. The manurial value of dry leaves is 4.91% N, 0.78%
P2O5, 1.04% CaO, and 2.67% K2O. The antitumor compound, -sitosterol (perhaps ubiquitous),
and campesterol, stigmasterol, and -spinasterol occur in the heartwood (C.S.I.R., 19481976).
Description
A large, nearly evergreen tree that grows up to 20 m or more in height, Manila tamarind has a
broad crown (to 30 m across) and a short bole (to 1 m thick). At the base of each leaf is normally
found a pair of short, sharp spines, though some specimens are spineless. (NAS, 1980a).
Germplasm
Reported from the American Center of Diversity, guamachil, or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate
drought, heat, poor soil, salt, sand, and shade. (2n = 26).
Distribution
Native to Mexico through Central America to Colombia and Venezuela. Introduced in southern
Florida, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and St. Croix. Widely planted and naturalized in tropical
regions, including the Old World (Little and Wadsworth, 1964). Listed as a common weed in
Hawaii.
Ecology
Ranging from Tropical Desert (along water courses) to Moist through Subtropical Desert to Moist
Forest Life Zones, guamachil is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.4 to 22.0 dm (mean
of 43 cases = 14.7), annual temperature of 18.0 to 27.9C (mean of 37 cases = 25.4), and pH up to
8.3 (Duke, 1978, 1979). Occurs up to 1,800 m in Mexico and 1,500 m in Burundi. Suitable for
most dry regions, it is drought resistant, in low rainfall areas developing an extensive root system.
In Burundi it grows well at 800 m elevation and 600 mm, spread evenly year-round. In southern
Florida rainfall averages 1,650 mm or more. It has great adaptability and grows on most soil types,
including clay, oolitic limestone, and rather barren sands. It can also be found in wet sands that
have a brackish water table (NAS, 1980a).
Cultivation
Reproduces easily by seeds or cuttings. For hedges, seeds may be sown in site, spaced 15 cm apart
in two rows 30 cm apart.
Harvesting
Cut as needed for fuel, the tree has a fast rate of growth, coppices vigorously and can withstand
"any amount of pruning, lopping, or browsing by animals." (C.S.I.R., 19481976).

In favorable soils and climates, the Manila tamarind may reach a height of 10 m in 5 or 6 years
(NAS, 1980a). With no specific data available, I project that well established trees would produce
forage somewhere between 620 MT/ha/yr, the 6 projected for Prosopis tamarugo and the 20 for
Leucaena, by Felker (1981). Pod yields, according to my visual estimation, should approach those
of Prosopis juliflora, a rather productive legume.
Energy
The reddish-brown wood is usually hard, heavy, and strong, though it is also brittle and rather
difficult to cut. It is used (in India, Africa, and America) as a fuel, but smokes condiserably and is
not best quality. Calorific value, 5,2005,600 kcal per kg. In parts of India it is used as fuel for
brick kilns (NAS, 1980a).
Biotic Factors
Normally pest damage is insignificant; can become affected by leaf spot diseases, Phyllosticta
inga-dulcis and Colletotrichum sp., and a number of defoliating and boring insect pests. It is a
favorite host of the thornbug. (NAS, 1980a). The nematode Meloidogyne is reported as a pest in
Florida, the twig blight Phomopsis sp., the leaf spot Phyllosticta pithecolubis in Texas and Puerto
Rico, Physalospora fusca and Physalospora rhodina in Florida, the wood rot Polyporus gilvus in
Hawaii. Since several rhizobial cultures from guamachil failed to nodulate on several other taxa,
this species was considered highly selective. Other tests with Baptisia, Crotalaria, and Dalea
incurred nodulation (Allen and Allen, 1981). Browne (1968) lists: Fungi. Corticum salmonicolor,
Phyllosticta ingae-dulcis. Coleoptera. Celosterna scabrator, Sternocera sternicornis. Hemiptera.
Kerria lacca, Nipaecoccus vastator. Lepidoptera. Cryptophlebia illepida, Eucosma stereoma,
Euproctis scintillans, Hypanartia hecabe, Macroplectra nararia.
References
vols. New Delhi.
17(34):91110.
Paullinia cupana
Paullinia cupana H.B.K.

Sapindaceae
Guarana
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Paullinia_cupana_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:34 PM]
Psidium guajava
Psidium guajava L.
Myrtaceae
Guava, Brazilian guava, Common guava Goyave,
Guayaba, Guinea guava, Guyaba, Lemon guava, Montain guava,
Purple guava, Waiawi-'ula'ula
NewCROP has Guava information at:
GuavaJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
Guava Production in Georgia under Cold-protection StructureUmedi L. Yadava
And outside links to more Guava info:
GUAVA "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare Fruit
Commodity Sheet FVSU-003 Guava from Fort Valley State University
NewCROP also has information on a related Psidium species:
Psidium angulatum, Araca-Pera
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Psidium_guajava_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:35 PM]
Parthenium argentatum Gray

Guayule
NewCROP has Guayule information at:
Germplasm Use in Arid Lands Industrial CropsDennis T. Ray and David A. Dierig
Interspecific Hybridization Between Parthenium argentatum Gray and Parthenium
lozanianumAlfonso Lpez Benitez, F. Ramirez, S. Kuruvadi, and F. Borrego
Facultative Apomixis in Guayule as a Source of Genetic DiversityDennis T. Ray, David A.
Dierig, and Anson E. Thompson
Improved Guayule Germplasm for Domestic Production of Natural RubberA. Estilai and J.G.
Waines
Guayule: A Source of Natural RubberDennis T. Ray
Hypoallergenic Guayule Latex: Research to CommercializationKatrina Cornish and Deborah J.
Siler
Engineering New Sources of Domestic Natural RubberKatrina Cornish, Zhiqang Pan, and Ralph
A. Backhaus
Purification of Hypoallergenic Latex from GuayuleKatrina Cornish and Jenny L. Brichta
Relationship Between Guayule Biomass Production, Rubber Synthesis, and Climatic
ConditionsJos Luis Angulo-Snchez, Diana Jasso de Rodrguez, and Ral Rodriguez-Garca
Guayule Production: Rubber and Biomass Response to IrrigationRal Rodrguez-Garca, Diana
Jasso de Rodrguez, and Jos Luis Angulo-Snchez
Identification of Guayule Regions in Northern Mexico, Based on Rubber Yield and Coproducts
QualityDiana Jasso Cant, Jos Luis Angulo Snchez, and Ral Rodriguez Garca
Evaluation of Rubber and Resin Content in Lines of Guayule Collected from Nuevo Leon
Province in MexicoSathyanarayanaiah Kuruvadi, Alfonso Lpez Benitez, and F. Borrego
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Parthenium_argentatum_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:36 PM]
Rubber and Resin Content in the Bark and Wood Portions of the Root Stem and Branches in
GuayuleSathyanarayanaiah Kuruvadi and Diana Jasso de Rodriguez
Interspecific Hybridization Between Parthenium argentatum Gray and Parthenium
lozanianumAlfonso Lpez Benitez, F. Ramirez, S. Kuruvadi, and F. Borrego
Salt Tolerance in Relation to Ploidy Level in GuayuleAli Estilai and Michael C. Shannon
Growth of Direct Seeded and Transplanted Guayule SeedlingsJames L. Fowler and Robert
Tinguely
Impact of Seeding Rate and Planting Date on Guayule Stand Establishment by Direct Seeding in
West TexasMichael Foster, Greg Kleine, and Jaroy Moore
In Vitro Characterization of Apomictic Reproduction in GuayuleRoy N. Keys, Dennis T. Ray,
and David A. Dierig
Coates
Commercializing Promising TechnologiesPaul F. O'Connell
White
Perspective from an Independent Industrial Consulting CompanyR. Martin O'Shea
And outside links to more Guayule info:
Guayule from the USDA Agriculture Research Service
Domestic Production of Natural Rubber WRRC Discovery Center
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Parthenium_argentatum_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:36 PM]
Gymnema sylvestre
Gudmar or Merasingi (Gymnema

sylvestre R. Br.)
contributor.
Gudmar or Merasingi (Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.)

English Name: Periploca of the woods, Small Indian ipecacuanha
Common (Indian) Name:
Hindi: Gudmar, Merasingi
Canarese: Sanngera, Sannagerse
Gujrati: Mardashingi
Marathi: Bediki, Kavali, Vakundi
Sanskrit: Mehashingi, Meshavalli, Vishani
Family: Asclepiadaceae
Botany: Much branched large woody climber, young stems are densely pubescent. Leaves Opposite, Ovate, elliptic, base rounded or cordate . Flower - in Cymes; C. - Companulate; yellow,
corona of 5 processes; Fruits - Follicle, lanceolate, usually single; Seeds - with thin marginal wing;
flowering time in Indian conditions - April - May.
Habitat: In India naturally occur in monsoon forests.
Useful parts: Whole plant
Medicinal Properties: According to Ayurveda, it is bitter, acrid, cooling, tonic, alterative,
anthelmintic, alexeritic. It cures eye complaints, burning sensation, biliousness, bronchitis, ulcers,
asthma etc. The plant has been used to treat diabetes in India for 2,000 years by traditional
medicinal practioners, but interest in its properties waned during the British colonial period when
western rather than traditional therapy was official patronized by the government, as well as
diminished with the advent of insulin. Leaves possess special feature. The leaves when chewed,
have remarkable property of paralysing the taste glands for few hours against sweet and bitter
taste.
Chemical Constituents: The leaves contain pentriacontane, hentriacontane, phytin, a and b
chlorophylls, resin, tartaric acid, formic acid, butyric acid, mucilage, inositol, gymnemic acid and
antheraquinone. The plant is reported to content alkaloids, betain, choline and trimethylamine in
the leaves
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/gymnema.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:36 PM]
Gymnema sylvestre
Cultivation: Gymnema is under cultivation as medicinal crop in fairly large areas, in different parts
of India. Standard cultivation practices for commercial cultivation has yet not been developed.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/gymnema.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:36 PM]
Pachira aquatica
Pachira aquatica syn. Bombax

glabra
Bombaceae
Malabar Chestnut, Guiana Chestnut, Saba Nut
NewCROP has links to Malabar Chestnut information at:
MALABAR CHESTNUT "FRUIT FACTS" (Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the
California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits, including
Image of fruit & flower of Malabar Chestnut (from University of Hawaii http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/bombac.htm)
last update June 10, 1997
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pachira_aquatica_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:37 PM]
Panicum maximum
Panicum maximum L.
Poaceae
Guineagrass, Hamilgrass
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Panicum_maximum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:38 PM]
Guizotia abyssinica
Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.)

Cass.
Asteraceae
Niger
Nigerseed: Specialty Grain Opportunity for Midwestern USJ. Quinn and R.L. Myers
Outside Links:
NigerGuizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.Link to the publication on the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute web site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Guizotia_abyssinica_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:01:38 PM]
Witch-Hazel
Witch-Hazel
Hamamelis virginiana L.
Other common names.Snapping hazel, winterbloom, wych-hazel,
striped alder, spotted alder, tobacco wood.
Witch-hazel
Figure 122.Witch-hazel
(Hamamelis virginiana)
Habitat and range.The home of this native shrub is in low damp

woods from New Brunswick to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas
Description.Witch-hazel, while it may grow to 25 feet in height, more frequently reaches a

height of only 8 to 15 feet. It has a crooked stem and long forking branches with smooth, brown
bark. The leaves are from 3 to 5 inches long, thick, and borne on short stalks. A peculiar feature of
the plant is the lateness of the threadlike, yellow flowers, which do not appear until late in autumn
or in early winter after the leaves have fallen. The seed capsule does not mature until the following
season, when it bursts open, scattering the shining black, hard seeds with great force and to a
considerable distance.
Part used.The leaves, twigs, and bark, collected in autumn. These contain a volatile oil the
distillation of which for the production of witch-hazel extract b; a well-developed industry in
southern New England.*
*Information on the extraction of volatile oils from plants is contained in the following
publication: Sievers, A.F. Methods of extracting volatile oils from plant material and the
production of such oils in the United States. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 16, 36 p. illus. 1928.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/witchhazel.html [5/16/2004 4:01:54 PM]
Hemsl.
Pittosporaceae
Petroleum nut (English) Hanga (Philippine)
1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Description
5. Germplasm
6. Distribution
7. Ecology
8. Cultivation
9. Harvesting
11. Energy
12. Biotic Factors
13. References
Uses
Called petroleum nut because of the fancied resemblance of the odor of the fruit's oil to that of
petroleum, the fruits, even green ones, burn brilliantly when ignited. Hence they are used like torch
nuts or candlenuts for illumination in the bush. Dihydroterpene (C10H18) is used in perfumes and
medicines. Heptane (C7H16) is a component of gasoline, and has been suggested as a possible
component of paint and varnish (Anonymous, 1981c).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pittosporum_resiniferum.html (1 of 5) [5/16/2004 4:01:55 PM]
Folk Medicine
Fruit is used as a panacea by Philippine traditionalists, especially, however, for abdominal pain.
The oleoresin is used to treat muscular pains and skin diseases (Perry, 1980). The nut decoction is
used for colds. Crushed nuts are mixed with coconut oil as a relief for myalgia. Altschul (1973)
quotes from a 1947 Sulit herbarium specimen, "Petroleum gas extracted from the fruit is medicinal
for stomachache and cicitrizant."
Chemistry
The volatile oil of the fruit is reported to contain "dihydroterpene and heptane, which is a cardiac
glycoside." (Perry, 1980). The Horticultural and Special Crops Laboratory at Peoria analyzed an
accession of fruit, and identified, from its "squeezings", constituents passing through a gas
chromatographic column, heptane (about 45% of the elutents) nonane, -pinene or -ocimene,
-pinene, myrcene, and unidentified materials. According to Nemethy and Calvin (1982) the
essential oil (8-10% of fruit weight) contains myrcene (40%) and -pinene (38%) in equal
quantities (P. undulatum's contains mostly limonene). The two components n-heptane (5%) and
n-nonane (7%) are minor components.
Description
Aromatic tree to 30 m tall, but probably smaller in its elfin forest habitat (perhaps even epiphytic);
fruiting when only 612 m tall. Leaves aromatic, coriaceous, entire (possibly evergreen), thickest
above the middle, pinnately nerved, with a short acumen at the tip. Flowers fragrant, white,
clustered on the stems. Fruits average 25 mm in diameter (1243). Each fruit has 572 seeds
(average 31), the seeds ranging from 140 mm, averaging 3 mm. The seeds are about as close to
hexahedral and prismatic as any I have seen, being quite angular, black to blackish gold, often still
surrounded by a gummy or resinous endocarp.
Germplasm
The FORI Director in the Philippines is actively collecting superior germplasm in the high
mountains of Bontoc and Benguet where they abound, especially in elfin forests.(2n = 24)
Distribution
In the Philippines, petroleum nut is locally known in Benguet as apisang, abkol, abkel, and langis;
in the Mountain Province, dael and dingo, and in Abra, sagaga. It abounds in Mt. Pulis, Ifugao,
and is reported from the headwaters of the Agno and Chico River Basins. Also in the Bicol
Provinces, Palawan, Hindoro, Nueva Ecija, and Laguna Provinces. It is being cultivated at FORI's
Conifer Research Center, Baguio City.
Ecology
Petroleum nut is reported to range from 6002,400 m elevation, usually in elfin or Benguet Pine
Forest. Average of 7 climatic data sites where the Pittosporum grows, was close to 1,000 m, the
range from ca 550 to 2,000 m. Whether or not it can stand frost, dry heat, and drought is
questionable. Frequently, species of elfin forests have very narrow ecological amplitudes and do
not thrive in other vegetation types. Results of transplants and trials are unavailable to me now.
Reportedly seed were introduced once, at least to Hawaii. Thanks to Professors Ludivina S. de
Padua, S.C. Hales, and Juan V. Pancho of the Philippines, we now have a fairly good idea of the
ecosystematic amplitudes of the Pittosporum, an energy plant that has captured the imagination of
many. Professor de Padua checked off all the climatic data points (from our climatic data base) at
which Pittosporum resiniferum was growing, prior to its widespread introduction for potential
energy studies elsewhere in the Philippines. Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through
Subtropical Forest Life Zones, the petroleum nut grows where the annual precipitation ranges from
15 to more than 50 dm (mean of 36 cases = 27 dm), annual temperature from 1828C (mean of
17 cases = 26C). Of 17 cases where both temperature and rainfall data were available to us, 13
would suggest Tropical Moist Forest Life Zone, three would suggest Tropical Dry, and one would
suggest Subtropical Rain Forest Life Zones.
Cultivation
Seeds and cutting can be used to propagate the tree. Seeds may lose their vitality rather rapidly.
According to Juan V. Pancho (personal communication, 1982), "from my experience, the seed lost
its viability after one month storage."
Harvesting
Currently, seeds are harvested from the wild.

A single fruit yields 0.13.3 ml, averaging about 1.3 ml. In general, the bigger the fruit, the larger
the seed, and the greater the oil content (Veracion and Costales, 1981). It is reported (Anonymous,
1981) that a single tree from Mount Mariveles, Bataan, yielded 15 kg green fruits, which yielded
80 cm3 of oil. The residue, ground up and distilled with steam, yielded 73 cm3 more. Another
report gave 68 g per kg fresh nuts, suggesting about 1 kg oil per tree yielding 15 kg (Anonymous,
1981c). Currently seed are being sold at $2.00 per gram in 5-gram lots (ca 40 seed per g) by the
FORI Seed Officer, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines.
Energy
The plant was discovered as a hydrocarbon source just after 1900, but based on the previous
paragraph, it seems it would take 1,000 trees per ha to get one MT oil per hectare from the fruits.
Perhaps the resin in the leaves, twigs, etc. would equal or exceed this; figures are not yet available.
The oil derived from the fruits is quite sticky and rapidly turns resinous when laid thin. In an open
dish, it burns strongly, although with a sooty flame (Anonymous, 1981). C.A. Arroyo (1981) notes
that for home use as fuel, "the husk of African oil palm nuts could be much better than the
petroleum nut that emits sooty smoke and strong smell." Recently, I heard rumors that President
Marcos was encouraging each Philippine farmer to plant five trees in the hopes that they could
obtain 300 liters of oil therefrom, per year. I saw nothing about this at the Philippine exhibit at the
World's Fair in June 1982. However, if yields of 60 liters of oil per tree are possible, the tree
should certainly be examined! In the January 1981 issue of Canopy, Generalao (1981) lists
petroleum nut at the top of a long list of potential oil seeds including Pongamia pinnata, Sterculia
foetida, Terminalia catappa, Sindora supa, Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium luzonicum,
Aleurites moluccana, Aleurites trisperma, Mallotus philippensis, Barringtonia asiatica, Sindora
inermis, Pithecellobium dulce, Tamarindus indica, Chisocheton cumingianus, Jatropha curcas,
and Euphorbia philippensis to help the Philippines solve their energy problem (importing 85%).
Presidential Decree 1068 declares the imperative acceleration of research on energy alternatives.
Speaking in that same issue of Canopy, an editorial notes that in 1978 FORI concluded the
flammable element in petroleum nut is volatile, evaporating quickly like acetone. Some chemists
believe admixing another element will stabilize the compound. One seed catalog (Anonymous, ca
1983) has very optimistic notes about the plant. "The Gasoline Tree produces masses of
apricot-sized orange fruits which when cut and touched with a match leap into flame and burn
steadily. The fruits contain 46% of gasoline type components (heptane,dihydroterpene, etc.),
which are found in extensive networks of large resin canals. If planted the estimated yield would
be about 45 tons of fruit or 2500 gallons of 'gasoline' per acre per year."
Biotic Factors
No data available.
References
Altschul, S. von R. 1973. Drugs and foods from little-known plants. Harvard Univ. Press.
Cambridge, Mass. 366 p.
Anon. 1981c. Here comes (again). Canopy International 7(1):6.
Anon. ca 1983. Hurov's tropical seeds. Catalog 34.
Arroyo, C.A. 1981. Fuel for home use. Canopy International. 7(7):15.
Generalao, M.L. 1981. Those seemingly insignificant plants. Canopy International 7(1):6.
Veracion, V.P. and Costales, E.F. 1981, The bigger, the more. Canopy Int. 7(6):1981.

Hardinggrass
Hardinggrass
Gramineae Phalaris stenoptera Hack.
This is a cool-season grass, native to Africa, but brought to the United States
from Australia in 1914. It is a long-lived bunchgrass with short, stout rhizomes. It is adapted to
mild climates with winter rainfall and thrives best on heavy soils. It is the most widely adapted
range grass in California but is grown only sparingly in other areas of the Southwest. Where
adapted, forage yields are high and quality is good.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Hardinggrass.html [5/16/2004 4:01:55 PM]
Helianthus annuus
Helianthus annuus L.
Sunflower, common sunflower, giant sunflower,
prairie sunflower, single-headed sunflower
NuSun Sunflower Oil: Redirection of an IndustryLarry W. Kleingartner
Grain Yield and Fatty Acid Composition of Sunflower Seed for Cultivars
Developed Under Dry Land ConditionsDiana Jasso de Rodrguez, Bliss
S. Phillips, Ral Rodrguez-Garca, and Jos Luis Angulo-Snchez
Characterization of Proteins from Sunflower Leaves and Seeds:
Relationship of Biomass and Seed YieldDiana Jasso de Rodrguez, Jorge
Romero-Garca, Ral Rodrguez-Garca, and Jos Luis Angulo Snchez
Potential Source of Reduced Palmitic and Stearic Fatty Acids in Sunflower
Oil From a Population of Wild Helianthus annuusG.J. Seiler
Sunflower: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension
Products
Sunflower In: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle, C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and Feed Crops of the
United States.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Helianthus_annuus_nex.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:57 PM]
Helianthus annuus
Outside links:
Sunflower: An American Native University of Missouri Agricultural
publication G4290
Photographs from University of Minnesota Center for Alternative Plant & Animal
Products.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Helianthus_annuus_nex.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:01:57 PM]
Hemlock
Hemlock
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.
Synonym.Abies canadensis Michx.
Other common names.Hemlock spruce, weeping spruce, spruce pine,
tanbark
Habitat and range. The hemlock tree is found in forests from Ontario
south to Virginia and Alabama and west to Michigan and Wisconsin.
Description.This tall forest tree, which at times attains a height of 110
feet and a trunk diameter of 4 feet, is well known throughout its range as
a source of tanbark. Its lower branches are somewhat drooping, and the
dense, rather delicate foliage is deep green above and silvery beneath.
The flat, narrow leaves are from one-half to three-fourths of an inch long
and less than one-twelfth of an inch wide. The hanging cones are as long
as or slightly longer than the leaves.
Part used.The bark.
Figure 61.Hemlock
Sievers, A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ. No. 77. USDA, (Tsuga canadensis)
Washington DC.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/hemlock.html [5/16/2004 4:01:57 PM]
HENNA
HENNA
Family: Lythraceae, (Lawsonia inermis L.)
Henna, Lawsonia inermis L., a perennial shrub native to northern Africa, Asia, and Australia, is
naturalized and cultivated in the tropics of America, Egypt, India, and parts of the Middle East.
Also known as El-Henna, Egyptian priest, and mignonette tree, the species is sometimes classified
as Lawsonia alba Lam. or Lawsonia ruba. Reaching a height of up to 6 meters, the plant has
fragrant white or rose-red flowers.
The reported life zone of henna is 19 to 27 degrees centigrade with an annual precipitation of 0.2
to 4.2 meters and a soil pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (4.1-31). Henna is planted today primarily as an
ornamental hedge, but is probably best known for the dried, ground leaves (called henna)
traditionally used to produce colorfast orange, red, and brown dyes. Dried, powdered leaves of
henna contain about 0.5 to 1.5 percent lawsone, the chief constituent responsible for the dyeing
properties of the plant (1.1-273, 14.1-35). Henna also contains mannite, tannic acid, mucilage,
gallic acid, and napthaquinone (7.6-192).
The leaves of henna have been used in Asia since antiquity as a hair, nail, and skin dye. In the
West and the Middle East, henna is used in hair shampoos, dyes, conditioners, and rinses. Henna
dye products are mixed with indigo or other plant material to obtain a greater color range. Extracts
of henna are also used to stain wood and to dye fabrics and textiles.
As a medicinal plant, henna has been used for astringent, antihemorrhagic, intestinal
antineoplastic, cardio-inhibitory, hypotensive, and sedative effects (7.6-192, 11.1-154). It has also
been used as a folk remedy against amoebiasis, headache, jaundice, and leprosy (11.1-154). Henna
extracts show antibacterial, antifungal, and ultraviolet light screening activity (1.8-169,
7.2-21,14.1-21, 14.1-35). Henna has exhibited antifertility activity in animals and may induce
menstruation (7.5-76, 11.1-154).
The dried leaf and petiole of henna are generally recognized as safe when used as a color additive
for hair (21 CFR section 73.2190[1982]).
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/HENNA.html [5/16/2004 4:01:58 PM]
Liverleaf
Liverleaf
(1) Hepatica americana Ker.; (2) H. acutiloba DC.
Other common names.(1) Round-leaved hepatica, common
liverleaf kidney liverleaf, liverwort (incorrect), noble liverwort, heart
liverwort, three-leaved liverwort, liverweed, herb trinity, golden
trefoil, ivy flower, mouse-ears, squirrel cup; (2) heart liverleaf,
acute-lobed liverleaf, sharplobe liverleaf, sharplobe hepatica.
Habitat and range.The common liverleaf is found in woods from
Nova Scotia to northern Florida and west to Iowa and Missouri, while
the heart liverleaf occurs from Quebec to Ontario, south to Georgia
(but rare near the coast), and west to Missouri and Minnesota.
Description.The hepaticas are among the earliest of our spring
flowers, blossoming about March and frequently sooner. They grow
only about 4 to 6 inches in height, with leaves produced from the
Figure 73.Liverleaf
rootstocks on soft, hairy stalks spreading on the ground. The thick and (Hepatica americana)
leathery evergreen leaves are roundish or kidney-shaped. The bluish to purple or white flowers are
about half an inch in diameter and are borne singly on slender, hairy stalks arising from the root.
The heart liverleaf is very similar to the common liverleaf, but has sharp leaf lobes while those of
the common species are very blunt.
Part used.The leaves of both species, collected in April.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/liverleaf.html [5/16/2004 4:01:59 PM]
Phleum pratense
Phleum pratense L.
Syn.: Phleum nodosum L.
Poaceae
Timothy, Herdgrass
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Phleum_pratense_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:00 PM]
Hesperaloe sp.
Hesperaloe sp.
Agavaceae
FactSHEET contributed by: Steven P. McLaughlin
Development of Hesperaloe Species (Agavaceae) as New Fiber CropsSteven P.McLaughlin
Domestication of Hesperaloe: Progress, Problems, and ProspectsSteven P. McLaughlin
New Arid Land Ornamentals: Recent Introductions for Desert LandscapesJanet H. Rademacher
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hesperaloe_sp_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:00 PM]
Hevea brasiliensis
Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae
Rubber
Surfactant Treatment Reduces Both Allergen Content and Cure Efficiency of Hevea LatexW.W.
Schloman, Jr.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hevea_brasiliensis.html [5/16/2004 4:02:01 PM]
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Malvaceae
Indian sorrel, Jamaican sorrel, Java jute, Red
sorrel, Roselle, Rozelle, Sorrel
RoselleJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
Effect of Nitrogen Nutrition on RoselleE.G. Rhoden, P. David, and T. Small
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hibiscus_sabdariffa_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:01 PM]
Hibiscus spp.
Hibiscus spp.
Malvaceae
Hibiscus
Extraction of Lipid Components from Seeds of Perennial and Woody Hibiscus species by
Supercritical Carbon DioxideR.A. Holser and G.A. Bost
Analyses for Flavonoid Aglycones in Fresh and Preserved Hibiscus FlowersLorraine S.
Puckhaber, Robert D. Stipanovic, and Georgia A. Bost
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hibiscus_spp.html [5/16/2004 4:02:02 PM]
Hippophae rhamnoides
Index| Search| Home
Hippophae rhamnoides L.
Elaeagnaceae
Sea buckthorn
Sea Buckthorn: New Crop OpportunityThomas S.C. Li
DNA Analysis as a Tool in Sea Buckthorn BreedingN. Jeppsson, I.V. Bartish, and H.A. Persson
Product Development of Sea BuckthornThomas S.C. Li
Heavy Metal Accumulation in Sea Buckthorn Cultivars in SiberiaWudeneh Letchamo, Roman
Klevakin, and Irina I. Lobatcheva
Evaluation of Siberian Sea Buckthorn Cultivars in Washington StateI.I. Lobatcheva, W.
Letchamo, L. Huszar, S.A. Muchortov, N.N. Malkova, E.I. Panteleeva
Outside links:
Sea-Buckthorn: A Promising Multi-Purpose Crop for Saskatchewan
Sea Buckthorn Production in Manitoba
Shelterbelt Varieties for Alberta - Sea Buckthorn
Okanagan Sea Buckthorn
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hippophae_rhamnoides_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:02 PM]
Marrubium vulgare
Marrubium vulgare L.
Horehound, Hoarhound
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Marrubium_vulgare_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:03 PM]
Panicum miliaceum
Index| Search| Home
Panicum miliaceum L.
Poaceae, or Graminae, Tribe Paniceae
Proso Millet
NewCROP has Proso Millet information at:
Foxtail and Proso MilletD.D. Baltensperger
Millets: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of
Minnesota Extension Service, Center for Alternative Plant &
Animal Products
And outside links to more Proso Millet info:
Panic grasses from Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains
Ecofarming: No-till Ecofallow Proso Millet in Winter Wheat Stubble. From the University of
Nebraska.
Millet Production Guide by: R. D. Baker, Extension Agronomist, New Mexico State University.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Panicum_miliaceum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:03 PM]
Brassica rapa 'Tyfon'
Tyfon, or Holland Greens

Brassica rapa 'Tyfon'
Source: Cornucopia, a Source Book of Edible Plants, by Stephen Facciola, 2nd ed., Kampong
Publications, Vista, California. 1992.
Tyfon, or Holland greens
is a hybrid between
Chinese Cabbage
(Brassica rapa
Pekeninensis Group) and
stubble turnip (Brassica
rapa Rapifera Group).
Tyfon is rapid growing
and vigorous...extremely cold-hardy and also slow to bolt. Several foliage harvests can be made by
repeated cuttings. Mild in flavor, Tyfon can be eaten fresh as a salad green, or as a cooked
pot-herb, just as collard or mustard greens.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/crops/Brassica_rapa_tyfon.html [5/16/2004 4:02:05 PM]
Amaranth, Chinese
Amaranth, Chinese
Hon-toi-moi, Tampala, Chinese spinach
Amaranthaceae Amaranthus tricolor L.
Several species of Amaranthus are cultivated in
Southwest Asia and to a limited extent by Chinese
gardeners in the U.S. Plants are annuals, grown
from seed, and leaves and young stems are used as
pot herbs. Mature plants are 1 to 3 feet tall, with
leaves 6 inches long. For use as pot herbs, young
plants may be pulled at 3 to 4 weeks; or the tops
may be cut off at that stage, and a second crop will
be produced from lateral growth. Plant growth and
parts used are similar to spinach.
Season, seeding to harvest: 3 to 6 weeks. A second crop may be reduced.
Production in U.S.: No data. Mainly by Oriental gardeners for Chinese users.
Use: Cooked as a pot herb.
Part of plant consumed: Young stems and leaves.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/AmaranthChinese.html [5/16/2004 4:02:06 PM]
Prosopis spp.
Prosopis spp.
Fabaceae
Algarroba, Fremont screwbean, Honey locust,
Mesquite, Screwbean, Screwbean mesquite, Screwpod
mesquite, Tornillo, Velvet mesquite, Western honey mesquite
James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
Prosopis alba
Prosopis chilensis
Prosopis cineraria
Prosopis glandulosa
Prosopis juliflora
Prosopis pallida
Prosopis tamarugo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Prosopis_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:07 PM]
Hophornbeam
Hophornbeam
Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch.
Other common names.Ironwood, deerwood, leverwood, black
hazel, Indian cedar
Habitat and range.The ironwood is common in rich woods in
Canada and the eastern United States, and westward to Minnesota and
Texas.
Description.This slender tree sometimes attains a height of 50 feet
in the western portion of its range, but farther eastward it usually
grows only 15 to 20 feet high. The bark is finely furrowed in short
lines lengthwise, and the wood is very hard and heavy. The leaves are
from 2 1/2 to 4 inches long and about an inch or more wide,
resembling the leaves of the sweet birch except that they are rough to
the touch instead of smooth and shining. The green inconspicuous
male and female flowers are produced from April to May. The male Figure 64.Hophornbeam
(Ostrya virginiana)
flowers are borne in cylindrical catkins from l 1/2 to 3 inches long and
the female flowers in short catkins which mature in July and August into large fruiting cones
which very much resemble hops.
Part used.The bark and inner wood.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/hophornbeam.html [5/16/2004 4:02:08 PM]
Humulus lupulus
Humulus lupulus L.
Cannabinaceae
Hops, Common hops, Hop plant
Hop: Alternative Field Crops Manual, University of Wisconson Cooperative Extension Service,
Outside sources and links:
Humulus Accessions available through the National Germplasm Repository, Corvallis, Oregon.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Humulus_lupulus_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:08 PM]
Hoptree
Hoptree
Ptelea trifoliata L.
Other common names.Waferash, ptelea, wingseed, shrubby trefoil,
swamp dogwood, three-leaved hoptree, ague bark, prairie-grub,
quinine tree, stinking ash, stinking prairie-bush, sang-tree,
pickaway-anise.
Habitat and range.This native shrub is found in shady woods from
New York to Florida and west to Minnesota and Texas, occurring in
greatest abundance west of the Alleghenies.
Description.The hoptree is a shrub usually from 6 to 8 feet,
sometimes 20 feet, in height, with leaves consisting of three dark
green, shining leaflets 2 to 6 inches long. The leaves are glandular
dotted and are borne on long stems, but the leaflets are stemless. The
Figure 65.Hoptree (Ptelea
greenish-white flowers, produced in June, are borne in compound
trifoliata)
clusters at the end of the stems. Both leaves and flowers have an
unpleasant odor. The flowers are followed by large clusters of winged, flat, roundish fruits each
containing two seeds. They have a bitter taste.
Part used.The bark of the root.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/hoptree.html [5/16/2004 4:02:09 PM]
Barley
Barley
Gramineae Hordeum sp.
Barley is the fourth most important grain crop in the United States. Acreage
planted in 1966 and 1967 averaged about 10.6 million, with an average yield for the two years of
381.7 million bushels.
Barley is one of the most ancient of cultivated grains. Grains found in pits and pyramids in Egypt
indicate that barley was cultivated there more than 5000 years ago. The most ancient glyph or
pictograph found for barley is dated about 3000 B.C. Numerous references to barley and beer are
found in the earliest Egyptian and Sumerian writings.
The origin of barley is still not known. There are differing views among researchers as to whether
the original wild forms were indigenous to Eastern Asia, particulariy Tibet, or to the Near East or
Eastern Mediterranean Area, or both. Possibly in a crop so long cultivated this can never be
resolved with certainty. J. R. Harlan, in U.S.D.A. Handbook 338, Barley: Origin, Botany, Culture,
Winterhardiness, Genetics, Utilization, Pests, summarizes the evidence for different viewpoints.
Species and Characteristics of Barley
Three species of Hordeum constitute the barleys under cultivation.
They are derived species, not known as such in nature. All have 14 cbromosomes in the diploid
stage and inter-cross readily. They are characterized as follows:
Hordeum vulgare L. These are 6-rowed barleys with a tough rachis or spike stem. All florets are
fertile and develop normal kernels. Within the species are two groups: (1) The typical group in
which lateral kernels are only slightly smaller than the central one. (2) The intermediate group in
which lateral kernels are distinctly smaller than central ones. This group may contain kinds with
sterile or near sterile lateral spikelets. The two groups may overlap and are not fully distinct.
Hordeum distichon L. This species is the 2-rowed barleys with a tough rachis. The central
spikelets all contain a fertile flower, while flowers in the lateral spikelets are either male or sexless.
Two groups of varieties occur: (1) The typical 2-row group, with lateral flowers containing lemma,
palea and reduced sexual parts. (2) The deficiens group, with lateral flowers containing no sexual
parts.
Hordeum irregulare E. Aberg and Wiebe. This is an irregular barley with a tough rachis, but with
lateral flowers reduced in some instances to a stem piece only; and others fertile, sterile or sexless.
Central spikelets contain fertile flowers and set seeds.
A number of species of Hordeum are native in various parts of the world. Hitchcock (Manual of
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Barley.html (1 of 4) [5/16/2004 4:02:10 PM]
Barley
Grasses of the United States, Ed. 2, U.S.D.A. Misc. Pub. 200, 1951) lists 11 species of barley
grasses as occurring in the United States. None of the native species is in cultivation.
Barley plants are annual grasses which may be either winter annuals or spring annuals. Winter
annuals require a period of exposure to cold in order to produce flowers and set seeds, thus are
planted in the fall. They form a rosette type of growth in fall and winter, developing elongated
stems and flower heads in early summer. If seeded in the spring they fail to produce seed heads.
Winter varieties form branch stems or tillers at the base so several stems rise from a single plant.
The winter varieties of barlev are more hardy than winter oats, but somewhat less hardy than
winter wheat. Around a fourth of the barley grown in the United States is of winter varieties.
Spring varieties do not require exposure to cold in order to devlop seed heads. Also, they do not
have a typical rosette stage and so develop fewer tillers than winter varieties. They are the only
kind adapted to areas with very cold winters. For best production they should be seeded as early as
land can be worked in the spring.
The stems of both winter and spring varieties may vary in length from 1 to 4 feet, depending on
variety and growing conditions. Stems are round, hollow between nodes, and develop 5 to 7 nodes
below the head. At each node a clasping leaf develops. In most varieties the leaves are coated with
a waxy chalklike deposit. The density of this varies, and in some varieties no waxiness is present
and leaves are glossy. Shape and size of leaves varies with varietv, growing conditions, and
position on the plant.
The spike, which contains the flowers and later the mature seeds, consists of spikelets attached to
the central stem or rachis. Stem intervals between spikelets are 2 mm. or less in dense headed
varieties and up to 4 to 5 mm. in lax or open headed kinds. Three spikelets develop at each node
on the rachis. Barley varieties are classed as 2-row or 6-row. In 2-row varieties only the central
spikelet develops a fertile flower and seed. In 6-row varieties all three of the spikelets at each node
develop a seed.
Each spikelet has two glumes rising from near the base. These are linear to lanceolate and flat and
terminate in an awn. The glumes minus the awn are about half the length of the kernel in most
varieties, but this varies from less than half to equal to the kernel in length. Glumes may be
covered with hairs, weakly haired or hairless. The awns on the glumes may be shorter than the
giume, equal in length or longer. The glumes are removed in threshing.
The barley kernel consists of the caryopsis, or internal seed, the lemma and palea. In most barley
varieties the lema and palea adhere to the caryopsis and are a part of the grain following threshing.
However, naked or hutless varieties also occur. In these the caryopsis is free of the lemma and
palea and threshes out free as in wheat. This type is grown mainly where barley is used for human
food and is rarely found in the United States.
The lemmas in barley are usually awned. Awns vary from very short up to as much as 12 inches in
length. Edges of awns may be rough or "barbed" (bearded) or nearly smooth. Awnless varieties are
also known. In 6-row barley awns are usually more developed on the central spikelets than on the
lateral ones.
The barley kernel is generally spindle shaped. In commercial varieties grown in the United States
length ranges from 7 to 12 mm. Kernels from 2-rowed varieties are symmetrical. In 6-rowed
Barley
varieties the third of the kernels from the central spikelets are symmetrical, but the two-thirds from
lateral spikelets are twisted. The twist is most apparent at the attachment end, less conspicuous at
the terminal. The dorsal surface of kernels is smooth, the ventral surface grooved.
The period from flowering until barley is ready for harvest may vary from 40 days to as long as 55
days, varying with varieties and climatic conditions.
Cultivated Variety Groups
Some 150 varieties of barley are cultivated in the United States, many on a minor scale. Varieties
are constantly changing as new ones are devloped and tested while others pass out of cultivation.
These varieties fall into four general groups, as follows:
Manchuria - OAC 21 - Aderbrucker Group- These are 6-rowed, awned, spring-type varieties
with medium sized kernels. The type is believed to have come originally from Manchuria. Plants
are tall with open or lax, nodding heads. They tend to shatter badly in dry climates. These are
grown mainly in the upper Mississippi Valley and are extensively used for malting.
Coast Group. These varieties trace to North African ancestry and are grown in California and
Arizona, also in the Inter-Mountain Region. They are 6-rowed, awned, with large kernels, and
short to medium length stems. Spikes are medium to short, dense and generally held erect to
semierect. They mature early and are not prone to shatter. They have a spring growth habit but
may be fall or winter seeded in California and Arizona where winters are mild.
Tennessee Winter Group. Varieties of this group trace to the Balkan-Caucasus Region or Korea.
They are 6-rowed, avrned, with mid-long lax spikes which tend to nod. Plants are medium tall, of
winter habit. These varieties are fall seeded and are grown in the southeastern quarter of the United
States.
Two-rowed Group. This group includes types tracing to Europe and Turkey--the Turkish type
being adapted to areas with marginal rainfall. Varieties in this group are grown principally in the
Pacific and InterMountain States and to some extent in the Northern Great Plains. Varieties are
mainly spring type though 2-rowed winter varieties are known. Some varieties are used mainly for
malting, others for feed.
Uses of Barley
Half or more of the barley grown in the United States is used for livestock feed. As feed it is nearly
equal in nutritive value to kernel corn. It is especially valuable as hog feed, giving desirable
portions of firm fat and lean meat. The entire kernel is used in feed, generally after grinding or
steam rolling. Malt sprouts from malting as well as brewers grain--byproducts of brewing--are also
valuable livestock feeds.
Around 25 percent of the barley crop is used for malting in the United States. Of the malted barley
some 80 percent is used for beer, around 14 percent for distilled alcohol products, and 6 percent
for malt syrup, malted milk and breakfast foods. For malting, the barley is steeped in aerated water
in large tanks for 45 to 65 hours, then transferred to germinating tanks or compartments where it is
held with intermittent stirring for 5 to 7 days at temperatures of 60-70F. During this treatment
root sprouts emerge, but not the stems. This "green" malt is then dried in hot air kilns. For making
Barley
beer the dried malt is crushed between rollers, mixed in proper proportions with slightly warm
water, and held under rigidly controlled temperatures. The starch is converted by enzymatic
reaction into maltose and dextrins. Proteins are also broken down by enzyme action. Upon
completion of this process the solids settle out, the extract is filtered, then boiled with hops to add
flavor, then cooled. Yeast is added to ferment the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The hop
residue and proteins are then removed and the product (beer) is aged, chilled, filtered, pasteurized
and bottled. Keg beer is similar but is not pasteurized or bottled. The solids from this process
(brewer's grain) are a valuable livestock feed.
Barley for human food is made into pearl barley by using abrasive disks to grind the hulls and bran
off the kernels. Alter three successive "Pearlings" or grinding operations all the bull and most of
the bran is removed. At this stage the remaining kernel part is known as pot barley. Two or three
additional pearlings produce pearl barley, in which most of the embryo is removed. These later
pearlings also produce barley flour. Pot and pearl barley are used in soups and dressings. The flour
is used in baby foods and breakfast cereals, or mixed with wheat flour in baking.
Barley is also grown as a hay crop in some areas. For hay, only smooth-awned varieties or awnless
are used. Winter barley also may be pastured moderately before the stems start to elongate. It
furnishes nutritive pasturage, and grain yields are not seriously reduced.
Horse Nettle
Horse Nettle
Solanum carolinense L.
Other common names.Sand brier, bull nettle, radical-weed,
tread-softly, apple of Sodom.
Habitat and range.The horse nettle is found in dry, sandy soil from
Ontario to Illinois and Massachusetts, Florida, and Texas.
Description.This plant is easily recognized in late summer and fall
by its round, smooth, orange-yellow berries about one-half to
three-fourths of an inch in diameter which are borne in small drooping
clusters. It is an herb 1 to 4 feet high with an erect, branched stem and
covered with fine hair. The branches, also the petioles and midveins of
the leaves, are armed with straight yellow prickles. The leaves are 2 to
6 inches long with rather deep triangular lobes. From May to
September the plant produces violet or white flowers about 1 to 1 1/4
inches broad.
Figure 67.Horse nettle
Part used.The ripe berries, carefully dried.
(Solanum carolinense)
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/nettle.html [5/16/2004 4:02:11 PM]
Smooth Hydrangea
Smooth Hydrangea
Hydrangea arborescens L.
Other common names.Wild hydrangea, sevenbark.
Habitat and range.Hydrangea frequents rocky river banks and
ravines from the southern part of New York to Florida and westward
to Iowa and Missouri being especially abundant in the valley of the
Delaware and southward.
Description.Hydrangea is a shrub 5 to 6 feet high with weak twigs,
slender leaf stems, and thin leaves, the latter 3 to 6 inches long, oval or
heart-shaped, and sharply toothed. The flowers, which are small and
greenish white, are produced from June to July in loose, broad
clusters. Sometimes the plant will flower a second time early in the
fall. The stem has a peculiar tendency to peel off in several successive
layers of thin, different-colored bark, hence the name "sevenbark."
The root is roughly branched and when fresh is very juicy, but when Figure 97.Smooth
hydrangea (Hydrangea
dry it is very hard and tough.
arborescens)
Part used.The root, collected in autumn. On account of its toughness when dry the root should
be cut in short pieces while fresh and then dried.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/hydrangea.html [5/16/2004 4:02:12 PM]
Hylocereus sp.
Hylocereus sp.
Cactaceae
Pitaya
Pitayas (Genus Hylocereus): New Fruit Crop for the Negev Desert of IsraelEran Raveh, Julia
Weiss, Avinoam Nerd, and Yosef Mizrahi
Nerd
Climbing and Columnar Cacti: New Arid Land Fruit CropsYosef Mizrahi and Avinoam Nerd
New Fruits for Arid ClimatesYosef Mizrahi, Avinoam Nerd, and Yaron Sitrit
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hylocereus_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:13 PM]
Hypericum perforatum
Hypericum perforatum L. Per.

Hypericaceae
St. John's Wort, Great
Saint-John's-wort
Biochemical and Eco-physiological Studies on Hypericum spp.T.B. Kireeva, U.L. Sharanov,
and W. Letchamo
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hypericum_perforatum_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:13 PM]
Hyssopus officinalis
Hyssopus officinalis L.
Hyssop
last update December 31, 1997 by aw
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Hyssopus_officinalis_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:14 PM]
Mat

Mat
(Ilex paraguariensis)
The author of this chapter is G.C. Giberti (Centre of Pharmacological and Botanical Studies, Buenos
Aires, Argentina).
Botanical name: Ilex paraguariensis A. St-Hil. var. paraguariensis

Family: Aquifoliaceae
Common names. English: mat, Brazilian tea, Paraguay tea: Guarani: ka'a; Kaingangue: kong:
Spanish: yerba mat, t de los jesuitas: Portuguese: congonha, erva mat
Mat, with a very restricted distribution outside America, is a tree that produces a raw material for
industrialization and consumption as a stimulating infusion. So far, this has been the main use of
this somewhat overlooked crop.
Although no archaeological remains have been found that show that it was used in pre-Columbian
times. it is assumed that it was the Guarani Indians who taught the Spanish how to use it.
However, what seems to be an indirect consequence of the discovery is the fact that the first people
to have cultivated this species were the Jesuit missionaries who, around 1670, already had artificial
mat plantations. In time, the settlements of Guarani Indians converted to Christianity were to
become economically dependent on mat production.
The expulsion of the Jesuits from the Spanish dominions (1767) was a step backwards in the
history of mat. There was a return to the forest exploitation method which utilized the natural
mat plantations exclusively and inadequately. It may be said that this type of laborious and
uneconomical forest management extended up to the first decades of the twentieth century, in spite
of mat planting having been renewed in Nueva Germania, Paraguay and in Santa Ana, Argentina,
in 1897.
Although very much reduced, mat production did not disappear with the Jesuit plantations.
During the remainder of the colonial period, the use of this herb, which had spread extensively,
persisted even in the region of the Viceroyalty of Peru, where there was another methyl xanthine
stimulant of the same genus: Ilex guayusa Loes. emend. Shemluck, also marketed by the Jesuits
from that region in Quito.
It has been established that trade in mat was not interrupted and that it was commonly used in
what is now Peru and Ecuador. However, following the independence of the Spanish colonies and
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html (1 of 8) [5/16/2004 4:02:42 PM]
Mat
the adoption of free trade, English tea began to be introduced into those countries and so mat
gradually lost the markets of those Andean countries.
The decline and complete disappearance of the mat plantations in the settlements of Christianized
Indians (which ended around 1820 after a series of wars waged in the region between the Spanish
and Portuguese Crowns, followed by the struggles for independence) and the policy of isolation
and control of international trade maintained by the first governor of independent Paraguay meant
that, in the 1820s, Brazil began commercial exploitation of its natural mat plantations.
The most accessible plantations were situated in the vicinity of Curitiba, Paran, and as they were
slowly exhausted they were gradually replaced by the others located towards the west. The
Brazilian product, which then began to spread on the markets as "Paranagua mat", was considered
to be of inferior quality to that from Paraguay. However, in the course of time it replaced the
Paraguayan product, a development which became more marked after the war of the Triple
Alliance ( 1870).
At the end of the nineteenth century, the limitations of the exhaustive exploitation of this forestry
resource stimulated efforts to produce large plantations of I. paraguariensis once again.
Eventually. these efforts were successful, especially in Argentina.
At the same time as the increase in Argentinian mat production, the extraordinary expansion of
the agricultural frontiers in traditional mat-growing states of southern Brazil (Paran, Santa
Catarina. Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso do Sul) took place. Regrettably, the disappearance of
enormous areas of natural forests in those states jeopardized the conservation of mat's genetic
richness.
The complicated economic history of this crop (barely sketched out here) which is characterized
by periods of scarcity alternating with periods of excessive demand, the sporadic but real existence
of periods during which it was adulterated with other plants and the most common method of
preparationmat sucked through a small tubeconsidered by many to be unhygienic, had a
bearing on the limited spread of mat outside southern South America.
Its main use is in infusions prepared as tea with leaves and dried stems which have been
industrially shredded. Generally speaking, it is drunk by tilling small gourds (mat gourds or
cuias) with mat. to which boiling water is gradually added, the liquid being sucked up through a
metal tube (the bombilla). Infusions of cimarrn, or bitter mat, are usually modified with sugar
(sweet mat), milk or aromatic herbs. Other methods of consumption are boiled mat, terer (mat
prepared with cold water, common in Paraguay and northeastern Argentina), liqueurs prepared
with mat, ice-creams, desserts, etc. The industry also produces compound mat (which contains
aromatic and/or medicinal herbs), soluble mat and mat teabags.
The aqueous infusion of mat owes its stimulant properties to the caffeine content (between 1 and
2 percent) so that, 60 minutes after consuming mat, an average of 80 to 120 mg of this
pseudoalkaloid is consumed. Its nutritional qualities are due to its content of vitamins A, C and B
complex and the existence of minerals (P, Ca and Fe).
Argentina, the main producer and consumer, grows around 130000 ha of mat in the northeast of
the country (Misiones and Corrientes), which produce about 140000 tonnes per year. Brazil is the
world's second producer, followed by Paraguay. For the Argentinan province of Misiones, mat
Mat
cultivation represents an important part of the country's GDP.
The mat is a dioecious evergreen tree which grows up to 18 m in height. The leaves are alternate,
coriaceous and obovate with a serrate margin and obtuse apex. The inflorescences are in
corymboid fascicles, the male ones in a dichasium with three to 11 flowers, the female ones with
one or three flowers. The flowers are small, and simple, number four or five and have a whitish
corolla. The fruit is in a nucule; there are four or five single seed pyrenes (propagules).
Mat flowers in the spring (from October to November), has entomophilous pollination (diptera,
hymenoptera) and fruits from March to June; dissemination is endozoic (birds). There is a
rudimentary embryo in many externally ripe seeds which causes a long period of germination
From the time of sowing.
Figure 29. A) Mat (Ilex paraguariensis); A1) inflorescence; A2) flower; A3) fruit; A4) gourd and
tube for consuming the infusion

Prominent among the ecological requirements of this subtropical species are climatic conditions,
especially mean annual precipitation and an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year. This
must not be less than 1200 mm annually and, during the driest quarterwhich in the region is
winterthe minimum must be 250 mm. I. paraguariensis' wild distribution area is always
Mat
unaffected by water shortages. The mean annual temperature of the area is approximately 21 to
22C. The absolute minimum temperature that this species is able to tolerate is -6C, even though
winter snows are frequent on the plateaus and mountain regions to the south of Brazil and east of
Misiones.
It requires lateritic, acid (pH between 5.8 and 6.8) soils that are of medium to fine texture.
Figure 30 shows the natural distribution of I. paraguariensis. The area of economic cultivation of
mat coincides approximately with the main dispersion area of the var. paraguariensis.
Figure 30. Distribution area of Ilex paraguariensis var. paraguariensis and var. vestita
Genetic diversity
There is still no exhaustive modern picture that explains in biological terms the infraspecific
variability of this species, which is widely dispersed geographically in South America. Up to the
present, taking as a basis the morphological characteristics alone, at least two varieties are
recognized: I. paraguariensis A. St-Hill var. paraguariensis (cultivated mat, almost completely
glabrous) and I. paraguariensis var. vestita (Reisseck) Loes. (not acceptable for industrialization,
of dense pubescence). Both varieties coexist in limited areas of Brazil.
The wild species closest to I. paraguariensis belong to the subgenus euilex Loes., subsection
repandae Loes. Only I. cognata Reisseck lives in the distribution area of mat. I. cognata is very
Mat
little known; its vernacular name is ch do mato and it is used to adulterate mat.
A number of wild species of Ilex are sympatric with genuine mat and have been, or are, used to
manufacture the product although, up to the present and according to the legislation in force, they
are to be considered adulterations. Of those most frequently referred to, the following deserve
mention: Ilex affinis Gardner (the ca' a chir or congonha of Goyaz, a species abundant in central
Brazil and northeastern Paraguay); I. dumosa Reisseck var. guaranina Loes. (yerba seorita,
aperea ka'a, cauna, ca chiri), native to Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil, the producer of a
bitter-tasting mat and supposedly cultivated in Misiones by the Jesuits to produce their famous
"ca min" mat; I. theezans, C. Martius ex Reisseck (cauna de folhas largas, ca'a na, congonha), a
good substitute for I. paraguariensis, found in Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil. I. brevicuspis
Reisseck, known as cauna or voadeira, like the previous species, is a faithful companion of I.
paraguariensis in plant communities characteristic of the regionwhere Araucaria is also
prominentbut the product obtained from its experimental industrialization is of low quality.
Outside the natural area of distribution and production of mat, in northwestern Argentina and
southeastern Bolivia, Ilex argentina Lillo, a related species that is known not to accumulate
caffeine but theobromine, has been used to prepare mat. It is a tree characteristic of the area of
transition between the forests of Myrtaceae and alder (Alnus spp.) of the phytogeographical
province of the yungas.
Known cultivars of I. paraguariensis. The infraspecific classification of I. paraguariensis is still
under study. Consequently, the correspondence between the biological varieties and the
horticultural varieties of genuine mat is not clear. Following is a list of some of the varieties
recognized as such by growers in the three countries: Erva de talo roxo, Erva de talo branco, Erva
piriquita (Brazil); Ca ver, Ca manduv, Ca panambi, Ca cuat, Ca , Ca et, Ca mi, Ca
chacra, Ca-je-he-ni (Paraguay); Yerba colorada, Yerba seorita, Ca min (Argentina).
INTA in Argentina recently began to distribute seeds of clones and selected clonal progeny which,
following comparative trials, demonstrated their superiority.
In wild South American Ilex species and in the mat-growing region, the risks of genetic erosion
are high because the natural forest is gradually giving way to agroforestry and livestock
production, a process accentuated by the relatively low germinating capacity of many species
(especially that of mat). As no suitable method has yet been discovered for maintaining the
germinating capacity of I. paraguariensis for prolonged periods, there are no seed banks of the
species. Nevertheless, at the Cerro Azul de Misiones experimental agricultural station in
Argentina, a mat clonal garden began to be developed in 1976, complemented by the nursery
started in 1986 with I. paraguariensis of various origins and with other species of Ilex.
In the wide and varied economic production area of mat, the practices for the cultivation or
exploitation of natural mat vary considerably in their technical aspects, resulting in different
yields per hectare.
Three methods of production can be distinguished which are arranged here in increasing order of
importance reflecting the use of techniques and their yields:
Mat
Extractive exploitation of the natural forest. Here the richness of natural mat plantations is
utilized. Harvesting is not mechanized and the pruning system is generally incorrect. This form of
production is diffused mainly in Brazil.
Mixed system or system for the enrichment of the natural forest. This consists of increasing
the number of natural plantations and reconstituting those that have been lost. In Brazil, where this
method is most commonly practiced, it is called densifying the mat plantation. Since, generally
speaking, this technique is accompanied by others that increase the yield, such as cultivation care
and improved pruning methods, the higher production cost is compensated for.
Cultivated mat plantations. This is undoubtedly the best system, and came into general use in
Argentina around 1915. In spite of higher costs, the yield per hectare greatly increases.
Complemented by measures such as improvement in the layout of plantations (which have evolved
from trees planted in quincunxes, with spaced out plants used by Jesuits, to cultivation following
contour lines, with a high density per hectare and use of the corte mesa pruning and plant
management system), with well-timed pruning, cultivation work and harvesting, this system
enabled Argentinian production to exceed that of Brazil, in spite of the former being carried out in
a very reduced area and even outside the environments most suited for mat. For example, rising
from a density of 1000 to 1500 plants per hectare (still fairly widespread) to a density of 2500 or
4000 plants per hectare, production can increase from around 1000 to 1800 kg to 2100 to 3300 kg
per hectare.
The corte mesa system not only increases the yield but is also better suited to mechanical
harvesting.
Yields are improved by: planting following contours; the use of natural or introduced cover (rape,
legumes, etc.); fertilization (NPK); weed control (mechanical and/or using herbicides); suitable
phytosanitary treatments; and rational harvesting. The relevant experiments have been going on for
some years but, regrettably, their results have not become generalized. The introduction into
cultivation of improved cultivars is much less widespread.
Conventional propagation techniques. Sexual propagation ("seeds" = pyrenes). This is the most
common reproduction technique. In the case of mat, the advantage of sexual propagation lies in
the fact that the variability in descendants may give rise to individuals better suited to different
environments (which on other occasions may not be desired).
The seeds are harvested in the region (from February to April). They must be stratified or sown
immediately, otherwise they quickly lose their viability.
Stored at 5C, they maintain a very reduced germinating capacity (1.7 to 6.6 percent) for a further
11 months. The relatively short period of viability together with the low germination rate
(immature embryos, phytosanitary problems) have undoubtedly been the cause of the difficulties
in its cultivation spreading to other continents in the past.
Agamic reproduction. Grafting, propagation by cuttings and layering are not very widespread. It is
relatively difficult to obtain rooted cuttings and this is generally achieved by using young branches
from the stools, irrespective of whether plant hormone treatment is used. Additional experiments
are necessary if the intention is to increase the rooting percentage.
Mat
In vitro cultivation of I. paraguariensis is being tried out in Brazil and Argentina by various
research groups, with varying results which still do not clearly indicate which are the economically
viable techniques for the clonal reproduction of selected individuals.
According to the Under-Secretariat for Agriculture and Livestock, in Argentina in 1988, the
average yield of semi-processed mat was 1220 kg per hectare.

The limitations of cultivation are due to the fact that there is no demand for the product on a
macroeconomic scale. The recurrent cycles of surplus supply, low prices, disinvestment in
plantations, scarcity of raw materials, high pricesvery often linked with international trading
terms between producer countries, which result in a greater distortionhave historically acted
against a stable supply of the product in terms of quality and quantity. Even worse, they have
discouraged the continuation of basic and/or applied research, which cultivation and processing
require. The partial or total absence of knowledge concerning mat biology, plant chemistry,
dietetics, agronomics and industrialization have made it difficult to adopt international standards
which would lay down norms for the quality of the product and improve and guarantee it over
time, depending on its distribution to the major international markets for the production of methyl
xanthine infusions.
Potential areas for the introduction of this crop are subtropical regions with acid soils and a water
supply similar to those of the species' natural area of dispersal.
It has recently been suggested that Ilex verticillata, a North American species, could be a source of
biodegradable detergents because of its high saponin content. Since research regarding similar
subjects is being continued on I. paraguariensis and, furthermore, since other related species are
studied even less than mat from the chemical point of view, it would be advantageous to go into
these aspects more deeply.
Ilex argentina is also a possible caffeine-free mat and is, moreover, remarkable for its richness in
liver-protecting phenolics similar to those in artichokes (Cynara scolymus).
There are also reports of a range of non-traditional uses for I. paraguariensis, for instance as a
source of edible oils, furfural and cosmetics.
Finally, the importance of the wild Ilex species in genetic improvement of the crop should be
mentioned.
Lines of research
Botanical: Infraspecific variability of I. paraguariensis and how it is related to other species

of the genus; an updated chorology; crossing systems of I. paraguariensis and other species
of Ilex; inheritance of sex.
Physiology of the seed and micropropagation methods.
Plant chemistry: Cycle of the xanthines in the species and its relatives; toxic and
undesirable compounds of allied species; analytical determination of the infusion's flavour
Mat
components.
Updating, from the food point of view and with relation to allied species.
Architecture of the individual of I. paraguariensis and of allied species; phenology and
adaptation of these trees to mechanical harvesting.
Industrialization: Improvements in the drying and accelerated seasoning systems without
organoleptic losses; alternative industries with cultivation by-products.
New ways of consuming and presenting the product.
Bibliography
Abbott, T.P. et al. 1990. Major extractable components in Asclepias linaria

(Asclepiadaceae) and Ilex verticillata (Aquifoliaceae), two potential hydrocarbon crops.
Econ. Bot., 44(2): 278-284.
Filip, R. et al. 1989. Estudio de compuestos presentes en Ilex argentina Lillo
(Aquifoliaceae). Anal. Asoc. Quim. Argent., 77(4): 293-297.
Fontana, H.P. et al. 1990. Estudios sobre la germinacin y conservacin de semillas de
verba mat (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.) . Infor. Tcn.. 52: 14. Estacin Exper. Agrop. Cerro
Azul, INTA.
Giberti, G.C.1989. Los parientes silvestres de la yerba mat y el problema de su
adulteracin. Dominguezia, 7(1): 3-21.
Gomez Vara, M.E. et al. 1980. Investigaciones sobre la tecnologa de la yerba mat.
Informe, 4:226. APRYMA.
Grondona, E.M. 1953. Historia de la yerba mate. Rev. Argent. Agron., 20(2): 68-95.
Grondona, E.M. 1954. Historia de la yerba mate. II. Sinonimia, cariologa y distribucin
geogrfica. Rev. Argent. Agron., 21 (1): 9-24.
Linhares, T.1969. Histria econmica do mate. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Editra Livraria Jos
Olympio.
Loesener, T. 1901. Monographia Aquifoliacearum, l. Nola Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol.
German. Nat. Cur., 78: VIII + 600.
Loesener, T. 1942/60. Aquifoliaceae. In H. Harms & Mattfeld, eds. Nat. Pflanzenfam, 2nd
ed., p.36-86. Berlin.
Martnez-Crovetto, R. 1980. Yerba mate: usos no tradicionales y posibilidades. Participar.
2(12): 58-61.
Porto, A. 1943. Histria das Misses orientais do Uruguai, I. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
Ministry of Education and Health.
Prat Kricun, S.D. et al. 1986. Yerba mate: informe de investigaciones realizadas. Perodo
84-85. Misiones, Convenio INTA-CRYM y CRYM-Asoc. Coop. EEA.
Schultes, R.E. 1979. Discovery of an ancient guayusa plantation in Colombia. Harvard
University, Botanical Museum Leaflets, 27(5-6): 143-153.
last update Friday, June 12, 1998 by aw
Common Winterberry
Common Winterberry
Ilex verticillata (L.) A. Gray.
Synonym.Prinos verticillata L.
Other common names.Prinos, winterberry, Virginia winterberry, black
alder, false alder, white alder, feverbush.
Habitat and range.This native shrub is found in swamps, moist woods,
and along banks of streams in Canada and the eastern United States, and
westward to Wisconsin and Missouri.
Description.Common winterberry is a shrub usually from 6 to 8 feet high
(sometimes much higher) with grayish bark and smooth twigs. The leaves
are from 2 to 3 inches long and about an inch wide. They are usually rather
thick and sharply toothed. In autumn the leaves turn black. The flowers
which appear from May to July, are small and white, the male clusters
consisting of 2 to 10 flowers and the female clusters of only 1 to 3. The
bright-red, shining fruits about the size of a pea and each containing about Figure 44.Common
winterberry (Ilex
six seeds, are clustered around the stem. Branches and twigs of this plant
with their bright-red berries are a familiar sight during the Christmas season verticillata)
when they are much used for decorative purposes.
Part used.The bark, and to a less extent the berries, collected in autumn.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/winterberry.html [5/16/2004 4:02:43 PM]
Spondias tuberosa
Spondias tuberosa Arruda.

Anacardiaceae
Umb
ImbuJulia Morton, Fruits of warm climates
last update March 3, 1999 by ch
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Spondias_tuberosa_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:44 PM]
Indian ricegrass
Indian ricegrass
Gramineae Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. and Schult.) Ricker
This is a native bunchgrass distributed from the Dakotas south to Texas and
west to the Pacific Ocean. It is drought-resistant, adapted to dry, sandy soils. The plant grows in
dense clumps, up to 2 feet tall. The leaves are slender and nearly as long as the stems. It is highly
palatable to livestock, both while green in summer and dried in winter. Natural stands in many
areas have been greatly depleted by over grazing. This is an important species for reseeding range
lands. Seeds were formerly used by Indians for grinding into meal and making bread.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Indian_ricegrass.html [5/16/2004 4:02:44 PM]
Indiangrass
Indiangrass
Gramineae Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash ex Small
This is a native bunchgrass with short rhizomes, widely distributed east of the
Rocky Mountains from Canada south to the Gulf of Mexico and into Mexico. Under the best
conditions stems may reach to 10 feet. Leaves are smooth and flat, near a half inch wide,
elongated, narrow at the base. Indiangrass thrives best on fertile bottom soils but also occurs on
sandy soils and dry slopes. It is palatable while succulent but only fairly so when dry. It is most
useful in the Central and Southern Great Plains. Some selected varieties are in commerce.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Indiangrass.html [5/16/2004 4:02:45 PM]
INDIGO
INDIGO
Family: Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Indigofera species
Indigo refers to several species of Indigofera, famous for the natural blue colors obtained from
leaflets and branches of this herb. Of primary importance are French indigo, Indigofera tinctoria
L., and Guatemalan indigo, Indigofera suffruticosa Mill., which was formerly classified as
Indigofera anil L. These plants are perennial shrubs with an erect stem reaching a height of 1 to 2
meters. The French and Guatemalan indigo differ in size and shape of the leaflets and pods
(14.1-3). Prior to the development of synthetic aniline and indigo dyes, the indigo species were
grown commercially in the East Indies, India, and parts of North, South, and Central America for
export and domestic use. Popularity and economic value of the plant reached a peak during the
Middle Ages, when indigo was the most important dye plant for blue color in the western portion
of the world (9.1-5).
The reported life zone of Indigofera tinctoria is 16 to 27 degrees centigrade with an annual
precipitation of 0.7 to 4.2 meters and a soil pH of 5.0 to 7.3 (4.1-31). Indigo is generally grown as
a perennial shrub, although in Morocco it grows as a biennial herbaceous plant (13.1-76).
The blue dyestuff is produced during fermentation of the leaves, commonly with caustic soda or
sodium hydrosulfite. A paste that exudes from fermenting plant material is processed into cakes
and finely ground. The blue color develops as the material is exposed to air (13.1-76). The indigo
dye is a derivative of indican, a natural constituent of several of the Indigofera species (14.1-19).
Indican is enzymatically converted to blue indigotin (14.1-35). The colorfast dye is mixed with
different mordants and other plant materials to produce a wide range of colorants. The species
name tinctoria refers to tinctorius, meaning "of dyes" or "belonging to dyes" (14.1-3). Today
almost all indigo for dyeing cotton and wool is synthesized commercially.
As a medicinal plant, indigo has been used as an emetic. The Chinese use Indigofera tinctoria L.
to clean the liver, detoxify the blood, reduce inflammation, alleviate pain, and reduce fever
(11.1-10). The powdered root of Indigofera cf. patens is used in South Africa to alleviate
toothache (11.1-96). Indigofera spirata is known as a plant teratogen because of the presence of
indospicine (11.1-96). Indigofera endecaphylla plant, creeping indigo, is poisonous and has been
responsible for livestock death (11.1-96). Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich and Indigofera
caroliniana Mill. are used as dye plants (9.1-5).
False, wild, and bastard indigo are names for Baptisia tinctoria L., a native North-American
member of the Leguminosae family, whose leaves, pods, and bark are used to make a blue color.
Medicinally, it is employed as an astringent, emetic, stimulant, and antiseptic. Fake indigo and
Baptisia leucantha are reported to have caused poisonings, diarrhea, vomiting, and loss of appetite
(11.1-96, 11.1-136). Strobilanthes flaccidifolis and Dalea emoryi L., known as indigo bush, have
been used as indigo dye plants.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/INDIGO.html (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:02:46 PM]
INDIGO
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/INDIGO.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:02:46 PM]
Ipomoea aquatic
Ipomoea aquatic Forsk

Syn.: Ipomoea reptans Poir.
Convolvulaceae
Sweetpotato, Camote
Asian VegetablesMas Yamaguchi
M.A. Crossman
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ipomoea_aquatic_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:46 PM]
Ipomoea batatas
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.

Syn.: Ipomoea fastigiata Choisy
Convolvulaceae
Sweetpotato, camote, batata, batata dulce, common potato,
kumara, wild sweet potato
FactSHEETcontributed by: Wanda W. Collins
M.A. Crossman
Sweetpotatoproduction links
The Sweet PotatoHO-136 Purdue University cooperative Extension Service
Outside Links
Sweet PotatoFAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Sweet Potato
site
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Ipomoea_batatas_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:47 PM]
Italian ryegrass
Italian ryegrass
Gramineae Lolium multiflorum Lam.
This is an annual grass from Europe, grown for hay in Oregon and
Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. In the Southern States it is grown as a winter annual
for pasture, hay, silage and as a cover crop. The plant develops rapidly from seed, making a quick
cover suitable for early grazing. It is nutritious and palatable. Many seed sources contain both
Italian and perennial seed. See perennial ryegrass.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Italian_ryegrass.html [5/16/2004 4:02:48 PM]
Myrciaria cauliflora
Myrciaria cauliflora Berg.

Myrtaceae
Jaboticaba, Brazilian grape, Brazilian
grape tree
NewCROP has Jaboticaba information at:
JaboticabasJulia Morton, Fruits of Warm Climates
And outside links to more Jaboticaba info:
JABOTICABA "FRUIT FACTS"(Fruit Facts are a series of publications of the the California Rare
Fruit Growers, Inc. that contain information on individual fruits,including botanical identification,
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Myrciaria_cauliflora_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:48 PM]
Mungesa or Jangli Moong (Phaseolus

trilobatus (L.) Schreb Syn. P. trilobus
Ait)
contributor.
Common Indian Names:

Hindi: Mugani, Mudagparni, Mungawana, Trianguli, Mungesa, Jangli Moong.
Gujrati: Adabanmagi, Adavada, Magavala
Canarese: Kohesaru
Marathi: Ranmath , Ranwum
Saskrit: Koshila, Kurangika, Shimbi parni, Vanmudga
English Name: Wild gram
Family: Leguminosae
Botany: It is a trailing, straggling and suberect annual herb. Leaves are trifoliate, petioles 312 cm
long, stipules peltate, ovate-oblong ciliate, leaflet, palmately trilobed, middle lobe larged and
broadly spathulate, lateral oblong or more or less spathulate. Flowers are in sub-capitate, few
flowered racemes, peduncles 1023 cm long and yellow. Pod up to 5 cm long slightly curved.
Seeds 612. Flowering time in India is OctNov.
Distribution: In India it is found as wasteland and crop fields. Found in all most every part.
Useful parts: Leaves and fruit
Medicinal properties and uses: According to Ayurveda fruit is cooling, dry, bitter, aphrodisiac,
astringent, styptic, anthelmintic and good for the eyes. Cures constipation, inflammations, fever,
burning sensation, thirst, piles, dysentry, cough, gout, biliousness etc. Mungesa is one of the
popular folk remedies in India. In many parts of India, the leaves and its decoction are used in case
of fever and cough. It is also used in eye-diseases.
Besides medicinal uses, Mungesa is also a popular fodder. The paddy workers use the ripe fruit as
breakfast during their field work. Stimulatory allelopathic effects of this weed on many
agricultural crops viz. rice, wheat, chickpea etc have been reported.
Resource Person:
Pankaj Oudhia
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/mungesa.htm (1 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:02:49 PM]

Phone: 91-771-253243
Mobile: 91-98271-15642
Fax: 91-771-536312
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/mungesa.htm (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 4:02:49 PM]
Pueraria lobata
Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi

Fabaceae
Kudzu, Japanese arrowroot
Article from:
Article from:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pueraria_lobata_nex.html [5/16/2004 4:02:49 PM]
Japanese Knotweed
Japanese Knotweed
Jointweed, Mexican Bamboo, Ong Toy
Polygonaceae Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. and Zucc.
Erect unarmed glabrous perennial with round-ovate leaves. The immature stems are edible and
used especially by the Chinese in salads or cooked as a potherb. The long succulent young stems
can be produced in the field or grown under glass. A crop grown under glass is under high
humidity in water saturated soil and harvested continuously. Plants root very rapidly. This is a
close relative to Smartweed.
Production in the U.S.: Limited.
Use: Mainly in salads.
Part of plant consumed: Immature stems.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/JapaneseKnotweed.html [5/16/2004 4:02:50 PM]
Japanese millet
Japanese millet
Japanese barnyardgrass
Gramineae Echinochloa crusgalli var. frumentacea (Roxb.) W.F. Wight
This is a warm season annual grass from Asia grown to a limited extent in the Northeastern States
for green feed, silage and hay. It is superior under cool summers to sudangrass or foxtail millet.
Stems reach to 4 feet or more. Leaves are large, more than 0.5 inch broad. Seed heads are dense
and drooping. once exploited as "a billion dollar grass" it is now grown much less than formerly. It
produces good tonnage but is coarse and only fair in feed value.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Japanese_millet.html [5/16/2004 4:02:50 PM]
Mentha spp.

Crops Fruits of Warm Climates 2004

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Crops Fruits of Warm Climates 2004

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fruits of Warm Climates

Index | Search | Home

Fruits of Warm Climates

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html (2 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:26:49 PM]

Fruits of Warm Climates

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html (3 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:26:49 PM]

Fruits of Warm Climates

Durian and Related Species

Fruits of Warm Climates

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html (5 of 5) [5/16/2004 1:26:49 PM]

Index | Search | Home

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (2 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (3 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (4 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (5 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (6 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (7 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (8 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

Bean, Pea, Navy

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (9 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (10 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (11 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (12 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Indices/index_ab.html (13 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

NewCROP Search Engine

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html [5/16/2004 1:26:51 PM]

Horticulture and Landscape Architecture|Purdue University

order the New Crop Compendium CD-ROM

NewCROP Server Statistics

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html (2 of 2) [5/16/2004 1:26:53 PM]

Index | Search | Home

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (2 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (3 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (4 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (5 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (6 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (7 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

Clover, Yellow-flowered sweet

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (8 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (9 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (10 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (11 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (12 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_cd.html (13 of 13) [5/16/2004 1:26:54 PM]

Index | Search | Home

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (1 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (2 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (3 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (4 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (5 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (6 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

Good King Henry

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (7 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (8 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (9 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_efgh.html (10 of 10) [5/16/2004 1:26:55 PM]

Index | Search | Home

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (2 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (3 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (4 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (5 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (6 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/indices/index_ijkl.html (7 of 7) [5/16/2004 1:26:56 PM]

Index | Search | Home