Trees For Farm Forestry - 22 Promising Species 09-015

Forestry
and Forest
Products
Natural
Heritage
Trust
Helping Communities
Helping Australia
TREES FOR FARM FORESTRY:

22 PROMISING SPECIES
Forestry
and Forest
Products
TREES FOR FARM FORESTRY:

Natural
Heritage 22 PROMISING SPECIES
Trust
Helping Communities
Helping Australia
A report for the RIRDC/

Land & Water Australia/
FWPRDC Joint Venture
Agroforestry Program
Revised and Edited by
Bronwyn Clarke, Ian
McLeod and Tim Vercoe
March 2009
© 2008 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 1 74151 821 0

ISSN 1440-6845
Trees for Farm Forestry: 22 promising species

Publication No. 09/015
Project No. CSF-56A
The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help
improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking
specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.
While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the
Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.
The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors
expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly
from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication,
whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors.
The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication.
This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved.
However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed
to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165.
Researcher Contact Details
Bronwyn Clarke
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products
PO Box E 4008
Kingston ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6281 8211

Fax: 02 6281 8266
Email: ATSC@ffp.csiro.au
In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.
RIRDC Contact Details
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

Level 2, 15 National Circuit
BARTON ACT 2600

PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6271 4100

Fax: 02 6271 4199
Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au.
Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Published in March 2009
ii
Foreword  establishment of a web based national register
of trials
 development of improved climatic profiles

for a range of species
 assessment of the potential productivity of

several of these species across a range of
locations
 research into the suitability of a range of farm

Commercial farm forestry is an increasingly feasible
forestry species for pulpwood, cement board
business option for rural land in many parts of
and oriented strandboard.
Australia. The interest generated by land owner groups
and individuals and supported by government The other publications produced under the project
programs is being translated into on‑ground action are included in ‘related publications’ which follows
at a steadily expanding rate. The knowledge base the Introduction.
supporting this on‑ground action is only just keeping
This project was funded by DAFF and the Natural
pace with the requirements of growers who are new
Heritage Trust, the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program
to forestry activities in areas outside the conventional
(JVAP) and CSIRO. JVAP is supported by three R&D
plantation forestry base.
corporations – Rural Industries Research and
This publication is one of a range of publications Development Corporation (RIRDC), Land & Water
and advisory activities from the project ‘Seed and Australia (L&WA), and Forest and Wood Products
Information Support for Commercial Farm Forestry’, Research and Development Corporation1 (FWPRDC).
which was carried out by staff of CSIRO Forestry The R&D corporations and the departments named
and Forest Products. The objective of the project are funded principally by the federal government.
was to enhance the economic and environmental
This report is an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range
benefits of commercial farm forestry through assisting
of over 1800 research publications. It forms part of
farm forestry growers and investors to select and
our Agroforestry and Farm Forestry R&D program,
make best use of native and exotic species for the
which aims to integrate sustainable and productive
available sites and products required. This objective
agroforestry within Australian farming systems. The
has been achieved through technology transfer,
JVAP, under this program, is managed by RIRDC.
extension of the knowledge base and the use of
enhanced genetic material. Most of our publications are available for viewing,
downloading or purchasing online through our
Activities included:
website:
 provision of high quality source identified
 downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/
seedlots for trial and demonstration plantings
index.html
 workshops on all aspects of establishing and
 purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop
monitoring trials to identify suitable tree species
and provenances for sites and end uses Peter O’Brien
Managing Director
 publication of a manual for establishing field trials
Rural Industries Research
and demonstration plantings for farm forestry
and Development Corporation
 analysis and interpretation of trial data
 provision of the TREDAT tree performance

database software, along with enhancements
to the software for use with non-trial plantings,
and training in its use 1 Now Forest & Wood Products Australia (FWPA)
iii
Acknowledgements John Doran (CSIRO), Alan Brown (CSIRO), Jim Gould
(CSIRO), Tom Jovanovic (CSIRO), Debbie Crawford
(CSIRO), Antoine Kalinganire (CSIRO), Brioni
Brammall (CSIRO), John Larmour (CSIRO), Kron
Aken (CSIRO), Suzette Searle (CSIRO), Maurice
McDonald (CSIRO), Russell Washusen (CSIRO),
David Carr (Greening Australia) and David Lea.
Thank you also to the photographers whose photos
The authors would like to thank the staff of CSIRO appear in this document. In alphabetical order they
Forestry and Forest Products, and in particular the are: Roger Arnold, Doug Boland, Brioni Brammall,
Australian Tree Seed Centre, and partners in all David Bush, Bronwyn Clarke, Peter Clinnick, Ian
states in Australia for information and comments on Dumbrell, Ken Eldridge, Jim Gould, Brian Gunn,
this publication. We would like to make special Chris Harwood, John Larmour, David Lea, Paul
mention of the contribution of David Bush (CSIRO Macdonell, Colin Matheson, Maurice McDonald,
and ALRTIG) whose comments on appropriate and Stephen Midgley, Jock Morse, Ken Robson, Suzette
useful content have greatly enhanced the profiles. Searle, David Spencer, Oliver Strewe and Lex Thomson.
We would also like to extend particular thanks the

following people: Paul Ryan (QFRI), Geoff Dickinson
(QFRI), Seamus Batstone (DPI), Justin Black (PFSQ),
Disclaimer
Daryl Killin (PFNQ), Mila Bristow (QFRI), David Lee While every reasonable effort has been made to
(QFRI), Garth Nikles (QFRI), Ian Johnson (SFNSW), ensure that this document is correct at the time of
Des Stackpole (Forest Science Centre), Rob Willersdorf printing CSIRO does not represent or warrant that
(Gippsland Farm Plantations Inc.), Tim Jackson the information provided in this report is complete
(Pastoral and Veterinary Institute), Frank Hirst (DSE), or accurate for every situation for which it might be
Mick Underdown (ForestrySA), Robert Boardman, used. CSIRO disclaims liability for any loss, damage
Bob Hingston (CALM), Chrissie Rob (CALM), Ian and/or cost incurred by any person or organisation
Dumbrell (CALM), Peter Taylor (Agriculture Western as a result of using the information provided.
Australia), Richard Moore (CALM), Liz Barbour (FPC),
iv
Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Selection of planting material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Why were these species selected for profiles?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General notes on silviculture and planting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Species profiles
1. Acacia mearnsii De Wild.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Araucaria cunninghamii W.T.Aiton ex D.Don. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Corymbia maculata – Spotted gums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5. Eucalyptus cladocalyx F. Muell.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6. Eucalyptus cloeziana F. Muell.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7. Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8. Eucalyptus fraxinoides Deane and Maiden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
10. Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11. Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
12. Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13. Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
14. Eucalyptus pilularis Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15. Eucalyptus saligna Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
16. Eucalyptus sideroxylon and Eucalyptus tricarpa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17. Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
18. Eucalyptus tereticornis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
19. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. subsp. viminalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
20. Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
21. Pinus pinaster Aiton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
22. Pinus radiata D. Don. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
v
Abbreviations
ALRTIG Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group

ATSC Australian Tree Seed Centre (part of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products)
CALM Conservation and Land Management of Western Australia
(now Department of Environment and Conservation)
DBH diameter at breast height i.e. measured at 1.3 metres up the bole of the tree from ground level
DNR Queensland Department of Natural Resources (now split between DPI and NR&M)
DPI Queensland Department of Primary Industries
dS m‑1 decisiemens per metre (units used to measure salinity levels. See ECe below for further information)
ECe electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste which is expressed in units of deciSiemens per metre.
This has been found to be the best way to describe soil salinity. See glossary for ’salinity classes’.
FPC Forest Products Commission of Western Australia
ha-1 per hectare
IBA Indole-3-butyric acid (a hormone commonly used for rooting cuttings)
JVAP Joint Venture Agroforestry Program
kcal kilocalorie
m‑3 per cubic metre
MAI mean annual increment, a measure of the mean annual volume growth of a species expressed in
cubic metres per hectare
MAR mean annual rainfall expressed in millimetres
MAT mean annual temperature expressed in °C
NPK nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium fertiliser
DSE Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment
NR&M Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines
QFRI Queensland Forest Research Institute
vi
Executive Summary This is not an exhaustive or necessarily definitive list,
but the species listed here will be productive when
planted in the right place using the correct silviculture.
The profiles also highlight the sort of information
required to assess the useability of species against
grower requirements and this sort of information
should be gathered for any other species considered
in a selection process.
What the report is about Methods used

The selection of species for any planting program is
Much of the information provided here is the result
a combination of science and inspiration. It requires
of long term research and experimental trials.
a detailed knowledge of species variability and
Some anecdotal information is included where this
potential, gained either by research or experience,
highlights a problem or issue that may be relevant
careful analysis of site factors and the way they
to growers. Species trialling is an expensive process
impact on tree growth and an understanding of
and, while desirable from the point of view of risk
product requirements and yield potential.
reduction, cannot be done at sufficient scale or
intensity to provide definitive answers for all planting
Who is the report targeted at?
sites. Various techniques have been developed to
This publication addresses species selection, an try and attempt to extend the results of trials beyond
area of uncertainty for growers and investors in their local area. Of these, the climate matching work
commercial farm forestry in Australia. has provided the greatest insight to date for a broad
range of species.
Background
Results/Key findings
Other publications have looked at planting
configurations, likely products and benefits, legislative, Each of these species profiles contains a set of
and social issues and drivers and economics. Most preferred climatic conditions and a comparison map
of these assume appropriate selection of species and showing where these types of conditions occur in
planting material to deliver the required outcomes. Australia. This is a useful first cut but it then needs to
Lack of information on suitable commercial production be tempered with soil information and desired products
models is one of the key limiting factors to greater and services. Information is included on general
uptake of farm forestry. One of the greatest areas silviculture requirements appropriate to each species.
of uncertainty is associated with the selection of The profiles also refer to the value and/or use of the
species that are not only bio-physically suited to the pure species as a hybrid parent. Recommended further
planting site, but also capable of delivering the right reading and references are given for each species.
products and services for the available markets.
Implications
Aims/Objectives
While silviculture can modify the productive capacity
This publication looks at 22 species which are of a plantation over time, the initial selection of
suitable for a variety of planting conditions as well planting material – species, provenance, seedlot
as having potential for commercial returns. It focuses or clone – is locked in for the full rotation. It pays
primarily on native species although some commercially growers and investors to select carefully and with
important exotic species are included for comparison. the best available knowledge.
1
Introduction growth and product potential for a specified range
of sites. Currently, species and provenance selection
is about matching particular planting material to a
particular site or range of sites. In order to do this we
need information about both the planting material
and the site in a form that allows comparison, such
as if a species grows on sandy soils then it is less
likely to be successful on a site with heavy clay soils.
Given the relatively long time from planting to The species profiles provide information on the
harvest with forestry crops, it is difficult to carry out known climatic and soil preferences for the species
extensive trials to understand species potential at listed. Possible planting sites should be catalogued
every site. It is necessary to establish experimental in a similar way. It is possible to use models to
plantings on representative sites that are carefully obtain estimates of climate at given points across
designed to provide the highest quality information Australia which can then be used to compare with
for the widest range of available operational planting the climate requirements of particular species. Soil
sites. The tools available to assist the selection process information is more difficult and generally some form
are improving over time, particularly in regards to of soil analysis will be required. Analyses done for
the understanding of genetic variation in tree species agricultural crops is rarely sufficient for tree crops
(e.g. Eldridge et al., 1993) and with better climate and additional sampling work will be required to
modelling capability for site analysis and mapping assess site capability. Ryan et al. (2003) provides
(e.g. Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). a guide to site characterisation for assessing
possible tree growth.
These species profiles describe the characteristics
of 22 species of actual or potential value for farm Knowledge of the biophysical requirements of species
forestry in Australia. The information is derived from and provenances has been obtained from knowledge
the available experimental sites and other assessments of their natural range and from cultivated stands.
as well as some anecdotal information where this Generally, species will perform best on sites closely
was considered useful for potential growers. aligned with their natural environmental limits.
However there are good examples (e.g. Pinus radiata
The species selected cover a range of climatic zones and Grevillea robusta) where successful planting sites
and include species about which little is known as are found outside the natural environmental envelope.
well as several already in established production Wherever possible the profiles have been adjusted
systems. The profiles also highlight the sort of to include characteristics of known cultivated areas.
information required for the process of selecting
species against site and product objectives. In general, knowledge of the biophysical
requirements of species is more highly developed
than the knowledge of product suitability and
Selection of planting material requirements. Many commercially available wood
At the time of planting, an irrevocable choice is based products such as Medium Density Fibre Board
made about the genetic material to be used for the and Oriented Strand Board have been developed
productive rotation. Certain growth characteristics around existing substantial raw material resources.
can be modified during the rotation but careful They have reasonably specialised requirements for
selection of planting material is necessary to avoid wood fibre as a raw material. Preliminary comparisons
costly failures. At this stage of farm forestry development, have indicated potential suitability for a range of the
most planting material is coming from selected species species listed here for a range of products (Hicks
and provenances. Breeding and improvement and Clark, 2001; Freischmidt et al., in review).
programs have commenced for a number of species For a detailed discussion of species selection
(see individual species profiles) which will eventually methods, see Boland (1997).
provide improved planting material with known
2
Why were these species  Wet/dry is a very general allocation to traditional
higher rainfall forestry areas versus lower rainfall
selected for profiles? ‘new’ forestry areas. ‘High’ and ‘low’ rainfall is
very subjective and absolute figures depend on
The species included in this series of profiles were
where you are in Australia. Again, where both
selected on the basis of their fledgling use in farm
wet and dry are nominated for a species, it is
forestry, their potential based on performance in trial
likely that a different suite of genetic material
or other plantings and/or their suitability for different
will be applicable. The species profiles detail
regions of Australia. The table below summarises
these differences.
their primary reasons for inclusion as follows:
 Use/potential relates to the current use of the
 Temperate/tropical refers to the broad climatic
species in Australian plantation programs or to
region that the species is suitable for. Where both
the potential for use based on either superior
are listed, the species will have provenance
growth rates or actual usage in overseas
and/or breeding programs applicable to both
planting programs.
areas. Details are in the species profiles but the
same material will, in general, NOT be suitable
for both temperate and tropical locations.
Species Temperate/tropical Wet/dry Use/potential

Acacia mearnsii temp wet/dry potential
Araucaria cunninghamii tropical/sub-trop wet in use
Eucalyptus benthamii temp wet/dry potential
E. camaldulensis temp/tropical dry potential
E. cladocalyx temp dry potential+
E. cloeziana tropical/sub-trop wet/dry potential+
E. dunnii temp/sub-trop wet potential+
E. fraxinoides temp wet potential
E. globulus temp wet use
E. grandis temp/tropical wet use
C. maculata/henryii/citriodora temp/tropical dry use
subsp. variegata
E. nitens temp wet/dry use (wet)
E. occidentalis temp dry potential
E. pellita tropical wet use
E. pilularis sub-tropical wet potential+
E. saligna temp/sub-tropical wet potential
E. sideroxylon/ E. tricarpa temperate dry potential
E. smithii temperate wet potential
E. tereticornis temp/tropical wet/dry potential
E. viminalis temperate wet potential
Grevillea robusta temperate/sub-tropical wet potential+
Pinus caribaea sub-tropical/tropical wet use
P. pinaster temperate dry use
P. radiata temp wet use
+ small but expanding plantation base
3
Hybrids establishment. Combinations of surface cultivation,
deep ripping 70-100 cm and mounding of topsoil
A number of the species covered by these profiles have all been used to increase the early growth rate
are being used, or have been used, to produce of seedlings and help them to out compete other
inter-specific hybrids. Hybrids are produced to try plants (weeds) on site. The particular combination,
and combine positive characteristics from different depth of rip line and size, presence or absence of
species which would not otherwise arise from pure mound depends on soil conditions on the site. In
species mating. Pushing forestry into more challenging general on dry sites the more, the deeper, the bigger,
environments produces situations where there may the better within cost and machinery constraints.
not be a ‘natural’ forest or woodland analogue; i.e. Very sandy soils may not benefit unless they are
looking for a pure species growing naturally on a overlying a clay layer within 90cm of the surface.
similar site type may not be an option. In these cases These site preparation techniques should be
it may be attractive to try and combine characteristics combined with other weed control measures.
like wood qualities and frost tolerance for example,
or fast growth rates and drought tolerance. Weed control
Hybrids can only be made within genera and often Weed control is essential for effective tree
(as is the case in eucalypts) only within common growth especially in the early stages of plantation
groups within the genus. The species profiles refer establishment and up to canopy closure. In widely
to the value and/or use of the pure species as a spaced plantings on drier sites weed control may
hybrid parent. be required for a longer period. Weeds compete
with seedlings for water, light and nutrients. Weed
General notes on silviculture control should commence prior to planting as a
component of site preparation and can be done
and planting via cultivation or application of chemicals (usually
Good genetic material is essential for success, but both). Many chemicals used for weed control have
appropriate silviculture is essential for the genetic been developed to knock down native plants so
potential to be realised. Individual silvicultural particular care needs to be taken when using these
requirements are included in a number of the species chemicals around eucalypts and acacias. The effect
profiles but there are some general points and issues of herbicides is also affected by soil type and climate
that are relevant for all species. In drier and more and local prescriptions should be sought wherever
marginal sites, the application and timing of silvicultural possible. Mowing between rows of trees is often
treatments is even more critical e.g. it is possible (if used to control weeds but complete removal is
undesirable) to delay thinning of plantings in higher preferable if feasible.
rainfall zones where a similar delay in lower rainfall
areas will result in intense competition for water and Fertiliser
lost productivity. Thinning is a particularly important Most nurseries add normal and slow release forms
issue in the early stages of farm forestry development of fertiliser (usually NPK and trace elements) to
because of the generally low levels of genetic the potting mix before filling the pots. Examples
improvement. Higher variability in planting stock of fertiliser use in Australian eucalypt nurseries are
means that more trees must be planted in order to given by Doran (1990). This initial dose will assist
achieve sufficient quantities of suitable final crop trees. the seedlings for a short time after planting but it
may be necessary to apply additional fertiliser at
Site preparation planting. The particular mix can vary according to
Some cultivation is required to provide seedlings previous site use but application of a ‘starter dose’
with optimal early growing conditions and access of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser soon after
to soil water and nutrients. Because trees are deep planting to assist early growth is common practice
rooted plants, the surface cultivation used for in the successful establishment of seedlings in Australia
agricultural crops is rarely sufficient for good tree and elsewhere. Rates vary widely depending on the
4
site and readers are directed to papers in Attiwill Protection
and Adams (1996) for examples. In drier areas,
the usefulness of applied fertiliser will depend on The increasing use of native species in plantations
available water. will result in greater damage due to natural pests
and diseases. One of the primary reasons for the
In old highly leached soils with some accumulated successful use of exotics is that they are often not
organic matter, as in many parts of Australia, eucalypts susceptible to the natural pests and diseases present
have generally responded better to phosphorus in the landscape. Often a decline in tree health is
additions than to any other single nutrient. In contrast, the culmination of various stresses. Imbalance for
nitrogen has tended to provide the best response example, may result from severe insect attack combined
from a single nutrient addition in relatively recent with extreme environmental conditions such as
soils that have low organic matter (Schönau and prolonged drought or stress due to competition for
Herbert, 1989). Generally though, the response to water and nutrients. Weakened trees will prove more
both N and P together tends to exceed the response susceptible to pests and diseases so it is important
to either alone (Attiwill and Adams, 1996). Techniques to select healthy trees and aim to minimise impacts
for identification of nutritional disorders and the by reducing competition through thinning.
symptoms of deficiencies in eucalypts are described
by Dell et al. (1995). Also, a simple key for visual Related Publications:
diagnosis of deficiencies in eucalypt seedlings is Albertsen T, Eckersley P, Blennerhasset S, Moore R, Hingston
provided by Brundrett et al. (1996). B, 2000. Designing Blue Gum Alley Farms. RIRDC
Publication No. 00/154, Rural Industries Research and
Spacing Development Corporation, Canberra.
Bartle J, Brennan G, 2002. Australian Low Rainfall Tree
Initial spacing will depend on species and
Improvement Group Mallee Genotype/ Environment
improvement status, rainfall, access requirements and Interaction. RIRDC Publication No. 02/084, Rural
other land uses. In traditional commercial plantations, Industries Research and Development Corporation,
a fairly high planting density is used (up to 1200 Canberra.
stems per hectare) and then thinned successively as Bhati UN, 2003. ANU Forestry Market Report Project.
the trees start to compete. The initial thinning may Canberra: Australian National University Department of
be non-commercial but in most cases, forest owners Forestry website: http://sres.anu.edu.au/associated/
would try to find a market for the thinned trees to try marketreport/index.html
and recoup management costs. With genetically Boardman R, Bush D, Butcher T, Harwood CE, Spencer
improved planting stock, lower planting densities D, Stackpole D, 2002. Australian Low Rainfall Tree
can be used to avoid non-commercial thinning as Improvement Group: Compendium of Softwood Breeding
Strategies. RIRDC Publication No. 02/028, Rural Industries
more of the trees will be of final crop quality.
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
In low rainfall areas spacing will be critical as access Booth TH, Jovanovic T, Snowdon P, Mummery D, Battaglia
to water is a critical limiting factor for growth and M, Sands P, Fife DN, 2002. Modelling the potential
trees will compete vigorously for available moisture. Productivity of commercial farm forestry species. RIRDC
In these areas it will be necessary to concentrate as Publication No. 05/175, Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, Canberra.
much of the wood production potential of the trees
onto the minimal number of stems (i.e. fewer but larger Bush D, 1999. National Low Rainfall Tree Improvement
and more valuable logs) as the access to markets Workshop Proceedings. Adelaide November 3-5, 1998.
RIRDC Publication No. 99/66, Rural Industries Research
for thinnings will be less and the checks on growth
and Development Corporation, Canberra.
due to competition more damaging to final returns.
Clarke NB, in review Wood Products from Farm Forestry
An appropriate assessment program should be – Hardwood Export Chips. A report for the Joint Venture
instigated to provide the data on which to make Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Project No. CSF-56A, Rural
spacing and thinning decisions (see Reid and Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Stephen, 2001).
5
Curtis A, Race D, 1998. Links Between Farm Forestry Warden P, Pereira A, Reilly M, 2001. Wood Products
Growers and the Wood Processing Industry. RIRDC from Farm Forestry: Cement Board. A report for the Joint
Publication No.98/41, Rural Industry Research and Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication No.
Development Corporation, Canberra. 01/46, Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.
Freischmidt G, Terill S, Pereira A, Reilly M, Collins PJ,
in review. Wood products from farm forestry: Oriented
References
Strandboard (OSB). A report for the Joint Venture
Agroforestry Program. Rural Industries Research and Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
Development Corporation, Canberra. Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Harwood CE, Bulman P, Bush D, Mazanec R, Stackpole Boland DJ, 1997. Selection of species and provenances
D, 2000. Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement for planting. In: Doran JC, Turnbull JW, Australian Trees
Group: Compendium of Hardwood Breeding Strategies. and Shrubs: Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm
RIRDC Publication No. 01/100, Rural Industries Planting in the Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. pp
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. 39-58. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research, Canberra.
Harwood CE, Bush D, 2002. Breeding Trees for the Low
Rainfall Regions of Southern Australia. RIRDC Publication Brundrett M, Bougher N, Dell B, Grove T, Malajczuk N,
No. 02/031, Rural Industries Research and Development 1996. Working with Mycorrhizas in Forestry and Agriculture.
Corporation, Canberra. ACIAR Monograph No. 32. pp 297-298. Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Hicks CC, Clark NB, 2001. Pulpwood quality of
13 eucalypt species with potential for farm forestry. A Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders
report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Series, No. 31:
Publication No. 01/164, Rural Industries Research and 104 pp. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Development Corporation, Canberra. Research, Canberra.
Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic Doran JC, 1990. Nursery practice. In: Cremer KW (ed),
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. Trees for Rural Australia. pp 89-106. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries
Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van, 1993.
Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Clarendon Press,
Marcar N, Crawford D (eds) 2004. Trees for Saline Oxford, UK.
Landscapes. RIRDC Publication No. 03/108, Rural Industries
Freischmidt G, Terill S, Pereira A, Reilly M, Collins PJ,
in review. Wood products from farm forestry: Oriented
McLeod I, Vercoe TK, Robins L, A manual for Establishing Strandboard (OSB). A report for the Joint Venture
Field Trials and Demonstration Plantings for Farm Forestry. Agroforestry Program. Rural Industries Research and
A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Development Corporation, Canberra.
Project No. CSF-56A, Rural Industries Research and
Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program.
Potts BM, Barbour RC and Hingston AB, 2000. Assessing RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries
the risk of genetic pollution from farm forestry using eucalypt Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
species and hybrids. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry
Hicks C, Clark NB, 2001. Pulpwood Quality of 13 Eucalypt
Program. RIRDC Publication No. 01/114, Rural Industries
Species with Potential for Farm Forestry. A report for the
Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication
Race D, 2002. Innovative use of farm trees. Australian No. 01/164, Rural Industries and Research Development
marketing experiences. RIRDC Publication No. 02/022, Corporation, Canberra.
Rural Industry Research and Development Corporation,
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest:
Canberra.
Multipurpose Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC
Ryan PJ, Harper RJ, Booth TH, McKenzie NJ, Gilkes RJ, in Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower
review. The Australian Farm Forestry Site Selection Manual. Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC
Ryan PJ, Harper RJ, Booth TH, McKenzie NJ, Gilkes RJ, in
Research Report Project CAL-4A, Rural Industries Research
review. The Australian Farm Forestry Site Selection Manual.
A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC
Spencer D, 2001. Conifers in the Dry Country. A report Research Report Project CAL-4A, Rural Industries Research
for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication and Development Corporation, Canberra.
No. 01/46, Rural Industries Research and Development
6
Schönau APG, Herbert MA, 1989. Fertilizing eucalypts Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus saligna Sm. Species Digest.
at plantation establishment. Forest Ecology and Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a
Management, 29:221‑244. silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus sideroxylon A.Cunn. ex
Species profiles
Woolls Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule
Many of these profiles have been adapted from earlier Module (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB
work by a number of authors in the CSIRO Forestry and International, Wallingford, UK.
Forest Products and the Australian Tree Seed Centre and
Doran JC 2000. Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker Species
two from elsewhere. We would like to thank the authors
Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM)
and acknowledge the significant contribution the following
– a silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
works have made to these profiles:
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith Species
Arnold R, 2000. Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden. Species Digest.
Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a
silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. Species
Arnold R, 2000. Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex. Maiden.
Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module
(CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK. Gardiner C, 2000. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. subsp. globulus
Burdon R, 2000. Pinus radiata D. Don Species Digest.
Wallingford, UK.
Harwood CE, 2000. Eucalyptus occidentalis Maiden.
Clarke BH, 2000. Eucalyptus pilularis Smith Species
Wallingford, UK.
Doran JC, 2000. Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Species Digest.
Harwood CE, 2000. Eucalyptus pellita Maiden. Species
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Species
Harwood CE, 2000. Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br.
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus cladocalyx Maiden Species Wallingford, UK.
Larmour JS, 2000. Spotted Gums Species Digest. Forestry
Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus fraxinoides Deane and reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Maiden Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule
Stackpole D, 2000. Eucalyptus tricarpa species digest.
Module (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB
Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group, Canberra.
International, Wallingford, UK.
(Internal document).
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden)
Turnbull JW, 2000. Eucalyptus cloeziana F.Muell. Species
Maiden Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule
Module (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB
International, Wallingford, UK.
7
1. Acacia mearnsii De Wild.
Black wattle
Adapted from Doran, 2000.
Key features
Small to medium-sized tree of variable form
Fast growth rate
Moderately frost tolerant
Moderately drought tolerant
Tolerant of a wide range of soils but achieves
better growth and form on deep, moisture-
holding soils
Intolerant of salinity or waterlogging Species overview
Has a generally weak coppicing ability Acacia mearnsii is a fast-growing, light demanding,
Not windfirm nitrogen-fixing large shrub or small tree that reaches
6‑20 m in height. It is adapted to a wide range of
The wood is hard and tough yet moderately
sites and is generally described as a short lived
easy to work and finishes very well
species (15‑20 years) but has been reported to live
The wood needs to be seasoned slowly to avoid to 40 years on favourable sites (Searle, 2000). Deaths
checking and needs to be prebored as it can in plantations due to over-maturity are frequent after
split when being nailed 10 years in South Africa (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
It will tolerate relatively infertile sites but requires a
Provenances with better growth performance in
good supply of phosphorus for rapid growth. It has
early‑age Australian trials include ‘Kyneton’, Victoria;
the ability to fix nitrogen, regenerate rapidly and is
‘Bodalla’, New South Wales; ‘Braidwood’, New
moderately frost-tolerant (Brown and Ho, 1997; Searle,
South Wales and ‘Tarpeena’, South Australia.
2000). It does not tolerate sodic or saline‑sodic soils
However, comprehensive testing to identify
(R. Boardman, South Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
provenances for farm forestry has not been
conducted and farmers should consider In the past, native stands in Australia were the basis
carrying out their own testing. of a labour-intensive tannin extraction industry, but
this demand is now met by overseas plantations
Niche may be in single-species clearwood
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). As well as yielding
woodlots, on suitable sites, to produce high-value
bark extractives high in quality condensed tannin,
furniture-grade timber in a much shorter time
this native hardwood is capable of producing a
than is possible from other decorative species –
range of other wood products including paper pulp,
this would require high initial stocking, pruning
cellulose for rayon, fuelwood, charcoal, composite
and progressive thinning.
boards, posts, sawn timber for furniture, parquet
flooring and lining boards (Searle, 2000).
A. mearnsii is a useful species for erosion control,
soil improvement, windbreaks, shade and shelter,
and ornamental plantings.
8
Description and natural
occurrence
Description
A large shrub or small tree, typically in the height
range 5‑15 m but at times reaching 20 m with a
breast height diameter up to 45 cm but normally
in the range of 10‑35 cm. Open-grown specimens
are freely-branched from near ground level and will
often have a crooked main stem. In forest stands
Acacia mearnsii is regarded as an outcrossing
the stem is usually straighter and may be dominant
species with partial self-compatibility. Estimates of
for up to three-quarters of the tree height. The bark
out-crossing rates in the species are variable and
on younger stems and the upper parts of older trees
range from 48-100% (see review in Raymond, 1997).
is grey-brown and smooth, while that on older trees
The flowers are mainly insect pollinated, with honey
is brownish-black, hard and fissured. Both juvenile
bees considered the most important pollinators due
and adult foliage is bipinnate and is dark-green
to their methodical foraging (Moncur et al., 1991;
and fern-like. The flowers are pale creamy-yellow
Grant et al., 1994). A detailed review of the
in globular heads and the seed pods more or less
flowering biology of A. mearnsii is provided by
straight but often constricted between the seeds,
Raymond (1997).
dark brown to blackish when ripe. Mature seed is
available for collection some 12‑14 months after
Natural occurrence
flowering and is not retained on the tree after two
to three weeks making timing of seed collections This wattle occurs in the understorey of tall open
critical (Doran and Turnbull, 1997; Searle, 1997). forest or open forest dominated by eucalypts. It may
occur on the fringes of closed-forest and rarely in
Flowering takes place from October to December
woodland and coastal scrub. It can form dense,
in Australia (Searle, 1997). The trees start flowering
pure, even-aged thickets especially where it has
when about 2 years old, but large quantities of seed
recolonised cleared land. Best development is on
are seldom produced in plantations before the fifth
easterly and southerly aspects of low hills in coastal
or sixth year (Sherry, 1971). In Brazil seed production
lowlands and adjacent lower slopes of the tablelands
averaged 0.7 kg per tree in a 10-year‑old plantation
and ranges (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
(Stein and Tonietto, 1997) however, open grown
trees can produce large quantities of seed (e.g. Acacia mearnsii is a native of south‑eastern Australia.
several kilograms) in a good year. Mature seed is It extends through southern New South Wales and
available for collection some 12-14 months after southern Victoria to south‑eastern South Australia
flowering and as it is not retained on the tree for and Tasmania (Figure 1.1). The northern limit is
more than 2‑3 weeks the timing of seed collection west of Sydney (33°43’S) and the latitudinal range
is critical (Searle, 1997). is 33°S to 42°S. A. mearnsii occurs across an
altitudinal range of about 1050 m, from coastal
9
locations just above sea level to 1070 m elevation Figure 1.1: Natural distribution of Acacia
on Mt Gladstone, west of Cooma, New South Wales. mearnsii (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
A detailed account of the Australian distribution is
given by Searle (1997).
The natural occurrence of A. mearnsii falls mostly in
the warm sub-humid zone, extending in places to the
warm humid zone. At the highest altitudes it occurs
in the cool sub-humid and humid zones. The species
is rarely found in areas where the temperature
exceeds 38°C. Coastal localities have no heavy
frosts; inland there are 1‑20 frosts per year and at
some higher altitudes up to 80 frosts are recorded,
with a record low of -12°C. The average annual
rainfall is 440‑1600 mm, and the lowest on record
is around 360 mm. Seasonal incidence of rainfall
varies from a well-defined winter maximum in the
south, through more uniform, to a weak summer
maximum in the northern‑most parts of the
occurrence (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
Where will it grow?
This species has been recorded on basalt, dolerite, A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for
granite and sandstone but is common on soils derived A. mearnsii, incorporating data from both the natural
from metamorphic shales and slates. The soils are distribution and from sites where the species has been
mainly loams, sandy loams and deep forest podsols grown successfully as an exotic, gives the following
of moderate to low fertility. The best soils for key climatic conditions for survival and good growth:
A. mearnsii are moist, relatively deep, light-textured
Mean annual rainfall: 700-2300 mm
and well‑drained, although it is often found on
moderately heavy soils and occasionally on shallow Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter,
soils. The soils are usually acidic, pH 5-6.5. It is summer
not common on poorly-drained or very infertile sites
Dry season length: 0-6 months
(Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
Mean maximum temperature 21-30°C
hottest month:
Mean minimum temperature 0-15°C
coldest month:
Mean annual temperature: 10-20°C
The map of areas predicted to be climatically suitable

for planting A. mearnsii (Figure 1.2) was generated
from the revised climatic details for the species as
listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). The
revisions were made to the climate parameters,
initially derived from the natural distribution, on the
basis of information from trials and plantings of this
species both within and outside its natural range.
Though in its natural distribution A. mearnsii only
grows in areas south‑east of Sydney, analysis of
Natural stand of Acacia mearnsii on the south
climatic conditions at successful plantations overseas
coast of NSW.
10
Figure 1.2: Areas predicted to be climatically Burundi), India with 20 000 ha and Indonesia with
suitable for Acacia mearnsii are shown in black 15 000 ha (Wiersum, 1991). Black wattle is grown
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) extensively in China for vegetable tannin production
and when surveyed in 1987 the total area of
plantations was 10 433 ha. In addition there are
extensive, largely unrecorded plantings in agroforestry
systems in many countries.
A. mearnsii is one of many tree species grown by
nurseries in the Australian Capital Territory, New
South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania for use in
roadside, farm, amenity and ornamental plantings
(Searle, 1997). Government and privately-owned
plantations have been established in South Australia,
Victoria and New South Wales. The largest
government plantation, 400 ha, was established
in Victoria in 1887 (Searle, 1997).
clearly indicate that it is worth considering in areas Provenance trials

which are somewhat wetter and warmer. Successful Currently, long‑term performance of black wattle
plantations are generally found in areas where the provenances in Australian conditions is not known.
rainfall is over 700 mm and to achieve the fastest Indications from recent plantings are that ‘Blackhill
growth rates probably requires mean annual rainfalls Reserve’ (Kyneton, Victoria) grows well in the Ballarat,
(MARs) above 850 mm and mean annual temperatures Victoria, region. In Hamilton, south-west Victoria, at
(MATs) above 16°C (Schönau and Schulze, 1984). 5 years of age ‘Tuross River’ and ‘Bodalla’, New
A. mearnsii’s natural distribution also includes locations South Wales, grew well in terms of volume. At trials
with MARs as low as 440 mm and if slower growth in the Australian Capital Territory provenances from
is acceptable, the species is also worth considering ‘Bungendore’, New South Wales, and ‘Tarpeena’,
for planting in colder and drier environments. Absolute South Australia, grew well at a site with 630 mm yr‑1
minimum temperatures below -5oC can cause MAR and ‘Blackhill Reserve’ Kyneton, Victoria,
serious damage to A. mearnsii. grew well with 824 mm yr‑1 MAR (Searle, 2000).
A. mearnsii is susceptible to insect attack and High‑altitude New South Wales provenances
disease when stressed. To avoid this sites with (‘Bungendore’, ‘Bombala-Dalgety’ and ‘Cooma’)
shallow soils or soils of low moisture holding and two low‑elevation provenances, ‘Apsley’
capacity, especially when combined with prolonged (Tasmania) and ‘Minhamite’ (Victoria), were the
drought and/or low rainfall should be avoided. most frost tolerant (Searle et al., 1994). These
results are largely in accord with field data from
Planting and provenance trials
Planting
Black wattle is widely cultivated in a number of
countries throughout the world. Principal growing
areas include Brazil with over 200 000 ha of
plantation (Higa and Resende, 1994), South Africa
with 160 000 ha (Boucher, 1980), down from
325 000 in the halcyon days of tannin production
in the 1960s (Wiersum, 1991), plus 30 000 ha in
East Africa (Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Acacia mearnsii plantation in Kenya
11
South Africa where high‑altitude New South Wales based on local landraces have been established in
provenances were significantly more frost-tolerant South Africa (Li, 1997) and Brazil (Higa and Resende,
than low‑altitude New South Wales and Victorian 1994). In South Africa two generations of breeding
provenances. Highly significant between-family improved several traits of major economic importance:
variation for frost tolerance within provenances tannin content, incidence of gummosis, stem form and
indicates potential for selection and breeding to survival rate. A breeding strategy is described by
increase the cold-hardiness of the species (Searle Raymond (1987, 1997).
et al., 1991).
Searle (2000) suggests that in the absence of
A comparison of tannin content of bark samples provenance recommendations based on long‑term
from 18 uneven-aged natural populations of black performance of black wattle in Australia, farmers
wattle in Australia showed Tasmanian and Victorian could identify better provenances by planting their own
provenances (46.9% and 46.6%) had more tannin provenance trials. Seed of a range of provenances
in their bark than the South Australian and New South for testing is available from CSIRO Forestry and Forest
Wales group (39.4% and 38.8%) (Guangcheng Products, Australian Tree Seed Centre in Canberra.
et al., 1991; Li et al., 1994).
Silviculture
Breeding and genetic resources The utilisation of black wattle in Australia has been
Acacia mearnsii shows significant variation in growth limited to harvesting from natural stands. Clear
rate, form, branching density and size, adaptation guidelines for silvicultural practice with black wattle
to drought and low temperatures, and in wood have been developed in South Africa by the Institute
and bark characteristics. It has been an important for Commercial Forestry Research. However, the
plantation species outside Australia for more than applicability of the South African guidelines to
100 years and selection and breeding programmes growing black wattle under Australian conditions
and for different products, such as specialty timber,
has not been evaluated (Searle, 2000).
Propagation
There are about 70 000 viable seeds kg-1 (Doran
and Turnbull, 1997). Fully ripened seed has a hard
seed coat and retains its viability well in storage. Seed
storage is orthodox and storage of good quality seed
in airtight containers in a dark, cool room should
maintain viability for several years. To ensure rapid
and complete germination, seed coat dormancy must
be broken before sowing. Mechanical scarification
can be very effective but the seed is more commonly
treated by immersion in boiling water for one minute
(Doran and Gunn, 1987). Treated seed may be
surface dried and stored safely for at least one year.
Attempts to vegetatively propagate A. mearnsii have
generally had limited success. However, recent work
in South Africa has indicated that the technique of
rejuvenating adult material through coppicing and
meristem culture can now be applied to genetically
superior trees and can be used for future clonal
Measuring the height of Acacia mearnsii at 3 years programmes (Beck and Dunlop, 1999). However,
of age in the Acacia species trial at Kowen, ACT. at the present time tissue culture remains very costly.
12
Nursery establishment is generally by sowing
pre-treated seeds directly into containers (Doran
and Turnbull, 1997) or into beds to produce
bare-rooted seedlings (Gao, 1997). Seedlings can
reach plantable size (20 cm in height) in 4 months.
Inoculation with appropriate rhizobium and mycorrhiza
strains is rarely necessary but may be beneficial
especially when seedlings are raised in sterilised
media or planted on highly degraded soils. Searle
(2000) notes that CSIRO Plant Industry, Canberra,
has identified select rhizobia strains and a proven
method of inoculation for commercial nurseries that
can produce black wattle seedlings with better survival
and growth in the nursery and field. They expect
to have effective strains of rhizobia commercially
available in 2002 (Brockwell et al., 1999).
Planting is carried out in June/July in South Australia
and Western Australia while the soil is still wet from
winter rains. Planting may occur later if site access
is not available due to waterlogging, which is often
a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and New South
Collecting seed of Acacia mearnsii from natural Wales planting is done in September, or July-August
stand in the You Yangs, Victoria. in warmer districts (where soils dry out earlier). Planting
Acacia mearnsii in acacia trial at Gin Gin, WA.
13
in northern latitudes usually occurs once the summer Boron is seriously deficient in Kenya and Tanzania,
rains have begun between November-April, however particularly in areas where trees suffer seasonal
February-April is preferred. moisture stress (Boland, 1997). Sodium borate
at 36.5% borax is applied at 70 kg ha‑1 on such
Its coppicing ability is generally weak, although
deficient soils. An A. mearnsii provenance trial
small stumps coppice readily.
in Fujian, China has also had fairly severe boron
problems. However, the application of boron
Establishment
where it is not deficient can result in tree deaths
The seeds may be directly sown in the field in due to toxicity.
well-cultivated and weed-free ground. Seeding rate
is 1.2‑2.4 kg ha‑1 and the seed is often sown in rows Management
1.8-2.7 m apart. Seedlings are then thinned at regular
intervals until routine spacings are achieved. Direct Thinning is commonly applied to maintain rapid
seeding is a cheap method but it allows little control growth, increase bark thickness (as this is directly
over tree spacing. Favourable seasons can result in correlated with stem diameter) and obtain revenue
high tree densities which may require labour‑intensive from thinnings to enhance the overall economics of
thinning in the first year before trees become too growing black wattle. Refer to Bird (2000) for a
large (Kevin, 2000). detailed discussion of thinning in an Australian farm
forestry context. Overseas the species is grown at
The importance of site preparation by ploughing high densities which even after thinning remain at
or ripping and weed control in promoting rapid
around 1500‑1700 stems ha‑1. In South Africa trials
establishment and growth has been demonstrated
reported by Craib (1935) indicated that to obtain
by Boden (1984). Black wattle is intolerant of weed
optimum crop yields, thinning was required to maintain
competition when young and plantations must be kept
a freely developing crown on main crop trees without
weed-free until canopy closure (Luyt et al., 1987).
decline in leaf area from overcrowding or lack of soil
Refer to Bird (2000) for more information and weed
moisture. This involved thinning early to 450‑500 stems
control prescriptions. Papers in Brown and Ho (1997)
by the time a third of the rotation had passed, at
detail the various weeding operations applied in
age 3‑4 years. This may be followed by a further
countries in East Africa, Brazil, China and South
light thinning to around 280‑300 stems for the last
Africa (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
third of the roation, depending upon product size
Initial spacing and thinning regimes will vary with specifications fo use of the timber. The timing of the
the purpose of planting. Searle (2000) suggests thinning was found to be crucial as to try and regain
that closer initial spacing, say 1.5‑2.0 m between current wood increment after loss of leaf area due
trees within rows, will minimise branch development. to overcrowding was shown to be very difficult, if
However trees will need to be thinned out before not impossible, at ages greater than 3‑4 years,
competition for water and nutrients become limiting despite re‑spacing
and the trees become stressed. When planting in
drier areas it is advisable to use wider spacings Pruning early to reduce knot size conventionally
between rows with 4.0 m currently being adopted. entails cutting branches as close to the stem as
possible without injuring the swollen zone at the
Black wattle is a nitrogen fixing species but has shown
base of the branch. Searle (2000) notes that this
very significant increases in wood volume and tannin
method has been employed successfully on a small
yield after being fertilised with phosphorus (Schönau,
scale in south-western Victoria. However, she says
1983; Herbert, 1984; Waki, 1984). In the absence
that Darren Doherty of Australia Felix Bendigo
of any documented evidence on optimum fertiliser
communicated to her another method, favoured
regimes for Australia, Jaakko Pöyry Consulting (1999)
by him to prevent gum exudation, which closely
recommended that a combination of 60 kg phosphorus
mirrors the approach of the South Africans. This
and 200 kg of potassium be applied per hectare at
involves pruning at about 3‑4 cm from the stem;
the time of planting (Searle, 2000). The best response
the branch stubs wither and die to leave a clean
to fertiliser was when ripping was used in conjunction
pruning wound. Pruning may also be applied to
with fertiliser application (Boden, 1984).
14
Table 1.1: Production data from an Acacia mearnsii silviculture trial at Mt Gambier, South Australia
(R. Boardman, South Australia, pers. comm., 2002)
Predominant
Height [tallest Timber Estimated
Age Stocking mean DBH 70 trees ha‑1] Volume bark yield
(yrs) (stems ha‑1) (cm) (m) (m3 ha‑1) (green t ha-1)
5 1886 12.1 13.3 85 14
9 1821 14.7 20.0 140 28
5 6944 7.4 13.0 114 24
9 5556 8.6 18.0 172 36
reduce the incidence of forked trees and allied yr‑1 at an MAR of 500 mm. On appropriate sites
wind damage (Gao, 1997; Ho and Fang, 1997). and where the trees are fertilised, a mean annual
increment (MAI) over 7‑10 years of 15‑25 m3 ha‑1
Overseas, A. mearnsii is usually established in
of wood is feasible. Brown and Ho (1997) report
monoculture and managed for tannin production on
similar yields in countries in Africa and in China.
a rotation length of 8‑10 years (range of 5‑12 years)
after which time it is clear felled. Regeneration of
cut‑over areas is by replanting, spot or line sowing, Protection
or through natural means. Bark stripping, for tannin
Black wattle seedlings need to be protected from
extraction, is best done when the sap is flowing
browsing by rabbits, hares and wallabies with tree
and this occurs during the warm summer months. If
guards or vermin-proof fencing (Searle, 2000).
the bark must be stored, the strips should be carefully
dried in the shade in a well-aerated area to minimise Trees are more susceptible to insect and disease
mould development (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). attack when they are stressed. Hence the more
marginal the site for a species the higher the
Growth incidence and severity of such attacks is likely to
be. Good site selection and the maintenance of
Production data from Australia is meagre. There is
the trees in good health are essential for successful
data available from a well‑documented silvicultural
and productive tree growth.
trial on deep yellow podsolised sands (Caroline sand)
at Mt Gambier, South Australia. It was planted in In Australia, the total number of insects associated
1991 at two stocking rates and with and without with A. mearnsii is large and a number cause serious,
fertiliser (there were no significant effect from the sporadic damage that affects its survival or growth
addition of fertiliser at either stocking). The trials and form (Searle, 2000). The leaf-eating fireblight
were not thinned. The production data for the trials beetle, Acacicola orphana syn. Pyrgoides orphana
(see Table 1.1) is comparable with typical South (Coleoptera), is a serious pest (Elliott and de Little,
African data, such as that reported by Stubbings 1984) and was one of the early disincentives for
and Schönau (1982) (R. Boardman, South Australia, planting the species in Victoria, Australia (Searle,
pers. comm., 2002). 1991). After a severe outbreak, the trees have a
reddish-brown, scorched appearance due to their
Black wattle reaches its maximum growth rate of
complete defoliation (Searle, 2000). Outbreaks of
up to 3.5 m yr‑1 2‑3 years after planting in South
this beetle and its larvae occur during winter and
Australia. In South Africa maximum height growth
spring. While chemical controls may be effective
rates are up to 3 m yr‑1 3‑5 years after planting
these insecticides will also affect the numbers of
(Wiersum, 1991). Bennell et al., (2004) quote a
the beetle’s natural enemies and limit their influence
figure for stemwood production of 2.66 m3 ha‑1
in controlling any low-level insect outbreaks.
15
The most obvious diseases are gall-forming fungi, and finishes very well. To avoid splitting, pre-boring
e.g. Uromycladium tepperianum. This fungus causes is necessary before nailing. It is susceptible to attack
the development of rusty-red woody growths (galls) by termites and borers (Lyctus sp.).
on branchlets and flower heads. Heavy infestations
The wood is used for house poles, mine timbers, tool
will finally kill the tree. There are no known controls
handles, industrial and domestic woodware, turnery,
other than removal of the galls to prevent the spread
cabinet work, joinery, flooring, construction timber,
of the disease. Fertiliser applications may improve
matchwood, fuelwood, particleboard, fibreboard,
the vigour of the trees (Jones and Elliott, 1995;
hardboard, charcoal and pulp.
Searle, 2000).
There is currently no market acceptance in Australia
An apparent physiological disorder known as
of black wattle for fuelwood, charcoal, composite
‘gummosis’, in which gum is exuded in the absence
boards, posts and specialty timber. Further marketing
of any obvious injury, is a serious problem in
would be required to raise awareness of the
commercial plantations outside of the natural climatic
comparative quality of these products and to
range of A. mearnsii. The disorder reduces bark quality
distinguish black wattle from other acacias such
and hinders stripping of bark. In South Africa this
as blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) or others
term has been applied to a complex of diseases
commonly called black wattle (Searle, 2000).
associated with A. mearnsii (Roux et al., 1995).
The most successful control of gummosis has been ‘Experience with growing and processing black
by selecting and breeding trees resistant to the wattle for sawn timber is very limited in Australia
disease (Wang, 1997). In Australia symptoms of but there is interest and enthusiasm about the species
gummosis as experienced in South African plantations by the few who have grown, felled, milled, dried
do not appear to occur in native trees. and worked with the species’ (Searle, 2000). Searle
(2000) reports that anecdotal evidence suggests
A. mearnsii plantations are susceptible to wind, hail,
black wattle timber has good stability along with
frost and snow damage. Black wattle is susceptible
good machining, sanding, gluing and finishing
to wind damage because the root system develops
properties. On favourable sites black wattle has
mainly in the soil surface layer and tap roots are short.
the potential to produce specialty timber in less
Light ground fires may kill trees up to 3 years old than 15 years (Searle, 2000).
when their bark is quite thin. Trees that are older
The pulping properties of A. mearnsii render the
will usually survive this type of fire but may have
woodchips suitable for a range of paper and
their growth checked.
paperboard products. Plantation-grown A. mearnsii
is currently being used commercially in South Africa
Utilisation as a component of a wood furnish for kraft and
soda-AQ pulp production and A. mearnsii woodchips
Wood are exported from that country to Japan for use in
manufacture of kraft pulps (Logan, 1987). The
Sapwood is very pale brown and the heartwood
woodchip export market is the only Australian
light brown with reddish markings. It is fine textured
market, with one or two small-scale exceptions, that
and has distinct growth rings. The basic density is
recognises black wattle as a good source of quality
about 630 kg m‑3 (756 kg m‑3 Bennell et al., 2004)
wood (Searle, 2000). However, remoteness from
and the air-dry density 550‑750 kg m‑3 (Bootle,
sea ports (>150 km) and an ability to produce a
1983). The moderately dense wood, which splits
marketable quantity are limitations for selling to the
easily and burns well, makes excellent fuelwood
Japanese market. They have a minimum requirement
and charcoal. Bootle (1983) states that black wattle’s
of cf. 30 000 bone dry metric tonnes i.e. sufficient
green and seasoned timber has the same medium
for a ship load. The large areas of plantations that
strength characteristics as blackwood (Acacia
would be required to meet minimum export demands,
melanoxylon) (Searle, 2000).
60 000‑100 000 green tonnes per year, and the
The timber must be seasoned slowly to avoid checking. fact that the wattle would be competing with blue
The wood is hard but is moderately easy to work gum, which has faster growth and better pulping
16
properties, make it unlikely that such an industry
will develop in Australia (Kevin, 2000).
Black wattle’s moderately dense wood, which splits
easily and burns well, makes excellent fuelwood
and charcoal. In Australia the wood was once
sought after to fire bakers’ ovens and some ceramic
artists still prefer to fire their kilns with black wattle
(Searle, 1996). The charcoal is extensively used
for cooking in Kenya and southern Brazil and the
wood is used in Indonesia for domestic fuel, village
industries and curing tobacco leaves (Berenschot et al.,
1988; Wiersum, 1991). The cheaper establishment
methods, such as direct seeding, that can be used
for such a crop along with the species fast growth
make firewood production an attractive option.
Firewood can also be produced from timber plantation
thinnings (Kevin, 2000). However, the poor coppicing
ability of the species (coppicing being a popular
method of managing fuelwood crops) after 3 years
of age means that the crop would need to be
clearfelled and resown or replanted (Searle, 2000).
As the sapwood of black wattle absorbs preservative
well, treated posts are a potential product for
on‑farm use. It has also been suggested that they Bark of Acacia mearnsii being stripped for
could be used in the vineyard industry. To be used tannin production.
in this industry, black wattle, as with other hardwoods,
would have to compete with the widely used treated
production of particleboard flooring (Searle, 2000).
pine posts. Bird (1997) reports that black wattle
Industry development of tannin production is dependent
posts have greater strength than treated pine posts
on development of a tannin extract processing
of the same diameter (Kevin, 2000; Searle, 2000).
industry and innovative methods for bark stripping
Posts with bark intact have been used to support
to compete with low labour costs overseas. A large
oyster racks in New South Wales (Searle, 1996).
black wattle plantation resource would be required
to guarantee sufficient raw product (Kevin, 2000).
Non-wood
Tannin prices dropped in 2000 while the cost of
A. mearnsii produces the world’s most important raw substitutes, melamine and phenol, rose. This
vegetable tannin, especially suited for use in the could see an increased use of tannin but probably
manufacture of heavy leather goods (Doran and not to past levels, i.e. 8000 tonnes in 1984 (Searle,
Turnbull, 1997). The bark of the species is very rich 2000). Refer to Searle (2000) for further discussion
in condensed tannin (35‑51%, dry weight) (Hillis, on this industry.
1997; Searle, 2000). In addition to its use for leather
Tannin yields are influenced by several factors
tanning, the powdered bark extract is used to prepare
including genetic variability, age and environment.
tannin formaldehyde adhesives for exterior grade
Tannin industries based on this species have been
plywood, particleboard and laminated timber
developed in Brazil, China, Kenya, India, South
(Coppens et al., 1980; Yazaki and Collins, 1997).
Africa, Tanzania and Zimbabwe (see papers in
There is a small Australian market for black wattle
Brown and Ho, 1997). The main exporting countries
tannin which is currently met by extracts imported
are South Africa, Kenya and Tanzania and the
mainly from South Africa. The powdered extract
main importers are the UK, Australia and the USA
is used principally in adhesive resins used in the
(Wiersum, 1991).
17
As black wattle is a nitrogen-fixing, pioneer species Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A Focus
it is very suitable for environmental plantings. It on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Centre
State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
establishes well from direct seeding and is noted
Maryborough, Victoria.
for its rapid early growth. In south‑eastern Australia,
it is commonly used in plantings on sites that receive Brown AG, Ho CK (eds), 1997. Black Wattle and its
Utilisation. RIRDC Publication No. 97/72, Rural Industries
rainfall down to about 600 mm per year, for shelter,
shade, salinity and erosion control, landscape
enhancement, soil amelioration and wildlife habitat Central Victorian Farm Plantations website, 2002.
Black Wattle. Central Victorian Farm Plantations website:
(Searle, 2000). The species has been effective
http://www.cvfp.org.au/
in controlling soil erosion on steep slopes and
improving soil fertility (NAS, 1980; Waki, 1984). References
The leaves (phyllodes) of A. mearnsii have a high Beck S, Dunlop R, 1999. Vegetative Propagation of the
protein content (15%), but palatability trials with Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii de Willd). ICFR Bulletin
Series No. 8-99. Institute for Commercial Forestry
sheep showed milled leaves to be unpalatable on
Research, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
their own and were only acceptable when mixed
with other feedstocks (Goodriche, 1978). Goodriche Bennell M, Hobbs TJ and Ellis M (2004). FloraSearch
Species and Industry Evaluation – Low rainfall agroforestry
(1978) considered that digestibility was probably
options for southeastern Australia. Rural Industries Research
affected by the high tannin content in the leaves and Development Corporation Report, SA Department of
and twigs (5.7%, dry weight). It is considered to Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Adelaide.
be an inferior stock feed in Japan but has been
Berenschot LM, Filius BM, Hardjosoediro S, 1988. Factors
fed to cattle in Hawaii during droughts (Doran determining the occurrence of the agroforestry system with
and Turnbull, 1997). Acacia mearnsii in central Java. Agroforestry-Systems,
6:119-135.
Sawdust of black wattle has been found to an
excellent medium for growing edible mushrooms in Bird PR, 1997. Specialty timbers for small scale farm
forestry. In Proceedings of Corangamite, Farm Forestry
China (Ho, 1997).
Conference Ballarat Victoria, September‑October, 1997.
A. mearnsii is a valuable source of pollen for bees Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
during favourable seasons, as it flowers later than Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
most other wattles (Clemson, 1985). It has a range Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
of other wildlife values such as being a food source Maryborough, Victoria.
for insects and seed eating birds and the gum provides Boden DI, 1984. Early responses to different methods of
a good winter food source for possums and sugar site preparation for three commercial tree species. In: Vol.
gliders. 2 Proceedings of IUFRO Symposium on Site and Productivity
of Fast-growing Plantations, 30 April-11 May 1984,
Pretoria and Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, pp 565-578.
Limitations Boland DJ, 1997. Plantation practices in Zimbabwe,
A. mearnsii is an aggressive coloniser and has Kenya and Tanzania. In: Brown AG, Ho CK (eds), Black
Wattle and its Utilisation. pp 65-77. Rural Industries
become a weed in some parts of southern Africa
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra,
where fires occur (Boucher, 1980). It coppices
weakly and is sensitive to severe drought, strong Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw Hill, Sydney.
winds, and frosts of -5°C or lower. Poor stem form Boucher C, 1980. Black Wattle. In: Stirton CH (ed).
often limits utilisation of timber from plantations. In Plant Invaders, Beautiful but Dangerous. 2nd Edition.
Australia the potential for insect damage must be Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation,
Capetown, South Africa.
recognised.
Brockwell J, Searle SD, Thies JE, Woods MJ, 1999.
Recommended Reading Provisional recommendations for inoculant strains for 20
species of Acacia. In Slattery J, Curran E (eds). Proceedings
Searle SD, 2000. Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii) for Farm
of the 12th Australian Nitrogen Fixation Conference. pp
Forestry. Department of Sustainability and Environment,
76‑78. Australian Society for Nitrogen Fixation. Rutherglen,
Victoria, Australia.
Victoria.
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Brown AG, Ho CK (eds), 1997. Black Wattle and its Higa AR, Resende MDV, 1994. In: Brown AG (ed).
Utilisation. RIRDC Publication No. 97/72, Rural Industries Breeding Acacia mearnsii De Willd. in southern Brazil. In
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Australian Tree Species Research in China. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 48. Australian Centre for International
Clemson A, 1985. Honey and Pollen Flora. Inkata Press,
Agricultural Research, Canberra, pp 159-160.
Melbourne.
Hillis WE, 1997. Bark Properties. In: Brown AG, Ho CK
Coppens HA, Santana MAE, Pastore FJ, 1980. Tannin
(eds). Black Wattle and its Utilisation. RIRDC Publication
formaldehyde adhesive for exterior grade plywood and
No. 97/72, Rural Industries Research and Development
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Corporation, Canberra, pp 94-101.
Craib IB, 1935. The place of thinning in wattle silviculture
Ho CK, 1997. Research on and prospects of black
and its bearing on the management of exotic conifers.
wattle (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.) in China. In: Brown
Zeitschrift für Weltforstwirtschaft. Bd 1, Heft 2/3:77-108.
AG, Ho CK (eds). Black Wattle and its Utilisation. RIRDC
Doran JC, 2000. Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Species Publication No. 97/72, Rural Industries Research and
Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) Development Corporation, Canberra, pp 160-165.
Ho CK, Fang YL, 1997. Development of black wattle
Doran JC, Gunn BV, 1987. Treatments to promote seed (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.) plantations in China. In:
germination in Australian acacias. In: Turnbull JW (ed). Brown AG, Ho CK (eds). Black Wattle and its Utilisation.
Australian Acacias in Developing Countries. ACIAR RIRDC Publication No. 97/72, Rural Industries Research
Proceedings No. 16. pp 57-63. Australian Centre and Development Corporation, Canberra, pp 83-88.
for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Jones DL, Elliott WR, 1995. Pests, diseases and ailments
Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs: of Australian Plants with Suggestions for their Control.
Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the Australia: Lothian.
Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian
Elliott HJ, de Little DW, 1984. Insect Pests of Trees and RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries
Timber in Tasmania. Hobart: Forestry Commission, Tasmania. Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Gao C, 1997. Black wattle plantations in South Africa: Kevin T, 2000. Black wattle for farm forestry. Agriculture
Introduction, silviculture and management. In: Brown AG, Note 0808. Department of Sustainability and Environment,
Ho CK (eds). Black Wattle and its Utilisation. RIRDC Victoria.
Li JY, 1997. Black wattle plantations in South Africa: Genetics
Development Corporation, Canberra, pp 28‑38.
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Goodriche TG, 1978. Investigations of the possible use of and its Utilisation. RIRDC Publication No. 97/72, Rural
the foliage of black wattle (Acacia mearnsii De Willd.) as Industries Research and Development Corporation,
feed for livestock. Wattle Research Institute Report 1977-78. Canberra, pp 53‑64.
University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
Li JiYuan, Gao ChuanBi, Zheng FangJi, Ren HuaDong,
Grant JE, Moran GF, Moncur MW, 1994. Pollination 1994. Bark quality of Acacia mearnsii provenances from
studies and breeding system in Acacia mearnsii. In: different geographic origins growing in South China.
Brown AG (ed). Australian Tree Species Research in In: Brown AG, (ed). Australian Tree Species Research in
China. ACIAR Proceedings No. 48. Australian Centre for China. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at
International Agricultural Research, Canberra, pp 165-170. Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, China, 2-5 November 1992.
ACIAR Proceedings No. 48. Canberra: Australian Centre
Guangcheng Z, Yunlu L, Yazaki Y, 1991. Tannin analysis
for International Agricultural Research, pp 203-211.
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and Stiasny methods. In: Turnbull JW (ed). Advances in Logan AF, 1987. Australian acacias for pulpwood. In:
Tropical Acacia Research. ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Turnbull JW, (ed). Australian Acacias in Developing Countries.
Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural ACIAR Proceedings No. 16. Australian Centre for
Research, pp 128‑131. International Agricultural Research, Canberra, pp 89-94.
Herbert MA, 1984. Variation in the growth of and responses Luyt IE, Mullin LJ, Gwaze DP, 1987. Black wattle
to fertilizing black wattle with nitrogen, phosphorus, (Acacia mearnsii) in Zimbabwe. In: Turnbull JW (ed).
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of IUFRO Symposium on Site and Productivity of Fast‑growing Proceedings No. 16. Australian Centre for International
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Moncur MW, Kleinschmidt G, Somerville D, 1991. Searle SD, Owen JV, Williams ER, Raymond CA, 1991.
The role of acacia and eucalypt plantations for honey Genetic variation in frost tolerance of Acacia mearnsii.
production. In: Turnbull JW (ed). Advances in Tropical In: Turnbull JW (ed). Advances in Tropical Acacia
Acacia Research. ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Australian Research. ACIAR Proceedings No. 35. Australian Centre
Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, pp
pp123-127. 93-94.
NAS, 1980. Firewood Crops. Shrub and tree species Searle SD, Owen JV, Snowdon P, 1994. Frost tolerance
for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, variation amongst 25 provenances of Acacia mearnsii.
Washington DC, USA. In:Brown AG (ed). Australian tree species research in
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Raymond CA, 1997. Flowering biology, genetics and
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Roux J, Kemp GHJ, Wingfield MJ, 1995. Diseases of
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Australian acacias. Paper to 1996 Australian Forest Growers
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Environment, Victoria, Australia.
20
2. Araucaria cunninghamii W.T.Aiton ex D.Don.
Hoop pine, Moreton Bay pine, colonial pine
Species overview
Araucaria cunninghamii is a very tall tree, having a
large, long straight bole with little taper and is free
of branches for up to two thirds of the tree height.
It is shade-tolerant when young, but grows best in
high light conditions (CABI, 2000). It is windfirm,
can tolerate salt winds and occasional mild frost,
however it is susceptible to severe frosts when young
(CABI, 2000). It prefers fertile soils, growing best
on deep loams which originally carried rainforest. It
Key features suffers little damage from insects or fungi (DNR, 1996).
In Queensland over 50 000 ha of hoop pine has
Large symmetrical tree with little taper and of
been planted for timber production. It is capable
good form
of producing knot-free timber of exceptional quality
Moderate growth rate and is used in plywood, panelling, mouldings,
Can tolerate only mild occasional frost particleboard, furniture, internal and external joinery,
boxes and flooring (DNR, 1996). One of its major
Grows best at sites with an average rainfall features is its uniformity of both appearance and
above 750 mm
While it will grow on heavy soils it is not tolerant
of waterlogging
The tree is very fire sensitive
Tree is susceptible to root and heart rots
Wood is uniform in appearance and properties
and is easy to saw and dress taking stains readily
Sapwood susceptible to blue stain and termites
but not Lyctus borers
Wood has low strength and durability, should
not be used in-ground and should be treated if
used externally above ground
Wood is used in heavy and light construction work
(internal only), joinery, mouldings, flooring, furniture,
veneers and plywood, and long fibre pulp
Rotation length required for sawn timber is
40 to 55 years.
Araucaria cunninghamii stand in Queensland.
21
properties. The wide sapwood is very susceptible Figure 2.1: Natural distribution of Araucaria
to blue stain and care needs to be taken in drying. cunninghamii in Australia (Jovanovic and
It is easy to saw and dress and takes stains and Booth, 2002)
polish readily.

occurrence
Description
Hoop pine is a large, symmetrical tree up to 60 m
tall, with a long, straight, cylindrical bole (to 40 m)
60-200 cm in diameter (CABI, 2000). It has little
taper and is free of branches for up to two-thirds of
the tree height. The crown is rather open with dark
green foliage tending to be clumped at the end of
branches. Some trees have long internodes between
whorls of branches, that give it a spindly silhouette
with tufts of foliage at the end (CABI, 2000). It is a
relatively shade-tolerant tree and tends to establish Figure 2.2: Areas predicted to be climatically
immediately after pioneer species during secondary suitable for Araucaria cunninghamii in Australia
succession following disturbance (Keenan et al., 1997). shown in black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
The bark is reddish brown to coppery on young

trees and peels in horizontal strips. On older trees
the bark is dark brown or black, hard and rough
with horizontal cracks forming hoops or bands
and rectangular scales (Boland et al., 1984).
This conifer has small linear leaves with stiff, sharp
points, spirally arranged and grouped at the ends
of branches. It has separate and different male and
female flowers which appear from November to
February. The fruit, or cones are terminal, almost
globular, up to 10 cm in diameter and composed
of flattened, wedge-shaped woody scales with
lateral wings. A single seed is embedded in each
scale. Cones ripen from December to February. 1000 m (Figure 2.1). The major region is from the
Years of heavy, highly-viable seed crops are strongly Clarence River, New South Wales, to Bundaberg,
periodic occurring at intervals of 2-6 years. Age of Queensland (Boland et al., 1984). It also occurs
female sexual maturity is 10-12 years and of male naturally in Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya,
sexual maturity is 20-25 years. It takes 2 years Indonesia, at latitudes 0°N to 12°S and altitudes
from pollination to mature seed (Nikles, 1996). from sea level to about 2750 m.
The species grows on soils derived from basalt, diorite
Natural occurrence and limestone, through to schists with calcareous
The natural range of hoop pine in Australia is from sediments and andesites, sandstones to recent
12-31°S and is limited to coastal regions (or within coastal sand and river alluvia. Soils range from
160 km of the coast) of New South Wales and krasnozems, red-earths to dark grey self mulching
Queensland, from sea level to about altitude soils on basaltic scoria with at least 50 cm of well
aerated soil (Boland et al., 1984).
22
Bark of Araucaria cunninghamii from Queensland. Bark of Araucaria cunninghamii from Papua
New Guinea.
Where will it grow? The map of areas predicted to be climatically

suitable for planting A. cunninghamii (Figure 2.2)
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for was generated from the revised climatic details for
A. cunninghamii, incorporating data from both the the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth,
natural distribution and from sites where the species 2002). These revisions were made to the climatic
has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the parameters, initially derived from the natural
following key climatic conditions for survival and distribution, on the basis of information from trials
good growth: and plantings of this species both within and outside
its natural range. Although hoop pine is found
Mean annual rainfall: 750-2700 mm naturally in sites with mean annual rainfall as low
Rainfall regime: Summer, uniform as 660 mm commercial plantations are typically
found in locations receiving an average of more
Dry season length: 0-2 months than 750 mm. Sites in Papua New Guinea suggest
Mean maximum temperature 24-34°C the species is suitable for uniform as well as summer
hottest month: rainfall environments. Dry season length at commercial
plantations is usually less than two months (Jovanovic
and Booth, 2002). Consideration of soil requirements,
coldest month:
occurrence of frost (see section on ‘Silviculture’) and
Mean annual temperature: 15-26°C proximity to markets also need to be considered
when deciding whether to plant hoop pine.
23
Plantings and provenance trials north Queensland between 1977‑1980 (Nikles,
1996). Results of these, as well as generally confirming
those of earlier trials, identified the following south‑eastern
Plantings
Queensland provenances as better performers and
In Queensland, Australia, hoop pine plantations date as important sources of germplasm for future breeding
back to 1917 and now cover some 50 000 ha. of the species in south Queensland, ‘Jimna’,
Large scale plantations have also been established ‘Goodnight Scrub’, ‘Yarraman’, ‘Kalpowar’ and
in South Africa and Papua New Guinea. Limited ‘Polmaily’. Several PNG and north Queensland
planting, or experimental stands, occur in Malaysia provenances were identified as important for
(Chew, 1975; Greathouse, 1973; Shim, 1973), deployments in central and north Queensland.
Thailand, the Philippines, India (Nair, 1971), Côte
d’Ivoire, Africa (Malagnoux and Gautun, 1976),
Breeding and genetic resources
as well as Venezuela (Tillman, 1975), Argentina
(Cozzo, 1963) and Costa Rica (Mesen, 1990) Intensive selection and breeding for population
(CABI, 2000). The species grows well in India at improvement has been practised in Queensland for
altitudes up to 1000 m in the western Himalayas, around the last 50 years. Plantation establishment
and up to 1500 m in the eastern Himalayas. with seed of selected superior trees from natural
populations began in the 1920s. This was followed
by formal tree improvement which began in the mid
1940s. However propagation with conventional
grafting methods were unsuccessful but a new method
(bark patch grafting) was developed in 1959 as
a result of research into the biology of the species.
In particular the species was found to have a very
different bud system from that of the Pinus species
(Nikles, 1961).
Improved seed of A. cunninghamiana is available
from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries
(DPI) Forestry Tree Seed Centre at Beerwah,
Queensland (DPI website, 2002).
Plantation hoop pine at 4 years in the
foreground and 50 years in the background.
Silviculture
Provenance trials Propagation

Large differences between provenances of hoop The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
pine for growth rate, crown form and morphology Tree Seed Centre have found that hoop pine seed
were identified in a series of wide ranging trials germinates satisfactorily at between 20‑30°C.
which were established in Queensland in the late Queensland Department of Primary Industry store
1960s‑early 1970s. Northern Australian provenances their seed at below 8% moisture content, in sealed
(especially ‘Coen’) and Papua New Guinea (PNG) black plastic containers at -18°C. Incorrect storage
provenances displayed very rapid early growth with conditions will result in deterioration of seed quality
dense broad crowns able to capture the site quickly over a period of several months and reduced
and hence reduce the need for weeding (Nikles, germination. DPI Forestry experience indicates
1978). However, PNG provenances were susceptible that each 1000 viable seeds yields about
to frost in both south Queensland and upland, north 760 viable field plants (DPI website, 2002).
Queensland trials, and to insect attack in south Seed is sown from mid to late August. After soaking
Queensland. An additional three trials and provenance in water for 4 hours to stimulate germination, the seed
resource stands (PRSs) were established in south and is sown in trays with a media of 50% vermiculite
24
Male clone of hoop pine showing its orthotropic habit.
and 50% sand and lightly covered with the same stock-scion incompatibility among field grafts. A
media. A fungicide can be applied in conjunction grafting method to obtain orthotropic shoot development
with watering. Trays are placed under shade and was devised by Nikles (1961). Rooted cuttings
kept moist at ambient temperature. At the first can be readily produced from young and old trees
watering after sowing, trays are drenched with a (Higgins, 1971) and seedlings of superior families.
fungicide. Plants are dibbled into pots at 3‑4 weeks However, although hoop pine juvenile cuttings root
and grown under 50% shade till March/April when well the low multiplication rate is likely to be a major
they are shifted to full sun for hardening. Plants are impediment to the vegetative multiplication of the
conditioned by reducing watering frequency from species. This is due to the branching system which
twice a day when they are first moved into the sun precludes the construction of broadly topped hedges
to once a week watering by the end of August. The capable of producing large numbers of orthotropic
seedlings with heights of around 20 cm are ready shoots. Micropropagation of hoop pine has been
for planting in October. Therefore, it takes 1.3 years achieved (Haines and de Fossard, 1977, Burrows
from sowing mature seed to obtain plantable stock et al., 1988, Nikles, 1996).
(Nikles, 1996; Lewty and Last, 1998). Further
information on pots, potting media, sterilisation Establishment
and fertiliser are available on the DPI Forestry
Site selection is important for success. The average
Tree Seed Centre webpage (DPI website, 2002).
annual rainfall should exceed 750 mm yr‑1 and the
DPI Forestry nurseries specialise in the production site should be relatively frost-free. Hoop pine grows
and sale of plants for timber plantations. The plants best on well drained alluvial soils, and soils of
are either genetically improved or from selected volcanic origin. However, it can grow well on a wide
provenances to improve the timber yield. Details variety of soil types as long as there is a reasonable
are available on the DPI Forestry Tree Seed Centre depth of topsoil. Good drainage, a least in the top
webpage (DPI website, 2002). 45 cm, is essential. Site preparation should begin
Attempts to propagate hoop pine vegetatively were the winter before planting with clearing of unwanted
confounded by its unusual orthotropic (shoots grow vegetation. If drainage is poor or the ground has
vertically) and plagiotropic (shoots grow horizontally) become compacted, mounding is required.
bud/shoot system and the occurrence of severe
25
following planting out is likely to be improved if
roots are already colonised with AM fungi
(McGee et al., 1999).
Fertilising is usually unnecessary on former rainforest
sites, but is advisable on other sites. No specific
prescription can be given as the rate required will
depend on the site. Rates of between 50‑300 grams
tree‑1 of complete fertiliser at planting are common,
followed by similar amounts after good rain in the
spring or early summer. Another follow up application
the following spring may also be beneficial (DNR,
Eight year old pruned plantation hoop pine. 1996).
Management
If forested or scrubby areas are to be planted, they
should be cleared as for agricultural use and sown to Thinning and pruning are necessary to ensure the
a short grass (or cereal) such as couch at 3 kg ha‑1 production of the best possible wood product. Early
in order to assist in controlling woody weeds and thinning should take place before the trees are 5 years
to mitigate soil erosion risks, especially on steeper old. For woodlots, retain 300-350 stems ha‑1,
slopes. The planting sites should be spot treated choosing the most vigorous of the best formed
with herbicides before and after planting using plants. For agroforestry, retain only 100-200 stems ha‑1.
glyphosate. The spotted area should be kept clear Pruning should be done to a height of 3 m when
of weeds for a radius of 1‑1.5 m for up to 3 years the average height is 9.5 m. Continue pruning to a
(DNR, 1996). Grass competition should be controlled height of 5.4 m when more than 55 % of the trees
until the trees are beyond the reach of stock, when exceed 10 m. Always retain green crown for at
grazing may be introduced. Care must be exercised least one-third of the tree’s height and prune only
with application of herbicides as hoop pine seedlings vigorous, well formed stems (DNR, 1996). Pruning
are very susceptible to weedicides. should continue at intervals to achieve a clear log
of at least 5 m. The most serious insect pest attacks
Planting should be carried out in summer when the on this species in Australia are associated with
soil is thoroughly moist. Planting density should be pruning injuries, which can be minimised if such
at a rate of 500 trees ha‑1. A suitable arrangement operations are carried out at during dry seasons.
for agroforestry might be 2.5 m apart within rows
that are 8 m apart. Seedlings are frost sensitive but Growth
where heavy frost is possible, mounding can be
carried out to elevate seedlings above ground Hoop pine produces around 12 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1
level to reduce the risk of damage. Refilling of gaps over a 45-50 year sawlog rotation (DNR, 1996).
when seedlings have died is not recommended
as observations have shown that trees planted 3 Protection
months or more after the optimal time for planting
have a much slower start and do not catch up to In general hoop pine suffers little damage due to
the initial plantings. Rather than refilling gaps, care insect and fungal attack. The most serious insect
to minimise losses at initial planting and not worrying pest attacks on this species in Australia are associated
about the few losses that do occur is the best course with pruning injuries, which can be minimised if
of action (DNR, 1996). such operations are carried out during dry seasons.
The most significant diseases of plantation-grown
When planted out, hoop pine becomes colonised with hoop pine are root and heart rots caused by
arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM). Survival immediately Phellinus noxius (CABI, 2000).
26
Fire protection will be required throughout the life Limitations
of the plantation as the species is very fire sensitive.
Each winter a fire break should be constructed around Low durability, sapwood susceptible to blue stain
the perimeter of hoop pine plots. The break should fungi, termites and hoop pine borers.
be cultivated, slashed or flat bladed at least 3 m
Recommended Reading
wide and maintained throughout the fire season.
Slashing between rows of trees will give extra Nikles DG, 1996. The first 50 year of the evolution of
forest tree improvement in Queensland. In: Dieters MJ,
protection. (DNR, 1996).
Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM
Since hoop pine is sawn mostly for appearance (eds). Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry.
grade products, sapstain is not acceptable and is Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO Conference, Caloundra,
Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November,1996.
prevented by good log management practices and
Pp 51-64. Queensland Forestry Research Institute,
kiln drying, but rarely through the use of chemicals. Gympie, Australia.
The Queensland Forestry Research Institute (QFRI)
Timber Protection Program is actively researching References
the biodeterioration of wood caused by sapstain Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
fungi and the chemistry of its control (Powell and Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
Kreber, 1997). Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
Burrows GE, Doley DD, Haines RJ, Nikles DG, 1988.
Utilisation In vitro propagation of Araucaria cunninghamii and other
species of the Araucariaceae via axillary meristems.
Australian Journal of Botany, 36:665-676.
Wood
CABI, 2000. Forestry Compendium Globule Module
Hoop pine has a white to pale yellow heartwood, (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International,
with indistinct growth rings. The sapwood is white Wallingford, UK.
and is susceptible to attack by blue stain fungi but Chew TK, 1975. Preliminary notes on the performance
not by Lyctus borers. It is finely textured and has low of experimental plantations in Bahau Forest Reserve.
strength, durability and shrinkage. The wood is uniform Malaysian-Forester, 38:140-148.
in both appearance and properties. It has a density Cozzo D, 1963. Preliminary results of trials with forest
of about 530 kg m‑3 at 12% moisture content and species in two experimental areas in Misiones,
is easy to work (Boland et al., 1984). It glues well Argentina. Rev. Forests Argentina, 7:35-44.
but is difficult to bend. It varies in its acceptance of DPI website, 2002. Information Sheet Araucaria
preservative impregnation. In tropical and subtropical cunninghamii (hoop pine). Brisbane, Australia:
regions, the timber is susceptible to attack by hoop Department of Primary Industries Forestry Tree Seed
Centre website: http://www.forests.qld.gov.au/forind/
pine borers (Calymmaderus species) unless treated
forestry/seedcent.htm
(DPI website, 2002). Treated hoop pine cannot be
used for in-ground purposes, but it can be used DNR, 1996. Hoop pine for wood production. DNR Tree
Facts No. T36. Queensland, Australia: Department of
above ground if treated.
Natural Resources and Mines (NRM) website, 2001,
It is used for a wide range of purposes, including http://www.nrm.qld.gov.au/
heavy and light construction timber, high quality Greathouse TE, 1973. Pilot plantations for quick-growing
finishing products such as mouldings, joinery, fine industrial trees species, Malaysia. Tree improvement in
furniture and other appearance products, flooring, Malaysian conifer plantations. FAO Report, No. FO(SF-
MAL 12): Technical Report 8.
boxes and containers, veneers and plywood, and
long-fibre pulp (Boland et al., 1984; CABI, 2000; Haines RJ, de Fossard RA, 1977. Propagation of hoop
DPI website, 2002). pine (Araucaria cunninghamii Ait.) by organ culture.
Acta Horticulturae, 78:297-302.
27
Higgins M, 1971. Propagation of hoop pine by cuttings. Nair PN, 1971. Preliminary trials with tropical conifers in
Unpublished report. Queensland Forestry Department, Kerala State. 1971, Indian Forester, 97:233-242.
Queensland, Australia.
Nikles DG, 1961. The development of a new method
Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic for grafting hoop and kauri pines. Research note 10.
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. Queensland Forest Service, Brisbane, Australia.
Nikles DG, 1978. Status of exploration, evaluation,
use and conservation of genetic resources of Araucaria
Keenan R, Lamb D, Woldring O, Irvine T, Jensen R, 1997. cunninghamii Ait. (Hoop Pine). In: Nikles DG, Burley J,
Restoration of plant biodiversity beneath tropical tree Barnes RD (eds). Progress and problems of genetic
plantations in Northern Australia. In: Parrotta JA, Turnbull improvement of tropical forest trees. Proceedings of a
JW (eds), Special issue: Catalysing Native Forest joint workshop, IUFRO working parties S2.02-03 and
Regeneration of Degraded Tropical Lands. Selected edited S2.03-01, Brisbane, 1977. Commonwealth Forestry
papers based on the proceedings of an international Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
symposium and workshop held in Washington, D.C.,
Nikles DG, 1996. The first 50 year of the evolution
June 11-14, 1996. Forest Ecology and Management,
of forest tree improvement in Queensland. In: Dieters MJ,
99:117-131.
Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM
Lewty M, Last I, 1998. Hoop pine plantation management (eds). Tree Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry.
in Queensland. In: Dyason R, Dyason L, Garsden R (eds). Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO Conference, Caloundra,
Plantation and Regrowth Forestry A Diversity of Opportunity. Queensland, Australia, 27 October- 1 November,
Australian Forest Growers Biennial Conference, Lismore 1996. Pp 51-64. Queensland Forestry Research Institute,
New South Wales 6-9th July, 1998. pp189-197. Gympie, Australia.
Malagnoux M, Gautun JC, 1976. A pest of Araucaria Powell M, Kreber B, 1997. Sapstain in Queensland: an
plantations in the Ivory Coast. Bois et Forets des Tropiques, overview. In: Strategies for improving protection of logs
165:35-38. and lumber: proceedings of a symposium at the Forest
Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand, 21-22
McGee PA, Bullock S, Summerell BA, 1999. Structure
November 1997. FRI Bulletin, 204:17-19.
of mycorrhizae of the Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis)
and related Araucariaceae. Australian Journal of Botany, Shim PS, 1973. Species trials at Sibuga Forest Reserve,
47:85-95. Sabah: conifers. Penyelidek Hutan, Negeri Sabah 1970
Annual Report. pp 112-118. Research Branch, Forest
Mesen F, 1990. Results of provenance trials in Costa
Department, Sabah Indonesia: 1973.
Rica. Serie Tecnica: Informe Tecnico Centro Agronomico
Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza. No. 156. 42 pp. Tillman E, 1975. Assessment of experimental tree
plantations in Venezuela. FAO-Report. 1975, No.
VEN-72-019 Working Document No. 2. 32 pp.
28
3. Corymbia maculata
Spotted gums
The K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson (1995) classification of the spotted gums (Section Politaria of the
Genus Corymbia) and the revision of Bean and McDonald (2000) has been adopted in this species
profile and includes: Corymbia maculata (F. Muell.) K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson, Corymbia henryi
(S.T. Blake) K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson, Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D. Hill and L.A.S. Johnson
subsp. variegata (F.Muell.) M.W. McDonald and A.R. Bean
Adapted from Larmour, 2000.
Species overview
The spotted gums are very closely related and are
tall trees up to 50 m on favourable sites. They are
important commercial timber species, capable of
producing excellent sawn timber and have a wide
range of uses – heavy engineering construction and
piles, poles and sleepers when treated, shipbuilding,
flooring, handles for tools, furniture, panelling and
internal decoration, charcoal and firewood (Cremer
1990). Trees are lignotuberous and coppice easily
Key features after harvesting. Spotted gums have a high tolerance
to Phytophthora but plantations in high summer rainfall
Tall tree on favourable sites, with smooth bark regions can be seriously damaged by ramularia shoot
Moderately fast growing species of good, erect form blight which is caused by the fungus Sporothrix pitereka.
The Queensland Forest Research Institute is currently
Frost tolerance variable between species,
provenances and families screening provenances for resistance to the fungus
(David Lee, QFRI pers. comm., 2002).
Moderately drought tolerant
Grows on a wide range of soils Spotted gums are moderately drought tolerant.
Seedlings and young trees are frost sensitive. Under
Deep lateral root gives access to water held
lower rainfall conditions, where there is moisture deficit,
deep in the soil profile
the spotted gums are not quite as hardy as some of
Does not tolerate waterlogging the other lower-rainfall species (Eucalyptus occidentalis,
Very susceptible to shoot blight in high rainfall areas E. cladocalyx and the ironbarks). They are well suited
High tolerance to Phytophthora to rainfall zones receiving above 550 mm yr‑1,
where severe frost doesn’t restrict establishment, in
Excellent timber properties with high recovery
inland regions of southern Australia. Larmour et al.
rates for top-quality appearance grade wood
(2000) identified variation in frost tolerance within
Timber suited to a wide range of uses including the spotted gums, indicating that it may be possible
applications requiring strength, resilience and
to improve their suitability for frost-prone areas
durability, tools subject to high impact forces,
through selection and breeding.
and steam bending
Suitable planting areas include 600-900 mm annual
rainfall areas in inland southern Australia and Description and natural
600-1200 mm yr‑1 rainfall areas in central and occurrence
southern Queensland and eastern New South Wales
(the selection of appropriate spotted gum species Species in the spotted gum group have smooth
and provenances within these areas is crucial for bark. Juvenile leaves are peltate and cordate with
plantation success). long petioles and adult leaves are concolorous.
29
Figure 3.1: Natural distribution of C. maculata
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Corymbia maculata natural stand in Corunna

state forest, NSW.
Distribution of the spotted gums ranges from subtropical

and tropical regions in eastern Queensland southward,
heavy seed set on an irregular interval of around
becoming mainly coastal or subcoastal in New
7 years in natural stands. Fruits are mature approximately
South Wales with a small outlying occurrence in
6-8 months after flowering and seed is shed from
eastern Victoria (Hill and Johnson, 1995).
6 months after maturity, although a portion of
The majority of the descriptors for C. maculata can seed-bearing capsules can be retained in the
also be used for C. henryi and C. citriodora subsp. crown for 3 years (Pook et al., 1997). Seed is
variegata, with the exception of those relevant to
morphology, distribution and climatic features.
Description
Corymbia maculata
This species generally has a long, straight bole and
spreading crown, usually 35-50 m in height, with
DBH reaching 1-2 m. It has a self-pruning habit,
leaving a clear bole with heavy branching and
forking generally restricted to the top third of the
tree (Poynton 1979).
The bark is smooth throughout, pale grey, pink or
cream, even in colour and shedding in small sheets
or scales to expose a dimpled, glaucous-green surface,
fading to pink, giving the bole a spotted appearance.
It has a deep tap root and lateral root system.
The juvenile leaves are alternate, elliptical to ovate
in shape, hairy with bristle glands. Adult leaves are
alternate, lanceolate, concolorous and glossy (Hill
and Johnson, 1995).
Trees flower annually, generally during winter, at Corymbia henryi natural stand in the Helidon
least 14 months after appearance of buds. Prolific Hills, Queensland, the northern most part of its
flowering occurs at intervals of several years, and limited distribution.
30
Figure 3.2: Natural distribution of C. henryi Pollination is by insects and birds predominately,
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) but gliders and flying foxes have been associated
with mass flowering of spotted gums (McDonald
et al., 2000).
The species can tolerate periodic droughts (Pook,
1986) but does not tolerate sites subject to
prolonged waterlogging (Mazanec, 1999).
Corymbia henryi
Distinguished within the section Politaria by the larger
and thicker leaves at all stages and the adult leaves
with coarse venation, which is more acute than that
found in the large leaves that occur in some southern
examples of C. maculata. Also distinguished by the
larger buds, flowers and fruits (Hill and Johnson, 1995).
Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata
glossy red-brown, 2-3 mm long x 1.5-2.5 mm Previously described by Hill and Johnson (1995) as
wide (Hill and Johnson, 1995). There will be C. variegata. These authors saw C. variegata as
regional and seasonal variability in seed availability. a species similar to C. citriodora and more or less
intermediate between that species and C. maculata.
Trees in Australian plantations have been observed
McDonald and Bean (2000) have since published
to flower from 4.5 years of age (Roger Arnold, CSIRO
a review of the taxonomy of this species and placed
Forestry and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2000).
it into C. citriodora based on evidence that it is not
morphologically or genetically different from this
species. The main character distinguishing the two
‘species’ is therefore leaf oil composition and the
two ‘species’ are really chemotypes of the same
species, i.e. C. citriodora (citronellal type – lemon
scented) and C. citriodora subsp. variegata (a-pinene
type, not lemon scented).
Natural Occurrence
Corymbia maculata
C. maculata often forms almost pure stands in tall
dry sclerophyll forests from the central New South
Wales coastal range near Kempsey to the southern
coastal ranges of New South Wales near Bega,
with a disjunct population near Orbost in eastern
Victoria (Figure 3.1). Latitudinal range extends from
30°30’S to 37°S. It is generally found on moist
well-drained granitic soils at low altitudes (<400 m)
along the coast and ranges, above 600 m near Moss
Vale, south of Sydney, extending up the Hunter Valley
to the Great Dividing Range, altitude 650 m near
Dunedoo New South Wales, to 1000 m elevation
Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata natural north-west of Guyra New South Wales (Hill and
stand Thangool, Qld. Johnson, 1995).
31
Figure 3.3: Natural distribution of C. citriodora
subsp. variegata.
Rainfall regime: Uniform/
bimodal, summer
hottest month:
coldest month:
The map of areas predicted to be climatically

suitable for planting C. maculata (Figure 3.4) was
generated from the revised climatic details for the
species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002).
These revisions were made to the climatic parameters,
Corymbia henryi initially derived from the natural distribution, on the
Locally abundant in dry sclerophyll forest on species both within and outside its natural range. The
somewhat infertile soils, often but not always on dry season length given above has been increased
more or less level country, from around Brisbane in to five months because of data from trials in South
Queensland southward to near Glenreagh, south of Africa (Darrow, 1985) and evidence, which is
Grafton, New South Wales (Hill and Johnson, 1995) emerging from trials in Australia, of the species’
(Figure 3.2). The latitudinal range extends from drought tolerance (Roger Arnold, CSIRO Forestry
around 27°S to 30°S. and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2001). It should
be noted that although the map of areas in Australia
Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata predicted to be climatically suitable to C. maculata
Widely ranging from the Carnarvon Range and includes areas in south‑eastern Queensland and
the Dawes Range north of Monto in Queensland, northern New South Wales, this species has been
contracting southward to sub-coastal regions as far identified as highly susceptible to ramularia shoot
south as the upper Nymboida River and north-west
of Coffs Harbour in New South Wales. It occurs
Figure 3.4: Areas predicted to be climatically
chiefly on soils of medium fertility, often on hilly country
suitable for Corymbia maculata are shown in
(Hill and Johnson, 1995) (Figure 3.3). The latitudinal
black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
range extends from around 24°S to 31°S.
Where will it grow?

Corymbia maculata
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for
Corymbia maculata, incorporating data from both
the natural distribution and from sites where the species
has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the
following key climatic conditions for survival and
good growth:
32
blight and has been discounted as a suitable plantation initially derived from the natural distribution, on the
species by Hardwoods Queensland (QFRI website, basis of information from trials and plantings of this
2002). This species is also being trialled in southern species both within and outside its natural range.
Australia with some success (see section on The major revisions include the raising of the dry
‘Provenance Trials’). season length to five months with the inclusion of
trials in South Africa (Darrow, 1996). The upper
Corymbia henryi limits of the mean minimum temperature of the
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for coldest month and mean annual temperature was
Corymbia henryi, incorporating data from both the exceeded in a trial in South Africa, but as this was
natural distribution and from sites where the species only one occurrence the previously accepted values
has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the have not been changed. The lower limit for mean
following key climatic conditions for survival and annual temperature was also exceeded in South
good growth: Africa (Darrow, 1996), but as this was also only
one occurrence the limits were not changed. It should
Mean annual rainfall: 830-1745 mm be noted that although the map of areas in Australia
predicted to be climatically suitable to C. henryi
Rainfall regime: Summer
includes areas in south‑eastern Queensland and
Dry season length: 0-5 months northern New South Wales, this species has been
identified as highly susceptible to ramularia shoot
blight and has been discounted as a suitable
hottest month:
plantation species by Hardwoods Queensland
Mean minimum temperature 2-8°C (QFRI website, 2002). This species is also being
coldest month: trialled in southern Australia with some success (see
Mean annual temperature: 15-20°C section on ‘Provenance Trials’).
Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata

suitable for planting Coyrmbia henryi (Figure 3.5) A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
was generated from the revised climatic details for for Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata, from the
the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, natural distribution, gives the following key climatic
2002). As for the previous map (Figure 3.4) these conditions for survival and good growth:
revisions were made to the climatic parameters,
suitable for Corymbia henryi are shown in black Dry season length: 0-6 months
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) Mean maximum temperature 22-34°C
hottest month:
coldest month:
At present there is little provenance information

to relate to the new taxonomic classification as
provenances in older trials cannot be readily
associated with the new subspecies assignment.
Therefore the map of areas predicted to be
climatically suitable for planting C. citriodora
subsp. variegata (Figure 3.6) was generated
33
Figure 3.6: Areas predicted to be climatically central and southern Queensland in areas receiving
suitable for C. citriodora subsp. variegata are between 600-1200 mm yr‑1 mean average rainfall
shown in black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) (QFRI website, 2002).
Provenance trials
The spotted gums generally displayed poor survival
and slower early growth compared to other more
widely-grown eucalyptus species in species elimination
trials established in Australia (Clarke et al., 1997;
Tibbits and Sasse, 1999). However, more recent
provenance-progeny trials using improved silviculture
techniques and a broader genetic base have shown
increased early growth rates and survival in regions
of southern Australia (Tibbits and Sasse, 1999).
Trials of spotted gums in the high summer rainfall
regions of Australia (900+ mm) have concentrated
on C. citriodora subsp. variegata and C. henryi
based only on the climatic parameters for the
due to the susceptibility of C. maculata to ramularia
natural distribution. Provenances of C. citriodora
shoot blight in the 900 mm plus rainfall zone (Ivory,
subsp. variegata have been identified by QFRI
1999). The spotted gum provenance with the highest
as the most tolerant of the three spotted gums to
resistance to ramularia identified to date is the
ramularia shoot blight (David Lee, QFRI. pers. comm.,
‘Woondum’, Queensland, provenance of C. citriodora
2002). This species is also being trialled in southern
subsp. variegata (David Lee, QFRI, pers. comm., 2002).
Australia with some success (see section on
‘Provenance Trials’). At trial sites around Hamilton in western Victoria,
C. maculata has better growth and survival than
Plantings and provenance trials the other two species. The ‘Batemans Bay’, New
South Wales, and ‘Orbost’, Victoria, provenances
were superior overall across the sites (Measki et al.,
Plantings
1998; Bird et al., unpublished, 2000).
These species are important commercial timber
Five provenance-progeny trials were established in
trees, harvested from natural stands in New South
1995 on sites near Deniliquin (New South Wales),
Wales and Queensland (60% of the volume of
Holbrook (New South Wales) and Undera (Victoria).
native hardwood harvested in Queensland), and
Results from measurements after three years (Tibbits
commercial plantations have been established
and Sasse, 1999) demonstrate considerable within-
in South Africa and Brazil. Spotted gums were
provenance and family variation and also considerable
established in Western Australia in 1928 and the
variation between sites. Provenances performing
early 1900s in South Australia (Turnbull and Pryor
well include C. maculata from ‘Wingello’, ‘Kioloa’
1984). They have been established in increasing
and ‘Bodalla’, New South Wales; C. henryi from
numbers over the last decade in inland areas of
‘Grafton’ and ‘Ewingar’, New South Wales; and
New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and
C. citriodora subsp. variegata from ‘Warwick’
Western Australia where they have shown potential
and ‘Chinchilla’, Queensland.
in farm-forestry and mine rehabilitation in the medium
rainfall regions (550-800 mm annual rainfall) and One of the spotted gum provenance trials established
under irrigation in lower-rainfall regions. Small scale in 1983 in the Wellington Catchment, Western
plantings of spotted gums under irrigation have also Australia, has been reported by Mazanec (1999).
been established in other parts of Australia, South Species differences were found for mean annual
Africa and Israel. Future commercial plantations volume increment, C. maculata yielding slightly
of spotted gum are expected to be established in more than C. citriodora subsp. variegata. There
34
sensitivity of provenances according to exposure of
leaf samples to three test temperatures from -8.0°C
to -4.2°C. It showed that variation within and between
species exists. The study found C. citriodora subsp.
variegata to have significantly greater frost tolerance
than C. maculata. Inland, high-altitude provenances
of spotted gums had greater frost tolerance than
those from coastal locations. The most frost-tolerant
provenance was C. citriodora subsp. variegata
from ‘Paddys Land’, at 1000 m altitude north-west of
Guyra, New South Wales. The ‘Curryall’ provenance
(north of Dunedoo, New South Wales, at altitude
650 m) of C. maculata ranked third overall and
was significantly more frost tolerant than all other
C. maculata provenances. The most frost-tolerant
provenance tested would have required experimental
frost temperatures of 1.5°C lower than the least
tolerant provenance to produce the same degree
of frost damage (Larmour et al., 2000). It must be
emphasized, however, that such differences cannot
be equated directly to provenance differences in
the ability of whole seedlings to tolerate field frosts,
or their ability to withstand the same frost minimum
temperatures under field conditions (Raymond et
al., 1992).
Collecting seed from natural stand of Corymbia
maculata in Corunna state forest, NSW.
were no significant differences between provenances Genetic resources of the spotted gum species are
within species for volume, C. citriodora subsp. generally not considered to be at risk, with there
variegata from the ‘Richmond Range’, New South being good representation of most of the species
Wales, had the greatest volume followed by in national parks and state forests. Several small,
C. maculata from ‘Batemans Bay’ (second), ‘Nowra’ isolated populations, such as are found along the
(third) and C. henryii from ‘Grafton’, New South Great Dividing Range near Dunedoo New South
Wales (fourth). Provenance rankings of the other Wales, Mottle Range in eastern Victoria and near
traits measured were highly variable. Parrot damage Moss Vale on the southern highlands New South
was reported, which affected stem straightness. High Wales, could be considered vulnerable due to the
mortality in parts of the trial from waterlogging small number of trees growing in restricted areas.
indicates a preference for freely-drained soils in Provenance growth rankings of the spotted gums
all three species. have been shown to change over time, and this
Trials at Huntley and Jarrahdale in Western Australia, could make the process of selection more difficult
established in 1983, indicated that C. citriodora than in a species such as E. grandis, where
subsp. variegata and C. henryii, north of latitude superior seedlots selected at age four generally
32°S, were performing better than C. maculata maintain their superiority (Darrow 1985). Tibbits
at those sites (Mazanec, 1993). and Sasse (1999) have outlined a breeding
strategy to produce improved seed to develop
A glasshouse study of provenance variation in spotted gum plantings in Victoria.
spotted gum seedlings in relation to frost tolerance
was carried out by CSIRO which ranked the frost
35
The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian Seedlings usually take 3-5 months to reach planting
Tree Seed Centre in Canberra can supply both size of about 15-30 cm in height.
single-tree and bulk-tree provenance collections of
Propagation by vegetative cuttings is very difficult
seed from natural stands of the spotted gums suitable
from seedlings and basal sprouts from coppiced
for trials. Best bet provenances identified for particular
trees (McComb and Wroth, 1986).
areas and improved seed from seedling seed
orchard’s planted near Deniliquin, southern C. maculata is susceptible to damping-off and
New South Wales, in 1995 are also available. other fungal pathogens during the nursery phase.
Approximately 3‑5 months under a suitable nursery
Queensland Forest Research Institute’s Hardwoods
regime is generally adequate to provide quality
Queensland have identified provenances of spotted
seedlings for planting out. Seedlings should be
gums that are more disease tolerant than others
hardened off before planting out, which should
(e.g. Woondum/Gympie, Queensland) and several
be done when the soil is moist and conditions are
provenances well suited to drier regions. Seed is
not excessively hot.
available through the DPI Forestry Tree Seed Centre,
Beerwah, Queensland (DPI website, 2002).
Establishment
Best-bet provenances for Western Australia include
Locally successful methods of plantation establishment
‘Richmond Range’ and ‘Batemans Bay’, New South
for a range of major forest tree species are suitable
Wales, and are available from the CSIRO Forestry
for the spotted gums. Detailed information on various
and Forest Products, Australian Tree Seed Centre
establishment practices is available from several
(ALRTIG, 2002). Seed of the best provenance
sources including government organisations (Queensland
identified in three replicated species/provenance
Department of Primary Industries; Sustainability and
breeding trials established in 1983 in south-western
Environment, Victoria) and farm forestry and landcare
Western Australia is available from the Forest Products
groups. Books such as Doran and Turnbull (1997),
Commission of Western Australia. The Commission
Florence (1996) and Bird (2000) are also valuable
also has a limited amount of improved seed from
resources. Websites of many of the above
the above trial and expect seed from a clonal seed
organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
orchard to be available in the near future (Mazanec
(e.g. QFRI website http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/
and Harwood, 2000; FPC website, 2002).
hardwoodsqld/), or these documents can be
obtained by contacting the organisations directly.
Silviculture
The spotted gums have a varying degree of frost
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this sensitivity, therefore it is desirable to select sites
species. Further information is available through which don’t include frost pockets and hollows.
sources listed under recommended reading. Ripping and mounding, especially on heavy clay
Summary silvicultural information and practices soils, is generally recommended. Mounding and
specific to this species are outlined below. use of tree guards increase survival and growth of
seedlings planted in frost-prone areas (Bird et al., 2000).
Propagation
Weed control is critical, as spotted gum seedlings
C. maculata has an average of 100 000 viable have a weak competitive ability, and weed competition
seeds kg‑1 of seed and chaff mix (Turnbull and Pryor, suppresses growth. Generally, a mix of residual
1984). Seed storage is orthodox. The viability of and knock-down (usually glyphosate) herbicides is
seed stored dry (5-8% moisture content) in air-tight applied before planting, and further control for up
containers at room temperature (approximately 24°C) to 2‑3 years is advantageous. Rates of application
will be extended under cool room temperature and effects of herbicides on spotted gum survival
(3-5°C) (Gunn, 2001). No pre-sowing treatment is and control of weeds can be found in Hall and
required. Rapid germination is achieved under moist, Burns (1991).
warm (25°C) conditions in the presence of light.
36
Seedlings can be planted by hand or by machinery.
To allow machinery to be used a spacing of 3-5 m
between rows should be used (Weiss, 1997). A
range of spacings and planting designs are possible
in farm forestry plantings. Readers are referred to
texts such as Bird (2000) and Reid and Stephen
(2001) for discussion of options and their merits.
Suitable initial spacings for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m
(1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1).
These spacings encourage rapid canopy closure,
reducing weed problems, promoting good form
and allowing ample selection for final stocking of
200-300 trees ha‑1 (Bird, 2000; QFRI website, 2002).
In southern latitudes with winter and uniform rainfall
patterns, planting is carried out during late winter/
early spring. Later rather than earlier planting is best
with frost-sensitive species like the spotted gums.
Planting in northern latitudes usually occurs with the
onset of summer rains between November‑April,
but February‑April is preferred.
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist
early growth is practiced in the establishment of
eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is
Seven-year-old spotted gum plantation in western
particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there is
Victoria, thinned from 830 to 430 stems per hectare
often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil
and pruned to 6 m.
degradation can result from very large applications
of nitrogen (N) fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees
can respond to a fertiliser application only if other Plantations of spotted gums in Australia have yet
factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability to reach a stage where commercial harvesting has
(low rainfall or heavy weed competition are two been undertaken and management practices are
factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely still developing.
depending on the site and readers should access
further information from more detailed references Growth
such as: Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997). Growth data for plantation grown spotted gums
is not available for Australia.
Management Naturally regenerated C. maculata stands on the
Regular thinning to a final stocking rate of south coast of New South Wales, managed for saw
100-200 stems ha‑1 is necessary if mean annual log and mine timber production, indicate mean
volume growth rates are to be maintained (Florence annual increment of 4.1-5.4 m3 ha‑1 with stand
1996). The spotted gum’s ability to shed branches density being reduced from 988 to 99 stems ha-1
well, in combination with the use of high initial between 10-60 years (Borough et al., 1984). Mean
stocking rates and the low incidence of knots, even annual increments of up to 20 m3 ha‑1 to age 4
in timber from unmanaged plantings, mean that years have been obtained in irrigated plantations
little or no pruning will generally be required in inland southern New South Wales (Tibbits and
(Washusen et al., 1998; Bird, 2000). Sasse, 1999).
37
Protection Damage caused by parrots and cockatoos
on young plantations in Western Australia can
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens seriously affect form and growth rates, with
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations dominant leaders chewed off or ring-barked
have acquired the status of serious and limiting (Mazanec, 1999).
forest pests. However, a certain amount of damage to
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of
Utilisation
managing them. At present the main opportunities to
reduce this damage are provided by management
Wood
options such as maintaining the health and vigour C. maculata yields excellent timber of high density
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible and strength (Grant and Joe, 1994). The heartwood
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; is pale to dark brown. The texture is moderately
not planting the species on sites that are marginal coarse and the variable grain is frequently wavy,
for it and by regular monitoring for insect damage giving an attractive fiddleback figure. Timber from
or unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). natural and planted stands is used for heavy
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the construction, tool handles, house fabrication, flooring,
control of pests by pesticide application is not mine timbers, plywood manufacture, boat building,
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs charcoal and firewood. The wood can absorb
involved, monitoring required and environmental preservatives (due to a wide sapwood band) to
issues of chemical use. produce treated transmission poles or small-diameter
round logs. The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus borer.
Within the temperate uniform/winter regions of
Australia spotted gum plantations are relatively The air-dried wood density for spotted gum timber
free of diseases and pests, except for significant is high, ranging from 800 kg m‑3 in younger plantation
defoliation by Christmas beetles (Angopholgnatus wood (Grant and Joe, 1994) to more than
sp.) in some trials in southern New South Wales 1000 kg m‑3 (Washusen et al., 1998).
(Tibbits and Sasse, 1999). Ramularia shoot blight,
In a study of timber from unmanaged planted trees,
caused by the fungus Sporothrix pitereka, commonly
25-42 years old, in north-eastern Victoria and the
affects spotted gums in higher-summer-rainfall
south-west slopes of New South Wales, the spotted
subtropical regions of northern New South Wales
gums came out on top. The timber showed very
and Queensland (Ivory, 1999), causing spotting,
little or no drying degrade and the recovery of
necrosis and distortion of expanding leaves and
high-quality appearance products was more than
young stems and possibly leading to repeated
twice that of the benchmark species (60-80 year
die-back of the leader and upper laterals with
old mountain ash, Eucalyptus regnans). Knots were
resultant poor form and growth.
a minor problem, indicating that in a managed
Short‑term control of ramularia shoot blight in plantation very little pruning would be required
the nursery can be achieved through fungicide (Washusen et al., 1998). Tibbits and Sasse (1999)
application, although control in established plantations found that young stands produced timber of similar
is difficult to achieve (Ivory, 1999). The Queensland characteristics to that of natural forests.
Forest Research Institute is screening provenances
Spotted gum planted at a high-rainfall site in Gympie,
for resistance to this fungus with the ‘Woondum’
Queensland, was assessed for its potential for kraft
provenance of C. citriodora subsp. variegata proving
pulp and papermaking (Hicks and Clark, 2001).
most resistant to date. They are also looking at hybrids
Of the 23 samples, representing 13 eucalypt
such as C. citriodora subsp. variegata x C. torrelliana
species, aged 6-14 years, C. maculata had the
that may provide disease resistance along with other
highest values as export woodchips.
desirable characteristics (David Lee, QFRI, pers.
comm., 2002).
38
Hicks and Clark (2001) also noted that there is a Bailey G, 2002. A guide to establishing hardwood
strong association between low rainfall and poor plantations for landholders in the 700 ‑1000 mm rainfall
zone of south-east Queensland. Queensland Forest
pulpwood quality, suggesting that farmers growing
Research Institute, Agency for Food and Fibre Sciences,
trees in dryland regions, <600 mm annual rainfall, DPI. QFRI Hardwoods Queensland website: http://
may produce poorer quality and therefore less www.dpi.qld.gov.au/hardwoodsqld/7706.html
marketable pulpwood.
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia:
A Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
Non-wood Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
The spotted gums yield both nectar and pollen in
fair amounts when flowering heavily and are a Bird PR, Harwood CE, Jackson TT, 2000. Provenance by
site analysis of spotted gum trials in the Hamilton region,
favoured tree species for apiarists.
Victoria. Draft report for ALRTIG hardwoods working
group (unpublished).
Limitations Borough CJ, Incoll WD, May JR, Bird PR, 1984. Yield
statistics. In: Hillis WE and Brown AG (eds), Eucalypts for
Spotted gums display lower growth rates compared
Wood Production. CSIRO/Academic Press, Melbourne,
to the more widely planted eucalypts (E. grandis, pp 201-225.
E. nitens and E. globulus). Heavy branching, forking
Clarke B, Whitfeld S, Vercoe T, 1997. The growth of
and a high incidence of kino rings can reduce timber
eucalypt and acacia provenances in the ACT and Tallaganda
quality (Poynton, 1979). C. maculata is very New South Wales. Report to The Southern Tablelands
susceptible to ramularia shoot blight in higher Forestry Network Inc. on the growth of tree species in the
summer rainfall regions in Australia (Stone et al., ACT Forests and CSIRO’s ACT fuelwood trials. CSIRO
1998; Ivory, 1999). Erratic seed production from Division of Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra.
natural stands restricts the availability of planting Cremer KW, 1990. Trees for Rural Australia. CSIRO
stock. The spotted gums are difficult to propagate Division of Forestry and Forest Products, Melbourne.
by vegetative cuttings. Seedlings and young trees Darrow WK, 1985. Provenance trials of Eucalyptus maculata
are frost sensitive. ion South Africa: Tenth year results. South African Forestry
Journal, 133:12-17.
Recommended reading
Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Series, No.
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Research, Canberra.
Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
QFRI website, 2002. Spotted Gums. Species Profile Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the
Series. Queensland Forest Research Institute Hardwoods Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian
Queensland website: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/ Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
hardwoodsqld/10142.html
DPI website, 2002. Department of Primary Industries
References Forestry Tree Seed Centre website: http://www.forests.
qld.gov.au/forind/forestry/seedcent.htm
Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in Eucalyptus
plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt
optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian Forests. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Forestry, 56:385-390. FPC website, 2002. Eucalytpus Sawlog Species. Forest
ALRTIG website, 2007. Australian Low Rainfall Tree Products Commission Western Australia, Seed Technologies
Improvement Group (ALRTIG) partners website: http:// pages. Website address: http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/
www.ffp.csiro.au/alrtig/ Grant DJ, Joe W, 1994. Strength grouping of three New
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Eucalypts. South Wales eucalypt species – a reassessment. Australian
CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Forestry, 57:31-36.
Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products,
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO
Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. [Unpublished]
39
Hall M, Burns M, 1991. Weed control among planted McDonald MW, Butcher PA, Bell JC, Larmour JS, 2000.
and direct seeded Eucalyptus, Acacia and Casuarina Intra- and interspecific allozyme variation in eucalypts
with the herbicides diphenamid, oryzalin, clopyralid from the spotted gum group, Corymbia, section Politaria
and fluazifop-butyl. Australian Forestry, 54:16-22. (Myrtaceae). Australian Systematic Botany, 13:491-507.
Hicks CC, Clark NB, 2001. Pulpwood Quality of 13 McDonald MW, Bean AR, 2000. A new combination in
Eucalypt Species with Potential for Farm Forestry. A report Corymbia ‘section Politaria’: C. citriodora subsp. variegata
for the RIRDC/Land and Water Australia/ FWPRDC Joint (Myrtaceae). Austrobaileya, 5:735-736.
Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication No. 01/164,
Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds), 1997. Management of
27pp. Rural Industries Research and Development
Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests.
Corportation, Canberra.
ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for
Hill KD, Johnson LAS, 1995. Systematic studies in the International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
eucalyptus. 7. A revision of the bloodwoods, genus
Pook EW, 1986, Canopy dynamics of Eucalyptus maculata
Corymbia (Myrtaceae). Telopea, 6:185-504.
Hook. IV. Contrasting responses to two severe droughts.
Ivory MH, 1999. Shoot blight of spotted gums. Australian Journal of Botany, 34:1-14.
Queensland Forestry Advisory Leaflet.
Pook EW, Gill AM, Moore PHR, 1997. Long term variation
Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic of litter fall, canopy leaf area and flowering in a
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. Eucalyptus maculata forest on the south coast of New
RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany, 47:737-755.
Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree Planting in Southern Africa,
Larmour JS, 2000. Spotted Gums Species Digest. Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry,
Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a Pretoria, South Africa.
QFRI Website, 2002. Spotted Gums. Species Profile
Larmour JS, Whitfeld SJ, Harwood CE, Owen JV, 2000. Series. Queensland Forest Research Institute Hardwoods
Variation in frost tolerance and seedling morphology of Queensland. Website address: http://www.dpi.qld.
the spotted gums Corymbia maculata, C. variegata, gov.au/hardwoodsqld/10142.html
C. henryi and C. citriodora. Australian Journal of Botany,
Raymond CA, Owen JV, Eldridge KG, Harwood CE,
48:445-453.
1992. Screening eucalypts for frost tolerance in breeding
Mazanec RA, 1993. Provenance trials of four exotic programmes. Canadian Journal of Forest Research,
eucalypts in bauxite mines in Western Australia. 22:1271-1277.
International Conference on Environmental Issues and
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
Water Management in Energy and Mineral Production,
Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
Third Workshop 3: Revegetation of mine sites using
R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
appropriate species. 29 August-1 September 1993,
University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Perth Western Australia.
Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
Mazanec RA, 1999. Thirteen-year results from a spotted
fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
gum provenance trial in the Wellington catchment of
northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Western Australia. Australian Forestry, 62:315-319.
Tibbits J, Sasse J, 1999. An Evaluation of the Potential to
Mazanec RA, Harwood CE, 2000. Genetic improvement
Improve Spotted Gums by Breeding. CFTT Report No. 99/029.
strategy for spotted gum in southern Australia. In: Harwood
CE, Bulman P, Bush D, Mazanec R, Stackpole D (eds). Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group: seed sources. In: Hillis WE, Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts
Compendium of Hardwood Breeding Strategies. for Wood Production. pp 6-65. CSIRO and Academic
RIRDC Publication No. 01/100, Rural Industries Press, Melbourne.
Research and Development Corportation, Canberra.
Washusen R, Waugh G, Hudson I, 1998. Wood
Measki B, Waters M, Bird PR, 1998. Results from spotted products from low-rainfall farm forestry. Final Report.
gum provenance and ripping trials in south west Victoria. Forest and Wood Products Research and Development
Agroforestry News, 7:18-19. Corporation Project. PN007.96.
McComb JA, Wroth M, 1986. Vegetative propagation Washusen R, Waugh G, 2000. Opportunities for solid
of Eucalyptus resinifera and E. maculata using coppice wood products from low-rainfall plantation grown eucalypts.
cuttings and micropropagation. Australian Forest Conference paper to The Future of Eucalypts for Wood
Research, 16:231-242. Products, Launceston, Tasmania, 19-24 March 2000.
Weiss EA, 1997. Essential Oil Crops. Centre for
Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) International,
Wallingford, UK. University Press, Cambridge.
40
4. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
River red gum, red gum, Murray red gum
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. subsp. simulata Brooker and Kleinig
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. var. camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. var. obtusa Blakely
Species overview
Globally, Eucalyptus camaldulensis is perhaps the
most widely used tree for planting in arid and semi-arid
lands, mainly in the Mediterranean region (Eldridge
et al., 1993), using seed from southern Australian
provenances. Extensive plantations have also been
established in tropical regions, mainly in South East
Asia, Mexico and Brazil, using the climatically adapted
northern Australian provenances (Midgley et al., 1989).
It grows under a wide range of climatic conditions
Key features and soil types, is tolerant of extreme drought,
waterlogging and soil salinity and coppices well.
Medium-sized to tall tree of variable form For these reasons E. camaldulensis is used for
Tolerant of drought, high temperatures, periodic reclamation of degraded lands, especially salt-affected
waterlogging and moderate soil salinity land subject to seasonal waterlogging, and particularly
when the salinity is low to moderate (Marcar et al.,
Useful for reclaiming degraded land (saline and 1995; Sun and Dickinson, 1995). In terms of salt
waterlogged land, mine spoils) tolerance, Marcar et al. (1995) class E. camaldulensis
Deep penetration of roots assists survival and as moderately tolerant with reduced growth at ECe
reduction of surface salinity by use of groundwater of about 5 dS m‑1 or above and reduced survival
at about 10-15 dS m‑1. It is also used in mine site
Rapid growth when water is available and rehabilitation in Australia (Langkamp, 1987).
performs well under irrigation
Eucalyptus camaldulensis generally has poor form
Some provenances are tolerant of mild frost and may be subject to severe defoliation by insects
Attractive, dense red heartwood (largely provenance and site dependent). This restricts
its use for plantation establishment in the southern
Wood used for construction timber, furniture, poles,
low-rainfall zone of Australia and in coastal areas
posts, firewood, charcoal and pulp for paper
of Queensland. It has been used as parent material
Termite resistant for the production of hybrids, and the E. grandis x
E. camaldulensis hybrids have better survival than
Preservation is necessary for use in the ground
E. grandis on drier sites and better growth rate, form
Subject to heavy defoliation from insects and and pulp properties than E. camaldulensis. These
pathogens both in southern Australia and coastal hybrids may be ideally suited to sites marginal for
Queensland. E. globulus on the edge of the 600+ mm annual
rainfall range.
41
Queensland to Victoria. E. camaldulensis var. obtusa
comprises all other populations occurring outside
the Murray-Darling Basin. It has an extensive
distribution primarily throughout tropical and
subtropical Australia (ATSC website, 2002).
In the past, populations of E. camaldulensis var.
obtusa and E. tereticornis have been difficult to
distinguish in certain areas in north-east Queensland.
The recognition of a new subspecies E. camaldulensis
subsp. simulata by Brooker and Kleinig (1994) has,
to some extent, resolved this problem. E. camaldulensis
subsp. simulata occurs along a few river systems in
north eastern Queensland. These include the Laura
River, Palmer River, Walsh River and the North Kennedy
River, however further field work is required to fully
assess its distribution. This taxa shares many similarities
with its close relatives E. camaldulensis var. obtusa
Blakely and E. tereticornis but differs from both of
these taxa by the following combination of characters:
long horn-shaped opercula, yellow to yellow-brown
Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. obtusa buds seeds, broad-lanceolate juvenile leaves and a
and flowers. riparian habitat (ATSC website, 2002).
In Australia, E. camaldulensis commonly grows up
Eucalyptus camaldulensis is widely planted for shade, to 20 m tall but rarely exceeds 50 m, while stem
shelterbelts, amenity and ornamental purposes, and diameter at breast height can reach 1-2 m or more.
as a source of nectar in honey production. Some In open woodlands it usually has a short, thick bole
tropical provenances produce medicinal-grade oil. which supports a large, spreading crown. In plantations,
The wood burns well and makes a good fuel. It is it can have a clear bole of up to 20 m with an
used mainly for poles, posts, firewood, charcoal, erect, lightly-branched crown. Form of the tree is
turnery and paper pulp. Logs may be sawn for variable but is typically poor in southern Australia.
construction timber, railway sleepers, furniture and The bark is smooth white, grey, yellow-green, grey-green,
packing cases. or pinkish grey, shedding in strips or irregular flakes.
Rough bark may sometimes occupy the first 1-2 m
of the trunk on the southern E. camaldulensis
Description and natural var. camaldulensis.
occurrence Like other eucalypts river red gum does not develop
resting buds and grows whenever conditions are
Description favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowering time in natural
As currently recognised E. camaldulensis comprises stands depends on locality. Flowering peaks in
two varieties and one subspecies. The two varieties summer in the south, in autumn in the north-west,
are a northern tropical form that is lignotuberous and in winter-spring in the north-east of Australia
and has relatively obtuse opercula (rounded bud (Banks, 1990). Pollination is mainly carried out
caps – var. obtusa), and a southern temperate form by insects, but also by birds and small mammals.
that is non-lignotuberous and has rostrate opercula Fruit development and maturation time can be
(beaked bud caps – var. camaldulensis) (Pryor and as short as four months. For example, an August
Byrne, 1969). E. camaldulensis var. camaldulensis flowering in northern Queensland will provide mature
has primarily a temperate distribution in the Murray- fruit the following January. Production of the first
Darling River system extending from southern
42
Eucalyptus camaldulensis natural stand in the Barmerah Forest on the Murray River, Victoria.
seed crop may occur within three years of planting Figure 4.1: Natural distribution of E. camaldulensis
(Boland et al., 1980). There will be regional and Denh. (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
seasonal variability in seed availability.
Natural occurrence
Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the widest geographical
range of any eucalypt and grows under a broad
range of climatic conditions, from warm to hot and
sub‑humid to semi-arid, with natural populations in
the Northern Territory, New South Wales, Queensland,
South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia
(Figure 4.1). It is commonly found on or near
watercourses which often allows it to survive in
arid and semi-arid regions. In low‑rainfall areas
E. camaldulensis relies on seasonal flooding and/
or the presence of shallow groundwater. Rainfall
variability is very high across its natural range.
Lincoln) and Western Australia (e.g. DeGrey and
This species occurs on a variety of soil types and Greenough Rivers, and Wiluna) (Jacobs, 1981;
is mainly a tree of depositional or alluvial sites with Eldridge et al., 1993). It sometimes extends to
infrequent occurrence on the margins of salt lakes. slopes at higher elevations, as in the Mt Lofty
It is common on heavy clays in southern Australia, Ranges near Adelaide, Australia. Its altitudinal
but more generally occurs on sandy alluvial soils range is 20-700 m. The species exhibits large
in the north. It has been recorded growing on provenance variation in response to salinity and
calcareous soils in South Australia (e.g. near Port waterlogging (Marcar et al., 1995).
43
Where will it grow? Figure 4.2: Areas predicted to be climatically
suitable for northern provenances of E. camaldulensis
The species has been divided into northern and are shown in black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
southern provenances for climatic analysis. No
formal boundary exists between the northern and
southern forms; rather studies suggest a gradual
change over the range (Marcar et al., 1995).
The climatic ranges for the southern and northern
provenances of this species have previously been
described by Booth and Pryor (1991) and Marcar
et al. (1995). Changes in the limits described here
are a result of the use of improved climatic surfaces
and additional collection records from both
Environment Australias ‘ERIN’ and CSIRO Australian
Tree Seed Centres ‘seed collection’ databases. For
example, the mean annual temperature range for
southern provenances is now 10°C to 25°C instead
of 13°C to 22°C reported by Marcar et al. (1995). distribution, on the basis of information from trials
Similarly, the lower limit of the mean minimum and plantings of this species both within and outside
temperature of the coldest month has been adjusted its natural range. Jovanovic and Booth (2002) note
from 6°C to 1°C for the northern provenances. that E. camaldulensis is often found naturally along
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for watercourses, so low rainfalls at these locations do
Eucalyptus camaldulensis northern provenances, not always indicate the species drought tolerance.
incorporating data from both the natural distribution Queensland Forest Research Institute (QFRI) have
and from sites where the species has been grown also found that northern provenances are generally
successfully as an exotic, gives the following key not successful in coastal areas of Queensland
climatic conditions for survival and good growth: because of problems with foliar pathogens and
insects (Paul Ryan, QFRI, pers. comm., 2002).
Northern Provenances
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Mean annual rainfall: 350A-2500 mm for Eucalyptus camaldulensis southern provenances,
incorporating data from both the natural distribution
and from sites where the species has been grown
Dry season length: 2-8 months successfully as an exotic, gives the following key
Mean maximum temperature 22-41°C climatic conditions for survival and good growth:
hottest month:
Southern Provenances
Mean annual rainfall: 350B-2000 mm
coldest month:
Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter
A Particular care should be taken when planting the species
in low‑rainfall environments to ensure that local conditions Mean maximum temperature 21-41°C
are suitable and appropriate planting densities are used. hottest month:
The map of areas predicted to be climatically suitable Mean minimum temperature 0-14°C
for planting northern provenances of E. camaldulensis coldest month:
(Figure 4.2) was generated from the revised climatic Mean annual temperature: 10-25°C
details for the species as listed above (Jovanovic and
Booth, 2002). These revisions were made to the B Particular care should be taken when planting the species
climatic parameters, initially derived from the natural in low-rainfall environments to ensure that local conditions
are suitable and appropriate planting densities are used.
44
suitable for southern provenances of E. camaldulensis
are shown in black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. camaldulensis at

Lake Albacutya, Victoria.

suitable for planting southern provenances of
E. camaldulensis (Figure 4.3) was generated from
the revised climatic details for the species as listed
above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). These revisions
were made to the climatic parameters, initially derived
from the natural distribution, on the basis of
information from trials and plantings of this species
both within and outside its natural range. However,
as the southern provenances of E. camaldulensis
generally display slow growth, poor stem form and
susceptibility to attack by a range of insect pests the
Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group actually
consider it as having greater potential as a parent
in interspecific hybrid combinations, with species
such E. grandis and E. globulus, than in plantings
of the pure species (Harwood and Mazanec, 2000).
Plantings and provenance trials

Plantings
Globally, E. camaldulensis is perhaps the most
widely used tree for planting in arid and semi-arid
lands (Eldridge et al., 1993), with at least 1 million ha
established by 1997. It has also been estimated
(Jacobs, 1981) that over half a million hectares of
plantations of southern Australian provenances had
been established by the late 1970s, mainly in the
Mediterranean region and particularly in Spain
and Morocco. Eucalyptus camaldulensis tree in natural stand at
Petford, Queensland
45
Planting in the tropics, especially in South East
Asia, Mexico, and Brazil, is increasing with the
increased availability of the climatically-adapted
northern Australian provenances (Midgley et al.,
1989). There have also been extensive but largely
unrecorded plantings of E. camaldulensis in many
countries for shade and shelter.
Provenance trials
Provenance variation within E. camaldulensis, which
is considerable over the natural range of the species,
has been recorded for growth rate, wood properties,
tolerance to salinity, alkalinity, drought, frost, and
leaf oil content. Therefore it is very important to select
the correct provenance for the purpose and location
that the species is being grown. Better-performing
tropical provenances like ‘Petford’ and ‘Katherine’,
Queensland, are the most sought-after sources for
breeding programmes in the seasonally dry tropics,
while provenances from southern temperate Australia,
like ‘Lake Albacutya’, Victoria, are suited to
Mediterranean zones (Midgley et al., 1989;
Eldridge et al., 1993; Kumaravelu et al., 1995;
Four-year-old Eucalyptus grandis x E. camaldulensis
Pinyopusarerk et al., 1996a, 1996b).
clone at a south Australian site with approximately
Marcar et al. (1995) state that the best-performing 550 mm mean annual rainfall.
northern provenances, particularly in the presence
of salinity and seasonal waterlogging, include ‘De
Grey River’ (although it has poor form) and ‘Wiluna’, high pH, ‘Silverton’, New South Wales, and ‘Wiluna
Western Australia, ‘Katherine’ and ‘Mt Benstead’, River’, South Australia, provenances have performed
Northern Territory and ‘Petford’, Queensland. In low well in terms of survival and growth in southern
rainfall areas, provenances such as ‘Tennant Creek’, temperate Australia (N. Marcar, pers. comm., 1997).
Northern Territory, may be superior to popular
provenances such as ‘Petford’, Queensland (Paul Breeding and genetic resources
Ryan, QFRI, pers. comm., 2002). Best‑performing
southern provenances (in terms of survival and growth) Selected clones are being grown in Australia to
for saline and seasonally waterlogged conditions ameliorate degraded sites such as mine spoils and
include ‘Lake Albacutya’ and ‘Douglas River’, Victoria, those affected by waterlogging and salinity (e.g.
and ‘Silverton’, New South Wales. As an all-round Farrell et al. 1996). Hybrids are readily made between
performer (in terms of survival, growth and form) E. camaldulensis and E. grandis, E. tereticornis,
under saline/waterlogged conditions in southern E. globulus and other species of the subgenus
latitudes, ‘Lake Albacutya’ is the recommended Symphyomyrtus (Griffin et al., 1988). Hybrids such
provenance. However, the ‘Lake Albacutya’ as E. grandis × E. camaldulensis could perform well
provenance had relatively poor form in a trial in on sites which are too dry for E. grandis (Darrow,
Western Australia despite it having the fastest growth 1995). Young trials established by the CSIRO Forestry
rate, whereas the ‘Laura’, South Australia, provenance and Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre
yielded a comparable volume in the trial and had indicate that the hybrid of E. camaldulensis ×
a significantly better stem form (Mazanec, 1999; E. grandis has better form than E. camaldulensis.
Harwood and Mazanec, 2000). On soils with a Clones of these hybrids are presently beginning to
46
become available from some nurseries in Australia
e.g. Yuruga Nursery, Walkamin, north Queensland
(ALRTIG website, 2002).
The origin of seed used in many of the older plantings
of E. camaldulensis in Australia is unclear. To avoid
unknown provenances being used in plantings, the
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian Tree
Seed Centre in Canberra, Australia, provides both
single-tree and bulk provenance collections of seed
of E. camaldulensis for breeding programmes. It
presently has an extensive range of seedlots from
both tropical and temperate provenances in store.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis provenance trial on
saline site, Whiteheads Creek, Victoria.
Silviculture
Because of the widespread distribution of
Therefore a wider spacing and shorter crop
E. camaldulensis in Australia, the climatic variation
rotation may be considered in warmer regions.
over the range of its distribution is large. Silvicultural
practices for the species may vary between the Weed control in the more tropical zones may be
northern and southern provenances of the species more important than in the temperate zones, due to
because of the climatic variation. low tolerance of the species to weed competition.
One of the major silvicultural variations is in the Because of the significant variation in silvicultural
timing of the planting season. Planting out is timed practices, some of which are referred to above,
to coincide with rainfall and in southern latitudes this section is not intended to be very specific, but
is predominantly determined by the severity of frost to raise the awareness of the reader to make use
and minimum temperatures experienced. Planting of the references listed, so that the best silvicultural
is carried out in June/July in South Australia and practices can be chosen.
Western Australia while the soil is still wet from
winter rains. Planting may occur later if site access Propagation
is not available due to waterlogging, which is often
Eucalyptus camaldulensis is usually propagated from
a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and New South
seed. There are about 700 000 viable seed kg‑1 of
Wales planting is done in September, or July‑August
seed and chaff mixture. Seed storage is orthodox
in warmer districts where soils dry out earlier. Planting
and the viability of seed stored dry (5-8% moisture
in northern latitudes usually occurs once the summer
content) in air-tight containers in the refrigerator
rains have begun between November‑April, however
(3-5°C) will be maintained for several years (Doran
February‑April is preferred so that young seedlings will
et al., 1987). No pre-sowing treatment is required.
be exposed to a shorter period of high temperatures.
The species is easily raised from seed in the nursery
Sowing of seedlings is timed to produce healthy
following the general methods for eucalypt propagation
seedlings for the planting season. In the warmer
(Doran and Turnbull, 1997; Bird, 2000). Many
climates, germination and growth of the seedlings is
nurseries will grow seedlings on request and some
better, with seedlings reaching plantable size as quickly
specialise in producing trees for the farm forestry market.
as 6-8 weeks, compared to as much as 4 months
in southern regions where growth is much slower. This is one of a few eucalypt species suited to mass
vegetative propagation through stem cuttings (Eldridge
Spacing for planting and length of crop rotation
et al., 1993). Cuttings from juvenile shoots (i.e. below
depends mainly on the end products required, but
the 100th node) root readily in 30% of genotypes
are also influenced by growth rate of the trees.
(Doran and Williams, 1994).
47
Establishment particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there
is often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil
Locally successful methods of plantation establishment degradation can result from very large applications
for a range of major forest tree species are suitable of nitrogen (N) fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees
for E. camaldulensis. Detailed information on various can only respond to a fertiliser application if other
establishment practices is available from several factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability
sources including: government organisations (low rainfall or heavy weed competition are two
(Queensland Department of Primary Industries; factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely
Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), farm depending on the site and readers should access
forestry and landcare groups. Books such as further information from more detailed references
Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and such as: Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams
Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites (1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997).
of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact
Sheets’ available (e.g. QFRI website http://www. Management
dpi.qld.gov.au/hardwoodsqld/), or these
documents can be obtained by contacting the Progressive thinning and pruning is required for
organisations directly. clearwood production and texts such as Bird
(2000) and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the
On compacted sites, or sites with a hardpan, theory, objectives and techniques. Thinning and
deep ripping (to 1 m with a bulldozer) of the planting pruning schedules will need to be developed for
lines is recommended. Ripping in combination with E. camaldulensis in Australian conditions.
mounding improves survival and growth on most sites,
mounding being essential on wet or saline soils Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done to add
(Jacobs, 1981). Ex-agricultural land may require value to the trees by aiming to increase the recovery
intensive site preparation by ploughing to a depth of sawn timber from the trunk and to make it suitable
of 10 cm when the soil is moist, followed by disc for higher-value appearance‑grade products (Bird,
harrowing three months later (Bird, 2000). 2000). However, in Nepal pruning is found to be
seldom necessary as E. camaldulensis sheds its
Knock-down herbicides can be used before branches readily.
planting, especially on ex-agricultural sites, and
complemented with an application of residual Thinning removes defective trees and reduces
chemicals just prior to planting. Application can be competition between trees. The spacing of trees
either in spots of 1.5 m to 2 m radius around the determines the ultimate height and diameter growth
planting hole, or in 1.5 m strips along the rip lines of individual stems. The stand may be reduced to a
or over the planting mounds (Venning, 1988; Bird final stocking of 100‑300 stems ha‑1 when grown
et al., 1996). Mouldboard ploughing can give for sawlogs.
effective weed control by burying weed seed The species coppices well for five or more rotations.
(Bird et al., 1996). Felling during the dry season delays sprouting and
When pulpwood production is the principal objective, increases the risk of the stump drying out. Felling by
a spacing of 3 × 2 m (1667 stems ha‑1) is often saw to give a cleanly cut short stump with minimum
used. Wider spacings of 4 × 2 m (1250 stems ha‑1) bark damage increases the chances of good coppicing.
or 5 × 2 m (1000 stems ha‑1) are recommended Coppice management requires the reduction of the
when larger trees are required. Wider spacing number of coppice shoots on a stool (Evans, 1982)
between rows facilitates mechanical cultivation so the value of using a coppicing system needs to
for weed control. be considered in light of the cost of protecting the
stumps at harvesting, thinning the coppice and the
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and possible lost gains in productivity that might be
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist achieved from the use of improved seed or
early growth is practiced in the establishment provenances for the next rotation.
of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is
48
Growth In the field, leaves are often attacked by leaf chewing
insects, particularly members of the Chrysomelidae
Growth data for plantation grown E. camaldulensis and Curculionidae families (such as Paropsis spp.,
is not available for Australia and with the insect Chrysophtharta spp., Gonipterus spp. and Oxyops
and fungal problems it experiences in Australia spp.) (Stone and Bacon, 1995). Other important leaf
stand productivity is likely to be considerably chewing insects are members of the Scarabaeidae
lower than the better yields achieved overseas. family such as swarming scarab beetles and Christmas
In overseas plantings in the drier tropics, yields beetles (Coleoptera). Swarming scarab beetles can
of 5-10 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 on 10-20 year rotations cause severe defoliation and/or dieback of the
are common, whereas in moister regions up to growing tips of young trees and are particularly
30 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 may be achieved on 7-20 year important in young eucalypt plantations. A number of
rotations (Evans, 1982). species have been recorded as pests in Queensland,
including Automolus spp., Liparetrus spp. and Epholcis
bilobiceps. The adults are active in summer and early
Protection autumn. Christmas beetles (mostly Anoplognaths spp.)
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens can cause severe defoliation in young plantations
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations prior to canopy closure (DPI website, 2002).
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest Leaf spot pathogens (e.g. Mycosphaerella spp.,
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to Kyrramyces spp., Microsphaeria spp., Coniella spp.)
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases affect trees less than three years old and cause leaf
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of spotting and defoliation (DPI website, 2002).
options such as maintaining the health and vigour Utilisation
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; Wood
not planting the species on sites that are marginal Eucalyptus camaldulensis wood burns well and
for it and by regular monitoring for insect damage makes a good fuel. The timber has a handsome
or unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). red colour, a fine texture, and interlocking wavy
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the grain. It is hard, durable, resistant to termites, and
control of pests by pesticide application is not has many uses. The sapwood is susceptible to
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs attack by Lyctus borers (Keating and Bolza, 1982).
involved, monitoring required and environmental
issues of chemical use. Correctly handled, the wood is useful for speciality
furniture, construction timber, pulpwood, roundwood
In Australia this species has been found to be and fuelwood (Poynton, 1979). Preservation
moderately to highly susceptible to heavy insect treatment is necessary for durability in the ground.
defoliation (dependant on provenance and site)
and fungal attack in low‑rainfall areas in southern Wood density of plantation-grown E. camaldulensis
Australia and in coastal Queensland. varies with age, the provenance used, and planting
site, but does not appear to be closely associated
In the nursery, E. camaldulensis is susceptible to a with rate of growth (Moura, 1986). Green densities
diverse range of fungi, causing damping-off, collar of 500-700 kg m‑3 for wood from young trees and
rot and leaf diseases (Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., 1130 kg m‑3 for old trees are reported. Density is
Rhizoctonia spp. and Cylindrocladium spp.), but positively correlated with charcoal and pulp yield
these problems may be circumvented by careful (Moura, 1986). In the tropics, fast growing provenances
selection of provenances. Insects (e.g. termites and from northern Queensland (e.g. ‘Petford’) produce
aphids) and rodents may be troublesome in the the highest density wood and the largest yields of
nursery, and both physical and chemical control charcoal and pulp (Eldridge et al., 1993).
measures may be needed.
49
Non-wood Bird PR, Kearney GA, Jowett DW, 1996. Trees and
Shrubs for South West Victoria. Technical Report series
Some tropical provenances of E. camaldulensis No. 205. Hamilton, Australia: Agriculture Victoria.
(e.g. ‘Petford’) give 1,8‑cineole‑rich leaf oils and Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980.
are potential sources of medicinal-grade oils (Doran Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO,
and Brophy, 1990). E. camaldulensis is of major Canberra.
importance in Australia as a source of honey, Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of
producing heavy yields of nectar in good seasons some commercially important eucalypt species. Forest
(Clemson, 1985). It also provides the bees with Ecology and Management, 43:47-60.
an important source of good quality pollen. Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
Vol. 3. Northern Australia. Inkata Press, Sydney.
Limitations Clemson A, 1985. Honey and Pollen Flora. Inkata Press,

Melbourne.
The major disadvantages of E. camaldulensis are
Darrow WK, 1995. Selection of eucalypt species for cold
its susceptibility to insect attack and pathogens in and dry areas in South Africa. In: Potts BM, Borralho
southern Australia and coastal Queensland, and NMG, Reid JB, Cromer RN, Tibbits WN, Raymond CA
its generally poor form in southern Australia. It also (eds). Eucalypt Plantations: Improving Fibre Yield and
has little capacity to compete with weeds when Quality. Proceedings CRC-IUFRO Conference, Hobart,
young and this, compounded by a crown type Tasmania, Australia, 19-24 February. CRC for Temperate
Hardwood Forestry, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, pp336-338.
that takes several years to shade-out weed growth,
is a major limitation, especially in the tropics. Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders
in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Series, No.
Recommended Reading 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module
Maryborough, Victoria. (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK.
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Doran JC, Williams ER, 1994. Fast-growing Eucalyptus
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Doran JC, Turnbull JW, Kariuki EM, 1987. Effects of
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http://www.ffp.csiro.au/tigr/atscmain/taxonomy/
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Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van, 1993.
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on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Centre Oxford, UK.
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Evans J, 1982. Plantation Forestry in the Tropics: Tree Mazanec RA, 1999. Nine year results from a Eucalyptus
Planting for Industrial, Social, Environmental, and camaldulensis provenance trial in the Wellington catchment
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Midgley SJ, Eldridge KG, Doran JC, 1989. Genetic
Farrell RCC, Bell DT, Akilan K, Marshall JK, 1996. resources of Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Commonwealth
Morphological and physiological comparisons of clonal lines Forestry Review, 68:295-308.
of Eucalyptus camaldulensis. II. Responses to waterlogging/
Moura VPG, 1986. Provenance variation of Eucalyptus
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camaldulensis Dehnh. in Brazil. D.Phil. thesis. University
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Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt
Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds), 1997. Management
Forests. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
of Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation
Griffin AR, Burgess IP, Wolf L, 1988. Patterns of natural Forests. ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre
and manipulated hybridisation in the genus Eucalyptus for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
L’Herit. – a review. Australian Journal of Botany,
Pinyopusarerk K, Doran JC, Williams ER, Wasuwanich P,
36:41-66.
1996a. Variation in growth of Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Harwood CE, Mazanec RA, 2000. Program for genetic provenances in Thailand. Forest Ecology and
improvement of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in southern Management, 87:63-73.
Australia. In: Harwood CE, Bulman P, Bush D, Mazanec
Pinyopusarerk K, Luangviriyasaeng V, Rattanasavanh D,
R, Stackpole D (eds). Australian Low Rainfall Tree
1996b. Two-year performance of Acacia and Eucalyptus
Improvement Group: Compendium of Hardwood
species in a provenance trial in Lao P.D.R. Journal of
Breeding Strategies. RIRDC Publication No. 01/100.
Tropical Forest Science, 8:412-423.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation,
Canberra. Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree Planting in Southern Africa. Vol.
2. The Eucalypts. Dept of Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa.
Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts. 262 pp.
Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau, Government Pryor LD, Byrne OR, 1969. Variation and taxonomy in
Printer, Canberra, Australia. Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Silvae Genet. 18, 64-71.
Jacobs MR (ed), 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. Edition 2. Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest:
FAO Forestry Series No. 11. 677 pp. Food and Agriculture Multipurpose Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. Stone C, Bacon PE, 1995. Leaf dynamics and insect
RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries herbivory in a Eucalyptus camaldulensis forest under
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. moisture stress. Australian Journal of Ecology, 20:473-481.
Keating WG, Bolza E, 1982. Characteristics, Properties Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
and Uses of Timbers. Volume 1. South-east Asia, Northern fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
Australia and the Pacific. 362 pp. Inkata Press, Melbourne. northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Kumaravelu G, Stanley J, Rai RSV, Balan Sampson, Sun D, Dickinson GR, 1995. Survival and growth
Sampson V, 1995. Provenances of Eucalyptus camaldulensis responses of a number of Australian tree species planted
Dehnh. and E. tereticornis Sm. suitable to south Indian on a saline site in tropical north Australia. Journal of
conditions - results of an IUFRO trial. Annals of Forestry, Applied Ecology, 32:817-826.
3:129-133.
Venning J, 1988. Growing Trees for Farms, Parks and
Langkamp PJ (ed), 1987. Germination of Australian Roadsides: A Revegetation Manual. Lothian Publishing
Native Plant Seed. Inkata Press, Melbourne. Company Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia.
Marcar NE, Crawford DF, Leppert PL, Jovanovic T, Floyd
R, Farrow R, 1995. Trees for Saltland: A Guide to Selecting
Native Species for Australia. CSIRO, Melbourne.
51
5. Eucalyptus cladocalyx F. Muell.
Sugar gum
Key features
Medium to tall tree of potentially good form,
when better provenances used. Provenances for
farm forestry purposes include ‘Kangaroo Island’,
‘Flinders Ranges’ and ‘Wirrabara’, South Australia
Moderate growth rate
Tolerates wide range of soils including infertile
shallow and calcareous soils
Intolerant of waterlogging and does not do well
on poorly drained clays, or very light sandy soils sandy soils. Mature trees can die in years of
prolonged waterlogging. It is hardy to summer
Hardy to summer drought droughts but is not well suited to tropical conditions.
Not well suited to the tropics It performs well under irrigation. E. cladocalyx is
intolerant of very low temperatures and moderate
Performs well under irrigation
frosts when young. The species has a low to
Low to moderate salt tolerance moderate salt tolerance and reduced growth can
be expected at an ECe of about 5 dS m‑1 and
Intolerant of very low temperatures and
reduced survival at about 5‑10 dS m‑1 (Marcar
moderate frosts when young
et al., 1995).
Produces an excellent sawn timber and has
The wood of E. cladocalyx is often used in the
been used extensively for railway sleepers,
round for telephone poles, fence posts and
farm timbers and general construction timbers
firewood. It is also used in heavy and general
Wilting sugar gum leaves are poisonous to stock construction and in cabinet making. It is a useful
Niche is in 400‑600 mm yr-1 winter rainfall areas. species for honey and charcoal production.
Species overview Description and natural

Eucalyptus cladocalyx is a medium to tall tree of
occurrence
potentially good form, moderately fast growth rate,
and good coppicing ability. It has been widely used Description
in shelterbelts and for shade and amenity. This species This medium to tall tree has a spreading crown.
is a prime candidate for farm woodlot planting in Height at maturity averages about 20 m but ranges
semi-arid areas with about 400‑600 mm annual from 10‑35 m. The diameter at breast height averages
rainfall falling predominantly in winter. E. cladocalyx about 75 cm with a range from 30 cm to 2 m. At
is an adaptable species which tolerates a wide maturity the leaves are clustered at the end of the
variety of infertile soils including calcareous soils, branches, giving it an umbrella or storied look. It
but is intolerant of waterlogged and very light
52
is often heavily branched. On poor, shallow soils it
is more stunted and branched and is occasionally
multi-stemmed. The tendency towards multiple stems
is reported to be more prevalent in provenances from
the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia (Bulman et al., 2000).
Typically, stem form is fair to poor with about one
third of trees on better sites classified as being of
good form. Stems may be clear to two-thirds of the Eucalyptus cladocalyx in natural stand at Mount
tree height on the more favourable sites, while on Remarkable, South Australia.
poorer sites stems are clear for only one-third to
one-half the total height and often crooked. The
Figure 5.1: Natural distribution of E. cladocalyx
bark is smooth, shedding in large irregular patches
producing a colourful mottled yellow to orange,
grey and blue-grey surface. Adult leaves are broad
lanceolate, strongly discolorous with a dark green,
glossy upper surface and a dull, paler lower surface
(Brooker and Kleinig, 1990; Nicolle, 1997).
Eucalyptus cladocalyx var. nana Hort. is a smaller
more spreading tree which grows to 15 m in height.
It originates from the Eyre Peninsular and has been
developed as a horticultural variety (Nicolle, 1997).
It has a much bushier habit and hence is more
suitable for shelter belts and garden plantings.
Like other eucalypts sugar gum does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowering occurs January
to April (Boland et al., 1984), with mature seed
available for collection about 12 months later. Seed
crops may be retained on the tree for 3‑4 years Gulf. Other populations occur on Kangaroo Island
(Bonney, 1994). There will be regional and seasonal and on the eastern side of the Eyre Peninsula around
variability in seed availability. Cleve and further south in the Marble Range region.
In its natural range, E. cladocalyx occurs mainly on
Natural occurrence skeletal or podsolic soils which are often rather shallow.
Eucalytpus cladocalyx is endemic to South Australia In mainland Australia, this species occurs naturally
where it occurs in four separate areas (Figure 5.1). on ridges, slopes and around the bases of mountains,
It achieves its best growth and form in the southern while on Kangaroo Island it occurs along drainage
Flinders Ranges and towards the top of the Spencer lines, on flats and on gentle to moderate slopes.
53
Where will it grow? basis of information from trials and plantings of this
Other factors such as E. cladocalyx intolerance of
E. cladocalyx, incorporating data from both the
waterlogging and very light sandy soils also need
natural distribution and from sites where the species
to be reflected in site selection.
following key climatic conditions for good survival
and growth: Plantings and provenance trials
Mean annual rainfall: 350C-1010 mm Plantings
Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter Eucalyptus cladocalyx is widely planted in Australia
Dry Season: 0-8 months beyond its natural range and is especially common
in farm plantings in western Victoria (Hamilton, 1999).
Mean maximum temperature 23-34 °C
It has been successful in plantations overseas, usually
hottest month:
where mean annual rainfall is within the range of
Mean minimum temperature 1D-11°C 400-600 mm with a winter maximum. This includes
coldest month: parts of the highlands of central (e.g. Ethiopia) and
southern Africa (e.g. Lesotho, Mozambique, South
Africa, Zimbabwe), in various Mediterranean countries
C Particular
care should be taken when planting the species (e.g. Algeria, Italy, Morocco, Greece, Spain, Portugal)
in low rainfall environments to ensure that local conditions and Israel (Poynton, 1979; Jacobs, 1981; Turnbull
are suitable and appropriate planting densities are used. and Pryor, 1984).
D Absolute minimum temperature may limit establishment
(i.e. frosts). This may be closely related with mean Provenance trials
minimum temperature.
The ‘Port Lincoln’ provenance of E. cladocalyx in
South Australia has proven most drought tolerant
Figure 5.2: Areas predicted to be climatically in Western Australian plantings (Turnbull and Pryor,
suitable for E. cladocalyx are shown in black 1984). Variation between provenances in stem
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) form, stature and time to first flowering has been
noted in provenance trials in South Australia,
with provenances from the Eyre Peninsula such as
‘Wanilla’ proving very poor for timber production
due to poor form. Trees from the ‘Kangaroo Island’
provenance are the most vigorous but tend to
heavier branching than those from the ‘Wirrabara’
provenance. For farm forestry purposes, ‘Wirrabara’,
‘Flinders Ranges’ and ‘Kangaroo Island’ provenances
are recommended, based on preliminary trial
information that has been collected by Australian
Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group (ALRTIG)
partners (ALRTIG website, 2002).

Despite the long-time use of the species as a farm
suitable for planting E. cladocalyx (Figure 5.2) was
and plantation tree in many parts of the world, it is
only recently that systematic seed collections from
individual trees from all known natural occurrences
These revisions were made to the climatic parameters,
of the species have been undertaken by CSIRO
Forestry and Forest Products. Seed is now available
54
good condition for several years if air-dried and
placed in a refrigerator (3-5°C) in an airtight
container.
Little success with rooting of stem cuttings of
E. cladocalyx was achieved in preliminary trials at
CSIRO Forestry and Forest products. Two provenances
were tested and the following rooting percentages
recorded respectively in two trials (i) ‘Wirrabara’,
South Australia, 11.4% and 2% and (ii) ‘Flinders
Chase’, South Australia, 2% and 2.1% rooting. The
trials tested a number of species and provenances
alongside known easy-rooting species. The easy-
rooting species had high rooting percentages
(E. grandis 85% and E. camaldulensis 76%)
which showed that techniques used were suitable
Collecting seed of Eucalyptus cladocalyx from for them. While the results for E. cladocalyx are
the Wirrabara provenance, this location was poor most of the cuttings that failed to root did
identified as one of the better seed sources in produce callus. Further trials are planned with
terms of growth rate and form. adjustments to the techniques in a hope to improve
the rooting success of species such as E. cladocalyx
for provenance trials and tree breeding work through (Brammall and Harwood, 2000).
the CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian This species is easily raised in containers in the
Tree Seed Centre in Canberra. nursery following the general methods for eucalypt
Eucalyptus cladocalyx has been identified as a propagation as described by Doran and Turnbull
priority species for the low rainfall regions of southern (1997) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries will
Australia and a breeding strategy has been developed grow seedlings on request and some specialise in
by the Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group producing trees for the farm forestry market. Under
partners (Harwood and Bulman, 2000). Seed of suitable conditions plantable size is reached within
modest genetic improvement is available and a six months from sowing.
breeding program is underway (ALRTIG website,
2002).
Establishment
Silviculture for a range of major forest tree species are suitable
for E. cladocalyx. Detailed information on various
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this establishment practices is available from several
species. Further information is available through sources including: government organisations
sources listed under recommended reading. (Queensland Department of Primary Industries;
Summary silvicultural information and practices Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), farm
specific to this species are outlined below. forestry and landcare groups. Books such as
Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and
Propagation Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites
Eucalyptus cladocalyx is usually propagated from of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact
seed. The seed is extracted by drying from the Sheets’ available (e.g. DSE website: http://www.
pale-brown mature fruit. There are approximately dse.vic.gov.au ), or these documents can be
120 000 viable seeds kg-1 seed and chaff mix obtained by contacting the organisations directly.
(Turnbull and Doran, 1987). Seed of this species is This species has been established successfully in
orthodox in its storage behaviour and will keep in shelterbelts in Western Australia (Venning, 1988)
55
and Victoria (Bird, 2000) and along roadsides in is often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil
South Australia by direct seeding (Venning, 1988). degradation can result from very large applications
When using containerised planting stock, wider of nitrogen (N) fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees
spacings are preferred. Poynton (1979) reported can only respond to a fertiliser application if other
that this species is intolerant of excessive competition factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability
becoming whippy when grown in dense stands (low rainfall or heavy weed competition are two
and developing a disproportionately small crown. factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely
In the moister areas of Victoria a common spacing depending on the site and readers should access
for shelterbelts is 3 m x 3 m, while 4 m between further information from more detailed references
rows and 2.5 m within rows extending out to 7 m such as: Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams
x 7 m are spacings used in the drier areas of Victoria, (1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997).
South Australia and Western Australia (Venning, 1988).
Planting times in southern Australia with winter/
Management
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early spring, Progressive thinning and pruning is required for
predominantly determined by the severity of frost clearwood production and texts such as Bird (2000)
and minimum temperatures experienced. In South and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the theory,
Australia and Western Australia planting commonly objectives and techniques in a farm forestry context.
occurs in June‑July while the soil is still wet from winter Thinning and pruning schedules will need to be
rains. Planting may occur later if site access is not developed for E. cladocalyx if it is to be grown for
available due to waterlogging, which is often a sawn timber in Australia. Pruning in farm forestry
problem. In Victoria and New South Wales planting woodlots is done to add value to the trees by
is done in September, or July‑August in warmer aiming to increase the recovery of sawn timber
districts where soils dry out earlier. from the trunk and to make it suitable for higher‑value
appearance-grade products (Bird, 2000). Thinning
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and removes defective trees and reduces competition
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist between trees. The spacing of trees determines the
early growth is practiced in the establishment ultimate height and diameter of individual stems. When
of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is grown for sawlog the stand may be reduced to a
particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there final stocking of 300‑100 stems ha‑1.
According to Poynton (1979), the species responds
well to early and heavy thinnings in Africa.
Eucalyptus cladocalyx will readily tolerate pollarding
and this can produce a more compact and dense
crown in open grown trees e.g. in shelterbelts
(although this may make it more susceptible to
termite or borer infestation).
Eucalyptus cladocalyx is usually managed on
a clear felling and coppice system for firewood
production. This type of management system
does not warrant or require pruning.
Growth
A range of mean annual increments are reported in
Bird (2000) for different plantation areas in Victoria.
Thinning trial of Eucalyptus cladocalyx 33 years These range from mean annual increments of around
old at Barrett Reserve near Horsham, Victoria. 2-3 m3 ha‑1 yr-1 reported for 35-year-old trees in
plantations in the Wimmera area with a mean annual
rainfall of 400‑600 mm to 14.7 m3 ha‑1yr‑1 reported
56
In general, E. cladocalyx is a robust species which
is rarely significantly affected by insects or pathogens.
It is no more susceptible to insects and pests than
most other eucalypts in Australia.
In Australia, gumtree scale (Eriococcus confusus)
affects E. cladocalyx (Carne and Taylor, 1984).
Young and pollarded trees are prone to infestation,
especially those growing in unfavourable sites or
those which have been weakened by defoliating,
sap-sucking or wood-boring insects (Farrow, 1996).
Dense colonies can cause branches to die back.
Small saplings are the most susceptible to attack and
can be killed by the direct effects of sap-removal and
indirectly by the build-up of sooty mould which covers
leaves and inhibits photosynthesis. Infestations spread
outwards from infested trees into surrounding trees
leading to patches of dying and dead trees in
plantations. Adult scale are attacked by a range
of parasitic wasps and flies, by predatory larvae
of moths (Catoblemma and Stathmopoda spp.),
by lacewing larvae (Chrysopa spp.), by hoverfly
larvae (Syrphidae) and by the adults and larvae of
Eucalyptus cladocalyx plantation in western Victoria. several ladybirds. Ants interfere with natural enemy
Thinned by 50% and pruned in 2002 at 9 years control as they defend the scale to ensure a supply
of age. of honeydew. Removal of ants generally causes
outbreaks to quickly collapse. There is a tendency
for scale numbers to build up in spring and early
for plantations 34-110 years near Lismore, Victoria, summer and for predators to catch up and reduce
with a mean annual rainfall of 600‑650 mm. the scale numbers to very low levels by the end of
the autumn (Farrow, 1996).
Protection Eucalyptus cladocalyx is one of the preferred hosts
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens of Christmas beetle, Anoplognathus sp. (Farrow,
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations 1996). It is moderately susceptible to leaf blister
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest sawfly (Phylacteophaga froggatti) (Farrow, 1996).
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to Usually only juvenile foliage of young trees or young
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases adult leaves near the ground are attacked. Large
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of outbreaks can sometimes occur in young plantations
managing them. At present the main opportunities to due to the sawfly’s high capacity for increase which
reduce this damage are provided by management enables them to escape from the control exerted by
options such as maintaining the health and vigour their parasites.
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; Utilisation
not planting the species on sites that are marginal
for it and by regular monitoring for insect damage Wood
or unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the The sapwood is whitish or very pale brown and
control of pests by pesticide application is not the heartwood yellow-brown or dull grey to dark
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs brown. The grain is often interlocked with fine
involved, monitoring required and environmental uniform texture. The wood of E. cladocalyx is hard,
issues of chemical use. durable and moderately strong and heavy. Timber
57
from natural stands has a basic density of about Recommended Reading
750 kg m‑3 and an air-dry density of about 1100 ALRTIG website, 2002. Australian Low Rainfall
kg m-3. Thirty-five to forty-year-old trees in planted Tree Improvement Group (ALRTIG) partners website:
stands in northern Victoria had a basic density of http://www.ffp.csiro.au/alrtig/
800 kg m-3 which is higher than that reported for Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia:
mature specimens (Washusen et al.,1998). It should A Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
be dried carefully and slowly to avoid surface Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
checking. It glues easily and stains well. The timber Maryborough, Victoria.
has good wearing and weathering properties that Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
make it suitable for block or strip flooring. Pre-boring Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
is advisable in nailing and the wood drills very well R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
with a variety of drill bits (Pongracic, 1999). It is University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
moderately resistant to termites, however, the sapwood References

is susceptible to attack by Lyctus and marine borers.
The heartwood is resistant to chemical impregnation
but the sapwood is not. Percentage of sapwood in optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian
35‑40-year-old, plantation grown, trees was found Forestry, 56:385-390.
to be 12.5‑13.3% (Washusen et al., 1998). It is used ALRTIG website, 2002. Australian Low Rainfall Tree
for poles, posts, railway sleepers, general construction Improvement Group (ALRTIG) partners website: http://
and farm timber and makes good firewood (Anon, www.ffp.csiro.au/alrtig/
1967; Keating and Bolza, 1982). Washusen and Anon, 1967. Timber manual Vol. 1 – Victorian timbers.
Waugh (2000) showed that wood from 40-year-old Melbourne, Victorian Sawmillers’ Association, Victoria.
plantation grown E. cladocalyx met the requirements Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
for high quality (appearance grade) sawn products and Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
high rates of recovery of these grades were possible.
Biddiscombe EF, Rogers AL, Greenwood EAN, Boer ES
de, 1985. Growth of tree species near salt seeps,
Non-wood as estimated by leaf area, crown volume and height.
Australian Forest Research, 15:141-154.
Eucalyptus cladocalyx var. nana and E. cladocalyx
were ranked amongst the most promising species,
in terms of growth and water use, to assist future Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
reclamation of saline seeps by intercepting perched Maryborough, Victoria.
groundwater in the 400 mm rainfall region of Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
south-western Australia (Biddiscombe et al., 1985; Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
George, 1990; George, 1991; Greenwood et Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
al., 1995). Bonney N, 1994. What Seed is That? A field guide to
the identification, collection and germination of native
In its natural habitat, E. cladocalyx provides
seed in South Australia. Neville Bonney, Adelaide.
sustenance and nest sites to a wide range of
vertebrate and invertebrate species, including Brammall B, Harwood CE, 2000. Vegetative propagation
by rooted cuttings of Eucalyptus species from temperate
pygmy possums and sugar gliders and many
low-rainfall environments. Poster to IUFRO Eucalyptus
varieties of birds from honeyeaters to lorikeets Symposium, Chile, September 2001. CSIRO Forestry
(Bonney, 1994). and Forest Products, Canberra.
Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1990. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
Limitations Volume 2 South-western and southern Australia. Inkata
Press, Melbourne, Australia.
There are reports that wilted foliage may be Bulman P, Harwood CE, Fairlamb J, 2000. Early growth
poisonous to domestic animals such as cattle, sheep of Eucalyptus cladocalyx in six provenance trials in South
and goats (Poynton, 1979; Webber et al., 1985). Australia. Unpublished draft report to the Australian Low
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Carne PB, Taylor KL, 1984. Insect pests. In: Hillis WE, Keating WG, Bolza E, 1982. Characteristics, properties
Brown AG (eds), 1984. Eucalypts for Wood Production. and uses of timbers. Vol. 1 South-east Asia, Northern
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Series, No. 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for selecting native species for Australia. CSIRO Press, Melbourne.
International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus cladocalyx Maiden. Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests.
Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for
(CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International, International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
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Nicolle D, 1997. Eucalypts of South Australia. Dean
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Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
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intercepting perched groundwater with eucalypts. Land
Degradation and Rehabilitation, 2:13-25.
George R, 1991. Reclaiming sandplain seeps by planting
Turnbull JW, Doran JC, 1987. Seed development and
trees. Journal of Agriculture, Western Australia, 32:18-23.
germination in the Myrtaceae. In: Langkamp P (ed).
Greenwood EAN, Biddiscombe EF, Rogers AL, Beresford Germination of Australian native plant seed. Inkata Press,
JD, Watson GD, 1995. Growth of species in a tree Melbourne, pp 46-57.
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Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
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59
6. Eucalyptus cloeziana F. Muell.
Gympie messmate
Adapted from Turnbull, 2000.
Key features
Medium to tall tree of very good form
Fast growth rate when correct provenance is
planted on high potential forestry soils in suitable
climatic zone (‘Gympie’ and ‘Cardwell’ are amongst
the best seed sources for high potential sites)
Prefers acidic, deep, moderately fertile, freely
drained soils
Intolerant of heavy clay soils
Not adapted to saline soils
Species overview
Very sensitive to drought in the establishment phase Eucalyptus cloeziana has the potential to grow rapidly
but tolerates a 4-5 month dry season once established in subhumid conditions on a wide range of acidic
or neutral soil types but is best suited to deep,
Tolerates only light frost moderately fertile, well‑drained soils with a loamy
Very sensitive to fungal pathogens in the nursery or sandy texture. Brown and Hall (1968)
recommend it for growing in woodlots for timber
Susceptible to windthrow especially when
production in the warmer parts of northern New
planted on shallow soils
South Wales and in coastal Queensland where
Timber is strong, heavy and very durable and is soils are relatively fertile. Early results of trials
used for fencing, bridge construction, transmission in Queensland suggest that suitable areas for
poles, mining timbers and sawn boards establishment of E. cloeziana plantations include
the area from the wet tropics south to Mackay, the
Only marginally suitable for paper pulp
Sunshine coast, the central and coastal Burnett and
End splitting is a serious defect but is highly Moreton regions on suitable soils and where the mean
variable with age and provenance annual rainfall exceeds 800 mm (QFRI website, 2002).
In Australia it is best suited to the warmer parts E. cloeziana has strong, heavy and very durable
of northern New South Wales and coastal wood. In Australia it is used for fencing, bridge
Queensland on sites with relatively fertile soils construction, transmission poles, mining timbers
and greater than 800 mm yr‑1 rainfall. and sawn boards. The species is planted for high
quality poles in the moister summer rainfall areas
of southern Africa and it is grown for industrial
charcoal production in Brazil. Laboratory tests
have indicated that E. cloeziana has potential for
fine paper production (Hicks and Clark, 2001).
Its sensitivity to fungal pathogens in the nursery has
inhibited its use as a plantation species. E. cloeziana
60
is more sensitive than most other eucalypts to drought
shortly after planting but once established it will
tolerate a dry season of 4-5 months (Poynton, 1979).
Some provenances are more drought-tolerant than
others. For example, coastal, high-rainfall provenances
have proven to be susceptible to drought on shallow,
sandy soils while provenances of E. cloeziana from
harsher inland sites have shown greater drought
tolerance in these conditions. The species only Eucalyptus cloeziana bark, Gympie, Queensland.
tolerates very light frosts. Strong winds can cause
windthrow problems, especially on shallow soils
(Turnbull, 1979). populations retaining their rough bark to a higher
level than northern populations (Turnbull, 1979).
Description and natural Distinctive features of the species are the discolorous,
occurrence lanceolate or falcate adult leaves; the inflorescences

which are axillary, compound and branched, with
7-flowered individual inflorescences; and the
Description pedicellate, hemispherical fruit with 3-4 valves.
In coastal areas E. cloeziana grows as a tall Populations in drier areas have narrower adult
tree with an open, somewhat spreading canopy. and juvenile leaves (Turnbull, 1979). The seed is
On the best sites the species reaches its optimum yellow-brown and somewhat lustrous (Brooker and
development of 40‑55 m tall with a diameter of Kleinig, 1994).
1-2 m, while on less favourable sites it may be Like other eucalypts Gympie messmate does not
20-35 m tall and of variable form. In drier inland develop resting buds and grows whenever conditions
areas it has a short, straight bole and very open are favourable (Jacobs, 1955). No detailed studies
crown while on the harshest sites it may be have been reported on the pollination and breeding
reduced to a small, crooked tree less than 10 m system but observations suggest that E. cloeziana is
(Boland et al., 1984). insect pollinated (Turnbull, 1979). The flowering time
The stem form is generally very straight except on is from November to February in Australia. Trees
very infertile, dry sites where the stem is short and begin flowering from about their ninth year (Poynton,
often crooked. Tall individuals on better sites have 1979). The time from bud to fruit maturation is about
long, clear boles for up to 60% of total tree height. 16 months. The capsules may remain unopened on
The bark is rough on most or whole of the trunk and the tree for up to three years where heavy general
larger branches, soft, flaky, tessellated, light brown flowerings occur at three year intervals (Turnbull
or yellow-brown (Brooker and Kleinig, 1994). The and Pryor, 1984). There will be regional and
smaller branches are smooth, greyish-white or yellowish. seasonal variability in seed availability.
There is provenance variation in the degree to Some seedlings produce distinct lignotubers but
which the rough bark is retained with southern others have a thick carrot-like swelling near the
junction of root and shoot (Turnbull, 1983).
61
Natural occurrence
Eucalyptus cloeziana is endemic to eastern
Queensland where it occurs between latitudes
15-27°S (Figure 6.1). It grows in a number of
disjunct localities and is most common in sandstone
ranges eastwards from the Great Dividing Range in
a narrow strip east of Gympie (about 50 km inland
from the coast in southeast Queensland), and on the
Atherton Tableland in northern Queensland. There
are some isolated occurrences in between (Turnbull,
1983; Boland et al., 1984). In altitude, it extends
from near sea level on Hinchinbrook Island to a
maximum of 950 m near Atherton (Turnbull, 1979).
It grows in open forest and woodland, often dominant, on
plateaus, tablelands and slopes (Chippendale, 1988).
It occurs in warm subhumid to humid climatic areas.
Up to five light frosts occurring annually throughout
the natural range except for low altitude areas in
the north which are frost-free (Boland et al., 1984).
The best development of this species is on
metasediments or loam of volcanic origin, usually
of moderate depth, on lower slopes of valleys. It is
common on shallow soils over coarse sandstone or
on shallow to moderately deep coarse-textured soils
derived from granite. It tolerates drier and less fertile
sandy soils on ridges and plateaus but growth is Eucalyptus cloeziana tree in natural stand at
poorer. The soils are usually well-drained (Turnbull Paluma, Queensland.
and Pryor, 1984). It is not adapted to saline soils and
it has reduced growth and survival at ECe 2-4 dS m‑1
(Sun and Dickinson, 1993; House et al., 1998). Where will it grow?
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Figure 6.1: Natural distribution of Eucalyptus for E. cloeziana, incorporating data from both the
cloeziana (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) natural distribution and from sites where the species
good growth:

Rainfall regime: Summer, winter
hottest month:
coldest month:
62
Figure 6.2: Areas predicted to be climatically Provenance trials
suitable for E. cloeziana are shown in black
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) Comprehensive provenance trials have been
established in several countries since 1977.
Provenances from both northern and southern
coastal or subcoastal areas of Queensland, e.g.
‘Cardwell’ and ‘Gympie’, have shown superior
growth in Australian trials (Dickinson et al., 1996)
and in trials overseas in Brazil (Souza et al., 1992),
Congo (Bouvet and Delwaulle, 1983; Delwaulle and
Monchaux, 1983; Vigneron, 1989), India
(Manaturagimath et al., 1991) and South Africa
(Pierce, 1992). Considerable variation between
families within provenances, and different levels
of variation for different provenances were found
in some of these trials. In most trials provenances
with mediocre growth came from inland locations.
In only a few instances have inland provenances
The map of areas predicted to be climatically grown well e.g. in a Brazilian provenance trial in
suitable for planting E. cloeziana (Figure 6.2) was Sao Paulo State where a provenance from the
generated from the revised climatic details for the ‘Blackdown Tableland’ area in the southern inland
species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). zone was the fastest-growing among eight E. cloeziana
These revisions were made to the climatic parameters, provenances tested (Timoni et al., 1983).
species both within and outside its natural range. Breeding and genetic resources
Revisions to the range of climatic requirements Most of the natural populations of E. cloeziana are
included raising the lower limit for mean annual secure or relatively secure in national parks or forest
rainfall from 450‑650 mm. However, for the reserves but there is slight risk that some of the smaller
successful establishment of plantations the Queensland isolated stands elsewhere could be lost through
Forest Research Institute suggest a lower limit for mean
clearing of land for agricultural expansion.
annual rainfall of 800 mm (QFRI website, 2002)
on sites with suitable soils i.e. deep, moderately The results of a Brazilian trial demonstrated that early
fertile, well-drained soils with a loamy or sandy selection can be used in breeding this species. Selection
texture. The dry season has also been shortened to at the age of 29 months proved to be efficient,
5 months using information from commercial plantings allowing a superior gain per unit of time, compared
(Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). to other selection strategies (Marques et al., 1996).
Based on the variation in growth rate, stem straightness
Planting and provenance trials and some wood properties in initial provenance
trials in Queensland, a future improvement strategy
for the species was proposed by Dickinson et al.
Planting (1996). The strategy included more comprehensive
In Australia the species has been grown in plantations provenance trials, provenance resource stands using
in Queensland and northern New South Wales. the best trees from the best provenance regions, and
It has been grown successfully for poles in Kenya, seedling or clonal seed sources based on the very
Malawi, Swaziland, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia best trees selected in stands of satisfactory
and Zimbabwe, principally in areas with an annual provenances. Seed orchards of E. cloeziana have
rainfall of 1000‑1500 mm and a dry season of since been established near Imbil and Mackay,
4‑5 months (FAO, 1974; Poynton, 1979). It also Queensland, in December 2001 (QFRI website, 2002).
grows well in parts of Brazil, China, Congo,
Madagascar and Nigeria.
63
Until the late 1970s most seed used in trials in General nursery practices are suitable for producing
other countries was collected from the Gympie containerised seedlings of E. cloeziana. These are
area of south-eastern Queensland. Since then a described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull (1997)
range-wide collection of provenances has been and QFRI website (2002). Many nurseries will
available from CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, grow seedlings on request and some specialise in
Australian Tree Seed Centre in Canberra. producing trees for the farm forestry market. Young
germinants of E. cloeziana are sensitive to damping
Silviculture off fungi but losses can be minimized by sowing
in cool weather, watering sparingly, and using a
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this fungicide. Best results are obtained by keeping
species. Further information is available through E. cloeziana seedlings under a light shade until
sources listed under recommended reading. they are about 10 cm before moving them out into
Summary silvicultural information and practices full sun. If moved too early, they tend to lose vigour,
specific to this species are outlined below. become discoloured and grow very slowly (Paul
Ryan, QFRI, pers. comm., 2002). Approximately
Propagation 3‑4 months under a suitable nursery regime is
generally adequate to provide quality seedlings
Eucalyptus cloeziana is usually propagated from
for planting out. Seedlings should be hardened
seed extracted by drying from mature capsules.
off (as above) before planting out which should
Although sieving may reduce damage to
be done when the soil is moist and conditions are
germinating seeds by seed borne fungi (Donald
not excessively hot. Planting out can be done from
and Lundquist, 1988), viable seeds are difficult to
November to April, but between February to April
separate from chaff, which are similar in size, weight
is generally best (QFRI website, 2002).
and colour (Boland et al., 1980). There are on
average 260 000 viable seed kg-1 of seed and
Establishment
chaff mix (Gunn, 2001) but there is considerable
variation in seed size between different provenances. Soil ripping will be beneficial if there is a root
Seeds of drier inland provenances have larger seeds, limiting horizon and weed control is essential as it
usually 35 000‑65 000 kg-1 of seed and chaff will improve survival and early growth rate. This is
whereas those from the tall open forests in moister usually achieved by a combination of mechanical
coastal areas have 100 000‑400 000 kg‑1 (Turnbull (e.g. cultivation) and chemical (herbicide) methods.
and Pryor, 1984). Seeds can be germinated without Both residual and knock-down herbicides may be
pre-treatment and the optimum germination used. Information on appropriate herbicides and
temperature is about 27°C (Turnbull and Shepherd, application methods is given by Fagg and Cremer
1984). However, the seed coat does contain inhibitors (1990) and QFRI website (2002). The dense,
and germination may be improved by the use of compact crown of E. cloeziana assists in weed
procedures such as washing or even soaking the suppression after the establishment phase.
seed (Gunn, 2001). The seeds are orthodox and
can be stored for several years in cool dry conditions Planting at an initial spacing of 4 m x 2.5 m
provided their moisture content is kept below 8%. (1000 stems ha‑1) is recommended as a good
Eucalyptus cloeziana is difficult to propagate by stocking density for timber production. In drier
cuttings. Preliminary trials reported by Catesby and areas where there will be more competition for
Walker (1997) used cuttings collected from 95 water a 4 m x 3 m spacing may be preferable
clones from five seedlots. Mean rooting success at (QFRI website, 2002).
eight weeks was 21%. However, four clones within Planting should be carried out soon after the onset of
the best rooting family had a rooting success of summer rains. Established E. cloeziana will tolerate
100%. Selection of clones for enhanced rooting a 4‑5 month dry season but in South Africa it is more
may be possible because of the large within and sensitive to drought in the first month after planting
between-family variation in rooting success observed than most other eucalypts and may need to be
in this trial. Clonal seed orchards using grafts of watered if weather conditions are unfavourable.
E. cloeziana onto root stocks have been successful Containerised stock has a higher survival rate than
(Boland et al., 1980). open-rooted stock (Poynton, 1979).
64
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and of protecting the stumps at harvesting, thinning the
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist coppice and the possible lost gains in productivity
early growth is practiced in the establishment that might be achieved from the use of improved
of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is seed or provenances for the next rotation.
particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there is
often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil Growth rates
High growth rates are achieved when the correct
provenance is planted on high potential forestry soils
can respond to a fertiliser application only if other
in a suitable climatic zone. In old E. cloeziana trials
factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability
in south-east Queensland on moist sites, Leggate et
(low rainfall or heavy weed competition are two
al. (1998) cite work by Ryan (1993) which showed
factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely
that merchantable volume MAI ranged from
7.8‑19.7 m3 ha‑1. The current MAI for young
further information from more detailed references
E. cloeziana grown in south-east Queensland on
good sites, under new, intensive silvicultural regimes,
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997). General
and with some degree of genetic selection is
recommendations are also available on the QFRI
20 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 (Leggate et al., 1998).
website (2002).
Maintenance Protection
The crown is relatively lightly branched when grown In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
in a plantation and branch shedding occurs and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
particularly well in this species (Poynton, 1979). have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
Dickinson et al. (2000) propose a pruning regime pests. However a certain amount of damage to
to reduce the impacts of knots on timber quality for natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases
E. cloeziana and suggest that two pruning lifts are is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of
potentially all that is necessary, with a lift to 3.2 m managing them. At present the main opportunities to
at an average DBH of 8 cm and a lift to 6 m at an reduce this damage are provided by management
average DBH of 12 cm. options such as maintaining the health and vigour
Dickinson et al. (2000) state that for high-growth
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment;
species such as E. cloeziana a pre-commercial
thinning to a minimum stocking of 400 trees ha‑1 at
for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
approximately 1.4-3.5 years, will maximise DBH
unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
growth of the remaining trees. It is suggested that
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the
commercial thinning to 150-200 trees ha‑1 will
control of pests by pesticide application is not
then be necessary at around age 8-15 years to
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs
ensure good growth rates are maintained. This
stocking should then be sufficient to allow these
issues of chemical use.
trees to achieve a merchantable size in an
acceptable rotation length. In general, E. cloeziana rarely has its growth
significantly affected by insects or pathogens.
E. cloeziana coppices readily (Poynton, 1979;
Higa and Sturion, 1991) but opinions differ on In Australia, young stressed trees may be attacked by
whether the coppice regrowth has a stem form as a longicorn beetle (Phoracantha spp.) and a range
good as that of trees of seedling origin (Barrett and of leaf beetles (House et al., 1998). However,
Mullin, 1968). Coppice management requires the E. cloeziana appears to be the species of eucalypt
reduction of the number of coppice shoots on a most resistant to Christmas beetle (Coleoptera:
stool (Evans, 1982) so the value of using a coppicing Scarabaeidae, mostly Anoplognathus spp.) attack
system needs to be considered in light of the cost (QFRI website, 2002).
65
Seedlings and young plantations in Africa have light construction but is used in engineering as sawn
been found susceptible to attack by termites unless and round timber in wharf and bridge construction,
control measures are taken (Calvert, 1971). railway sleepers, poles, piles, cross-arms and mining
timbers, mining timbers and railway sleepers. In
E. cloeziana is susceptible to drought, especially when
construction it is used as unseasoned sawn timber
young, and also requires freedom from competition
in general house framing and as seasoned dressed
by weeds in the establishment phase. It will not
timber in cladding, internal and external flooring,
tolerate frosts below about -5°C, waterlogging or lining and joinery. It can also be used in fencing,
even moderate levels of salinity. Wind damage to landscaping and retaining walls, outdoor furniture
shelterbelts in South Africa and Malawi has been and turnery (QFRI website, 2002).
reported (Poynton, 1979). Young seedlings may need
protection from vertebrate pests such as rabbits. Results of an Australian pulping study (Hicks and
Clark, 2001) showed some promising results for
E. cloeziana use for paper production. Among
Utilisation eucalypts, basic density has been correlated with
paper properties and the range of densities for
Wood commercial pulpwood is 400‑600 kg m‑3. Twelve-
year-old E. cloeziana in this study had a basic
The heartwood is yellowish-brown and the
density of 644 kg m‑3, but as paper companies
sapwood is distinctly paler in colour and up to
are now accepting wood with higher densities for
25 mm wide. The wood does not display any
fine paper production, up to 650 kg m‑3 in Australia
figure and is medium textured with a generally
and up to 700 kg m‑3 in Japan, this species could
straight, uniform grain, although it is sometimes
be considered as acceptable for the production
slightly interlocked (Keating and Bolza, 1982;
of fine papers. The researchers also found that
QFRI website, 2002). Air-dry density of wood from
E. cloeziana had a higher handsheet bulk than that
mature trees averages about 1000 kg m‑3 (Bootle,
of the pulp from current Tasmanian export woodchips
1983). Young plantation-grown trees (five years)
and in an estimate of chemical pulping suitability
were found to have a basic density of 624 kg m‑3,
based on the basic density, alkali requirements and
with a range of 489-732 kg m‑3 (Dickinson et al.,
pulp yields obtained from laboratory tests, E. cloeziana
1996). The timber is heavy, strong and very tough.
ranked around 20% higher than Tasmanian export
The sapwood is not susceptible to lyctid borer attack
woodchips and around fifth out of the 23 eucalypts
and readily accepts preservative impregnation,
being tested (Hicks and Clark, 2001).
however, the heartwood is extremely resistant to
preservative treatment (Bootle, 1983). The timber is Overseas E. cloeziana makes excellent charcoal
very resistant to termites (Keating and Bolza, 1982). and the branches make a very good fuelwood
(Magalhaes and Carneiro, 1988; Trugilho et al.,
It can be satisfactorily dried using conventional air
1997; Poynton, 1979).
and kiln seasoning methods. In South Africa logs
and sawn boards of E. cloeziana have shown a
tendency to end-split but the extent to which this Non-wood
occurs varies greatly with age and provenance Although it has been recommended for forming the
(Poynton, 1979). Its wearing and weathering upper storey of tall shelterbelts in Australia (Brown
properties are good. The timber is rated very hard and Hall, 1968), it has also been reported as being
(rated 1 on a 6 class scale ) in relation to indentation damaged by high winds when planted in shelterbelts
and ease of working with hand tools. It machines, in South Africa and Malawi (Poynton, 1979).
turns and dresses well and, as with most high density
species, requires machining and surface preparation It yields a modest supply of both nectar and pollen
immediately before gluing. It saws well and planes for honey production (Blake and Roff, 1958). Its
to an attractive finish, taking a high polish. foliar essential oils have been analysed (Bignell et al.,
1997; Boland et al., 1991; Doimo et al., 1999) but
The strength and durability of the timber and its
are not currently of interest for commercial production.
ease of sawing makes it suitable for a wide range
of uses. It is rather heavy for furniture making and
66
Limitations Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
Bouvet, JM, Delwaulle, JC, 1983. Introduction
It is not an aggressive colonizer and has no major d’Eucalyptus cloeziana au Congo, Pointe Noire -
disadvantages. Its sensitivity to fungal pathogens Parcelle 77.13. Bois et Forets des Tropiques, 200:7-20.
in the nursery has inhibited its use as a plantation Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
species. Strong winds can cause windthrow problems, Vol. 3. Northern Australia. Inkata Press, Sydney.
especially on shallow soils, and susceptibility to Brown AG, Hall N, 1968. Growing Trees on Australian
cyclonic winds has inhibited its planting in some Farms. Forestry and Timber Bureau, Department of National
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MJ, 2000. Thinning and pruning to maximise yields of improvement strategies. 423-426. EMBRAPA, Colombo.
high value timber products from tropical and subtropical Chippendale GM, 1988. Eucalyptus, Angophora
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of AFG 2000: Opportunities for the New Millenium. pp Government Printing Service, Canberra.
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Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient
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Ecology and Management, 60:1‑14.
Timoni JL, Coelho LCC, Kageyama PY, da Silva AA, 1983.
Teste de procedencia de Eucalyptus spp. na regiao de
Mogi- Guacu (SP). Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 31:505-507.
Trugilho PF, Regazzi AJ, Vital BR, Gomide JL, 1997.
Multivariate analysis for evaluation of Eucalyptus wood
quality and for selecting potentially superior genotypes for
charcoal production. Revista Arvore, 21:113-130.
Keating WG, Bolza E, 1982. Characteristics, Properties
and Uses of Timbers. Vol. 1 South-east Asia, Northern Turnbull JW, 1979. Geographic Variation in Eucalyptus
Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press and CSIRO, Melbourne. cloeziana F. Muell. PhD Thesis, Australian National
University, Canberra.
Leggate W, Palmer G, Walduck B, 1998. Economic
aspects of Eucalypt hardwood plantation forestry: A case Turnbull JW, 1983. Provenance variation in Eucalyptus
study on E. cloeziana plantations in south-east Queensland. cloeziana F. Muell. Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 31:508-511.
In: Dyason R, Dyason L, Garsden R (eds). Proceedings of Turnbull JW, 2000. Eucalyptus cloeziana F.Muell.
the 1998 Australian Forest Growers Conference, Lismore, Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module
6-9th July 1998. pp 229-243. (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International,
Magalhaes JGR, Carneiro JG de A, 1988. Quality of Wallingford, UK.
wood and its effects on charcoal quality and the Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
economic impacts of its use. Bilateral symposium seed sources. In: Hillis WE, Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts
Brazil-Finland on forestry actualities. 16-22 October for Wood Production. pp 6-65. CSIRO and Academic
1988, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil, 195-209. Press, Melbourne.
Manaturagimath BB, Bulgannawar GN, Parameswarappa Turnbull JW, Shepherd KR, 1984. Geographic variation
S, Burley J, 1991. Provenance trial of Eucalyptus cloeziana
in seed characteristics of Eucalyptus cloeziana F. Muell.
in Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. Indian Forester,
Paper to IUFRO International Symposium on Seed Quality
117:1013-1020.
of Tropical and Subtropical Species, 22-26 May 1984,
Marques OG Jr., Andrade HB, Ramalho MAP, 1996. Bangkok, Thailand.
Assessment of the early selection efficiency in
Vigneron P, 1989. Provenances d’Eucalyptus cloeziana F.
Eucalyptus cloeziana F. Muell. in the northwest of Minas
Muell. Bases pour l’amelioration genetique de l’espece.
Gerais state (Brazil). Silvae Genetica, 45:359-361.
In: Gibson GL, Griffin AR, Matheson AC (eds). Breeding
Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds), 1997. Management of Tropical Trees, Proceedings of IUFRO Conference,
Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests. ACIAR Pattaya, Thailand, November 1988. Oxford Forestry
Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for International Institute, Oxford, pp 351-354.
68
7. Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden
Dunns White Gum
Roger Arnold, Ian McLeod and Bronwyn Clarke – adapted from Arnold, 2000.
Species overview
Eucalyptus dunnii is a large hardwood which can
show rapid growth and often excellent stem form
on fertile soils with suitable climate. In plantations,
stem straightness can be superior to that of the
highly regarded species E. grandis (Johnson and
Arnold, 2000), with a finer branching habit. It has
a demonstrated adaptability to a wide range of soil
types of good depth and moderate to high fertility
(Herbert, 1996). In trials and commercial plantations
Key features it has proved capable of superior growth and
survival in some environments, in comparison to
Medium to tall tree to 50 m of generally some more widely planted eucalypt species such
excellent form with clear straight bole up to 35 m as E. grandis, due to its superior frost and drought
In plantations form can be superior to the highly tolerance (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; Darrow, 1996,
regarded E. grandis with a finer branching habit Jovanovic et al., 2000). E. dunnii is particularly well
Can show rapid early growth on fertile soils with suited to warmer summer rainfall climates where
good depth winters are cold and frosts occur regularly. It
Adapted to a wide range of soil types but produces timber suitable for a range of uses. In Brazil
requires good depth, moderate to high fertility and Argentina it is considered suitable for pulp
and moist soils manufacture and a range of solid wood products
such as light construction timbers and veneers.
May require heavier fertilisation than E. grandis
However, in comparison to many other eucalypts
and some other plantation eucalypts growing on
similar soils it has low seed production (Jacobs, 1981).
Survival is good in drought but growth is quite poor It has been planted in only a few countries on
a commercial scale (Australia, Uruguay, Brazil,
Can be grown in dry areas with the use of irrigation
South Africa and China).
It tends to be a shy seeding species
It produces a good kraft pulp for papermaking
Timber is not sufficiently durable for external
applications occurrence
Timber has been used in building framework and
joinery, particleboard manufacture, charcoal Description
production and as fuelwood Eucalyptus dunnii is a medium‑sized to tall forest
Niche is on sites in warmer summer rainfall regions tree with a wide spreading and heavily branched
with more than 900 mm rainfall, on sites with crown in more open situations. Mature heights of
frequent winter frosts on deep, fertile soils on the up to 50 m are attained with diameters at breast
coastal tablelands and ranges of northern New height up to 1-1.5 m. Form is generally excellent
South Wales and southern Queensland, and with a clear straight bole (in natural stands) up to
irrigated sites in drier regions.
69
Eucalyptus dunnii in natural stand on the edge of Natural stand of Eucalyptus dunnii at Moleton,
farmland at Moleton, NSW. NSW.
30-35 m (Boland et al., 1984). In gross Figure 7.1: Natural distribution of E. dunnii
morphological features, it resembles E. saligna and (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
E. grandis, which are associated species. E. dunnii
can be confused with E. dalrympleana subsp.
heptantha (Boland et al., 1984).
Distinctive features of the tree are the brown, rough,
more or less corky and persistent stocking of 1-4 m
with smooth grey or whitish bark above and often
long ribbons of bark that are shed from the upper
trunk and main branches. It has cordate, crenulate
strongly discolorous juvenile leaves, 7-flowered
inflorescences, ovoid buds with scar and hemispherical
fruit with 3-5 strongly exserted valves (Boland et al.,
1984; Brooker and Kleinig, 1994). The seed is
grey-brown-black (Boland et al., 1980) and small
with approximately 250 000 kg‑1 (Turnbull and
Doran, 1987).
Like other eucalypts E. dunnii does not develop to flower from as early as age four years (CSIRO
resting buds and grows whenever conditions are Forestry and Forest Products unpublished data).
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). E. dunnii is a generally The reproductive cycle takes about two years to
a late flowering species, both in natural stands and complete. Flowering in its natural habitat is from
when planted as an exotic (Boland, 1984; Graca, March to May (i.e. autumn). Capsules mature by
1987). Typically it can take 10 years or more before early spring, with seed collection months being
it commences flowering and producing seed. Even September‑February (Boland et al., 1980).
after it has commenced seed production, seed yields
are relatively low and irregular (Oliviera et al., Natural occurrence
1988; Gardiner, 1990). However, when planted
well south of its natural range in inland south- Eucalyptus dunnii occurs mostly in two main small,
eastern Australia, individuals have been observed disjunct, natural populations in the Moleton-Kangaroo
70
River area of New South Wales, north-west of Coffs Figure 7.2: Areas climatically suitable for E. dunnii
Harbour (30°S), and in the Border Ranges of New are shown in black (Booth and Jovanovic, 2002).
South Wales and Queensland (about 28°S) (Figure
7.1). Within these two populations, it occurs in
disjunct communities varying in size from several up
to more than 200 ha (Benson and Hager, 1993).
Several isolated small stands occur just south of the
Border Ranges in the Richmond Range area of
New South Wales.
In E. dunnii’s natural range the climate is warm and
humid with frosts occurring about 20-60 times a
year (Boland et al., 1984).
Natural stands of E. dunnii occur mainly in valley
bottoms and on lower slopes of hills and escarpments.
It also grows high on ridges in basaltic soils around
the edges of rainforests (Benson and Hager, 1993).
Stands occur on a range of aspects but rarely on and plantings of this species both within and outside
north-western facing slopes. It prefers moist, higher its natural range. Information from trials in South
fertility soils, particularly those of basaltic origin Africa at Liff and Greenpoint (Nixon and Hagedorn,
(Boland et al., 1984). 1984) and at John Meikle Forest Reserve in
Zimbabwe (Poynton, 1979) show that the species
Where will it grow? can cope with a dry season length of about five
months rather than the two months indicated by its
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for natural range. On more fertile sites with good soil
E. dunnii Maiden, incorporating data from both the depth it can show rapid early growth with excellent
natural distribution and from sites where the species stem straightness and fine branching. Impressive
has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the growth rates, up to 4 m or more in height per year,
following key climatic conditions for survival and have been achieved in coastal northern New South
good growth: Wales (Johnson and Arnold, 2000) and under
irrigation in southern inland New South Wales
(Myers et al., 1994).
Rainfall regime: Uniform, summer
In drought-prone areas growth tends to be poorer
Dry season length: 0-5 months even though survival is good (Darrow, 1996).
It generally does not grow well on shallow soils
(effective rooting depth <55 cm) with poorer
hottest month:
water holding capacity (Herbert, 1994). However,
Mean minimum temperature -1-17°C supplementary irrigation can enable E. dunnii
coldest month: plantations to be extended into very dry areas,
Mean annual temperature: 12-22°C sometimes with outstanding growth results (Myers
et al., 1994). In a species trial under effluent
The map of areas predicted to be climatically irrigation near Wagga Wagga in inland New
suitable for planting E. dunnii (Figure 7.2) was South Wales (mean annual rainfall 570 mm), the
generated from the revised climatic details for the top height of E. dunnii averaged 10.1 m at age
species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 34 months (Myers et al., 1994). It was one of the
2002). These revisions were made to the climatic best two out of 30 eucalypt species included in
parameters, initially derived from the natural that trial, based on a rating that integrated growth
distribution, on the basis of information from trials and other traits including stem form.
71
Plantings and provenance trials Breeding and genetic resources
Most of the natural stands of E. dunnii in New
Plantings South Wales are now located within National
Eucalyptus dunnii has been included in trials in Parks or reserved forests, so this rare species is
many countries including South Africa, Zimbabwe, not threatened or endangered.
Kenya, Colombia, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Though provenance differences for growth and
China and Sri Lanka and Australia (Johnson and form in E. dunnii are generally small, large
Arnold, 2000). Though it has often shown promise significant differences between families, within
in such trials, only in relatively few countries have provenances, have been reported. The heritability
larger areas (>1000 ha) of E. dunnii plantations been of both growth traits and stem straightness has
established. These countries include Australia, Uruguay, been found to be similar to that in other eucalypt
Brazil, South Africa and, more recently, China. species, indicating that reasonable genetic gains
Its use as an exotic in many countries has been can be expected from selection and breeding for
severely limited by low seed productivity – a these traits. Base populations for ongoing genetic
consequence of its tendency to be a shy seeding improvement should incorporate a relatively
species (Jacobs, 1981; Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; comprehensive sampling of the total natural range
Oliveira et al., 1988). of E. dunnii to enable exploitation of the genetic
variation that exists between families within provenances
Provenance trials (Johnson and Arnold, 2000; Marco and Lopez, 1995).
In 1990, CSIRO made seed collections from 188 The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
individual trees of E. dunnii covering most of its natural Tree Seed Centre in Canberra can supply both
range (Gardiner, 1990). This seed, combined with single-tree and bulk-tree provenance collections of
some limited earlier collections, has provided the seed from natural stands of E. dunnii suitable for
base populations for most of the E. dunnii genetic trials and breeding programmes. It also has a small
tree improvement programs being pursued around amount of improved seed of E. dunnii available.
the world today. Eucalyptus dunnii genetic improvement programs,
Results of trials of E. dunnii have shown variation of varying intensity, have been initiated in at least
between provenances for growth and form to Australia (Johnson and Arnold, 2000), South Africa
be small in magnitude. In two trials in northern (SAPPI, 1997), Brazil (Oliveira et al., 1988), Uruguay
New South Wales which included 14 different (Chris Harwood, CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products,
provenances representing most of the species’ Canberra, pers. comm., 1997) and Argentina (Marco
natural range, 3‑year‑old mean height of the and Lopez, 1995). In Brazil, there are more than
poorest provenances was about 85% of that 100 ha of seed production areas for the species
of the best, and differences in stem form among (Eldridge et al., 1993). However, seed production
provenances were minor (Johnson and Arnold, of these areas is relatively low. At around age 20
2000). This pattern of variation in growth and years, 15.8 ha of E. dunnii seed production area
form between provenances of E. dunnii is generally in Paraná State, Brazil, averaged around only
demonstrated in provenance trials in Argentina 15 kg of seed per year (Chris Harwood, CSIRO
(Marco and Lopez, 1995), Brazil (Pires and Parente, Forestry and Forest Products, pers. comm., 1997).
1986; Oliveira et al., 1988; Kise, 1997); South Interspecific hybrids of eucalypts are becoming
Africa (Nixon and Hagedorn, 1984; Swain, 1994; increasingly important to forest industries worldwide
Swain and Gardner, 1997) and China (Mannion and E. grandis is one of the most commonly‑used
and Zhang, 1989; Wang et al., 1999). parent species in the combinations deployed. In
southern Brazil, the hybrid of E. grandis x E. dunnii
has provided some outstanding individuals (Chris
Harwood, CSIRO Forestry and Forestry Products,
72
Canberra, pers. comm., 1997). Other combinations New South Wales, pers. comm., 2000). Grafting
that have been successfully produced, at least to the has been successful for breeding arboreta and
seed stage, include E. dunnii x E. grandis, E. dunnii seed orchards in South Africa (SAPPI, 1997). It
x E. urophylla, E. dunnii x E. macarthurii, E. nitens is reported to coppice well (Cooper and Graca,
x E. dunnii, and E. macarthurii x E. dunnii (SAPPI, 1987; Graca and Toth, 1990).
1997).
Establishment
Silviculture Locally successful methods of plantation establishment
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this
for E. dunnii. Detailed information on various
species. Further information is available through
sources listed under recommended reading.
sources including: government organisations
Summary silvicultural information and practices
(Queensland Department of Primary Industries;
specific to this species are outlined below.
Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), farm forestry
Propagation and landcare groups. Books such as Florence (1996),
Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000) are
Eucalyptus dunnii seeds are small, orthodox and will also valuable resources. Websites of many of the
remain viable in storage for several years if kept above organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
dry (5-8% moisture content) in air-tight containers (e.g. QFRI website http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/
held at room temperature. The number of viable hardwoodsqld/), or these documents can be
seeds is 250 000 ± 119 000 kg‑1 (i.e. mean ± obtained by contacting the organisations directly.
standard deviation) (Turnbull and Doran, 1987).
Eucalyptus dunnii responds well to deep ripping
The viable seed are always contaminated with
on compacted sites; complete soil cultivation rather
chaff of similar size, even when sieved. The
than spot cultivation; chemical weed control and
recommended temperature for germination is
early fertiliser application (Nicholas et al., 1989).
25-30°C (Boland et al., 1984) and the seed
requires no pre-treatment. Seedlings can be planted by hand or by machinery.
To allow machinery to be used a spacing of 3-5 m
General nursery practices are suitable for
between rows should be used (Weiss, 1997). A
producing containerised seedlings of E. dunnii.
range of spacings and planting designs are possible
These are described in texts such as Doran and
in farm forestry plantings. Readers are referred to
Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries
texts such as Bird (2000) and Reid and Stephen
will grow seedlings on request and some specialise
(2001) for discussion of options and their merits.
in producing trees for the farm forestry market.
Suitable initial spacings for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m
E. dunnii seedlings are generally raised in single
(1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1).
containers or trays containing a number of individual
These spacings encourage rapid canopy closure,
cells. Rigid plastic cells or containers of 90 ml are
reducing weed problems, promoting good form
capable of producing ideal nursery stock 150-200 mm
and allowing ample selection for final stocking
high. Approximately 3-4 months under a suitable
of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird, 2000).
nursery regime is generally adequate to provide
quality seedlings for planting out. Herbert (1996) summarises South African silvicultural
practices applied across different eucalypt species
Eucalyptus dunnii will strike roots from stem cuttings
including E. dunnii – ‘Rotation lengths vary from
but success rates reported to date have generally
6‑12 years for pulpwood and mining timber,
been low and success varies considerably between
depending on site quality, stocking density and
clones (Valle, 1978; Cooper and Graca, 1987).
timber demand. Common spacings are from
In a New South Wales study, cuttings taken from
3.0 x 2.0 m (1667 trees ha‑1) to 3.0 x 3.0 m
seedlings in spring provided better strike rates than
(1111 trees ha‑1). Sawn and veneer timbers are
cuttings taken in winter (H. Smith, State Forests of
73
grown on rotations of up to 25 years with regular Maintenance
thinning, resulting in a final stocking of about
250 trees ha‑1 by mid rotation. Rotations for Plantations of E. dunnii in Australia have yet to
transmission poles are intermediate between those reach a stage where commercial harvesting has
for pulp and sawn timber, retaining about 750 trees ha‑1 been undertaken and management practices are
at age 4 years followed by selective cuttings at still developing.
marketable sizes (Schönau and Stubbings, 1987).’ Progressive thinning and pruning is required for
Wood from E. dunnii grown at wider spacings clearwood production and texts such as Bird
(3 x 4 m) may be less desirable for chemical (2000) and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the
pulping as it was found to have a higher alkali theory, objectives and techniques in a farm forestry
consumption (which causes pulp degradation) context. Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done
during kraft pulping (Ferreora et al., 1997). In to add value to the trees by aiming to increase the
contrast, that from closer spacings (3 x 1, 3 x 1.5, recovery of sawn timber from the trunk and to make
or 3 x 2 m) had lower and acceptable levels of alkali it suitable for higher‑value appearance-grade
consumption and were better suited to kraft pulping. products (Bird, 2000).
Planting out is timed to coincide with rainfall and Thinning removes defective trees and reduces
in southern latitudes is predominantly determined competition between trees. The spacing of trees
by the severity of frost and minimum temperatures determines the ultimate height and diameter of
experienced. Planting is carried out in June/July in individual stems. When grown for sawlogs the
South Australia and Western Australia while the soil stand may be reduced to a final stocking of
is still wet from winter rains. Planting may occur later 100‑300 stems ha‑1.
if site access is not available due to waterlogging,
which is often a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and Growth
New South Wales planting is done in September, Growth data for plantation grown E. dunnii is not
or July-August in warmer districts where soils dry available for Australia. On more fertile sites with
out earlier. Planting in northern latitudes usually good soil depth the species can show rapid early
occurs once the summer rains have begun between growth. In Australia, height growth of about 4 m
November-April, however February-April is preferred per annum has been achieved in coastal northern
so that young seedlings will be exposed to a shorter New South Wales (Johnson and Arnold, 2000)
period of high temperatures. and under irrigation in southern inland New South
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and Wales (Myers et al., 1994). Overseas trials indicate
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist height increments ranging up to 4.2 m yr‑1, and
early growth is practiced in the establishment diameter at breast height increments ranging up to
of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is 3.6 cm yr‑1 (Marco and Lopez, 1995). Overseas
particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there volume growth ranges up more than 34 m3 ha‑1
is often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil yr‑1 (Marco and Lopez, 1995; Higa et al., 1997).
degradation can result from very large applications Finger et al. (1995) provide a taper equation for
of nitrogen (N) fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees E. dunnii and Coetzee and Naicker (1999) provide
can respond to a fertiliser application only if other both taper and volume equations for the species.
factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability
factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely
Protection
depending on the site and readers should access In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens and
further information from more detailed references insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
such as: Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams have acquired the status of serious and limiting
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997). General forest pests. However, a certain amount of damage
recommendations are also available on the QFRI to natural forests and plantations by pests and
website (2002).
74
diseases is inevitable, and is accepted as an Utilisation
inherent part of managing them. At present the main
opportunities to reduce this damage are provided
Wood
by management options such as maintaining the
health and vigour of trees and stands at as high The heartwood of E. dunnii is pale brown and not
a level as possible by the application of timely clearly differentiated from the sapwood. The texture
silvicultural treatment; not planting the species is medium, with a straight grain. The heartwood is
on sites that are marginal for it and by regular not sufficiently durable for external use unless treated.
monitoring for insect damage or unhealthy trees The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus borer attack
(Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). Stone et al. (1998) (Boland et al., 1984). Air‑dry density (of wood from
note that in most situations the control of pests by natural stands in Australia) is about 800 kg m‑3.
pesticide application is not practical as it is prohibitive Basic densities for two planted stands of E. dunnii
in terms of the costs involved, monitoring required were 513 kg m‑3 (9-year-old, unknown provenance
and environmental issues of chemical use. planted at Coffs Harbour, New South Wales) and
534 kg m‑3 (12-year-old, ‘Kyogle’, New South Wales
Exposure of E. dunnii seedlings in nurseries
provenance planted at Gympie, Queensland) (Hicks
to excessive moisture and shade increase the
and Clark, 2001). The timber has been used in the
incidence of fungal attack by damping off
framework of buildings and joinery (Bootle, 1983)
and collar rot (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984).
and has been found to be suitable for particleboard
E. dunnii is a preferred host of Christmas beetles, manufacture (Iwakiri et al., 1996) and fuelwood
which affect plantation increment in many parts (Pereira et al., 1986; Wachira et al., 1994).
of south‑eastern Australia and northern New South
Care is needed in the early stages of drying the
Wales (Farrow, 1996; Simpson et al., 1997).
wood to avoid checks and splits; shrinkage from
Other insect pests which can cause significant
green to dry is about 5% radial and 10% tangential
defoliation of the species in Australia are autumn
(Bootle, 1983). Sawing and drying trials of young
gum moths, leaf beetles, leaf blister sawfly, psyllids
trees (14 years old) from a plantation in Victoria,
and lerps (Farrow, 1996; Simpson et al., 1997).
found E dunnii timber to be well suited to
Infestation levels of all these insects on E. dunnii tend
appearance‑grade products; that sawing distortion
to vary greatly between both years and locations
was within acceptable limits; and that seasoning
(Rob Floyd, CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra,
collapse encountered in some boards was not an
pers. comm. 1998). To resolve this uncertainty
insurmountable problem (Washusen, 1995).
about the effect of site on the level of infestation,
it may be necessary to put in preliminary trials In South African studies, kraft pulp from E. dunnii
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). Stone (1993) noted has shown excellent strength development during
that application on nitrogenous fertiliser did not beating, high screened yields with low percentages
appear to affect the level of psyllid infestation of rejects, as well as acceptable values for burst
on E. dunnii. strength, tear strength and breaking length in
comparison to E. grandis pulp – a pulp known for
Genetic variation in predation by some insects has
its excellent papermaking fibres (Van Wyk and
been observed in E. dunnii (Stone et al., 1998)
Gerischer, 1994). These results are in general
and may provide scope for minimising impacts
concurrence with a number of other studies (see
through genetic improvement of its tolerance and/
Ferreora el. al., 1997; Backman and de Leon,
or resistance.
1998) and an Australian study of wood properties
Whilst E. dunnii shows frost tolerance, it is susceptible of trees from two planted stands of E. dunnii which
to snow and wind damage. However, recovery from also concluded that the species had good potential
stem breakage early in the rotation can be sufficient for chemical pulping (Hicks and Clark, 2001).
to produce an acceptably straight bole by the end
of the rotation (Swain and Gardner, 1997).
75
Non-wood Backman M, de Leon JPG, 1998. Pulp and paper properties
of four-year old Eucalyptus trees for early species selection.
The concentration of 1,8‑cineole in the oil extracted In: Proceedings of 52nd Appita Annual General
from the leaves of E. dunnii is generally considered Conference, 1998, Vol. 1:7-13.
too low for pharmaceutical purposes (John Doran, Benson JS, Hager TC, 1993. The distribution, abundance
CSIRO, Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra, and habitat of Eucalyptus dunnii (Myrtaceae) (Dunn’s white
pers.comm. 2000). gum) in New South Wales. Cunninghamia, 3:123-145.
Limitations Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.

Its use as an exotic in many countries has been
severely limited by low seed production (Xiang Boland DJ, 1984. Australian trees grown in five overseas
Dongyun, Guangxi Forest Research Institute, pers. countries: comments on species grown and tested, seed
handling, nursery and establishment techniques. Churchill
comm., Jacobs, 1981; Turnbull and Pryor, 1984;
Fellowship Report. CSIRO Division of Forest Research,
Oliveira et al., 1988). It is prone to breakage Yarralumla, ACT.
from snowfalls and strong winds, though it has a
propensity to recover good form from such events
that occur early in its life (Swain and Gardner, Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
1997). Care in drying the wood is needed to
avoid checks and splits (Bootle, 1983). It is a
preferred host of Christmas beetles, as well as Canberra.
autumn gum moths, leaf beetles, leaf blister sawfly,
Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
psyllids and lerps which have the potential to
impact on plantation growth (Stone et al., 1998). Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
The species doesn’t do well on shallow soils and
growth is severely limited by prolonged dry periods Coetzee J, Naicker S, 1999. Tree volume and taper
(Darrow, 1996; Herbert, 1994). equations for Eucalyptus dunnii. Institute for Commercial
Forestry Research (ICFR); Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
Recommended reading ICFR Bulletin Series No. 7/99.
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A Cooper MA, Graca MEC, 1987. Perspectives on the
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. maximization of rooting of cuttings of Eucalyptus dunnii.
Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Curitiba, Parana; Brazil: Circular Tecnica Centro
Maryborough, Victoria. Nacional de Pesquisa de Florestas. No. 12.
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Darrow WK, 1996. Species trials of cold-tolerant
Multipurpose Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC eucalypts in the summer-rainfall zone of South Africa -
Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Results at six years of age. Institute for Commercial
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Forestry Research (ICFR); Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.
ICFR Bulletin Series No. 9/96.
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Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in Eucalyptus in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Series, No.
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optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Forestry, 56:385-390. Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
Arnold R, 2000. Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden Species Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the
Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian
– a silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van, 1993.
Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Clarendon Press,
Oxford, UK.
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Farrow R, 1996. Insects pests of eucalypts on farmland Jacobs MR (ed), 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. Edition 2.
and in plantations in south‑eastern Australia. CSIRO FAO Forestry Series No. 11. 677 pp. Food and Agriculture
Identification Leaflets. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Ferreora GW, Gonzaga JV, Foelkel CEB, Assis TF de, Johnson IG, Arnold, RJ, 2000. Age 3−year assessment
Ratnieks E, Silva MCM da, 1997. Kraft anthraquinone of cooperative SFNew South Wales/CSIRO Eucalyptus
pulp properties of Eucalyptus dunnii obtained from five dunnii provenance-family trials in northern New South
tree plantation spacings and compared with commercially Wales. Sydney: Forest Research and Development
planted Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus saligna. Division, State Forests of New South Wales. Research
Ciencia Florestal, 7:41-63. Paper 37. 28 pp.
Finger CAG, Zannon MLB, Schneider PR, Klein JEM, Jovanovic T, Arnold R, Booth T, 2000. Determining the
Coelho MCB, 1995. Taper of Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden climatic suitability of Eucalyptus dunnii for plantations in
established in the central depression and south east slope Australia, China and Central and South America. New
of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Ciencia Rural, Forests, 19:215-226.
25:399-403.
Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program.
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Gardiner CA, 1990. Collaborative seed collections of
Eucalyptus dunnii; October-December 1990. Unpublished Kise CM, 1997. Introductions of species or provenances
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Forestry, Canberra. e Florestal, Santa Barbara, Minas Gerais. Communicacao
Tecnica 17. FAO Report, No. PNUD-FAO-IBDF-BRA-45.
Graca MEC, 1987. Evaluation of flowering and seed
production potential of Eucalyptus dunnii in Brazil. Mannion EG, Zhang S, 1989. Eucalyptus dunnii
Boletim de Pesquisa Florestal, 14:1-12. potential in the People’s Republic of China. In: Proceedings
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Graca MEC, Toth VB dos R, 1990. Coppicing of
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20-24 October, 1989.
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Boletim de Pesquisa Florestal, 20:49-57. Marcó MA, López JA, 1995. Performance of Eucalyptus
grandis and Eucalyptus dunnii in the Mesopotamia region,
Herbert MA, 1994. Site requirements of exotic hardwood
Argentina. In: Potts BM, Borralho NMG, Reid JB, Cromer
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RN, Tibbits WN, Raymond CA (eds). Eucalypt plantations:
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Herbert MA, 1996. Fertilisers and eucalypt plantations in Conference, Hobart, 19-24 Feb. pp 40-45. CRC for
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Nutrition of Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp
Myers BJ, Bond WJ, Falkiner RA, O’Brien ND, Polglase
303-325.
PJ, Smith CJ, Theiveyanathan S, 1994. Wagga Effluent
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area in southern Brazil. IUFRO Proceedings on Silviculture
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and Improvement of Eucalypts. Vol. 1, Tree improvement
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Fofano A Jr., Fabrowski F, Interanmense MT, 1996.
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Comparison of wood of three provenances of Eucalyptus 1997:13. Institute for Commercial Forestry Research,
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Turnbull JW, Doran JC, 1987. Seed development and
Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree planting in southern Africa. germination in the Myrtaceae. In: Langkamp P (ed).
Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry, Germination of Australian Native Plant Seed. pp 46-57,
Pretoria, South Africa. 186-198. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
Pires CL da S, Parente PR, 1986. Comparison of species Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
and provenances of Eucalyptus in the Moji Mirim region, seed sources. In: Hillis WE, Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts
Sao Paulo. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto Florestal Sao for Wood Production. pp 6-65. CSIRO and Academic
Paulo, 40:314-325. Press, Melbourne.
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose Valle CF do, 1978. Rooting Eucalyptus sets. Boletim
Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No. Informativo, IPEF Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos
R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program, Florestais, Brazil, 6:1j-5j.
Van Wyk WJ, Gerischer GFR, 1994. Pulping characteristics
SAPPI, 1997. SAPPI Forests Research – Annual Report of Eucalyptus provenance trials grown in the Western
for the Year Ending 30 September 1997. SAPPI Forests, Cape. Part 1: Comparison between species. South
South Africa. African Forestry Journal, 170:1-5.
Schönau APG, Stubbings JA, 1987. Silviculture of eucalypts. Wachira FN, Bore JKA, Njuguna CK, 1994. Evaluation
In: Gadow K von (ed). Forestry Handbook. pp 106-115. of fuel wood species for use in the tea industry. Tea,
Southern African Institute of Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa. 15:119-123.
Simpson J, Stone C, Eldridge R, 1997. Eucalypt plantation Wang G, Arnold RJ, Gardiner CA, Zhang J, Wu Z,
pest and diseases – crop loss study. Research Paper No. 1999. Seed source variation for growth in
35. Forest Research and Development Division, State Eucalyptus dunnii; results from trials in China. Australian
Forests of New South Wales, Sydney. Forestry, 62: 120-127.
Stone C, 1993. Fertiliser and insecticide effects on tree Washusen R, 1995. Results – CSIRO sawing and drying
growth and psyllid infestation of young Eucalyptus grandis trials, ‘Crystal Creek’. Agroforestry News, 4:6-7.
and E. dunnii plantations in northern New South Wales.
Australian Forestry, 56:257-263.
Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and Wallingford, UK. University Press, Cambridge.
fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in northern
New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
78
8. Eucalyptus fraxinoides Deane and Maiden
White ash
internal joinery and furniture. The timber from

plantation‑grown trees seasons extremely well and
is easy to work. It has not been utilised for planting
to any extent in Australia, although it has been
included in several trials and has been found suited
to some sites in south-eastern Australia (Cotterill et
al., 1985; Duncan et al., 2000). However, while
growth rates are often very good on suitable sites,
survival is often poor (Clarke et al., 1997; Duncan
et al., 2000).
Key features Description and natural

Medium‑sized tree to 40 m of variable form occurrence
Fast growth
Description
Suited to dry, cool sites but is not tolerant of
drought A medium-sized to tall tree that attains 40 m in
height with a DBH up to 1 m. At high altitudes in
Does not perform well in warm, humid exposed situations it may be reduced to a smaller,
environments somewhat bushy tree 10-20 m high. Trees of better
Very frost tolerant species form are often found in stands. The erect trunk of
good form is usually one-half or more of the tree
Requires deep, well-drained soils
height. Bark is rough at the base for up to a few
Is intolerant of waterlogging metres, compact, hard, fissured, dark grey. Upper
bark sheds in long strips to leave a smooth yellowish
Is relatively intolerant of drought
white surface, frequently covered with insect ‘scribbles’.
Has potential for pulp production.
Juvenile leaves are sessile and opposite for a few
pairs, soon becoming petiolate, alternating and
Species overview pendulous, ovate to broadly falcate or broadly
Eucalyptus fraxinoides is a medium‑sized to tall, lanceolate,blue‑green (dimensions to 20 cm long
fast‑growing tree that is suited to dry, cool, well x 6.5 cm wide). Adult leaves are lanceolate to
drained sites but is not tolerant of drought. It is a falcate, glossy green (dimension to 16 cm long ×
frost‑tolerant species which has been grown as a 2.5 cm wide). The inflorescences are axillary,
source of pulpwood for bleached fine writing and 7-11-flowered, buds on short stalks, clavate, often
printing papers in South Africa and as a shelterbelt warty, 0.7 × 0.3 cm, with operculums which are
species in New Zealand. In Australia the timber conical to slightly beaked. Flowers are white. The
from natural stands has been used for joinery, fruit are pedicellate, woody, glossy, urceolate or
flooring and general construction and in New rarely truncate-globose, 1.1 × 1.1 cm, with descending
Zealand it has been sawn on a limited scale for disc and 4 or 5 enclosed valves. Seed is brown‑black
to black (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
79
Like other eucalypts white ash does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowering occurs during
December‑January in the natural distribution and
December to early March, but mainly in February,
in New Zealand. In New Zealand trees will usually
begin to produce flowers at 7‑9‑years‑of‑age,
sometimes on favourable sites at 3‑6 years. Seed
is collected from August through to March in natural
stands. In New Zealand seed collections can be
made at any time of the year. The optimum collection
time is after November, when there should be two
years’ seed crop on the trees. Mature trees carry
a seed crop that has matured over two years after
pollination (Miller et al., 2000; Gunn, 2001). There
will be regional and seasonal variability in seed
availability.
Natural occurrence
Eucalyptus fraxinoides is confined to the higher
eastern slopes of the southern highlands, south
from Sassafras, and the upper slopes of the coastal
escarpment of far south-eastern New South Wales,
extending just across the border into the Howe Range
in the north-eastern corner of Victoria (Brooker and
Kleinig, 1999) (Figure 8.1). It has a latitudinal
range of 35°-37°30'S and an altitudinal range
of 150-1000 m.
The habitat is typically mountain and escarpment
slopes which often experience mists and where
Figure 8.1: Natural distribution of Eucalyptus Natural stand of Eucalyptus fraxinoides in Naghi
fraxinoides (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) State Forest, NSW.
regular winter snows occur, but the southernmost

populations occur in coastal hills where the climate
is milder. The climate is cool to warm humid with
frosts (Boland et al., 1984). The frequency of frost
varies with altitude from 10 to greater than 90 per
year. At altitudes over 700 m light falls of snow
occur and heavier falls at over 850 m, which will
lie on the ground for several days (Jacobs, 1981).
It occurs on brown podsolic and transitional alpine
humus soils. At the highest altitudes the trees grow
in pure stands on shallow soil among granite rocks
(Boland et al., 1984).
80
Where will it grow? Figure 8.2: Areas climatically suitable for
Eucalyptus fraxinoides are shown in black
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
for Eucalyptus fraxinoides, incorporating data from
both the natural distribution and from sites where the
species has been grown successfully as an exotic,
gives the following key climatic conditions for
survival and good growth:

Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter,
summer
hottest month:
Mean minimum temperature -3-7°C
coldest month: information from Draycott (Gardner and Swain,
1996) and Lothair in South Africa (Darrow 1996).
Eucalyptus fraxinoides requires moist, deep and
The map of areas predicted to be climatically well-drained soils (Schönau and Purnell, 1987).
suitable for planting Eucalyptus fraxinoides (Figure In New Zealand the ash eucalypts have generally
8.2) was generated from the revised climatic details been planted in the cooler parts, but where the
for the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, winter ground temperatures do not fall below
2002). These revisions were made to the climatic -8°C. Warmer northerly aspects are preferred for
parameters, initially derived from the natural planting, but frost hollows and areas with poor air
distribution, on the basis of information from trials circulation should be avoided as early-season or
and plantings of this species both within and outside late-season frost can be very damaging (Miller et
its natural range. In South Africa, E. fraxinoides is al., 2000).
best suited to areas where the rainfall incidence is
either uniform throughout the year or the maximum Plantings and provenance trials
falls in summer. In Australia it is unaffected by frost
in all but the coldest areas but is more sensitive to
Plantings
drought than the majority of eucalypts. It has withstood
heavy snowfalls almost as well as E. nitens. However, This species has been planted on a small scale on
under cold valley frost condition (cold air drainage), both the North and South Islands and as horticulture
the canopies of trees 6-8 m high with adult foliage shelterbelts around Auckland, New Zealand. Pure
were frosted and killed from the growth tip to just plantings of E. fraxinoides in New Zealand were
above ground level (Gardner and Swain, 1996). estimated in 1997 at 212 ha, with a further 3 ha
Revisions to the climatic range include the altering in mixed plantings, mostly 11-15 years of age.
of the rainfall regime to include a winter regime E. fraxinoides exhibited excellent growth at the
with the inclusion of trial information from Mt Longwood Forest site in New Zealand and grew
Gambier (Cotterill et al., 1985). The length of the well on a number of other sites, although the good
dry season was altered from one to five months form of the trees at Longwood Forest was not
on the basis of trials at Draycott and Balgowan repeated elsewhere (Miller et al., 2000).
in South Africa (Gardner and Swain, 1996). The
It has also been trialled and planted in southern
upper limit for the mean annual temperature was
Africa and while results have been variable it
also revised from 14°C to 15°C by including trial
has been described as a desirable species for
81
Table 8.1: Performance of Eucalyptus fraxinoides provenances at Uriarra, ACT and Tallaganda,
New South Wales (Clarke et al., 1997)
Mean
Height
of Best
Rainfall Mean Mean Mean Seedlot
Site (mm Survival DBH Height at Site
Provenance Age (yr) Name MAR) (%) (cm) (m) (m)
Pikes Saddle, 12 Uriarra 700 6 13.6 12.7 16.9
New South Wales
Eden, New South 12 Uriarra 700 2 11.4 9.2 16.9
Wales
Tuross Falls, 8 Tallaganda 1000 61 @ 4yrs 11.9 9.9 11.0
New South Wales
commercial production, because of vigorous White ash showed excellent early growth (four years
growth on colder sites and the excellent pulping of age) in a trial near Mount Gambier, South Australia.
properties of the wood (University of Pretoria, 1997). The site was an ex‑grazing pasture on a deep sandy
soil. The mean height attained was 9 m, and mean
Provenance trials diameter was 15.5 cm (Cotterill et al., 1985).
Eucalyptus fraxinoides has been trialled in several In species and provenance trials in the Australian
countries including Africa, New Zealand and Capital Territory E. fraxinoides was planted on
Australia with variable success. A number of three sites of varying rainfall (450‑700 mm MAR)
provenances have been included in species and and soil type. It failed completely at two sites (Stromlo
provenance trials but no comprehensive trialling of and Kowen) and had extremely low survival at the
provenances has been done. Reported performance third (Uriarra). The height and diameter growth of
of this species has been variable and reasons for poor the surviving trees was moderate (Table 8.1). At the
results not always conclusively established. Poynton higher rainfall Tallaganda, New South Wales, site
(1979) reports that its poor growth in southern Africa (1000 mm MAR and deep duplex soils) where it
was chiefly because it did not withstand drought well. was grown as part of a small species trial (six
However, it is still a commercially attractive species species planted in three blocks each of 121 trees)
due to its good performance on colder sites and the growth and survival of this species at 8 years
its excellent pulping qualities. In New Zealand its was better than in the Australian Capital Territory
performance at one particular site, Longwood Forest trials, but survival was still low (Clarke et al., 1997).
in the south of the South Island, was particularly E. fraxinoides was included in species and
notable and this saw it being planted more widely. provenance trials on seven sites in Gippsland,
However, most subsequent E. fraxinoides plantings Victoria, and results of the trials at 10‑12 years were
proved to be of variable or indifferent growth and/ reported by Duncan et al. (2000) (Table 8.2). The
or form, and poor survival has been a feature three seedlots included were ‘Eden’ (seven sites),
(Miller et al., 2000). The species’ good frost ‘Pikes Saddle’ (five sites) and ‘Tuross Falls’ (four sites),
tolerance, fast growth rate and attractive pulp and all from New South Wales. These trials included up
sawn timber properties mean that it has potential, to 36 eucalypt species and over 88 seedlots at the
but success of plantings will require careful site different sites. Rankings of E. fraxinoides were
matching.
82
Table 8.2: Best performing Eucalyptus fraxinoides provenance at each of seven trial sites in Gippsland,
Victoria (Duncan et al., 2000)
Approx.
Stem
Volume of
Approximate BestSeedlot
Rainfall Stem Volume at Site
Provenance Age (yr) Site Name (mm) Soil Type (m3 ha-1) (m3 ha-1)
Tuross Falls, 11 Mt Worth 1210 Clay loam 300 550
New South Wales East
Tuross Falls, 11 Delburn 1000 Clay loam 220 320
New South Wales
Eden, 11 Flynns Creek 760 Sandy loam 40 200
New South Wales
Eden, 11 Stradbroke 600 Loamy sand 195 270
New South Wales
Eden, 11 Stockdale 690 Loamy sand 80 170
New South Wales
Eden, 10 Waygara 870 Sandy clay 130 180
New South Wales loam
Eden, 10 Tostaree 820 Loamy sand 205 370
New South Wales
variable across sites and between provenances. Clarke et al. (1999) reported growth and wood
The performance of all provenances was worst at properties for nine eucalypt species tested in trials
the Flynns Creek site and best at the Mt Worth East at two different sites, Shafton and Helvetia, in
site, with both the ‘Tuross Falls’ and ‘Pikes Saddle’ South Africa (Table 8.3). There were significant
provenances achieving stem volumes of around differences between sites for growth (diameter,
300 m3 ha‑1. The Tostaree site had a history of height and volume), wood (lignin, pentosans and
fertiliser application increasing its productivity and density) and pulp (yield, alkali consumption, rate of
E. fraxinoides performed best on gradational delignification and brightness) properties, but a
textured soils at higher rainfall sites. Survival in greater proportion of the variation occurred between
these trials was low with an average survival for and within species for all properties except wood
the species of 48%. density. E. fraxinoides, E. smithii and E. oreades
Table 8.3: Site details for two South African sites where E. fraxinoides was tested as part of a eucalypt
species trial (Clarke et al., 1999)
Mean minimum temperature

Site Name Altitude (m) Mean annual rainfall (mm) of coldest month (°C)
Shafton 1220 950 4.8
Helvetia 1700 775 1.8
83
were the most desirable species because of fast one-year-old bare-rooted stock, but container-grown
growth, high pulp yield, fibre yield and brightness stock permits the efficient use of seed of specific
but low kappa number and alkali consumption. The origin, growing stock that can be planted at a
other species studied were E. grandis, E. dunnii, specific time, and more convenient holding-over
E. saligna, E. macarthurii, E. nitens and E. fastigata. of seedlings in a nursery (Miller et al., 2000).
Establishment
A range of natural provenances of E. fraxinoides
are available for establishing trial plantings from for E. fraxinoides. Detailed information on various
the CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian establishment practices is available from several
Tree Seed Centre in Canberra. sources including government organisations
(Queensland Department of Primary Industries;
Silviculture Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), and
farm forestry and landcare groups. Books such as
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and
species. Further information is available through Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites
sources listed under recommended reading. of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact
Summary silvicultural information and practices Sheets’ available (e.g. DSE website: http://www.
specific to this species are outlined below. dse.vic.gov.au/ ), or these documents can be
Propagation Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by
Eucalyptus fraxinoides is usually propagated from machinery. To allow machinery to be used, a spacing
seed extracted by drying mature capsules. There of 3‑5 m between rows is desirable (Weiss, 1997).
are on average 138 000 seed per kilogram. A range of spacings and planting designs are possible
Seeds can be germinated without pre-treatment in farm forestry plantings. Readers are referred to
and the optimum germination temperature is about texts such as Bird (2000) and Reid and Stephen
25°C (Gunn, 2001). The seeds are orthodox and (2001) for discussion of options and their merits.
can be stored for several years in cool dry conditions Suitable initial spacings for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m
provided their moisture content is kept below 8%. (1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1).
These spacings promote good form and allow ample
Information is not available on the use of vegetative
selection for final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1
reproduction with this species.
(Bird, 2000).
Eucalyptus fraxinoides does not coppice strongly
(Poynton, 1979).
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early
General nursery practices are suitable for producing spring, predominantly determined by the severity
containerised seedlings of E. fraxinoides. These are of frost and minimum temperatures experienced.
described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull (1997). In South Australia and Western Australia planting
In South Africa E. fraxinoides has been found to be commonly occurs in June‑July while the soil is still
particularly susceptible to damping off (Poynton, wet from winter rains. Planting may occur later if site
1979). Many nurseries will grow seedlings on access is not available due to waterlogging, which
request and some specialise in producing trees is often a problem. In Tasmania,Victoria and New
for the farm forestry market. South Wales planting is done in September, or July‑
August in warmer districts where soils dry out earlier.
In New Zealand the species is also grown as
bare-rooted seedlings. These seedlings must not Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and
be allowed to dry out and need to be packed in phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist
polythene-lined multi-walled bags or cardboard early growth is common practice in the successful
planting boxes, and stored and transported in establishment of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere.
crates. Most ash eucalypts can be planted as This is particularly effective on ex-forest sites, but
84
there is often no response on ex-pasture sites, Trees are capable of rapid growth; the highest mean
and soil degradation can result from very large annual height increment that was recorded in South
applications of nitrogen fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, Africa was 2.4 m over ten years (Poynton, 1979).
trees can respond to a fertiliser application only if
other factors are not limiting, e.g. water availability
Protection
factors that can affect this). Rates vary widely In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
depending on the site and readers should access and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
further information from more detailed references have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
such as: Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams pests. However, a certain amount of damage to natural
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997). forests and plantations by pests and diseases is
inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of
Management managing them. At present the main opportunities to
Progressive thinning and pruning is required for
options such as maintaining the health and vigour
clearwood production and texts such as Bird
(2000) and Reid and Stephen (2001) discuss of trees and stands at as high a level as possible
the theory, objectives and techniques. by the application of timely silvicultural treatment,
Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done to add for it, and regular monitoring for insect damage or
value to the trees by aiming to increase the recovery unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
of sawn timber from the trunk and to make it suitable Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the
for higher‑value appearance-grade products (Bird, control of pests by pesticide application is not
2000). Branches should be removed before their practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs
diameters exceed 2.5 cm as large stubs increase involved, monitoring required and environmental
the risk of fungal infection and stem decay issues of chemical use.
(Nicholas, 1992).
Specific information on pests and diseases to
Thinning removes defective trees and reduces which E. fraxinoides is susceptible in Australia is
competition between trees. The spacing of trees not available to date. However, some of those
determines the ultimate height and diameter growth
recorded for this species overseas give an
of individual stems. The stand may be reduced to a
indication as to possible problems in Australia.
final stocking of 300‑100 stems ha‑1 when grown
for sawlogs (Bird, 2000). Eucalyptus fraxinoides in New Zealand is attacked
by a range of insects and fungi. The wood is also
On suitable sites E. fraxinoides is a relatively
damaged by the larvae of various wood-borers such
fast‑growing species which, overseas, is grown
as those of the longhorn beetles, e.g. Navomorpha
primarily for pulpwood. Pulpwood is usually grown
lineata. The eucalypt tortoise beetle, Paropsis charybdis,
on short rotations. In South Africa it is harvested at
has caused defoliation in some stands of E. fraxinoides,
10-20 years of age (Higgins, 1984). E. fraxinoides
but this has been reduced since the introduction of
growth rates are generally lower than E. globulus
the parasite Enoggera nassaui (Miller et al., 2000).
growth rates so somewhat longer rotations (15-20
This beetle is endemic to Australia but is not usually
years) may be required when growing E. fraxinoides
a limiting pest in eucalypt plantations. The species
for pulp in south‑eastern Australia. (Noble (2002)
is also susceptible to browsing by rabbits, hares,
suggested a rotation of 10-15 years for E. globulus
possums and deer in New Zealand (Miller et al.,
subsp. globulus in south‑eastern Australia).
2000). At a relatively warm, low‑elevation site at
Rotoehu, New Zealand, the success of E. fraxinoides
Growth
was inferior to that of other species mainly due to
Growth data for plantation grown E. fraxinoides is the effects of insect and fungal attack. While its
not available for Australia. The range of MAIs for growth was vigorous at this site, it had poor form
the best provenance of E. fraxinoides in species or low survival. Paropsis species were the primary
provenance trials in Gippsland, Victoria, was cause for reduced crown health and Mycosphaerella
3.7-28.5 m3 ha‑1 (Duncan et al., 2000). leaf blotch had been equally severe. The species
85
also suffered moderate frost damage (Johnson and In Australia E. fraxinoides is used for joinery,
Wilcox, 1989). The root rot fungi, Phytophthora flooring and general construction (Bootle, 1983).
cinnamomi, has been reported as causing sporadic In New Zealand E. fraxinoides has been used on a
deaths on sites with fluctuating water tables in New small scale as mature trees have become available.
Zealand (Miller et al., 2000). It is used for internal joinery, drawer sides and
In South Africa E. fraxinoides suffers high mortality cupboards. In Australia it is a top quality tree for
due to root rot Phytophthora cinnamomi (Vuuren shingles (Barr, 1996). In South Africa it has been
et al., 2000), and as species of Phytophthora are used mainly for building construction, flooring, ceiling,
common in Australian soils it is possible that this interior fittings, furniture, tool handles, casks and
has contributed to the low survival this species cases, and for bentwood products like tennis
has experienced in many Australian trials. This racquets (Poynton, 1979).
intolerance to Phytophthora may also explain the In South Africa bleached fine writing and printing
preference of this species for well‑drained soils papers are made from E. fraxinoides (Higgins, 1984).
and the fact that it often does best on higher slopes
and ridges than in valleys where the presence of
P. cinnamomi is more likely. The South African research
Limitations
to date indicates that tolerance to Phytophthora is Eucalyptus fraxinoides is not as adaptable as many
under genetic control and therefore a breeding eucalypts, being fairly site specific. It is particularly
program can be developed to improve tolerance susceptible to drought (Poynton, 1979) and root rot
(Vuuren, 2002). fungi, Phytophthora cinnamomi (Miller et al., 2000;
Vuuren et al., 2000).
Utilisation
Recommended Reading
Wood Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
The heartwood of E. fraxinoides is straw-coloured Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
to light brown, and the sapwood is not clearly Maryborough, Victoria.
distinguishable from the heartwood. The air-dry Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
density is around 560‑700 (670) kg m‑3 (Bootle, Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
1983; Miller et al., 2000). The wood density of R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
planted material is lower than of trees from natural University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
stands. The timber has an attractive mahogany or
ribbon-like grain when quarter-sawn, but is bland
References
when flat‑sawn. Kino or gum veins, thought to be Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in Eucalyptus
caused by cambium damage or environmental plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of
stress on the tree, vary from nil to severe degrade
Forestry, 56:385‑390.
within trees from the same stand. In Australia, timber
that is light or moderately marked with kino is sold Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
as a ‘natural feature’ grade. When used internally
the sapwood is susceptible to borer (Lyctus sp.) Barr N, 1996. Growing Eucalypt Trees for Milling on
attack, but is not susceptible to the common house New Zealand Farms. New Zealand Farm Forestry
Association Inc., Wellington, New Zealand.
borer (Anobium spp.). In exterior use, the sapwood
can be treated with CAA preservative but the Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
heartwood cannot (Miller et al., 2000). Barr
(1996) states that in his experience E. fraxinoides Maryborough, Victoria.
shows little tendency to end-check. It seasons well
and is easily planed. Trials on young logs showed
remarkable stability in seasoning, and the wood Forest Trees of Australia. 326‑327. Nelson and CSIRO,
has been well accepted by several furniture-makers Melbourne.
due to its attractive subdued grain and its stability
Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
for joinery work.
86
Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1999. Field Guide to Eucalypts. Jacobs MR (ed), 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. Edition 2.
Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second edition. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. 677 pp. Food and
Bloomings Books, Melbourne. Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Clarke BH, Whitfeld SJ, Vercoe TK, 1997. The growth Johnson GR, Wilcox MD, 1989. Eucalyptus species trials
of eucalypts and acacia provenances in the ACT and at on pumiceland. New Zealand Forestry, 34:24‑27.
Tallaganda New South Wales. Report to the Southern
Tablelands Farm Forestry Network Inc. on the growth of
tree species in the ACT Forests and CSIRO’s AT Fuelwood
Trials and Tagfor Agroforestry Partners, Tallaganda Species
Trial. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra.
Miller JT, Hay AE, Ecroyd CE, 2000. Introduced Forest
Clarke CRE, Shaw MJP, Wessels AM, Jones WR, 1999.
Trees in New Zealand. Recognition, Role and Seed
Effect of differences in climate on growth, wood, and
Source. 18. The Ash eucalypts. New Zealand Forest
pulp properties of nine eucalypt species at two sites.
Research Institute, FRI Bulletin No.124.
Tappi Journal, 82:89‑99.
Cotterill PP, Moran GF, Grigg BR, 1985. Early growth
of 36 species of eucalypts near Mount Gambier, South
Australia. Australian Forest Research, 15:409‑416.
Darrow WK, 1996. Species trials of cold-tolerant
Nicholas ID, 1992. Pruning eucalypts. New Zealand
eucalypts in the summer‑rainfall zone of South Africa –
Tree Grower, 13(3):18-20.
Results at six years of age. Institute for Commercial
Forestry Research (ICFR); Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Noble P, 2002. Blue gum for farm forestry. Agriculture
ICFR Bulletin Series No. 9/96. Notes. Department of Sustainability and Environment,
Victoria. (available online at: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au ).
Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient
disorders in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree Planting in Southern Africa.
Series, No. 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry,
International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Pretoria, South Africa.
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus fraxinoides Deane & Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
Maiden. Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
Module (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
International, Wallingford, UK. University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs: Schönau APG, Purnell RC, 1987. A different approach
Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the to site evaluation and some preliminary results. South
Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian African Forestry Journal, No. 141,19‑25.
Duncan MJ, Baker TG, Appleton R, Stokes RC, 2000. fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
Growth of Eucalypt Plantation Species across Twelve northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Sites in Gippsland, Victoria. CFTT Report No. 99/056.
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria. University of Pretoria newsletter, 1997. Screening and
Selection of Eucalyptus fraxinoides for Tolerance to
Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt Phytophthora cinnamomi. South African research.
Forests. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
Gardner RAW, Swain TL, 1996. Snow Damage to Timber Vuuren H van, 2002. Selection of Root Rot Tolerant
Plantations in Kwazulu-Natal during July 1996 and Eucalyptus. South Africa: University of the Orange
subsequent Species Recommendations. Institute for Free State website: http://www.uovs.ac.za/
Commercial Forestry (ICFR) Bulletin Series, 8/96. Institute
for Commercial Forestry, South Africa. Vuuren HJ van, Zyl WB van, Woolfardt JF, 2000. The
role of Phytophthora cinnamomi in root rot of Eucalyptus
Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, fraxinoides and its identification using molecular techniques.
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO In Congress 2000 Abstracts for the 38th Annual
Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. [Unpublished] Congress of the South African Society of Plant Pathology,
Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 23-28 January, 2000.
Higgins HG, 1984. Pulp and paper. In Hillis WE, Brown
AG (eds), Eucalypts for Wood Production. CSIRO and Weiss EA, 1997. Essential Oil Crops. Centre for
Academic Press, Melbourne Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) International,
Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts.
262 pp. Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau,
Government Printer, Canberra, Australia
87
9. Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Tasmanian blue gum
Craig Gardiner and Bronwyn Clarke – adapted from Gardiner, 2000.
Key features
Tall tree of excellent form
Capable of achieving fast growth rates
Absolute minimum rainfall for good growth
is 600 mm yr‑1 when grown on suitable sites
It is not very drought tolerant
Not generally suitable for summer‑rainfall
environments because of fungal disease problems
It prefers deep soils of sandy or loamy texture has also experienced outstanding success as an
and good water holding capacity exotic in many countries, with over 1 million ha of
plantations established worldwide (Eldridge et al.,
It is not tolerant of waterlogging
1993). The wood from mature native forests is strong
Low to moderately salt tolerant and moderately durable and is used for light and
heavy construction. The essential oil of E. globulus
Seedlings are only moderately frost tolerant
has dominated the market for cineole-rich oils since
It has an excellent coppicing ability soon after the inception of the industry in 1852
Is considered excellent for pulp production. (Doran and Saunders, 1993).
Species overview Description and natural

Eucalyptus globulus is a fast growing species of
occurrence
good form on suitable sites in temperate regions.
It requires deep, moisture holding soils but does not Description
tolerate waterlogging. It is slightly to moderately Eucalyptus globulus was one of the earliest species
salt-tolerant (Marcar et al., 1995). Drought deaths of eucalypts to be both validly named and brought
have occurred in some plantations, particularly in into cultivation; it was formally described by the
Western Australia (White et al., 1999). However, French botanist Labillardière in 1799. Three other
good growth rates have been achieved on sites taxa, namely bicostata, pseudoglobulus and maidenii,
with low rainfall, i.e. 600 mm yr‑1, where evaporation are considered by some authors to be subspecies
rates are low and plantings are on moisture‑holding of E. globulus (Kirkpatrick, 1975; Chippendale,
soils (Harper et al., 1999). 1988; Jordan et al., 1993). This is based on
E. globulus is widely planted as a short‑rotation the occurrence of geographically separated core
pulp species (10-12 years in Australia). It is one of populations of the four taxa, which are differentiated
the major hardwood plantation species in southern primarily on reproductive traits. Brooker and Kleinig
Australia with 143 000 ha planted between 1995 (1999) considered the four taxa as separate species.
and 1999, and more than 116 000 ha planted in In this species profile for E. globulus the remaining
2000 (Wood et al., 2001; Borough, 2002). It three taxa are not covered, and for the purposes of
this report they are considered to be separate species.
88
The main distinguishing features of E. globulus are
its solitary flowers, sessile (without stalk) or pedicellate
(with stalks) up to 4 mm long and large warty fruits
with pronounced ribs. In contrast, E. maidenii has up
to seven fruits per umbel and the smallest capsules;
E. bicostata and E. pseudoglobulus are three-fruited
with E. pseudoglobulus having smaller capsules,
fewer ribs on the capsule and longer pedicels than
E. bicostata. A study by Jordan et al. (1993) has Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus buds.
shown that some populations in western Tasmania,
on King Island and the northern end of Flinders Island
in Bass Strait, and in the Otway Ranges and parts The inflorescence is axillary, unbranched and
of Gippsland in the mainland state of Victoria are usually single flowered (occasionally three). Buds
intermediate between E. bicostata and E. globulus. are usually sessile, turbinate with four distinct ribs
The northern Flinders Island and Otway Ranges (sometimes more), extremely glaucous. The bud
populations were previously considered to have cap or operculum is flattened, very warty with a
greater affinity with E. pseudoglobulus. very distinct, central knob. The ribbed capsules
are sessile, sub-globular to hemispherical with
Eucalyptus globulus varies from a multi-stemmed
four distinct ribs (sometimes more), glaucous; disc
shrub on exposed sites to a very tall forest tree,
broad; valves four or five, more or less at rim level
70-80 m tall, with a large open crown. The forest
and partly covered by disc lobes. Seed is black-
tree form has a tall straight trunk and its branches
brown, flattened-elliptic in outline, shallowly
are retained for less than half the total tree height
reticulate (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
(Eldridge et al., 1993). Bark on the lower trunk
forms a rough, greyish or brownish, stocking while Like other eucalypts blue gum does not develop
the upper bark is smooth and pale, often with a resting buds and grows whenever conditions
bluish or yellowish tinge; decorticating into long are favourable (Jacobs, 1955). The flowers are
strips. The woodland form is a medium-sized tree predominantly insect pollinated although birds
to 20 m with a compact crown. The single trunk and small mammals may also assist in pollination.
is much branched, the first usually fairly high up. Flowering can occur at any time of the year but
On harsh, exposed sites, such as Flinders and generally occurs in September-December (Boland
King Islands, E. globulus grows as a multi-stemmed et al., 1984; Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). Trees
shrub (Boland et al., 1984; Marcar et al., 1995). in irrigated and fertilised plantations can flower as
early as 4 years of age while slower-growing trees
Seedling and juvenile leaves are opposite, sessile, may take up to 10 years to flower. In managed
amplexicaul, ovate,bluish green, glaucous, strongly seed orchards, some individual trees can flower at
discolorous (dimensions 6‑15 cm long × 2.5-11 cm a relatively young age but it may take some years
wide). The stems are square in section, flanged and before sufficient widespread flowering occurs in the
glaucous. Adult leaves are petiolate, falcate, orchard to ensure adequate cross pollination.
lanceolate or narrow-lanceolate, green, similar
shade of green on upper and lower surfaces Mature capsules are present during autumn and
(dimensions 12-25 cm long × 1.7-3 cm wide) winter and may persist for more than a year. Seed
(Boland et al., 1984). is usually collected in autumn and winter in natural
89
Figure 9.1: Natural distribution of E. globulus
A natural stand of Eucalyptus globulus subsp.

globulus in Gippsland, Victoria.
populations although it can generally be found at This species is most common on soils derived from
most times of the year. Seed capsules may remain granite (Weiss, 1997) and granodiorite parent
on the tree for several years although it is unusual materials (Hillis and Brown, 1984). Extensive stands
to find more than one crop of seed on the same are also found on other plutonic rocks, sandstones,
tree. Some reports suggest that heavy seed crops dolerite and on shallow humus soils over mudstone
occur every 3-5 years (Hillis and Brown, 1984). (Boland et al., 1984; Marcar et al., 1995),
There will be regional and seasonal variability in but not on strongly calcareous or alkaline soils.
seed availability. E. globulus also grows on coastal, gently undulating
land, often on poor sands. Its best development
Natural occurence occurs in moist valleys on fertile loamy or clay soils
Eucalyptus globulus has a discontinuous distribution
mainly along the east coast of Tasmania with some
populations occurring up to 70 km inland. It is also
Where will it grow?
found on the islands in Bass Strait and in the extreme A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for
south of Victoria around Cape Otway, the Strezlecki E. globulus, incorporating data from both the natural
Ranges and on Wilsons Promontory (Boland et al., distribution and from sites where the species has been
1984) (Figure 9.1). The latitudinal range is 38°26’S grown successfully as an exotic, gives the following
to 43°30’S (Eldridge et al., 1993). key climatic conditions for good survival and growth:
It occurs in woodland, open forest or tall open forest Mean annual rainfall: 600-1500 mm
vegetation types. Associated eucalypts include
E. viminalis, E. ovata, E. obliqua, E. amygdalina, Rainfall regime: UniformE/winter
E. nitida, E. pulchella, E. delegatensis and Dry season: 0-5 months
E. regnans (Boland et al., 1984).
Eucalyptus globulus occurs in the warm to cool, hottest month:
humid to sub-humid zones of Australia. Frosts occur Mean minimum temperature -1-12°C
at most localities, even close to the coast, 5‑40 or coldest month:
more each year. Absolute minimum temperatures
do not fall below -8°C in the natural range.
E See comments below on potential disease problems
in uniform rainfall areas of New South Wales.
90
suitable for planting E. globulus (see Figure 9.2)
was generated from the revised climatic details for
the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth,
2002). These revisions were made to the climatic
parameters, initially derived from the natural distribution,
on the basis of information from trials and plantings
of this species both within and outside its natural
range. The climate range suitable for plantations
of the species had been determined previously by
Booth and Pryor (1991) and Marcar et al. (1995).
Improved data have altered the climatic limits from
those originally published in Marcar et al. (1995).
For example, the lower limit for the mean minimum
temperature of the coldest month has been dropped
from 2°C to -1°C and the lower limit for the mean
maximum temperature of the hottest month has Build up of litter and grass fuels inside an 11 year
been lowered from 19°C to 13°C. Although there old Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus plantation
are a small number of high rainfall locations in the
natural distribution, the species is generally grown
Consideration of other factors such as soil requirements,
in plantations in areas with annual rainfall less than
occurrence of prolonged drought and E. globulus’
1500 mm. Good growth rates of E. globulus can
susceptibility to insect pests also need to be
be achieved on sites with annual rainfall down to
considered when deciding whether to plant this
600 mm. Tasmanian blue gum is not generally
species. The success of plantings of this species
suitable for summer‑rainfall environments because
on sites at the lower end of the rainfall range will
of fungal disease problems. This may also be a
depend on other factors that affect moisture availability.
problem in uniform‑rainfall areas in New South
Low evaporation rates and deep soils that retain
Wales. It is also not recommended for the area
moisture are two factors identified so far as contributing
north of Bunbury in Western Australia because of to plantation success at low‑rainfall sites. E. globulus
the high evaporative rate in this area (Jovanovic is also intolerant of waterlogged soils and prefers acid
and Booth, 2002). rather than alkaline soils (Weiss, 1997). Seedlings
are not particularly tolerant of frosts and temperatures
Figure 9.2: Areas predicted to be climatically of below about -5°C will usually kill them. Mature
suitable for E. globulus are shown in black. (Note trees may survive lower temperatures (Hillis and
that fungal diseases may be a problem in parts Brown, 1984). E. globulus has a low to moderate
of New South Wales, see above) (Jovanovic salt tolerance; reduced growth is expected at
and Booth, 2002) ECe 5 dS m‑1 with further reduction in growth
and reduced survival at 5‑10 dS m‑1 (Marcar et
al., 1995). A combination of soil salinity and
waterlogging could cause a reduction in growth
at 2.5 dS m‑1 (Bennett and George, 1995).

Plantings
Early plantings of E. globulus occurred in Africa
including Madagascar (Malagasy), Central and
South America, Channel Islands, China, Ethiopia,
India, Italy, Philippines, Portugal, Spain, Turkey and
91
the USA (Florida and California). Current overseas Victoria, ‘Pelverata’ Tasmania, ‘Jeeralang’ Victoria,
plantations of E. globulus are in areas of mild and ‘King Island’ and ‘Flinders Island’ Tasmania
climate which are free of severe frosts. More than (ForestrySA website, 2002).
800 000 ha are planted in Portugal and Spain
During 1987 and 1988 the CSIRO Forestry and
with smaller but significant areas in Bolivia, Chile,
Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre organised
China, Colombia, Ethiopia, Peru, USA (California)
seed collections from 612 trees from 82 provenances
and several other countries (Eldridge et al., 1993).
throughout the range of E. globulus (Gardiner and
E. globulus has become one of the main hardwood Crawford, 1987; 1988). These and other collections
plantation species in southern Australia where it is were used to establish large provenance-progeny
being planted in the south‑west of Western Australia, trials in southern Australia (Eldridge et al., 1993).
south‑eastern South Australia including Kangaroo Many of these trials and those based on the Orme
Island, southern Victoria and the north coast of collections have formed the basis of current breeding
Tasmania (Borough and Valentine, 2001). programs by groups such as Conservation and Land
Management (CALM) in Western Australia and the
Provenance trials Cooperative Research Centre for Temperate Hardwood
Forestry and the Southern Tree Breeding Association
Twenty or more provenance trials were established
(see Breeding and genetic resources section below).
from range-wide seed collections of E. globulus made
by Orme in 1976 (documented in Orme, 1978). E. globulus was recommended as the most suitable
Provenance rankings from these early (1977 to species on six out of eight site types (rainfall x soil
1985) trials should be viewed with caution as matrix) in eleven species and provenance trials in
some provenances were represented by too few Gippsland, Victoria. Results of the trials at 10-12
families (five) for a precise estimate of the potential years were reported by Duncan et al. (2000) who
performance of the populations they represent found that, of the 22 seedlots of E. globulus studied,
(Eldridge et al., 1993). A review of the growth those from South Gippsland, East Gippsland and
performance of these provenances in trials across the Otway Ranges were significantly more productive
southern Australia, made by Kube et al. (1995), than seedlots from inland Victoria, south-eastern
found that provenance variation was significant but New South Wales and Tasmania, in this region.
no single provenance was outstanding. They found E. nitens performed best at the most productive site
that the ‘King Island’, ‘Flinders Island south’ and and E. botryoides at the driest site. On all other
‘Uxbridge’, provenances from Tasmania were sites E. globulus was the most productive species
consistently good provenances across all regions. with MAIs of the best seedlot ranging between
The ‘Otways’, Victoria, and ‘Seymour’, Tasmania, 13.4 and 39.4 m3 ha‑1.
provenances performed well in Victoria and Western
Australia but were only average on Tasmanian sites. Breeding and genetic resources
The south‑eastern Tasmania provenances of
‘Geeveston’, ‘Channel’, ‘Leprena’ and ‘Denison’ Selection and breeding work with E. globulus has
ranked highly in Tasmania but performance in been going on for around 15‑20 years, but this
Victoria and Western Australia was only average. work has really intensified over the last ten years.
Provenances from the west coast and midlands of Initial selection and breeding was based on improving
Tasmania were consistently poor performers (Kube volume production but in recent years this has
et al., 1995). broadened to include other factors such as pulp
yield and bulk density.
In 1988 the National Afforestation Program set
up a number of eucalypt trials through ForestrySA. The Southern Tree Breeding Association runs the
Many provenances of E. globulus and E. nitens national tree improvement cooperative for
were trialled across a range of sites. E. globulus Eucalyptus globulus in Australia. Recently, the
performed the best across all sites, with the Southern Tree Breeding Association and the CRC
best‑performing provenances being ‘Otways’ for Sustainable Production Forestry revised the
E. globulus breeding strategy to focus on total tree
92
improvement, by integrating deployment with breeding.
The majority of STBA members’ plantations are
being grown primarily for pulpwood to be used in
the manufacture of kraft pulp and paper products.
However, members are increasingly interested in
breeding for the production of alternative products
such as solid wood, and this has therefore been
included in the new strategy (McRae et al., 2001).
Seedlings are available to the small to medium
grower from a number of the Southern Tree
Breeding Association members.
ForestrySA through their Green Triangle Treefarm Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus one year old
Project, helps farmers establish plantations of plantation established at a 2 m x 3 m spacing
E. globulus on suitable sites in the region. near Hamilton in Victoria.
Assistance includes processing suitable
planting material (ForestrySA website, 2002).
E. globulus seed, seedlings and cuttings developed specific to this species are outlined below.
through CALM Western Australia’s tree breeding
and improvement program are being marketed as Propagation
‘Western Blue Gum’. Seedlings and cuttings are
available from the Manjimup Plant Propagation Studies undertaken at the CSIRO Forestry and
Centre. Seed is available from the Forest Products Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre have
Commission Western Australia Seed Centre and established that E. globulus seed can be successfully
is priced from around $3 000 kg-1 for seed from stored for several years at room temperature as long
native provenance stands up to $25 000 kg-1 for as humidity remains low, so that the moisture content
seed with the greatest level of improvement. They remains in between the range of 6‑10%. Propagation
also have seed which is identified as suitable for is usually by seed which germinate readily in warm,
growing sawn timber of E. globulus: this seed is moist conditions with no pre-treatment. The ideal
currently being marketed at $25 000 kg-1. temperature for the germination of E. globulus is
25°C with the first germinants appearing after
Some interspecific breeding work has been carried about 5 days (Boland et al., 1980). There are
out using E. globulus and to date the most successful approximately 6500 viable seeds per kilogram
has been the E. camaldulensis x E. globulus hybrid (Gunn, 2001).
being developed to increase drought and salinity
tolerance of E. globulus (David Bush, CSIRO Forestry The most common method of producing seedlings
and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2002). Another is to machine sow pure seed directly into tubes or
hybrid that has had some success is the E. nitens × pots for later field planting. General nursery practices
E. globulus which is expected to improve the frost such as those described in texts by Doran and Turnbull
hardiness of E. globulus (Volker, 1995; Vergara (1997) and Bird (2000) are also suitable for
and Griffin, 1997). producing containerised seedlings of E. globulus.
Many nurseries will grow seedlings on request and
A range of natural provenances of E. globulus is some specialise in producing trees for the farm
also available from the CSIRO Forestry and Forest forestry market. Growth will be relatively slow
Products, Australian Tree Seed Centre in Canberra. in the nursery during the winter months unless
supplementary heating is used. Seedlings should
Silviculture be protected from severe frosts (Weiss, 1997).
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this Eucalyptus globulus can also be propagated
species. Further information is available through vegetatively although this has not proved to be
sources listed under recommended reading. particularly successful on a commercial scale. In fact,
93
many commercially important selections have proved early growth is practised in the establishment of
very difficult to propagate from cuttings because of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is
poor rooting ability. Recent advances have increased particularly important on ex-forest sites but there is
the success of vegetative propagation and since often no response on ex-pasture sites (Bird, 2000).
1995 many companies have started planting Also, trees can respond to a fertiliser application
extensive areas of E. globulus cuttings in Portugal. only if other factors are not limiting, e.g. moisture
However, some vegetatively propagated clones availability (low rainfall or heavy weed competition
have shown disappointing field growth, perhaps are two factors that can reduce this). In fact, where
due to poor root structure (MacRae and Cotterill, moisture availability is limiting it has been suggested
1997) and in some instances growth of clonal that application of fertiliser can contribute to drought
selections has actually been lower than seedlings deaths in blue gum by increasing the water use of
from the same generation of the breeding program trees (Hafner, 2000). Hafner (2000) recommends
(Cotterill and Brindbergs, 1997). that fertiliser should be applied only on infertile,
well watered sites, where growth rates are
Establishment suboptimal. For Western Australia this would mean
sites with >800 mm MAR. Fertiliser application
rates vary widely depending on the site and tree
age, and readers should access further information
for E. globulus. Refer to Bird (2000) for a detailed
from more detailed references such as Attiwill and
description of site preparation, weed control, fertiliser,
Adams (1996), Nambiar and Brown (1997) and
thinning and pruning regimes suited to farm forestry
Dell et al. (2001). Deficiencies in numerous other
in Australia. ForestrySA and Agriculture Western
nutrients and trace elements may cause a variety
Australia has good information specific to growing
of disorders in this species and visual symptoms
blue gum in their regions on their websites, see:
should be verified by chemical analysis of affected
http://www.forestry.sa.gov.au/farm.htm and
plant tissue (Dell et al., 2001).
http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/environment/
trees/index.htm .
Management
Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by
Thinning is not usually undertaken when the species
machinery. Commonly used initial spacings used
is grown for pulp, but the final stocking may be
in plantation forestry in southern Australia are
reduced to as low as 100 stems ha-1 when it is
4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha-1) and 4 m x 3.0 m
grown for sawlogs; possible thinning regimes are
(1200 trees ha‑1), with lower densities being used
discussed in Bird (2000). A rotation age of 9-12
on poorer sites. Seedlings need to be fenced to
years is common in southern Australia for pulp
provide protection from browsing by sheep, rabbits
plantations of E. globulus (ForestrySA website, 2002).
and other animals.
For sawlog production CALM Western Australia is
In the winter‑rainfall regions of southern Australia
recommending an initial spacing of 1000 trees ha-1,
planting times vary from early winter to early spring,
reduced to 125‑150 trees ha-1 by age six years
predominantly determined by the severity of frost
with a final rotation age of 20-25 years (Hingston,
and minimum temperatures experienced. In South
2002). To produce clearwood, regular pruning is
Australia and Western Australia seeds are sown
essential; refer to Bird (2000) for pruning techniques
before Christmas for planting in June/July while the
and Hingston (2000, 2002) for pruning regimes.
soil is still wet from winter rains. Planting may occur
later if site access is not available due to waterlogging. Eucalyptus globulus is a strongly coppicing species
In Victoria and New South Wales, seeds are sown and pulp plantations overseas are often cut on a
in January-February, for spring planting in September coppice rotation of 8‑10 years, with 2-3 rotations
(or July-August in warmer districts where soils dry before replanting (Jacobs, 1981). Underdown and
out earlier). Bush (2002) conclude that coppice appears to be a
suitable management tool for blue gum plantations
in southern Australia, especially on sites where the
94
managing them. At present the main opportunities
to reduce this damage are provided by management
for it and by regular monitoring for insect damage
2001 coppice regeneration of a Eucalyptus
globulus subsp. globulus plantation located
south‑east of Casterton, Victoria. In Australia, juvenile foliage is very susceptible to
attack by autumn gum moth (Mnesampela privata),
Christmas beetle (Anoplognathus spp.), leafblister
first crop performed particularly well. However, they sawfly (Phylacteophaga eucalypti), leaf beetle
point out that the labour cost of thinning the coppice (Chrysomelid beetles - various genera), various
back to one stem, and the fire hazard this thinned scale insects including Eriococcus coriaceus and
material presents, are important considerations. the blue gum psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti)
Where the first crop performed poorly due to poor (Marcar et al., 1995). General practice in the
establishment and/or poor genetics, they state management of insect infestations in blue gum
that replanting is likely to be a better option. plantations is to monitor insect levels and set
thresholds beyond which spraying is considered if
Growth trees are small enough. This step is not taken lightly
as spraying can also remove insect predators.
Eucalyptus globulus is considered a fast‑growing
species and height growth of 2-3 m yr‑1 is commonly Eucalyptus globulus is also attacked by a number
achieved on favourable sites. On favourable sites of diseases. Seedlings are highly susceptible to
mean annual increments are between 20‑35 m3 ha‑1, Botrytis cinerea (and other damping off type diseases)
but the yield achievable over large areas is generally in the nursery, but this can usually be controlled with
12‑20 m3 ha‑1. Mean annual increments for 10-12 suitable spray regimes and phytosanitary practices.
In some fast‑growing plantations, juvenile foliage
year pulp plantings of E. globulus in Western Australia
has been severely damaged by the leaf fungus
range from 5 to 35 m3 ha‑1 (White et al., 1999)
Mycosphaerella spp. (Marcar et al., 1995).
and in South Australia range from 5 to 32 m3 ha‑1
Significant provenance variation has been reported
(ForestrySA website, 2002). With the continuing
in the level of susceptibility, although all provenances
use of improved genetic material, site selection and
were affected to some degree (Carnegie et al., 1994).
silvicultural practices, overall yields should improve.
On low-rainfall sites down to 600 mm, growth Young trees are easily damaged by fire but are rarely
rates of around 10-12 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 are likely (M killed. Larger trees will survive severe fires and shoot
Underdown, ForestrySA, pers. comm., 2002). from epicormic buds, but a succession of severe
fires may be fatal (Kirkpatrick, 1975). However,
Protection the timber of any trees damaged by fire will be
unsuitable for pulp or sawlogs. Seedlings and trees
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens with juvenile foliage are often killed by moderate
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations frosts, but adult trees may withstand occasional
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest lower temperatures down to around -8°C. Mature
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to trees can withstand high winds, but young fast-
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases growing trees and coppice regrowth can be
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of badly damaged or uprooted (Weiss, 1997).
95
Utilisation Sawn timber needs care when sawing and drying to
minimise checking of the tangential surface. Quarter
sawing is desirable and can be used on larger
Wood
diameter logs (for example greater than 40 cm
The heartwood of E. globulus is light yellowish mid‑diameter) (Bootle, 1983; Washusen, 2001).
brown, open-textured, has distinct growth rings and However, a technique developed by CSIRO
is moderately durable. The sapwood is paler than (Washusen et al., 2000) for small‑diameter logs
the heartwood, but is often difficult to distinguish. from young, fast‑grown trees was used successfully
Mature trees from natural stands have an air‑dry to cut 17-year-old blue gum in a study carried out
density of about 900 kg m-3 while young by CALM Western Australia. The method involved
plantation‑grown timber has an air-dry density of back‑sawing the log from the outside, parallel to
around 650 kg m‑3. The timber is hard and tough. the bark. The milling and drying techniques used
It is used for light and heavy construction (Boland et are described in Brennan and Hingston (2001)
al., 1984). It is a moderately good firewood with and Washusen et al., (2000). Considerable
an oven‑dry calorific value of 1 900 kilojoules kg‑1, collapse can occur, but this can be recovered by
burns freely and leaves little ash. It carbonises easily steam reconditioning (Agriculture Western Australia,
for good charcoal production and is still used for 2002). This study also found that the wood was
this purpose in many countries (Jacobs, 1981). relatively easy to process although this is not the
experience when working with wood from native
Most plantings of E. globulus in Australia to date stands. Blue gum wood has a high incidence
have been for the production of paper pulp. of spiral grain and can be difficult to nail, often
Mature timber produces poor pulp, but as young requiring pre-drilling. It bends well and can be
plantation-grown wood is less dense it is suitable worked to a smooth, very resilient surface. Most
for paper and rayon pulps. The wood properties finishes adhere well. Extreme care is required when
relevant to paper making, including basic density, preparing surfaces for gluing. It turns well and also
fibre length, fibre coarseness, cellulose content and holds edges well. Its hardness and density make
hemicellulose content, appear to be highly heritable it particularly suited for flooring in high traffic
in E. globulus (Cotterill and Brolin, 1997) and hence areas, especially where a pale colour is required
could be improved through breeding programs. (University of Tasmania, 2000). Other important
Higher pulp yields have also been linked with wood products include fibreboard, particle board,
higher‑rainfall sites, and pulp yields increase parquetry flooring, cooperage, low‑grade veneer
with age (Abed et al., 1999). and furniture (Jacobs, 1981).
When grown to a large size for sawn timber,
growth stresses markedly reduce the output of high
quality boards (Eldridge et al., 1993). Washusen
et al. (2000) recovered only 5.7% to select and
better grades of timber from a 15-year-old, unpruned,
E. globulus plantation in the Murray Darling Basin
(580-750 mm MAR). However, the staff of CALM
Western Australia are optimistic about the use of
E. globulus for sawn timber. They have found that
using a wide‑spacing‑regime (stands are thinned to
100-150 trees ha‑1 by 5-6 years of age), pruning
early (3-4 years), drying timber slowly and using
the right milling technique (as outlined above) gives
good results. In a study at Busselton (822 mm MAR),
CALM Western Australia recovered 30% of 17-year-
old Tasmanian blue gum into appearance‑ grade
Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus woodchips products using the cutting pattern developed by
used for making pulp and paper. CSIRO (Brennan and Hingston, 2001).
96
Non-wood into lower‑rainfall areas. A workshop to examine
balancing productivity and drought risk in blue gum
While E. globulus is primarily grown for wood plantations was run in Western Australia in 1999 and
products, it is also utilised for a variety of non-wood is summarised in Hafner (2000). Several interacting
products. These are usually a by-product or additional factors have been identified as affecting available
use for trees grown for wood products. The leaves water as well as water usage. These include climate
from felled trees may be distilled for their oil which (rainfall and evaporation), soil factors (including
is high in cineole (Doran and Saunders, 1993). fertility, salinity and depth) and stocking. Location in
Crude oil concentrations (w/w %, fresh leaf) extracted the landscape (slope position) and planting geometry
in bush stills fall in the range of 0.7%‑1.3%. While (e.g. strips integrated with farming) will also influence
these figures are not high compared to eucalypt water availability and become more important with
species grown specifically for oil, E. globulus produces decreasing rainfall and increasing evaporation.
relatively large amounts of leaf biomass which Also, the physiological strategies which enable the
helps increase oil production per unit land area rapid growth of blue gums render them vulnerable to
and compensate for modest concentrations (Doran drought deaths during prolonged rain‑free periods
and Saunders, 1993). The oil is used for perfumery, (White et al., 1999), i.e. E. globulus is slow to
flavouring pharmaceuticals and solvents (Weiss, 1997). reduce its water use in response to water stress. One
Eucalyptus globulus flowers produce pollen and implication of this is that the addition of fertilisers,
nectar, and natural populations and plantations are which increase growth and therefore water use,
used for the production of honey (Marcar et al., 1995). put trees at higher risk of mortality in times of limited
water availability. Therefore options to manage water
Eucalyptus globulus has been planted for a variety
stress (to maximise growth with reasonable water
of uses which include erosion control, amenity and
use risk) include lowering stand densities (planting
roadside plantings, windbreaks and shelterbelts for
geometry, position in landscape, thinning), weed
pasture and livestock, and other watershed and
control and fertilisation. Hafner (2000) also notes
environmental purposes (Jacobs, 1981). Extensive
that marginal sites which are dependent on stored
areas have been planted in Western Australia
soil water to supplement rainfall are susceptible to
as part of salinity control measures (Marcar et al.,
drought risk. First rotations on former pasture sites
1995) and it has been used in the rehabilitation
may use up the soil water store, resulting in second
of mining sites in Western Australia and Tasmania
rotations requiring fallow (to recharge the soil profile)
(Langkamp, 1987).
or management of water use (Hafner, 2000).
It has also been used in plantations to re-use
While E. globulus does not produce root suckers
sewerage and chemical effluent, and has shown
and does not naturally reproduce vegetatively,
a degree of resistance to high levels of ozone
it still may have the potential to become a weed
which may be useful in regions with the potential
when seed escapes from plantations or amenity
for photochemical smog formation (Monk and
plantings. This has occurred in California, particularly
Murray, 1995). A number of horticultural varieties
around Los Angeles and San Francisco. The seed
showing dwarf characteristics (sometimes known as
is not easily dispersed over large distances and
E. globulus var. compacta) (Chippendale, 1988)
the spread is likely to be relatively slow and hence
or fastigiate growth are utilised for ornamental
should be easy to contain. Seed generally requires
plantings.
bare soil in order to germinate and the species
is therefore not an aggressive coloniser.
Limitations There has been interest in developing E. globulus
Drought deaths in blue gum plantations have as a sawlog species on shortish (15‑20 years)
provoked questions as to the species suitability rotations. However, as outlined above in the
for lower‑rainfall sites, 600‑800 mm MAR. This ‘Utilisation’ section, there are a number of problems
problem has mainly occurred in Western Australia with sawing young, fast‑grown wood of this species.
but may happen in other states if plantings move The main problems seem to be the production of
97
tension wood and knots. The issue of knots can be Abed T, Boomsma D, Borough C, 1999. Blue gum pulp
addressed by pruning from an early age. Tension yield. Special liftout No. 48. Australian Forest Grower, 22(2).
wood formation appears to be influenced by spacing Agriculture Western Australia, 2002. Timber Advisory
and the wide spacing regimes being tried in Western Note 23: Southern Blue Gum. Agriculture Western
Australia seem to be reducing its formation (Washusen, Australia website: http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/
environment/trees/index.htm
2001; Hingston, 2001; Hingston, 2002). Where
the conversion of a pulpwood regime to a sawlog Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
regime is considered, smaller‑diameter trees and Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
poorer wood quality are inevitable (Hingston, 2002). Bennett DL, George RJ, 1995. Using the EM38 to
Panelling, furniture and reconstituted products are measure the effect of soil salinity on Eucalyptus globulus
possible products from these plantations. in south-western Australia. Agricultural Water
Management, 27:69-86.
Recommended Reading Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
Abed T, Boomsma D, Borough C, 1999. Blue gum pulp Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
yield. Special liftout No. 48. Australian Forest Grower, 22(2). Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
Agriculture Western Australia website, 2002. Farm
Forestry and Revegetation in Western Australia. Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980.
Agriculture Western Australia website: http://www. Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO,
agric.wa.gov.au/environment/trees/index.htm Canberra.
Albertsen T, Eckersley P, Blennerhasset S, Moore R, Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
Hingston B, 2000. Designing Blue Gum Alley Farms. Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
RIRDC Publication No. 00/154, Rural Industry Research Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
and Development Corporation, Canberra. Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A Focus some commercially important eucalypt species. Forest
on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Centre Ecology and Management, 43:47-60.
State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw-Hill,
Maryborough, Victoria. Sydney, p278.
Borough C, Valentine D, 2001. Blue gums: the path ahead. Borough C, 2002. Blue Gum – an opportunity for farmers?
Special liftout No. 55. Australian Forest Grower, 24:1. MBAC Consulting website: http://www.mbac.com.au
ForestrySA website, 2002. Forestry South Australia Borough C, Valentine D, 2001. Blue gums: the path ahead.
website: http://www.forestry.sa.gov.au/farm.htm Special liftout No. 55. Australian Forest Grower, 24(1).
Hingston RA, 2002. High‑grade eucalypt sawlogs – Brennan G, Hingston B, 2001. Processing reveals good
silviculture and markets for farm forestry. In: Wettenhall D recovery rates for Tasmanian blue gum. Agroforestry
(ed). Private Forestry – Sustainable, Accountable and News, 10(3):10-11.
Profitable. Proceedings of Australian Forest Growers
Conference, 13-16 October, 2002, Albany, Western Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1999. Field Guide to
Australia. Australian Forest Growers, Canberra. Eucalypts. Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second
edition. Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
Noble P, 2002. Blue gum for farm forestry. Agriculture Notes.
Victoria: Department of Sustainability and Environment Carnegie AJ, Keane PJ, Ades PK, Smith IW, 1994.
(available online at: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/). Variation in susceptibility of Eucalyptus globulus
provenances to Mycosphaerella leaf disease.
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 24:1751-1757.
Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Chippendale GM, 1988. Eucalyptus, Angophora
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. (Myrtaceae). Flora of Australia 19. Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra.
References Cotterill PP, Brindbergs ML, 1997. Growth of first- and
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optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypts, 24-29 August,
Forestry, 56:385-390. 1997. Salvador, Brazil, 233-238.
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Cotterill PP, Brolin A, 1997. Improving Eucalyptus wood, Presentation to ‘Balancing Productivity and Drought Risk
pulp and paper quality by genetic selection. Proceedings in Blue Gum Plantations’ a Plantation Management
IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement of Workshop. Permberton, Western Australia, November
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Hingston RA, 2000. Review of pruning eucalypts for
Doran JC, Saunders AR, 1993. Variation in and breeding clearwood in Western Australia. Pruning Workshop.
for essential oils in Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus. Launceston, Tasmania, 2000. [Unpublished]
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Hingston RA, 2002. High‑grade eucalypt sawlogs –
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Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs: (ed). Private Forestry – Sustainable, Accountable and
Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the Profitable. Proceedings of Australian Forest Growers
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Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Australia. Australian Forest Growers, Canberra.
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Jacobs MR (ed), 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. Edition 2.
Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van, 1993. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. 677 pp. Food and Agriculture
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100
10. Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden
Flooded gum
Roger Arnold and Ian McLeod – adapted from Arnold, 2000.
Species overview
Eucalyptus grandis can grow rapidly under favourable
conditions (to 2-3 m or more per year in height) and
can tolerate short term flooding. It is reputedly one
of the best native species available from Australia
for establishment of fast growing timber plantations
in subtropical and warm temperate climates overseas
(Cromer et al., 1991). It is not suited to lowland
areas in the humid tropics as it is susceptible to
disease in these environments (Eldridge et al., 1993).
Key features It prefers moist, well drained, deep soils and will
not tolerate poorly drained soils or long periods of
Medium-sized to very tall tree, generally waterlogging. E. grandis requires >1000 mm rainfall
excellent form with a clear straight bole for good growth, however, outstanding growth
Grows rapidly under favourable conditions results have been achieved on drier sites with the
application of supplementary irrigation (Myers et al.,
Tolerates only short term flooding, but not 1996; Arnold et al., 1996). E. grandis is subject
excessively moist or poorly drained or to frost damage, but appropriate hardening of
waterlogged soils seedlings increases the latitudinal and altitudinal
Moderately tolerant of soil salinity, but subject range for plantations of this species (Eldridge et al.,
to scorching by salt laden coastal air 1993). It can also tolerate low levels of soil salinity
and acidity but will have a reduced growth response.
Moderately tolerant of soil acidity (down to pH 5.5)
The timber is suitable for light construction, pulp for
Frost sensitive when young paper and rayon, poles and charcoal (Eldridge
Intolerant of drought et al., 1993).
Easily reproduced vegetatively by grafting,

rooted stem cuttings and micropropagation Description and natural
Young seedlings are susceptible to damping occurrence
off and collar rot
Description
Susceptible to insect attack by leaf beetles,
leaf blister sawfly, psyllids and lerps E. grandis belongs to Eucalyptus subgenus
Symphyomyrtus (Pryor and Johnson, 1971) and is
Attractive timber, resistant to Lyctus borers
closely related to E. saligna and E. deanei. There
Used for fuelwood, sawn timber, posts, poles, are no recorded natural hybrids of E. grandis and
flooring, veneer, pulp, paper and fibreboard. E. saligna from within their natural distributions.
101
contracted towards the top; valves 4 or 5, exserted,
broad and incurved. The seed is brown (Brooker
and Kleinig, 1999).
Like other eucalypts flooded gum does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). The flowering period
in its natural habitat is from April to August (i.e. late
autumn through winter) (Brooker and Kleinig, 1994).
Flowering occurs from as early as age 2-3 years
(Burgess, 1983).
Pollination is effected primarily by insects. Seed
capsules mature in around 5 months (Hodgson,
1976) and seed is commonly retained on the tree
for periods of several months to several years after
it matures (Boland et al., 1984). There will be
Eucalyptus grandis natural stand, Gympie, regional and seasonal variability in seed availability.
Queensland.
Natural occurrence
E. grandis occurs naturally from Newcastle in New
The valves of E. grandis capsules are more incurved
South Wales (32°52′S) along the coastal regions and
and broader than the thin, strongly erect or recurved
subcoastal ranges until just east of Gympie (26°11′S)
valves of E. saligna capsules. The fruits of E. grandis
in south eastern Queensland. Further northwards
are often glaucous, whereas those of E. saligna are
(from approximately 18°S) it occurs in disjunct
not. E. deanei is separated from E. grandis and
populations with the main ones being on the
E. saligna by juvenile leaf characteristics (ovate to
Eungella Tableland west of Mackay; near Ingham;
orbicular), while its fruits tend to be more pedicellate
on the Atherton Tableland; and, at the northern
extreme of its range, on the Windsor Tableland
In its natural habitat, E. grandis is a medium-sized west of Daintree (approximately 16°S); and at
to very tall tree, 45‑55 m (72 m) high with a short Carnarvon (approximately 25°S) about 450 km
basal stocking of rough bark, then smooth, thin, inland (Brooker and Kleinig, 1994; Eldridge et al.,
fibrous or flaking, grey to grey-brown bark above. 1993) (Figure 10.1).
Branches are mostly smooth white or grey-white.
Newly exposed bark may be bright pink. Form
is generally excellent with a clear straight bole Figure 10.1: Natural distribution of Eucalyptus
up to three quarters of the total height. grandis (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Juvenile leaves are stalked, opposite for several

pairs then alternating, ovate, discolorous, green to
dark green (dimensions 4-9.5 cm long x 2-4 cm wide).
Adult leaves are alternate, lanceolate to broad
lanceolate, glossy dark green above, pale green
below (dimensions 10-16 cm long x 2‑3 cm wide).
The inflorescence is axillary, 7-11 flowered with
flattened stalks 0.8‑1.8 cm long. The buds are
sessile or shortly stalked, pear shaped with a
conical or slightly beaked operculum, 8 x 5 mm.
The flowers are white. Fruit are woody capsules,
shortly stalked or sessile, conical to slightly pear
shaped, often glaucous, to 8 x 5 mm. Often
102
Rainfall regime: uniform, summer
hottest month:
coldest month:
Mean annual temperature: 12-25 °C

suitable for planting E. grandis (Figure 10.2) was
Natural stand of Eucalyptus grandis at Sullivans These revisions were made to the climatic parameters,
Gap, Bulahdelah, NSW. initially derived from the natural distribution, on the
In northern New South Wales and southern Jovanovic and Booth (2002) state that although the
Queensland, natural stands of E. grandis do not species may be considered in areas with rainfalls
extend further than 100 km inland at an altitudinal as low as 725 mm, over 1000 mm is desirable for
range from sea level to around 600 m. In north good growth. They also note that though their map
Queensland its altitudinal range is from 400‑1250 m. in Figure 10.2 suggests a rather wider climatically
suitable area, in practice in Queensland climatically
The species is often found growing as pure stands
suitable areas correspond very closely to the areas
of tall open forest with an understorey of rainforest
of natural distribution (Figure 10.1). However,
species. Where stands are not pure, associated
supplementary irrigation can enable E. grandis to
eucalypt species can include E. dunnii, E microcorys,
be planted on drier sites with outstanding growth
E. pellita, E. pilularis, E. resinifera, E. robusta,
results (Myers et al., 1996; Arnold et al., 1996).
E. saligna or E. tereticornis.
The revised climatic description and map are
E. saligna and E. grandis overlap in northern based on information from rainfed locations only.
New South Wales and southern Queensland with
E. saligna generally found on drier sites up slope
from E. grandis in the valleys.
suitable for Eucalyptus grandis are shown in
Natural stands of E. grandis prefer the flats or black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
lower slopes of fertile valleys, with moist, well
drained, deep loamy soils of alluvial or volcanic
origin (Boland et al., 1984).
Where will it grow?

E. grandis, incorporating data from both the natural
distribution and from sites where the species has
been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the
good growth:
103
Consideration of other factors such as soil In a QFRI project to identify the best‑bet species for
requirements and E. grandis’ susceptibility to insect operational plantings, over 70 species, provenances
pests (particularly on very high rainfall sites or when and hybrid combinations were evaluated on a range
it becomes stressed due to drought) also need to of sites, soil types and climates from northern New
be considered when deciding whether to plant this South Wales to Central Queensland. Early results
species. E. grandis grows best on deep, moisture indicate that E. grandis, and in particular seedlots
holding soils of moderate to high fertility. It can not from improved sources (e.g. Wedding Bells Seed
occupy upper slopes and ridge-top sites with poor Orchard, SFNew South Wales), is the species with
skeletal soils unless rainfall is adequate (Streets, 1962). the most immediate potential for producing high
It is also intolerant of excessively moist or poorly plantation yields suited to pulpwood production,
drained soils or extended periods of soil waterlogging on the greatest range of soil and site types in areas
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). E. grandis is moderately of Queensland south of Gin Gin (latitude 24.5°S).
tolerant of low soil salinity but with less vigorous However, susceptibility to attack by the giant wood
growth. In coastal areas it is susceptible to scorching moth (Endoxyla spp.) and subsequent predation
by salt laden air (Poynton, 1979). It is also moderately by the Yellow-tailed black cockatoo is a cause for
tolerant of soil acidities down to pH 5.5 though concern in some areas (QFRI website, 2002; JVAP
best growth is obtained with a soil pH closer to 7 website, 2002).
(Marcar and Khanna, 1997).
Plantings and provenance trials Because of the lack of geographic pattern of
provenance variation in E. grandis, a useful strategy
Plantings for improvement programmes has been to exploit
Flooded gum is a species of major importance for variation within provenances (Burgess, 1988;
plantations with over 1 million hectares in Brazil Matheson and Mullin, 1987). Rapid gains in
and about 300 000 ha in South Africa. There are growth and adaptability have been achieved
also significant areas in several other countries e.g. by planting a wide range of provenances and
Argentina, Australia and India (Eldridge et al., 1993). selecting the best individual trees for breeding
programmes regardless of their provenance.
Provenance trials The hybrid of E. grandis x E. urophylla from Brazil
Results of trials around the world suggest that some has produced spectacular genetic gains, selected
of the most productive E. grandis provenances are clones of which have proved more productive, with
from the northern part of New South Wales centred higher disease resistance, whilst producing higher
around Coffs Harbour (Burgess, 1988). However, density wood than pure E. grandis (Campinhos and
significant differences in performance have often Ikemori, 1989). Other combinations which have
been noted between seedlots sourced from within provided outstanding individuals in Brazil include
one small geographic area (Matheson and Mullin, E. grandis x E. pellita, E. grandis x E. saligna and
1987; Eldridge et al., 1993; Arnold et al., 1996). E. grandis x E. dunnii. Early results of trials including
hybrids of E. grandis x E. camaldulensis and E. grandis
In humid environments at the higher end of its rainfall
x E. urophylla have displayed good early growth
and temperature range, E. grandis becomes
(two years) at Miriam Vale, Central Queensland
increasingly susceptible to disease. The Copperlode
(QFRI website, Regional profile series ‘Region 4’,
provenance, the lowest altitude tropical provenance
2002). However, the former is moderately
of E. grandis from west of Cairns, has been found
susceptible to attack by the giant wood moth and
to have the best disease resistance and therefore be
the latter demonstrated high variability in survival
the provenance most likely to succeed in environments
and susceptibility to insect attack and disease. The
at this end of the species planting range (Chris
following hybrids are available from nurseries such
Harwood, CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products,
as Yuruga, Walkamin, in northern Queensland,
pers. comm., 2002).
E. grandis x E. camaldulensis; E. urophylla
104
x E. grandis, E. grandis x E. urophylla, E. grandis
elite clones and the Yates ‘Saltgrow’ E. grandis
x camaldulensis salt tolerant hybrids (PFNQ
website, 2002).
The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
Tree Seed Centre in Canberra provides both single-
tree and bulk provenance collections of seed of
E. grandis for breeding programmes. It also has a
small amount of improved seed of E. grandis available.
Silviculture
Eucalyptus grandis 4-year-old shelterbelt at
Coleambally, NSW.
Propagation
E. grandis is most commonly propagated from seed. In Australia, good results have been achieved
The number of viable seeds is 670 000 kg‑1(Gunn, with precision sowing of individual imbibed seeds
2001). The normal level of purity of the extracted into plug sized cells. The plug seedlings are later
and sieved seed of this species is only 10%. The transplanted into the final propagation container.
seeds are orthodox and can be stored for several This system overcomes a need for thinning of
years in cool dry conditions provided their moisture seedlings in the container and also avoids problems
content is kept below 8%. The recommended of vacant cells. A cell size (container or individual
temperature for germination of E. grandis is pot) of 90 ml produces ideal nursery stock 150‑200 mm
25°C (Boland et al., 1980). high (G. Cahill, Narromine Transplants, Narromine,
New South Wales, pers. comm., 1998). Cells
E. grandis can also be reproduced vegetatively which encourage development of vertical roots and
with relative ease, using grafting, rooted cuttings and
which allow air pruning, encourage development
micropropagation. Success with some techniques,
of superior root systems (Nicholas et al., 1989).
including at least rooted cuttings, requires material
in a relatively juvenile state of development. Most E. grandis nursery plants can be frost sensitive when
programs routinely apply a rooting hormone such young and may need some protection, however they
as indole‑3‑butyric acid (IBA) to the base of each can withstand frost (absolute minimum temperature
cutting prior to their insertion into the rooting of ‑8°C) if appropriately hardened (Cremer et al.,
medium to improve strike rates and rooting vigour. 1984).
Short rotation E. grandis crops are often managed

Establishment
under a system of coppice renewal (Turnbull and
Pryor, 1984). The species coppices vigorously Locally successful methods of plantation establishment
when young but after age 10-12 years, coppicing for a range of major forest tree species are suitable
can become less reliable. The value of using a for E. grandis. Detailed information on various
coppice system needs to be considered in light establishment practices is available from several
of the cost of protecting the stumps at harvesting sources including: government organisations
and thinning the coppice, and the possible loss (Sustainability and Environment, Victoria; Private
of productivity gains that might be achieved with Forests Tasmania), farm forestry and landcare groups.
the use of improved seed or provenances for a Books such as Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull
subsequent rotation.
105
(1997) and Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by
Websites of many of the above organisations have machinery. To allow machinery to be used a
‘Fact Sheets’ available (e.g. QFRI website http:// spacing of 3-5 m between rows is required (Weiss,
www.dpi.qld.gov.au/hardwoodsqld/), or these 1997). A range of spacings and planting designs
documents can be obtained by contacting the are possible in farm forestry plantings. Readers are
organisations directly. referred to texts such as Bird (2000) and Reid and
Stephen (2001) for discussion of options and their
E. grandis responds well to deep ripping on
merits. Suitable initial spacings for woodlots are
compacted sites, complete soil cultivation rather
3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m
than spot cultivation, chemical weed control and
(1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings encourage rapid
early fertiliser application (Nicholas et al., 1989).
canopy closure, reduce weed problems, promote
Generally the response to N and P together tends
good form and allow ample selection for a final
to exceed the response to either alone (Cromer
stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird, 2000; QFRI
et al., 1998). Most prescriptions for the use of
website, 2002).
fertilisers in plantations have been developed for
ex-forest sites. When planting on ex‑pasture sites Planting out is timed to coincide with rainfall and
with a history of fertiliser use their use may not be in southern latitudes is predominantly determined
warranted (Bird, 2000). Refer to Attiwill and by the severity of frost and minimum temperatures
Adams (1996), Dell et al., (1995) and Nambiar experienced. Planting is carried out in June/July in
and Brown (1997). South Australia while the soil is still wet from winter
rains. Planting may occur later if site access is not
available due to waterlogging, which is often a
problem. In Victoria and New South Wales planting
is done in September, or July-August in warmer districts
where soils dry out earlier. Planting in northern
latitudes usually occurs once the summer rains have
begun between November‑April, however February‑
April is preferred so that young seedlings will be
exposed to a shorter period of high temperatures.
Management
clearwood production; texts such as Bird (2000)
and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the theory,
objectives and techniques in a farm forestry context.
Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done to add value
to the trees by aiming to increase the recovery of
sawn timber from the trunk and to make it suitable
for higher‑value appearance-grade products (Bird,
2000). Thinning removes defective trees and reduces
competition between trees. The spacing of trees
determines the ultimate height and diameter of
individual stems. When grown for sawlogs the
stand may be reduced to a final stocking of
300‑100 stems ha‑1.
E. grandis stands managed on medium to long
Eucalyptus grandis 17-year-old planted stand rotations (20 years plus) for production of solid
in Western Victoria showing a pruned and timber are usually thinned from an early age, as
unpruned tree. early as 3 years or less, but those for short rotation
106
In the nursery, E. grandis is susceptible to various
fungi causing damping off and collar rot including
Phytophthora and Pythium spp. (Turnbull and Pryor,
1984). In E. grandis trials on a tropical lowland
site near Ingham in Queensland, young trees were
severely affected by the foliar fungus Cylindrocladium
quinqueseptatum (Cromer et al., 1991) causing
outbreaks of leaf spot and shoot blights.
In Australia it is frequently attacked by a range
of defoliating insects and significant damage can
occur, especially in the early stages of plantation
Pruned 2-year-old Eucalyptus grandis at
establishment before canopy closure and on grassland
Coleambally NSW.
sites (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). The predominant
insect pests include leaf beetles, Christmas beetles,
crops, such as pulpwood or small posts, are leaf blister sawfly, psyllids and lerps. Autumn gum
moths have on occasions caused massive defoliation
normally not thinned or pruned (Poynton, 1979).
in some plantations even though E. grandis is only
considered a secondary host for the species. Longicorn
Growth
borers (Phoacantha spp.) and giant wood moth
Plantation grown E. grandis is notable for its good (Endoxyla cinerea) are major insect pests of E. grandis,
growth rates from an early age. Productivities at least in southern Queensland and northern New
reported from Australian plantations vary from less South Wales and are, arguably, the major limitation
than 15 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 up to more than 34 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 for growing the species commercially for anything
(Carter, 1974; Cromer et al., 1991). Its mean annual other than chip wood.
increment (MAI) tends to peak between ages E. grandis can not tolerate severe drought (Darrow,
10-17 years and the better the site the earlier 1994).
it tends to peak (Binkley et al., 1997).
Utilisation
Protection
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens Wood
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations Sapwood of E. grandis is a very pale pink, and is
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest generally resistant to attack by Lyctus borers (Boland
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to et al., 1984). The heartwood varies from almost
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases white to pink, or dark red-brown with a pink tinge
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of (Keating and Bolza, 1982) and is moderately strong
managing them. At present the main opportunities to (Boland et al., 1984). The air dry density of the
reduce this damage are provided by management wood is 600‑750 kg m‑3 (Marcar et al., 1995)
options such as maintaining the health and vigour and the timber has moderate strength and durability,
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible straight grain but can have a coarse texture
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984).
Plantations of E. grandis are also grown in many
for it and by regular monitoring for insect damage
countries for fuelwood, cellulose, sawn timber, posts,
poles and veneers. Applications for E. grandis
107
Recommended reading
QFRI website, 2002. Queensland Forest Research Institute,
Hardwoods Queensland website: http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/
Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
References
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sawn timber range from packing cases and house Forestry, 56:385-390.
construction to flooring and furniture (Turnbull and Arnold R, 2000. Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex. Maiden.
Pryor, 1984). However growth stress and its effects Species Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module
can, in some cases, cause serious degrade of logs Wallingford, UK.
and sawn timber. Highly stressed trees can develop
Arnold RJ, Burgess IP, Allender EB, 1996. Eucalyptus grandis
radial cracks and end splitting during and/or soon
seed source variation for growth and form in the southern
after felling. Murray-Darling Basin. Australian Forestry, 59:114-119.
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Eucalypts.
Non-wood CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
On distillation, leaves of E. grandis can produce Binkley D, O’Connell AM, Sankaran KV, 1997. Stand
development and productivity. In: Nambiar EKS, and
low yields of essential oils that contain a range of
Brown AG (eds). Management of Soil, Nutrients and
components including 1,8‑cineole, alpha‑pinene, Water in Tropical Plantation Forests. ACIAR Monograph
beta‑phellandrene, rho‑cymene and beta‑terpineol No. 43, pp 419-442. Australian Centre for International
(Shieh, 1995). However, the species is not suitable Agricultural Research, Canberra.
for commercial production of oils due to its relatively Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia:
low yield of this product. A Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
Limitations Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980.
Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO, Canberra.
Perceptions that E. grandis is a high water using
species have seen it discredited in some planting Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
situations. Where lowering water tables or using Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
effluent water are the objective this would be an
advantage. However, research by Myers et al. Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
(1996), who studied water balance in young
irrigated plantations of E. grandis and Pinus radiata Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1999. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second edition.
near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, have
Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
shown that E. grandis is not necessarily a more
Burgess IP, 1983. The natural occurrence of Eucalyptus
profligate consumer of water than other rapidly
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by the two species to be similar for the same stage 31:397-399.
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and E. saligna in Australia. Silvae Genetica, 37:221-227.
Its high susceptibility to disease in lowland humid
environments in the tropics will limit any expansion Campinhos E, Ikemori YK, 1989. Selection and
of plantings into these areas. management of the basic population Eucalyptus grandis
and Eucalyptus urophylla established at Aracruz for the
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AR, Matheson AC (eds), Breeding Tropical Trees. and acid soils. In: Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds),
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109
11. Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maide
Shining gum, silver top
Key features
Tall forest tree, generally of good form with
moderately fast growth
Grows on a wide range of moderately fertile
soils, especially with clay subsoil
Can be grown at higher altitudes and tolerates
numerous and severe winter frosts and snow
(absolute minimum temperature -12°C)
For best growth performance requires greater
than 1000 mm MAR is generally regarded as a highly satisfactory pulping
species. Enthusiasm for planting E. nitens is tempered
Is intolerant of prolonged drought by shortage of seed, some concern about persistent
Seed slow to mature with production often small branches, and susceptibility to defoliation by insects
and irregular (Doran, 2000).
Moderately susceptible to disease and insect attack

Cream coloured sapwood is susceptible to
borer attack
Timber is light coloured, has few kino veins, and
is used for general construction work, flooring,
joinery, panelling, furniture veneer, plywood,
firewood, mining timber and pulp for paper
Non-durable in the ground.
Species overview
A tall forest tree of moderately fast growth rate
and good form, Eucalyptus nitens is an important
plantation eucalypt for cool mountain areas where
the annual rainfall is around 1000 mm or more.
E. nitens is one of the frost hardiest of the commercial
eucalypts and is relatively free of pests and diseases
on appropriate sites. E. nitens is intolerant of sustained
drought, low rainfall sites and is very susceptible to
fungal and insect attack when stressed (White et
al., 1994; Knight and Nicholas, 1996). Wood
from fast-growing plantations is suitable for sawing
with the application of suitable techniques. E. nitens Eucalyptus nitens bole, Errinundra, Victoria.
110
occurrence
Description
E. nitens is a tall to very tall forest tree 40-70 m, with
a DBH 1-2 m or more on good quality sites. On
poorer sites it may be smaller with height of 15 to
20 m and up to 0.5 m DBH. It has good form with Eucalyptus nitens fruit capsules.
a clean straight bole for one-half to two-thirds of
tree height (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). Mature trees
may carry a short (2-5 m) basal stocking of rough Natural occurrence
dark grey-black bark. The bark on the upper trunk The distribution of E. nitens in Australia is in a
above the base is either smooth or decorticating in number of small, disjunct populations from 38°S
long strips, to leave a smooth yellow, grey and in central and eastern Victoria to 30°S in northern
white surface, often with black horizontal insect New South Wales (Eldridge et al., 1993) (Figure
scars. Young trees have conspicuously green bark. 11.1). Three distinct geographic races have been
The stems on seedlings and juvenile branches are identified: northern and central New South Wales,
square in cross-section and bluish green, bluish southern New South Wales, and Central Highlands
grey or covered with a white wax on the surface of Victoria. In southern New South Wales, E. nitens
(glaucous). Juvenile leaves are sessile, amplexicaul, is usually grouped for convenience into the three
geographic areas of provenance referred to as
opposite for any pairs, ovate to 17x8 cm, discolorous,
Tallaganda, Badja Mountain and Brown Mountain.
greyish blue to glaucous. Adult leaves are lanceolate
to narrow lanceolate, glossy green. Buds have a The range of altitude for the species in Victoria
conical cap (operculum) and there are seven flowers is 670-1280 m up to almost 1600 m in northern
in the flower-heads on angular, flattened stalks. The New South Wales where the species is found near
fruit cupular or barrel shaped, glossy, without stalks, Ebor and Barrington Tops. It will tolerate severe frosts
often faintly ribbed, with 3-4 valves to the rim or (50-150 annually) as low as -12°C and snow cover
slightly projecting. Seed is brown to brown-black, which may last for days or weeks each year
flattened, with a pitted surface (Brooker and Kleinig, (Boland et al., 1984).
1999). Common habitats are slopes and mountain tops
Like other eucalypts shining gum does not develop with best development of the species occurring
resting buds and grows whenever conditions are on undulating tablelands. E. nitens prefers deep,
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowering occurs moist loams, but it will grow satisfactorily on a
between January and March and mature seed is wide range of moderately fertile soils, especially
if there is clay in the subsoil (Turnbull and Pryor,
available by about October. Seed production in
1984). The sites are usually well drained and their
the natural stands of E. nitens is often low and
pH values fall within the range of 4.5-6.0. The parent
irregular (Moncur et al., 1994; Brooker and
material frequently includes granite and granodiorite
Kleinig, 1999). There will be regional and
but also basalt, rhyodacite and various rocks of
seasonal variability in seed availability.
sedimentary origin (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984).
111
Figure 11.1: Natural distribution of Where will it grow?
Eucalyptus nitens (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Eucalyptus nitens, incorporating data from both the
good growth:

summer
hottest month:
coldest month:

suitable for planting E. nitens (see Figure 11.2)
parameters, initially derived from the natural
distribution, on the basis of information from trials
and plantings of this species both within and outside
its natural range. Commercial plantations are usually
grown in areas which receive a mean annual rainfall
of at least 1000 mm but on suitable sites (with good

suitable for Eucalyptus nitens are shown in black
Natural stand of Eucalyptus nitens on Errinundra

Plateau, Victoria.
112
moisture holding soils) it can be grown successfully
down to 700 mm.
Other important considerations when selecting
E. nitens is its intolerance of sustained drought,
low rainfall sites and its high susceptibility to
fungal and insect attack when stressed.

Plantings
In Australia, E. nitens has proved very vigorous
in northern Tasmania, outside of its natural range,
where it is grown mainly for pulpwood. It is also
cultivated in many other countries including
Argentina, Brazil, China, Chile, New Zealand,
Twelve year old plantation of Eucalyptus nitens in
northern Portugal and Spain, South Africa and
Tasmania.
Zimbabwe (Jacobs, 1981; Miller et al., 1992;
Jayawickrama et al., 1993). It has also shown
promise in mountain areas near the Caspian Sea
in Iran and has been planted in trials in the USA
Breeding and genetics resources
(California, Hawaii) (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). The genetic resources of E. nitens throughout its
entire natural range remain substantial due to the
Provenance trials cessation of logging in the natural E. nitens forests
of central Victorian and northern New South Wales
In range-wide E. nitens provenance trials in Victoria
(Pederick, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1985) at age with much of the resource now included in national
12 years and in similar but younger trials in New parks or equivalent reserves.
South Wales (Johnson, 1996), and in Tasmania There has been considerable interest in southern
(Turnbull et al., 1993), the three central Victorian Australia in the hybrid E. nitens × E. globulus to
provenances of ‘Toorongo’, ‘Rubicon’, and ‘Macalister’ utilise the greater cold tolerance of E. nitens on
were the most vigorous, followed by New South sites marginal for E. globulus. Tibbits and Hodge
Wales south and north. The ‘Toorongo’ provenance (1995) concluded that there could be a slight
has been the most consistent in growth rate, and economic advantage in using the hybrid if pure
has produced slightly better branching and straighter E. globulus was unsuitable for the land to be planted.
stems than the ‘Rubicon’ and ‘Macalister’ Parents of two Australian provenances of E. nitens
provenances in Victorian trials (Pederick, 1985). from central Victoria and eastern New South Wales
In African trials, summer rainfall provenances (from were crossed with E. grandis of coastal New South
northern New South Wales e.g. ‘Ebor’) performed Wales origin to create first-generation hybrids that
better than southern provenances (i.e. Victorian should be adapted to warmer, low altitude sites
provenances) when planted in summer rainfall (Aimers-Halliday et al., 1999).
regions (Eldridge et al., 1993).
The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
Within provenances, higher altitude seed sources Tree Seed Centre in Canberra can supply both
generally received significantly less frost damage single-tree and bulk-tree provenance collections of
than did those from lower altitudes, and there were seed from natural stands of E. nitens suitable for trials
significant differences between individual families and breeding programmes. Improved seed, from
within provenances. The most frost tolerant provenance both seed orchard and seed production areas, is
was northern New South Wales, with ‘Toorongo’ available from the Tasmanian Seed Centre in Hobart.
being the least tolerant (Raymond et al., 1992).
113
Silviculture operationally yet. There are still many research and
development issues to be fully explored, one of the
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this major issues being the variable and mainly low
species. Further information is available through root strike of many genotypes. Micropropagation
sources listed under recommended reading. of E. nitens using tissue culture techniques has
Summary silvicultural information and practices also been carried out successfully (e.g. Furze and
specific to this species are outlined below. Cresswell, 1985; Bandyopadhyay et al., 1999)
but again the technique needs further research
Propagation before it can be applied commercially.
E. nitens is usually propagated by seed. The small, Eucalyptus nitens will coppice but not as readily as
black seed is orthodox and will remain viable in some of its close relatives like E. globulus. Coppicing
storage for several years if kept dry and under is not used commercially for plantation renewal
refrigeration (CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products in this species because of generally poor results
Australian Tree Seed Centre records, 1998 achieved (Poynton, 1979; Miller et al., 1992).
unpublished). There are, on average, 270 000 E. nitens seedlings can be coppiced if stock plants
viable seed kg‑1 of seed and red-brown chaff mix are starved of nutrients, 2-stage topping is applied
(Turnbull and Doran, 1987). To break dormancy and the period of coppicing extended from June
and promote rapid, even germination after sowing, to February (Aimers-Halliday et al., 1999).
seed should be exposed to moisture at just above
freezing point (1-5°C) for three weeks (stratification). Establishment
The seed can then be germinated at 20°C for about
two weeks under warm, moist conditions in the
presence of light.
for E. nitens. Detailed information on various
E. nitens planting stock is usually raised in containers establishment practices is available from several
in the nursery. General nursery practices are suitable sources including: government organisations
for producing containerised seedlings of E. nitens. (Sustainability and Environment, Victoria; Private
These are described in texts such as Doran and Forests Tasmania), farm forestry and landcare groups.
Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries Books such as Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull
will grow seedlings on request and some specialise (1997) and Bird (2000) are also valuable resources.
in producing trees for the farm forestry market. E. nitens Websites of many of the above organisations have
seedlings are generally raised in containers composed ‘Fact Sheets’ available (e.g. DSE website: http://
of a number of individual cells. A cell size of 90 ml www.dse.vic.gov.au/ ), or these documents can
produces ideal nursery stock 150‑200 mm high be obtained by contacting the organisations directly.
(G. Cahill, Narromine Transplants, New South
Soil should be ripped to at least 45 cm and down
Wales, pers. comm., 1998). Larger containers
to 1 m if possible. Mounding may be necessary on
give better results with planting programmes which
sites with poor drainage.
require greater flexibility or where sturdy seedlings
with good root systems are needed for planting in Control of weed competition in the first few years
difficult conditions. after establishment is often critical to the survival and
growth of eucalypts and E. nitens is no exception.
Experience in New Zealand has shown that
Miller et al. (1992) recommends that glyphosate be
cleft-grafting is a suitable technique for clonal
applied before site preparation to kill root systems of
propagation of E. nitens in breeding arboreta and
some of the perennial weeds. After site preparation
clonal seed orchards. The technique is described
and at least one month before planting, apply
by Miller et al. (1992). Eucalyptus nitens will strike
a pre-emergent herbicide such as a triazine. A
roots from stem cuttings (e.g. Maile and Nieuwenhuis,
post planting application of herbicide is usually
1996), however the technique has not been applied
114
necessary. The same chemicals may be used but
care needs to be taken not to spray the eucalypt
foliage when using glyphosate otherwise mortality
will result. Similarly, contact between plant roots
and simazine, as might take place on gravely
soils, should be avoided.
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early spring,
predominantly determined by the severity of frost
and minimum temperatures experienced. In South
Australia and Western Australia planting is carried
out in June/July while the soil is still wet from winter
rains. Planting may occur later if site access is not
available due to waterlogging, which is often a
problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and New South
Wales planting is done in September, (or July-
Forestry Tasmania Eucalyptus nitens 9-year-old
August in warmer districts where soils dry out earlier).
provenance and progeny trial at Meunna, Tasmania.
machinery. To allow machinery to be used a spacing
of 3‑5 m between rows should be used (Weiss, Management
1997). A range of spacings and planting designs
Gerrand et al. (1997) provide a provisional
are possible in farm forestry plantings. Readers are
management regime for thinning and pruning
referred to texts such as Bird (2000) and Reid and
E. nitens plantations in Tasmania for sawlog
Stephen (2001) for discussion of options and their
production on a 30-40 year rotation. From an
merits. Suitable initial spacings for woodlots are
initial stocking of 1000 stems ha‑1, an early, light,
3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m
non-commercial thinning is recommended at age
(1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings promote good
3 or 4 years, and a commercial thinning at age
form and allow ample selection for final stocking
10-12 years to final stocking of 250 stems ha‑1
of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird 2000).
to improve financial viability. Pruning is carried out
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and to either 2.7 m or 6.4 m in three lifts commencing
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist early when the trees are 7 m tall at 3 years-of-age (after
growth is common practice in the establishment the non-commercial thinning) and final pruning by
of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is age 5-6 years.
particularly effective on ex‑forest sites but there
is often no response on ex‑pasture sites and soil Growth
Mean annual volume production in intensively-
managed E. nitens pulp plantations falls typically
can only respond to a fertiliser application if other
in the range of 10-30 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 (Webb et al.,
factors are not limiting eg. moisture availability (low
1984; Turnbull et al., 1988; Miller et al., 1992;
rainfall or heavy weed competition are two factors
Gerrand et al., 1997). On a high rainfall site
that can reduce this). Rates vary widely depending
(1210 mm MAR) in East Gippsland Duncan
on the site and readers should access further
et al. (2000) report a mean annual increment of
information from more detailed references such
48.9 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 for E. nitens at 12 years of age.
as Dell et al., (1995), Attiwill and Adams (1996)
Growth and yield models for E. nitens in Tasmania
and Nambiar and Brown (1997).
and New Zealand are provided by Candy (1997).
115
A financial analysis of E. nitens plantation sawlog Breeding for disease resistance is seen as the only
production in Tasmania indicated that good financial practical method for control in most cases. The
returns were possible on moderately high to very disease Endothia gyrosa is common in south‑eastern
high quality sites from intensive pruning and thinning Australia and has caused numerous stem cankers
schedules (Candy and Gerrand, 1997). and associated stem decay on otherwise healthy
and vigorous trees in Tasmania (Yuan and Mohammed,
Protection 1997, 1998).
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens

Utilisation
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
pests. However a certain amount of damage to
Wood
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases The wood is light coloured, and has few kino
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of veins. McKimm et al. (1988) found that knots were
managing them. At present the main opportunities to the most common cause for downgrading its timber
reduce this damage are provided by management for structural purposes and the knots would tend to
options such as maintaining the health and vigour make it only marginally acceptable for appearance
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible grade products. However, it is often marketed with
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; the ash group as a general construction timber. The
not planting the species on sites that are marginal cream coloured sapwood is not easy to distinguish
for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or from the heartwood. Heartwood is straw-coloured
unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). or pale pink, straight-grained, tough but easy to
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the work, not durable for external use. The wood of
control of pests by pesticide application is not E. nitens is often of a slightly lower density than that
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs of plantation grown E. globulus. Its air dry density
involved, monitoring required and environmental is about 700-720 kg m‑3 (Bootle, 1983; Boland
issues of chemical use. et al., 1984). Drying needs much care because
The juvenile foliage of E. nitens is susceptible to of its susceptibility to collapse, surface checking,
defoliation by the larvae of the autumn gum moth end splitting and interlocked grain which is quite
(Mnesampela privata) in plantations in southern common. Bootle (1983), McKimm (1988), Wade
Australia. The blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina (1991), Haslett and Young (1992) and Miller et al.
eucalyptii, may cause severe damage to the (1992) provide more information.
juvenile foliage of E. nitens causing deformed
The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus borer attack.
and stunted foliage and shoot tips (Farrow, 1996).
The holes of borers and associated black stains are
In Tasmania, damage by coreid shoot-wilt bugs often present, giving the attractive timber a very
reduced growth, but not enough to inhibit planting speckled appearance. However, the staining has
for pulpwood (Elliott and de Little, 1984). Chemical to be severe before it has an effect on strength.
treatment has been effective in controlling population E. nitens is non‑durable (<5 years) in the ground.
numbers (Barton and Davies, 1993; de Little, 1989). The sapwood may be treated with wood
Chrysomelid leaf beetles are also noted as a preservatives (McKimm et al., 1985).
serious pests in Tasmanian Eucalyptus plantations
E. nitens is generally regarded as a highly
(Anon, 1999). The ambrosia beetle, Platypus
satisfactory pulping species (Orme et al., 1993;
subgranosus degrades the wood of E. nitens
Williams, 1994; Wyk and Gerischer, 1994).
(Neumann and Marks, 1976).
Uses include flooring, joinery, panelling, furniture
Crous et al. (1989) provide a listing of eucalypt leaf
veneer, plywood, firewood, mining timber and
fungi, (largely Mycosphaerella and Cryptosporiopsis)
pulp for paper (Boland et al., 1984).
which cause leaf spots and defoliation of E. nitens
which may significantly affect growth performance.
116
Non-wood Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
Although honey from E. nitens is amber coloured, Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
and of medium flavour and density it is not a good Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw Hill, Sydney.
honey producing species due to unreliable flowering
(Goodman, 1973). Oil concentration in the leaves Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second edition.
is too low to be of any commercial interest. Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
Candy SG, 1997. Growth and yield models for
Limitations Eucalyptus nitens plantations in Tasmania and New
Zealand. Tasforests, 9:167-194.
Intolerant of drought, often has low seed
Candy SG, Gerrand AM, 1997. Comparison of financial
production, wood experiences drying problems, returns from sawlog regimes for Eucalyptus nitens
non durable in ground. plantations in Tasmania. Tasforests, 9:35-50.
Recommended reading Crous PW, Knox-Davies PS, Wingfield MJ, 1989. A list
of Eucalyptus leaf fungi and their potential importance to
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A South African forestry. South African Forestry Journal,
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. 149:17-29.
Maryborough, Victoria. deLittle DW, 1989. Paropsine chrysomelid attack on
plantations of Eucalyptus nitens in Tasmania. New
DSE website, 2002. Victorian Department of Sustainability Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 19:223-227.
and Environment website: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/
Private Forests Tasmania website, 2002. http://www. in plantation eucalypts. ACIAR Monograph Series, No.
privateforests.tas.gov.au/ 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research, Canberra.
References
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Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in Eucalyptus Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a
plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Forestry, 56:385-390. Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
Aimers-Halliday J, Dibley MJ, Hong SO, Menzies MI, 1999. Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian
Cuttings propagation of hybrid Eucalyptus grandis x E. nitens. Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
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– Eucalyptus nitens and E. globulus. Plant Science Limerick, Farrow R, 1996. Insect pests of eucalypts on farmland
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Barton JL, Davies PE, 1993. Buffer strips and streamwater
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201-210. Furze MJ, Cresswell CF, 1985. Micropropagation of
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Gerrand AM, Neilsen WA, Medhurst JL, 1997. Thinning Neumann FG, Marks GC, 1976. A synopsis of
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119
12. Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl.
Swamp yate
Adapted from Harwood, 2000.
Key features
Small to medium-sized-tree of potentially
reasonable form
Moderate growth rate
Tolerates a wide range of soils including clays,
sands and calcareous soils
Most provenances are tolerant of highly saline
conditions
Tolerates seasonal waterlogging
Species overview
More tolerant of the combination of waterlogging
and salinity than most other eucalypt species Eucalyptus occidentalis displays excellent survival
and moderate growth rates and has been extensively
Tolerates prolonged drought and heat planted in many arid, semi-arid and sub-humid
Suited to arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climates winter rainfall climates around the world where
with a winter or uniform rainfall maximum conditions are not suitable for the growth of other
preferred species. Planting is mostly for firewood,
It is not suited to tropical and subtropical climates
shade, windbreaks and catchment afforestation
with a summer rainfall maximum and/or mean
annual temperature of greater than around 22°C
Irrigation reduces tolerance to extreme heat and cold
Better provenances in Australian trials are
‘Ravensthorpe’ and ‘Grass Patch’ but further testing
is required as Israeli trial results are contradictory
To date plantings have mostly been for firewood,
shade, windbreaks and catchment afforestation
rather than for industrial wood production
While Eucalyptus occidentalis is suitable for chemical
pulping it has relatively poor pulp strength
Niche is probably the 350-750 mm yr‑1 rainfall
zone on heavy, seasonally wet and/or saline
soils that do not favour species that would
potentially be more productive.
Natural stand of Eucalyptus occidentalis at

Fitzgerald River Crossing, Western Australia.
120
rather than for industrial wood production, and it is
not planted anywhere on a very large scale. It is
Eucalyptus occidentalis buds and fruits.
notable for its use in reforestation of bare hillsides
for erosion control, shade and shelter in countries
such as Italy, and its drought resistance in Israel Adult leaves are lanceolate, concolorous, and
and North Africa. Italy has the greatest area of glossy green with prominent side veins. Buds have
plantations, with over 10 000 ha in Calabria and a broad horn‑shaped operculum and the woody
Sicily . It has also been planted widely (though not bell-shaped fruits have four exserted valves (Brooker
on a large scale) as a farm forestry species in drier and Kleinig, 1990).
parts of southern Australia (Harwood, 2001). The
Like other eucalypts swamp yate does not develop
species has proved adaptable to a wide range of
soil types including clays and sand, and it tolerates
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Peak flowering time in
seasonal waterlogging and semi-saline soils. It
natural populations occurs in the summer months,
displays reduced growth at ECe above 10 dS m‑1
November to May (Brooker and Kleinig, 1990).
and reduced survival at ECe above 15 dS m‑1
E. occidentalis flowers at a young age, buds and
(Marcar et al., 1995). The wood can be used for
fruits being produced quite commonly on seedlings
firewood and to produce paper pulp of fair quality.
in the nursery. The time from bud to fruit maturation
is about twelve months in the natural range. There
Description and natural will be regional and seasonal variability in seed
occurrence availability.
Description Natural occurrence

Eucalyptus occidentalis is endemic to the south-west
Eucalyptus occidentalis is a small to medium-sized-
of Western Australia where it occurs from Cape Arid
tree, usually with a fairly dense, flat-topped canopy.
(east of Esperance), towards the Boyup Brook area
There is considerable provenance variation in habit
in the west, and north to Narrogin (Bird, 2000) and
and stem form within the species. The trunk is usually
is mostly found within 150 km of the south coast
short and forks at or below half the total height,
(Figure 12.1). The latitudinal range extends from
resulting in a tree with several stout primary branches
around 31°S to 35°S. Most natural stands are
and a flat-topped crown (Boland et al., 1984).
limited in extent, being restricted to wet, clayey
On the most favourable sites in its natural range
depressions (Brooker and Kleinig, 1990), along
E. occidentalis attains heights of 25‑30 m and a
streamsides and around the borders of freshwater
DBH up to 80 cm. On poor or fire-prone sites, it may
and brackish lagoons, where the ground surface
grow as a mallee no more than 5‑10 m in height
around the trees may be inundated for several
with several stems that arise from a basal lignotuber.
months during winter and spring. It occurs in
The bark is dark grey-brown to black, rough and woodland plant formations, usually in pure stands,
hard, fibrous or flaky on the lower trunk, becoming but sometimes associated with other eucalypts such
loose and ribonny above. The bark of the upper trunk as E. annulata, E. decipiens, E. falcata and
and branches is smooth white or pink (Chippendale, E. loxophleba (Boland et al., 1984).
1973; Brooker and Kleinig, 1990).
121
Figure 12.1: Natural distribution of Where will it grow?
E. occidentalis (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
E. occidentalis, incorporating data from both the natural
distribution and from sites where the species has been
grown successfully as an exotic, gives the following
key climatic conditions for survival and good growth:
Mean annual rainfall: 350F-910 mm

hottest month:
coldest month:
Eucalyptus occidentalis occurs naturally on a range F Particular care should be taken when planting the species
of soil types, but most commonly on heavy-textured in low rainfall environments to ensure that local conditions
soils which are poorly drained, neutral to alkaline are suitable and appropriate planting densities are used.
and may have a moderate to high level of salinity. The map of areas predicted to be climatically
There are some natural stands on better-drained suitable for planting E. occidentalis (Figure 12.2)
gravelly, sandy loams (Boland et al., 1984). was generated from the revised climatic details for
parameters, initially derived from the natural distribution,
on the basis of information from trials and plantings
of this species both within and outside its natural
range. The species is tolerant of waterlogging and
semi-saline soils and has reasonable growth and
good survival in low rainfall environments, making
it a good option in areas where these difficult
conditions exist.

suitable for E. occidentalis are shown in black
Eucalyptus occidentalis natural stand in the

Stirling Range National Park, Western Australia.
122
Planting and provenance trials and ‘Esperance’) were consistently slower-growing
than the other seven. There was little evidence of
provenance-by-site interaction in these trials.
Plantings
Unpublished 2-year and 4-year results of four
In Australia this species has performed well on saline
provenance trials in Italy (two in Calabria and two
irrigated and dryland sites in low rainfall areas of
in Sicily) indicate that ‘Grass Patch’, ‘Ravensthorpe’,
Western Australia, northern Victoria, New South
‘Broomehill’ and ‘Bremer Bay’ were the fastest-growing
Wales and South Australia and is widely planted,
provenances of those tested, while the ‘Peak Charles’
though not on a large scale, as a farm forestry species
provenance (32o55’S, 121o01’E) performed very
(Marcar et al., 1995; Harwood, 2001) and has
poorly (Harwood, 2001).
been planted in the Barrett Reserve in the Wimmera,
Victoria, from 1958-1978 (Bird, 2000). In Israel five provenances were tested in a provenance
trial on loess soil at Snaim in the northern Negev
The species has been successfully introduced into
Desert. The best provenance, from a location 5 km
many countries with sub-humid and semi-arid winter
east of ‘Cape le Grande’ (33o56’S, 122o18’E),
rainfall climates. It is widely planted in southern Europe,
achieved a mean height of 7.7 m in 6 years, during
North Africa and the Middle East and has also
which annual rainfall averaged 244 mm (Zohar
performed well in California, Mexico and Chile
and Moreshet, 1987). The slowest-growing
(Chippendale, 1973). Introduction to southern
provenance, from 64 km north of ‘Esperance’
Africa commenced in the 19th century (Poynton,
(33o03’S, 121o45’E), had a height of only
1979), but the species has only performed well
4.07 m. The ‘Cape le Grande’ provenance had
there in winter-rainfall and uniform-rainfall conditions.
some trees with straight trunks and produced fewer
It has failed in tropical and subtropical environments
fruits than the other provenances. On saline sandy
with summer rainfall climates, for example in Chad
sites in the Gulf of Eilat, Israel, the highest growth
(Jacobs, 1981) and Malawi and Zimbabwe
rate and resistance to salinity was displayed by a
(Poynton, 1979).
provenance collected north of Esperance (Zohar, 1982).
Provenance trials
Breeding and genetic
Provenance trials have been conducted in several
countries. The results from Israel are somewhat in resources
contrast to those in Australia and Italy, in that the Significant differences between provenances for
poorest provenance in Israel (64 km north of growth and stem form and the generally consistent
Esperance) is within 20 km of one of the best- performance of some of the superior provenances
performing provenances in the other trials, namely suggest that there are good prospects to improve
‘Grass Patch’. More trials are required to determine the growth and stem form of E. occidentalis through
the patterns of provenance variation in the species provenance selection and subsequent breeding.
and the extent of provenance-by-environment The species has recently been selected as a priority
interaction (Harwood, 2001). dry-zone species for further breeding by forestry
Ten natural provenances were tested in small-scale agencies in southern Australia, which have established
provenance trials at five sites in South Australia, with several seed production areas and seedling seed
mean annual rainfalls in the range 360-500 mm. orchards during the 1990s (Harwood, 2001).
The trials were assessed at age 3-5 years. Analysis In a breeding strategy for E. occidentalis, Harwood
of the results (Bulman et al., 1999 unpublished) (2001) describes the target planting areas in general
established that the ‘Grass Patch’ (33o14’S, terms as suitable site types in the 350-750 mm
121o43’E) and ‘Ravensthorpe’ (33o35’S, 120o02’E) winter/uniform rainfall zone in southern Australia.
provenances were consistently good performers He notes that temperature, site topography, local
in terms of height and diameter growth, and also hydrology and soil type interact with rainfall to
had the highest proportion of single-stemmed trees. determine available moisture, so the rainfall range
Three provenances (‘Rocky Gully’, ‘Thomas River’ is only a general guide. The species is typically
123
planted in lower parts of the landscape on heavy in two trials (i) 35% and 18% and (ii) 28% and
soils, and will tolerate salinities of up to 10 dS m‑1 ECe 51% rooting. The trials tested a number of species
without reduction in growth. Salinities over 15 dS m‑1 and provenances alongside known easy-rooting
ECe can reduce survival of the species (Marcar et species. The easy-rooting species had high rooting
al., 1995). percentages (E. grandis 85% and E. camaldulensis
76%) which showed that techniques used were
Elite individuals and provenances have been identified
suitable for them. While the results for E. occidentalis
in trials belonging to ALRTIG partners Primary Industry
are variable they indicate that the species has
and Resources South Australia (PIRSA) and Conservation
potential for clonal propagation. Further trials with
and Land Management Western Australia (CALM).
adjustments to the techniques are planned, with a
Seed of better provenances is available through the
view to improving the rooting success of species such
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Australian Tree
as E. occidentalis (Brammall and Harwood, 2000).
Seed Centre and the Forest Products Commission
of Western Australia’s Seed Centre. General nursery practices are suitable for producing
containerised seedlings of E. occidentalis. These
At present, somewhat improved quality seed is
are described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull
available from PIRSA seed production areas through
(1997) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries will grow
the CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
seedlings on request and some specialise in
Tree Seed Centre. One seed production area is
producing trees for the farm forestry market.
producing seed suited for saline conditions, while
another is producing seed suited for dry, non-saline
conditions (ALRTIG website, 2002). Improved seed
Establishment
from seedling seed orchards established by CSIRO Locally successful methods of plantation establishment
and CALM, Western Australia, should commence for a range of major forest tree species are suitable
commercial seed production in around 2005 for E. occidentalis. Detailed information on various
(Harwood, 2001). establishment practices is available from several
In Morocco, promising results have been obtained sources including government organisations
from hybrids of E. gomphocephala x (Queensland Department of Primary Industries;
E. occidentalis (Jacobs, 1981). Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), and
Silviculture Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact
species. Further information is available through Sheets’ available (e.g. DSE website: http://www.
sources listed under recommended reading. dse.vic.gov.au/ ), or these documents can be
Summary silvicultural information and practices obtained by contacting the organisations directly.
specific to this species are outlined below. On seasonally waterlogged and saline sites,
mounding with a disc plough is recommended
Propagation to provide a better-drained environment for early
The seeds are orthodox and can be stored for growth. Mounds about 30 cm high prepared
several years in dry conditions at room temperature in the year before planting, were used in
of about 20oC, provided moisture content is kept Western Australia (Hall et al., 1972).
below 8%. A temperature of 20oC is suitable for Spacing between trees varies from site to site,
germination. There are about 200 000 viable but is typically quite wide, to give each individual
seeds per kg (Boland et al., 1980). tree access to reasonable soil moisture in the dry
Some success with rooting of stem cuttings of the climates where the species is typically planted.
species has been achieved in preliminary trials A spacing of 2.5 x 4 m is suggested for southern
at CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, with two Australia (David Bush, Australian Low Rainfall
provenances of E. occidentalis achieving respectively Tree Improvement Group, pers. comm., 2002).
124
applications of nitrogen fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also,
trees can respond to a fertiliser application only if
other factors are not limiting e.g. water availability
factors that can affect this). Rates vary widely
(1996), Nambiar and Brown (1997).
Maintenance
Overseas, many plantings are managed on a
clear-felling rotation of about 12 years, for production
of firewood or sometimes pulpwood (Jacobs, 1981).
Plantings which are primarily for windbreaks, shelter-
belts or timber could be managed on a longer
rotation of up to 30 years.
After harvesting, the plantation may be regenerated
by coppicing. This method of regeneration has
proved very successful in many countries but is
rarely employed in Australia (Jacobs, 1981).
The value of using a coppicing system needs to
Nine-year-old Eucalyptus occidentalis plantation be considered in light of the cost of protecting the
north of Adelaide in South Australia. stumps at harvesting and thinning the coppice. The
other consideration is the possible loss of gains in
productivity that might be achieved from the use of
Spacings from 3 m x 3 m on the most productive
improved seed or provenances for the next rotation.
sites, up to 4 m x 5 m in drier conditions have been
used in Italy (Jacobs, 1981), and a spacing of 4 m Coppice regeneration in Israel has been noted to
x 4 m is commonly used in Israel (Zohar, 1991). be most vigorous after felling in the winter months,
during the rainy season (Zohar et al., 1978). Coppice
In South Australia and Western Australia seeds are
growth and vigour has also been shown to increase
sown before Christmas for planting in June/July
with basal diameter (Avolio and Ciancio, 1975).
while the soil is still wet from winter rains. Planting
Coppice regrowth should be cut back to the best
may occur later if site access is not available due
one or two stems per tree, once it reaches a height
to waterlogging, which is often a problem. Growth
of about 3 m. If planting stock is of good genetic
will be relatively slow in the nursery during the
quality, yielding a high proportion of single-stemmed,
winter months, unless supplementary heating is used.
straight trees, it would be possible to thin the stand
In Victoria and New South Wales, seeds are sown
and manage it for pole, or possibly sawlog, production.
in January-February and raised over an 8-month period,
for spring planting in September, or July-August in
warmer districts where soils dry out earlier.
Growth
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and A 35-year-old plantation of E. occidentalis at Barrett
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist Reserve in Victoria had a basal area estimated to
early growth is common practice in the successful vary from 10.6‑16.4 m2 ha‑1. This was on a clay
establishment of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. loam site with a mean annual rainfall of 420 mm.
This is particularly effective on ex-forest sites but However, while trees at this site exhibited quite
there is often no response on ex-pasture sites good form, most stands in south‑eastern Australia
and soil degradation can result from very large have very poor form for timber production with
125
trees forked well below half-height and the trunks leaf-eating beetles has been reported in New South
bent and frequently leaning. Therefore, unless using Wales (Marcar et al., 1995). Prolonged outbreaks
improved seed , there is a need to select better of lerp attack on E. occidentalis in its natural range
provenances and carry out form pruning and rigorous were attributed to a newly described species of
thinning to have a chance of producing sawlogs lerp, Cardia jerramungae (Taylor, 1992).
(Bird, 2000). However, this form is good for wind
In the natural range, hot fires occurring under dry
breaks and doesn’t matter for salinity control.
conditions with heavy fuel loads will kill the stems
In the severe climatic conditions of Morocco of adult trees, although the trees will usually recover
E. occidentalis produces a mean annual increment by coppice regrowth.
of about 3 m3 ha‑1 (Jacobs, 1981). Yield tables are
available for plantations in Calabria, Italy (Jacobs, Utilisation
1981). For plantings with around 1000 stems per
hectare, yield (to top diameter of 5 cm, excluding
Wood
the stump) of the first rotation at 12 years of age was
1.5-6.0 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1, depending on site quality. On The heartwood is pale, hard, somewhat
sites of the best quality at age 12 years with a stocking straight‑grained and durable in damp soils (Boland
of 970 stems ha-1, height averaged 12.4 m and et al., 1984). It has been used for building poles,
DBH 13.5 cm. In these stands, annual increment piling, posts and heavy construction. Air-dry density
continued to increase with age up to the end of of wood from mature natural stands is 850-900 kg m‑3.
the rotation. Wood properties of 3, ten-year-old plantation-grown
E. occidentalis trees from southern Italy, with mean
Protection DBH of 14.7 cm and utilisable height of 10.6 m,
were studied by Ferrari (1991). Ten other eucalypt
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens species were also examined in this study, which
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations reported many wood properties. Bark comprised
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest 10.8% of the stem volume of E. occidentalis, and
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to basic density of the wood averaged 672 kg m‑3.
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases Mean fibre length was 0.79 mm. All eleven species
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of studied displayed a marked tendency to collapse,
managing them. At present the main opportunities to although E. occidentalis was superior to all of the
reduce this damage are provided by management other species in this regard. The small dimensions
options such as maintaining the health and vigour of E. occidentalis made it unsuitable for sawn timber
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible and veneer production. In Morocco, E. occidentalis,
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; together with E. cladocalyx and E. sideroxylon,
not planting the species on sites that are marginal were judged to have wood of adequate strength
for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or for telephone pole production and poles could be
unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). preservative-treated by the Bethell process, which
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the involves pressure impregnation with fungicide
control of pests by pesticide application is not (El-Abid, 1984).
Six-year-old trees from plantations in South Australia
had mean basic densities of 542 kg m‑3 under
high levels of effluent irrigation and 566 kg m‑3 at
In general, E. occidentalis rarely has its growth lower levels (Clark et al., 1999). They had better
significantly affected by insects or pathogens. The pulping properties than E. camaldulensis from the
species is reported to be susceptible to damage by same plantations. Kraft pulp yields of E. occidentalis
lerps (Cardiaspina spp.), gumleaf skeletoniser (Uraba were 50.8% and 49.4% respectively under high
lugens), sawflies (Pergidae) and termites in its natural and low levels of effluent irrigation, the corresponding
range in Western Australia. Minor damage from yields for E. camaldulensis being 46.5% and
126
44.8%. Mean fibre length of E. occidentalis was
0.51-0.52 mm. It was considered to show some
promise for pulpwood production, its only serious
fault being low pulp tearing resistance due to short
fibre length (Clark and Rawlins, 1999). The above
results are from irrigated stands; unirrigated stands
in low rainfall areas (<600 mm yr‑1) are likely to be
slower growing and produce poorer quality pulpwood
(Hicks and Clark, 2001). Eucalyptus occidentalis
wood has been used for pulp production in a pulp
mill in Calabria, southern Italy (Harwood, 2001), but
is mainly used for firewood in that country. Charcoal
production and production of crates from E. occidentalis
wood is also recorded in Italy (Jacobs, 1981). Planted stand of Eucalyptus occidentalis in the
Negev Desert, Israel.
Non-wood
Plantations in Italy play an important role in soil areas (Zohar et al., 1988). It has been identified
conservation in hilly areas of Calabria and Sicily, as a species with an attractive appearance suitable
while roadside and shelterbelt plantings are valuable for ornamental planting in winter rainfall areas of
for amenity and protective purposes (Jacobs, 1981). southern Africa (Poynton, 1979). As an ornamental
Catchments in Calabria, southern Italy, which had it has been used for park and avenue planting
been afforested with E. occidentalis were found to (Chippendale, 1973).
have lower water outputs and erosion rates than
No results of intercropping involving E. occidentalis
those covered with natural herbaceous vegetation.
are reported in the literature, although arid-zone
Water output and erosion were greater in recently-
systems involving intercropping of E. occidentalis
coppiced stands of E. occidentalis that in mature
and fodder species are under evaluation in Israel
stands of the species (Avolio et al., 1980) .
(Zohar et al., 1988).
Eucalyptus occidentalis is now being planted in
The flowers have some value for honey production.
southern Australia in situations where rising semi-
The bark is reported to have high levels of tannin
saline water tables are threatening agricultural
(Jacobs, 1981).
land. Its ability to grow and transpire water at a
reasonable rate under quite strongly saline conditions
makes it particularly valuable for this application. Limitations
On a saline discharge site in southern New South
Its moderate growth rate and modest adult size,
Wales, young E. occidentalis trees displayed
coupled with its poor stem form, with most trees
greater salt tolerance and used twice as much water
forking well below half tree height, appear to have
per tree as did E. camaldulensis trees 1 year older,
restricted its large-scale planting and use for sawn
primarily because of their much greater leaf area
timber and pulpwood. However, the use of better
(Benyon et al., 1999). It is also one of the species
provenances and improved seed will overcome
recommended for planting near salt seeps in
these difficulties for this type of use.
south‑western Western Australia to improve water
usage and reduce water and salt accumulation in Recommended Reading
surface soils (Pepper and Craig, 1986; Biddiscombe Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
et al., 1989). Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
Groves of E. occidentalis irrigated by run-off water
are planted in the arid region of Israel for amenity
purposes. Low earth dams are used to trap run-off Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest:
water to increase soil moisture reserves in the plantation
127
Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Bulman P, Harwood CE, Fairlamb J, 1999. Early growth
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. and stem form of Eucalyptus occidentalis in five provenance
trials of South Australia. Unpublished report to ALRTIG.
DSE website, 2002. Sustainability and Environment
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Journal of Applied Ecology 23:977-987. 8:115-123.
Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree Planting in Southern Africa, Zohar Y, Aronson JA, Lovenstein H, 1988. Cultivation of
Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry, multipurpose trees in rain water harvesting systems in the
Pretoria, South Africa. arid zone of Israel. Commonwealth Forestry Review
67:339-349.
129
13. Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell.
Red mahogany
Key features
Medium to tall tree of moderate to good form
(when better provenances are used)
Fast growth rate
Tolerates a wide range of soils including
relatively low fertility
Intolerant of waterlogging for prolonged periods
Adapted to humid and subhumid tropical climates
Good growth requires rainfall greater than Species overview
1000 mm, at the lower end this will need to be
combined with deep moisture holding soils and/ Eucalyptus pellita is a fast-growing species adapted
or temperatures at the lower end of its mean to humid tropical environments with a dry season
annual temperature range i.e. around 19‑22°C not exceeding 6 months. It can tolerate soils of
relatively low fertility and a wide range of soil
Intolerant of all but the lightest frost (Papua New textures from sandy loam to clay loam, provided
Guinea provenances don’t experience frost and soil is not waterlogged for prolonged periods (more
therefore may not tolerate any frost) than a few days at a time). Given suitable soil and
Tolerant of a dry season up to 6 months climate, mean height of 15 m at age 4 years can
be achieved by the best provenances of E. pellita
Screening of Papua New Guinea provenances
(Dickinson and Sun, 1995; Vigneron, 1992). Stem
showed that its kraft pulping and papermaking
form is moderate to good, with a proportion (from
properties are quite acceptable
around 25% to 75%, variable with provenance) of
Timber from natural stands is easily sawn and trees exhibiting forking below 10 m or having a
seasoned and is suitable for poles, sleepers, crooked main stem.
flooring, panelling and general construction
Eucalyptus pellita currently plays a significant role
Papua New Guinea provenances have displayed in afforestation in only a few countries (Brazil, Cuba,
the best stem form in limited trials to date, followed Indonesia and the Philippines) but it has been identified
by Helenvale and Kuranda, Queensland by staff of the Queensland Forest Research Institute
as particularly suitable for plantations establishment
Cape York, Queensland, provenances have
on coastal sites in northern Queensland. Its fast
poorest stem form (low forking and crooked stem)
growth, adaptability to a range of environments,
Niche in Australia is northern Queensland on good resistance to pests and diseases and suitability
frost free sites with suitable soils and where for a variety of wood products are desirable features.
mean annual rainfall exceeds 1000 mm. In addition to its use as a pure species, it has great
potential in interspecific hybrid combinations with,
for example, E. urophylla.
130
Eucalyptus pellita is a medium-sized to tall tree up
to 40 m in height and 1 m in diameter. At its best,
in natural stands it has a straight trunk to about
one-half of the tree height and a heavily branched
crown. On poor sites it is often only 15-20 m tall.
In tall shrub communities on deep silica sand, north
east of Coen in northern Queensland, E. pellita
grows as a multi-stemmed small tree no more
than 7 m high, with a broad, spreading crown.
Description and natural Distinctive features of the tree are its fibrous, fissured,
occurrence brown bark to the small branches, discolorous
leaves, broad peduncles and strongly exserted
Description valves on large fruit with broad rims. The species is
described by Boland et al. (1984), Chippendale
Johnson and Hill (1990) described a new species (1988) and Brooker and Kleinig (1994).
(E. scias) with three subspecies, based on E. pellita
populations in coastal New South Wales, Australia. Juvenile leaves are petiolate, ovate, green and
E. pellita as now defined is restricted to northeast discolorous. Stems of seedling and juvenile leaves
Queensland and New Guinea and this is what is are conspicuously quadrangular in section, with
described here. It is possible that populations from distinct flanges. Adult leaves are lanceolate to
New Guinea and the northern part of Cape York broadly lanceolate, discolorous, glossy green
Peninsula in Queensland will be recognized as above (dimensions are 10‑15 cm long, 2‑4 cm
taxonomically distinct with further revision of the wide). The leaves are distinctly mucronate with
group (Johnson and Hill, 1990). a distinct ‘drip-tip’ that is absent in E. scias. Both
juvenile and adult leaves are held more or less
horizontally, with the shiny adaxial surface uppermost.
Umbels are usually 7‑flowered, occasionally
3‑flowered, rarely 9‑flowered; peduncle broadly
flattened, 10‑25 mm long; pedicels thick, angular
and rarely absent. Buds with obconical hypanthia,
usually with ribs continuing from the angular pedicels.
The operculum shape is very variable, generally
beaked and about 1-1.5 times the length of the
hypanthium length. Fruits have 4 exserted valves
and are sessile or shortly pedicellate, hemispherical
to obconical, slightly ribbed, with a level, prominent
disc. The operculum scar or rim is prominent, concave
in shape and broader than the disk. Mature seed is
brown and is collected from August to May.
Like other eucalypts red mahogany does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). In Australia, E. pellita
flowers in December-February in its natural range
in north Queensland and seeds are mature by the
following October-November (Harwood, 1998).
In Australia, in environments with a short dry season,
planted trees commence flowering within 18-24
Collecting Eucalyptus pellita seed at Mission months. Given suitable climates and soils, most trees
Beach, Queensland.
131
Eucalyptus pellita occurs mainly in open forest
formations. Associated eucalypts (and now
Corymbias) in Queensland include E. tereticornis,
Corymbia tessellaris, C. intermedia and C. torelliana.
On Cape York Peninsula it is an uncommon
component of transitional forests and woodlands
mainly on the western side of ranges. In coastal
north Queensland in the vicinity of Tully, E. pellita
is a component of the upper stratum of sclerophyll
and mixed sclerophyll-rainforest types.
In New Guinea it is associated with species such
as Eucalyptus brassiana, Acacia aulacocarpa sens.
lat., A. mangium, Lophostemon suaveolens and other
species of the monsoon vine forest alliance (Paijmans,
1976). It is found mainly around the edge of monsoon
vine forest, with trees scattered in a strip 50-80 m
Eucalyptus pellita natural stand at Kumaaf-
wide (Gunn et al., 1992). It occurs occasionally in
Muting, Irian Jaya, Indonesia.
areas of impeded drainage dominated by Melaleuca
viridiflora, Banksia dentata, Asteromyrtus brassiana
in a planted stand which are thinned to a wide and Acacia leptocarpa. In Irian Jaya it occurs as
spacing (200 stems ha-1), flower and set seed the upper stratum of extensive tall open forests above
within 4-5 years (Harwood, 1998). The main rainforest; these forests are the largest natural
pollinating agents include bees, other insects, and populations of the species.
perhaps birds, which are attracted to the nectar of The distribution is in the warm humid climatic zone
the flowers. There will be regional and seasonal where frosts are generally absent although very
variability in seed availability. occasional light frosts are experienced at the higher
Over 50% of the seeds from some natural provenances altitude Queensland occurrences. Most locations in
are produced by self-fertilization or matings between north Queensland have a marked dry season with
very close relatives, and are thus inbred (House and less than 40 mm of rain per month for about four
Bell 1996). The outcrossing rates of the Bupul-Muting, consecutive months, but there is no effective dry
PNG, and Lankelly Creek, Queensland, provenances
were considerably lower than published values for
other eucalypt species (Harwood, 1998). Figure 13.1: Natural distribution of
Eucalyptus pellita (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Natural occurence
Eucalyptus pellita has two main natural occurrences.
In the southern New Guinea lowlands (below 100
m altitude) it extends from around Morehead and
Keru at 8°30’S in Western Province, Papua New
Guinea, across the international border and as far
north as Muting in Irian Jaya, Indonesia (latitude
7°40’S). The northern and western boundaries
of its Irian Jaya distribution are not well known
(Harwood, 2000). In Queensland it extends
from Iron Range, Cape York Peninsula, at latitude
12°44’S to Ingham at latitude 18°36’S, generally
within 50 km of the coast and at altitudes up to
approximately 600 m (Figure 13.1).
132
season in the extreme north of its distribution in Irian Figure 13.2: Areas predicted to be climatically
Jaya and Papua New Guinea (Royen van, 1963). suitable for Eucalyptus pellita are shown in black
In New Guinea, E. pellita occurs on gently
undulating lowlands, and is largely restricted to
areas with good drainage. In Queensland, the
species occurs mainly on gentle to moderate
topography and is found only to a limited extent on
steep, well-drained slopes. It prefers moist sites and
the lower slopes of large ridges and grows alongside
streams in the drier parts of its occurrence. Soils vary
widely, from shallow, infertile sands on sandstone
ridges to shallow sandy podsols and deep forest
loams. In Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya, it
occurs on brown and red-brown sandy loams and
clay loams. In Irian Jaya the soils are deep, well-
drained acidic (pH 5) clay-loam podsols derived
from laterites (Vercoe and McDonald, 1991).
Where will it grow? the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth,
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for parameters, initially derived from the natural distribution,
Eucalyptus pellita, incorporating data from both the on the basis of information from trials and plantings
natural distribution and from sites where the species of this species both within and outside its natural
has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the range. The best growth of E. pellita in plantations
following key climatic conditions for survival and outside its natural range have been observed on
good growth: well-drained clay-loam soils, but satisfactory growth
has also been recorded on infertile sands and sandy
Mean annual rainfall: 1080-3550mmG loams provided adequate levels of nutrients are
Rainfall regime: Uniform, supplied through fertiliser application.
bimodal, summer There are interactions between factors such as mean
Dry season length: 1-6 monthsH annual rainfall, temperature and soil. E. pellita has
exhibited good growth in Minas Gerais State, Brazil,
where mean annual rainfall is only 1000-1200 mm
hottest month:
but mean annual temperature is around 22°C
Mean minimum temperature 10-22°C (Iman-Encinas, 1997), increasing the effective
coldest month: moisture availability relative to that of hotter sites
receiving similar rainfall. The water holding capacity
Mean annual temperature: 19-27°CI
of the soil also influences the effectiveness of rainfall.
G If soils are shallow or not of good moisture holding E. pellita performed quite well in trials at Ratchaburi,
capacity then sites with a mean annual rainfall Thailand, a tropical site with a mean annual
<1300 mm should not be considered. precipitation of 1017 mm with a marked dry season
H 0 – 6 months for Papua New Guinea provenances. (Pinyopusarerk, 1989). However, this site has deep
I
soil with good moisture-holding capacity, whereas
19–25°C without including Papua New Guinea
provenances
there have been several failures at other tropical
sites with rainfall less than 1300 mm.
suitable for planting Eucalyptus pellita (Figure 13.2)
133
Plantings and provenance trials They displayed better growth, survival and disease
resistance under these conditions (Dickinson and
Sun, 1995; Harwood et al., 1997). The New
Plantings
Guinea provenances were clearly superior to the
Many of the early introductions outside Australia Queensland provenances in growth and form at
were from locations originally known as E. pellita, Melville Island but less clearly so at Cardwell,
but now assigned E. scias (Jacobs, 1981). Jacobs Queensland (Harwood et al., 1997). Where there
(1981) suggested that the Queensland provenances is a longer dry season there appears to be little if
of E. pellita could provide the basis for important new any superiority of the New Guinea provenances
eucalypt trials in tropical countries. Large quantities over the best Queensland provenances, for example
of seed from the Kuranda and Helenvale, Queensland at Dongmen, latitude 22°23’N in southern China
provenances of E. pellita were introduced to Minas with a 6 month dry season (Pegg and Wang, 1994),
Gerais and Bahia States in Brazil in the 1970s and or at a lowland tropical site near Vientiane in Laos
1980s for establishment of wood-energy plantations. (12°30’N) with a 5 month dry season (Pinyopusarerk
A collection from Kirrima Range, Queensland was et al., 1996). Results from provenance/progeny
the initial genetic base of the large E. pellita trials have shown that in addition to provenance
plantations developed in Cuba from the 1970s. differences, there are significant differences in
Introductions of Queensland provenances to parts growth performance among families within a
of India, southern Africa, the Congo and SE Asia provenance (Harwood et al., 1997).
also took place in the 1970s.
Stem straightness at age 3.3 years has been
The New Guinea provenances were first collected in assessed in a trial at Melville Island, Northern
the mid 1980s and initial research trials established Territory (Harwood et al., 1997). New Guinea
in northern Australia, several countries in SE Asia, populations had significantly better form than those
southern China, Brazil and South Africa from the from Queensland. Of the Queensland provenances
late 1980s onwards. tested, Helenvale and Kuranda had better stem form
than did the Lankelly Creek and Tozers Gap
Provenance trials provenances from Cape York, these latter two
being prone to low forking and crooked stems.
Comprehensive trials of a wide range of Queensland
provenances in replicated, randomised experiments
have not yet been carried out. However, an overall Breeding and genetic resources
review of trial results to date revealed some clear
The results of species and provenance trials which
trends. Provenances from Cape York (provenances
test E. pellita must be interpreted cautiously. In
named as ‘McIlwraith Range’, ‘Tozers Gap’, ‘Lankelly
particular, some provenances and families, notably
Creek’ and ‘NE Coen’, latitudes 12°40’S to 14°S)
those from parts of New Guinea and Cape York,
have performed poorly, relative to the ‘Helenvale’
are likely to perform better in later generations
and ‘Kuranda’, Queensland provenances from
of well-managed genetic improvement programs
latitudes 15°45’S and 16°50’S respectively,
when the proportion of inbred, slow-growing
everywhere that they have been tested together.
individuals is reduced from the levels of up to
The high level of inbreeding demonstrated in the
50% or more that occur in wild populations.
‘Lankelly Creek’ population by House and Bell
(1996) may partly explain the poor performance Seedling seed orchards based on New Guinea and
of this provenance. Queensland provenances have been established in
northern Australia (Harwood et al., 1994). Two of
Field testing of New Guinea provenances started
the orchards in northern Australia (Yapilika, Melville
in the late 1980s. It soon became apparent that
Island, Northern Territory, and Kairi, north Queensland)
they were superior to Cape York and north eastern
flowered heavily and produced substantial seed
Queensland provenances in lowland tropical
yields of around 10 kg ha‑1 within 4 years of
environments with short (0-4 month) dry seasons.
planting, at a stocking of around 200 trees ha‑1.
134
Luz et al. (1996) note the occurrence of hybrids of
E. pellita with E. tereticornis and E. grandis in Brazil,
which grew better than the parent species on
sandy soils.
Silviculture
Propagation
Propagation by seed is the easiest method. Seed
storage is orthodox and the seed can be stored at
moderate temperatures (around 20°C) for several
years without losing viability, provided low moisture
content (less than 6%) is maintained. Longevity is
greatly reduced if seed is stored in hot and/or humid
environments. One kilogram of seed yields around
300 000 germinants. No pre‑treatment of the seed
Eucalyptus pellita seed production area on Tiwi
is required and it germinates satisfactorily at 25°C.
Island, Northern Territory.
The species is easily raised from seed in the nursery
following the general methods for propagation of
The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian Tree eucalypts (Boland et al, 1980; Doran and Turnbull,
Seed Centre in Canberra can supply both single- 1997). Many nurseries will grow seedlings on
tree and bulk-tree provenance collections of seed request and some specialise in producing trees
from natural stands of E. pellita suitable for trials for the farm forestry market.
and breeding programmes. Small amounts of
improved seed are currently available in Australia Partial shading and protection from heavy rain are
from CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Australian needed for 4‑6 weeks after pricking out, after which
Tree Seed Centre and the Queensland Department seedlings are exposed to full sunlight. Watering is
of Primary Industry, Forestry Seed Centre. reduced 2‑3 weeks before field planting to harden
seedlings to field conditions. In tropical conditions
Queensland Forest Research Institute has established seedlings should attain a stem height of 25 cm
second-generation seed orchards of E. pellita and about 10 weeks after pricking out, at which time
clonal testing of selected trees of E. pellita for mass they are ready for field planting.
production is well established in demonstration
The species is very easy to propagate by rooting
plantings in coastal north and central Queensland
stem cuttings from seedlings and basal coppice
(QFRI website, 2002).
shoots of coppiced trees, while cuttings from the
Records of the following natural hybrids involving crowns of saplings and mature trees are hard to
E. pellita and other species in the subgenus root (Kondo and Pudjiona, 1996). Grafts can be
Symphyomyrtus were noted in a review by Griffin made with shoots taken from crowns of mature trees
et al. (1988): E. pellita x E. resinifera, E. grandis x onto seedling rootstock. The species should also be
E. pellita and E. brassiana x E. pellita. Some of easy to micropropagate from excised axillary buds,
these hybrids in progeny trials in northern Australia as is routinely done with its close relative E. urophylla,
and Java, display good form and vigour, equalling although there are no published references to this
that of the best pure E. pellita individuals. Figueredo technology being used for E. pellita.
135
Establishment
for E. pellita. Detailed information on various
sources including government organisations such
as Queensland Department of Primary Industries,
Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites
of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact
Sheets’ available (e.g. QFRI website http://www.
dpi.qld.gov.au/hardwoodsqld/) or they can be
If scrubland or grassland is to be planted, ploughing
and harrowing is recommended on gentle slopes.
Mounding of planting rows, along the contours of
slopes, is appropriate to improve drainage and
minimise soil erosion.
Planting at an initial spacing of 4 m x 2.5 m
(1000 stems ha‑1) is recommended as a good Eucalyptus pellita plantation on Kalimantan,
stocking density for timber production. In drier Indonesia.
areas where there will be more competition for
water a 4 m x 3 m spacing may be preferable
(QFRI website, 2002). Spacings used in Brazil, can affect this). Rates vary widely depending on
Cuba and pilot plantations in Indonesia are typically the site and readers should access further information
3 m x 3 m or 3 m x 2 m, and thinning is not from more detailed references such as: Dell et al.
carried out. In these plantations E. pellita was being (1995), Attiwill and Adams (1996), Nambiar
grown on short rotations (8‑12 years) for fuelwood, and Brown (1997) and QFRI website (2002).
charcoal and more recently for chemical pulp
production (Sturion et al., 1987; Turvey, 1995).
Management
Planting in northern latitudes usually occurs once the As mentioned above weed control is an important
summer rains have begun between November‑April, ongoing priority in tree management, particularly
however February‑April is preferred so that young in the first few years after planting.
seedlings will be exposed to a shorter period of When grown for pulpwood or fuelwood at close
high temperatures. spacings (3 m x 3 m or closer), pruning of E. pellita
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and is not required - lower side branches are shed leaving
a clean bole of up to 10 m, although a proportion
of trees fork below that height.
early growth is common practice in the successful
establishment of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. A pruning regime to reduce the impacts of knots
This is particularly effective on ex-forest sites but on timber quality in sawlog plantations of E. pellita
there is often no response on ex‑pasture sites and soil has not been developed but Dickinson et al. (2000)
degradation can result from very large applications found that pruning trees at an approximate DBH
of nitrogen fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees can of 8 cm was the best compromise to achieve all
respond to a fertiliser application only if other factors pruning goals. At this size, most branches are still alive,
are not limiting e.g. water availability (low rainfall are <2 cm in diameter and trees can withstand the
or heavy weed competition are two factors that removal of the greater percentage of the green
136
crown (30‑50%). To achieve removal of 40% of by the application of timely silvicultural treatment;
branches will require a pruning lift to 3.2 m. In not planting the species on sites that are marginal
cases where a 6 m pruned height is required, for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
a further pruning lift could be conducted later unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
at an approximate DBH of 12 cm and height of Stone et al. (1998) note that the control of pests
12 m with approximately 30% of green branches by pesticide application is not practical as it is
removed at this time (Dickinson et al., 2000). prohibitive in terms of the costs involved, monitoring
required and environmental issues of chemical use.
Early trial results indicate that for sawlog regimes in
high-growth species such as E. pellita a pre-commercial Eucalyptus pellita plantations have generally displayed
thinning to a minimum stocking of 400 trees ha-1 at good resistance to pests and diseases. In 1994,
approximately 1.5‑3.5 years will maximise diameter four fungal pathogens were identified on two-year-
(diameter at breast height - DBH) growth of the old provenance/progeny trials of E. pellita at Yapilika,
remaining trees. Dickinson et al. (2000) suggest Melville Island, Northern Territory of Australia
that commercial thinning to 150‑200 trees ha‑1 surveyed by Yuan (1996). Three of the species
will then be necessary at around age 8‑15 years (Aulographina eucalypti, Coleophoma eucalypti
to ensure good growth rates are maintained. This and Coniella australiensis) were associated with
stocking should then be sufficient to allow these trees leaf spot diseases while the fourth, Botryosphaeria
to achieve a merchantable size in an acceptable appendiculata was a canker associated with stem
rotation length. dieback. However, subsequent observations (C.E.
Harwood, unpublished observations, 1995 and
Because the species coppices strongly, it is easy
1996) indicated that these pathogens did not have
to establish a second rotation by thinning coppice
a substantial impact on the yield of E. pellita in the
shoots back to two per stump, at age 9‑12 months
seasonally dry environment of Yapilika.
after the first rotation is harvested. However, it should
be noted that coppice management, which requires Symptoms of bacterial wilt disease were observed
the reduction of the number of coppice shoots on a on one-year-old trees in a species-provenance trial
stool, is time-consuming and expensive (Evans, 1982). testing E. pellita (1% of trees affected) and E. urophylla
There is also the cost of protecting the stumps at (9% of trees affected) near Innisfail in north east
harvesting, and the possible lost gains in yield that Queensland. The bacterium Pseudomonas
might be achieved from the use of improved seed solanacearum was isolated from infected trees
or provenances for the next rotation. (Dickinson and Sun, 1995). Bacterial wilt symptoms
on young trees have been observed in two other trials
Growth of E. pellita near Cardwell in north east Queensland
(C.E. Harwood, unpublished observations, 1993,
Growth rates in the order of 2‑3 m yr‑1 for height and
1996) but only a few trees were affected.
2‑3 cm yr‑1 for DBH can be expected on suitable sites
(Harwood et al., 1997; Keenan and Bristow, 2001). Plantations should be protected from fire. The species
has thick bark and established saplings can therefore
Protection survive ground fires of low intensity. In the natural
forests, mature trees can recover from crown fires
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens of moderate intensity, although these may cause
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations fire-scars in the main stem.
pests. However a certain amount of damage to
Utilisation
Wood
reduce this damage are provided by management The heartwood of E. pellita is an attractive red to
options such as maintaining the health and vigour dark red-brown colour (hence its trade name, red
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible mahogany), while the sapwood is a pale creamy
137
brown in colour. It is generally medium textured Non-wood
with an even grain. At times the grain can be
interlocked producing an attractive figure. The Honey from the abundant flowers is the only
sapwood is susceptible to attack by Lyctus borer commercial non-wood forest product provided by
but readily accepts preservative impregnation E. pellita. Yield of essential oil from the leaves is
(Boland et al., 1984; QFRI website, 2002). low, and quality is poor (Dellacassa et al., 1990;
Doran et al., 1995).
The air dry density of wood from mature trees from
natural forests in Queensland is about 950 kg m‑3 Recommended reading
(Bootle, 1983; Boland et al., 1984). Generally, Keenan RJ, Bristow M, 2001. Effects of site preparation,
young (3‑10 years old) plantation‑grown E. pellita weed control and fertilization on the early growth of planted
from Queensland and New Guinea has been found eucalypts on a farm forestry site in north Queensland.
to have a basic density of 510‑560 kg m‑3 (Clark Forestry in Queensland webpage: http://www.forests.
qld.gov.au/
and Hicks, 1996; Magalhaes, 1988; Siarot, 1986;
Tomazello Filho, 1987). Basic density of 10-year- Article webpage: http://www.forests.qld.gov.au/
old trees of the ‘Helenvale’ provenance was higher, resadv/magott2/pdf/vol_1_08b_forest_research.pdf
631 kg m‑3, in one Brazilian study by Sturion et al.
References
(1987). Because of its high wood density and
relatively rapid growth, the species has found Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in eucalyptus
favour for fuelwood and charcoal production
in Brazil and Cuba. Forestry, 56:385-390.
Recent testing of the wood of 5-year-old trees of the Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
‘Kiriwo’, New Guinea, provenance of E. pellita Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
grown in a lowland plantation in north Queensland Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
(Clark and Hicks, 1996) showed that its kraft pulping Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
and papermaking properties were quite acceptable, Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
being very similar to those of plantation-grown Maryborough, Victoria.
E. urophylla of the same age and slightly inferior Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
to those of plantation-grown E. globulus. Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
Timber of E. pellita from natural stands is rated
as easily sawn and seasoned and suitable for
poles, sleepers, flooring, panelling and general Canberra.
construction (Bootle, 1983). The wood can be
Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw Hill, Sydney.
dried satisfactorily using conventional air and kiln
seasoning methods. Shrinkage of boards of 8.5 Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
year old plantation grown E. pellita to 12% moisture Vol. 3. Northern Australia. Inkata Press, Sydney.
content was 5.2% tangential and 1.9% radial. It Chippendale GM, 1988. Eucalyptus, Angophora
has a durability rating Class 2 – highly resistant to (Myrtaceae), Flora of Australia 19. Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
decay when fully exposed to the weather, clear of
the ground and well drained with free air circulation. Clark NB, Hicks CC, 1996. The kraft and papermaking
Only moderately resistant to decay when used in properties of 5-year old plantation-grown Eucalyptus
cloeziana, E. pellita and E. urophylla from northern
the ground. It has a hardness rating of 1 – very
Queensland. Divisional Report No. DFFP 523. CSIRO
hard in relation to indentation and ease of working Division of Forestry and Forest Products, Melbourne.
with hand tools. Machines well and no difficulty
has been experienced with the use of standard
fittings and fastenings. As with most high density 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International
species, machining and surface preparation should Agricultural Research, Canberra.
be done immediately before gluing (QFRI, 2002).
138
Dellacassa E, Menendez P, Moyna P, Soler E, 1990. Conservation and Production of Tropical Forest Tree
Chemical composition of Eucalyptus essential oils grown Seed, 14‑16 June 1993. 233-239. Drysdale RM,
in Uruguay. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 5:91-95. John SET, Yapa AC (eds). Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Dickinson GR, Sun D, 1995. Species and provenance Harwood CE, Alloysius D, Pomroy P, Robson KW,
evaluation of Eucalyptus cloeziana, E. pellita and E. Haines MW, 1997. Early growth of Eucalyptus pellita F.
urophylla at age 4 years, in far north Queensland. Muell. provenances in a range of tropical environments.
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Iman-Encinas J, 1997. Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell. A
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Queensland, September 4‑6, 2000. pp 32‑42.
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Doran JC, Williams ER, Brophy JJ, 1995. Patterns of
variation in the seedling leaf oils of Eucalyptus urophylla,
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Figueredo Luz H de, Bierwagen R, Brisolla M, Capitani
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Walker SM (eds). Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO Conference, weed control and fertilization on the early growth of planted
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Harwood CE, 1998. Eucalyptus pellita. An Annotated In: Carneiro JG de, et al. (eds). Bilateral symposium
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140
14. Eucalyptus pilularis Smith
Blackbutt
Adapted from Clarke, 2000.
Species overview
Eucalyptus pilularis is one of the most important
Australian hardwoods, and is the principal species
sawn in coastal New South Wales and south-
eastern Queensland. The hard, strong, durable
timber is used for general building, flooring, poles,
pulp and railway sleepers (Bootle, 1983; Boland
et al., 1984). In Australia, large areas of E. pilularis
in natural forests have been intensively managed
for many years using natural regeneration or direct
Key features seeding. It is also one of the major species being
established as part of the plantation initiatives in
Medium to tall tree of good stem form northern New South Wales and south‑eastern
Moderate growth-rate Queensland, mainly on ex-agricultural land (Johnson
and Nikles, 1997). Plantations have been established
Sensitive to extreme dry conditions and seedlings in northern Queensland as well where it is planted
are sensitive to drought at planting in areas such as Atherton and Herberton (PFNQ
Intolerant of severe frosts and seedlings tolerate website, 2002). E. pilularis shows good growth and
only very light frosts form on a variety of deep moist soils in subtropical
and humid warm-temperate environments in the
Performs best on deep, well drained soils and is absence of severe frosts.
intolerant of waterlogging
Susceptible to the root fungus Phytophthora Description and natural
species
occurrence
Not tolerant of salinity
Good general purpose timber (wood from natural Description
stands) used mainly for building framework and
Eucalyptus pilularis is a medium-sized to very tall
poles but also for sleepers and paper pulp
forest tree with a straight bole and an open and
Growth stresses in regrowth logs and plantation- spreading crown. Mature trees can reach heights
grown timber can cause excessive splitting and of almost 70 m and can exceed 3 m diameter at
collapse (selection and breeding might reduce breast height under favourable conditions (Boland
this problem) et al., 1984). The range of mature height is 35‑70 m
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). The trunk is straight and
Eucalyptus pilularis is a preferred species on the
typically clear of branches for one-half to two-thirds
north coast of New South Wales and southern
of the tree height (Boland et al., 1984).
Queensland for hardwood plantations because of
proven growth and survival in routine plantations
over a wide range of ex‑forested sites and ready
marketability of the wood (Johnson and Nikles, 1997).
141
The common name, blackbutt, refers to the darkening green (dimensions 9‑16 cm long × 1.6‑3 cm wide)
of the lower rough bark by bushfires. The rough bark (Boland et al., 1984; Brooker and Kleinig, 1994).
is persistent on at least the lower half of the trunk in
The inflorescences are simple axillary, unbranched,
all but young trees. It is finely fibrous, spongy, brown
7‑15 flowered on strongly flattened stalks. The
or grey over red-brown, becoming ragged towards
buds are also stalked, broadly fusiform, sometimes
the base in old trees. The bark on the upper part of
2-ribbed otherwise smooth and shiny, with no
the trunk and major limbs is shed in strips leaving
operculum scar. The operculum or cap is conical
a smooth white or yellowish‑grey surface. Insect
to rostrate. The flowers are white. The fruits are
‘scribbles’ are often conspicuous on the upper bark
stalked, hemispherical to truncate-globose, up to
1.1 × 1.1 cm; disc level or descending, valves
The seedlings and saplings are conspicuous in the 4 to rim level or slightly enclosed. The seed is red
field with many pairs of opposite, broad-lanceolate, brown (Boland et al., 1984; Brooker and Kleinig,
strongly discolorous leaves. The branchlets are square 1994).
in cross section and the flower stalks strongly flattened.
Like other eucalypts blackbutt does not develop
Juvenile leaves are sessile, amplexicaul, opposite for
many pairs, strongly discolorous, broad lanceolate
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowering in E. pilularis
to lanceolate (dimensions 13‑17 cm long × 2.5‑3.5 cm
can occasionally commence as early as 3 years of
wide). Adult leaves are petiolate, alternate, lanceolate
age in plantations and it generally flowers and seeds
or falcate and oblique, concolorous, glossy to dark
well by age 8‑10 in New South Wales, but may
be earlier elsewhere (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984;
Johnson and Nikles, 1997). The flowering period
is from September to March in mainland New South
Wales and Queensland (Boland et al., 1980; Brooker
and Kleinig, 1994), and from April to October on
Fraser Island, Queensland (Florence, 1969). New
buds usually appear during late winter or spring,
but flowering normally occurs two summers later
(Clemson, 1985). No detailed studies of the breeding
system of E. pilularis have been made, but it is likely
to be similar to that of other commercial eucalypt
species which have been studied, i.e. substantially
out-crossed in large natural populations by means of
insect pollinators (Johnson and Nikles, 1997). Fruit
bats and blossom bats are probably also important
long‑distance pollinators of the species (Eby, 1995).
Nectar‑feeding birds such as honeyeaters and
lorikeets are also likely pollinators of the species.
Seed collection months are from December to
February in Australia (Boland et al., 1980). There
can be a pronounced peak in seed shed in spring‑early
summer, but shed can occur in any month provided
dry periods are experienced for at least two weeks
in summer and somewhat longer in winter (Floyd,
1962). There will be regional and seasonal
variability in seed availability.
Eucalyptus pilularis with blackened lower bark due Eucalyptus pilularis is a coppicing species, although
to bushfire which has given the species its common it does not produce lignotubers and there is variation
name of ‘blackbutt’, near Valla Beach, NSW. among trees in their coppicing ability. The seedlings
142
develop a carrot-like root which functions in much Figure 14.1: Natural distribution of E. pilularis
the same way as a lignotuber, and they can survive (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
moderate fires (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). It produces
a large number of fine lateral roots in the surface
horizons, but not strong tap roots (Florence, 1996).
The presence of ectomycorrhizas on the seedling
roots of E. pilularis enables this species to optimise
phosphorus uptake on infertile soils. Ectomycorrhizas
can infect the roots of E. pilularis within 30 days of
sowing (Florence, 1996).
Natural occurrence
Eucalyptus pilularis occurs naturally along the entire
New South Wales (New South Wales) coast from
just north of Eden in far south‑eastern New South
Wales (latitude 37°08’S) north to Fraser Island
in Queensland (latitude 24°48’S) (Figure 14.1).
However, it has a highly discontinuous distribution
within its area of occurrence (Florence, 1996) with soils and will not tolerate temporary flooding. On
local fragmentation (Johnson and Nikles, 1997). It poorly‑aerated soils it is sensitive to soil pathogens
is most common and attains its best development in such as Phytophthora (Florence, 1996).
the coastal hills but it extends up to 150 km inland
in Queensland. It has an altitudinal range from near Where will it grow?
sea level to about 400 m in coastal New South
Wales and Queensland, and up to around 1000 m
E. pilularis, incorporating data from both the natural
above sea level in the escarpment and sub‑inland
parts of northern New South Wales and south‑eastern
Queensland (Burgess, 1975; Johnson and Nikles,
1997). It has a wide ecological range but prefers
good growth:
deep, mature soils which provide good water
storage and facilitate root and water movement.
The soils are frequently of low nutrient status and
well-drained (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). Rainfall regime: Bimodal, summer
In Australia the climate for most of the distribution is Dry season length: 0-4 months
warm humid, subtropical in the north, and temperate Mean maximum temperature 22-31°C
in the south (Boland et al., 1984; Turnbull and hottest month:
Pryor, 1984). A few frosts (up to 15) occur each
year at the higher altitudes away from the coast. Mean minimum temperature 3-12°C
coldest month:
Eucalyptus pilularis is found on ridges, flats and in
gullies on soil types ranging from recently stabilised Mean annual temperature: 10-22°C
dune sands to sandy loams or loams, yellow and
red podzolics and krasnozems. It will also grow on
suitable for planting Eucalyptus pilularis (Figure 14.2)
clays and volcanic soils (Burgess, 1975; Boland et
al., 1984). The species tends to be associated with
rocks that have a high silica content, particularly those
2002). Only one revision to the climatic parameters
that have a high or moderate amount of quartz. On
from the natural distribution has been made and
these sites mature soils form where weathering has
this was to raise the mean minimum temperature for
been rapid. It does not grow well on poorly-aerated
143
Figure 14.2: Areas predicted to be climatically Between 1994 and 2001, State Forests of New
suitable for Eucalyptus pilularis are shown in South Wales established nearly 5300 ha of new
black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) E. pilularis plantations, this is in addition to some
11 000 ha planted between the 1940s and the
early 1990s. In New South Wales, E. pilularis
plantations established in the last eight years are
being managed for sawn timber on a 25‑30 year
rotation.
Provenance trials
A series of provenance trials of E. pilularis was
established in New South Wales in 1964 (Burgess,
1975; Johnson and Stanton, 1993). A total of 15
seedlots (including two of E. pyrocarpa and one of a
natural hybrid of E. pilularis x E. planchoniana) were
planted over 11 sites between Yabbra (28°31’S)
and Benandra (35°40’S). Johnson and Nikles
the coldest month from 0°C to 3°C so that frost prone (1997) describe the trials as providing limited
areas inland from the coast were not highlighted as provenance sampling, and some trials suffered
climatically suitable (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). heavy damage from fire or pathogens at less than
10 years of age which reduced their reliability.
Other site considerations for planting are the species
However the results of these trials do reflect trends
requirement for deep moisture holding soils with no
observed in other trials. Statistically significant
waterlogging or salinity.
differences in height between provenances were
found within sites and the ranking of provenances
Plantings and provenance trials at the different sites was very similar, suggesting
that there was only minor genotype by environment
Plantings interaction.
Several authors have observed that interest in Four provenances of E. pilularis from the northern
E. pilularis as an exotic appears to be very limited part of the natural range displayed good survival
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; Johnson and Nikles, 1997) and growth across at least half the sites on which
compared to several other eucalypt species. This is they were tested. They were ‘Manning River’
despite its good performance in trials in Brazil, (Coopernook, New South Wales), ‘Ellis’ (New South
Argentina and southern Africa. Poynton (1979) Wales), ‘Mapleton’ (Queensland) and ‘Whian Whian’
observed that E. pilularis was one of the most (New South Wales). It was concluded that material
desirable species silviculturally in southern Africa from a range of high‑quality natural stands would
and had been used in Zimbabwe for plywood grow well over a range of site types, and that seed
manufacture where it was regarded as the best should be collected only in high quality stands. The
of all the eucalypts for this purpose. However, it is species can be divided into three geographic groups
no longer planted commercially in southern Africa, based on the large provenance differences displayed
because the timber from young trees exhibits severe in the trials: south coastal (mostly mediocre to poor
growth stresses. productivity); north coastal, poorer sandy sites
(uniformly poor productivity); northern coastal-
This species is successful in Hawaii on sites with an
escarpment, higher quality sites in New South
annual rainfall of 1500-2000 mm (Jacobs, 1981).
Wales and Queensland (generally superior
It is also grown in many parts of New Zealand
productivity). The better northern provenances
mainly in small‑scale woodlots for farm use (Turnbull
maintained their superiority of growth at most
and Pryor, 1984).
144
Eucalyptus pilularis 25-year-old on north coast, NSW.
of the southern and cooler central test sites, thus Breeding and genetic
showing stability (Johnson and Nikles, 1997).
resources
A provenance-progeny trial planted on a bauxite
mine rehabilitation site at Huntly, Western Australia A breeding program for E. pilularis is proceeding
(south of Perth), in 1986, included three Queensland in New South Wales and south‑eastern Queensland.
and six New South Wales provenances (Mazanec, Large family trials using select tree seedlings from a
1994; Johnson and Nikles, 1997). Survival, height wide range of north‑eastern New South Wales and
and diameter were assessed at two and a half Queensland provenances were planted in northern
years-of age. Despite the fact that these were very New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland
early results they were remarkably similar to those in 1997‑98, as the basis for long‑term improvement.
described above for the trials in New South Wales. These trials are currently yielding selections for clonal
However, the best performing provenance, seed orchards (Ian Johnson, State Forest of New
‘Gallangowan’ (Queensland), was not included South Wales, pers. comm., 2002). Because of the
in the New South Wales trials. The ‘Gallangowan’ limited interest in the species outside Australia, there
seedlot ranked highest in all traits, and overall the has been little progress with tree improvement overseas,
more northerly provenances performed best in the beyond provenance testing. The main reason is that
Western Australian trial. the timber from young trees can exhibit severe growth
stresses. However, Johnson and Nikles (1997) state
New Zealand Forest Research has recently established
in their breeding strategy for E. pilularis that the
a provenance‑progeny trial of E. pilularis in the North
difficulties with wood quality should be amenable
Island, following renewed interest in the species for
to reduction by selection and breeding.
woodlot planting in New Zealand (Ruth McConnochie,
NZ Forest Research, pers. comm., 2001).
145
Improved seed from seedling seed orchards is likely germinate completely in almost total darkness at
to be available from New South Wales in four to 26°C (Floyd, 1964).
six years time, 2006-2008 (Ian Johnson, State
Mature seed of E. pilularis is difficult to separate from
Forests of New South Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
its accompanying chaff and often large amounts of
Improved seed from seedling seed orchards in
aborted seed remain even after a lengthy cleaning
Queensland will be available in 2003‑2005
process. This makes it unsuitable for the single‑seeding
(Nikles et al., 2000; David Lee, Queensland FRI,
practices required for the economic production of
pers. comm., 2002).
cell‑raised seedlings used in intensive plantation
Natural E. pilularis hybrids have been observed programs. A significant increase in germination
with some other members of the subgenus percentage has been obtained using an imbibing
Monocalyptus such as E. acmenoides, E. globoidea and sugar separation treatment. The dried seed
and E. planchoniana (Griffin et al., 1988), but can then be vacuum sown (Cliffe, 1997). However,
hybrids with its closest relative, E. pyrocarpa, are not State Forests Nurseries (New South Wales) has
known (Burgess, 1975). If artificial hybridisation found this method time‑consuming, with only a 5%
proves feasible, then potentially useful combinations improvement over previous single‑seeding methods.
of E. pilularis with species like E. pyrocarpa, The current practice is to sow 6 particles of mixed
E. acmenoides, E. phaeotricha, E. umbra, E. nigra seed and chaff per cell, resulting in about 35 000
and E. cloeziana might open up opportunities for seedlings per kilogram of seed and chaff, in seedlots
extending the current planting range of E. pilularis with fairly low viability (Steve Sullivan, State Forests
to sites not suitable for the pure species (Johnson Nurseries New South Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
and Nikles, 1997).
Eucalyptus pilularis had moderate rooting success
in an experiment using leafy cuttings (Catesby
Silviculture and Walker, 1997). The cuttings were taken from
seedling hedge plants that had been periodically
decapitated to a height of 15‑20 cm to promote the
development of shoots for cuttings. Two‑to‑three‑node
cuttings were used, with the leaf area being
reduced by approximately 50%. A commercial rooting
hormone powder (0.8% IBA) was used and clones
were set in a 3:2 vermiculite, perlite mixture. Mean
Propagation
rooting success for E. pilularis was 35% 15 weeks
Eucalyptus pilularis is a prolific seeder and after setting. Considerable variation of rooting success
regenerates readily from seed in the field (Floyd, between clones was found. The proportion of
1962). It is usually propagated from seed and E. pilularis clones with >70% rooting success was 23%.
there are on average 57 000 viable seed kg‑1 of
Studies of vegetative propagation of E. pilularis using
seed and chaff mix (Boland et al., 1980; Turnbull
shoots from basal coppice, young seedlings, and
and Doran, 1987). Seed storage is orthodox, and
branch sections of older trees via micropropagation
mature seed can remain viable for 5‑20 years if
have been carried out by State Forests of New South
stored at a low moisture content (4-8%) in sealed
Wales (Johnson and Nikles, 1997). Although both
containers at 3-5°C. When not stored in moisture-
seedlings and coppice material can be successfully
proof containers it is advisable to maintain a
propagated by cuttings, with most clones producing
relative humidity in the storage room of between
some rooted plants, 60% or more of the cuttings
20 and 40% (Boland et al., 1980).
within many clones do not develop a good root
No pre‑sowing treatment is required. Germination system. Detailed techniques to enable E. pilularis to
takes place over 3 weeks under moist, warm be mass propagated commercially have yet to be
conditions (20-25°C is optimal in the laboratory) in finalised although sufficient plants of most clones for
the presence of light (Turnbull and Doran, 1987). field testing can be produced (Ian Johnson, State
However, seed of E. pilularis has been known to Forests of New South Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
146
The regeneration of E. pilularis from coppice is not at a spacing of 4.0 m x 2.5 m (1000 stems ha‑1)
reliable and the ability of older trees to coppice and a fertiliser treatment is applied shortly after
successfully is poor (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; planting to promote early growth. Weed control
Johnson and Nikles, 1997). However, a great is carried out prior to planting and is continued for
majority of 3‑4 year‑old select trees felled for up to two years, as needed, after planting (Paul
vegetative propagation experiments in New South Brennan, State Forests of New South Wales,
Wales (in spring 1998 and 2001) produced pers. comm., 2002).
abundant coppice within two to three months.
Plantations of E. pilularis can be planted at a spacing
Competing and shading vegetation was cleared
as wide as 4 m × 4 m (625 ha‑1). There has been
back from the stumps (Ian Johnson, State Forests
some argument in favour of wider spacing, this will
of New South Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
increase the need for pruning which is relatively
General nursery practices are suitable for producing difficult with this species and also weed control
containerised seedlings of E. pilularis; these are (see section on plantation management below).
described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull (1997). Wider spacing may become an option if breeding
Many nurseries will grow seedlings on request and can produce trees with improved form and finer
some specialise in producing trees for the farm branches (Florence, 1996).
forestry market.
At State Forests of New South Wales E. pilularis
Management
is germinated under 50% shade in Landmark Plug Pruning is not a routine practice at present in State
Trays which are seeded by a drum sower. Seed is Forests of New South Wales plantations, with natural
covered with vermiculite for germination. When the branch shedding being encouraged by planting
plants have a good root system, around 4-8 weeks, at a relatively high stocking (1000 trees ha‑1), thus
they are transferred to ‘Hiko’ trays (2.5 cm circle x encouraging the rise of the green crown and reducing
10 cm in a tray of 40) or tubes (5 cm x 12.5 cm). branch diameter. The small lower branches are then
These are kept in outside holding beds and given cleanly shed (Phil Lacy, State Forests of New South
progressive exposure to full sunlight. Seedlings are Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
grown‑on in these beds for 2‑4 months. The potting
Eucalyptus pilularis has a capacity for rapid site
mix comprises composted pine bark fines, sand,
occupancy from an early age and for individual
coir fibre and composted sawdust (Steve Sullivan,
trees to respond to large amounts of growing
State Forests of New South Wales Nurseries, pers.
space. Diameter growth rates can be greatly
comm., 2002).
increased when stands are thinned to a wide
Seedlings are very sensitive to hot, dry winds spacing during the rapid growth phase, and high
before as well as after being planted out in the levels of volume production can be maintained
field, and fertilised seedlings are unable to at relatively low stockings. Site quality is also an
withstand temperatures below -1°C (Poynton, important factor, with trees on poorer sites being
1979; Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). more sensitive to competition at a higher stocking.
In New South Wales, seed of E. pilularis is sown Where stands have been thinned heavily, site has
between April and November, for planting between less effect on the diameter of the trees. A stocking
November and March (Steve Sullivan, State Forests range of 200-300 stems ha‑1 is predicted to provide
of New South Wales Nurseries, pers. comm., 2002). near maximum volume of sawlogs over a wide
range of stand ages (Florence, 1996).
Establishment Though early and/or heavy thinning may be
advantageous in terms of the response of the
Direct seeding has been used previously but this
residual stand, too early or too heavy a thinning
has now largely been superseded by planting
may be inadvisable under certain conditions. Wide
of containerised stock (Florence, 1996). Planting
early spacing may lead to heavy branching and
areas are ripped and mounded or cultivated
poor form, particularly on sites where the trees are
depending on site conditions. Trees are planted
147
not growing rapidly in height and expression of not planting the species on sites that are marginal
dominance is not strong. Depending on the productive for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
capacity of the site, State Forests of New South Wales unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
commercially thins stands up to two times with an Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the
early non‑commercial thinning at ages between 3 control of pests by pesticide application is not
and 7 years. This thinning brings the initial stocking practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs
of 1000 stems ha‑1 down to between 400‑500 stems involved, monitoring required and environmental
ha‑1. This is followed by a commercial thinning carried issues of chemical use.
out at around 10 years or later, when the stocking
Eucalyptus pilularis has generally displayed good
is reduced to about 200 stems ha‑1 with a final
resistance to pests and diseases when planted on
rotation age of 25‑30 years. Prescriptions are
suitable sites. Phytophthora cinnamomi has caused
continually reviewed as more information is gained
losses in some plantations of E. pilularis in New
about E. pilularis in plantations (Phil Lacy and Paul
South Wales, with deaths being concentrated in
Brennan, State Forests of New South Wales, pers.
poorly drained flat areas or on lower slopes. Shoot
comm., 2002).
dieback associated with infection by Botryosphaeria
dothidea and defoliation associated with
Growth Mycosphaerella cryptica has occurred in
While an even-aged natural stand of E. pilularis a few plantations (Carnegie, 2000).
will not grow as rapidly as the equivalent E. grandis Insect pests, including the leaf beetles Paropsis
or E. regnans stand on good quality sites, or achieve atomaria and outbreaks of monolepta beetles
full-site occupancy as soon as E. grandis, it will build (Monolepta australis), have occurred in a few
up to a strong peak in annual volume production young E. pilularis plantations in northern New
at a relatively young age. Plots in natural stands at South Wales. Damage from Monolepta beetles has
Mapleton, Queensland, achieved a mean annual been confined mainly to trees on ridge tops and
increment (MAI) of 8‑12 m3 ha‑1 at 30‑35 years hilltops and ranges from trace to severe, including
of age. Well‑managed plantations developed with death of young seedlings. Occasional severe
improved seed and which receive timely silvicultural damage by the chrysomelid leaf beetle Crytocephalus
treatment are likely to be able to improve on this iridipennis in Queensland plantations has been
MAI. The current annual increment (CAI) for volume recorded by Wylie and Peters (1993). Outbreaks
growth at these sites peaked at around 19‑23 years of the scarab leaf beetle Epholcis bilopiceps has
of age and the mean annual increment (MAI) peaked resulted in compete defoliation in experimental
at around 30‑35 years (irrespective of stocking). Data plantations in northern Queensland (Wylie and
from thinned plots in New South Wales suggest a Peters, 1993).
peak CAI between 12 and 20 years and a peak
MAI at around 30 years (Florence, 1996). Evidence of longicorn infestation is common in
plantations of E. pilularis over three years old
(Carnegie, 2000). Small‑diameter trees are seriously
Protection affected by the larvae of the giant wood moth
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens (Xyleutes cinereus) (Wylie and Peters, 1993).
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations Greaves and Florence (1966) reported 33%
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest subterranean termite (Coptotermes acinaciformis)
pests. However a certain amount of damage to incidence in E. pilularis plantation trees. The termite
natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases species C. acinaciformis and C. frenchii are serious
is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of pests that cause piping in trees and harvested logs
managing them. At present the main opportunities to (Greaves et al., 1967; Wylie and Peters, 1993).
reduce this damage are provided by management The sapwood is resistant to attack by Lyctus borers
options such as maintaining the health and vigour (Boland et al., 1984).
148
Utilisation fast‑grown trees are prone to end splitting which
can cause problems in sawn timber and in its use
for treated poles (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984).
Wood
The prospects for the genetic manipulation of wood
Eucalyptus pilularis is an important Australian
quality in E. pilularis seem fair to good, in view of
hardwood species and is the principal species
the variation found in various wood properties of
sawn in coastal New South Wales and south-
plantation‑grown E. pilularis in Australia and South
eastern Queensland (Boland et al., 1984). It is a
Africa (Johnson and Nikles, 1997). A trial of
major timber for building framework, flooring and
E. pilularis in Brazil (Pasztor, 1983) was studied
poles, and is suitable for sleepers, and paper and
for mean wood basic density at 5 years of age
pulp. Other uses include fencing, landscaping,
and there appeared to be considerable variation
boat building, internal quality furniture, outdoor
among provenances.
furniture, turnery and parquetry.
The timber is relatively hard, strong, stiff and tough. Non-wood
The heartwood is durable (Class 2 on a 4 point scale)
In New Zealand E. pilularis is used in farm planting
and is difficult to impregnate with preservatives. The
for posts and exterior uses (McKenzie, 1993). It
heartwood is pale brown or yellowish brown, but
provides reasonable shade and shelter (Poynton,
timber from northern populations may sometimes have
1979; Clemson, 1985) and has been used for
a pale pinkish tinge. The sapwood is distinctly paler,
shelterbelts in New Zealand.
it is not susceptible to Lyctid borer attack, and readily
accepts preservative impregnation but penetration Eucalyptus pilularis was included in species trials
of heartwood is negligible using current commercial for rehabilitation of bauxite mine sites at Huntly
processes (QFRI website, 2002). The texture is medium in Western Australia in 1986 (Mazanec, 1994;
and even. The grain is usually straight and gum Johnson and Nikles, 1997).
veins are common (Bootle, 1983). The presence of
This species is not an important tree for honey
wavy interlocking grain can produce an attractive
production, although it is of moderate value when
figure (PFNQ website, 2002).
seasonal conditions are favourable (Clemson,
The air-dry density of timber from natural stands is 1985). Its honey has a rather strong flavour, lacks
about 900 kg m‑3 and the green density about density and is used for blending with better quality
1100 kg m‑3. Plantation grown trees at 11‑17 years honeys. However, it is a good pollen producer.
of age have an air‑dry density of 745‑820 kg m‑3
(QFRI website, 2002) and can be satisfactorily Limitations
dried using conventional air and kiln seasoning
methods. Care is needed in drying to inhibit a Eucalyptus pilularis is very site specific. It develops
tendency to surface check on the tangential face best on fertile sites that must be well-drained as it
(Bill Joe, State Forests of New South Wales, pers. is very susceptible to Phytophthora. E. pilularis can
comm., 2002). There is a slight tendency to have quite a high mortality in the nursery and is
collapse in juvenile wood (near pith) (PFNQ prone to unexplained mortality soon after planting.
website, 2002). The timber is not difficult to work, It is also very susceptible to drought at planting and
it machines well and accepts finishes well (QFRI seedlings will not tolerate other than light frosts. It is
website, 2002). Steam‑bending properties are prone to windthrow and stem damage when young
poor to moderate. Young regrowth material has as the canopy is dense and the root system is shallow.
potential for structural plywood as it is able to be It is no longer planted commercially in southern Africa,
glued easily, having a lower extractives content because the timber from young trees exhibits severe
than mature trees (Bootle, 1983). growth stresses with the wood usually splitting
Regrowth logs exhibit much more spring and bow excessively and seasoning badly. Checking and
than mature stems and their central core is likely to collapse are also common in the young wood, and
suffer considerable collapse (Bootle, 1983). Young it often contains kino ring (gum veins), all of which
149
factors can greatly reduce yields and quality of Clemson A, 1985. Honey and Pollen Flora. Inkata Press,
logs and sawn products. However, it is believed Melbourne.
that difficulties with wood quality are likely to be Cliffe DO, 1997. Pre-treatment of bulk samples of certain
amenable to reduction by selection and breeding Eucalyptus species to enhance germination. International
(Johnson and Nikles, 1997). Plant Propagators Society, Combined Proceedings, 47:60-62.
Recommended Reading Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the
Johnson IG, Nikles DG, 1997. Plan for developing and Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian
deploying genetically-improved varieties of blackbutt Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
(Eucalyptus pilularis Smith) in New South Wales. State Eby P, 1995. The biology and management of flying foxes
Forests of New South Wales, Sydney. Technical Paper in New South Wales. New South Wales National Parks
No. 63. and Wildlife Service, Species Management Report No.18.
Clarke BH, 2000. Eucalyptus pilularis Smith Species Digest. Florence RG, 1969. Variation in blackbutt. Australian
Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a Forestry, 33:83-95.
References Forests. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in eucalyptus Floyd AG, 1962. Investigations into the natural
plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of regeneration of blackbutt – E. pilularis. Research Note
optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian No. 10. Forestry Commission of New South Wales.
Forestry, 56:385-390. Floyd AG, 1964. Germination test methods for tree
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, seeds. Forestry Commission of New South Wales
Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984. Technical Paper No. 7.
Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne. Greaves T, Armstrong GJ, McInnes RS, Dowse JE, 1967.
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980. Timber losses caused by termites, decay and fire in two
Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO, coastal forests in New South Wales. CSIRO Division of
Canberra. Entomology Technical Paper No. 7, 4-18.
Bootle KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. McGraw Hill, Greaves T, Florence RG, 1966. Incidence of termites in
Sydney. pp 251-252. blackbutt regrowth. Australian Forestry, 30: 153-161.
Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1994. Field Guide to Eucalypts. Griffin AR, Burgess IP, Wolf L, 1988. Patterns of natural
Vol. 3. Northern Australia. Inkata Press, Sydney. and manipulated hybridisation in the genus Eucalyptus
L’Herit. – a review. Australian Journal of Botany, 36:41-66.
Burgess IP, 1975. A provenance trial with blackbutt:
9-year results. Australian Forest Research, 7:1-9. Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts. 262
Carnegie AJ, 2000. State and company overviews of Government Printer, Canberra, Australia.
eucalypt plantation estates and pest problems – New
South Wales. Proceedings of a workshop on managing Jacobs MR (ed), 1981. Eucalypts for Planting. Edition 2.
pests of eucalypt plantations. 10-11 February 2000. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. 677 pp. Food and Agriculture
pp 15-25. Department of Forestry, Australian National Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
University, Canberra. Johnson IG, Nikles DG, 1997. Plan for developing and
Catesby AL, Walker SM, 1997. An assessment of the deploying genetically-improved varieties of blackbutt
relative amenability to vegetative propagation by leafy (Eucalyptus pilularis Smith) in New South Wales. State
cuttings of 14 tropical and subtropical Eucalytpus and Forests of New South Wales, Sydney. Technical Paper
Corymbia species. In: Kikkawa J, Dart P, Doley D, Ishii K, No. 63.
Lamb D, Suzuki K (eds). Overcoming Impediments to Johnson IG, Stanton RR, 1993. Thirty years of eucalypt
Reforestation: Tropical Forest Rehabilitation in the species and provenance trials in New South Wales –
Asia-Pacific Region. Proceedings of the 6th international survival and growth in trials established from 1961 to
workshop of Bio-Refor, Brisbane. pp 80-83. 1990. Forestry Commission of New South Wales.
Clarke BH, 2000. Eucalyptus pilularis Smith Species Research Paper No. 20.
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Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic Poynton RJ, 1979. Tree Planting in Southern Africa,
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry,
Program. RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Pretoria, South Africa.
Industries Research and Development Corporation,
PFNQ website, 2002. Private Forestry North
Canberra.
Queensland website: http://www.pfnq.com.au/
Mazanec RA, 1994. Provenance trials of four exotic
QFRI website, 2002. Queensland Forest Research Institute
eucalypt species in bauxite mines in Western Australia.
website: http://www.forests.qld.gov.au/resadv/qfri/
In: Revegetation of Mine Sites Using Appropriate
Species. Proceedings Third International Conference on Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
and Mineral Production. northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
McKenzie H, 1993. Growing durable hardwoods—a Turnbull JW, Doran JC, 1987. Seed development and
research strategy. New Zealand Forestry, 38:25‑27. germination in the Myrtaceae. In: Langkamp P (ed).
Germination of Australian Native Plant Seed. pp 46-57.
Nikles DG, Lee DJ, Robson KJ, Pomroy PC, Walker SM,
2000. Progress on species selection trials and genetic
improvement of hardwoods for commercial plantings in Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
Queensland. In: Snell A, Vize S (eds). Opportunities for seed sources. In: Hillis WE, Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts
the New Millennium. Proceedings of the Australian Forest for Wood Production. pp 6-65. CSIRO and Academic
Growers Conference, Cairns Convention Centre 4‑6 Press, Melbourne.
September. pp 23-31.
Wylie FR, Peters BC, 1993. Insect problems of eucalypt
Pasztor YPC, 1983. Teste de procedencias de plantations in Australia. 1. Queensland. Australian
Eucalyptus pilularis Sm – Resultados de 13 anos. Forestry, 56:358-362.
Silvicultura, Sao Paulo, 31:487-488.
151
15. Eucalyptus saligna Smith
Sydney blue gum
Key features
Medium to tall tree, 30‑50 m in height, of good form
Moderate to fast growth (for maximum growth
rate it requires >900 mm MAR; but good growth
is possible down to around 700 mm MAR on
deep, moisture-holding soils, with groundwater)
Grows well under irrigation
Grows best on clay loam to sandy loam soils
Intolerant of heavy clay soils and poor drainage Stackpole, Sustainability and Environment Victoria,
Moderate drought tolerance pers. comm., 2002). It is moderately frost tolerant
and will withstand temperatures down to about
Moderate to high frost tolerance
-8°C (Martin, 1948).
Low tolerance to soil salinity
The wood of E. saligna is relatively easy to dry
Timber strong and moderately durable and is useful for a wide range of products including
general construction, joinery, decking, decorative
Possible products include panelling, furniture,
flooring and panelling. It is acceptable for reconstituted
veneers, sleepers, building framing timber and
wood products and pulpwood and has potential
internal flooring.
for furniture (Noble, 2000). In south‑western Victoria
(Jackson et al., 2000) and Western Australia (FPC
Species overview website, 2002) it has been identified as a species
Eucalyptus saligna is an excellent species for farm with sawlog potential on moderately fertile soils in
forestry plantings. It is a reasonably fast‑growing rainfall areas of 600‑700 mm yr‑1. It has also been
hardwood, of good form, which thrives on a noted as a good dryland plantation species in
wide range of soil types. Although best growth is north‑eastern Victoria on deep moist loams and
achieved on sites with a high rainfall (more than alluvial soils, capable of producing high quality
900 mm yr‑1) well distributed throughout the year timber for veneers and flooring in a relatively short
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984), it can survive moderate period (Washusen and Reid, 1996). It has failed in
droughts (e.g. Marks et al., 1973) and has been this area where grown on shallow soils or hillsides.
successfully established where mean annual rainfall In northern New South Wales, plantings have
gets down around 700 mm on deep moisture holding experienced problems with insects and slower
soils with groundwater. It is also a very suitable growth than other eucalypt species. It has proven
species for growing under irrigation but does not successful as a reforestation species in many countries,
tolerate saline irrigation water (Myers, 1994; Des especially at latitudes between 25° and 35° or at
higher altitudes in lower latitudes (Jacobs, 1981).
152
Description and natural E. saligna and E. grandis are sometimes almost
identical in appearance except for the valves of
occurrence the fruit which are broadish, blunt and incurved for
E. grandis and thin, pointed and strongly erect or
Description outcurved for E. saligna. Also, E. saligna possesses
lignotubers, which are absent on E. grandis.
A medium to tall tree, usually 30-55 m in height with
a diameter at breast height up to 2 m. Exceptional
trees may attain 65 m in height with a diameter at
Natural occurrence
breast height of 2.5 m (Boland et al., 1984). The In Australia E. saligna is a common species along
bark is rough and persistent as a basal stocking, the coast and nearby ranges from near Batemans
moderately thick, short-fibred, often tessellated, Bay in southern New South Wales to around
brownish-grey, becoming thin and finally shedding Maryborough in south-eastern Queensland (Figure
in long thin flakes or strips. The rest of the trunk and 15.1). Further north there are a few isolated,
branches are smooth grey-green, bluish-green or disjunct occurrences on coastal and inland high
white (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). The trunk is country including Kroombit Tops, the Blackdown
generally of good form, straight and clear of Tablelands and Consuelo Tablelands (Brooker and
branches for one-half to two-thirds of the total tree Kleinig, 1994). These populations are outside the
height (Boland et al., 1984). It is a lignotuberous core populations (Burgess and Bell, 1983) and they
species of good coppicing ability. share a number of features with the closely related
The juvenile leaves are petiolate, opposite for E. grandis (Boland et al., 1984). The natural
several pairs then alternate, ovate (dimensions latitudinal range of E. saligna is 24-36°S, which
12 cm long × 5 cm wide), discolorous, green to overlaps with E. grandis in northern New South Wales
dark green. Adult leaves are alternate, petiolate, and southern Queensland (Eldridge et al., 1993).
lanceolate to broad lanceolate, (dimensions to The climate is mostly warm humid. Frost frequency
16 cm long × 3 cm wide), discolorous , glossy varies from nil in low altitude, coastal areas to
green (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). Inflorescences more than 60 yr‑1 in localities on the eastern side
are 7‑11 flowered with a flattened peduncle. of the northern tablelands in New South Wales
Buds are sessile to shortly pedicellate, pyriform (Boland et al., 1984).
to 9 × 4 mm; the operculum is conical or slightly
beaked; flowers are white. The fruit are woody
Figure 15.1: Natural distribution of
capsules with a short pedicel or almost sessile,
Eucalyptus saligna (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
obconical to slightly pyriform, to 8 × 7 mm; valves
3 or 4, with thin pointed tips which are exserted
and erect or outcurved (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
Like other eucalypts, E. saligna does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). In natural stands in
Australia the flowering period is from January to
April (summer and autumn) with ripe seed available
November to March (Boland et al., 1980; Brooker
and Kleinig, 1999). In its natural habitat, E saligna
usually bears heavy seed crops only every 2‑3 years.
The seed is brown, cuboid or flattish, irregular and
somewhat toothed around the edge (Boland et al.,
153
Rainfall regime: Uniform,
summer, winter
hottest month:
coldest month:

suitable for Eucalytpus saligna are shown in
black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
Eucalyptus saligna natural stand in northern NSW.
E. saligna grows in open or tall open forest with

other notable eucalypt species and sometimes with
E. grandis. It is found on drier sites, higher up the
slope above the lower valley slopes dominated by
E. grandis (Eldridge et al., 1993). In the south of its The map of areas predicted to be climatically
range E. saligna occurs in valleys and on sheltered suitable for planting E. saligna (Figure15.2) was
slopes and in northern localities it extends to high generated from the revised climatic details for the
slopes and ridges (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). This species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002).
species grows well on good quality alluvial sandy These revisions were made to the climatic parameters,
loams; other soils include podsols and volcanic initially derived from the natural distribution, on the
loams. Soils are generally moist and well drained. basis of information from trials and plantings of this
E. saligna does not do well on waterlogged sites species both within and outside its natural range.
or heavy clay soils. Minimum rainfall required is about 700 mm, and
best growth occurs on sites with >900 mm mean
Where will it grow? annual rainfall.
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) for Other considerations for choice of this species
Eucalyptus saligna, incorporating data from both are that while it is suited to a variety of soil types,
the natural distribution and from sites where the E. saligna prefers deep sands, clay‑sandy loams
species has been grown successfully as an exotic, and alluvial soils. It does not tolerate poor drainage
gives the following key climatic conditions for and the survival rates of plantings on shallow soils
survival and good growth: or hillsides has been very low in north-eastern
Victoria (Washusen and Reid, 1996; Bird, 2000).
154
Plantings and provenance trials coast of New South Wales (Coffs Harbour),
E. saligna provenances matched the growth of
E. grandis sources at the Queensland site but did
Plantings
not perform particularly well at the Coffs Harbour
Jacobs (1981) estimated that by the late 1970s at site. At the Queensland site the provenances
least half a million hectares of successful E. saligna ‘Cascade’ New South Wales, ‘Gibraltar Range’
plantations had been established outside of Australia, New South Wales, ‘Kenilworth’ Queensland,
particularly in South America, southern Africa, India ‘Wollemi’ New South Wales and ‘Gladfield’
and Sri Lanka. It has also experienced some success Queensland, were amongst the leaders for
in the warmer parts of both the north and south islands diameter growth (Burgess, 1988). As a result of
of New Zealand (McKenzie and Hay, 1996) and the poor performance of E. saligna (insect problems
was previously one of the preferred eucalypt species and slower growth than other species) in these trials
in these locations, with >1000 ha being planted in and other plantings on ex‑forest sites, this species is
plantations and farm woodlots by 1996. However, not being planted to any extent by State Forests of
interest in E. saligna has declined since then due New South Wales. It has recently been included in
to persistent attack by a range of insect pests and trials on ex‑pasture sites but these are too young to
slower growth than expected (Hay et. al., 1999). assess as yet (Ian Johnson, State Forests of New
South Wales, pers. comm., 2002).
The staff of the Forest Products Commission in
Western Australia have identified E. saligna as a Four provenances of E. saligna were included in a
species with sawlog potential on moderately fertile eucalypt species and provenance trial at Mt Gambier,
soils in 600‑700 mm rainfall areas (FPC website, South Australia, in 1979. The trial site soils were
2002). In eastern Gippsland, Victoria, E. saligna deep, moderately fertile, sands and the average
was identified as one of three better‑performing annual rainfall is 710 mm. The four provenances
species on medium rainfall (600‑700 mm) sites of included three from New South Wales and the
lower productivity (deep sands) along with E. botryoides New Zealand land race ‘Bartlett’s Strain’ (Cotterill
and E. grandis (Duncan et al., 2000). In south‑western et al., 1985). The ‘Batemans Bay’, New South
Victoria it has also been identified as having sawlog Wales, provenance was the best performer of
potential (Bird, 2000). E. saligna is not currently the four provenances at all measurement ages
included in the plantation programmes of either the and ranked around ninth for volume at 4 years.
Queensland (David Lee, Queensland Forest Research However, all provenances of E. saligna dropped
Institute, pers. comm., 2002) or New South Wales in ranking by 8 years with species like E. nitens
(Ian Johnson, State Forests of New South Wales, and E. globulus subsp. globulus outperforming them
pers. comm., 2002) state forestry organisations. (David Sheriff and David Gritton, CSIRO Division
of Forestry, pers. comm., 1993).
Provenance trials
On high‑rainfall sites (900‑1200 mm MAR)
In general the results of provenance trials indicate in north-eastern Victoria, the provenance from
that provenances from northern populations (i.e. ‘Batemans Bay’ (south of Sydney, coastal New
Queensland) of E. saligna are not suited to South Wales) was consistently superior to ‘Beaumont’
southern Australia (Victoria and South Australia) (inland from Nowra, New South Wales) (Stackpole
except when irrigated. However, it is likely that et al., 1995).
provenances from northern populations will be
E. saligna was included in species and provenance
better suited to summer rainfall sites in northern
trials on seven sites in Gippsland, Victoria, and
Australia (Skolmen, 1986; Burgess, 1988). No
results of the trials at 10‑12 years were reported by
recommendation of particular provenances is
Duncan et al. (2000). There were large differences
possible at present as trial results have not shown
among seven seedlots, one from Queensland, five
any to be consistently better in growth or form.
from New South Wales and one New Zealand land
In early results (3 and 4 years) of E. saligna race. The mean annual rainfall of the sites ranged
and E. grandis provenance trials in Queensland from 600 to 1200 mm. Comparisons were difficult
(Peachester, north of Brisbane) and on the north because only two seedlots were planted at all sites,
155
but New South Wales seedlots were generally better and Bell, 1983). According to Griffin et al. (1988),
than the New Zealand land race which in turn was seven hybrid combinations have been recognized
better than the outlying Queensland population from as occurring in nature including the intergrade with
the ‘Blackdown Tableland’. The better performing E. botryoides. However, no natural hybrids have
provenances included ‘Wandandian’, ‘Batemans been recorded between E. saligna and E. grandis
Bay’ and ‘Glenn Innes’, all from New South Wales. or produced by hand pollination (Eldridge et al.,
These trials identified E. saligna as one of three 1993), although spontaneous hybrids have been
species most suited to a lower rainfall (600‑700 mm) reported from plantations in South Africa and Florida
site on deep sands in the Gippsland region (Duncan (Griffin et al., 1988). Spontaneous hybrids with
et al., 2000). E. urophylla have occurred in Brazil (Eldridge et
al., 1993). One of the best known artificial hybrid
A series of trials established at six sites in the combinations involving E. saligna is Eucalyptus 12ABL
Hamilton region of south‑western Victoria found (E. tereticornis) × E. saligna which is propagated
no significant difference between provenances of clonally and used in pulp- and fuel-wood plantations
E. saligna for growth or form at 3-4 and 6 years of in the Congo (Hamel and Laclau, 1996).
age. These were lower‑rainfall sites (650-800 mm)
and the provenances tested were all from New Despite the clearing of many local areas for
farmland, the conservation status of the remaining
South Wales including ‘Armidale’, ‘Coffs Harbour’,
natural forests of E. saligna is reasonably good. In
‘Bulahdelah’, ‘Mt Boss State Forest’, ‘Termeil’ and
addition, the species is very widely planted and
‘Clyde River-Yadboro’. There were differences in
seed orchards of E. saligna have been established
growth between sites, with this species doing best
in Brazil and Zimbabwe (Eldridge et al., 1993).
on the relatively fertile sites with sandy loam soils
(heights of up to 11.2 m at 6 years). In these trials The CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Australian
E. saligna exhibited better frost tolerance than Corymbia Tree Seed Centre in Canberra can supply both
maculata (spotted gum). At 6 years some borer single-tree and bulk‑tree provenance collections of
damage has been identified, particularly at one of seed from natural stands of E. saligna suitable for
the lower‑rainfall (~650 mm) sites where trees were trials and breeding programmes. Improved seed is
clearly stressed (Jackson et al., 2000; Tim Jackson, currently not available within Australia, but progeny
DSE Victoria, pers. comm., 2002). trials are being established in 2002; at the earliest
seed from these would be available by 2007
(Chris Harwood, Forestry and Forest Products,
Breeding and genetics resources pers. comm., 2002).
Eucalyptus saligna and E. grandis were not recognized Staff from the Forest Products Commission of
as separate species until 1918 when E. grandis Western Australia have recently established
was separated (Jacobs, 1981). Exports of E. saligna/ seedling and clonal seed orchards of E. saligna
E. grandis seed from Australia up to that time and are preparing to establish further progeny
carried the name of only one species, E. saligna. trials. They currently have seed available from
There are some populations at the southern end of natural provenance collections of a better performing
the range of E. saligna (Nowra to Batemans Bay, provenance identified in breeding trials in Western
New South Wales) intermediate between this species Australia. They also have seed collected from trees
and E. botryoides, with rough bark covering much in the best families in their breeding trials (Liz Barbour,
of the trunk (Boland et al., 1984; Passioura and Forest Products Commission, pers. comm., 2002).
Ash, 1993; Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
Individuals intermediate in morphology between
Silviculture
E. saligna and E. grandis occur in some populations General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this
of the former (e.g. in central eastern Queensland). species. Further information is available through
These may represent relict ancestral populations, sources listed under recommended reading.
long-term stabilized hybrid populations or more Summary silvicultural information and practices
recently established hybridised populations (Burgess specific to this species are outlined below.
156
Propagation Department of Primary Industries), farm forestry and
landcare groups. Books such as Florence (1996),
Eucalyptus saligna is easily raised from seed in the Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000) are
nursery. There are about 500 000 viable seed kg‑1 also valuable resources. Websites of many of the
of seed and chaff mixture (Gunn, 2001). As seed above organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
is different in size to chaff, seedlots may be cleaned (e.g. DSE website: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ ),
to a high level of purity by sieving. Seed storage is or these publications can be obtained by contacting
orthodox and the viability of seed stored dry (5‑8% the organisations directly.
moisture content) in airtight containers in the refrigerator
(3‑5°C) will be maintained for several years. No Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by
pre‑sowing treatment is required. machinery. To allow machinery to be used a
spacing of 3-5 m between rows should be used
Eucalyptus saligna is suited to mass vegetative (Weiss, 1997). A range of spacings and planting
propagation through stem cuttings and can be designs are possible in farm forestry plantings.
propagated by air-layering and grafting (see review Readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000)
by Hartney, 1980). It can also be regenerated by and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of
coppicing the stump but the value of this needs to options and their merits. Suitable initial spacings
be considered in light of the cost of protecting the for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and
stumps at harvesting and thinning the coppice. The 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings
other consideration is the possible loss of gains in promote good form and allow ample selection for
productivity that might be achieved from the use of final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird, 2000).
improved seed or provenances for subsequent rotations.
Many overseas plantings that are managed for
Planting stock is usually raised in containers in the lower‑value products such as pulpwood, mining
nursery. General nursery practices are suitable for timber, charcoal or fuelwood aim to produce logs
producing containerised seedlings of the species. of small diameters and to maximise biomass. For
These are described in texts such as Florence this, closer spacings and short rotations are usually
(1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird employed, e.g. spacings of 2.1 m × 2.1 m (2.4 m
(2000). Many nurseries will grow seedlings on × 2.4 m in drier areas) with second and subsequent
request and some specialise in producing trees for rotations regenerated by coppice thinned to two or
the farm forestry market. three stems per stump (Jacobs, 1981; Hillis and
In the cool, moist conditions of New Zealand, Brown, 1984).
E. saligna can be raised successfully in open nursery In South Australia and Western Australia planting
beds and established as open-rooted planting stock. is carried out in June/July while the soil is still wet
This method has also been successfully employed from winter rains. Planting may occur later if site
in Benalla, Victoria in 1990-92 (Des Stackpole, access is not available due to waterlogging, which
Sustainability and Environment Victoria, pers. is often a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and New
comm., 2002). Regular root pruning is a critical South Wales planting is done in September, (or
part of the process (Barr, 1971). Planting of July-August in warmer districts where soils dry out
open‑root stock is best done under moist, cloudy, earlier). Planting in northern latitudes, such as in
frost-free conditions. Queensland, is carried out during the wet season
between November‑April, but February-April is
Establishment preferred.
Locally successful methods of plantation establishment Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and
for a range of major forest tree species are suitable phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist
for E. saligna. Detailed information on various early growth is common practice in the establishment
establishment practices is available from several of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is
sources including government organisations particularly effective on ex‑forest sites but there
(Sustainability and Environment, Victoria; Queensland is often no response on ex-pasture sites, and soil
157
Table 15.1: Mean annual increment of E. saligna on two sites in Western Australia (Bob Hingston,
CALM Western Australia, pers. comm., 2002)
Initial Current
Age Rainfall stocking stocking MAI
Site location (yr) (mm) (trees ha‑1) (trees ha‑1) (m3 ha‑1)
South-east of Perth 12 550 333 125 5.6
North-east of Perth 8.5 450‑500 – 106 10.2
degradation can result from very large applications Growth

can respond to a fertiliser application only if other Growth data for plantation grown E. saligna is not
factors are not limiting e.g. moisture availability available for Australia. In New Zealand E. saligna
(low rainfall or heavy weed competition are two is reported to be capable of producing high volumes
factors that can reduce this). Rates vary widely over a short rotation (McKenzie and Hay, 1996).
depending on the site, and readers should access Growth tapers off after about 10 years, and MAIs
further information from more detailed references over the longer rotations (e.g. 50 years) required
such as Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams for sawlog production in countries such as New
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997). Zealand are usually in the range of 12‑18 m3 ha‑1yr‑1
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; McKenzie and Hay, 1996).
Management Growth rates of E. saligna in Western Australian
Progressive thinning and pruning is required for plantings in 450-550 mm rainfall areas have been
clearwood production and texts such as Bird (2000) between 5.6 and 10.1 m3 ha‑1 (Table 15.1) (Chrissy
and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the theory, Rob, CALM Western Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
objectives and techniques. Mean annual increments at 7‑8 years of age for
Eucalyptus saligna sheds branches well, especially in E. saligna in irrigated species and provenance trials
plantations at high rainfall sites, but tends to develop at Shepparton, Victoria, were 10 and 18 m3 ha-1 yr‑1
heavy branches when planted in wide spaced rows respectively (Des Stackpole, Sustainability and
or open‑grown, and at lower rainfall sites. Pruning Environment Victoria, pers. comm., 2002).
in farm forestry woodlots is done to add value to
the trees by aiming to increase the recovery of Protection
sawn timber from the trunk and to make it suitable
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
for higher‑value appearance‑grade products (Bird,
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
2000). Branches should be removed before their
diameters exceed 2.5 cm as large stubs increase
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to
the risk of fungal infection and stem decay
(Nicholas, 1992; McKenzie and Hay, 1996).
Thinning removes defective trees and reduces managing them. At present the main opportunities to
competition between trees. The spacing of trees reduce this damage are provided by management
determines the ultimate height and diameter growth options such as maintaining the health and vigour
of individual stems. The stand may be reduced to a of trees and stands at as high a level as possible
final stocking of 100‑300 stems ha-1 when grown by the application of timely silvicultural treatment;
for sawlogs. not planting the species on sites that are marginal
Regeneration of cut stumps should be controlled by for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
grazing of new shoots by animals, poisoning or unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
mechanical damage of coppice (Bird, 2000). Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the
158
control of pests by pesticide application is not roots of E. marginata, which are the sources of
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs inoculum, is recommended. However, E. saligna
involved, monitoring required and environmental is believed to be resistant to Phytophthora root rot.
Eucalyptus saligna is intolerant of salt‑laden winds and
Eucalyptus saligna is moderately susceptible to pests saline irrigation water (McKenzie and Hay, 1996).
and diseases, particularly in coastal northern New
South Wales and Queensland and when suffering Utilisation
drought induced stress.
Dieback disease has killed E. saligna in patches Wood
throughout natural stands in coastal New South
The heartwood is dark pink to reddish brown and
Wales, the cause of which is unknown (Podger,
the sapwood is paler and easy to distinguish. The
1973). Natural forests and plantations of E. saligna
sapwood is susceptible to attack by Lyctus borers
in New South Wales may be severely damaged
but can be preservative treated. The grain is usually
by a wide range of insect pests amongst which are
straight but is occasionally interlocked causing ribbon
at least 16 species of psyllid (Hemiptera: Psyllidae)
figure on the quarter-cut face. It is moderately
(Carne and Taylor, 1984; Stone, 1993, 1996;
coarse-textured and gum veins are common (Keating
Farrow, 1996). Debilitated trees are then predisposed
and Bolza, 1982; Bootle, 1983; Boland et al.,
to attack by the eucalypt keyhole borer, Xyleborus
1984; Hillis and Brown, 1984). The heartwood is
truncatus, and to an associated brown‑staining
moderately durable and the wood often contains
fungus, a combination often leading to death of
gum veins (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). The air-dry
trees (Moore, 1962).
density of mature wood is about 850 kg m‑3, but
The wood borer Phoracantha semipunctata the density of rapidly grown wood from plantations is
(Cerambycidae), commonly called the longicorn usually significantly less, i.e. nearer 500‑600 kg m‑3
beetle, is a serious pest of both natural and planted (Bird, 2000).
stands of E. saligna both in Australia and in other
Sawn wood is easily dried although timber from native
countries such as South Africa and USA (California)
stands can be slow, but suffers some collapse that
(Poynton, 1979; Carne and Taylor, 1984; Neumann
appears as excessive shrinkage rather than collapse-
and Marks, 1976; Hanks et al., 1995). A range
checking as seen in ash eucalypts. Quarter-sawn
of wood‑boring Lepidoptera may occasionally cause
boards (25 mm) are commonly air-dried to 25‑30%
severe log degrade of plantation E. saligna in Australia
moisture content before being dried to 12% in the
(e.g. xyloryctids such as Uzucha borealis and
kiln over five days and then reconditioned through
Cryptophasa melanostigma) (Carne and Taylor,
steaming. E. saligna develops mature wood
1984). Trees stressed by drought, particularly those
characteristics at an early age and logs can be
planted on unfavourable sites, are very susceptible
back‑sawn and dried when about 40 cm or more
to attack (Carne and Taylor, 1984).
in diameter (Bird, 2000). The timber is relatively
Heavy periodic Cardiaspina spp. psyllid infestation easy to work, fix, dress and finish and takes a
is characteristic of irrigated plantations of E. saligna good polish (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). Darrow
around Shepparton and Deniliquin (Des Stackpole, (1983) states that E. saligna is more suitable for
Sustainability and Environment Victoria, pers. comm., sawn timber production than E. grandis as it is less
2002). Principal insect defoliators of juvenile E. saligna prone to splitting and has a higher wood density.
planted in Victoria include Phaulacridium vittatum
In New South Wales in the past E. saligna timber
(wingless grasshopper) and Phylacteophaga froggatti
from natural stands has been important for use in
(leaf blister sawfly).
general construction, and particularly flooring. It is
Armillaria luteobubalina has been associated with suitable for general building purposes, cladding,
deaths of young trees of E. saligna in rehabilitation panelling, boat‑building, for heavy furniture and
plantings in forests of E. marginata in south‑western for medium‑density fibreboard and plywood
Australia (Shearer, 1995). Removal of stumps and (Bootle, 1983). In addition it may be used for
159
Eucalyptus saligna produces a strongly flavoured,
rather dark honey which frequently lacks density
and does not store well (Clemson, 1985). Supply
is also rather irregular.
Eucalyptus saligna is not a candidate for production
of essential oils because of low foliar oil concentrations
(0.4%, fresh weight) (Boland et al., 1991).
Limitations
While it tends to be more frost and drought tolerant
than its close relative E. grandis, it is slower growing
and provides a denser wood that is less desirable
for purposes such as pulp for paper production.
There are still questions about its viability at lower
rainfall sites as prolonged drought often leaves
trees stressed and susceptible to disease and insect
attack. End‑splitting of logs shortly after felling may
be a problem, especially in utilizing fast‑grown
plantation trees. Boards from the central part of the
log are prone to split (Keating and Bolza, 1982;
Bootle, 1983). In a New Zealand spacing trial,
E. saligna is intolerant of strong or salt-laden winds
(McKenzie and Hay, 1996). McKenzie and Hay
also record that in logs of E. saligna high levels of
Eucalyptus saligna 6-year-old break of slope
growth stress are common; such stresses frequently
planting 6 years with spotted gum at Holbrook NSW.
cause brittleheart near the centre of the stem.
Recommended Reading
pulpwood, boxes and preservative‑treated poles
(Turnbull and Pryor, 1984; Wyk and Gerischer, Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
1994; Wachira et al., 1994). The heartwood is Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
inclined to split which makes it unsuitable for girders.
Young plantation‑grown Sydney blue gum has great
Noble P, 2000. Sydney Blue Gum for Farm Forestry.
flexibility of end‑use according to Waugh (1996),
Agriculture Notes series. Department of Sustainability
who rates it as ‘very good’ for round timbers, sawn and Environment, Victoria.
engineering products, sawn appearance-products
Rob C, in press. Eucalyptus saligna (Sydney Blue Gum).
and engineering veneer products and ‘acceptable’
Conservation and Land Management Farm Forestry,
for fibre composites and paper. However, for most Katanning, Western Australia.
situations there are other species which grow faster
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest:
and are more suitable for paper products.
The Forest Products Commission of Western Australia Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower
is planning sawing trials of plantation‑grown wood Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
later in 2002 (Liz Barbour, Forest Products References
Commission, pers. comm., 2002).
Non‑wood optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian
Forestry, 56:385-390.
Eucalyptus saligna is used in shelterbelts and makes
a fine avenue tree (Poynton, 1979).
160
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the
Barr N, 1971. Siting and utilisation of eucalypts. Farm
Forestry, 13:76-87.
Duncan MJ, Baker TG, Appleton R, Stokes RC, 2000.
Growth of Eucalypt Plantation Species Across Twelve
Sites in Gippsland, Victoria. CFTT Report No: 99/056.
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria.
Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van,
1993. Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Clarendon
Press, Oxford, UK.
Farrow R, 1996. Insect Pests of Eucalypts on Farmland
and in Plantations in South‑eastern Australia. CSIRO
Identification Leaflets. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Canberra.
Boland DJ, Brophy JJ, House APN. 1991. Eucalyptus Leaf
Oils: Use, Chemistry, Distillation and Marketing. Inkata
Press, Melbourne. FPC website, 2002. Forest Products Commission
Western Australia website: http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/
Griffin AR, Burgess IP, Wolf L, 1988. Patterns of natural
and manipulated hybridisation in the genus Eucalyptus
l’Herit. – a review. Australian Journal of Botany, 36: 41-66.
Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products,
Eucalypts. Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO
edition. Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
Burgess IP, 1988. Provenance trials of Eucalyptus grandis
Hamel O, Laclau JP, 1996. Creation of a fuelwood
and E. saligna in Australia. Silvae Genetica, 37:5-6.
sector at Pointe-Noire, Congo. Bois et Forets des
Burgess IP, Bell JC, 1983. Comparative morphology and Tropiques, No. 250:47-58.
allozyme frequencies of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex
Hanks LM, Paine TD, Millar JG, Hom JL, 1995. Variation
Maiden and E. saligna Sm. Australian Forest Research,
among Eucalyptus species in resistance to Eucalyptus
13:133-149.
longhorned borer in southern California. Entomologia
Carne PB, Taylor KL, 1984. Insect pests. In: Hillis WE, Experimentalis et Applicata, 74:185-194.
Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts for Wood Production. CSIRO
Hartney VJ, 1980. Vegetative propagation of the
and Academic Press, Melbourne. pp 155-168.
eucalypts. Australian Forest Research 10:191-211.
Hay AE, Kimberley MO, Kampfraath BMP, 1999.
Melbourne.
Monthly diameter and height growth of young Eucalyptus
Cotterill PP, Moran GF, Grigg BR, 1985. Early growth of fastigata, E. regnans and E. saligna. New Zealand
36 species of eucalypts near Mount Gambier, South Journal of Forestry Science, 29:263-273.
Australia. Australian Forest Research, 15:409-16.
Hillis WE, Brown AG, 1984. Eucalypts for Wood
Darrow Wm K, 1983. Provenance-type trials of Production. 402 pp. Academic Press Australia, North
Eucalyptus grandis and E. saligna in South Africa: eight Ryde, New South Wales.
year results. South African Forestry Journal, September
Jackson T, Bird R, Measki B, Webb R, 2000. Sydney
1983:30‑38.
blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna) provenance research in
Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders south west Victoria. Agroforestry News, 9:20-21.
Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts.
262 pp. Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau,
Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus saligna Sm. Species Digest.
silvicultural reference. CAB International, Melbourne.
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Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Keating WG, Bolza E, 1982. Characteristics, Properties Revell D, 1976. Growing eucalypts. What’s New in
and Uses of Timbers. South-east Asia, Northern Australia Forest Research No. 37.
and the Pacific Vol. No.1. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
Shearer BL, 1995. Impact and symptoms of Armillaria
Marks GC, Kassaby FY, Fagg PC, 1973. Die-back luteobubalina in rehabilitation plantings of Eucalyptus
tolerance in eucalypt species in relation to fertilisation saligna in forests of Eucalyptus marginata in south-western
and soil populations of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology, 24:77-81.
Skolmen RG, 1986. Performance of Australian provenances
Martin D, 1948. Eucalyptus in the British Isles with some of Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus saligna in Hawaii.
notes on records of frost resistance. Australian Forestry, Research Paper PSW-181. USDA Forest Service, Berkeley.
12:63-74.
Stackpole D, Borschmann R, Baker T, 1995. A report to the
McKenzie H, Hay E, 1996. Performance of Eucalyptus Trees for Profit Research Board on Commercial tree-growing
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Zealand Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand. Centre for Forest Tree Technology for the Trees for Profit
Research Centre. University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Moore KM, 1962. Entomological research on the cause
of deaths of Eucalyptus saligna Smith (Sydney blue gum). Stone C, 1993. Insect pest problems of eucalypt
Division of Forest Management, Forestry Commission of plantations in Australia. 2. New South Wales. Australian
New South Wales Research Note No. 11. Forestry, 56:363-369.
Myers BJ (ed), 1994. Wagga Effluent Plantation Project: Stone C, 1996. The role of psyllids (Hemiptera:
technical report, September 1994. CSIRO Division of Psyllidae) and bell miners (Manorina melanophrys) in
Forestry User Series Number 17. CSIRO Forestry, Canberra. canopy dieback of Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna
Sm.). Australian Journal of Ecology, 21:450-458.
Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests. Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
International Agricultural Research, Canberra. northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Neumann FG, Marks GC, 1976. A synopsis of Turnbull JW, Pryor LD, 1984. Choice of species and
important pests and diseases in Australian forests and seed sources. In: Hillis WE, Brown AG (eds). Eucalypts
forest nurseries. Australian Forestry, 39:83-102. for Wood Production. pp 6-65. CSIRO and Academic
Press, Melbourne.
Nicholas ID, 1992. Pruning eucalypts. New Zealand
Tree Grower, 13(3):18-20. Wachira FN, Bore JKA, Njuguna CK, 1994. Evaluation
of fuel wood species for use in the tea industry. Tea,
Noble P, 2000. Sydney Blue Gum for Farm Forestry.
15:119-123.
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eucalypts. In Farm Forestry and Plantations, Investing
Passioura JA, Ash JE, 1993. Phenotypic, genetic and
in Future Wood Supply. Australian Forest Growers
ecological variation in the
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9-12, 1996. pp 83‑93.
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a review. In: Marks GC, Idczak RM, eds. Eucalypt
Farm Forestry Group, Benalla, Victoria.
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162
16. Eucalyptus sideroxylon and Eucalyptus tricarpa
Red ironbarks
Eucalyptus sideroxylon A.Cunn. ex Woolls
Eucalyptus tricarpa (L.A.S.Johnson) L.A.S.Johnson and K.D.Hill
Adapted from Doran, 2000 and Stackpole, 2000.
Niche likely to be 400-600 mm rainfall areas in

southern Australia, with E. tricarpa the better option
in Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria
and New South Wales below 34°S latitude and
E. sideroxylon suited to areas in central western
New South Wales north of 34°S latitude.
Species overview
Red ironbark is the common name for two eucalypt
species, E. tricarpa and E. sideroxylon. E. tricarpa
was formerly considered to be a sub-species of
Key features E. sideroxylon. E. sideroxylon is a relatively slow
Small to medium-sized, occasionally tall forest growing, coppicing species of indifferent form, but
tree of potentially good form (the form of E. tricarpa some provenances of E. sideroxylon do have good
is typically better than that of E. sideroxylon, and form. The form of E. tricarpa is typically better than
provenance selection and silvicultural management that of E. sideroxylon, and it can attain a height of
should improve the form for both species) between 25-35 m but averages around 20 m. The
red ironbarks have been planted widely for farm
Slow to moderate growth rate forestry purposes in drier parts of southern Australia,
Tolerant of drought and hot conditions but not yet on a large scale. They have good growth
on siltstone-derived soils of drier hills, though they are
Tolerates low temperatures and moderate frosts
not suited to areas subject to seasonal waterlogging
when young
or salinity. They often perform very well on sites
Adapted to wide range of soils and tolerates poor, somewhat better in quality than their natural stands,
shallow soils, but not tolerant of seasonal waterlogging and may be useful for planting in areas where
eucalypts that are more demanding have failed.
Exhibits low to moderate salt tolerance
This could include sites where E. globulus has
Timber is used in general construction, flooring and proven to be insufficiently hardy to survive on
decking, poles and posts, fine furniture and joinery periodically droughty sites (Bush et al., 2001).
Plantation‑grown timber is likely to be of a lighter
The timber, although difficult to work, is very heavy,
colour than the deep red of timber from natural stands
hard and durable and is used in general construction,
Good shelterbelt species particularly where durability is important. It is also
becoming increasingly popular as a fine furniture
Excellent honey producer
and joinery timber due to its deep-red colour and its
Valuable firewood and wildlife species; very ability to polish to a high finish (Boxshall and Jenkyn,
important for endangered regent honeyeater 2000). However, care is required in drying and
some difficulties may be encountered with gluing.
The tree also has ornamental value; a red flowering
form is used in horticulture. It also makes a good
shelterbelt tree and is an excellent honey producer.
163
Description and natural E. tricarpa flowers are white, rarely pink, with a
flowering period June-February. Fruit are truncate-
occurrence globose or in E. sideroxylon can also be barrel-
shaped or cupular (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
Description
Distinctive features are the ‘ironbark’ which is the
Eucalyptus sideroxylon is a small to medium-sized blackest bark of all eucalypts, the pendent buds
woodland tree, commonly 10-25 m tall with and fruits, the persistent outer opercula, staminodes
exceptional specimens reaching 35 m, and with and persistent staminal ring (Boland et al., 1984).
diameters (at breast height) up to 1.0 m. The form
Seed is grey‑brown, slightly flattened, and almost
of the trunk is often rather poor, while the length
smooth (Boland et al., 1980; Brooker and Kleinig,
does not usually exceed one-half of the tree height.
1999). E. sideroxylon seed is collected between
E. tricarpa, a species of open forest, is of better form
July‑May and E. tricarpa seed is collected between
and attains 10-35 m in height, with an average
November‑May (Gunn, 2001). As seed crops may
around 20 m.
be retained on the tree for 3‑4 years, collections may
The ‘ironbark’ is persistent to the larger branches, be possible in other months (Stackpole, 2000).
hard, ridged and deeply furrowed, dark brown to There will be regional and seasonal variability in
black, with upper limbs covered in a smooth whitish seed availability.
bark. The ‘ironbark’ of E. tricarpa is dark grey to black.
Like other eucalypts the red ironbarks do not develop
Natural occurrence
resting buds and grow whenever conditions are With a latitudinal range of 25‑36°S in Australia
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). The juvenile leaves of E. sideroxylon extends north from Wangaratta in
E. sideroxylon are linear to narrow-lanceolate while Victoria through New South Wales and into
those of E. tricarpa are narrow to broad-lanceolate. southern Queensland (Figure 16.1). It occurs on the
Adult leaves of E. sideroxylon are dull green glaucous
or slate grey while those of E. tricarpa are dull green
or rarely glaucous. Inflorescences are axillary and
7-flowered in E. sideroxylon and 3-flowered in
E. tricarpa. Buds are on long slender pedicels with
no scar. E. sideroxylon flowers are white, pink, red or
pale yellow with a flowering period May-November;
Eucalyptus sideroxylon buds and fruits, Jimberoo, Eucalyptus sideroxylon natural stand in Blow
NSW. Clear West State Forest, near Parkes, NSW.
164
Figure 16.1: Natural distribution of to the warm humid and warm semi-arid zones. The
E. sideroxylon (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) species experiences various rainfall regimes from
winter, through uniform and summer and an extended
dry season depending on provenance. E. tricarpa
occurs in the warm sub-humid zone and experiences
both winter and uniform rainfall regimes over its range.
It can also experience an extended dry season in
some parts of its range (Boland et al., 1984).
Both species are typically found on poor, shallow
soils, including sands, gravels, ironstones and clays
(Boland et al., 1984). E. tricarpa reaches its largest
size and best form on fertile loams in East Gippsland
(Stackpole, 2000).
Where will it grow?

Figure 16.2: Natural distribution of E. tricarpa Eucalyptus sideroxylon
E. sideroxylon, incorporating data from both the
good growth:
Mean annual rainfall: 350J-1340 mm

summer
hottest month:
Mean minimum temperature 0-13°CK
coldest month:
western slopes and plains of New South Wales and
its easterly occurrences are located near Sydney and
the Hunter valley (Boland et al., 1984). It is also J Particular care should be taken when planting the species
widespread in south‑eastern Queensland west of the in low-rainfall environments to ensure that local conditions
Great Dividing Range; its extension into northern are suitable and appropriate planting densities are used.
Victoria is small. E. tricarpa occurs in central Victoria K Absolute minimum temperature may limit establishment
on the low ridges and undulating country that extends (i.e. frosts). This may be closely related with mean
inland of the Divide. It is also found in the near- minimum temperature.
coastal regions of southern Victoria, Gippsland,
and south‑eastern New South Wales (Boxshall and
suitable for planting E. sideroxylon (Figure 16.3)
Jenkyn, 2000) (Figure 16.2). It has an approximate
latitudinal range of 35°30’‑38°15’S.
The climate over the natural range of E. sideroxylon 2002). These revisions were made to the climatic
is largely warm sub‑humid but the species extends parameters, initially derived from the natural distribution,
165
Figure 16.3: Predicted areas climatically suitable Figure 16.4: Predicted areas climatically suitable
for E. sideroxylon are shown in black (Jovanovic for E. tricarpa are shown in grey (Jovanovic and
and Booth, 2002) Booth, 2002)
on the basis of information from trials and plantings The map of areas predicted to be climatically
of this species both within and outside its natural suitable for planting E. tricarpa (Figure 16.4) was
range. Although this map indicates that E. sideroxylon generated from the climatic details for the species
is climatically suited to areas of Western Australia, natural distribution, as listed above (Jovanovic and
South Australia and Victoria, trials in Western Australia Booth, 2002).
and Victoria have identified E. tricarpa as being
particularly well suited to hot and dry conditions Plantings and provenance trials
in winter rainfall areas and it has been the better
performer of the two species in trials in these states
Plantings
(ALRTIG website, 2002; Bird, 2000). However,
E. sideroxylon does better in the uniform‑summer The acceptable growth in, and tolerance of, dry
rainfall areas of New South Wales. conditions, some frost and poor shallow soils has
seen the red ironbarks widely planted in other parts
Eucalyptus tricarpa of the world, e.g. parts of Africa, South America,
Israel and India.
E. tricarpa, based on data from the natural distribution, Eucalyptus sideroxylon has had reasonable to good
gives the following key climatic conditions for success in Mediterranean countries, South Africa,
survival and good growth: Brazil, Zimbabwe and the Congo. It grows well
on dry sites in Hawaii. E. tricarpa has been tried
Mean annual rainfall: 520-1095 mm in many arid zones of the world as part of species
introduction trials, notably in Israel and Chile, where
it is considered a candidate for afforestation in
Dry season length: 0-5 months 200‑400 mm rainfall zones. It has also been
Mean maximum temperature 22-30°C successful in plantations, usually where mean
hottest month: annual rainfall is within the range of 400‑600 mm
with a winter maximum. This includes parts of South
Mean minimum temperature 2-6°C America (Jayawickrama et al., 1993), South Africa
coldest month: (Murless, 1994), Kenya (Berger and Lysholm, 1978),
Mean annual temperature: 12-15°C India (Gogate and Dhaundiyal, 1988), Morocco
(Knockaert, 1984), Botswana (Lepetu, 1998) and
Tunisia (Zednik, 1978) .
166
Provenance trials zone, on mudstone bedrock/sedimentary undulating
terrain, in both inland and coastal districts; (ii) country
Considerable variation was indicated between where species such as E. globulus have been tested
provenances of both species in plantings in Central for groundwater control, such as break of slope
Victoria (Bird, 2000). However, few comprehensive country in northeast Victoria; and (iii) the inland
provenance trials, as a basis for properly assessing slopes of the Campaspe, Loddon and Avoca river
the potential of the species, have been reported on. headwaters in central Victoria, where former ironbark
Provenance trials of both species have been established country was cleared for light pasture (the last probably
in Western Australia (Wellington catchment), South has the most potential). Note that in areas where
Australia (Kersbrook), and Victoria (Shepparton, E. tricarpa was formerly naturally occurring,
Kerang, Nathalia, Rutherglen and Hamilton). deployment of exotic provenances might be
E. tricarpa appears the better performer at considered inappropriate due to concerns about
Wellington, Western Australia and Hamilton, pollution of remnant natural genetic resources.
Victoria. However, most trials to date include only Therefore, in these areas improvement might be
a limited number of provenances and it is only in restricted to selection of a broad base of superior
the last two years that more comprehensive trials material within local provenances. This approach
have been established in Victoria and New South will result in minimal disruption to local genetic
Wales. These include three E. tricarpa provenance- structure, in the event of cross pollination to natural
progeny trials which were established in New South stands (Stackpole and Harwood, 2001).
Wales and Victoria in 2000 by the Australian Low
Rainfall Tree Improvement Group (ALRTIG) (David In South Australia and Western Australia E. tricarpa
Bush, Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement is of great interest in areas with less than 650 mm
Group, pers. comm., 2002). annual rainfall. In Western Australia it requires
good, relatively deep soil and does not perform at
In the provenance trials conducted in Western all well when planted in periodically waterlogged
Australia, four provenances of E. tricarpa and 5 soils. For this reason this species might be planted
provenances of E. sideroxylon were tested. The trial on upper slopes in a complementary arrangement
site was situated in the Wellington catchment east with river red gum (E. camaldulensis) or swamp
of Manjimup and had a mean annual rainfall of yate (E. occidentalis) in the low-lying areas (Bush
around 650 mm. These trials were assessed at 6 et al., 2001; Stackpole and Harwood, 2001).
years of age. The ‘Bodalla’, New South Wales,
‘Orbost’ and ‘Bendigo’, Victoria, provenances of In New South Wales, there is significant target
E. tricarpa were consistently good performers in plantation area. The species would be suited to
terms of height and diameter growth, and also had replanting of recharge areas in low‑rainfall water
the highest proportion of single‑stemmed trees. One catchments (in the New South Wales part of the
provenance of E. tricarpa (from ‘Anglesea’, Victoria) Murray Darling Basin for example). Target regions
was consistently slower growing and had much with suitable soils and conditions would include
poorer form. All of these E. tricarpa provenances parts of the Riverina and the south west slopes
grew faster than the five provenances of E. sideroxylon, (Stackpole and Harwood, 2001).
with ‘Wangaratta’ (Killawarra forest, Victoria) the best
of the latter species (Stackpole and Harwood, 2001). Breeding and genetic resources
In Greening Australia trials established on the Depending on site and silviculture, E. tricarpa
north‑west slopes of New South Wales, E. sideroxylon seedling seed orchards may be expected to yield
has been one of the best-performing species, although at least moderate seed crops from age 6-8 years
form is usually poor (but correctable) (David Carr, (Stackpole and Harwood, 2001).
Greening Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
Seed of E. tricarpa collected from trees of superior
In a breeding strategy for E. tricarpa, Stackpole and form in natural and planted populations (Victorian
Harwood (2001) describe the target planting areas plus tree collection) is available from CSIRO Forestry
as follows: in Victoria, (i) the 500‑800 mm rainfall and Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre.
167
The first round of improved seed of this species is The rooting of stem cuttings of both species has been
expected to be available in 2007 through the moderately successful in preliminary trials at CSIRO
Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Program and Forestry and Forest products, with E. sideroxylon
the CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Australian achieving 28% and 4% respectively in two trials
Tree Seed Centre (ALRTIG website, 2002). and E. tricarpa achieving 9% and 17% in the same
two trials. The trials tested one provenance of each
A range of natural provenances of E. sideroxylon is
species alongside known easy‑rooting species. The
also available from the CSIRO Forestry and Forest
easy‑rooting species had high rooting percentages
Products Australian Tree Seed Centre. Three seedling
(E. grandis 85% and E. camaldulensis 76%), which
seed orchards of this species will be established in
showed that techniques used were suitable for
New South Wales in 2002 by ALRTIG (ALRTIG
them. Further trials are planned with adjustments to
website, 2002).
the techniques in an attempt to improve the rooting
success of species such as E. sideroxylon and
Silviculture E. tricarpa (Brammall and Harwood, 2000).
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this Other studies indicate that there is potential for
species. Further information is available through developing vegetative propagation programs for
sources listed under recommended reading. these species. Propagation of E. sideroxylon by
Summary silvicultural information and practices stem cuttings was reported by Burger and Lee
specific to this species are outlined below. (1987). Cheng et al. (1992) had success in
rooting stem cuttings of E. tricarpa.
Propagation
These species coppice vigorously and very persistently,
E. sideroxylon seed has an average viability and also tolerate lopping well (Poynton, 1979).
of 230 000 kg‑1 and E. tricarpa seed has an Native stands of E. tricarpa are usually managed
average viability of 140 000 kg‑1 (Gunn, 2001). on a coppice system for wood production (Stackpole,
Seed storage is orthodox. Seed of E. sideroxylon 2000). However, the value of using a coppicing
(2 seedlots) was stored at 18‑22°C for 5 years system needs to be considered in light of the cost
without dropping below 60% viability in a storage of protecting the stumps at harvesting, thinning the
trial at CSIRO. Only one seedlot of E. tricarpa was coppice and the possible loss of gains in productivity
trialled and its viability dropped to 38% in this time that might be achieved from the use of improved
(Gunn, 2001). Stackpole (2000) notes that E. tricarpa seed or provenances for the next rotation.
will keep in good condition for several years if stored
refrigerated at 3‑5°C in an airtight container. No Establishment
pre‑treatment is required for seed of either species
and the recommended temperature for germination
is 20°C, although no other temperatures have been
for the red ironbarks. Detailed information on various
tried for E. tricarpa.
establishment practices is available from several sources
The species is easily raised from seed in the nursery including government organisations (Queensland
following the general methods for eucalypt propagation Department of Primary Industries; Sustainability and
(Doran and Turnbull, 1997; Bird, 2000). Many Environment, Victoria), and farm forestry and
nurseries will grow seedlings on request and some landcare groups. Books such as Florence (1996),
specialise in producing trees for the farm forestry Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000) are
market. Under suitable conditions plantable size is also valuable resources. Websites of many of the
reached within 6 months of sowing. E. tricarpa can above organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
be successfully grown as open root stock (Stackpole, (e.g. DSE website: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/),
2000). Direct seeding of this species has not proven or these documents can be obtained by contacting
reliable (Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000). the organisations directly.
168
while the soil is still wet from winter rains. Planting
may occur later if site access is not available due to
waterlogging, which is often a problem. In Victoria
and New South Wales planting is done in September,
or July‑August in warmer districts where soils dry out
earlier. Planting in northern latitudes usually occurs
once the summer rains have begun between
November‑April.
Ritson et al. (1991) obtained growth responses
from E. tricarpa to water‑soluble nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds applied within one month
of planting, with continuing effect for three years.
Application of potassium may also be beneficial in
some cases (e.g. on duplex soils in Victoria) as well
as addition of trace elements such as iron, copper
and boron when required (Stackpole, 2000).
However, it is not common to apply fertiliser on
ex-pasture sites as it could result in problems with
toxicity.
Eucalyptus sideroxylon approximately 10-year-
old trial planting near Hamilton, Victoria, at the Management
Pastoral and Veterinary Institute.
Experience in South Africa showed that while fairly
erect, E. sideroxylon generally has a slightly sinuous
Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by or sometimes even crooked bole which, nevertheless,
machinery. To allow machinery to be used a under plantation conditions is usually clean to about
spacing of 3-5 m between rows should be used half-height. Forks may be somewhat numerous,
(Weiss, 1997). No spacing prescriptions have particularly in the region of the crown. Branching,
been formalized for planted stands, but they should on the other hand, is comparatively light, and the
be readily derivable from existing systems (Stackpole, tree has a compact, often rather sparsely-foliaged
2000). Knockaert (1984) tested three square planting crown when raised in stand form. As is to be expected,
spacings (1111, 625 and 400 stems ha‑1) of free-growing individuals have more robust limbs
E. sideroxylon in Morocco and found the densest and fuller, denser heads of intermediate spread
stocking preferable for volume production, but that (Poynton, 1979).
625 stems ha‑1 produced better piece size (individual
log size). A range of spacings and planting designs
are possible in farm forestry plantings in Australia.
Readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000)
theory, objectives and techniques in a farm forestry
and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of
context. Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done
options and their merits. Suitable initial spacings
to add value to the trees by aiming to increase the
for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and
recovery of sawn timber from the trunk and to make
4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings
it suitable for higher‑value appearance-grade
promote good form and allow ample selection for
products (Bird, 2000). Thinning removes defective
final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird, 2000).
trees and reduces competition between trees. The
Planting times in southern Australia with winter/ spacing of trees determines the ultimate height and
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early diameter of individual stems.
spring, predominantly determined by the severity
Bird (2000) comments that while red ironbarks are
of frost and minimum temperatures experienced. In
slow-growing, mature trees attain a good height
South Australia planting commonly occurs in June‑July
169
and diameter and exhibit a considerable degree of Protection
natural branch shedding. Heavy form-pruning helps
to some extent in correcting faults. Washusen et al. In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
(2000) state that while unmanaged E. sideroxylon and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
trees produced a moderate recovery of high-grade have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
sawn boards, pruning would have markedly pests. However, a certain amount of damage to
improved the recovery rate. natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases
Growth managing them. At present the main opportunities to
Growth data for plantation grown E. sideroxylon and
E. tricarpa is not available for Australia. In species
trial tests at Shepparton (Stackpole and Hamlet, 1999),
volumes of 2 m3 ha-1 were recorded at age two
years, but these are very early results and unreliable
for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
for prediction of the likely performance over a rotation
(Stackpole, 2000). In the trials in the Wellington
catchment (Western Australia) measured at six years,
E. sideroxylon averaged just under 1 m mean annual
height increment and E. tricarpa just over 1 m mean
annual height growth. Poynton (1979) noted that
in South Africa E. sideroxylon seldom maintained a
mean annual height growth of more than 1 m over In general, E. sideroxylon and E. tricarpa are robust
the first decade. Based on estimates of volume species which are rarely significantly affected by
growth in natural forests of central Victoria, it should insects or pathogens. Common pests of ironbark
be possible to obtain a mean annual increment of include the steel blue sawfly and lerps, though trees
2‑5 m3 ha‑1. In planted stands where management, may host a number of other sap-sucking and
including thinning, fertiliser and weed management, leaf-feeding insects. Sawflies (Perga species) have
as well as genetic selection, is carried out it should a voracious appetite and in heavy attacks stands
be possible to improve on these figures (Stackpole, can be defoliated. Lerp insect (psyllid) numbers can
2000). periodically increase, subjecting the host plant to a
cycle of defoliation and recovery. These outbreaks
E. sideroxylon from Barraba, New South Wales,
may last for 2-3 years while environmental conditions
was included in two Greening Australia species
are favourable. Severe infestations may cause some
trials in northern New South Wales. At the Tamworth
dieback and combined with other stresses may
site it had a mean height of 4.13 m (just under 1 m
seriously weaken the host tree. Relying on natural
height growth per year) and mean diameter at
predation is currently the only practical form of
breast height of 5.9 cm at 4.5 years of age. At the
control (Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000)
Wallangra site at five years of age it had a mean
height of 5.7 m (just over 1 m height growth per E. sideroxylon is a preferred host of Christmas
year) and a mean diameter at breast height of beetles. Weather is the major controller of beetle
10.7 cm (David Carr, Greening Australia, pers. numbers; outbreaks often occur when wet summers
comm., 2002). follow the break of a drought and can last several
years. Insecticidal control of Christmas beetles in
Results of a study by Washusen et al. (2000)
young plantations and farm tree plantings is sometimes
suggest that a rotation of around 40 years would
warranted during outbreaks to prevent severe
be desirable for E. sideroxylon as trees from a
defoliation. No products are currently registered for
26‑year‑old plantation had a lower recovery rate
control of Christmas beetles in south-eastern Australia
than the 40-year-old trees.
but Farrow (1996) outlines treatments used successfully
in experimental situations. In Christmas beetle prone
170
areas the planting of tolerant or resistant species Ironbark has been used for firewood, an application
and provenances of eucalypts is a better long‑term at which it excels and for which it is a preferred
strategy (Farrow, 1996). species in regions where it occurs. It is reported
to have sold for $105 tonne‑1 from a merchant’s
Trees in higher rainfall and colder areas appear
yard in Armidale, New South Wales (Bhati, 2001).
more prone to scale and associated sooty mould,
Its hardness, strength and durability resulted in other
psyllids and sawfly insects (Bird, 2000).
early uses such as piles, poles, posts, bridges, wharves,
mine timbers and props, railway sleepers and general
Utilisation construction. Its resistance to wear makes it suitable
for a range of applications which more recently
Wood include droppers for electric fences, outdoor furniture,
decorative picket fencing, flooring and decking,
The sapwood is dull yellow and narrow. It is
stair treads, bench tops and turned products, such
susceptible to Lyctus borer attack though amenable
as spokes, bearings and craftwood. There is also
to impregnation with preservatives (Poynton, 1979;
an increasing use of this wood for fine furniture (Bird,
Boland et al., 1984). The heartwood is a dark
2000; Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000). It is preferred as
earthen red with a fine, dense and often interlocked
a farm fencing timber due to its in‑ground durability
grain (Bird, 2000). It is very strong, very hard and
(David Carr, Greening Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
very durable with an air dry density of around
1170 kg m‑3 in natural stands (Boland et al., 1984). Non-wood
Plantation-grown timber will be lighter than that of
older trees, and fiddleback may be a feature of The species is hardy and relatively easy to establish
certain trees. It has a high (Class 1) durability rating on mine fill sites and should therefore be appropriate
(Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000). for reclamation planting. However, for water table
control in saline environments E. tricarpa and
Ironbark is relatively slow to air dry and care must E. sideroxylon are inferior to E. occidentalis and
be taken during the drying process to minimise they are completely unsuited if there is seasonal
surface checking. It can be air-dried with minimal waterlogging or salinity >5 dS m‑1. Clifton (1992)
degrade if handled carefully and initial air-drying is suggests that E. tricarpa would be very appropriate
slow. Log ends should be sealed. Thick back-sawn for break of slope plantations for recharge control.
boards are difficult to dry without degrade. It can Species tried previously, mainly E. globulus proved
also be successfully kiln dried, but due to its great to be too prone to drought death (Stackpole, 2000).
density, severe final drying conditions may require
humidity stress-relief and moisture-gradient-equalization E. sideroxylon is widely used as an ornamental and
at the end of kiln-drying. The wood can be glued for cut foliage in Australia and overseas. Cultivars
only with an epoxy resin (Pongracic, 1999). The have been selected from the red flowering form.
lacquered surface resists mechanical damage well Although E. tricarpa is not formally recognized in
the nursery trade, it is highly likely that this species
(Bird, 2000; Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000).
has been included in nursery trade collections
The timber can be sawn for appearance-grade (Stackpole, 2000). It is often selected for avenue
products using back-sawing strategies which have plantings due to the striking appearance of the bark
been shown to maximise the output of high quality (David Carr, Greening Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
products from small diameter eucalypts (Washusen
The species is important for honey production
et al., 2000). Forty‑year‑old E. sideroxylon from
(Cremer, 1990).
plantings in the southern Murray-Darling Basin had
little degrade during drying and moderate green The endangered regent honeyeater depends on
recoveries of select grade and better were produced E. sideroxylon in New South Wales as a food source
(Washusen et al., 2000; Bird, 2000). Finished during its breeding season, where it migrates in
boards are often attractively figured and have a response to flowering. The prolific nectar is also
distinct lustre (Poynton, 1979). Ironbark can be sliced utilised by a number of other birds, such as
to produce veneers (Boxshall and Jenkyn, 2000). honeyeaters and rainbow lorikeets (David Carr,
Greening Australia, pers. comm., 2002).
171
Limitations Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980.
The species’ intolerance of waterlogging, poor Canberra.
tolerance of salinity and moderate growth will Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
exclude it from some of the key tree planting sites, Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
particularly discharge sites, in the 400-600 mm Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
rainfall zone. Poor form, particularly of E. sideroxylon, Boxshall B, Jenkyn T, 2000. Ironbark. Farm Forestry
may also limit its inclusion in plantings until selection Species Profile for North Central Victoria. Department
and breeding provides access to improved germplasm. of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria.
In the short term, the use of severe form pruning Brammall B, Harwood CE, 2000. Vegetative propagation
may assist with this problem (Bird, 2000). by rooted cuttings of Eucalyptus species from temperate
Recommended Reading Symposium, Chile, September 2001. CSIRO Forestry
and Forest Products, Canberra.
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1999. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second edition.
Maryborough, Victoria. Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
Boxshall B, Jenkyn T, 2000. Ironbark. Farm Forestry Burger DW, Lee CI, 1987. Genetic variability in the
Species Profile for North Central Victoria. Department propagation of Eucalyptus sideroxylon by stem cuttings.
of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 5:31-32.
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Bush D, Harwood CE, Stackpole D, 2001. Overview of
Multipurpose Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC species selection process and tree improvement strategies.
Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower In: Harwood CE, Bulman P, Bush D, Mazanec R, Stackpole
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. D (eds). Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group:
Compendium of Hardwood Breeding Strategies. RIRDC
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Program. RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural strategy for Eucalyptus tricarpa in southern Australia. In:
Industries Research and Development Corporation, Harwood CE, Bulman P, Bush D, Mazanec R, Stackpole
Canberra. D (eds). Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group:
Compendium of Hardwood Breeding Strategies. RIRDC
Knockaert C, 1984. Stand density and yield of
Eucalyptus sideroxylon in the forests of the Mamora and
Development Corporation, Canberra. pp 94-113.
of Ben Slimane. Annales de la Recherche Forestiere au
Maroc 24:101-125. Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
Lepetu J, 1998. Investigation on sustainability of species
for sand dune stabilization in the Kalahari desert with
special reference to Tsabong, Botswana. SACCAR Washusen R, Waugh G, Hudson I, Vinden P, 2000.
Newsletter 42, pp 28-32. Gaborone, Botswana: Appearance product potential of plantation hardwoods
Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural from medium rainfall areas of the southern Murray-Darling
& Natural Resources Research and Training (SACCAR). Basin. Green product recovery. Australian Forestry
63:66-71.
Murless P, 1994. Two and a half years of beekeeping
in King William’s Town, South Africa. South African Bee Weiss EA, 1997. Essential Oil Crops. Centre for
Journal 66:100-105. Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) International,
Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests. Zednik F, 1978. Successful afforestation trials in the
ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for arid central region of Tunisia. Allgemeine Forstzeitung
International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 89:414-415.
173
17. Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker
Gully gum
Key features
Generally a medium to tall tree, 20-45 m
in height, of reasonable to good form
Moderate to fast growth
Good frost tolerance
Excellent coppicing ability
Potential for pulp wood production
A good source of commercial quantities
of 1,8-cineole essential oil ornament in suitable climatic zones. Experiments
testing a range of provenances of E. smithii are
A possible niche is cold, moderate-rainfall
limited and more comprehensive testing is
(700-1000 mm MAR) sites in south‑eastern
warranted, particularly in relation to oil production.
Australia, perhaps for a combination of products
such as pulpwood, essential oil and/or firewood.
Species overview occurrence
Eucalyptus smithii is a reasonably fast growing,
Description
medium-sized to tall forest tree which is very cold
tolerant. E. smithii will grow down to around E. smithii is a medium‑sized to tall forest tree, usually
600 mm mean annual rainfall (MAR) on deep, attaining 20‑45 m in height and 0.5‑1.5 m in
water holding soils, with moderate temperatures diameter at breast height with a long, well-shaped
and fairly uniform rainfall (it tolerates only short bole. On marginal sites it can be reduced to a small
periods of drought). However, its best growth is tree 10 m high with a short stout bole and heavy
achieved at higher rainfalls (i.e. around 1000 mm) branching. A mallee form of the species is found in
and it is particularly suitable where frost tolerance is the upper Snowy River area near the border between
a requirement for successful growth. It is commonly New South Wales and Victoria. E. smithii has a
planted for production of mining timber in southern covering of tightly-held, thick, longitudinally fissured,
Africa on 8‑10 year coppice rotations but otherwise dark brown rough bark over part or most of the trunk.
the wood is of limited utility being used for rough On the upper trunk and branches, the rough bark is
building and fencing material, fuel and for general shed in long ribbons, which often remain hanging
construction purposes. A very good paper pulp can in the crown, exposing a smooth, white or creamy
be produced from this species. E. smithii is probably bark below. The mallee form has smooth bark
best regarded as a source of commercial quantities throughout (Boland et al., 1984; Brooker and
of 1,8‑cineole-rich, foliar essential oils, managed as Kleinig, 1999).
a short-rotation (16 months) coppice crop in countries
Juvenile leaves are sessile, amplexicaul, opposite
in southern Africa and more recently in China. It may
for many pairs, lanceolate green (dimensions to
have potential as a tree for shade, shelter and
8 cm long x 1.3 cm wide). Adult leaves are stalked,
174
Figure 17.1: Natural distribution of Eucalyptus
smithii (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
alternating, narrow-lanceolate, concolorous, dull,

green (dimensions to 20 cm long x 1.5 cm wide).
Inflorescences are axillary, unbranched, 7-flowered
on stalks. Buds are pedicellate, clavate, diamond-
shaped or ovoid with a scar present; operculum
conical.
Like other eucalypts gully gum does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowers are white
and flowering occurs December to January. Fruit are
stalked, subglobular or hemispherical to campanulate Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter
with a steeply ascending, broad disc and 3 exserted Dry season length: 0-6 months
valves. Seed is brown-black, flattened and shallowly
reticulate (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). Seed is Mean maximum temperature 20-27°C
collected between September and May in natural hottest month:
stands (Gunn, 2001). The species is reported to Mean minimum temperature -3-7°C
be shy to seed in Swaziland, Africa (Doran, 2002). coldest month:
There will be regional and seasonal variability in
seed availability. Mean annual temperature: 7-17°C
Natural occurrence
Eucalyptus smithii occurs on the eastern side of the
suitable for Eucalyptus smithii are shown in black
Central and Southern Tablelands of New South Wales,
south from Yerranderie to eastern Victoria, south of
the Howe Range and the Angora Range; it also
grows as a smooth-barked mallee in the upper Snowy
River area (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999) (Figure 17.1).
The latitudinal range is 34°S to 38°S. It occupies
sites on lower slopes, near water courses and
swamps and sometimes on scarps and ridges,
on clay loam and sandy loams in tall open forest.
Where will it grow?

Eucalyptus smithii, incorporating data from both the
good growth:
175
Jacovelli (2002) gives the minimum mean annual
rainfall for planting E. smithii in Africa as 850 mm,
and rates the species as moderately hardy to drought,
and very hardy in terms of frost tolerance. The species
prefers good loamy soils or sandy loams with clay
subsoil where the soil never dries completely.
However it is capable of growing on a wide range
of soil textures as long as they are moderately fertile
(Boland et al., 1984; Boland et al., 1991).

Plantings
Eucalyptus smithii is widely planted in South Africa
for timber purposes and in the eastern Transvaal
it is harvested for its high‑cineole essential leaf
Planted Eucalyptus smithii in Canberra. oil (Coppen and Hone, 1992). It has also been
trialled and/or planted in other African countries
such as Angola, Malawi, Rwanda, Swaziland,
The map of areas predicted to be climatically Tanzania, Zaire and Zimbabwe for oil production.
suitable for planting E. sideroxylon (Figure 17.2) However, the poor economic climate in the late
was generated from the revised climatic details for 1980s and 1990s – poor oil prices and rising
the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, production costs – meant either that full scale oil
2002). These revisions were made to the climatic production never materialised (e.g. in Tanzania)
parameters, initially derived from the natural or that some production ceased (as in Swaziland).
distribution, on the basis of information from trials In South Africa, the area of eucalypt plantations
and plantings of this species both within and dedicated primarily to oil has now reduced to
outside its natural range. about 1800 ha, most of the reduction occurring
in E. smithii (Jacovelli, 2002).
Table 17.1: Best performing Eucalyptus smithii provenance at each of three trial sites in the ACT
(Clarke et al., 1997)
Mean
Height
Mean Mean of Best
Site Rainfall DBH Height Seedlot at
Best Provenance Age (yr) Name (mm) Soil Type (cm) (m) Site (m)
Mt Dromedary, 12 Uriarra 700 Sandy 17.8 16.9 16.9
Mittagong, 12 Uriarra 700 Sandy 17.4 13.8 16.9
Mt Dromedary, 12 Kowen 450-500 Sandy 13.2 8.3 12.7
Mittagong 12 Stromlo 600-650 Sandy 11.6 8.2 10.6
clay loam
176
Table 17.2: Best performing Eucalyptus smithii provenance at each of seven trial sites in Gippsland,
Approx.
Stem
Volume of
Approximate Best Seedlot
Rainfall Stem Volume at Site
Provenance Age (yr) Site Name (mm) Soil Type (m3 ha-1) (m3 ha-1)
Albion Park, 11 Mt Worth 1210 Clay loam 370 550
New South Wales East
Mt Buck, Victoria 11 Delburn 1000 Clay loam 300 320
Albion Park, 11 Flynns Creek 760 Sandy loam 150 200
New South Wales
Albion Park, 11 Stradbroke 600 Loamy sand 130 270
New South Wales
Bodalla, New 11 Stockdale 690 Loamy sand 170 170
South Wales
Mt Buck, New 10 Waygara 870 Sandy clay 140 180
South Wales loam
Mt Buck, Victoria 10 Tostaree 820 Loamy sand 310 370
E. smithii is also planted in Asia (China), Africa, E. smithii was included in species and provenance
North America (Hawaii), South America, Australia trials on seven sites in Gippsland, Victoria, and results
(New South Wales and Victoria) and New Zealand. of the trials at age 10-11 years were reported by
Duncan et al. (2000) (Table 17.2). The three seedlots
Provenance trials included were ‘Albion Park’ near Wollongong and
‘Bodalla’, New South Wales, at five sites, and ‘Mt
No comprehensive provenance trials of E. smithii
Buck’ north of Orbost, Victoria, at seven sites. E. smithii
have been reported and where provenances have
ranked well at most sites, doing best compared to
been compared across sites in trials there has been
other species at the 690-1000 mm MAR sites on
no consistency in their performance.
sandy clay loams. It performed poorly on the sandy
Eucalyptus smithii was included in species and Stradbroke site with low-rainfall and had its best
provenance trials in the Australian Capital Territory growth at the high-rainfall site of Mt Worth East, but
on three sites of varying rainfall. The three provenances other species outperformed it at this site. There was
included were ‘Bombay Rd’, ‘Mt Dromedary’ and no consistent pattern in the ranking of the E. smithii
‘Mittagong’, New South Wales (Table 17.1). It provenances across sites and at most sites the
performed best at the higher-rainfall site at Uriarra with performance of all provenances was fairly similar,
the ‘Mt Dromedary’ provenance being the highest except at the Flynns Creek site where the ‘Mt Buck’,
ranking of all 120 species and provenances trialled (Orbost, Victoria) provenance was inferior.
at this site (based both on height and an index
Where E. smithii has been grown on favourable
combining diameter at breast height and survival).
sites in Central and Southern Africa this species has
At the lower-rainfall sites it did not perform as well
often produced higher biomass yields (wood and
against other species but all three provenances
foliage) than other eucalypts. It appears to be a fairly
were ranked in the top third (Clarke et al., 1997).
177
consistent species throughout its natural range with Oxford Forestry Institute has also managed up
regard to oil yield and cineole content, though there to 67% success rooting shoot cuttings taken from
is some variation between and within provenances seedlings grown from commercial seed, although
in terms of other factors like biomass production and there was marked variation in the rooting ability
frost tolerance. Provenance trials in Swaziland found of clones. These results indicate that there is a
the best overall performers came from ‘Tallaganda’ possibility of using micropropagation for the rapid
State Forest and ‘Narooma’. In South African trials multiplication of selected oil-producing eucalypts
‘Larrys Mountain’ and ‘Mount Dromedary’ were (Jacovelli, 2002).
the best-performing provenances in terms of growth
Eucalyptus smithii is a strongly coppicing species
performance and frost tolerance (Jacovelli, 2002).
and this characteristic is exploited in its management
In China, E. smithii has been identified through for essential oil production.
provenance trials as having great potential as
General nursery practices are suitable for producing
a multi-purpose crop for fuelwood, pulpwood,
containerised seedlings of E. smithii. These are
fibreboard furnish and essential oil production
described in texts such as Florence (1996), Doran
due to its growth rate, biomass yields and wood
and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries
production.
The China Eucalypt Research Centre has developed
Establishment
a breeding program for improvement of this species Locally successful methods of plantation establishment
for oil production (Chen, 2002). for a range of major forest tree species are suitable
for E. smithii. Detailed information on various
A range of natural provenances of E. smithii is
establishment practices is available from several sources
available, for establishing trial plantings, from the
including government organisations (Queensland
Department of Primary Industries; Sustainability
Seed Centre.
and Environment, Victoria), and farm forestry and
landcare groups. Books such as Florence (1996),
Silviculture Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000) are
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this also valuable resources. Websites of many of the
species. Further information is available through above organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
sources listed under recommended reading. (e.g. DSE website http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ ),
Summary silvicultural information and practices or these documents can be obtained by contacting
specific to this species are outlined below. the organisations directly.
Propagation machinery. To allow machinery to be used a
There are about 300 000 viable seed kg‑1 of seed spacing of 3‑5 m between rows should be used
and chaff mixture. No pre-sowing treatment is required (Weiss, 1997). A range of spacings and planting
and rapid and complete germination is achieved under designs are possible in farm forestry plantings.
moist, warm (20‑25°C optimal in the laboratory) Readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000)
conditions in the presence of light (Gunn, 2001). and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of
Seed storage is orthodox and seed can be stored options and their merits. Suitable initial spacings
for several years in cool dry conditions provided for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and
their moisture content is kept below 8%. 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings
promote good form and allow ample selection for
In South Africa, E. smithii is rated as a difficult final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird 2000).
species to root from cuttings (Jacovelli, 2002).
Shoot tip cuttings of E. smithii have been successfully If growing specifically for oil production the objective
propagated by the Oxford Forestry Institute. The of the plantation is to maximise leaf biomass rather
178
than woody material. Stocking densities higher than When grown for pulpwood or firewood a coppice
those usually employed for wood production have rotation of 10-15 years, as suggested by Noble
been tried with a view to achieving this. In Swaziland (2002) for E. globulus subsp. globulus for south‑eastern
one grower planted at a spacing of 3.0 m x 1.5 m Australia, may be appropriate for E. smithii. Further
(2222 stems ha‑1) and Jacovelli (2002) suggests that discussions of theory, objectives and techniques for
even higher densities might be effective (even greater pruning and thinning are given in Bird (2000) and
than 10 000 stems ha‑1). However, the sustainability Reid and Stephen (2001).
of such high a stocking would need to be evaluated
If managing for oil production a coppice system is
and tested on various sites (Jacovelli, 2002).
often employed. Research in Swaziland found that
Planting times in southern Australia with winter/ the first rotation (seedling crop) should be longer
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early (20‑30 months, depending on the growth rates)
spring, predominantly determined by the severity than the subsequent coppice cycle. Presumably this
of frost and minimum temperatures experienced. In gives the root system time to develop and become
South Australia planting commonly occurs in better able to support the subsequent coppicing.
June‑July while the soil is still wet from winter rains. In Swaziland, the E. smithii coppice was cut on
Planting may occur later if site access is not available a cycle of 12‑18 months, depending on growth
due to waterlogging, which is often a problem. In rates. This cycle was based on the time taken to
Victoria and New South Wales planting is done in reach canopy closure. The number of times a crop
September, or July‑August in warmer districts where can be coppiced depends on stocking levels, the
soils dry out earlier. Planting in northern latitudes coppicing ability of the species and the nutrient
usually occurs once the summer rains have begun status of the site. In Southern Africa E. smithii
between November‑April. plantations have been repeatedly harvested for oil
for over 20 years with little apparent loss of stool
vigour. As a general rule plantations with less than
75% stocking should be replanted. In Swaziland
early growth is common practice in the successful
the stems were typically cut about 15 cm above
establishment of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere.
the ground (Jacovelli, 2002).
This is particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there
is often no response on ex-pasture sites, and soil Mechanical harvesting has not been considered
degradation can result from very large applications appropriate or cost effective under African
of nitrogen fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees can conditions to date. E. smithii is not as suited to
respond to a fertiliser application only if other mechanical harvesting as tough mallee species
factors are not limiting, e.g. water availability (low such as E. polybractea (Jacovelli, 2002).
rainfall or heavy weed competition are two factors
that can affect this). Application rates vary widely Growth
depending on the site, and readers should access
There are no growth rates available for plantations
of E. smithii in Australia. However, the range of mean
such as Dell et al. (1995), Attiwill and Adams
annual increments for E. smithii at 10‑11 years of age
(1996) and Nambiar and Brown (1997).
in species and provenance trials in Gippsland, Victoria,
was 11.9‑34.9 m3 ha‑1 (Duncan et al., 2000).
Maintenance
In South Africa the bole of E. smithii has tended to Protection
be slightly sinuous and apt to fork, and its branches
to be ascending and frequently a little heavy. Also, In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
dead stubs have tended to persist for some years and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
(Poynton, 1979). The relatively poor wood quality have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
of this species means that the cost of thinning and pests. However a certain amount of damage to natural
pruning may not be warranted as its likely range forests and plantations by pests and diseases is
of products are firewood and rough farm timbers. inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of
179
managing them. At present the main opportunities to African trials of nine species on two sites which
reduce this damage are provided by management were assessed for growth and pulp properties.
options such as maintaining the health and vigour They found E. smithii to be one of three most
of trees and stands at as high a level as possible productive species in terms of growth and pulp
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment, properties. It had fast growth, high pulp yield and
not planting the species on sites that are marginal brightness but low alkali consumption and kappa
for it, and regular monitoring for insect damage or number. The researchers also found that most
unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996). variation in the commercially important properties
Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations (pulp yield, fibre mass per tree and alkali consumption)
the control of pests by pesticide application is not occurred between trees and suggested that the
practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs greatest gains from tree breeding were likely to
involved, monitoring required and environmental be realized through selection of suitable individual
issues of chemical use. trees from a range of provenances.
There is little information on the susceptibility of this The timber has been utilised for fuelwood; round
species to insects and pathogens in Australia due wood; pit props; sawn or hewn building timbers;
to limited planting to date. exterior fittings; fences and pulp including short
fibre pulp.
In South Africa the species appears to be very
susceptible to diseases, notably pathogenic fungi
causing root rot and stem cankers (Jacovelli, 2002).
Non-wood
The leaves of E. smithii contain essential oil which
Utilisation has been extracted by commercial distillation in
Australia in the past (Cremer, 1990) and was at one
Wood time the main commercial species grown overseas
(Lassak, 1989). However, this distinction now
The heartwood of E. smithii is pale pink and easy belongs to E. globulus subsp. globulus. Boland
to distinguish from the cream-coloured or bluish-grey et al. (1991) report that 1,8‑cineole is the major
sapwood. The wood is close-grained, interlocked, component (75‑84%) of the essential oil of E. smithii,
heavy, hard and moderately durable but not very with an oil yield based on fresh weight of 2.4‑3.0%.
strong. The sapwood is subject to Lyctus attack Other authors report oil yields of 1.0‑2.2% and
(Poynton, 1979; Boland et al., 1984; Cremer, cineole contents of 70‑80% (Poynton, 1979; Lassak,
1990). Although E. smithii can produce reasonably 1989). The rectified oil is used in medicinal
straight stems, the wood splits badly and it can have eucalyptus oil (Boland et al., 1991).
spiral grain (Poynton, 1979; Jacovelli, 2002). The
A range of oil yields have been reported, with the
wood is difficult to work but is used to some extent
best such as the 600 kg of oil ha‑1 yr‑1 obtained in
for construction purposes (Poynton, 1979; Cremer,
former Zaire, generally obtained from sites of high
1990).
growth potential (e.g. deep, fertile soils and high
Planted trees of 14‑year‑old E. smithii from two trial rainfall) . The average oil yield from 1979 to 1985
sites in the ACT were found to have basic densities for plantations in Swaziland was 120 kg ha‑1 yr‑1.
of 552‑568 kg m‑3. Pulpwood evaluation tests carried This was on sites with 845 mm MAR and an often
out on these trees indicated it has considerable prolonged dry season. This production can be
potential as a pulpwood species, ranking above compared with the yields obtained from natural
E. nitens (a commercially important pulpwood stands of E. polybractea in Australia which are
species) at both ACT trial sites. Hicks and Clark around 30‑150 kg ha‑1 from an 18‑month harvest
(2001) note that E. smithii is already extensively cycle (Jacovelli, 2002).
planted in South Africa for this purpose and that
A positive sign in the oil industry, as Jacovelli (2002)
further tree breeding work may be necessary to
notes, is the resurgence in interest, mainly in
improve the form of trees from some provenances.
developed countries, in natural products. Eucalyptus
Clarke et al. (1999) also report results of South
180
oils have been increasingly used in a wide range Boland DJ, Brophy JJ, House APN (eds), 1991. Eucalyptus
of therapeutic products and applications, including Leaf Oils: Use, Chemistry, Distillation and Marketing.
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research,
aromatherapy. Aromatherapists sometimes prefer oil
Canberra.
from E. smithii because of a perception that it is
better tolerated by the skin (Beerling et al., 2002). Brooker MIH, Kleinig DA, 1999. Field Guide to Eucalypts.
However, as large quantities of eucalyptus oil are
Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
being produced by countries such as China, any
decision to produce for this market should be Chen S, 2002. Cultivation and production of eucalypts
in the People’s Republic of China: with special reference
carefully researched.
to the leaf oils. In: Coppen JJW (ed), 2002. Eucalyptus:
Eucalyptus smithii is a suitable tree for use in the Genus Eucalyptus. Taylor and Francis Inc., New York,
shelterbelts and windbreaks (Poynton 1979; pp 202-215.
Cremer, 1990). Clarke BH, Whitfeld SJ, Vercoe TK, 1997. The growth
of eucalypt and acacia provenances in the ACT and at
Tallaganda New South Wales. Report to the Southern
Limitations Tablelands Farm Forestry Network Inc. on the growth of
tree species in the ACT Forests and CSIRO’s Fuelwood
The relatively poor wood quality limits the range Trials and Tagfor Agroforestry Partners, Tallaganda Species
of products for which the timber can be utilised. Trial. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra.
Recommended reading Clarke CRE, Shaw MJP, Wessels AM, Jones WR, 1999.
Effect of differences in climate on growth, wood, and
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A pulp properties of nine eucalypt species at two sites.
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Tappi Journal 82:89-99.
Maryborough, Victoria. Coppen JJW, Hone GA, 1992. Eucalyptus Oils – A
Review of Production and Markets. Natural Resources
Coppen JJW (ed), 2002. Eucalyptus: The Genus Institute Bulletin, No. 56.
Eucalyptus. Taylor and Francis Inc., New York.
Cremer KW (ed), 1990. Trees for Rural Australia. CSIRO
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose Division of Forestry and Forest Products. Inkata Press,
Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No. Melbourne.
University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders
References 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International
plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker Species
optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian Digest. Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM)
Forestry 56:385-390. – a silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Doran JC, 2002. Genetic improvement of eucalypts: with
Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. special reference to oil bearing species. In Coppen JJW
(ed), 2002. Eucalyptus: the Genus Eucalyptus. Taylor
Beerling J, Meakins S, Small L, 2002. Eucalyptus oil and Francis Inc., New York, pp 75-101.
products: formulations and legislation. In: Coppen JJW
(ed), 2002. Eucalyptus: the Genus Eucalyptus. Taylor Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
and Francis Inc., New York, pp 345-364. Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute, Duncan MJ, Baker TG, Appleton R, Stokes RC, 2000.
Maryborough, Victoria. Growth of Eucalypt Plantation Species Across Twelve
Sites in Gippsland, Victoria. CFTT Report No.: 99/056.
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria.
Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne. Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt
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Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds), 1997. Management of
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests.
Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. [Unpublished] ACIAR Monograph No. 43. Australian Centre for
Hicks C, Clark NB, 2001. Pulpwood Quality of 13
Eucalypt Species with Potential for Farm Forestry. A report Noble P, 2002. Blue gum for farm forestry. Agriculture
for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication Notes. Department of Sustainability and Environment,
No. 01/164, Rural Industries and Research Development Victoria (available online at: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au ).
Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts. 262 pp. Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry,
Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau, Government Pretoria, South Africa.
Jacovelli PA, 2002. Cultivation and production of eucalypts Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
in Africa: with special reference to the leaf oils. In Coppen R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
JJW (ed), 2002. Eucalyptus: The Genus Eucalyptus. University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Taylor and Francis Inc., New York, pp 216-238.
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profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Program. RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries
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Production Seminar held at Gnowangerup 14 February
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Agriculture, Western Australia.
182
18. Eucalyptus tereticornis
Forest red gum, blue gum
Eucalyptus tereticornis subsp. tereticornis Smith
Eucalyptus tereticornis subsp. mediana Brooker and Slee
Species overview
E. tereticornis is a versatile, fast growing and
strongly coppicing tree species which is widely
planted overseas. It has been especially successful
in areas with summer rainfall followed by a moderate
to severe dry season (seasonally-dry tropics), although
fast-growing provenances adapted to a winter
rainfall are also available from the southern part
of its natural distribution.
Experience of growing the species in Australia
Key features does not mirror that from overseas. The species’
high susceptibility to insect and fungal attack in
Fast growing tree of poor-moderate form
forestry trials and its poorer performance compared
Good drought tolerance with other species make its use for high yield wood
Southern provenances can be frost tolerant production untenable (Dickinson et al., 2001; David
Lee, Queensland Forest Research Institute; Ian
Tolerant of seasonal waterlogging Johnson, State Forests of New South Wales and
Strongly coppicing species Des Stackpole, Sustainability and Environment,
Moderately salt tolerant

Prefers fairly fertile well drained alluvial soils,
sandy or gravely loams
Some provenances are tolerant of very acid soils
Suffers from wood borer and is very susceptible
to some other insects and fungi
Its susceptibility to insect attack has restricted is
use for large scale wood production plantings
A suitable firewood species
An important habitat tree due to its hollow-
forming habit and its suitability as a food for koalas
A major source of pollen for honey production.
E. tereticornis subsp. tereticornis natural stand in

Queensland.
183
pers. comm., 2002). However, the species is a
valuable tree for land rehabilitation and habitat
as it has a hollow‑forming habit and grows in
difficult environmental conditions (Seamus Batstone,
Department of Primary Industry Queensland, pers.
comm., 2002). The timber from this type of planting
is likely to be good for firewood, turning, outdoor
furniture, fencing, posts etc.
E. tereticornis is generally regarded as moderately
frost tolerant, while certain provenances with greater
frost tolerance have been identified from the southern,
temperate part of the species distribution. It is a
moderately salt-tolerant species (Sun and Dickinson,
1995 and 1997); reduced growth can be expected
at ECe of about 5‑10 dS m‑1 and reduced survival
above about 10‑15 dS m‑1 (Marcar et al., 1995).
The Loch Sport, Victoria, provenance occurs on highly
Eucalyptus tereticornis subsp. mediana at
acid soils with a pH down to 3.5, and some tropical
Traralgon, Victoria.
provenances occur on acid soils e.g. provenances
from Papua New Guinea grow on soils of around There have been changes to the nomenclature of
pH 4. These populations may have an application in populations of E. tereticornis and E. camaldulensis
plantings on acid sulphate soils (Lex Thomson, CSIRO in far northern Queensland. Red gum populations
Forestry and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2002). in far northern Queensland formerly known as
E. tereticornis is proving a valuable partner in various E. tereticornis are now regarded as belonging
hybrid combinations with other fast‑growing eucalypts, to E. camaldulensis, including the Laura, Palmer,
including E. grandis and E. urophylla. Wood from Walsh rivers (E. camaldulensis subsp. simulata
natural stands and overseas plantings is used for a Brooker and Kleinig) and Kennedy and Morehead
wide range of purposes including light and heavy Rivers (E. camaldulensis subsp. obtusa [Dehnh.]
construction, flooring, fencing, firewood, outdoor Blakely), (Doran and Burgess, 1993; Brooker
furniture, charcoal, paper, poles, posts, mining timber, and Kleinig, 1994). The Victorian population
hardboard and particleboard, while the tree is of E. tereticornis has also been revised and is
used for shelterbelts, shade and in apiculture. now regarded as a subspecies i.e. E. tereticornis
subsp. mediana Brooker and Slee (Brooker and
Kleinig, 1999).
Juvenile leaves are on stalks, ovate, bluish green
occurrence or green (subsp. tereticornis) or glaucous (subsp.
mediana), to 13 × 8 cm. The adult leaves are
Description stalked, alternate, narrow-lanceolate to lanceolate,
A medium-sized to tall forest tree attaining 20-50 m concolorous, green (dimensions to 22 cm long
in height and up to 2 m in diameter. The trunk × 3 cm wide) (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
is usually straight and clear for more than half of The inflorescences are axillary and unbranched,
the total height, with the major branches steeply 7-11 flowered, on stalks 2.5 cm long. The buds are
inclined. Bark is shed in irregular plates leaving a elongated, with a distinctive horn-shaped operculum.
smooth or granular, mottled surface of white, grey, The flowers are white, rarely pink. Fruit are woody
dark grey and bluish patches over the trunk. The capsules, stalked, hemispherical or ovoid including
trunk may carry a short stocking of rough, dark the broad disc, valves 4 (5), strongly exserted
grey to black dead bark (Boland et al., 1984; (Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). The seed is usually
Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). black with pitted surface and toothed edges
184
(Boland et al., 1984). Seed of E. tereticornis Figure 18.1: Natural distribution of E. tereticornis
subsp. mediana are variable with mixed black, subsp. tereticornis and E. tereticornis
single-coated and yellow, double-coated seeds subsp. mediana (Jovanovic, unpublished 2002)
(Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
This species, like other eucalypts, does not develop
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). In Australia the
flowering period is from April to October (subsp.
tereticornis) or November to January (subsp. mediana)
(Brooker and Kleinig, 1999) with mature seed
available from January to March (Boland et al.,
Natural occurrence
E. tereticornis has the most extensive latitudinal
range (9-38°S) of any species in the genus
eucalyptus. It occurs along the coast and on the
adjacent hills and plains of eastern Australia with
E. tereticornis subsp. tereticornis occurring from Where will it grow?
around Batemans Bay, New South Wales in the
Climate parameters for the natural distribution
south to about Cooktown in far northern Queensland
of both E. tereticornis subsp. tereticornis and
(Figure 18.1). E. tereticornis subsp. mediana occurs
E. tereticornis subsp. tereticornis are as follows
in the Bairnsdale‑Lakes Entrance area of eastern
(Tom Jovanovic, CSIRO Forestry and Forest
Victoria (Figure 18.1). Most populations occur within
Products, pers. comm., 2002):
100 km of the sea but the distribution extends
further inland in Queensland; near Roma, Alpha,
Charters Towers and Mt Surprise. E. tereticornis
also occurs naturally in Papua New Guinea Rainfall regime: Uniform/
(Boland et al., 1984; Brooker and Kleinig, 1999). bimodal, summer
The natural distribution of E. tereticornis ranges from Dry season length: 0-8 months
monsoonal with a marked wet and dry season in Mean maximum temperature 21-35°C
Papua New Guinea and northern Australia to areas hottest month:
of summer rainfall in central and southern Queensland
to uniform rainfall in temperate eastern Victoria Mean minimum temperature -1-17°C
(Eldridge et al., 1993). Coastal and lower elevations coldest month:
are frost free, but some inland sites may experience Mean annual temperature: 9-26°C
up to 30 frosts annually (Boland et al., 1984).
Absolute minimum temperature: -8°C
Alluvial flats subject to flooding are preferred by
this species in low‑rainfall regions. In higher‑rainfall A climatic profile (Booth et al., 1988) for tropical
areas it grows on the lower slopes of hillsides and E. tereticornis, incorporating data from both the
extends to mountain slopes and hillsides. Soils natural distribution and from sites where the species
include rich alluvials, sandy or gravely loams and has been grown successfully as an exotic, gives the
seasonally waterlogged clays in forested wetlands following key conditions for survival and good growth:
(Boland et al., 1984; Stanley and Ross, 1986;
Specht, 1990). A neutral or slightly acid pH is
preferred (Marcar et al., 1995).
185
proven to be susceptible to insect and fungal attack
on the coastal lowlands of Queensland and northern
Rainfall regime: Summer New South Wales. Insect attack has also been a
Dry season length: not given problem in Victorian plantings.

hottest month:
Mean minimum temperature 0-19°C Plantings
coldest month:
E. tereticornis was one of the earliest eucalypts exported
Mean annual temperature: 16-26°C as seed from Australia to various countries in the
late nineteenth century, e.g. Pakistan, Ethiopia,
Zimbabwe, Philippines, Uganda. Many of the
Figure 18.2: Areas predicted to be climatically early introductions into other countries were derived
suitable for Eucalyptus tereticornis are shown in from very few original trees (Eldridge et al., 1993).
black (Booth et al., 1988)
E. tereticornis has been especially successful when
planted in areas with summer rainfall followed by
a moderate to severe dry season (Eldridge et al.,
1993). Davidson (1988) identified E. tereticornis
as the third most important plantation species in
the tropics with an estimated plantation area of
780 000 ha in 1980. It is also an important
reforestation species in Sri Lanka, China, in South
American countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Chile and Uruguay and in countries of central,
southern and western Africa and the Pacific.
Provenance trials
Tree form and growth of E. tereticornis varies
The map of areas predicted to be climatically considerably according to provenance, as shown
suitable for planting tropical provenances of in the results of many provenance trials in many
E. tereticornis (Figure 18.2) was generated from countries. The best provenances in overseas plantings
the revised climatic details for the species as listed for the wet-dry tropics are from near ‘Mount Garnet’,
above (Booth et al., 1988). These revisions were ‘Helenvale’, ‘Mareeba’ and ‘Ravenshoe’ in Queensland
made to the climatic parameters, initially derived and from Papua New Guinea (Eldridge et al., 1993).
from the natural distribution, on the basis of information In some instances growth rates can be impressive
from trials and plantings of this species both within e.g. in Uganda, these provenances reached 14 m
and outside its natural range. Overseas, in height and 10 cm diameter after 4 years (J.
E. tereticornis appears to grow best on well-drained, Davidson data, cited in Eldridge et al., 1993).
fairly light-textured soils in areas receiving an annual Despite its promise E. tereticornis has not done well
rainfall of >800 mm. It does, however, grow on a in trials in Australia to date. Its performance has been
wide range of soils from light to heavy and is tolerant variable and has not reflected the performance of
of seasonal waterlogging, moderate salinity (some the species in overseas plantings.
provenances) and drought. A provenance of the
The Queensland Forest Research Institute (QFRI) has
species from Loch Sport, Victoria, has exhibited
tested E. tereticornis in over fifty species trials across
good tolerance to alkaline conditions and would
northern New South Wales and southern Queensland
be suitable to winter and uniform rainfall regions
in a large range of environments, and has two seed
(Thomson, 1988). In Australia E. tereticornis has
186
orchards established. E. tereticornis was previously firewood production if routine silvicultural care
(in 1997) perceived to be a priority species suitable were supplied (Des Stackpole, Forest Science
for ‘blue gum flats’, a land base that was plentiful, Centre Victoria, pers. comm., 2002).
and was potentially available for plantation
development. Across all these trials E. tereticornis Breeding and genetic resources
has performed poorly relative to other species
under test. It suffers from wood borer, is behind E. tereticornis is of interest as a parent species
other species in growth and is susceptible to lerps in various hybrid combinations. It is being used in
and Mycosphaerella. In north Queensland the China with E. urophylla and the hybrid E. urophylla
species is doing better (Sun and Dickinson, 1997), x E. grandis in an attempt to increase the resistance
but the spotted gums (e.g. Corymbia citriodora of these lines to termites, bacterial wilt and drought
subsp. variegata), E. pellita, E. cloeziana and a and to improve wood density and general adaptability
range of Corymbia hybrids are doing better than (Xiang et al., 1996).
E. tereticornis across all sites in replicated trials. The hybrid E. grandis × E. tereticornis has demonstrated
As a result QFRI does not currently see a place for an ability to survive extended drought periods and to
pure E. tereticornis in plantations, but some of the rapidly respond to improved soil moisture conditions
hybrids with E. tereticornis as a parent (see below) when they occur in the Congo and Zambia (Turnbull
are showing potential (David Lee, Queensland and Pryor, 1984; Bouvet, 1997). Hybrids between
Forest Research Institute, pers. comm., 2002). E. grandis × E. tereticornis combine the good stem
The Department of Primary Industry Queensland form and wood qualities of E. grandis and the drought
is trialing E. tereticornis in several different areas. resistance of E. tereticornis for planting in areas where
However, trials are only young and the provenance there is a prolonged dry season and E. grandis
(Laura) that is doing well in a flood plain trial in the cannot be grown (Venkatesh and Sharma, 1979).
dry tropics of Central Queensland is now regarded Queensland Forestry Research Institute established
as a subspecies of E. camaldulensis. Early data from trials on numerous sites to test suitability of eucalypt
a species trial on a tropical, coastal tablelands site species, including interspecific hybrids from South
(high rainfall, soil acidic with a pH 4-5 and very Africa, for marginal subtropical environments in
leached, high temperatures in summer and subject north-eastern Australia. Early performance (two
to quite severe frosts) shows a provenance from years of age) indicated that a hybrid of E. grandis
‘Burdekin River’, Queensland, doing well with 92% x E. tereticornis was promising in a marginal inland
survival and very competitive growth compared to environment of south‑eastern Queensland (Lee et
the other 30 species. Further trials, being established al., 2001). On the wetter coastal areas, however,
this year, will include other provenances of the performance of these hybrids have been very
E. tereticornis subsp. tereticornis (Seamus Batstone, poor, with much higher incidence of disease and
Department of Primary Industry Queensland, pers. insect attack (Dickinson et al., 2001).
comm., 2002).
State Forests of New South Wales also planted
State Forests of New South Wales has done very some E. grandis x E. tereticornis hybrids from South
little work with E. tereticornis to date. It has recently Africa in several trials near Casino, in 1998‑99,
been included in species trials on poorer north and these were heavily attacked by insects. Most
coast sites but these have not been assessed yet trees were reduced to runts or bushes and the few
(Ian Johnson, State Forests of New South Wales, with any reasonable size and form at age 3-4 years
pers. comm., 2002). are being attacked by borers. There are plans to
In Victoria its performance in several trials has include some hybrids of E. grandis x E. tereticornis
been mediocre to very poor, insect attack being from South Africa in trials in southern inland New
one of the major problems (Frank Hirst, Desmond South Wales, where insect pressures are probably
Stackpole and Tom Baker, Sustainability and lower. These will be planted in 2003-2004 (Ian
Environment Victoria, pers. comm., 2002). However, Johnson, State Forests of New South Wales pers.
it would be a suitable farm forestry species for comm., 2002).
187
Silviculture Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), and farm
forestry and landcare groups. Books such as Florence
General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this (1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Bird (2000)
species. Further information is available through are also valuable resources. Websites of many of the
sources listed under recommended reading. above organisations have ‘Fact Sheets’ available
Summary silvicultural information and practices (e.g. QFRI website http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/
specific to this species are outlined below. hardwoodsqld/), or these documents can be
Propagation
E. tereticornis is usually propagated from seed. machinery. To allow machinery to be used, a
There are an average of 600 000 viable seed spacing of 3-5 m between rows should be used
kg‑1 of seed and chaff mix (Gunn, 2001). No (Weiss, 1997). A range of spacings and planting
pre‑sowing treatment is required and rapid and designs are possible in farm forestry plantings.
complete germination is achieved under moist, Readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000)
warm (25°, 30° or 35°C optimal in the laboratory) and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of
conditions in the presence of light. Seed storage is options and their merits. Suitable initial spacings
orthodox and seed viability will be maintained for for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and
more than 10 years if stored dry (5-8% moisture 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings
content) in air-tight containers in the refrigerator promote good form and allow ample selection for
(3-5°C) (Boland et al., 1980). final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird 2000).
E. tereticornis is relatively easy to propagate Overseas, spacing and cropping systems are very
vegetatively. Grafting has also been successful, with variable ‑ from community plantings around homes,
good results using apical rind grafting in nursery beds villages and roads to closely-spaced commercial
(Martin, 1971; Fenton et al., 1977). In this case plantations ‑ and depend on the end‑products
scions should be taken from the basal part of young required. In India, when pulpwood and firewood
shoots about 3-5 mm in diameter and consist of a are the principal objectives, a rotation of 5-6 years
length of shoot with two leaves cut back to the petioles. with a spacing of 1.5 m × 1.5 m is considered
desirable (Tewari, 1992). Also in India, wider
spacings of 4 m × 2 m or 6 m × 1.5 m are
containerised seedlings of E. tereticornis. These are
recommended when crops are to be grown
described in texts such as Doran (1990) and Doran
between the tree rows during the first three years
and Turnbull (1997). Many nurseries will grow
(Tewari, 1992).
seedlings on request and some specialise in producing
trees for the farm forestry market. Seedlings of On acid sulphate soil at Tan Tao, Vietnam, trees
E. tereticornis are planted out in the field when they were planted on mounds to avoid waterlogging
reach a height of about 25 cm, which is usually with a spacing of 1.5 m × 2 m (Nguyen Hoang
around 3‑5 months after sowing (Webb et al., Nghia, 1997).
1984). In tropical climates this should coincide
Planting times in southern Australia vary from early
with the onset of the wet season.
winter to early spring, predominantly determined
by the severity of frost and minimum temperatures
Establishment
experienced. In South Australia, planting commonly
Locally successful methods of plantation establishment occurs in June‑July whereas in many parts of Victoria
for a range of major forest tree species are suitable and southern New South Wales planting would occur
for E. tereticornis. Detailed information on various later, around September‑October. Planting in northern
establishment practices is available from several latitudes usually occurs once the summer rains have
sources including government organisations begun between November‑April, however February‑
(Queensland Department of Primary Industries; April is preferred so that young seedlings will be
exposed to a shorter period of high temperatures.
188
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and Growth
early growth is common practice in the successful Growth data for plantation grown E. tereticornis is
establishment of eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. not available for Australia and with the insect and
This is particularly effective on ex-forest sites but there fungal problems it experiences in Australia stand
is often no response on ex-pasture sites and soil productivity is likely to be considerably lower than
degradation can result from very large applications the better yields achieved overseas.
of nitrogen fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees can Overseas, mean annual increments are very varied
respond to a fertiliser application only if other factors depending on site quality, climate factors such as
are not limiting, e.g. water availability (low rainfall rainfall, provenance used, stocking rate and plantation
or heavy weed competition are two factors that can management. The mean annual increments (MAIs)
affect this). Rates vary widely depending on the site for plantations, quoted in the literature, range from
and readers should access further information from around 30 m3 ha-1 in the Congo (for north Queensland
more detailed references such as: Dell et al., (1995); provenances) down to 19.8‑1.3 m3 ha‑1 for
Attiwill and Adams (1996) and Nambiar and 8‑year‑old Indian plantations (Eldridge et al., 1993;
Brown (1997). Tewari, 1992). In a 12‑year‑old eucalypt species
Overseas E. tereticornis has been grown successfully trial in north‑eastern Mexico, 7.9 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 of
under irrigation in places like India, Israel and timber and 13.7 m3 ha‑1 yr‑1 firewood was
Zimbabwe. produced (Foroughbakhch et al., 1997).
Management Protection
Information on rotation age for Australia is not available In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens
but will vary with site quality and management and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations
objectives. Overseas, E. tereticornis is usually grown have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest
on a short rotation and clear-felled at an age that pests. However, a certain amount of damage to
maximises production of logs of optimum size for natural forests and plantations by pests and diseases
a particular end use. This is usually small-diameter is inevitable, and is accepted as an inherent part of
material suitable for pulpwood, mining timber, managing them. At present the main opportunities to
charcoal or fuelwood (Jacobs, 1981). reduce this damage are provided by management
E. tereticornis regenerates by coppice and in India options such as maintaining the health and vigour
they expect to be able to regenerate from coppice of trees and stands at as high a level as possible
at least three times (e.g. Gupta and Raturi, 1984). by the application of timely silvicultural treatment;
It is, however, a method of regeneration that is not not planting the species on sites that are marginal
likely to be employed much in Australia. Coppice for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or
management requires the reduction of the number unhealthy trees (Abbott, 1993; Florence, 1996).
of coppice shoots on a stool and this critical activity Stone et al. (1998) note that in most situations the
is time-consuming and expensive (Evans, 1982). control of pests by pesticide application is not
The use of coppice will also mean missing out on practical as it is prohibitive in terms of the costs
the benefits of genetic improvement through tree involved, monitoring required and environmental
breeding. The season in which the trees are felled issues of chemical use.
affects the production of coppice regeneration. If In Australia, E. tereticornis has proven to be susceptible
trees are felled during the dry season, sprouting will to Mycosphaerella species in trials in both Queensland
be delayed and there is an increased risk of the and New South Wales. This fungus has also been
stump drying out. Felling by saw to give a cleanly- a problem overseas, e.g. in South America. Overseas,
cut short stump with minimum bark damage is best. tropical provenances of E. tereticornis show a higher
degree of resistance than E. camaldulensis to leaf
189
spot and shoot blight caused by Cryptosporiopsis In the southern USA the wood density of E. tereticornis
eucalypti. The capacity of this fungus to cause was found to be substantially higher than for
significant damage in red gum plantations in humid E. grandis or E. camaldulensis, making it particularly
regions of Thailand and Vietnam has only recently suitable for energy production (Franklin and Meskimen,
been recognised (Sharma, 1994; Nguyen Hoang 1975). The wood is susceptible to termite attack
Nghia, 1997). only rarely and is moderately resistant to marine
organisms (Keating and Bolza, 1982). It has a
In Australia, E. tereticornis has a medium to high
durability rating of Class 1 and is highly resistant to
susceptibility to attack by a range of insect pests,
decay in contact with the ground or in persistently
particularly lerps (psyllids, Cardiaspina spp.) but
damp or badly ventilated situations. Fast grown
also Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp. and
plantation trees, however, require preservation
Repsimus aeneus), leaf beetles (Paropsis spp. and
treatment for durability in the ground. E. tereticornis
Chrysophtharta spp.), sawflies (Perga, Pergagrapta
can be satisfactorily dried using conventional air
and Pseudoperga spp.), gum tree scales (Eriococcus
and kiln seasoning methods. It is rated as very hard
coriaceus and E. confusus), gumleaf skeletoniser
(rated 1 on a 6‑class scale) in relation to indentation
(Uraba lugens), eucalypt weevils (Gonipterus spp.
and ease of working with hand tools. The interlocked
and Oxyops spp.), leaf-tying moth (Agrotera
grain often makes it difficult to dress cleanly on the
amathealis) and the defoliating, tessellated phasmatid
radial surface. It requires machining and surface
(Cternomorphodes tessulatus) (Wylie and Peters,
preparation to be done immediately prior to gluing
1993). Bootle (1983) reported that the sapwood
and readily accepts stain, polish and paint (Queensland
is sometimes susceptible to attack by Lyctus spp.
Department of Primary Industries, 1990).
Damage by wood borers has been observed both
in Queensland and New South Wales trials of the In Australia it is used in construction as a sawn timber
species (David Lee, Queensland Forest Research for house framing, internal and external flooring,
Institute and Ian Johnson, State Forests of New fencing and landscaping. It is also used for
South Wales, pers. comm., 2002). engineering purposes such as wharf and bridge
construction, railway sleepers, piles and poles
Utilisation and for decorative work such as outdoor furniture,
turnery and joinery (Queensland Department of
Primary Industries, 1990).
Wood
Overseas, E. tereticornis is a major source of
The heartwood ranges from light to dark red,
fuelwood, charcoal and timber for local use.
with a moderately coarse, uniform texture and
It is also used for light and heavy construction,
interlocked grain. It is hard, strong and durable.
pulpwood and wood composite products and in
The sapwood of E. tereticornis is distinctly paler
India as raw material for the production of rayon
than the heartwood and is grey or cream red in
grade pulp (Tewari, 1992; Boer, 1997).
colour. The sapwood is sometimes susceptible to
attack by borers (Lyctus spp.) but readily accepts
Non-wood
preservative impregnation. Penetration of the
heartwood with preservative is negligible using Large quantities of crude E. tereticornis oil have
currently-available commercial processes (Queensland been imported into Australia from China for
Department of Primary Industries, 1990). Density medicinal use. These were rectified and later
varies with tree age and environment. In areas of blended with locally‑produced oils to achieve
natural occurrence, green density is about 1200 kg m‑3 the required cineole content and levels of other
and air-dry density about 1050 kg m‑3 (Bootle, compounds to enable them to meet overseas
1983). Overseas, the air-dry density of wood from standards at a competitive price. In general the
fast-growing plantations is less and ranges from required 1,8‑cineole content for medicinal oils
about 600‑800 kg m‑3 (Khan and Akhtar, 1973; is 70% (Lassak, 1989).
Keating and Bolza, 1982).
190
Boland et al. (1991) found that the volatile leaf Recommended Reading
oils of E. tereticornis collected from trees in northern Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
Queensland and isolated by steam distillation contained Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
the monoterpenoids 1,8‑cineole [eucalyptol] Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
(0.1-33%), limonene (4-19%), alpha-pinene Maryborough, Victoria.
(1-27%) and beta-pinene (0.1-18%) as principal Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Multipurpose
components. The range in oil concentration was Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
0.9-1.4% (W/W%, fresh weight). R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
E. tereticornis is a major source of pollen in apiculture
and produces a medium amber honey of distinctive References
flavour (Clemson, 1985). The wood and bark of Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in eucalyptus
the tree have a tannin content of 6-12% and 3-15%, plantations: a review in the context of the concepts of
respectively (Poynton, 1979), but are not used as a optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian
commercial source of tannin (Boer, 1997). Forestry, 56:385-390.
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of
Some provenances (both tropical and temperate)
have been found growing on highly acid soils with
a pH down to 4-3.5, respectively, and may have a Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
niche for reclamation of acid sulphate soils in coastal
areas cleared for development (Lex Thomson, CSIRO Maryborough, Victoria.
Forestry and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2002).
Boer E, 1997. Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith. In: Faridah
This species has been used successfully to plant Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der (eds). Auxiliary Plants.
eroded gullies in Uruguay (Moron, 1961) and to Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 11,137-140.
reclaim low-lying areas in Argentina (Issa, 1959). It Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Turnbull JW, Kleinig DA, 1980.
is widely used as a shelterbelt species and shade tree Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO,
in countries such a India and Pakistan. E. tereticornis Canberra.
was used successfully for sand dune reclamation in Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N,
Uruguay, when grown in association with Dodonea Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
viscosa and other species (Caldevilla, 1962). Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
Boland DJ, Brophy JJ, House APN (eds), 1991.
E. tereticornis is used as a pioneer species on tailings
Eucalyptus Leaf Oils: Use, Chemistry, Distillation and
at the Bougainville copper mine, Papua New Guinea. Marketing. 252 pp. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
This requires the regular application of N, P and
boron (Hartley, 1977).
Booth, T.H., Nix, H.A., Hutchinson, M.F. and Jovanovic,
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193
19. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. subsp. viminalis
Manna gum, ribbon gum, white gum
Key features
Medium-sized to tall tree of excellent form on
suitable sites
Capable of achieving fast growth
Suited to cool, temperate environments
Very frost tolerant
Minimum annual rainfall for good growth
700 mm on deep moisture-holding soils
Prefers soils of moderate to high fertility in growth rate, form and frost tolerance, indicating
that provenance trials are essential when introducing
Tolerates a short to moderate dry season
this species to new areas. It tolerates fire and is
Very susceptible to insect pests suitable for coppicing.
Non-durable timber
Used for furniture, panelling, internal flooring,
building framing, pulp occurrence
Popular food source for koalas, gliders and possums.
Description
Species overview Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis is a medium-
sized to very tall forest tree, usually in the range of
Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis is suitable for 15‑40 m tall, but occasionally reaching 90 m in
planting in cool, temperate environments with an Tasmania, with diameters at breast height up to
annual rainfall greater than 700 mm, a short to 3 m. This is a smooth, white to grey‑barked tree
moderate dry season, and where frost tolerance is except for a short stocking of rough bark. Long
a required attribute. This is a fast-growing species ribbons of partly shed bark are often retained in
suitable for use in plantations for sawn timber, pulp the crown; this is the origin of one of the species’
and paper production and fuelwood. It is also common names, ribbon gum. In tall open forest the
useful for windbreaks, shade and shelter, honey, form of this species is excellent, with clean straight
wildlife (it is a favoured food for koalas and boles for two‑thirds of total tree height and a narrow
gliders), and for amenity plantings in parks and crown. Form, however, varies markedly in E. viminalis
reserves. The other subspecies, although slower subsp. viminalis and in dry woodland situations it
growing and of poorer form than subsp. viminalis, often is a short, crooked, umbrageous tree. Populations
are also occasionally planted as a substitute where in the north-eastern parts of the New South Wales
conditions for tree growth are too dry or soils too northern tablelands are now described as E. nobilis,
infertile for subsp. viminalis. This species is subject the main distinguishing features being that they have
to predation by a wide range of insect pests. Trials 7 buds in an umbel rather than the 3 typical of
have shown significant variation between provenances E. viminalis subsp. viminalis, are smooth barked
194
virtually throughout and have larger juvenile leaves
(Johnson and Hill, 1990). The other subspecies,
subsp. cygnetensis and subsp. pryoriana, are small
to medium-sized woodland trees of largely coastal
distribution in southern Australia (Eldridge et al.,
1993; Brooker and Kleinig, 1999).
Juvenile leaves are sessile, amplexicaul, opposite
for many pairs, lanceolate to broad-lanceolate,
green (dimensions to 9 cm long x 2 cm wide). Eucalyptus viminalis natural stand near Canberra.
Adult leaves are petiolate, alternating, lanceolate
to narrow lanceolate, often undulate. Axillary
Australia. Previously the species was described as
inflorescences are unbranched, 3 flowered. Buds
extending to the New South Wales and Queensland
are with or without stalk; scar present; operculum
border but the populations in the north-eastern Northern
pointed-hemispherical or conical.
Tablelands of New South Wales are now known
Like other eucalypts manna gum does not develop as E. nobilis. The altitudinal range is from sea level
resting buds and grows whenever conditions are to 1400 m, with the highest occurrences in New
favourable (Jacobs, 1955). Flowers are white with South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.
a flowering period from November-May. Fruit are The other two subspecies have a coastal distribution:
without or with short stalks, cupular or hemispherical E. viminalis subsp. cygnetensis is limited to Victoria
with 3 or 4 exserted valves (Brooker and Kleinig, and South Australia, while E. viminalis subsp. pryoriana
1999). Seed is black, brown or grey, irregular, is found in Victoria only. They intergrade with
often pointed at one end; flattish to ovoid (oval
shaped); with shallow pitting on the dorsal surface;
smooth-edged (Boland et al., 1980; Brooker and Figure 19.1: Natural distribution of Eucalyptus
Kleinig, 1999; Brooker et al., 2002). Seed is viminalis (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
collected throughout the whole year (Gunn, 2001).
Note that there will be regional and seasonal
variation in seed availability.
Natural distribution
Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis is widely
distributed in south-eastern Australia between
latitudes 31°30’S and 43°S (Figure 19.1). It
is found from the southern part of the Northern
Tablelands of New South Wales southwards. It is
common in the mountains and foothills of eastern
Tasmania, several Bass Strait islands and southern
Victoria. It also occurs in an isolated population in
the higher parts of the Mt Lofty Ranges in South
195
E. viminalis subsp. viminalis where their distributions Figure 19.2: Areas predicted to be climatically
overlap, as does E. nobilis in north-eastern parts of suitable for Eucalyptus viminalis are shown in
the New South Wales Northern Tablelands (Boland black (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
et al., 1984; Johnson and Hill, 1990; Eldridge et
al., 1993; Jovanovic and Booth, 2002).
Hybridisation between E. viminalis and many other
species has been recorded, and hybrids between
E. rubida and E. dalrympleana are very often
found at the boundaries of the species’ natural
distribution (Eldridge et al., 1993).
E. viminalis reaches its best development near streams
and in valley bottoms in hilly and mountainous
country where the soil is moist and at least
moderately fertile. The species prefers light to
medium‑textured soils which are free draining.
Where will it grow? Jessievale, South Africa (Darrow, 1984), or Kunming

in the People’s Republic of China (Wang et al.,
1989). The upper limit for mean annual rainfall
Eucalyptus viminalis, incorporating data from both
was increased from 2127 mm to 2500 mm with
the natural distribution and from sites where the
the inclusion of information from trials in Colombia
(Restrepo and Atehorta, 1989).
survival and good growth: Other factors such as soil requirements, occurrence
of prolonged drought and E. viminalis’ susceptibility
Mean annual rainfall: 700-2500 mm to insect pests (particularly when it becomes stressed
Rainfall regime: Winter, uniform, due to drought) also need to be considered when
summer deciding whether to plant this species. E. viminalis
grows best on deep, moisture‑holding soils of
Dry season length: 0-5 months moderate to high fertility.
hottest month: Plantings and provenance trials
coldest month: Plantings
Mean annual temperature: 4-17°C Eucalyptus viminalis is an important plantation species
in temperate regions of a number of continents as it
The map of areas predicted to be climatically combines reasonably rapid growth, good form and
suitable for planting E. viminalis (Figure 19.2) was acceptable wood characteristics with some degree
generated from the revised climatic details for the of frost resistance (Eldridge et al., 1993). It is planted
species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). in Europe, southern Russia, Asia, Africa, North
These revisions were made to the climatic parameters, America (California, Florida, Hawaii), South America,
initially derived from the natural distribution, on the Australia (New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria)
basis of information from trials and plantings of this and New Zealand. Its main use in overseas plantations
species both within and outside its natural range. is as a short-rotation fibre crop for paper pulp and
This species has often exhibited a combination hardboard production (Hillis and Brown, 1984).
of frost resistance and growth vigour as shown at
196
Studies of central Victorian provenances of E. viminalis,
using a series of trials, concluded that ecological
races (edaphic ecotypes) of E. viminalis exist and
that they have arisen from the natural selection of
plants in particular habitats. Field and laboratory
trials found that generally seedlings performed best
in an environment similar to that of their natural
occurrence, showing adaptations to the particular
environmental conditions involved (Ladiges and
Ashton, 1974, 1977; Eldridge et al., 1993).
Careful selection of seed sources for a specific planting
site will improve the success of this species given
the variety of natural habitats in which it occurs and
the demonstrated genetic differences in growth
rate, form, resistance to insect attack, frost and
drought tolerance, and adaptation to different soils
Eucalyptus viminalis with Eucalyptus benthamii at
types.
15 years old, in a trial at Kowen in the ACT.
Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis was trialled on
seven sites in Gippsland (Table 19.1) and results at
Provenance trials 10‑12 years were reported by Duncan et al. (2000).
Seedlots from Victoria (11), New South Wales (2
In general provenance trials of the species have
– one of which was actually E. nobilis) and Tasmania
been inconclusive, particularly because they have
(1) were tested but only seven were included on any
inadequately sampled the geographical range of
one site. Growth was best on the high‑rainfall,
the species and the provenances tested (many
improved pasture site at Mt Worth East and poorest
provenances were represented by five or fewer
at the low‑rainfall sites (600‑760 mm). On the sites
families) (Eldridge et al., 1993).
Table 19.1: Best performing Eucalyptus viminalis provenance at each of seven trial sites in Gippsland,
Approx.
stem volume
of best
Approximate seedlot at
Rainfall stem volume site
Provenance Age (yr) Site name (mm) Soil type (m3 ha-1) (m3 ha-1)
Bendoc, Victoria 11 Mt Worth East 1210 Clay loam 420 550
Warburton, Victoria 11 Delburn 1000 Clay loam 230 320
Morwell, Victoria 11 Flynns Creek 760 Sandy loam 110 200
Yarram, Victoria 11 Stradbroke 600 Loamy sand 140 270
Fingal, Tasmania 11 Stockdale 690 Loamy sand 90 170
Wye River, Victoria 10 Waygara 870 Sandy clay 130 180
loam
Martha Vale, Victoria 10 Tostaree 820 Loamy sand 310 370
197
with an intermediate rainfall (Waygara and Tostaree) Increased tolerance of frost, drought, adverse soil
growth was better on the improved pasture site than conditions and insect attack, combined with good
the ex-native forest site. Most of the provenances at growth, is unlikely to be found in the one provenance
the Tostaree improved pasture site outperformed those (Eldridge et al., 1993).
at a higher rainfall ex‑radiata plantation site at Delburn.
A range of natural provenances of E. viminalis
Provenance growth was similar within sites at the
subsp. viminalis for establishing trial plantings is
two high‑rainfall sites and at the Waygara site. At
available from the CSIRO Forestry and Forest
other sites one or two provenances had significantly
Products Australian Tree Seed Centre in Canberra.
better growth than other provenances at those sites,
Seed selected for Western Australia is available
but were not consistent across sites. ‘Martha Vale’
from the Forest Products Commission Western
and ‘Wye River’, Victoria, were the best at the
Australia’s Seed Centre (FPC website, 2002).
Tostaree site.
Eucalyptus viminalis has been identified as a Silviculture
sawlog species for 600‑700 mm annual rainfall
areas on deep fertile soils by staff at the Forest General eucalypt silviculture is suitable for this
Products Commission of Western Australia. They species. Further information is available through
have identified a better‑performing provenance sources listed under recommended reading.
from three replicated family/provenance breeding Summary silvicultural information and practices
trials across the south‑west of Western Australia, specific to this species are outlined below.
and a special seed collection was commissioned
from this native stand. Special collections from Propagation
above‑average provenance stands that have been
There are about 300 000 viable seed kg‑1 of
thinned for sawlog production are also available
seed and chaff mixture. Suitable sieve mesh size
from the Forest Products Commission Seed Centre
for cleaning seed is 1.4-1.7 mm. No pre-sowing
(FPC website, 2002).
treatment is required and rapid and complete
Staff at Forestry South Australia list E. viminalis as a germination is achieved under moist, warm
species with potential for sawlog production in the (25°C optimal in the laboratory) conditions in
Green Triangle region of south-eastern South Australia the presence of light (Gunn, 2001). Seed storage
and western Victoria. However, this is purely is orthodox and seed can be stored for several years
speculative in a commercial sense. E. viminalis in cool dry conditions provided their moisture content
proved to be one of the fastest‑growing species at is kept below 8%.
age 4 years in a growth trial of 36 eucalypt
species near Mt Gambier (Cotterill et al., 1985).
containerised seedlings of E. viminalis. These are
Results of a further trial with 49 tree plots of six
described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull (1997),
species, including E. viminalis subsp. viminalis,
Florence (1996) and Bird (2000). Many nurseries
found mean annual increments of approximately
25 m3 ha‑1 at seven years for all species (Forestry
South Australia, 2002). Other information on the
performance of E. viminalis in this region is scarce. The species coppices well from the stump but
the value of using a coppice system needs to be
considered in light of the cost of protecting the
Breeding and genetic resources stumps at harvesting, and thinning the coppice.
The species is generally well conserved with many The other consideration is the possible lost gains
natural stands in national parks, but some particular in productivity that might be achieved from the
ecotypes may not be adequately protected use of improved seed or provenances for the
(Eldridge et al., 1993). second rotation.
198
Establishment (N) fertiliser (Bird, 2000). Also, trees can respond
to a fertiliser application only if other factors are
Locally successful methods of plantation establishment not limiting e.g. moisture availability (low rainfall
for a range of major forest tree species are suitable or heavy weed competition are two factors that
for E. viminalis. Detailed information on various can reduce this). Rates vary widely depending on
establishment practices is available from several the site; readers should access further information
sources including government organisations from more detailed references such as Attiwill and
(Queensland Department of Primary Industries; Adams (1996), Dell et al. (1995) and Nambiar
Sustainability and Environment, Victoria), and and Brown (1997).
Florence (1996), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Maintenance
Bird (2000) are also valuable resources. Websites
of many of the above organisations have ‘Fact Progressive thinning and pruning is required for
Sheets’ available (e.g. DSE website: http://www. clearwood production, and texts such as Bird
dse.vic.gov.au/ ), or these publications can be (2000) and Reid and Stephen (2001) look at the
obtained by contacting the organisations directly. theory, objectives and techniques in a farm forestry
context.
machinery. To allow machinery to be used, a Eucalyptus viminalis sheds branches well especially
spacing of 3-5 m between rows should be used on good quality sites (deep moisture‑holding soils
(Weiss, 1997). A range of spacings and planting and high rainfall), on poor soils and with low rainfall
designs are possible in farm forestry plantings. it is often branchy and of poor form (Poynton, 1979;
Readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000) Eldridge et al., 1993). Pruning in farm forestry
and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of woodlots is done to add value to the trees by aiming
options and their merits. Suitable initial spacings to increase the recovery of sawn timber from the trunk
for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m (1111 trees ha‑1) and and to make it suitable for higher‑value appearance-
4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1). These spacings grade products (Bird, 2000). Branches should be
promote good form and allow ample selection for removed before their diameters exceed 2.5 cm as
final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1 (Bird 2000). large stubs increase the risk of fungal infection and
stem decay (Nicholas, 1992).
uniform rainfall vary from early winter to early Thinning removes defective trees and reduces
spring, predominantly determined by the severity competition between trees. The spacing of trees
of frost and minimum temperatures experienced. determines the ultimate height and diameter growth
In South Australia and Western Australia planting of individual stems. The stand may be reduced to a
commonly occurs in June‑July while the soil is still final stocking of 100‑300 stems ha‑1 when grown
wet from winter rains. Planting may occur later if for sawlogs (Bird, 2000).
site access is not available due to waterlogging,
which is often a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and Growth
New South Wales planting is done in September, or Growth data for plantation grown E. viminalis
July‑August in warmer districts where soils dry out earlier. subsp. viminalis and E. viminalis subsp. mediana is
Application of a ‘starter dose’ of nitrogen and not available for Australia. E. viminalis subsp. viminalis
phosphorus fertiliser soon after planting to assist early is capable of rapid growth on suitable sites. On
growth is common practice in the establishment of seven sites in Gippsland, Victoria, mean annual
eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere. This is particularly increments of 9.7-39.4 m3 ha‑1 were achieved
effective on ex-forest sites, but there is often no at 10‑12 years of age (Duncan et al., 2000).
response on ex-pasture sites, and soil degradation This wide range in growth rates reinforces the
can result from very large applications of nitrogen need for careful site and species matching.
199
Protection successive attacks occur within one growing season.
E. viminalis subsp. viminalis is a secondary host
In Australia only a few of the numerous pathogens during outbreaks of Autumn gum moth which insect
and insects found in eucalypt forests and plantations prefers waxy, blue-green juvenile leaves like those
have acquired the status of serious and limiting forest of E. globulus (Farrow, 1996).
pests. However, a certain amount of damage to
E. viminalis subsp. viminalis foliage is also eaten by
possums and gliders. Severe defoliation by possums,
leading to tree death is a major cause of dieback
in natural stands of E. viminalis subsp. viminalis in
the midlands area of Tasmania (Geard, 1994).
by the application of timely silvicultural treatment; Utilisation
for it and regular monitoring for insect damage or Wood
Although a common eucalypt, the wood is of limited
commercial use for sawn timber because of seasoning
problems. Despite this the wood has been used for
internal joinery, furniture, wall panelling, flooring,
handles, light construction, carpentry/joinery. The
heartwood is pale pink or pale pinkish brown; not
E. viminalis is moderately susceptible to attack by durable for exposed situations. Sapwood is up to
insects and pathogens, particularly on sites 35 mm wide, but not visually distinct and is susceptible
marginal for the species. to lyctid borer attack. The texture is medium and
even, grain variable and growth rings prominent.
Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis is subject to
Air dry density is about 750 kg m-3 (Fenning Timbers,
predation by a wide range of insect pests. This
2002). Hicks and Clark (2001) report a basic density
species is the favoured host of the eucalypt weevil
of 506-517 kg m‑3 for 14‑year‑old planted E. viminalis.
(Gonipterus scutellatus) which insect reaches its
highest numbers on and causes most damage to It is difficult to dry without considerable degrade
this eucalypt. Chronic infestations are present in from internal honeycombing, surface checking and
farmland areas where E. viminalis subsp. viminalis collapse. Reconditioning is usually desirable for
are predominant e.g. the Braidwood district of New dressed lines. Quarter sawing is recommended,
South Wales. Larval infestations can cause substantial followed by a slow initial rate of drying. Shrinkage
losses of growth in young trees (Farrow, 1996). is about 6% radial and 12% tangential, and after
reconditioning it is about 3% radial and 6%
This eucalypt is also a preferred host for Christmas tangential. E. viminalis subsp. viminalis is not suitable
beetles (Anoplognathus species) and sawfly larvae for use in the ground and not durable in exposed
(Perga species). Christmas beetles can cause dieback situations (Bootle, 1983; Fenning Timbers, 2002).
if trees are defoliated several times in a season.
Sawfly larva prefer young trees 2-5 m tall and can The wood is easy to work and glues satisfactorily,
occur in large numbers over extensive areas of the but may need pre-drilling when nailed near the ends
New South Wales tablelands in some winters, but of boards. Uses other than sawn timber include
defoliation rarely causes tree death as the same fibreboard and short‑fibre pulp. E. viminalis is
trees are not generally attacked in successive years potentially of interest for plywood manufacture
(Farrow, 1996). and as a fast‑growing source of pulp (Bootle,
1983; Fenning Timbers, 2002).
Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis is moderately
susceptible to leaf blister sawfly (Phylacteophaga Soft pink tones are a feature of manna gum, which
froggatti). Outbreaks of this insect can occur in has been compared to American cherry in colour,
young plantations and can cause tree deaths if but with the distinctive grainy look of a eucalypt. It
200
is considered to have similar working properties to Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
Victorian ash and is currently available in flooring, Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
lining boards and furniture timber in Victoria (Timber
Promotions Council of Victoria website, 2002).
Eucalyptus Seed. Division of Forest Research, CSIRO, Canberra.
Non-wood
The species is used for amenity and ornamental Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984.
plantings, in shelterbelts and windbreaks and as a Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne.
shade tree. It is also a useful honey species producing
Bootle, KR, 1983. Wood in Australia. 443 pp.
abundant pollen and a moderate supply of nectar McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
from which a medium density, amber-coloured honey
is produced (Poynton, 1979; Clemson, 1985).
Eucalypts. Volume 1, South-eastern Australia. Second
Tree sap of E. viminalis subsp. viminalis is a major edition. Bloomings Books, Melbourne.
food for yellow-bellied gliders (Petaurus australis) and Brooker MIH, Slee AV, Connors JR, 2002. EUCLID:
for three other species of gliders or possums; new Eucalypts of Southern Australia. Second Edition. CSIRO
leaves are food for the greater glider (Schoinobates Publishing, Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research.
volans) (Kavanagh, 1987). Foliage is the preferred Clemson A, 1985. Honey and Pollen Flora. Inkata Press,
food of Australian koalas and is also used as a food Melbourne.
source by brushtail possums. It is also utilised as a Cotterill PP, Moran GF, Grigg BR, 1985. Early growth
nest tree by a number of Australian species of birds. of 36 species of eucalypts near Mount Gambier, South
Australia. Australian Forest Research, 15:409-416.
Limitations Darrow WK, 1984. Provenance studies of frost-resistant

eucalypts in South Africa. South African Forestry Journal,
E. viminalis is susceptible to many insects and pests. 129:31-39.
Recommended Reading Dell B, Malajczuk N, Grove TS, 1995. Nutrient disorders

Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A 31: 104 pp. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Research, Canberra.
Maryborough, Victoria. Doran JC, 2000. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. Species Digest.
ForestrySA website, 2002. Private Forestry. ForestrySA silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
website: http://www.forestry.sa.gov.au/
FPC website, 2002. Forest Products Commission of
Gippsland Farm Plantations website: http://www. Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
gippslandfarmplantations.com.au/
Duncan MJ, Baker TG, Appleton R, Stokes RC, 2000.
Private Forests Tasmania website, 2002. Private Forests Growth of Eucalypt Plantation Species Across Twelve
Tasmania website: http://www.privateforests.tas.gov.au/ Sites in Gippsland, Victoria. 37pp. Department of
Reid R, Stephen P, 2001. The Farmer’s Forest: Sustainability and Environment, Victoria.
Multipurpose Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Eldridge K, Davidson J, Harwood C, Wyk G van, 1993.
Publication No. R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Clarendon Press,
Program, University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Oxford, UK.
References Farrow R, 1996. Insect Pests of Eucalypts on Farms and

in Plantations. CSIRO Identification Leaflets Nos 1, 2, 4,
Abbott I, 1993. Minimising insect pests in Eucalyptus 5, 6, 7, 8. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
optimal area, polycultures and patchiness. Australian Fenning Timbers website, 2002. Satin ash (manna gum)
Forestry, 56:385-390. Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. Technical Specifications page.
Fenning Timbers (north coast New South Wales – Gloucester
Attiwill PM, Adams MA (eds), 1996. Nutrition of Eucalypts. and Walcha) website: http://www.ftaust.com.au/
CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
201
Florence RG, 1996. Ecology and Silviculture of Eucalypt Ladiges PY, Ashton DH, 1974. Variation in some central
Forests. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Victorian populations of Eucalyptus viminalis Labill.
FPC website, 2002. Eucalypt sawlog species. Forest
Products Commission Western Australia website, Seed Ladiges PY, Ashton DH, 1977. A comparison of some
Technologies pages: http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/seed/ populations of Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. growing on
calcareous and acid soils in Victoria, Australia. Australian
Forestry South Australia, 2002. History of eucalypt plantations
Journal of Ecology, 2:161-178.
in the Green Triangle Region. Private Forestry Fact Sheet
Number 4. ForestrySA webpage: http://www.forestry. Nambiar EKS, Brown AG (eds), 1997. Management of
sa.gov.au/farm.htm Soil, Nutrients and Water in Tropical Plantation Forests.
Geard S, 1994. Brushtail possums and dieback in the
midlands of Tasmania. Originally published in Tasmanian
Country farm newspaper. The Midlands Tree Committee Nicholas ID, 1992. Pruning eucalypts. New Zealand
website: http://members.ozemail.com.au/~sdgeard/ Tree Grower, 13(3):18-20.
possums.html
Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Volume 2. The Eucalypts. Department of Forestry,
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO Pretoria, South Africa.
Hicks C, Clark NB, 2001. Pulpwood Quality of 13 Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No.
Eucalypt Species with Potential for Farm Forestry. A R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program,
report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Publication No. 01/164, Rural Industries and Research
Restrepo UG, Atehortua VLM, 1989. Some results from
species and provenance trials of Eucalyptus species in
Hillis WE, Brown AG, 1984. Eucalyptus For Wood the Dept. of Antioquia, Colombia. Forest Genetic
Production. CSIRO and Academic Press, Melbourne. Resources Information, 17:20-23.
Jacobs MR, 1955. Growth Habits of the eucalypts. Stone C, Simpson JA, Eldridge RH, 1998. Insect and
262 pp. Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau, fungal damage to young eucalypt trial plantings in
Government Printer, Canberra, Australia. northern New South Wales. Australian Forestry, 61:7-20.
Johnson LAS, Hill KD, 1990. New taxa and combinations Timber Promotions Council of Victoria website, 2002:
in Eucalyptus and Angophora (Myrtaceae). Telopea, 4:37-108. http://www.tpcvic.org.au/frame_arch_advis.htm
Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic Wang HR, Yan H, Zhang R, 1989. Temperate eucalypt
profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. trials in south‑west People’s Republic of China. In: Boland DJ
RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries (ed). Trees for the Tropics. Growing Australian Multipurpose
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Trees and Shrubs in Developing Countries. ACIAR-
Monograph. No.10,69-77. Australian Centre for
Kavanagh RP, 1987. Floristic and phenological
characteristics of a eucalypt forest in relation to its use by
arboreal marsupials. Master of Science, School of Forestry, Weiss EA, 1997. Essential Oil Crops. Centre for
Australian National University. Abstract published on Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) International,
Institute of Foresters website: http://www.ifa.unimelb. Wallingford, UK. University Press, Cambridge.
edu.au/abstracts/master/1987/kavanagh1987.htm
202
20. Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br.
Silky oak
Valuable source of honey

Relatively free of pests and diseases but very
sensitive to termites.
Species overview
Grevillea robusta has gained widespread popularity
in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical highland
regions of many countries, originally as a shade
tree for tea and coffee and now as an agroforestry
tree for small farms (Harwood, 1989). G. robusta
Key features is renowned for its climatic tolerance despite its
restricted range of natural occurrence. It is easy to
Medium-sized tree of good form propagate and establish and is relatively free of
Moderate to fast growth rate pests and diseases. Its proteoid roots help it grow
in low-fertility soils (Skene et al., 1996). It does not
Growth rate is best on reasonably fertile, deep
compete strongly with adjacent crops and it tolerates
soils in regions with a mean annual temperature heavy pruning of its roots and branches. As a
range of 15-18°C, and a mean annual rainfall above consequence of its colonising abilities, G. robusta
1000 mm and no prolonged seasonal drought may become a noxious weed in favourable conditions
Growth is moderate in 600‑800 mm annual (Harwood, 1989; Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
rainfall zone, and in cooler climates with mean It provides economically valuable products including
annual temperatures of 14°C or less timber, poles, firewood and leaf mulch. It is capable
Does not tolerate heavy clay soils or waterlogging of producing good quality cabinet timber. With its
fern-like pinnate leaves and prominent attractive
Can survive frosts and temperatures down to orange flowers, it is also popular as an ornamental
-8°C but is more susceptible when young or (Harwood, 2000).
during the growing season
Although Grevillea robusta grows rapidly in
Does not compete strongly with adjacent crops suitable environments, it is generally possible to
The species has an attractive wood which is find other species that will produce more wood on
the same site, e.g. eucalypts or acacias. This and
relatively easy to work and is suitable for many
its typically short effective growing life in plantations,
uses including poles, furniture, veneer, flooring
and poor coppicing ability, have meant it has not
and cabinet work
gained prominence as a species for commercial
Trials indicate it can produce pulp of fair quality wood production in plantations (Harwood, 1989).
The timber is not durable for outdoor However, its demonstrated ability to grow well in
applications unless treated line plantings overseas, along with its wide climatic
tolerance and the possibility of producing a higher
Has significant horticultural and ornamental
value product, recommend its consideration for
applications
inclusion in agroforestry systems in Australia.
203
occurrence
Description
An erect, single-stemmed tree typically reaching an
adult size of 20‑30 m in height and 80 cm in diameter.
The crown is conical and symmetrical with major Grevillea robusta flower.
branches spaced at intervals of about 1 m and
projecting upwards at an angle of 45°. Bark on the
trunk is dark grey and furrowed into a lace-like pattern. rootlets) develop in conditions of low phosphorus
Young branchlets are angular and ridged, covered availability, and are thought to increase the plant’s
in rusty hairs, but glabrous on older growth. The ability to take up nutrients (Skene et al., 1996).
fern-like foliage of this species is very distinctive.
Leaves are 10‑34 cm long and 9‑15 cm wide, Natural distribution
variably pinnate to bipinnate, with a glabrous green The natural habitat of G. robusta is in northern
upper surface and silvery hairy under-surface. Petioles New South Wales and southern Queensland,
are 1.5‑6.5 cm long. The species is semi-deciduous Australia, where it occurs from the east coast to
in its natural range, being almost leafless shortly as far west as the Bunya Mountains, Queensland,
before flowering (Boland et al., 1984). some 160 km inland (Figure 20.1). The north-south
The flowers are racemes, simple to 6-branched range of the species is some 470 km from the Guy
(Kalinganire et al., 2000) from near the base, Fawkes and Orara Rivers (tributaries of the Clarence
and borne on older wood. The flowers are a bright River in New South Wales, latitude 30°10’S) to
orange and occur in numerous pairs along the
flower spikes, on pedicels 1.5 cm long (Doran and
Turnbull, 1997). Flowering and seeding commence
from as early as six years of age in its natural range
and occur in most years, but heaviest crops come
from mature trees 20‑40 years old (Harwood, 1989,
1992a). In its natural range, flowering peaks in
late spring (October-November). The flowers are
bisexual, and pollen is shed before the stigma
becomes receptive. The main pollinating agents
are nectivorous birds but may also include fruit bats
(Kalinganire et al., 1996). Fruits are brownish-black,
leathery follicles about 20 mm long containing two
long, flat, broadly winged seeds. Seed is wind
dispersed and therefore very light. In its natural
range, seed matures on the tree and is shed over
a short 1‑2 week period so that timing of seed
collection, usually in December‑January, is critical.
In tropical latitudes, flowering and seeding are
spread out over a longer period; there may be
2 or more crops of seed produced each year.
There are year-to-year fluctuations in seed
production (Harwood, 1992a).
Proteoid roots (sections of the secondary roots Grevillea robusta in natural stand in wet
which develop as dense cylindrical clusters of sclerophyll forest.
204
Figure 20.1: Natural distribution of Grevillea following key climatic conditions for survival and
robusta (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) good growth:

summer
hottest month:
coldest month:

suitable for planting G. robusta (Figure 20.2)
just north of Gympie, Queensland (latitude 25°50’S). the species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth,
It is found across a wide range of altitudes from sea 2002). These revisions were made to the climatic
level to mountaintop occurrences at 1120 m in the parameters, initially derived from the natural distribution,
Bunya Mountains (Harwood, 1992a). G. robusta on the basis of information from trials and plantings
is vulnerable to fire and hence is excluded from the of this species both within and outside its natural
fire-prone Eucalyptus forests and grasslands that range. Towards the hotter extremes of the tolerated
occupy much of its natural range. temperature range, the dry season should be no
The distribution is in the warm humid to warm longer than 4 months for good growth. Best growth
sub-humid climatic zones. Climate varies widely is achieved at sites where the MAT is 15°C‑18°C
within the natural range because of the substantial and the MAR is 1000‑2000 mm (Harwood and
altitudinal range and the rainfall gradients created Booth, 1992). The species can tolerate colder
by prevailing weather systems interacting with temperatures, particularly as the tree grows older,
rugged topography. but will suffer damage if growing as seedlings
The species is more common on rather fertile soils

such as those derived from river alluvia or basalts Figure 20.2: Areas predicted to be climatically
but will grow on shallower, less fertile soils derived suitable for Grevillea robusta are shown in black
from sedimentary material. The pH range for good (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
growth is around 4.5‑7.5. Best growth is obtained
on sandy loam, loam and clay loam textures. Heavy
clay soils and prolonged waterlogging are not
tolerated. In highly acid soils, symptoms of boron
deficiency (Smith, 1960) and manganese toxicity
(Child and Smith, 1960) have been observed.
Where will it grow?

G. robusta, incorporating data from both the natural
205
or young saplings in environments where the
temperature drops below -5°C (Harwood and
Booth, 1992). Commercial plantations outside
Australia tend to have mean minimum temperatures
of the coldest month above 6oC. However, experience
in Australia is that in cultivation it grows remarkably
well under dry inland conditions and tolerates quite
severe frosts (Boden, 1990).
G. robusta is renowned for its climatic tolerance
despite its restricted natural occurrence. It has
performed well in equatorial tropical highland
Grevillea robusta planted next to a maize field in
climates with a bimodal rainfall distribution and little
Kenya where it has been pruned and pollarded
seasonal temperature variation, and in mediterranean
to reduce competition.
climates with a dominant winter rainfall maximum,
in contrast to the dominant summer maximum of its
natural range. In Hawaii, India and the Caribbean, Grevillea robusta grows well in line plantings and
it has not done well in climates with annual rainfall as scattered trees over crops in warm temperate
much above 2000 mm, being subject to fungal and subtropical climates. Recent studies on root
and insect attack. It has generally not performed architecture and water uptake indicate that
well in the equatorial lowlands. In many countries G. robusta is relatively deep-rooted and thus may
including Australia, it has grown satisfactorily in compete less with crop roots than do other trees
low-rainfall areas, down to 400‑600 mm yr‑1 (Howard et al., 1996). Its tolerance of repeated
(Harwood, 1989). heavy pruning and pollarding allows farmers to
Other factors such as soil requirements also need to regulate the amount of competition with adjacent
be considered when deciding whether to plant this crops. It can also be grown in monoculture in block
species. Grevillea robusta grows best on reasonably plantings in woodlots or plantations, but this use is
fertile, deep, open soils, it does not tolerate heavy much less frequent (Harwood, 2000).
clay soils or waterlogging.
Provenance trials
Plantings and provenance trials Two provenance trials of G. robusta were established
in the Atherton area of north Queensland as the
Plantings species had shown promise in the area. The trials
were measured at 40 months of age and significant
Overseas, G. robusta has been widely cultivated differences between provenances were found in
for ornamental purposes, tea and coffee shade, growth. ‘Duck Creek’ and ‘Tyalgum’ provenances
and general farm planting, and in the last few from lowland New South Wales displayed the best
decades increasingly as a producer of timber, growth (Sun et al., 1995).
poles and firewood on small farms and in larger
plantations (Harwood, 1989). Countries where In a trial of rainforest species at Mt Mee,
it has been introduced include Sri Lanka, India, south‑eastern Queensland, G. robusta performed
Africa (e.g. South Africa, Algeria, Kenya, Rwanda, very well in almost all respects. The site has a
Tanzania), South America (e.g. Argentina, Brazil long‑term annual average rainfall of 1514 mm,
and Uruguay). It is considered by the USDA to have but, during the trial it experienced some of the
become naturalised in Hawaii and southern Florida driest years on record in the region. G. robusta
and is classed as a noxious weed on ranchland was among the top six of sixteen species trialed,
in Hawaii (Skolmen, 1990). It is also found in with a mean height of 8.9 m and mean diameter
California, Mexico and throughout the Caribbean. at breast height of 16.7 cm at 6 years of age. Tree
form was rated using a scale of 1 (poor) to 10
206
Grevillea robusta in a trial in Africa.
(good); the average rating of G. robusta was 8.6 Alley plantings of G. robusta were established on
(stem straightness and branchiness). Form problems a farm in south-eastern New South Wales in 1992.
in some individuals of G. robusta, which were due The site receives an MAR of 640 mm. At 9 years
to wind damage, lowered the average form rating of age the trees had attained a mean height of
for this species. The prevalence of wind damage 8.3 m and mean diameter of 13.2 cm, and are in
to this species in this trial was second only to a healthy condition (Roger Arnold, CSIRO Forestry
Cedrela odorata (Lamb and Borschmann, 1998). and Forest Products, pers. comm. 2001).
A provenance and family trial of G. robusta was
established at Neerdie in south-eastern Queensland Breeding and genetic resources
in 1995. Early trial results are reported by Harwood
Silky oak has no recognized subspecies or varieties
et al. (2002) who give an overall mean tree size at
and no hybrids with other species have been recorded
4 years 4 months of 7.4 m in height and 8 cm DBH.
(McGillivray, 1993). Advanced genetic improvement
The authors felt that this is typical of early growth
programs have not yet been implemented. Techniques
rates for this species when planted on a suitable
for controlled pollination (Kalinganire et al.,
soil and climate in subtropical latitudes. The ‘Duck
1996) and vegetative propagation are relatively
Creek’, New South Wales, provenance performed
straightforward and could be used in improvement
best of the well represented provenances (i.e. five
strategies (Harwood and Owino, 1992).
or more families) and this reflected results from other
trials including those at Atherton described above. Small amounts of seed from natural provenances of
However, the authors conclude that beside the poor G. robusta are available from the CSIRO Forestry
performance of high‑elevation provenances, no and Forest Products Australian Tree Seed Centre in
other significant geographic trend in provenance Canberra. However, seed from identified superior
performance of G. robusta is apparent. The trials provenances is expensive to collect and the quantities
did identify significant differences in growth, forking that can be collected are insufficient to meet current
and stem straightness between families within demand. Only a few kilograms of seed can be
provenances, and this variation, along with that collected annually from some provenances, even
between provenances, indicates excellent potential if all seed bearing trees in the provenance are
for genetic improvement through selection. sampled (Harwood et al., 2002). The Neerdie,
207
south‑eastern Queensland, provenance‑family trial Establishment
is being developed into a seedling seed orchard
and seed could be available from 2003‑2005. Poor establishment technique and severe competition
from grass and weeds will reduce growth rates. Site
preparation for plantings in Australia could be similar
Silviculture to that used for two trial sites in Atherton, Queensland.
Here, sites were slashed and planting rows cultivated
Propagation and deep ripped. Trees were fertilised at planting
Propagation is usually from seed. Mean seed and were kept weed-free by periodic applications
viability is 34 000 viable seeds kg‑1 with a range of the herbicide glyphosate for the first 2 years (Sun
from 18 000‑51 000 viable seeds kg‑1 (Gunn, et al., 1995). The site of the Neerdie trial in south-
2001). Seed storage is orthodox. Seed stored eastern Queensland was deep ripped and ploughed
at below 10% moisture content and refrigerated prior to planting. No fertiliser was applied at planting
(3‑5°C) retained its viability after 8 years (Gunn as fertility levels were considered adequate because
and Solomon, 1998). the previous land use had been improved pasture
for beef cattle production. Weed mat squares were
No pre‑treatment is required for germination, placed around trees at planting and weed-free
but the seed of this species has been found to conditions maintained for 12 months. Subsequently
occasionally harbour fungal spores which can the interows were periodically slashed to control
inhibit/or slow germination. There are two methods grasses, vines and woody weeds (Harwood et al.,
of limiting losses due to fungal attack; the first involves 2002).
using alternating temperatures (higher during day and
lower at night) to speed up germination. In the Seedlings can be hand-planted or planted by
laboratory temperatures of 30°C during the day machinery. To allow machinery to be used, a
and 20°C at night are used; in the nursery this spacing of 3‑5 m between rows should be used
would require sowing at an appropriate time of year (Weiss, 1997). A range of spacings and planting
in the right climate. The other method is to rinse the designs is possible in farm forestry plantings;
seed in bleach to kill fungal spores. Seed is soaked readers are referred to texts such as Bird (2000)
in a 1% bleach solution (sodium hypochloride) for and Reid and Stephen (2001) for discussion of
about 3 minutes and then rinsed thoroughly before options and their merits. Planting in rows and at
sowing (Debbie Solomon, CSIRO Forestry and wider spacings favours faster diameter growth
Forest Products, Australia, pers. comm., 2001). and hence greater individual tree volume. Suitable
Seeds can be germinated on loamy soil under a initial spacings for woodlots are 3 m x 3 m
shallow covering of sand and germination takes (1111 trees ha‑1) and 4 m x 2.5 m (1000 trees ha‑1).
an average of 20 days (10‑30 days). These spacings promote good form and allow ample
selection for final stocking of 200‑300 trees ha‑1
(Bird, 2000). Spacings used in the Queensland
containerised seedlings of G. robusta. These are
trials mentioned above were 4 m x 2 m (Sun et al.,
described in texts such as Doran and Turnbull (1997).
1995; Harwood et al., 2002).
Many nurseries will grow seedlings on request and
some specialise in producing trees for the farm Many overseas plantings that are managed for
forestry market. Seedlings are grown on for around lower‑value products such as firewood and poles
4‑6 months in the nursery until reaching a planting aim to produce logs of small diameter and to
height of 20‑40 cm. maximise biomass. For this, closer spacings and
short rotations are usually employed, e.g. spacings
Cuttings can be struck easily using shoots of seedlings
of 1.5 m x 1.5 m (Kalinganire, 1996).
or saplings (Swain, 1928), which can also be
air-layered. In southern latitudes with winter and uniform rainfall
patterns, planting is carried out during late winter/
early spring. Later rather than earlier planting is best
208
with frost‑sensitive species like G robusta, but it is to two years, but coppicing ability declines sharply
important that the soil still retains moisture from winter thereafter, so management on a coppicing rotation
rains. Planting in northern latitudes usually occurs is not feasible.
with the onset of summer rains between November
andApril, but February‑April is preferred. Growth
Fertiliser is seldom applied but an application of Growth data for plantation grown G. robusta is
around 50 g per tree of an NPK fertiliser (12:12:12) not available for Australia. In Australian trials at
shortly after planting would be appropriate for infertile Atherton in north‑eastern Queensland and Neerdie
soils. If there are symptoms of boron deficiency, an in south‑eastern Queensland average growth rates
application at planting of 10 g per tree of elemental at 3‑4 years of age were just below 2 m yr‑1 for
boron as borax or, preferably, the less soluble ulexite height and 2 cm yr‑1 for DBH (Sun et al., 1995;
(a sodium-calcium borate mineral) is recommended Harwood et al., 2002). Given good soils and
(Doran and Turnbull, 1997). suitable climate (MAT in the region of 15‑18°C
and MAR 1000‑2000 mm, without prolonged
Management seasonal drought), annual height increments of
at least 2 m yr‑1 and DBH increments of 2 cm yr‑1
in the first 5 years have been achieved in many
countries (Harwood, 2000). Doran and Turnbull
(1997) report that in all but the most favourable
theory, objectives and techniques. Thinning and
conditions, growth slows greatly after 10‑15 years.
pruning schedules need to be developed for
G. robusta in Australian conditions. In the 600‑800 mm annual rainfall zone, and in
cooler climates with MATs of 14°C or less, height
Pruning in farm forestry woodlots is done to add
increments of the order of 1 m yr‑1 in the first few
value to the trees by aiming to increase the recovery
years would be a realistic expectation (Harwood,
of sawn timber from the trunk and to make it suitable
1989).
for higher‑value appearance-grade products (Bird,
2000). G. robusta withstands pruning and pollarding
well. However, pruning should not be done before Protection
trees reach 2 m as G. robusta has a light crown
Grevillea robusta is relatively free of pests and
(FFAQI website, 2002).
diseases in Australia, but it cannot withstand severe
Thinning removes defective trees and reduces gales or persistent strong winds without damage to
competition between trees. The spacing of trees the branches. It has some resistance to frost. During
determines the ultimate height and diameter of the winter months in temperate latitudes, G. robusta
individual stems. The stand may be reduced to a can survive temperatures down to ‑8°C with little
final stocking of 100‑300 stems ha‑1 when grown or no damage, but milder frosts of only ‑2°C or
for sawlogs. A rotation length of 25‑35 years is so ill cause damage during the growing season.
suggested for sawlog production on the southern Droughts of 6 months or longer will cause death
Atherton tablelands (PFNQ website, 2002). or damage to established trees (Harwood, 2000).
Proceedings of an international workshop (Harwood,
1992b) describe the use of G. robusta in agroforestry Utilisation
and forestry applications. The branches are pruned
to regulate shading and competition with adjacent Wood
crops and are used for firewood, sticks for climbing
The heartwood is pale pink on cutting, darkening
beans and poles. The tree grows back well after
to red-brown after drying, while the sapwood is
heavy pollarding and pruning. The main trunk of
cream coloured and up to 25‑38 mm wide. Growth
the tree may be harvested as a sawlog from age
rings are not visible, although broad medullary rays
15‑25 up to 40 years. G. robusta coppices well
give the wood a distinctive and attractive appearance
after being cut back to ground level at ages of up
209
on both the quarter-sawn and back-sawn faces. The system to Phytophthora cinnamomi and its non-
air-dry density in natural populations is 540‑720 kg m‑3. susceptibility to phosphorus toxicity, which is a
The Australian standard trade name is southern silky problem for most other Grevillea species (Burke,
oak. Seasoning properties are variable with shrinkage 1983).
on seasoning rated low to moderate. The wood
The leaves of G. robusta are used as a soil mulch
has a tendency to warp and check and should
and have been used by some farmers overseas as
therefore be air-dried slowly, followed by a mild
bedding in livestock stalls (Spiers and Stewart, 1992).
kiln schedule to avoid honeycombing. The wood is
The leaves contain a number of useful chemical
hard but it can be peeled and sliced satisfactorily.
compounds, in particular rutin, which has
It is moderately durable to non‑durable but can be
pharmacological applications (Cannon et al.,
treated with preservative. The wood is susceptible
1973). However, the rutin concentration of
to marine borer, pinhole borer and termite attack. It
0.6 % of dry weight of leaves is too low to
is easy to work with both hand and machine tools.
be of commercial value.
In Australia G. robusta has been popular for
cabinet work and indoor fittings, but supply is now Limitations
limited. The sawn timber is of medium strength and
is used for furniture, packing cases, flooring, panelling, Webb et al. (1967) considered that an auto-
plywood and the manufacture of small wooden allelopathic compound associated with the living
items such as pencils (Bolza and Keating, 1972; roots of G. robusta was responsible for the poor
Skolmen, 1974). The wood produces short-fibre performance of plantations in Australia. The good
pulp of acceptable quality (Ghosh, 1972) but has growth of many successful plantations and woodlots
not been used for pulp production on a commercial in Africa suggests that in most plantations such an
scale. Mean fibre length is about 1.5 mm (PFNQ effect is minor, if present at all.
website, 2002). Grevillea robusta is an effective colonizing species
The calorific value of the wood is about and does have the potential to become a weed
4875 kcal kg‑1 and it is popularly used overseas (e.g. in Hawaii, Nelson and Schubert, 1976).
for firewood and charcoal (PFNQ website, 2002). The trees have brittle branches and can be damaged
by high winds. The wood has some notable
Non-wood drawbacks, i.e. the sapwood is very susceptible to
Grevillea robusta is a useful tree for shade and attack by borers and fungi, and even the heartwood
is also a good species for intercropping as its is only moderately durable. The sawdust from G. robusta
deep‑rooting system causes little interference with wood causes a skin allergy in some people
shallow‑rooted crops and it can be successfully (Skolmen, 1974).
intercropped with banana, tomato and other
Recommended Reading
agricultural crops (PFNQ website, 2002).
Harwood CE, 1989. Grevillea robusta: an annotated
The dense, brilliant golden-yellow or orange bibliography. 123 pp. International Council for Research
flower heads, attractive silver, fern-like leaves and in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya.
symmetrical crown encourage wide-spread and Harwood CE, Owino F, 1992. Design of a genetic
increasing use of the species as an ornamental. improvement strategy for Grevillea robusta. In: Harwood
It is used in many tropical and subtropical countries CE, (ed), Grevillea robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry:
for park and roadside plantings. In the United Proceedings of an International Workshop. International
Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi,
Kingdom and Europe it is commonly available
Kenya, pp 141-150.
as an indoor plant. In Australia, other Grevillea
species and interspecific hybrids are commonly Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs:
grafted onto rootstocks of G. robusta to produce
ornamental planting stock. This practice takes Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
advantage of the resistance of G. robusta’s root
210
References Harwood CE, 2000. Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br.
Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A Focus (CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International,
on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers. Centre Wallingford, UK.
Maryborough, Victoria. Harwood CE, Booth TH, 1992. Status of Grevillea
robusta in forestry and agroforestry. In: Harwood CE
Boden R, 1990. Grevillea has native heritage and (ed). Grevillea robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry:
boasts a variety of species. Tree Portraits in the Canberra Proceedings of an International Workshop. International
Times, 17th January. Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi,
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Kenya, pp 9-16.
Hyland BMP, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD, 1984. Harwood CE, Owino F, 1992. Design of a genetic
Forest Trees of Australia. Nelson and CSIRO, Melbourne. improvement strategy for Grevillea robusta. In: Harwood
Bolza E, Keating WG, 1972. African Timbers – the CE (ed). Grevillea robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry:
Properties, Uses and Characteristics of 700 Species. 723 pp. Proceedings of an International Workshop. International
CSIRO Division of Building Research, Melbourne. Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi,
Kenya, pp 141-150.
Burke D, 1983. Growing Grevilleas. Kangaroo Press, Sydney.
Harwood CE, Lee DJ, Podberscek M, 2002. Genetic
Cannon JR, Chow PW, Fuller MW, Hamilton BH, Metcalf BW, variation in early growth and stem form of Grevillea
Power AJ, 1973. Phenolic constituents of Grevillea robusta robusta in a provenance-family trial in south-eastern
(Proteaceae). The structure of robustol, a novel Queensland, Australia. Forest Genetics, 9:55-61.
macrocyclic phenol. Australian Journal of Chemistry,
26:2257-2275. Howard SB, Ong CK, Black CR, 1996. Using sap
flow gauges to quantify water uptake by tree roots from
Child R, Smith AN, 1960. Manganese toxicity in beneath the crop rooting zone in agroforestry systems.
Grevillea robusta. Nature, 186:1067. Agroforestry Systems, 35:15-29.
Doran JC, Turnbull JW, 1997. Australian Trees and Shrubs: Jovanovic T, Booth T, 2002. Improved species climatic
Species for Land Rehabilitation and Farm Planting in the profiles. A report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program.
Tropics. ACIAR Monograph No. 24. 384 pp. Australian RIRDC Publication No. 02/095, Rural Industries
Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
FFAQI website, 2002. Grevillea robusta. The Forest Kalinganire A, 1996. Performance of Grevillea robusta
Farmers Association of Queensland Inc. website: http:// in plantations and on farms under varying environmental
www.forestfarmers.com.au/Species/G-robu.htm conditions in Rwanda. Forest Ecology and Management,
Ghosh KL, 1972. Pulping characteristics of silver oak 80:279-285.
(Grevillea robusta): unbleached kraft paper for wrapping and Kalinganire A, Harwood CE, Simons AJ, Slee MU,
packing purposes. Indian Pulp and Paper, 26:185-193. 1996. Reproductive ecology of Grevillea robusta in
Gunn B, 2001. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, western Kenya. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG,
Australian Tree Seed Centre operations manual. CSIRO Harwood CE, Walker SM (eds). Tree Improvement for
Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. [Unpublished] Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings of QFRI-IUFRO
Conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27
Gunn B, Solomon D, 1998. Grevillea robusta seed October‑1 November 1996. pp 238-243. Queensland
storage trial. Australian Tree Resources News No. 4. Forestry Research Institute, Gympie.
Seed Centre, Canberra. Kalinganire A., Harwood CE, Slee M, Simons A.J,
2000. Floral structure, stigma and pollen receptivity in
Harwood CE, 1989. Grevillea robusta: An Annotated relation to protandry and self-incompatibility in silky oak
Bibliography. 123 pp. International Council for Research (Grevillea robusta A.Cunn). Annals of Botany, 86:133-148.
in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya.
Lamb D, Borschmann G, 1998. Agroforestry With High
Harwood CE, 1992a. Natural distribution and ecology Value Trees. A report to the RIRDC/LWRRDC/ FWPRDC
of Grevillea robusta. In: Harwood CE (ed). Grevillea Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC Publication
robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry: Proceedings of an No. 98/142, Rural Industries Research and
International Workshop. International Council for Research Development Corporation, Canberra:
in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya, pp 21-28.
McGillivray DM, 1993. Grevillea, Proteaceae, a Taxonomic
Harwood CE, 1992b. Grevillea robusta in Agroforestry Revision. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
and Forestry: Proceedings of an International Workshop.
190 pp. International Council for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya.
211
Nelson RE, Schubert TH, 1976. Adaptability of selected Smith AN, 1960. Boron deficiency in Grevillea robusta.
tree species planted in Hawaii forests. 22 pp. USDA Nature, 186:987.
Forest Service Resource Bulletin, Pacific Southwest Forest
Spiers N, Stewart M, 1992. Use of G. robusta in Embu and
and Range Experiment Station, No. PSW-14.
Meru districts of Kenya. In: Harwood CE (ed). Grevillea
PFNQ website, 2002. Private Forests North Queensland robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry. Proceedings of an
website: http://www.pfnq.com.au/ International workshop. International Council for Research
(ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya, pp 37-48.
Forestry for Australian Farmers. RIRDC Publication No. Sun D, Dickinson GR, Bragg AL, 1995. Morphological
R01/33. Australian Master TreeGrower Program, variations between twelve provenances of Grevillea
University of Melbourne, Melbourne. robusta planted in north-east Queensland. Australian
Forestry, 58:129-134.
Skene KR, Kierans M, Sprent JI, Raven JA, 1996. Structural
aspects of cluster root development and their possible Swain EHF, 1928. A silvicultural note on southern silky
significance for nutrient acquisition in Grevillea robusta oak. Queensland Forest Service Bulletin No. 9.
(Proteaceae). Annals of Botany, 77:443-451.
Webb LJ, Tracey JG, Haydock KP, 1967. A factor toxic
Skolmen RG, 1974. Some woods of Hawaii - properties to seedlings of the same species associated with living
and uses of 16 commercial species. 30 pp. USDA Forest roots of the non-gregarious subtropical rain forest tree
Service General Technical Report, Pacific Southwest Grevillea robusta. Journal of Applied Ecology, Oxford,
Forest and Range Experiment Station, No. PSW-8. 4:13-25.
Skolmen RG, 1990. Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. Silk-Oak. Weiss EA, 1997. Essential Oil Crops. Centre for
In, Burns R M., Honkala BH (eds), Silvics of North Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) International,
America: Volume 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook Wallingford, UK. University Press, Cambridge.
654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Washington, DC.
212
21. Pinus pinaster Aiton
Maritime pine
David Spencer.
Inventory, 1997). In 1997, the Forest Products

Commission of Western Australia (FPC) announced
a plan to establish 150 000 ha over the next
decade within the 400‑600 mm MAR zone.
It is a medium-sized to tall tree that usually can
grow to about 20‑40 m in height on relatively
good sites in Australia. It is better-suited to less
fertile, well-drained soils like deep sands, deep
gravels and sandy loams than most other conifers.
It tolerates phosphate‑deficient soils better than
other Pinus species.
Key features
The timber of P. pinaster has higher strength and
Medium to large tree with a clean cylindrical stem density than do other softwoods, including radiata
pine. It is highly suited to veneer, sawn timber,
Genetically improved stock available
reconstituted panel products and round timbers.
Tolerates drier climates down to 400 mm MAR Appearance‑grade timber can be used for match-
Thrives on freely-drained, neutral-acid, sandy soils lining, furniture and joinery. Suitably treated with
preservative, round timber can be used for fence
Timber has good strength and density compared posts and power poles. It can also be used for
with many pines pulp and paper.
Propagation by seed, vegetative cuttings and
natural regeneration Description and natural
Susceptible to intense fires; timber can be salvaged occurrence
Defect‑prone with incorrect silviculture in growth
and seasoning of sawn green timber Description
Effective at lowering water tables and assisting Pinus pinaster is a medium‑sized to tall tree,
with salinity problems in recharge zones. 20‑40 m tall, and trees with an average DBH
at maturity of 35‑60 cm are common in thinned
Species overview plantations; the bole is clear over most of its length.
Crowns of plantation trees are globular, whilst those
Pinus pinaster (maritime pine) was one of the of old trees are wide and flat. Plantation trees have
successful species to emerge from extensive species long, clean cylindrical stems, whilst open-grown
evaluation trials carried out in Australia about one individuals have a pronounced taper. It has a deep
hundred years ago. It has been used extensively, tap root, with secondary roots well-developed.
especially in South Australia and Western Australia, Bark is thick, scaly or plated, deeply fissured and
on sites which were considered too poor for Pinus dark red‑brown (CABI, 2000; Erle, 2001).
radiata. In 1994 it was estimated there were about
Shoots are stout, 7-15 mm thick, buff to yellow-
29 000 ha of P. pinaster plantations (National Forest
brown, rough. Foliage buds are large, cylindric to
213
Figure 21.1: Natural distribution of Pinus pinaster and Pinus brutia (Spencer, 2001)
ovoid-acute, with red-brown scales having long Natural occurrence

free tips which can be a little sharp. Adult leaves
are retained for 1.5-3 years, are 12-25 cm long in The natural distribution of P. pinaster in the western
fascicles of two (with some fascicles of 3), with a end of the Mediterranean includes Spain and Portugal,
persistent 2 cm sheath. They are green to yellow- the SW Atlantic coast of France (including Corsica),
green, sometimes tinged glaucous, spreading, very NW Italy on the coast and North Africa from
stout, about 2‑2.2 mm thick, with serrulate margins Morocco to Tunisia (Figure 21.1). Its common
(Erle, 2001). name is derived from its preference for coastal or
maritime environments. In general, it occurs naturally
Flowering occurs between late winter and mid- in warm temperate regions with an oceanic influence
spring. Male flowers are usually abundant, clustered on climate, mainly in humid and sub‑humid areas,
in rings beneath the expanding needles of the new where annual rainfall is greater than 600 mm.
season’s growth, with pollen-shed occurring in early However, it is possible for trees to survive in areas
spring. Female flowers occur on the tips of expanding with only 400 mm annual precipitation, providing
shoots and are dull red in colour (CABI, 2000). that there is sufficient atmospheric moisture. In
Cones are nearly sessile, very oblique at base, particular, the southern provenances (P. pinaster
symmetric, slightly curved ovoid-conic; glossy subsp. pinaster) grow well in semi-arid conditions
chestnut-brown in colour with a broad, raised (CABI, 2000). The species can tolerate long periods
transverse ridge rising to a central, small, up-curved of drought but cannot tolerate shade. It is moderately
prickle (CABI, 2000; Erle, 2001). Cones ripen in frost tolerant.
18‑20 months, between late summer and autumn.
In cooler climates cones may persist closed on the In its natural range, P. pinaster may be found on
tree for several years. Seed are shiny black-brown both flat and mountainous sites. It seems to prefer
above and matt grey below with a wing which is siliceous soils with a coarse texture, especially
easily removed (Erle, 2001). sandy soils, but it can tolerate other soil types
including some calcareous soils, especially when
Flowering in P. pinaster occurs from around 6 years they have a coarse texture and are free-draining.
of age and becomes regular from age 10-15 years.
Full seed crops occur at intervals of 3-5 years
(CABI, 2000).
214
Where will it grow? listed above (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002). It does
not include areas in Tasmania where the species is
A climatic profile (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002) also currently under evaluation (David Bush, CSIRO
has been developed for P. pinaster incorporating Forestry and Forest Products, pers. comm., 2002).
data from both the natural distribution and from
sites where the species has been grown successfully
in Australia. The latter include pre‑1984 plantings
and drier locations of the type being targeted in
the FPC P. pinaster plan (discussed under ‘Species
Plantings
overview’). The description embraces areas of Pinus pinaster is widely planted in Mediterranean
uniform rainfall, such as those in New South Wales Europe and Africa. It has also been introduced to
where its suitability is currently under evaluation. the United Kingdom, New Zealand, South Africa
The climatic profile provides the following key and Australia (CABI, 2000).
climatic conditions for survival and good growth:
Pinus pinaster was first established as a species
suitable for plantations in South Australia by 1900,
and from 1917 it was used on sites where Pinus
Rainfall regime: Winter, uniform radiata was unthrifty. It reached its greatest plantation
Dry season length: 0-8 months area in the mid‑twentieth century when 5% of state
forests were planted with this species (Lewis,
Mean maximum temperature 22-31°C 1957). The plantation area was estimated at
hottest month: 6000 ha in 1976 (Butcher, 1976).
coldest month:
The map of areas predicted to be climatically suitable

for planting P. pinaster (Figure 21.2) was generated
from the revised climatic details for the species as

suitable for P. pinaster in Australia(based on
pre‑1984 plantations and current trial
developments) are shown in black (Jovanovic
and Booth, 2000).
P. pinaster 2 year old trial between Gundagai

and Wagga, NSW.
215
Provenance trials
Considerable provenance variation exists within the
species. Four groups have already been identified
(northern Spain and western France, Italy and its
islands, northern Africa and southern Spain) with
high levels of intra-group genetic diversity. Limited
results so far indicate that P. pinaster provenances
from the highest-rainfall areas have the best drought
tolerance (Spencer, 2001).
In South Australian plantings, seed from the central
coast region of Portugal showed greatest vigour, but
seed of Corsican origin produced stems of the best
quality. A provenance trial established in 1957
showed that seed collected locally from these early
plantations was as vigorous as the best of the
native seed sources. Responses to superphosphate
were found on the most infertile sites, but at optimum
P. pinaster 20-year-old McLarty plantation dose radiata pine responded more vigorously.
between Perth and Bunbury, growing on the deep Subsequent developments in intensive silviculture
infertile sands of the Swan Coastal Plain, WA. saw P. radiata replace P. pinaster on most sites
(Boardman, 1972,1974).
Plantations with P. pinaster began in Western Plantations in Western Australia were originally
Australia in 1923 and became extensive, with established with seed from the ‘Landes’ provenance
21 400 ha planted by 1976 (Butcher, 1976). FPC in France. Trials established in 1926 demonstrated
Western Australia has been promoting the use of the that the ‘Leirian’ provenance from Portugal was
more drought‑tolerant P. pinaster for wood production greatly superior to others and consequently all
and carbon sequestration in areas of lower rainfall plantings after 1942 came from this source
and higher evaporation (400‑600 mm MAR), where (Butcher and Hopkins, 1999). By 1973 selective
there are limitations to the expansion of other species. breeding had produced trees with 35% greater
FPC aims to increase planting of this species to volume, 44% straighter and 35% improvement in
150 000 ha in the next 10 years (FPC website, branch size and angle (Butcher and Hopkins,
2002). There are an estimated 600 000 ha 1992, 1993).
of already cleared farmland with suitable soils
(non-saline, adequate depth, non‑waterlogged) Breeding and genetic resources
in this rainfall zone in the south‑west of Western
Australia alone. The focus will be on tree breeding, Over the past four decades FPCs breeding program
genetic deployment and investigation of overseas has increased P. pinaster volume yield by 80% when
genetic material, ability to better predict timber yields compared with production from unselected seed
(so as to assess economic viability) utilising the best sources. In addition, utilisable wood volume has
establishment and silviculture practices so that been increased through better stem and branching
plantings are commercially attractive to farmers. characteristics. FPC Western Australia anticipates
Most plantings will be joint ventures with property additional gains of some 40% for volume production
owners (Shea et al., 1998). by 2020 through the use of vegetative propagation
to multiply elite families. Breeding since 1973 has
Smaller areas were planted in Victoria (1400 ha in
produced drought-tolerant lines suitable for planting
1976) and New South Wales (100 ha in 1976)
in the 400-650 mm rainfall zones north and
(Butcher, 1976).
south-east of Perth.
216
The Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group on the contour. This operation provides a suitable
(ALRTIG) aims is to introduce and test the genetically planting environment and controls weed growth.
advanced material being produced by FPC to the Ripping to a depth of 500 mm is done on certain
eastern states. The hardiness of maritime pine makes sites to break root‑impeding strata, though this
it ideal for afforestation of sites where long droughty step is not taken where there is no root barrier
summers preclude the use of radiata pine. During and ripping is likely to excessively dry the profile.
1999, ALRTIG’s partners established a series of Tractor‑drawn machines that rip, scalp, plant and
yield plots in the eastern states. A further series of fertilise in one operation are being developed. The
trials involving lines of P. pinaster bred for specific trees are planted in the centre of the scalped line.
traits (such as stem straightness, high growth, etc.) In areas considered likely to be ‘wet’, with high
was established at ten sites in Victoria, New South watertables in winter-spring, mounds are formed
Wales, Tasmania, South Australia and Western instead of the scalped lines. Original plantings had
Australia during 2000 (ALRTIG website, 2002). stocking rates of 700‑1600 trees ha‑1, with rows
typically 3.0 m apart. Current operations plant
Silviculture at 1800‑2000 trees ha‑1 (O. Donovan, Area
Co-ordinator, North Maritime Pine Division, FPC,
pers. comm., 2000). This relatively high density
Propagation
ensures effective control of branch size and
Propagation can be by means of seed or rooted provides sufficient selection when thinning
cuttings. If seed is used, it is recommended that for the sawlog crop.
seed be collected from trees from certified breeding
Trials of P. pinaster planted in central western New
programmes in Australia. If seed is collected from
South Wales and the Upper South‑East region of
existing plantations or the native range (overseas),
South Australia in 1999 had rows 3.0 m apart but
the choice of mother trees aged at least 20‑30 years
3.5 m between trees within a row (952 trees ha‑1),
old will ensure that seed is viable. Seed storage is
reflecting concern about early competition for moisture
orthodox and seed maintains viability for a long
in a regime where there is no planned return from
time (viability of >50% after 10 years) (CABI, 2000).
first thinnings, and the cost of falling to waste.
Open-rooted or container‑grown planting stock
can be produced; the latter is especially suitable for Management
afforestation in hot and dry climates. Containerised
Thinning the original stocking takes place after the
seedlings require about 6 months in the nursery to
crowns have closed. As P. pinaster is intolerant of
reach planting size; open‑rooted transplants a little
shade, respacing should be wide. It is also necessary
longer (CABI, 2000). Open‑rooted trees need very
to open up the stands so that gaps between the trees
careful handling to overcome transplanting shock.
will allow the soil to be recharged with adequate
In Western Australia, FPC is concentrating on moisture from winter rains to sustain vigorous growth.
vegetative propagation, using cuttings from The effects on wood yield of growing P. pinaster
selected mother plants to quickly gain the plantations on the sandy soils of Western Australia
benefits of tree breeding. were examined in the mid 1970s (Butcher and Havel,
1976; Butcher 1977, 1997). The outcome was a
Establishment change in management that minimised competition
between trees for moisture and optimised growth
Silvicultural practice developed for planting in the
and yield. The effects of this strategy will need
drier sandy soils of Western Australia varies from the
to be recognised in spacing and management
standard practice in several ways, demonstrating
regimes adopted for farm forestry plantings in the
the need to continuously evolve and appraise new
eastern states where soil types are more variable
techniques to suit particular sites. On many Western
and availability of soil moisture less certain.
Australia site types, the top layer of sandy soil is
‘scalped’ to a depth of 10 cm in strips 1 m wide
217
Returns from the first silvicultural thinning operations Utilisation
should start in year 12 when stand density may be
reduced by up to 60%. Growers in Western Australia
Wood
have the advantage of a market demand for
first‑thinning products. This market will not always Sawn timber is the major product that is obtained
be present for most plantations established in the from P. pinaster. Its annual rings are very visible,
same rainfall zone in the eastern states. The next creating a distinctive pattern to the timber (CABI,
thinning is planned at age 20 years possibly 2000). It has pale yellow-brown sapwood with
effecting a further 50% reduction in stand density, slightly darker heartwood, is straight grained, resinous
leaving a minimum residual of 250 trees ha‑1. and rather coarse in texture. It has an average air‑dry
These figures will vary from property to property density of 560 kg m‑3. Tree breeding has concentrated
due to minor changes in soil and management on straight stems and this has gone a considerable
practices. way to prevent defects associated with poor cutting
and seasoning practices. However, P. pinaster is
Farmers are being invited to participate in share-
susceptible to numerous defects and strict kiln-drying
cropping schemes. An area of about 20 ha is
schedules are more essential than with radiata pine.
probably needed to make management and
Logs usually have a high percentage of bark
harvesting of the plantation economically viable.
(20‑40%) in the total volume removed.
Trees are being grown on 30‑40 year rotations
with at least two thinnings. The timber of P. pinaster has greater strength and
density than other softwoods, including radiata pine.
In the wider‑spaced plantings being utilised in New
South Wales and South Australia the development Pinus pinaster can be used for round wood,
and careful implementation of a pruning plan will transmission poles, building poles, fences, posts
be required in order to produce good quality (suitably treated with preservative); stakes; sawn
timber and avoid knots. building timbers for light construction; carpentry/
joinery; flooring; wall panelling; exterior fittings;
Growth containers; pallets; crates; boxes; cases; furniture;
veneers; boats; plywood; laminated wood;
The FPC, which is driving the joint venture scheme
particleboard; fibreboard; pulp and fuelwood
in Western Australia, anticipates that the lowest
(CABI, 2000).
growth rates will be around 8 m³ ha‑1 MAI and
average around 12 m³ ha‑1 MAI. Maritime pine is used in the Australian construction
industry interchangeably with radiata pine as it is
Mean annual growth rates of between 6‑13 m3 ha‑1
graded under the same standard. In reality, smaller
are estimated for the 400‑600 mm rainfall zone in
sections of maritime pine could be used for a given
New South Wales and South Australia.
purpose because it has greater strength than radiata
due to its higher density (Siemon, 1983). Recent
Protection studies indicate that maritime pine is suited for
laminated veneer lumber manufacture by rotary
Maritime pine in Australia has very few pests and
peeling (Siemon, 1998). Production of reconstituted
pathogens of significance.
products such as medium density fibreboard and
Like most conifers P. pinaster is susceptible to intense particle board from P. pinaster plantation thinnings
fires. However, trees are capable of tolerating mild is already at a high level. Demand for this species
fires. The needle litter layer on the forest floor is as a framing timber appears certain to increase in
slow to decay; this property is used by the FPC to Western Australia. Traditionally, houses were built
conduct control burns in plantations to reduce the with double brick walls since bricks were cheaper
potential fuel load. than pine. Observations in new housing developments
suggest that almost half the houses are now brick
veneer with pine frames as in the eastern states.
218
Limitations
Pinus pinaster is one of a group of species that
exhibits a fixed (or predetermined) growth pattern.
Abnormal late‑season shoot growth in this species
has produced stem form problems in P. pinaster
plantings in Western Australia. The two main types
are lammas shoots (which result from elongations of
the terminal bud) and proleptic shoots (which result from
expansion of lateral buds at the base of the terminal
bud). Where these two shoot types compete for
dominance stem‑forking and multi‑leaders or ramicorns
may result. Basket whorls can result from a third type
of late‑season growth known as sylleptic shoots.
These abnormal late‑season shoots are thought
to be under genetic control and are most common
Young P. pinaster showing abnormal late-season in Atlantic provenances, in particular Portuguese
growth. provenances, which exhibit the best early growth
rate in our climate. While the Corsican provenance
is not prone to abnormal late‑season growth, it exhibits
P. pinaster produces a long‑fibre pulp suited to slow early growth. Stem form problems due to these
producing a thick paper ideal for packaging and late‑season shoots have become apparent on a wide
industrial uses where toughness is important. range of ex‑pasture sites in Western Australia that
have abundant stored soil water and moderate to
Non‑wood high levels of soil phosphorus. They usually occur
Resin is the most important non-wood product, after trees reach 2‑3 years of age (Ian Dumbrell,
which is used directly or indirectly (after distillation) Department of Conservation and Land Management,
to make turpentine, pitch, oils, varnishes, adhesives, pers. comm. 2002). Pruning is the best option for
waxes and soap. It is also used for waterproofing management at present. Research into the problem
(CABI, 2000). is currently in progress in Western Australia.
Like blue gum projects, maritime pine plantations Recommended reading

are also intended to provide environmental benefits ALRTIG website, 2002. Maritime Pine. Australian Low
by lowering water tables, thereby helping to control Rainfall Tree Improvement Group website: http://www.
salinity problems, provide shelter and mitigating ffp.csiro.au/alrtig/index.htm .
erosion. FPC website, 2002. Forest Products Commission of
Spencer D, 2001. Conifers in the Dry Country. A report
for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC
Publication No. 01/46, Rural Industries Research
References
ALRTIG website, 2002. Maritime Pine. Australian Low
Rainfall Tree Improvement Group website: http://www.
ffp.csiro.au/alrtig/index.htm
Boardman R, 1972. Response of Pinus radiata and Pinus
pinaster to phosphate on the same sites in the South‑east
of South Australia. In Boardman R (ed). Proceedings of
Old P. pinaster with poor form from abnormal
Australian Forestry Nutrition Conference,1971,
late-season growth. 232‑240. Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra.
219
Boardman R, 1974. Pine stand improvement in the South- Erle CJ, 2001. Pinus pinaster Aiton 1789. Gymnosperm
east Region of South Australia ‑ a review of phosphorus database. Bonn, Germany: Deparmtent of Botany,
nutrition studies. Woods and Forests Department South Rheinische Friedrich‑Wilhelms Universitat. website:
Australia, Bulletin 21, Parts 1 and 2, 96 pp. Government http://www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/conifers/index.htm
Printer, Adelaide.
FPC website, 2002. Forest Products Commission of
Butcher TB, 1976. Review of other conifer tree breeding Western Australia website: http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/
in Australia: temperate species. Australian Forestry Council,
Research Working Group No. 1. Proceedings.
Canberra, 30‑51.
Butcher TB, 1977. Impact of moisture relationships on the Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
management of Pinus pinaster plantations in WA. Forest
Lewis NB, 1957. Silviculture of exotic plantation species
Ecology and Management, 1:97-107.
in Southern Australia. Adelaide, Woods and Forest
Butcher TB, 1999. Pinus pinaster and P. radiata tree Department South Australia Bulletin, 5:24.
breeding programs. Winston Churchill Memorial
National Forest Inventory, 1997. National Plantation
Fellowship 1997. Report.
Inventory of Australia. Bureau of Resource Sciences,
Butcher G, Havel JJ, 1976. Influence of moisture Canberra.
relationships on thinning practice. New Zealand Journal
Shea SR, Butcher G, Ritson P, Bartle JR, Biggs P, 1998.
of Forestry Science, 6:158‑170.
The potential of tree crops and vegetation rehabilitation
Butcher TB, Hopkins ER, 1992. In search of the perfect to sequester carbon in Western Australia. In Proceedings
pine. Landscope, 7:49‑53. Carbon Sequestration Conference, Melbourne, 19-21
October, 1998.
Butcher TB, Hopkins ER, 1993. Realised gains from breeding
Pinus pinaster. Forest Ecology and Management, 58:211-231. Siemon GR, 1983. Strength properties of Pinus pinaster
Ait. in Western Australia. Forests Department of Western
Butcher TB, Hopkins ER, 1999. Pinus pinaster in Western
Australia Research Paper No 72. 5 pp.
Australia. In Bush D (ed), National Low Rainfall Tree
Improvement Workshop Proceedings, Adelaide, Siemon GR, 1998. Survey of wood basic density of
November 3-5, 1998. RIRDC Publication No. 99/66, pedigree maritime pine in Gnangara, Yanchep and
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Pinjar plantations. Internal Report, Department of CALM,
Canberra, pp 47-51. November 1998.
CABI, 2000. Forestry Compendium Globule Module Spencer D, 2001. Conifers in the Dry Country. A
(CD‑ROM) – a silvicultural reference. CAB International, report for the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program. RIRDC
Wallingford, UK. Publication No. 01/46, Rural Industries Research and
220
22. Pinus radiata D. Don
Radiata pine
Rowland Burdon (New Zealand Forest Research Institute), Ian McLeod and Bronwyn Clarke
– adapted from Burdon (2000b, 2002).
Species overview
Radiata pine is a very widely grown exotic conifer
and is the most extensively used species in Australian
commercial plantations, with a plantation area of
almost 700 000 ha (Wood et al., 2001). It is a
fast‑growing species with generally good form (Burdon,
2000a, 2002). It is an adaptable species which can
be grown on a diverse range of sites. For commercial
production it is best grown on sites with deep
(>80 cm), free draining soils of moderate to high
Key features fertility and annual rainfall >650 mm. The versatile
timber is widely used for sawn timber, veneer, pulp,
Tall tree, fast growing, good form (MAI around posts and export woodchips (ForestrySA website,
20 m3 ha‑1) 2002).
Relatively undemanding in soil requirements
Prefers winter rainfall, but tolerates uniformly
distributed rainfall occurrence
Intolerant of waterlogging, strong winds,
shallow and saline soils Description
Propagation by nursery seedlings, nursery Pinus radiata is an evergreen tree with a dense
cuttings or natural regeneration crown and dark green foliage. Height generally
ranges from 30-45 m in mature exotic plantings
Easy to handle and transplants well with corresponding diameters of 50-75 cm. Diameter
Genetically improved stock is available is affected greatly by site conditions and stand density,
isolated trees attaining diameters up to 200 cm. In
Susceptible to fungal pathogens
younger stands the crown is pointed while in old
Cream coloured wood, saws easily and works trees the crown is rounded or even flattened at the
well, accepts preservative treatment readily top. Needles are usually dark green, but may be
yellowish or bluish green, in groups (fascicles) of
Versatile species in terms of products and has
three, typically 10-18 cm long (Burdon, 2000a,
established market acceptance
2000b, 2002).
Unpruned logs typically knotty
The form of trees in plantations is usually good
Trees and logs may be attacked by blue stain on soils of lower fertility: straight, low taper, single
fungus if subjected to warm, moist conditions. stems and narrow crowns with small to moderate
221
branching. The form typically deteriorates on more
fertile sites, with frequent forking, rapid taper and
broad crowns with heavy branching (Burdon and Rainfall regime: Uniform, winter
Miller, 1992; Burdon 2000b, 2002). Branching Dry season length: 0-5 months
pattern is naturally variable and somewhat irregular
(Bannister, 1962). The bole tends to flare slightly Mean maximum temperature of 18-30°C
near ground level and may have slight fluting, and hottest month:
is prone to developing some buttsweep and lean Mean minimum temperature of -2-12°C
in response to prevailing winds. Bark on the lower coldest month:
portion of mature trees is dark brown, thick and
fissured (Burdon, 2000a, 2000b, 2002).
As is the case with all members of the Pine genus, The map of areas predicted to be climatically
male flowers are in cylindrical yellow clusters which suitable for planting P. radiata (Figure 22.1) was
release large amounts of wind‑borne pollen. Pollen generated from the revised climatic details for the
is produced by around 5‑6 years of age, depending species as listed above (Jovanovic and Booth,
on site and provenance. Production can begin very 2002). These revisions were made to a previous
soon after the winter solstice but is later on colder climatic summary for Australian plantations (Booth
sites. Female flowers develop into large woody and Jovanovic, 1991) and include two Tasmanian
cones with overlapping scales. Cones are usually sites and one Western Australian site not in the
large and persistent and take about two years from earlier summary.
pollination to mature and ripen. They may be single Isolated trees can tolerate annual rainfall as low as
but are usually in clusters, with a shape that is 300 mm, but P. radiata generally needs 650 mm
variable, but is mostly ovoid-conical, and always or more to be commercially viable (State Forests of
asymmetric. Production of cones (and seed) is much New South Wales [website, 2002] recommend
greater in some maritime environments (e.g. near >700 mm MAR and Private Forests Tasmania
Mt Gambier) than at dryer and/or colder inland [website, 2002] recommend >800 mm MAR for
sites (Griffin, 1978; Ken Eldridge, pers. comm., commercially viable plantations). There is speculation
2001). Mature cones are pale or medium brown that the species could be grown commercially in
with large and thick scales which may remain rainfall areas as low as 500 mm as long as soils
unopened for a number of years. Cones often were not deep sands and if woodlots were thinned
persist on branches long after opening (Burdon, early and high pruned for clearwood production
2000b, 2002).
Figure 22.1. Areas predicted to be climatically
Natural occurence suitable for P. radiata are shown in black
Pinus radiata occurs naturally on the Californian (Jovanovic and Booth, 2002)
mainland and islands off the coast of the California
Peninsula (Mexico). Its natural latitudinal range is
28-29°N, while it grows well as an exotic within
the latitudinal range 33‑46°.
Where will it grow?

P. radiata, incorporating data from sites where the
survival and good growth:
222
northern Spain and Cape Province of South Africa
by the 1930-1940s. The species has now become
naturalised in New Zealand, South Africa, Australia
and Chile. Areas of plantation also exist in Argentina,
Ecuador, Uruguay, Colombia, Peru, Italy, France,
British Isles, Kenya and several other African countries
(Parker 1997; Burdon, 2000b, 2002). There are
now some 4 million hectares of plantations of
P. radiata worldwide (Burdon, 2000b, 2002). In
Australia P. radiata is planted in New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and Queensland
Pinus radiata clones pruned to 6m, near Tarago, NSW. with a total plantation estate of 740 000 ha
(SFNSW website, 2002).
(Bird, 2000). Higher rainfall produces better growth, Provenance trials

but beyond 1800 mm disease and soil leaching
Intensive provenance testing has been done, albeit
become increasingly significant hazards. Winter
belatedly in Australia (Johnson et al., 1997; Burdon,
rainfall is the most suitable pattern, but in Australia
2000b, 2002). There are definite differences
the species grows very well in many areas with
among the mainland provenances in soil and
uniformly distributed rainfall. Diameter growth
climatic tolerances and disease resistance, rather
can occur throughout the year, temperatures
than growth potential. The two island provenances
and moisture permitting (Burdon, 2000a, 2002).
are distinctive in morphology, higher wood density
Provenances vary in their degree of frost resistance and slower growth. There is interest in hybridising
(Hood and Libby, 1980; Burdon, 1992) but generally domesticated stock with the ‘Guadalupe’ provenance
5‑50 heavy frosts per year are tolerated. The for its straight stems and higher wood density (Burdon,
altitudinal limit for viable planting generally ranges 2000b, 2002). The ‘Año Nuevo’ and ‘Monterey’
from 1250 m at latitude 33° to 400‑500 m at provenances, which have given rise to past
latitude 46° (Burdon, 2000a, 2000b, 2002). domesticated stocks, are broadly adapted but the
On coastal sandy soils, the root system can be very ‘Monterey’ provenance has high tolerance of poor
deep. Root penetration is often severely restricted by soils, while it is evidently less tolerant of frost and
soil depth or compacted layers, leading to instability snow. The ‘Cambria’ provenance, while susceptible
of the tree, especially if saturated soil coincides with to needle‑cast diseases, is of interest for Western
strong winds (Burdon, 2000b, 2002). Impervious Australia because of its greater tolerance to Phytophthora
white, black or grey clays such as those that occur cinnamomi, soil salinity, phosphate deficient soils,
in South Australia tend to impede drainage and waterlogging, marginal or drier sites and its good
root development and these waterlogged sites are productivity and tree form (FPC website, 2002).
not suitable (ForestrySA website, 2002). Whilst the Early trial results in low rainfall areas of South Australia
species tolerates gravely, rocky soils, sands and show ‘Guadalupe’ performing well at all sites and
loams, and heavy clays, it prefers deep, well-drained ‘Cambria’ performing well on some sites (ForestrySA
soils and good rainfall. Waterlogging is not tolerated website, 2002).
(Burdon, 2000b, 2002).
Breeding and Genetic Resources
Plantings and provenance trials Because of the extensive experience and accumulated
knowledge about this species, research now
Plantings concentrates on refined management, including
Pinus radiata was introduced into Australia in the fertiliser requirements; protection from pests and
1850s and plantations became widespread in disease; and breeding programmes.
New Zealand, south‑central Chile, southern Australia,
223
Pinus radiata often shows a high level of genetic
variation in relation to branching, stem form, frost
resistance, disease resistance, wood properties and
other characteristics (Burdon, 1992; Matheson et al.,
1997; Shelbourne, 1997). Breeding programmes
conducted in Australia for around 50 years have
resulted in extensive genetic improvement (Burdon,
2000a). Initially the focus was on growth, form and
disease resistance with good results (Burdon and
Miller, 1992; Carson et al., 1999; Burdon, 2000a).
Improvements in tree form were obtained from
selection of better phenotypes, but improvement
in stem volume depended more on progeny testing
(Burdon, 2000b, 2002).
Pinus radiata plantation
Changing silvicultural practices such as site
amelioration and shorter rotations, designed to
lower growing costs, have adversely affected Breeding Company Ltd. Seed suppliers in New
wood quality. This has altered the thrust of genetic Zealand are: Proseed NZ Ltd (http://www.
improvement to focus more on wood properties proseed.co.nz), Trees and Technology Ltd (http://
(Matheson et al., 1997; Shelbourne, 1997; www.biotech.org,nz). Carter Holt Harvey Forest
Sorensson et al., 1997; Jayawickrama and Carson, Genetics (http://www.forestgenetics.chh.com),
2000). Improvement in this respect has been achieved and PF Olsen & Co Ltd (http://pfolsen.nzforestry.
mainly by selecting trees with short internodes, to co.nz). The seed is subject to certification of
keep the knots smaller and to maintain better tree genetic merit for individual traits under the GFPLUS
form (Burdon, 2000b, 2002). scheme (Radiata Pine Breeding Co. Ltd. 2002).
Improved seed, seedlings and cuttings are available In addition to supplying seedlings, some nurseries
in most states of Australia through commercial nurseries will be selling cuttings. Such cuttings may represent
and some state forestry nurseries and seed centres. scarce, top-quality seedlots, that are multiplied as
The Southern Tree Breeding Association (STBA) breeds cuttings, but contain tree-to-tree genetic variation
elite genetic material of Pinus radiata and through that arises from genetic recombination that occurs
its members and seedEnergy Pty Ltd provides the in the course of seed production. A further refinement,
industry with seed and cuttings of this material. The which is likely to be on stream in the marketplace,
Private Forestry Tasmania website (http://www. is represented in mass propagation of particular
privateforests.tas.gov.au/) provides a list of local clones, which not only promise additional gain
pine suppliers with comprehensive information about but also the absence of unwanted genetic variation.
seed source, prices, ordering information etc. The Cuttings, however, still tend to show maturation,
Western Australia Forest Products Commission (FPC) or ‘physiological ageing’ if the same individual is
seed centre has improved seed available including propagated in this way over any length of time; this
selections with Phytophthora resistance. Seed prices tends to improve tree form but eventually reduce vigour
range from $250‑$950 kg‑1 of pure seed, depending and ease of propagation. Avoiding unwanted
on the level of improvement. Seedlings, cuttings maturation over time remains a challenge.
and open rooted stock are also available from the
FPC Nursery and some commercial nurseries (FPC Silviculture
website, 2002; Agriculture WA website, 2002).
Owing to the wide use of this species in plantations,
New Zealand also produces improved seed which appropriate silviculture is well developed and regional
is utilised by many growers in Australia. State information on silviculture, timing of operations and
Forests of New South Wales and ACT Forests are even costings are also available (see recommended
both members of the New Zealand Radiata Pine reading below).
224
Pinus radiata pruned
Propagation Establishment
Seed extraction is usually carried out in a kiln using Site preparation may simply entail removal of
temperatures around 55°C. Seed can be stored any surface vegetation and using herbicides to
almost indefinitely in an atmosphere of nitrogen control competing grasses and broad-leaved
even at ambient temperatures. Stratification is weeds (Burdon, 2000b). Ripping is required where
usually not necessary and viability is usually very there is an impervious hardpan or clay layer within
good. The only exception to this is pure or hybrid 50‑100 cm of the surface. Mounding is required
material of the Guadalupe Island population which on wetter sites where large mounds help to keep
does need stratification (Burdon, 2000b, 2002). seedlings out of the water and they also provide a
stimulus to growth. On drier sites machine planting
Vegetative propagation by shoot cuttings is used on
without prior cultivation helps to reduce water loss
a significant scale. In favourable conditions, cuttings
from the soil, although where there is dense bracken,
can be grown in open nurseries. Seed can be machine
ripping along planting lines may be necessary
sown at 5‑6 cm spacing within rows in nursery beds.
(ForestrySA website, 2002). The burning of existing
Fertilisers, including N and P, are usually used and
vegetation may reduce soil fertility on some sites.
a number of selective herbicides can be used to
Windrowing the vegetation is more widely used,
control weeds. Mycorrhizal fungi are normally
but care is needed to leave topsoil in situ (Burdon,
incorporated into nursery soil and are discussed
2000b, 2002).
by Chu‑Chou (1979) and Burdon (2000a).
The key to good establishment is good weed
Bare‑rooted planting stock as well as container stock
control and with P. radiata this will be required for
can be used, and can be produced in 6‑8 months
up to five years post planting. Poor weed control
in warm sites, but up to 18 months may be needed
is the main reason seedlings fail to survive or grow
in cold locations. Cuttings can be set in the nursery
because weeds and grasses choke and smother out
from late autumn to early spring. Root pruning contains
seedlings. Poor weed control also reduces growth as
the size of seedlings and prepares them for planting.
weeds compete with trees for water and nutrients.
Topping of seedlings may be necessary if they are
held in the nursery too long (Burdon, 2000b, 2002). Planting is preferred over natural regeneration and
direct seeding, in order to control both stocking and
genetic quality. Well‑established plantations exhibit
225
over 90% survival and good first year growth. In costs etc. Currently in the Green triangle area of
South Australia and Western Australia planting is South Australia and Western Australia pruning is
carried out in June/ July while the soil is still wet only done to external trees and plantations are thinned
from winter rains. Planting may occur later if site at 5‑7 year intervals starting at age 10‑15 years
access is not available due to waterlogging, which (depending on growth rate) and are clearfelled
is often a problem. In Tasmania, Victoria and New at age 30‑40. This is because there is currently
South Wales planting is done in September, (or no premium clearwood market in these regions.
July-August in warmer districts where soils dry out However, an early thinning and pruning regime
earlier). Planting in northern latitudes, such as in may still be economically rewarding without this
Queensland, is carried out during the wet season premium market, as rotation length would be
between November‑April, but February‑April is reduced to 20‑25 years (ForestrySA website, 2002;
preferred. Agriculture WA website, 2002). The ForestrySA
website (2002) has a fact sheet on pruning radiata
Fertilisers, most commonly phosphates and
pine for clearwood which aims to help growers
superphosphates, are often applied to seedlings
decide whether pruning is worthwhile for their
at planting and top-dressings can be applied over
particular forest.
established stands if required. Ex-pasture sites may
have adequate levels of nitrogen and phosphorous Very low-intensity ground fires, to reduce the fire
from past applications of superphosphate, but may hazard, can be tolerated by mature stands. Crown
have deficiencies of minor elements (Burdon, fires are fatal, and may result in dense natural
2000b, 2002). regeneration following the release of large quantities
of seed from unopened cones. Similar regeneration
Initial stocking has been reduced over the years from
can follow clearfelling (Burdon, 2000b, 2002).
around 2000 trees ha‑1 to 1000 trees ha‑1 or less.
This is a result of better establishment techniques,
improved genetic quality of the stock, and often the
Growth
inability to market early thinnings (small wood) (Burdon, Height growth of up to 2 m yr‑1 may be achieved
2000b, 2002). Initial stocking rates of plantations after 2‑5 years of age (Burdon, 2000b, 2002).
in the Green Triangle area of South Australia and in Mean annual increments of fully-stocked stands in
Western Australia are generally around 1600 trees ha‑1 Australia are between 10‑30 m3 ha‑1 depending
(ForestrySA website, 2002; Agriculture WA on rainfall and the average in Australia is probably
website, 2002). 15‑20 m3 ha‑1 (Bird, 2000; Burdon, 2000b, 2002;
ForestrySA website, 2002). The average mean
Management annual increment in the Green Triangle region is
20‑23 m3 ha‑1 (ForestrySA website, 2002). The
Thinning regimes have also changed over the years
average growth rate of radiata pine in Victoria is
(Lewis and Ferguson 1993; Burdon 2000a) and many
currently 18 m3 ha‑1, with more than 30 m3 ha‑1
modern thinning regimes are based on a combination
achievable on good sites (Hoef, 2002).
of early, heavy thinning. A non‑commercial first
thinning may be used if small wood cannot be
marketed. Aggressive pruning is also carried out to Protection
about 6 m height, to produce good yields of clear
Several insects and pathogens have become serious
timber from the butt logs. Short rotations, down to
threats to P. radiata plantations in Australia but to
25 years or less, with final stockings of 200‑250
date improvements in site selection and management
stems ha‑1 are used to maximise the rate of economic
along with breeding for resistance have been
return. Delayed thinning can, depending on the
successful in reducing the risks.
site, cause stagnation of growth, onset of disease
and vulnerability to wind damage (Burdon, 2000b, Pathogens have included the pine needle blight
2002). However, the most appropriate thinning fungus (Dothistroma septaspora) that does not
and pruning regime for a particular site needs to usually kill infected trees but may cause partial
take into consideration markets, growing conditions, defoliation and much reduced growth. Site selection
226
breakage may occur where rooting is deeper and
also following thinning operations.
Although a very low intensity fire may be used on
a mature stand for hazard reduction, fire damage
occurs easily and crown fires are fatal. ForestrySA
(website, 2002) prescribe that a minimum 10 m
fire‑break/access track should be left around each
plantation, with internal access breaks at least every
400 m (for logging and fire access). These breaks
should be grazed or slashed annually to help
control fires.
Pinus radiata logs at a sawmill, Hume ACT.
Ground frosts may be responsible for mortality
during establishment. Their effect can be minimised
and spraying have been successful in Australia by good site preparation such as mounding in
(Parker, 1997) and a Dothistroma‑resistant ‘breed’ frost‑prone areas to elevate the seedlings above
is on stream in New Zealand (Jayawickrama and the level of surrounding ground.
Carson, 2000). The root pathogen Phytophthora
cinnamomi is locally important where there is seasonal
Utilisation
waterlogging, especially in Western Australia
(Burdon, 2000b). FPC have available seed bred
Wood
for P. cinnamomi resistance (FPC website, 2002).
Pinus radiata sapwood is cream coloured, while
Sphaeropsis sapinea (syn. Diplodia pinea) causes
the heartwood is pink, but prolonged exposure to
‘autumn brown top’ in Australia’s summer-rainfall areas.
light causes darkening and browning. Heartwood
It results in shoot/leader dieback, crown wilt and
content is typically low in trees under 20‑25 years old.
whorl canker, and can attack both wounds and
The wood saws and seasons well, is easily worked,
uninjured shoots. It also affects drought-stressed
can be machined and polished, and is very easy
trees and is a major cause of the blue-stain of
to nail and to glue. Untreated wood mostly has very
timber. The needle-cast fungus, Naemacyclus
low natural durability but it can be readily treated
minor (syn. Cyclaneusma minus), is notable for its
with preservative and is easily painted. Air dry
widespread occurrence more so than for its impact.
density of the wood is about 500 kg m‑1 at 12%
Commercially important insect pests in Australia moisture content. However, it can vary significantly
have included the woodwasp Sirex noctilio which according to site, and is generally markedly lower
attacks suppressed and weak trees. Proper forest in young trees.
management, especially thinning on time, and
The wood of P. radiata has a wide range of uses
biological control, has reduced its potential for
including construction (mainly light but some heavy),
damage. The bark beetle Ips grandicollis is a
finishing uses, joinery, furniture, veneers and various
significant pest in Australia and infests young trees.
reconstituted wood products. It is also used for
Browsing by rabbits, hares, wallabies, possums both mechanical and chemical pulping, and with
or livestock cause damage to the growing tops of preservative treatment is used as posts and poles
young trees and plantations should be fenced to which are widely used in fencing and vineyards
restrict their access. (Bird, 2000). Most of the final crop is sawn into
Wind damage can occur with strong winds on wet timber, with the residues and thinnings used largely
sites, especially if the root system is shallow (e.g. for pulping (Burdon, 2000b, 2002).
over a claypan). Very young plantations may be Disadvantages of the wood include high grain spirality
toppled, sometimes leading to excessive buttsweep tending to cause distortion and internal checking on
but recovery is often rapid (Cremer, 1990). Stem drying (Bamber and Burley, 1983; Harris, 1989;
227
Cown et al., 1991). These problems seem to be far Agriculture WA website, 2002. Farm Forestry and
worse on high-fertility sites. Resin pockets in the wood Revegetation. Treenotes. Agriculture WA website: http://
www.agric.wa.gov.au/environment/trees/publications/
can degrade otherwise high-value finishing timber.
TreeNotes.htm
Knots are prevalent in timber from unpruned logs Bird PR, 2000. Farm Forestry in Southern Australia: A
of P. radiata and they generally become too large Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
for good-quality light structural timber if rapid stem Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
diameter growth is encouraged on fertile sites. The Maryborough, Victoria.
presence of larger knots together with low stiffness Burdon R, 2000b. Pinus radiata D. Don Species Digest.
does limit the usefulness of the wood. It is not suitable Forestry Compendium Globule Module (CD‑ROM) – a
for steam bending, and requires skill to stain silvicultural reference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
satisfactorily. Lamination can be used to produce Burdon R, 2002. Pinus radiata D. Don. In: CABI (compil.
large structural members. from the Forestry Compendium), Pines of Silvicultural
Importance, pp 259-379. CAB International,
Blue stain fungus can be minimised by clearing Wallingford, UK.
logs from the field without delay, or by prompt
ForestrySA website, 2002. Private Forestry. ForestrySA
fungicide treatment, especially during the warmer website: http://www.forestry.sa.gov.au/
months. This fungus does not affect the structural
FPC website, 2002. Forest Products Commission
properties of the wood but can seriously downgrade
the product for appearance purposes.
DSE website, 2002. Radiata Pine for farm forestry. Private
Forestry Species Profiles. Sustainability and Environment
Non-wood of Victoria website: http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/
Bark is recycled and burned as an energy source Gippsland Farm Plantations website, 2002. A guide to your
at large wood‑processing plants. It is also used in Pinus radiata silvicultural schedule. Gippsland Farm Plantations
horticulture, for mulches and for potting mixes. While website: http://www.gippslandfarmplantations.com.au/
it has quite a good tannin content it has not been Lewis NB, Ferguson IS, 1993. Management of radiata
used significantly for tannin extraction (Burdon, pine. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
2000b, 2002). Private Forests Tasmania website, 2002. Farm Forestry
Information Sheets. Private Forests Tasmania website:
Limitations http://www.privateforests.tas.gov.au/
SFNew South Wales website, 2002. Radiata Pine
The successful use of P. radiata is limited by its climatic ‘The Remarkable Pine’. State Forests of New South
tolerances and interrelated problems with fungal Wales website: http://www.forest.nsw.gov.au/
pathogens and insect pests. Temptations exist to
grow it in high-risk situations. References
Agriculture WA website, 2002. Farm Forestry and Revegetation.
The high growth rate of the species very often makes
Treenotes. Agriculture WA website: http://www.agric.
it impossible to grow satisfactorily in mixture with wa.gov.au/environment/trees/publications/TreeNotes.htm
other species.
Bamber RK, Burley J, 1983. The wood properties of
Plantations may cause major reductions in catchment radiata pine. Slough, UK: Commonwealth Agricultural
water yield through a combination of interception Bureaux. 84 pp.
and transpiration losses, although flood peaks tend to Bannister MH, 1962. Some variations in the growth
be greatly reduced. This may also be an advantage pattern of Pinus radiata in New Zealand. New Zealand
where there is a need to reduce water tables. Journal of Science, 5:342‑370.
Recommended reading A Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.
AFG website, 2002. Technical Bulletins. Australian Forest Centre State Printing and Pastoral and Veterinary Institute,
Growers website: http://www.afg.asn.au/Site_files/ Maryborough, Victoria.
technicalbulletins.htm Booth TH, Jovanovic T, 1991. Identification of land
capable of private plantation development: Appendix B,
228
Integrating forestry and farming. Report of the National Jayawickrama KJS, Carson MJ, 2000. A breeding
Plantation Advisory Committee. Department of Primary strategy for the New Zealand Radiata Pine Breeding
Industries and Energy, Canberra. Cooperative. Silvae Genetica, 49:82‑90.
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Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don). New Zealand FRI South Wales, Australia. New Zealand Journal of Forestry
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229
Glossary Clearwood – part of the sawlog outside of the
knotty core that is free of knots or branch defects.
Collapse – refers to the flattening or buckling of
wood cells during drying, resulting in excessive
and/or uneven shrinkage and a corrugated
surface. Collapse may also be referred to as
washboarding or crimping.
Concolorous – when the surface of the leaves is
Adaxial – adjacent to, or turned towards, the axil, the same colour on both sides.
as the upper surface of a leaf in relation to the stem.
Coppice – shoots that grow from a cut stump or near
Alkali consumption – alkali is a chemical used in the base of the trunk. These are usually juvenile at
paper making, high consumption makes the first but further development of the shoot will result
process more expensive. in intermediate and then adult-type leaves.
Alternate – when parts are adjacent but have other Cuboid – cube shaped.
structures in between e.g. when leaves along the
Cupular – cup shaped.
stem are on one side and then the other, alternating
up the stem and never opposite each other. Disc – of eucalypt fruit, diagnostic feature at the lip
or rim of a eucalypt capsule. If it is level or ascending
Amplexicaul – stem clasping, when the leaf base
it forms a thick rim to the fruit, if it is descending the
clasps the stem.
rim will be thin and sharp.
Axil – the angle between the leaf and the stem.
Discolorous – when the two surfaces of a leaf
Axillary – referring to a plant part occurring in the differ in colour.
axil e.g. the inflorescence.
Ectomycorrhiza – soil inhabiting, evidently symbiotic,
Back‑sawing – a sawing method where the growth fungi that modifies plant roots by enveloping them
rings are approximately parallel to the face of the and penetrating between the cells, allowing a
board when the board is viewed in cross section. nutrient exchange. The presence of these fungi
This method has been found useful in reducing the are often essential for healthy plant development.
effects of growth stresses when sawing small‑diameter,
Exserted – raised above the surface.
fast grown, young wood of eucalypts.
Falcate – curved like the blade of a sickle. Leaves
Beaked – when the operculum is markedly or
with a curved midrib are falcate.
slightly contracted to form a beak.
Fascicles – in pines, a bundle of needles (leaves).
Bipinnate – a compound leaf where there are two
levels of division i.e. the primary leaflets (pinnae) Fusiform – spindle shaped, broadest in the middle
are also pinnate i.e. are made up of secondary and tapered at each end.
leaflets (pinnules).
Glaucous – bluish green, bluish grey or covered
Campanulate – in fruit, bell shaped. However, the with a white wax on the surface.
bell is seen upside down.
Hybrid – the progeny of a cross-fertilisation by
Capsule – woody fruit, containing the seeds. parents with different genetic systems. From the
Latin hybrida meaning a mixed breed.
Checking – a separation of the wood fibers within
or on a piece of wood resulting from tension stresses Hypanthium – (hypanthia pl.) floral cup or tube.
set up during drying, usually the early stages of drying. In eucalypts it is the structure at the top of the
pedicel partly or wholly enclosing the ovary.
Clavate – club shaped.
230
Inflorescence – the arrangement of flowers on a that has specific barriers to selfing e.g. Grevillea
floral shoot. robusta, or a species that exhibits such inbreeding
depression that inbred individuals never reach maturity).
Intramarginal Vein – the first prominent vein of a
leaf in from the edge and running more or less Ovate – of leaves, when they are oval shaped
parallel with it. with the broad end at the base.
Kappa number – a measure of the amount of Pollarding – cutting back the crown of a tree, often
lignin remaining in pulp after cooking i.e. the done to reduce shading by the crown and so that
bleachability of a pulp. A low kappa number is new shoots develop which produce a rounded,
good and means there was a small amount of denser crown.
lignin remaining.
Pedicel – the individual stalk of each flower arising
Kino – a dark, reddish exudate (gum) formed at an from the top of the peduncles; usually round in
injury site in eucalypts. cross-section but in some species they are square
or two-angled. Buds with no pedicel are sessile.
Kraft pulp – a popular chemical pulping process
involving the cooking of wood chips in a solution Pedicellate – having a pedicel (as opposed to sessile).
of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. It produces
Peduncle – the enlarged stalk holding a cluster of
pulp with high strength and can be used for a wide
flowers. It may be round, square or flattened in section.
variety of wood species.
Petiole – of a leaf, a stalk attaching the leaf blade
Lanceolate – lance-shaped, pointed at the tip and
to the stem.
broader toward the base.
Petiolate – of a leaf, having a petiole (as opposed
Lignotuber – a woody tuber.
to sessile).
Mechanical pulp – pulp consisting of fibres
Protandry – in plants, where a flower first opens in
separated entirely by mechanical means.
the male phase (anthers dehisce) and later becomes
Medullary Rays – radiating projection of pith female (stigmas receptive). This condition is a way
(e.g. as in Grevillea robusta). of ensuring out-crossing rather than selfing by
separating the male and female gametes temporally.
Mucronate – terminating in a short point.
Provenance – the original geographic source of
Obconical – reversely conical, shaped like an
seed, pollen or propagules; a way of describing
inverted cone.
the origin of a seedlot or population of plants. It
Oblique – of the leaf, when the two sides of the leaf describes a subset of the genetic diversity within
base meet at different points on the midrib or petiole. a whole species.
Operculum – in eucalypts, the cap of the flower bud. Pyriform – pear shaped.
Opposite – when a pair of leaves is attached to Quarter sawing – a sawing method where the
the same point on the stem. growth rings are at right angles to the face of the
Orthodox – of seed storage behaviour, generally board when the board is viewed in cross section.
defined by the seed’s tolerance to drying and low Eucalyptus are often quartersawn to produce a
temperatures. Orthodox seed will store well for long more stable timber.
periods when dried to a low moisture content (below Ramicorn – a vigorous branched which is steeply
10%) and kept at low or sub zero temperatures, angled (usually less than 30° to trunk). Such branches
without damaging viability. Orthodox seed includes can threaten the integrity of the main stem and
eucalypts, acacias and casuarinas. should be removed early by pruning.
Outcrossing – a breeding system in which parents Reticulation – network of veins in leaves.
are less closely related to each other than if mating
occurred at random (may also refer to a species
231
Rhizobia – soil inhabiting nitrogen fixing bacteria Subspecies – a form of a species having a
that forms symbiotic associations with the roots of distinctive identify and occupying a particular
plants e.g. in the Acacias. habitat or region.
Rostrate – beaked. Terminal – of the inflorescence, at the end of a
branchlet.
Salinity classes – non saline = ECe < 2 dS m-1 ;
slightly saline = ECe 2‑4 dS m-1 ; moderately Tessellated – of bark, occurring in small thick flakes
saline = ECe 4‑8 dS m-1 ; severely saline = ECe or small squares.
4‑8 dS m-1 ; extremely saline = ECe > 16 dS m-1.
Truncate – shortened in shape like its cut off at the
Seedlot – a specific collection of a provenance of end as in truncate globose where the shape is
a species made at a particular point in time. spherical but like a piece has been cut at the top.
Sessile – without a stalk. Turbinate – top shaped.
Soda‑AQ pulp – a chemical process of pulping Undulate – of a leaf surface, wavy.
that uses sodium hydroxide as the active chemical.
Urceolate – urn shaped.
Stocking – the persistent bark on the lower trunk of
Valves – the 3-5 triangular sections at the top of the
an otherwise smooth-barked tree.
capsule which are raised in mature capsules to release
Stool – tree stump, usually used for stumps cut to the seeds. Valves may be sunken and difficult to see
produce coppice. inside the capsule or exserted and very conspicuous.
Subgenus – a natural group between genus and 1,8‑cineole – otherwise known as ‘eucalyptol’, the
section used in the classification of plants. active ingredient in the essential oil of eucalypts
232

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Forestry

TREES FOR FARM FORESTRY:

TREES FOR FARM FORESTRY:

A report for the RIRDC/

All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 821 0

Trees for Farm Forestry: 22 promising species

Researcher Contact Details

Phone: 02 6281 8211

RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

BARTON ACT 2600

Phone: 02 6271 4100

Published in March 2009

 development of improved climatic profiles

 assessment of the potential productivity of

 research into the suitability of a range of farm

 provision of the TREDAT tree performance

We would also like to extend particular thanks the

ALRTIG Australian Low Rainfall Tree Improvement Group

What the report is about Methods used

Species Temperate/tropical Wet/dry Use/potential

P. radiata temp wet use

+ small but expanding plantation base

The map of areas predicted to be climatically suitable

clearly indicate that it is worth considering in areas Provenance trials

Acacia mearnsii in acacia trial at Gin Gin, WA.

9 5556 8.6 18.0 172 36

Description and natural

The bark is reddish brown to coppery on young

Where will it grow? The map of areas predicted to be climatically

Provenance trials Propagation

Corymbia maculata natural stand in Corunna

Distribution of the spotted gums ranges from subtropical

The map of areas predicted to be climatically

Where will it grow?

Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata

At present there is little provenance information

Eucalyptus camaldulensis var. camaldulensis at

The map of areas predicted to be climatically

Plantings and provenance trials

Limitations Clemson A, 1985. Honey and Pollen Flora. Inkata Press,

Species overview Description and natural

Breeding and genetic resources

moderately resistant to termites, however, the sapwood References

occurrence lanceolate or falcate adult leaves; the inflorescences

Mean annual rainfall: 650-2845 mm

Limitations Focus on Clearwood Production of Specialty Timbers.

internal joinery and furniture. The timber from

Key features Description and natural

regular winter snows occur, but the southernmost

Mean annual rainfall: 640-1660 mm

Mean minimum temperature

Helvetia 1700 775 1.8

Species overview Description and natural

A natural stand of Eucalyptus globulus subsp.

Plantings and provenance trials

Easily reproduced vegetatively by grafting,

Juvenile leaves are stalked, opposite for several

The map of areas predicted to be climatically

Where will it grow?

Short rotation E. grandis crops are often managed