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iii
Contents
Foreword vii
Acknowledgements viii
Acronyms ix
Introduction 1
Part I. Regional and global analysis 4

Africa 5
Asia and the Pacific 11
Europe 19
Latin America and the Caribbean 26
Near East 32
North America 36
Global analysis 41
Conclusions 52
Part II. Profiles of selected forest pests 1

54
Insect pests 55
Agrilus planipennis 55
Anoplophora glabripennis 59
Cinara cupressivora 62
Cinara pinivora 65
Dendroctonus frontalis 67
Dendroctonus ponderosae 71
Dendroctonus valens 75
Dendrolimus sibiricus 78
Gonipterus scutellatus 81
Heteropsylla cubana 84
Hypsipyla grandella and Hypsipyla robusta 86
Ips sexdentatus 89
Ips subelongatus 91
Ips typographus 93
Leptocybe invasa 96
Lymantria dispar 99
Lymantria monacha 103
Orthotomicus erosus 106
Phoracantha recurva and Phoracantha semipunctata 110
Sirex noctilio 113
Thaumetopoea pityocampa 116
Thaumetopoea processionea 120
1
Pests profiled in Part II are noted by an asterisk (*) when mentioned throughout the text.
iv
Diseases 123
Armillaria mellea 123
Botryosphaeria dothidea 126
Chrysoporthe cubensis 129
Mycosphaerella pini 132
Phytophthora ramorum 135
Other pests 139
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus 139
Part III. Pests of selected forest tree species 142

Abies grandis 143
Acacia mangium 144
Casuarina equisetifolia 145
Dalbergia latifolia 147
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 148
Eucalyptus robusta 150
Fagus sylvatica 152
Gmelina arborea 154
Juglans nigra 156
Khaya ivorensis 158
Lovoa trichilioides 159
Paulownia tomentosa 160
Picea sitchensis 161
Pinus oocarpa 163
Pinus radiata 164
Populus nigra 166
Pseudotsuga menziesii 167
Shorea macrophylla 169
Swietenia macrophylla 170
Tectona grandis 171
Terminalia amazonia 173
Bibliography 175
Annex 1. Pest species distribution in the selected countries, by region 193

Africa 193
Asia and the Pacific 198
Europe 204
Latin America and the Caribbean 206
Near East 211
Annex 2. Pest species mentioned in Part III 215
Annex 3. FAO forest health publications 221

v
TABLES
1 Countries included in the forest pest overviews 3
2 Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Africa 7
3 Forest pest species found in more than one country, Africa 7
4 Summary of the data on forest pest species, Asia and the Pacific 12
5 Species found in more than one country, Asia and the Pacific 13
6 Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Europe 20
7 Species found in more than one country, Europe 21
8 Summary of the data on forest pest species, Latin American
and Caribbean 27
9 Species in more than one country, Latin America and Caribbean 29
10 Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Near East 33
11 Summary of the data on forest pest species from the 25 countries 42
12 Prevalent characteristics of pest problems by region
(from the 25 forest pest overviews) 42
13 Insect pest species reported across regional borders
from the 25 countries 46
14 Disease pest species reported across regional borders
from the 25 countries 48
15 Total forest area and forest area affected by disturbances for
the selected countries that provided quantitative information for
the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 49
FIGURES
1 Number of forest pest species reported, Africa 6
2 Most prevalent pests, Africa 6
3 Number of forest pest species reported, Asia and the Pacific 12
4 Most prevalent pests, Asia and the Pacific 12
5 Number of forest pest species reported, Europe 20
6 Most prevalent pests, Europe 20
7 Number of forest pest species reported, Latin America and the Carribean 27
8 Most prevalent pests, Latin America and Caribbean 27
9 Number of forest pest species reported, Near East 33
10 Most prevalent pests, Near East 33
11 Number of pest species by region as reported from
the selected 25 countries 42
12 Insect pests reported from the 25 countries 44
13 Disease-causing pathogens reported from the 25 countries 44
14 Other pests reported from the 25 countries 44
BOXES
1 The International Plant Protection Convention 2
2 Regional and international groups and initiatives addressing forest health 50
3 Sources of information on forest pests and invasive species 51
vii
Foreword
Insect pests, diseases and other biotic agents have considerable impacts on forests
and the forest sector. They can adversely affect tree growth and the yield of wood
and non-wood products. Damage caused by forest pests can significantly reduce
wildlife habitat thereby reducing local biodiversity and species richness. They can
alter natural forest landscapes by decimating one or more tree species as has been
observed in eastern American forests as a result of chestnut blight and throughout the
Northern Hemisphere because of Dutch elm disease. Some pests have necessitated
changes in management regimes often forcing forest managers to switch to alternative
tree species in plantations; for example, the failed attempts in many parts of the world
to establish mahogany plantations because of the presence of mahogany shoot borers
(Hypsipyla spp.). Pathogens may also limit the sites on which species can be grown
successfully outside their natural range as has been experienced with red band needle
blight (Mycosphaerella pini) and western gall rust (Endocronartium harknessii)
infecting Pinus radiata.
While abundant literature is produced on forest pests and diseases, a comprehensive
consideration of the issues at regional and global levels has been lacking. The first
major global meeting on forest insect pests and diseases was held in Oxford, UK in
1964: the FAO and International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO)
Symposium on Internationally Dangerous Forest Diseases and Insects. A second
meeting held in New Delhi, India in 1975 continued the process of cooperation. Since
the reports of these meetings, little information has been available at the global level
that is not pest specific.
Understanding the state of global forest health requires international cooperation
and the gathering and dissemination of accurate and timely information. As part of
the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 (FRA 2005), countries reported on
area affected by insect pests, diseases and other disturbances. This information was
supplemented by a thematic study reviewing forest pests in 25 countries. Part I of this
publication summarizes the results of these data by region. Part II presents profiles of
some globally important forest pest species and Part III discusses select forest trees
species and their associated pests. The information provided in this publication will
assist forest health specialists, forest managers and policy-makers worldwide to make
informed decisions.
During the preparation of this document continuous updates were necessary due
to the discovery of previously unrecorded pest problems in new locations, countries
and regions. The report is not comprehensive as new information is continually
becoming available.
J.A. Prado
Director, Forest Management Division
FAO Forestry Department
viii
Acknowledgements
This publication was compiled by Beverly A. Moore under the supervision of

Gillian Allard.
Many thanks are extended to those who assisted with the preparation or review
of the country pest overview papers that formed the basis for the regional chapters
in Part I, including: Paula Klasmer, Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria,
Argentina; Aida Baldini Urrutia, Angelo Sartori Ruilova and other staff members,
National Phytosanitary Protection Programme, Corporacion Nacional Forestal
(CONAF), Santiago, Chile; Yang Zhong-qi, Research Institute of Forest Protection,
Chinese Academy of Forestry; Olga Patricia Pinzon F., Universidad Distrital Francisco
Jose de Caldas, Bogota, Colombia; Staff of the Department of Forests of the Ministry
of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus; Paul P. Bosu, Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana; Eston Mutitu, Linus Mwangi and Beryl Otieno, Kenya
Forestry Research Institute; Almaz Orozumbekov, Kyrgyz Agrarian University,
Kyrgyzstan; Clement Chilima, Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM);
entomologists of the National Research Institute (ICAS), Bucharest, Romania; Jolanda
Roux, Brett Hurley and Ryan Nadel, DST/NRF Centre of Excellence in Tree Health
Biotechnology, Tree Protection Cooperative Programme (TPCP), Forestry and
Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, South Africa;
Surachai Choldumrongkul, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand; Glynn
Maynard, Australia; Claus Eckelmann, FAO Subregional Office for the Caribbean,
Barbados; and William Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, United States.
Thanks are also extended to those who reviewed draft versions of the publication or
portions thereof, including: Zvi Mendel and Alex Protosov, Department of Entomology,
Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Israel; Eric Allen, Pacific Forestry
Centre, Canadian Forest Service; Kerry Britton, Research and Development, United
States Forest Service; Claus Eckelmann and Gene Pollard, FAO Subregional Office for
the Caribbean, Barbados; and Jose Antonio Prado, James Carle, Mette Loyche Wilkie
and Andrea Perlis, FAO Forestry Department, Rome.
Matthew Cock of CABI Europe, Switzerland, with assistance from J. Knight,
prepared Part III of this publication; their efforts are acknowledged.
ix
Acronyms
ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

AFWC African Forestry and Wildlife Commission
APFC Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission
APFISN Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network
APPPC Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission
CA Comunidad Andina
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CIBC Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control
CIE Commonwealth Institute of Entomology
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora
CLRV Cherry leaf roll nepovirus
COSAVE Comité de Sanidad Vegetal del Cono Sur
CPPC Caribbean Plant Protection Commission
EPPO European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
EU European Union
FISNA Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa
FRA Global Forest Resources Assessment
FSC Forest Stewardship Council
GISP Global Invasive Species Programme
IAPSC Inter-African Phytosanitary Council
ICP Forests International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of
Air Pollution Effects on Forests
ICPM Interim Commission on Phytosanitary Measures
IFQRG International Forestry Quarantine Research Group
IOBC International Organization for Biological Control of Noxious Animals
and Plants
IPM Integrated pest management
IPPC International Plant Protection Convention
ISPMs International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
ISSG Invasive Species Specialist Group
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IUFRO International Union of Forest Research Organizations
LACFC Latin American and Caribbean Forestry Commission
LRTAP Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution
MCPFE Ministerial Conference for the Protection of Forests in Europe
NAFC North American Forest Commission
NAPPO North American Plant Protection Organization
NEFC Near East Forestry Commission
NENFHIS Near East Network on Forest Health and Invasive Species
NEPPO Near East Plant Protection Organization
NPPO National Plant Protection Organization
NPV Nuclear polyhedrosis virus
OIRSA Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria
RPPO Regional Plant Protection Organization
SLU Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
WMO World Meteorological Organization
Introduction 1
Introduction
Forests are complex ecosystems that provide a variety of valuable products, such as
timber, fuelwood, fibre and non-wood forest products, and contribute to the livelihoods
of rural communities. They also provide vital ecosystem services, such as combating
desertification, protecting watersheds, maintaining biodiversity, and enhancing carbon
sequestration, and play an important role in preserving social and cultural values. It is
critically important to protect these valuable resources from disturbances such as fire,
pollution, invasive species, insects and diseases.
While they are integral components of forest ecosystems, insects and diseases have
considerable influence on the health of forests, trees outside forests and other wooded
lands. They can adversely effect tree growth, vigour and survival, the yield and quality
of wood and non-wood products, wildlife habitat, recreation, aesthetics and cultural
values. Forest insect pests and diseases may also result in the limitation of plantation
programmes, the abandonment of a given tree species and the necessity to clearcut large
areas dominated by infested trees.
Forests need to be managed so that the risks and impacts of unwanted disturbances
are minimized. Measures to protect forests from insect pests and diseases are an integral
part of sustainable forest management. The importance of considering the impacts of
insect pests and diseases on forests and the forest sector has been recognized for some
time. Effective pest management requires reliable information – information on the pests
themselves, their biology, ecology, and distribution, their impacts on forest ecosystems
and possible methods of control. While much qualitative information on insect pests
and diseases exists at local, national and even regional scales, little comprehensive,
quantitative information is available at the global level. Typically more information is
available on pests of trees in industrialized rather than non-industrialized countries and
also for pests of trees grown in commercially valuable planted forests (which include
plantation forests and planted semi-natural forests) compared to pests in naturally
regenerated forests. Virtually nothing is known of the pests associated with those trees
harvested from naturally regenerated forests, at least in the tropics.
FAO ACTIVITIES IN FOREST HEALTH

FAO is the only international organization working on forest health and protection at
the global scale. Activities in the FAO forest protection and health programme aim to
assist, advise and support countries to protect the health and vitality of forests, forest
ecosystems and trees outside forests, with special reference to insects, diseases and other
harmful biotic and abiotic agents. FAO provides advice on preventive measures, pest
management and recommended actions to minimize risks of transboundary transfer. It
also offers assistance to countries not only in response to pest outbreaks and emergencies
but also in establishing long-term prevention and forest protection strategies. FAO also
hosts the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (Box 1).
COLLECTING GLOBAL FOREST HEALTH INFORMATION

FAO gathers information to obtain an ever more complete picture of global forest
health. The following activities are some examples that have helped contribute to
closing the information gap regarding forest health.
With the cooperation of experts from member countries, FAO compiled data for
a global information system on the impact of insect pests and disease outbreaks on
forests (www.fao.org/forestry/25350). The pilot system was designed to document,
2 Global review of forest pests and diseases
BOX 1
The International Plant Protection Convention
The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is an international treaty to secure

action to prevent the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products, and to
promote appropriate measures for their control. The IPPC is governed by the Commission
on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) which adopts International Standards for Phytosanitary
Measures (ISPMs). These standards are developed and approved through an international
consultative process, and are recognized under the WTO Agreement on the Application of
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.
ISPMs have direct relevance to the forest sector including guidelines for the export,
shipment, import and release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms
(ISPM No. 3), pest risk analysis (ISPM Nos. 2, 11, 21), pest eradication programmes (ISPM
No. 9), pest status and reporting (ISPM Nos. 8, 17), and regulating wood packaging
materials in international trade (ISPM No. 15). In addition, the International Forestry
Quarantine Research Group (IFQRG) acts as an advisory body to the IPPC and addresses
critical forestry quarantine issues through discussion and collaborative research.
Regional Plant Protection Organizations (RPPOs) are intergovernmental organizations
that assist in the coordination of National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPO), gather
and disseminate information and assist in developing international standards.
The RPPOs include:
• Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (APPPC) (formerly the Plant Protection
Commission for Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region) created in 1956;
• European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO), 1951;
• Inter-African Phytosanitary Council (IAPSC), 1954;
• Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria (OIRSA), 1953;
• Caribbean Plant Protection Commission (CPPC), 1967;
• Comunidad Andina (CA), 1969;
• North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO), 1976;
• Comite de Sanidad Vegetal del Cono Sur (COSAVE), 1980;
• Pacific Plant Protection Organization (PPPO), 1994.
A tenth RPPO, the Near East Plant Protection Organization (NEPPO), has been agreed
upon and ratified by eight countries in the region. However, two more ratifications are
required for it to enter into force.
analyse and make current information about forest health available at the country level
in order to increase awareness of the severe problems related to insect pests and diseases
worldwide and to provide up to date information for policy and forest management
planning. A database on the incidence and extent of insect pests and diseases affecting
forests over time was created and subsequently tested and a critical economic review
of its contents was then carried out. To date, qualitative information on forest health
issues has been collected for 64 countries, mostly developing countries and countries
in transition. The information was gathered through different sources including FAO
field project reports, country reports and a test questionnaire sent out to selected
technical experts.
To attempt to quantify the impacts of the many factors that affect the health and
vitality of a forest, the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 (FRA 2005) asked
countries to report on the area of forest adversely affected by disturbances, including
forest fires, insects, diseases and other disturbances such as weather-related damage
(FAO, 2006). Most countries, however, were not able to provide reliable quantitative
information because they do not systematically monitor these variables for many
Introduction 3
TABLE 1
Countries included in the forest pest overviews
Region Countries
Africa Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa, Sudan
Asia and the Pacific China, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Thailand
Europe Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation
Latin America and the Caribbean Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Honduras, Mexicoa, Uruguay
Near East Cyprus, Kyrgyzstan
a
For the purposes of this study, Mexico has been included in Latin America and the Caribbean
reasons. As a result, FAO has been investigating ways to adapt the forest health and
vitality reporting tables for the 2010 assessment in order to improve the quality of data
reported and encourage monitoring of forest health.
A review of forest pests in both naturally regenerated forests and planted forests
was carried out from 2005 to 2008 in 25 countries, including a number of major
forest countries (Brazil, China, Indonesia), in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe,
Latin America and the Caribbean and the Near East (Table 1). Information was
collated from many sources including expert contacts in the countries, the Internet
and literature searches; where possible all data have been evaluated in country.
Specifically, information was gathered on insect pests, diseases and other pests
(nematodes, mites, parasitic plants and mammals) impacting naturally regenerated
and planted forests. A section was also devoted to national capacities for forest
health protection and included information on government and private landowner
activities as well as monitoring and detection, data management and pest management
activities. This activity is a continuous process and FAO will continue to review
forest pests in other countries.
ABOUT THIS BOOK

Part I analyses the information gathered in the country reports to help identify the
key issues in each region regarding forest health and protection and help further
discussions on regional forest pests and capacities for pest management. Quantitative
forest health information gathered through FRA 2005 is also presented where
available. Further information from the region that was not highlighted in the country
papers is discussed to present a more inclusive picture of forest health in each region.
A section on North America (Canada and the United States of America) is also
included. Part I concludes with a global analysis of this information.
Part II provides detailed profiles of some globally important transboundary forest
pest species. These profiles are also available online at www.fao.org/forestry/pests,
where additional pests will be included over time.
Part III presents profiles of the pests associated with some select forest tree species.
This section was prepared by M.J.W. Cock, with assistance from J. Knight, in 2002.
The information was extracted and adapted from the CABI Forestry Compendium
(www.cabi.org/compendia/fc) to illustrate the diversity of pest and disease problems
in important forest trees. The species were chosen to represent important forest tree
genera. For any given genus, only one or two representative species are discussed,
although main genera such as Pinus and Eucalyptus obviously have dozens of
important species.
Annexes provide the raw data collected from the countries, by region, and a table of
the species mentioned in the publication.
Throughout this book, an asterisk (*) indicates species that are profiled in Part II.
PART I
Regional and
global analysis
PART I Regional and global analysis 5
Africa
The total number of pest species reported from the seven countries in the region was 99
(Figure 1; Table 2). Insect pests were the most frequently reported pest type, followed
by pathogens. Only one mammalian pest was reported, the indigenous Barbary
macaque (Macaca sylvana) from Morocco.
Almost 60 percent of the pests reported were indigenous, while the rest were
introduced. The majority were reported exclusively in planted forests, about 30 percent
in naturally regenerated forests and 11 percent in both types of forest. Malawi was the
only country that reported more pests in naturally regenerated forests.
Broadleaf tree species were the most commonly reported host type. Twenty-eight
percent of the pests were recorded on conifers while 8 percent of pests were reported
as infesting both broadleaves and conifers. Pests recorded in Kenya were evenly split
between broadleaf and conifer trees, while Morocco reported conifers as the most
common host. On the African continent, conifers are mainly found in North Africa
and in planted forests in eastern and southern Africa.
Lepidopteran (butterflies and moths) and coleopteran (beetles and weevils) species
were the most common insect pests recorded in almost all countries (Figure 2), although
Kenya reported more Hemiptera (true bugs, aphids and hoppers), and Malawi reported
more Isoptera (termites) species. The most common pathogens reported from Africa
were species from the phylum Ascomycota.
Countries profiled in the region

FIGURE 1
Number of forest pest species reported, Africa
Ghana Kenya Malawi Mauritius Morocco South Africa Sudan

20
18
16
Number of species
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Indigenous Introduced
FIGURE 2
Most prevalent pests, Africa
Insects Diseases
Coleoptera 23% Ascomycota 18%
Lepidoptera 22% Basidiomycota 5%
Hemiptera 17% Other diseases 3%
Isoptera 7%
Orthoptera 2% Other
Hymenoptera 2% Other pests 1%
SPECIES FOUND IN MORE THAN ONE COUNTRY

A number of forest pests were reported from more than one country in the region
(Table 3). All transboundary species reported from Africa are introduced species
from other continents.
Nine insect pest species, out of a total of 72, were recorded from more than one
country in the region. All of these insect pests were recorded in planted forests. Three
species (Cinara cupressivora*, Eulachnus rileyi and Pineus pini) were recorded on
conifers and the remaining six were recorded on broadleaf trees.
The longicorn borers Phoracantha recurva* and P. semipunctata* and the leaf-feeding
curculionid Gonipterus scutellatus* are significant pests of eucalypts. Heteropsylla
cubana* is a pest of the fast-growing Central American tree, Leucaena leucocephala,
which has been widely planted in the tropics since the 1970s for agroforestry, wood
production and fodder. The shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta*, is a major pest of several
high quality timber species including African mahogany (Khaya spp.), mahogany
(Swietenia macrophylla, S. mahagoni), and teak (Tectona spp.). The blue gum chalcid,
Leptocybe invasa*, is a relatively new threat to planted eucalypt forests in Africa,
reported first from Kenya in 2002 and from South Africa in July 2007. This pest is also
known to occur in Morocco although the date of introduction is unknown.
Three introduced pathogens were recorded from more than one country. Armillaria
mellea*was recorded in both naturally regenerated and planted forests, while Mycosphaerella
pini* and Sphaeropsis sapinea were reported exclusively in planted forests. All three were
recorded on conifers, although A. mellea was also noted to be a pest of broadleaf trees.
PART I Regional and global analysis AFRICA 7
TABLE 2
Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Africa
Pest type Number of pest species
Total In naturally In planted In both types On On On both

generated forests of forest broadleaf conifer host types
forests
Indigenous species
Insects 53 26 25 2 39 12 2
Diseases 6 1 1 4 3 1 2
Other 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Introduced species
Insects 19 0 19 0 10 9 0
Diseases 20 2 14 4 11 5 4
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 99 29 59 11 63 28 8
TABLE 3
Forest pest species found in more than one country, Africa
Pest species Order/phylum: Countries of Indigenous/ Type of Host type
family occurrence introduced forest
Insects
Cinara cupressivora* Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Aphididae Malawi,
Mauritius
Eulachnus rileyi Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Naturally Conifer

Aphididae Malawi regenerated,
planted
Gonipterus Coleoptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

scutellatus* Curculionidae Mauritius,
South Africa
Heteropsylla Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

cubana* Psyllidae Malawi,
Mauritius,
Sudan
Hypsipyla robusta* Lepidoptera: Ghana, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Pyralidae Mauritius
Leptocybe invasa* Hymenoptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Eulophidae Morocco,
South Africa
Phoracantha Coleoptera: Malawi, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

recurva* Cerambycidae Morocco,
South Africa
Phoracantha Coleoptera: Malawi, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

semipunctata* Cerambycidae Morocco,
South Africa
Pineus pini Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Adelgidae Malawi,
South Africa
Diseases
Armillaria mellea* Basidiomycota: Kenya, Introduced Naturally Broadleaf,

Marasmiaceae Malawi, regenerated, conifer
Sudan planted
Mycosphaerella Ascomycota: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

pini* Mycosphaerellaceae South Africa
Sphaeropsis sapinea Ascomycota: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Incertae sedis South Africa
CAPACITY FOR FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION

Monitoring and detection
Most countries do not carry out routine monitoring and detection. Such activities are
often informal in nature involving observations made by foresters and forest workers
while carrying out other activities in the field. In some countries, monitoring activities
have been carried out for specific pests, such as aerial surveys to detect damage by
Cinara cupressivora* in Kenya and the mapping of winter nests and placement of
pheromone traps to detect Thaumetopoea pityocampa* in Morocco. In South Africa,
disease development in planted forests is regularly monitored. A major impediment
to effective monitoring and detection activities is the lack of highly trained and skilled
people capable of identifying insects and diseases as causal agents of damage to forests.
This is compounded by a lack of infrastructure and transport.
Data management
Of the little information available on forest health in the African countries, most is
qualitative in nature; very little quantitative data exist for most countries. Some data
are available for specific pests, such as Cinara cupressivora* in Kenya, Malawi and
Mauritius and the tree locust (Anacridum melanorhodon) in the Sudan. Impediments
to forest health data management include lack of trained personnel, inadequate data
storage facilities and low capacity for analysing large quantities of data. Considerable
data are stored as hard copy, whereas to be of value for predictive forecasting they need
to be transferred to electronic databases.
As part of the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2005, FAO asked countries
to report on the impact of insect pests and diseases on their forests for two reporting
periods: 1990 (average from 1988 to 1992); and 2000 (1998 to 2002). Most countries did not
provide any solid, quantitative information through the country correspondent and only
two provided data on the area of forests impacted. Morocco reported that over 16 000 ha
(1990) and 37 000 ha (2000) of forest were damaged by insect pests while other disturbances
damaged a further 2 500 ha (2000). South Africa reported that 2 250 ha (1990) and 919 ha
(2000) of planted forests were damaged by weather, diseases, insects, animals and rodents.
Pest management
Some pest management activities, such as physical removal of infested trees, the
application of chemical and biological pesticides, classical biological control, and the
planting of pest tolerant tree species, have been carried out to varying degrees in each
country. Most activities are target specific and include classical biological control
programmes, e.g. for management of Cinara cronartii in South Africa and Heteropsylla
cubana* in Kenya and Mauritius, and Cinara cupressivora* in Kenya, Malawi and
Mauritius. Aerial application of chemical and biopesticides has been carried out
in Morocco for management of Thaumetopoea pityocampa*. Most countries lack
comprehensive forest pest management plans or preventative measures.
Ownership
In most of the countries, the majority of the forests are in the public domain. In
privately owned and managed forests, pest management activities are often carried out
in collaboration with national agencies and departments.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
In general, there is a broad trend in the region towards recognizing environmental and
biodiversity concerns including forest health and protection. However, information
on forest health is scarce and, as part of FRA 2005, only five countries from the entire
continent reported quantitative data pertaining to insect pests and diseases. This is
insufficient for trend analysis.
PART I Regional and global analysis AFRICA 9
African forests are subject to the impact of a number of indigenous mammalian pests
such as baboons (Papio spp.) and the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Baboons
can cause considerable damage to pine plantations in southern Africa, particularly in
Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, where they strip bark, which results in tree death.
They may also attack Eucalyptus, Acacia and Cupressus plantations. In East Africa the
elephant may cause death of young trees by rubbing against saplings and by pulling
branches during feeding.
The African continent faces severe challenges from invasive forest species. An
example is the blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa*, which damages young eucalypt
trees and seedlings. A recent introduction into Kenya, Morocco and South Africa, it is
also found in the forests of Algeria, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. This
pest has also been reported in Asia and the Pacific, Europe and the Near East. Other
pests introduced into the continent in the last five years include: Cinara pinivora*
in Malawi, Coniothyrium zuluense in Ethiopia, Thaumastocoris peregrinus and
Coryphodema tristis in South Africa and Gonometa podocarpi in the United Republic
of Tanzania. All of these pose threats to bordering countries.
Conifer aphids have been a major problem in the region for several decades
particularly in countries where planted conifer forests are common. While Kenya,
Malawi and Mauritius reported the cypress aphid, Cinara cupressivora*, as a pest
of cypress and cedar trees, it is also known to be or has been a major problem in
other African countries including Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Ethiopia, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia
and Zimbabwe (Ciesla, 1991; Ciesla, 2003a). Kenya and Malawi also reported the
pine needle aphid, Eulachnus rileyi, which has become a major pest of planted pines
throughout eastern and southern Africa since its initial introduction into the region
(South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe) in the late 1970s (Murphy, Abraham and Cross,
1991). The pine woolly aphid, Pineus pini has attained pest status worldwide. While
it has been reported from Kenya, Malawi and South Africa, information on this pest’s
occurrence in other African countries is lacking, with the exception of the United
Republic of Tanzania.
The European woodwasp, Sirex noctilio*, now established in South Africa, is a
significant pest of conifer forests in many other countries outside Africa as well, causing
considerable damage and cost to local economies. Efforts are being made to address the
severe threat of this pest to the African continent, including a meeting in 2007, hosted
by South Africa, to review current knowledge and increase the understanding of Sirex
noctilio and its worldwide threat to forestry (www.fabinet.up.ac.za/sirex/index).
The leucaena psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana*, noted as a significant pest of Leucaena
leucocephala in Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius and the Sudan, is also a well-known pest
in leucaena growing areas in Burundi, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Réunion, the United
Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia (FAO, 2001; Nair, 2001).
Native to Australia, Phoracantha recurva* is a pest of planted forests in Malawi,
Morocco, and South Africa and is also known to occur in Tunisia and Zambia as well
as in other regions.
Apate spp., indigenous small borer beetles, have been reported as pests of broadleaf
planted forests in Kenya (A. indistincta and A. monachus) and Ghana (A. terebrans).
Fungal Armillaria spp., which cause Armillaria root disease, are found throughout
the temperate and tropical regions of the world. Armillaria mellea* has been reported
from Kenya, Malawi and the Sudan. A. fuscipes has been identified as the main cause of
Armillaria root disease in South Africa. A. heimii is recorded in Kenya. Unidentified
Armillaria species were reported in Mauritius. Sphaeropsis sapinea, reported from
Kenya and South Africa, is also a cosmopolitan fungus; it causes shoot blight and
canker disease on conifer trees throughout the world. Specific information on the
occurrence of these pathogens in other African countries is lacking.
The red band needle blight, Mycosphaerella pini*, reported from Kenya and South
Africa, is also known as a pest in Malawi, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda,
Zambia and Zimbabwe (EPPO/CABI, 1997). This fungal disease, previously referred to as
Dothistroma blight, has contributed to the decline of Pinus radiata plantations in Kenya.
Botryosphaeria dothidea*, B. eucalypticola and B. eucalyptorum are pests in South
African broadleaf planted forests. Kenya and Malawi both reported unidentified
Botryosphaeria sp. in broadleaf planted forests and broadleaf and conifer naturally
regenerated forests.
Dieback and declines of uncertain cause affect junipers and cedars in several
countries in the region. Some species affected include Cedrus atlantica in Algeria and
Morocco, representing the world’s genetic base for Atlantic cedars; Juniperus phoenicea
in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; and Juniperus procera in Kenya.
REGIONAL PEST MANAGEMENT EFFORTS

The Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa (FISNA), created by a group
of African scientists with the support of the FAO and the United States Forest
Service, coordinates the collation and dissemination of information relating to forest
invasive species in sub-Saharan Africa. The network raises regional awareness on
forest invasive species; encourages the publication and sharing of research results,
management and monitoring strategies; and acts as a link between and among experts,
institutions, networks and other stakeholders concerned with forest invasive species
in the region. Up-to-date information on new invasions is disseminated through a
Web site (www.fao.org/forestry/26951).
Plant protection and phytosanitary issues are addressed by the Inter-African
Phytosanitary Council (IAPSC) which is a Regional Plant Protection Organization
(RPPO) of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC).
Asia and the Pacific
The total number of forest pest species reported from the five countries in the region
was 138 (Figure 3). Insect pests were the most frequently reported pest type (Table 4).
Other pests included the pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus*) and the
mouse (Apodemus spp.) from China. Almost 90 percent of the pest species reported
are indigenous.
Considerably more pests (77 percent) were reported in planted forests in all
countries with the exception of Mongolia, where forest pests were reported equally
in naturally regenerated and planted forests. The world’s highest plantation rates are
found in Asia, particularly China, which is one of the top ten countries for productive
forest plantations (FAO, 2006b).

Seventy-eight percent of forest pests were recorded on broadleaf trees, 15 percent on

conifers and the remaining 7 percent were recorded on both host tree types. Mongolia
was the only country to report more pests on conifer trees, which is consistent with the
large area of coniferous forests in the country, particularly in northern areas.
The top two insect pest orders reported in the region were Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
(Figure 4). Ascomycota species were the most commonly reported pathogens.
Although this study is primarily concerned with forest pests, the coconut leaf beetle,
Brontispa longissima, is also included because of its high economic importance to
coconuts and ornamental palms in more than one country in the region.
FIGURE 3
Number of forest pest species reported, Asia and the Pacific
China India Indonesia Mongolia Thailand

60
Number of species
50
40
30
20
10
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
FIGURE 4
Most prevalent species, Asia and the Pacific
Insects Diseases
Lepidoptera 34% Ascomycota 12%
Coleoptera 33% Basidiomycota 5%
Hemiptera 9% Other diseases 2%
Other insects 4%
Other
Other pests 1%
TABLE 4
Summary of the data on forest pest species, Asia and the Pacific
Total In naturally In planted In both On On conifer On both

regenerated forests types of broadleaf host types
forests forest
Indigenous species
Insects 99 12 68 19 77 15 7
Diseases 24 0 24 0 23 0 1
Other 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Introduced species
Insects 11 1 10 0 6 5 0
Diseases 3 0 3 0 3 0 0
Other 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Totala 138 13 105 20 108 21 9

a
Note: Brontispa longissima is indigenous to Indonesia but has been introduced in Thailand and China; it is
counted in both rows (indigenous and introduced) but is not counted twice in the totals.
PART I Regional and global analysis ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 13

A number of species were noted to be pests in two or more countries in the region
(Table 5). All but one, Heteropsylla cubana*, are indigenous.
Six of these were recorded in planted forests and seven in both types of forest. Nine
species were pests of broadleaf trees, two of conifers and two of both host tree types. Of
the 13 species, 12 were insect pests, more than half of which were lepidopteran species.
The Siberian caterpillar, Dendrolimus sibiricus*, has caused considerable damage to
the naturally regenerated forests of China and Mongolia and also to planted forests in
Mongolia, especially those planted with Larix sibirica.
The Asian gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar*, was reported on both broadleaf and conifer
trees in naturally regenerated forests in China and Mongolia; Mongolia also reported the
pest in planted forests of both host types. This pest is a destructive defoliator of many
broadleaf and conifer trees, including Betula, Larix, Populus, Pinus, Quercus, Salix, and
Ulmus species, and is of quarantine concern in many regions of the world.
TABLE 5
Species found in more than one country, Asia and the Pacific
Pest species Order/phylum: Countries of Type of forest Host type
family occurrence
Insects
Brontispa Coleoptera: China, Indonesia, Planted Coconut palm

longissima Chrysomelidae Thailand
Calopepla leayana Coleoptera: India, Thailand Planted Broadleaf

Chrysomelidae
Coptotermes Isoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Planted Broadleaf,

curvignathus Rhinotermitidae conifer
Dendrolimus Lepidoptera: China, Mongolia Naturally Conifer

sibiricus* Lasiocampidae regenerated,
planted
Eutectona Lepidoptera: India, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

machaeralis Pyralidae regenerated,
planted
Heteropsylla Hemiptera: India, Indonesia, Planted Broadleaf

cubana* Psyllidae Thailand
Hyblaea puera Lepidoptera: India, Indonesia, Naturally Broadleaf

Hyblaeidae Thailand regenerated,
planted
Hypsipyla robusta* Lepidoptera: India, Indonesia, Planted Broadleaf

Pyralidae Thailand
Ips sexdentatus* Coleoptera: Mongolia, Thailand Naturally Conifer

Scolytidae regenerated,
planted
Lymantria dispar* Lepidoptera: China, Mongolia Naturally Broadleaf,

(Asian strain) Lymantriidae regenerated, conifer
planted
Xyleutes ceramica Lepidoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

Cossidae regenerated,
planted
Zeuzera coffeae Lepidoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

Cossidae regenerated,
planted
Diseases
Agrobacterium Rhizobiales: China, Indonesia Planted Broadleaf

tumefaciens Rhizobiaceae
Hyblaea puera, Eutectona machaeralis and Xyleutes ceramica are all major pests
of teak in areas of Asia.
Zeuzera coffeae, reported from India and Thailand, typically attacks coffee plants
but is also known to cause damage to a wide range of other hosts including Chukrasia
tabularis, Eucalyptus deglupta, Terminalia brassii, and species of Acalypha, Psidium,
Crataegus, Citrus, Theobroma and Casuarina.
The shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta*, is a significant pest of several species of high
quality timber species in the region including Cedrela toona, Chukrasia tabularis,
Swietenia macrophylla, S. mahogani, Toona australis and T. ciliata as well as species of
Cedrella and Tectona.
Three beetle species were reported: Brontispa longissima, a major pest of coconut
palms; Calopepla leayana a significant defoliator of gamhar, Gmelina arborea; and
the six-spined engraver beetle, Ips sexdentatus*, a major pest of many conifer species
including Picea, Pinus, and Larix.
Coptotermes curvignathus is a subterranean termite that attacks a wide range of trees
and is capable of killing healthy trees. In Southeast Asia, this species is a pest of many
planted forest species including all species of conifers, rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis),
Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria and Gmelina arborea.
Recorded in three of the five countries, Heteropsylla cubana* is a significant pest of
Leucaena leucocephala, a fast-growing legume native to Mexico and Central America
that has been widely planted throughout the region as a source of fuelwood and fodder
and for use in agroforestry systems. Between 1985 and 1988, this insect spread rapidly
across the Asia and the Pacific region (FAO, 2001).
Only one pathogen was noted to occur in more than one country, the bacterial
disease, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which causes significant damage to planted poplar
forests in China and planted dipterocarps in Indonesia.

For the most part, monitoring and detection activities are not part of routine
management practices, although some surveillance has been carried out to detect
specific problem pests.
In China, a variety of methods are used, ranging from informal surveys to baited
traps for specific pests such as the bark beetle, Dendroctonus valens*. A risk rating
system has also been developed for the detection of the pine caterpillar, Dendrolimus
punctatus, in China.
In Mongolia, some pest surveys have been carried out by scientific institutes.
Through an FAO emergency project to assist with outbreaks of the Siberian caterpillar,
Dendrolimus sibiricus*, surveys were carried out to determine the extent of the pest
and the subsequent damage. In addition, pest management plans were developed which
included monitoring and surveillance.
In both India and Indonesia it was noted that monitoring and detection activities are
informal and limited, although a few special surveys have been conducted.
Data management
Most of the information available on forest pests and diseases is qualitative, although some
information on the area affected by a few pest species was noted from China and India. No
information was found on the capacity for data management in Mongolia and Thailand. A
large number of qualitative reviews of pests and damage are available for Indonesia.
Four of the five countries provided data on the area affected by insects and/or
diseases for FRA 2005. Two of these countries, China and Mongolia, provided data for
both reporting periods, 1990 (average from 1988 to 1992) and 2000 (1998 to 2002). No
information was reported from Thailand.
For the 2000 period, China reported that almost 6.2 million hectares of forest were
damaged by insects, 883 000 ha by diseases and 820 000 ha by Apodemus spp. (mice).
For the 1990 period, China reported that almost 7.9 million hectares were damaged by
insects, 1.8 million hectares by diseases and 755 000 ha by mice. India reported 1 million
hectares of damage due to insects and 8.4 million hectares damaged by diseases for the
2000 period. Mongolia reported that insects damaged 28 000 ha of forest in 1990 and
almost 2.8 million hectares for the 2000 reporting period. Indonesia reported that
2 710 ha of forest were impacted by insects for the 1990 reporting period and that no
disturbances by insects and diseases occurred during the 2000 period.
Pest management
A number of pest management activities, including use of chemical, biological and
silvicultural methods, are carried out in the selected countries, primarily to target
specific forest pests.
China has removed more than 200 million infested trees to control outbreaks of
the Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis*, and has successfully used
egg parasitoids and a fungus (Beauvaria bassiana) to control the pine caterpillar,
Dendrolimus punctatus. Some tactics applied for controlling defoliating insects in
China include aerial and ground application of chemical and biological insecticides,
and mass rearing and release of fungi and parasitoids. In addition, investigations are
underway for a cytoplasmic virus to control D. punctatus and the use of the predator
Rhizophagus grandis for biological control of the bark beetle, Dendroctonus valens*.
In Mongolia, continuous attempts have been made by the government to control
outbreaks of the Siberian caterpillar, Dendrolimus sibiricus*, and other defoliators
but the vast areas, lack of trained personnel, limited facilities, financial constraints
and poor equipment coupled with extreme weather events makes pest management a
monumental task.
In India, most pest management tactics are aimed at planted forests and include a
combination of biological, chemical and silvicultural methods primarily to manage
defoliators of teak. A variety of fungicides have been used for disease control in
nurseries in Indonesia and removing infested trees has helped to protect Paraserianthes
falcata plantations from the stem borer Xystrocera festiva.
Ownership
Information on the capacity of private landowners in forest health protection is
lacking. Although there are broad trends in the region towards more private ownership
of forests (FAO, 2006a), forests are mostly state-owned in countries such as China and
Mongolia. In Indonesia, some private plantation companies have organized research
units that monitor and study forest pest and disease problems.
In comparison to other regions, reporting on forest health issues for FRA 2005 was
fairly complete for Asia and the Pacific, at least for mainland Asian countries. More
than 10 million hectares of forest were reported to be affected by insect pests annually
(average 1998–2002) and more than 9 million hectares by diseases (FAO, 2007a). It has
been suggested that forest pests and other disturbances may have a more widespread
impact than fire in this region (FAO, 2007a).
A number of forest pests reported from the profile countries are also significant
pests in other countries of the region. A pest of planted forests in China, the Asian
longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis*, has increased in range as a result of
widespread planting of susceptible poplar hybrids (EPPO, 1999). It is also believed
to occur in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea
(EPPO, 1999). This pest has been introduced into other countries such as Canada
and the United States through international trade. As a result, many countries in
other regions have become increasingly concerned about this pest (EPPO, 1999), and
this contributed to the international recognition of the importance of International
Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), in particular guidelines for regulating
wood packaging materials in international trade (ISPM No. 15).
Native to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, the coconut leaf beetle, Brontispa
longissima, is potentially one of the most serious insect pests of coconut and ornamental
palm plants in Southeast Asia (APFISN, 2006). Recorded in China, Indonesia and
Thailand, it is also known as a pest in Australia, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Nauru, the Philippines, Singapore and Viet
Nam (Rethinam and Singh, 2007). To address the rapid spread of this pest, APFISN
organized a regional workshop in 2005 in Viet Nam to develop an Asia and Pacific
strategy for forest invasive species with a focus on the coconut leaf beetle (FAO,
2007b). Participants shared information on risk assessment, monitoring and biological
control measures for this significant pest.
The pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus*, causes a serious wilt
disease in pines and other conifers. Recorded in China, the pest is also known to
occur in Japan and the Republic of Korea; it is an introduced species of major global
phytosanitary concern.
Occurring naturally in India, Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic
and Thailand and planted in many countries, teak (Tectona grandis) is a very valuable
forest tree in the Asia and the Pacific region. Several pest species cause significant
economic losses. Some of the major indigenous teak pests include the leaf-feeding
lepidopterans Hyblaea puera and Eutectona machaeralis and the stem borer Xyleutes
ceramica. Reported in naturally regenerated and planted forests in India and Thailand,
the teak skeletonizer, Eutectona machaeralis, is also an important invasive pest of teak
in Bangladesh, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, the Philippines and
Sri Lanka (Nair, 2001; Leuangkhamma and Vongsiharath, 2005). The teak defoliator,
Hyblaea puera, recorded in three of the selected countries (India, Indonesia and
Thailand) is also a pest in Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Fiji, Japan, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea,
the Philippines, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam (Nair, 2001;
Chandrasekhar et al., 2005). A pest of naturally regenerated and planted forests, the
beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica, was recorded in Indonesia and Thailand and is also
known to be a pest in Myanmar.
Indigenous Dendrolimus species are a significant problem for the region’s forests.
The defoliating caterpillar, D. punctatus, is a major pest of indigenous pine plantations
in China and Viet Nam (FAO, 2001) while D. tabulaeformis infests China’s naturally
regenerated forests. The Siberian caterpillar, D. sibiricus*, is a significant pest of larch
and pines and serious outbreaks occur in China, the Democratic People’s Republic
of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Mongolia. Recently, the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea has been experiencing outbreaks of D. spectabilis in coniferous
forests and woodlands around Pyongyang and in North Hwanghae Province, affecting
more than 100 000 ha of mainly naturally regenerated Pinus densiflora. Found also in
China, Japan and the Republic of Korea, this pest is a significant defoliator of pines
when outbreaks occur. Control options currently being investigated for this pest
include the application of pheromones, egg parasitoids, and trunk banding.
The mahogany shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta*, reported above to attack several
species of high quality timber in India, Indonesia and Thailand, has also been reported
to cause damage in Australia, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. In fact, it has been
recorded in all Asia and Pacific countries where Swietenia species have been planted
with the exception of some Pacific islands such as Fiji, eastern Solomon Islands, and
Western Samoa (Nair, 2001).
Several species of Lymantria are pests including the ubiquitous Asian strain of
L. dispar. L. lepcha is a pest of broadleaf trees in Indonesia in naturally regenerated
forests, while India reported both L. mathura and L. obfuscata as pests of broadleaf
trees in planted forests.
Bark- and wood-boring beetles of the genera Ips, Tomicus and Xylosandrus are
important pests of forests in the region and were reported from four of the five
countries in the analysis. The six-spined engraver beetle, Ips sexdentatus*, and the larch
bark beetle, I. subelongatus*, were recorded as indigenous pests in Mongolia. Thailand
also reported I. sexdentatus as a pest of planted conifers.
Two indigenous species of Tomicus, the lesser pine shoot beetle, T. minor, and
the common pine shoot beetle, T. piniperda, are pests of conifers in Mongolia’s
naturally regenerated and planted forests. Recently, a newly introduced species of pine
shoot beetle, Tomicus n.sp., has caused extensive mortality of Yunnan pines (Pinus
yunnanensis) in the Yunnan Province of China, affecting over 200 000 ha of pine
plantations (Sun et al., 2005).
Two indigenous Xylosandrus species were reported as pests of broadleaf planted
forests. In particular, the black twig borer, X. compactus, was noted as a pest of
Swietenia macrophylla in Thailand and the brown twig borer, X. morigerus, was
reported as a pest in Indonesia.
Although not reported from the selected Asia and Pacific countries, a number
of other pests pose considerable threats to forests in the region. These include the
following.
• The European woodwasp, Sirex noctilio*, is a significant pest of exotic pine
plantations in the region, primarily in New Zealand and Australia, including
Tasmania. Native to southern Europe and North Africa, this insect was probably
introduced first into New Zealand on unprocessed pine logs imported from
Europe (FAO, 2001).
• Believed to be native to Australia, the blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa*, is
currently spreading through Africa, Europe and the Near East. A serious pest of
young eucalypt trees and seedlings, it has been reported from Asia and the Pacific
in Viet Nam and more recently in India (Jacob, Devaraj and Natarajan, 2007).
• The eucalyptus or guava rust, Puccinia psidii, is a serious threat to eucalypt
plantations in many parts of the world, particularly in Australia where eucalypts
are native. Considered a severe problem in its native region of Latin America and
the Caribbean, there have also been unconfirmed reports of its occurrence in India.
In 2004, APFISN, in collaboration with the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR), the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC)
and FAO, organized a workshop on the development of an Asia-Pacific regional
strategy for eucalyptus rust.
• The North American bark beetle, Ips grandicollis, was introduced into Australia
where it attacks valuable planted forests of exotic pine species such as Pinus
elliottii, P. pinaster, P. taeda and most importantly, P. radiata (FAO, 2001;
EPPO/CABI, 1997).

Progress has been made in the region in strengthening institutions to support improved
forest management, including forest health and protection. The Asia-Pacific Forest
Invasive Species Network (APFISN), launched in 2004, focuses on technical and
organizational issues to address the prevention, detection, management and control of
forest invasive species in the region. National focal points play a key role in facilitating
the exchange of information on forest invasive species among network members.
Several mechanisms are in place to facilitate information exchange including a network
Web site, newsletters and a regional forest invasive species listserver. The Chinese
Academy of Sciences has also begun work on developing a forest invasive species
database which will provide a system for collating, storing and readily accessing
information gathered by the network. The database will be further developed in
collaboration with network members.
The Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (APPPC) administers an
intergovernmental treaty, the Plant Protection Agreement for the Asia and Pacific
Region, and is an RPPO under the IPPC. Twenty-four countries are currently
members of the Commission: Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea, Fij, France (for French Polynesia), India, Indonesia,
the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Samoa (Western),
Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tonga and Viet Nam.
Europe
The total number of pest species recorded from the three countries in the region
was 44 (Figure 5).
Insect pests represented 86 percent of all the forest pests (Table 6). Diseases and
other pests represented almost 7 percent each. The mammalian pests reported were
from Moldova and included Sika deer (Cervus nippon), the fallow deer (Dama dama),
and the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides).
Indigenous pests were the most commonly reported, representing 89 percent of
all pest species, while the remaining were introduced. All were recorded in naturally
regenerated forests.
The majority of pest species were recorded in naturally regenerated forests (almost
62 percent) while almost 5 percent were found in planted forests. Moldova and
Romania reported more pests in naturally regenerated forests while pests in the Russian
Federation were found equally in both forest types. These findings are different than
those in most other regions where more pests were recorded in planted forests.
About 50 percent of the pests were recorded on broadleaf tree species, and 43 percent
on conifers. Moldova and Romania reported more pests on broadleaf trees while the
Russian Federation reported more on conifers.
Lepidopteran species were the most frequently reported insect pests (Figure 6).
Romania and the Russian Federation also reported a high number of coleopterans.
Significant pests of pines, spruce and other conifers, Ips acuminatus and I. amitinus,
were recorded in Romania’s naturally regenerated forests. The large larch bark beetle,
I. cembrae, was recorded in the naturally regenerated and planted forests of the Russian
Federation. All pathogens reported were species from the phylum Ascomycota.

Eleven pest species were recorded in more than one country in the region: ten insect pests
and one disease (Table 7). Five of the transboundary pests were recorded in naturally
regenerated forests and six in both planted and naturally regenerated forests. Six were
recorded on broadleaf tree species, three on conifers and two on both host types.

Sixty percent of the transboundary insect pests were lepidopteran species. Two
Lymantria species were reported from the region, both of which occurred in more
than one country. The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar*, was reported to be found on
both broadleaf and conifer trees in naturally regenerated forests in Moldova (European
strain). Romania (European strain) and the Russian Federation (Asian strain) reported
this pest in both forest types and both host types. Lymantria monacha*, the nun moth,
was reported on broadleaf and conifer trees in Romania’s naturally regenerated forests
and from the Russian Federation in both forest and host types.
FIGURE 5
Number of forest pest species reported, Europe
Moldova Romania Russian Federation

30
Number of pest species
25
20
15
10
5
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
FIGURE 6
Most prevalent pests, Europe
Insects Diseases
Lepidoptera 47%
Hymenoptera 7% Other
Other pests 7%
TABLE 6
Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Europe
Pest Type Number of pest species

forests forest
Indigenous species
Insects 36 21 2 13 15 18 3
Diseases 3 1 0 2 2 1 0
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Introduced species
Insects 2 2 0 0 2 0 0
Diseases 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Other 3 3 0 0 0 0 0
Total 44 27 2 15 22 19 3
PART I Regional and global analysis EUROPE 21
Other lepidopterans included Erannis defoliaria, Operophtera brumata, Tortrix

viridana and Hyphantria cunea. The mottled umber moth, Erannis defoliaria, the
winter moth, Operophtera brumata, and the green oak tortix, Tortrix viridana,
were all reported as indigenous pests of oak (Quercus spp.) in naturally regenerated
forests in Moldova and Romania. The fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, introduced
from its native North America into Moldova and Romania where it attacks naturally
regenerated broadleaf forests, is a tent-making defoliator of broadleaf trees and shrubs
including Betula, Salix, Prunus and Populus spp.
The remaining transboundary insect pests were indigenous coleopteran species.
The six-toothed bark beetle, Ips sexdentatus*, and the European spruce bark beetle,
I. typographus*, are significant pests of conifers throughout the region, particularly
pines and spruce respectively. They were reported in naturally regenerated forests
in Romania and in both naturally regenerated and planted forests in the Russian
Federation. Two indigenous Tomicus spp. (the lesser pine shoot beetle, T. minor,
and the common pine shoot beetle, T. piniperda) are pests of conifers in Romania’s
naturally regenerated forests. The latter species was also recorded in both forest types
in the Russian Federation. The weevil, Stereonychus fraxini, is a significant pest of
ash (Fraxinus excelsa) in the region, reported from Moldova and Romania where it
attacks naturally regenerated broadleaf forests.
One pathogen, Microsphaera abbreviata, was reported as a transboundary pest, recorded
in naturally regenerated and planted broadleaf forests in Moldova and Romania.
TABLE 7
Species found in more than one country, Europe
Order/phylum:
Pest species Countries of occurrence Type of forest Host type
family
Insects
Erannis defoliaria Lepidoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf

Geometridae regenerated
Hyphantria cunea Lepidoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf

Arctiidae regenerated
Ips sexdentatus* Coleoptera: Romania, Naturally Conifer
Scolytidae Russian Federation regenerated,
planted
Ips typographus* Coleoptera: Romania, Naturally Conifer
planted
Lymantria dispar* Lepidoptera: Moldova (European strain), Naturally Broadleaf,
Lymantriidae Romania (European strain), regenerated, conifer
Russian Federation planted
(Asian strain)
Lymantria Lepidoptera: Romania, Naturally Broadleaf,
monacha* Lymantriidae Russian Federation regenerated, conifer
planted
Operophtera Lepidoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf
brumata Geometridae regenerated
Stereonychus Coleoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf
fraxini Curculionidae regenerated
Tomicus piniperda Coleoptera: Romania, Naturally Conifer
planted
Tortrix viridana Lepidoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf
Tortricidae regenerated
Diseases
Microsphaera Ascomycota: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf

abbreviata Erysiphaceae regenerated,
planted

In Moldova and Romania, forest health conditions are regularly monitored and pests
of special concern are monitored annually. Romania monitors specific pests such as
nun moth, oak leaf roller, gypsy moth and bark beetles with pheromone traps. They
also use sampling systems developed to predict damage by defoliators. In the Russian
Federation, monitoring activities are typically carried out in areas of large outbreaks
or those areas made susceptible to pests through abiotic factors such as pollution.
Monitoring programmes have been carried out to target specific pests such as the
defoliators Lymantria dispar*, L. mathura and L. monacha*.
Data management
Tools for data management in Moldova and Romania are available and apparently
advanced, particularly in Romania. No information was provided on the capacity for
data management in the Russian Federation.
Moldova and the Russian Federation provided data on the area affected by insects
and/or diseases for FRA 2005 for both reporting periods: 1990 (annual average from
1988 to 1992) and 2000 (1998 to 2002). Moldova reported that 61 200 ha of forests
were damaged by insects for the 1990 reporting period and 96 000 ha for 2000. The
Russian Federation reported that insects affected over 1.7 million hectares for the 1990
reporting period and almost 5 million hectares for 2000, and that diseases impacted
almost 125 000 ha (1990) and over 950 000 ha (2000).
Pest management
Typically pest management techniques such as ground and aerial application of
biological or chemical insecticides are carried out in the face of major outbreaks
of damaging forest pests. Romania, however, carries out preventative measures
including encouragement of mixed species stands, maintenance of proper stocking
levels, establishment of nesting sites for insectivorous birds and protection of
predaceous ant nests.
Ownership
All lands are public in Moldova and the Russian Federation. In Romania, the
independent autonomous forestry agency, RomSilva, conducts forest pest management
activities on all forest lands. Private landowners are expected to cover costs associated
with forest health activities.
Compared to other regions, Europe has a great deal of information available on the
impact of forest insect pests and diseases. For the 2000 reporting period for FRA 2005,
Europe provided data on insect pests and diseases for over 90 percent of the region’s
forest area (FAO, 2006a). The annual average of forest area affected by insects for
this period was 6.4 million hectares or 0.7 percent, while diseases affected 3.1 million
hectares or 0.3 percent (FAO, 2007a). This marks a notable increase over the average
area of forest impacted by insects and diseases in the 1990 period (FAO, 2006a),
perhaps due to the increased susceptibility of forests and subsequent pest attacks
following major storms in the region in December 1999.
Some of the pests recorded in selected countries are also found elsewhere in Europe.
The oak processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea processionea*, recorded as a pest in
Romania, is a major pest of oak throughout Europe. Native to central and southern
Europe where it is widely distributed, it has been expanding northwards, presumably
in response to climate change, and is now firmly established in northern France and
the Netherlands and has even been reported in southern Sweden. A related species, the
pine processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea pityocampa*, is considered one of the

most important forest pests in the Mediterranean region and is commonly found in
pine forests (EPPO/CABI, 1997). A marked change in distribution is also occurring
related to climate shift and the insect pest is steadily moving north.
Ips sexdentatus* occurs in Pinus forests throughout Europe and although
it is considered a secondary pest by attacking stressed trees, it can kill trees of
commercial importance (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Ips typographus* is considered the
most destructive species of the genus and probably the most serious pest of spruce
in Europe (EPPO/CABI, 1997). It is common throughout the entire natural range of
Picea abies in Europe and also occurs in plantations in Western Europe, outside the
natural range of the host. Outbreaks have occurred in the Czech Republic, Germany,
Italy, Norway, Poland and Sweden. In the mid to late 1990s, spruce stands in Slovakia
also experienced a serious infestation of bark beetles (particularly Ips typographus*
and Pityogenes chalcographus but also I. duplicatus, I. amitinus and Polygraphus
polygraphus) and fungal diseases (primarily Armillaria sp.) which caused the death
of many trees, loss of timber and deterioration of the environment through poor
management of infested trees.
Cyclical outbreaks of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar*, occur in many countries
in the region and cause considerable damage. FAO has provided emergency assistance
to Bulgaria, Moldova and Romania to deal with outbreaks of this pest.
While not reported from the selected countries, Phytophthora ramorum*,
associated with sudden oak death and other diseases on broadleaf and conifer trees,
is a major concern in the region. It has been found in Belgium, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Ireland, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden and the United Kingdom (Kliejunas, 2005; DEFRA, 2005a). P. ramorum has
mainly affected ornamental plant species in nurseries although it has been found on
a few trees and in some established plantings of shrub hosts (mainly rhododendron)
in some countries (DEFRA, 2005b). P. kernovieae is a new and potentially serious
pathogen of woodland environments recently found in the UK, causing extensive
leaf blight and dieback of rhododendron and large nectrotic cankers on beech trees.
Symptoms progress rapidly, increasing the degree of risk (UK Forestry Commission,
2008; EPPO, 2008).
Another problem is the significant impact that many mammal species, such as
squirrels, rabbits, deer and moose, have on European forests through browsing,
overgrazing and stripping of bark. Heavy grazing can result in severe damage to trees
in both naturally regenerated and planted forests and woodlands and can also prevent
natural tree regeneration and reduce populations of ground cover and understorey
species. Large herbivores also cause physical damage to trees by scraping tree trunks
and destroying smaller saplings with their antlers. In Sweden, for example, dense
populations of moose and roe deer are known to cause severe damage, particularly in
pine and hardwood plantations and young forests, although the level of damage varies
considerably (Swedish Forest Agency, 2007).
Severe storms, particularly those in 1990, 1999/2000, 2004/05 and January 2007, have
had catastrophic impacts on forests in the region (UNECE Timber Committee, n.d.).
Impacts can be observed for years after the storm has occurred. In addition to damaging
considerable areas of forest, such storms have also made them more susceptible to
forest pest outbreaks. Windblown wood presents ideal conditions for massive fires and
insect outbreaks, threatening forests not directly damaged by the storms themselves.
Not only are the fallen trees at risk, but the adjacent trees can serve as hosts for the
pests as well.
The 1999/2000 storms were centred on Denmark, France, Germany, Sweden and
Switzerland but countries across Europe sustained damage to their forests. Denmark,
Sweden and Slovakia suffered much damage in the 2004/05 storms and the 2007 storms
impacted Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Sweden and the
United Kingdom. In Sweden much of the storm-felled trees are within areas already at
high risk of large-scale outbreaks of the European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus*
(Swedish Forest Agency, 2007). Newly storm- and wind-felled trees in Finland have
also been a prime target for I. typographus which reproduces in such damaged trees
(Erikssona, Pouttub and Roininena, 2005).
Forest pests newly introduced to the region include the citrus longhorned beetle,
Anoplophora chinensis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), the blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe
invasa*, the Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis*, the oriental chestnut
gall wasp, Dryocosmus kuriphilus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), and chestnut blight,
Cryphonectria parasitica (Ascomycota: Cryphonectriaceae).
Originating in Japan and Korea where it is a serious pest of deciduous tree species
and citrus, A. chinensis was added to the EPPO A1 List in 1994 (listed as A. malasiaca).
The beetle was first discovered in Europe in 2000 at Parabiago, Italy. Despite the
application of control techniques, this pest has since spread into nearby villages. Single
occurrences were recorded in 2003 in the Netherlands and France but the pest was
officially declared eradicated in 2006. It was found in Switzerland in 2006 but the two
infested Acer spp. trees were destroyed. European interceptions have included infested
bonsai trees from Japan and potted plants (Acer spp.) from China, both of which are
critical pathways (EPPO, personal communication, 2008). The potential impact on the
region has not yet been determined.
Believed native to Australia, the blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa*, is currently
spreading through Africa, Europe and the Near East. A serious pest of young eucalypt
trees and seedlings, it has been reported in Mediterranean countries, including
France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, where eucalypts are widely grown for forestry and
ornamental purposes (EPPO, 2008).
Anoplophora glabripennis* was added to the EPPO A1 list after a pest risk
assessment by the Panel on Phytosanitary Regulations in 1999 considered the risk
of its establishment in Europe to be high. It has been recorded in Austria (2001),
France (2003), Germany and Poland (2004) and Italy (2007). To date there has been no
establishment recorded in Europe.
The oriental chestnut gall wasp, Dryocosmus kuriphilus, was added to the EPPO
A2 list after being discovered in the southern part of the Piemonte region of Italy,
where management attempts include classical biological control. This wasp is a serious
pest of chestnut worldwide with a high potential for spread throughout the region
through female flight and movement of infested chestnut plants and plant materials.
Native to Asia, chestnut blight, Cryphonectria parasitica, was first discovered in
1938 in Europe in northern Italy. Since then the fungus has spread rapidly throughout
much of southern and Central Europe where chestnuts are cultivated and has been
recorded in Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey and Ukraine
(EPPO, 1997).
The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis*, has recently been reported in the Russian
Federation, both European and Asiatic (Y. Baranchikov, personal communication).
Native to eastern Asia, this pest is a major threat to ash trees and poses a potential
threat to European forests.
Recent introductions of the pine wilt nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus*,
the causal agent of pine wilt disease, has resulted in severe losses to Pinus pinaster
in Portugal. The nematode and vector M. galloprovincialis now co-exist, and other
susceptible pines are now at risk in areas above 20 ºC. If this pest spreads to the rest of
Europe, it could pose a threat to European forestry and trade.

A number of organizations exist at the regional level to aid in the monitoring and
detection of plant and forest pests. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
Organization (EPPO) is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European
cooperation in plant health. Founded in 1951 by 15 European countries, EPPO now has
48 members, covering almost all countries of the European and Mediterranean region. Its
objectives are to protect plants, to develop international strategies against the introduction
and spread of dangerous pests and to promote safe and effective control methods. As a
Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO) under the IPPC, EPPO participates in
global discussions on plant health organized by the FAO and the IPPC Secretariat.
Since the 1970s, EPPO has maintained a list of A1 (absent from region) and A2
(present in region) quarantine pests, based on technical justification and a meticulous
approval procedure. The purpose of the lists is to recommend that organisms of serious
phytosanitary concern be regulated as quarantine pests. In 2004 a list of invasive
plants was created to draw attention to plant species that pose a threat to plant health,
environment and biodiversity in the region. An Action List was added in 2005 to draw
attention to recently added pests recommended for regulation or those that present
an urgent phytosanitary concern. EPPO also produces a large number of standards
and publications on plant pests (including many which impact forests), phytosanitary
regulations, and plant protection products.
Long-term monitoring and data collection is fairly well-established in the region as
a whole. The International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of
Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests) was created in 1985 under the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long Range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) in response to growing public awareness of the
possible adverse effects of air pollution on forests. In cooperation with the European
Union, ICP Forests monitors forest conditions in Europe using two different
monitoring intensity levels. Annual transnational surveys of forest conditions have
been conducted by means of large-scale monitoring of tree vitality of 6 000 observation
plots with about 130 000 sample trees on a systematic transnational grid of 16 x 16 km
throughout the region. The intensive monitoring level involves the assessment of crown
condition, increment, chemical composition of foliage and soils and other variables on
approximately 800 permanent observation plots established across Europe.
The Ministerial Conference for the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) is a
high-level cooperation of 46 European countries and the European Community that
addresses the most important issues on forests and forestry and makes recommendations
related to the protection and sustainable management of forests in Europe. The
MCPFE has adopted the Pan-European Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest
Management to help define and monitor the region’s forests. The quantitative indicators
of forest health and vitality include changes in defoliation and serious damage caused
by biotic or abiotic agents, including insects and diseases.
Latin America and the Caribbean
The total number of pests for the eight countries in the region was 113 (Figure 7). Insect
pests comprised 77 percent of all pests reported, pathogens 11 percent and other pests
11 percent (Table 8). The other pest category included goat (Capra hircus), Canadian
beaver (Castor canadensis), European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), brown capuchin
monkey (Cebus paella), red deer (Cervus elaphus), guanaco (Lama guanicoe), Cape
hare (Lepus capensis), nematode (Subanguina chilensis), desert spider mite (Tetranychus
desertorum) and species of the mistletoe genera Arceuthobium, Misodendrum,
Phoradendron and Psittacanthus.
Significantly more pest species were recorded in planted forests than in naturally
regenerated forests. Forest pests were reported almost equally from broadleaf and conifer
tree species. The pests were almost evenly split between indigenous and introduced
species. Considerably more introduced pests were reported from planted forests.
Note: For the purposes of this study, Mexico has been included within Latin America and the Caribbean.
PART I Regional and global analysis LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 27
Coleoptera and Hemiptera were the most represented insect pest orders reported
from almost all countries (Figure 8). The only exception was Colombia which reported
a majority of lepidopteran pests. The majority of pathogens reported from the selected
countries were Ascomycota species. Mistletoes (Santalales) were the most commonly
reported of the other pest species followed by even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla).
FIGURE 7
Number of forest pest species reported, Latin America and the Carribean
Argentina Belize Brazil Chile Colombia Honduras Mexico Uruguay

30
25
Number of species
20
15
10
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Diseases
TABLE 8
Summary of the data on forest pest species, Latin American and Caribbean

forests forest
Indigenous species
Insects 47 21 25 1 25 17 5
Diseases 2 0 2 0 1 1 0
Other 8 6 2 0 4 2 2
Introduced species
Insects 40 1 33 6 13 25 2
Diseases 11 0 11 0 7 3 1
Other 5 4 1 0 2 0 3
Total 113 32 74 7 52 48 13
FIGURE 8
Most prevalent pests, Latin America and Caribbean
Insects Diseases
Lepidoptera 18% Basidiomycota 4%
Hemiptera 21%
Isoptera 4% Other pests 12%
Other insects 3%

Eight of the transboundary pests recorded in the region were of the order Hemiptera
(Table 9), mostly in coniferous forests. Ctenarytaina eucalypti and Glycaspis
brimblecombei were reported in planted broadleaf forests, the former in Chile,
Colombia and Uruguay and the latter in Brazil, Chile and Mexico.
Aphids (Cinara spp.) are major pests of conifers. Fifteen species were reported, five
of which occurred in more than one country (Table 9). Cinara acutirostris, C. cedri,
C. costata, C. juniperi, C. maghrebica, C. piceae and C. pilicornis were all recorded
as pests in Argentina’s planted forests. Cinara atlantica and C. piniformosana were
reported in planted pine forests in Brazil and C. cupressi was recorded in Chile’s
naturally regenerated forests. Both Cinara maritimae and C. pinivora* were noted
as pests of planted pine forests in Argentina and Brazil. Naturally regenerated forests
in Chile and planted forests in Argentina and Brazil were affected by both Cinara
fresai and C. tujafilina.
Pine needle aphids (Eulachnus spp.) are found in Argentina, Chile and Colombia.
Eulachnus rileyi infests planted forests in Argentina and Chile and both forest types in
Colombia. Argentina also reported E. tauricus as a pest of planted forests.
The Coleoptera species reported included Dendroctonus frontalis* as well as two
pests of broadleaf trees: Megaplatypus mutatus, recorded in both naturally regenerated
and planted forests in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay; and the eucalyptus longhorned
borer, Phorocantha recurva*, a major pest of planted forests in Chile and Uruguay.
Dendroctonus species are significant pests of conifers in naturally regenerated
forests. Four species were recorded from the selected countries including one
transboundary pest. Dendroctonus adjunctus, D. mexicanus and D. pseudotsugae
were recorded from Mexico. The southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis*, is a
major pest in the region, reported from Belize (note the taxonomy is under review),
Honduras and Mexico.
The lepidopteran pests included Hypsipyla grandella*, Rhyacionia buoliana and
Sarsina violascens. The mahogany shoot borer, Hypsipyla grandella, is indigenous to the
region and was the most widespread pest. It was reported as a pest of planted broadleaf
forests in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Uruguay. Argentina and
Chile reported the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana, as a major pest
of planted pines. Sarsina violascens was reported as a pest of planted broadleaf forests,
primarily attacking eucalypt species, in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico.
Three Hymenoptera species were reported from more than one country. Most
notable is the European woodwasp, Sirex noctilio*, which has caused significant damage
to planted conifer forests in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. In Argentina and
Chile, Urocerus gigas also attacks planted conifer forests, primarily Monterey pine,
Pinus radiata. Nematus desantisi is a major pest of planted forests of Salix and Populus
spp. in Argentina and Chile.
Numerous Ips species were recorded from the naturally regenerated pine forests of
Belize and Mexico. Ips calligraphus, I. grandicollis and I. apache were reported as pests
in Belize and I. confusus and I. pini were recorded from Mexico.
Three transboundary pathogens were reported from planted broadleaf forests in
the selected countries. Chrysoporthe cubensis* (formerly Chryphonectria cubensis) is
known to kill significant numbers of eucalypts in Brazil and Colombia, particularly
those in young plantations. Ceratocystis fimbriata and Puccinia psidii are also major
pests of eucalypts in Brazil and Uruguay.
The beaver, Castor canadensis, and the parrot-flower mistletoe, Psittacanthus spp.,
were the other two transboundary pests recorded in the Latin American and Caribbean
countries. Intentionally introduced into Argentina in 1947 for the fur industry,
beavers are now having a significant impact on the structure of riparian forests in both
TABLE 9
Species in more than one country, Latin America and Caribbean
Order/phylum: Countries of
Pest species Type of forest Host type
family occurrence
Insects
Cinara Hemiptera: Chile, Colombia Naturally Conifer

cupressivora* Aphididae regenerated, planted
Cinara fresai Hemiptera: Argentina, Brazil, Naturally Conifer

Aphididae Chile regenerated, planted
Cinara Hemiptera: Argentina, Brazil, Planted Conifer

maritimae Aphididae Chile
Cinara Hemiptera: Argentina, Brazil Planted Conifer

pinivora* Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera: Argentina, Brazil, Naturally Conifer

tujafilina Aphididae Chile regenerated, planted
Ctenarytaina Hemiptera: Chile, Colombia, Planted Broadleaf

eucalypti Psyllidae Uruguay
Dendroctonus Coleoptera: Belize, Honduras, Naturally Conifer

frontalis* Scolytidae Mexico regenerated
Eulachnus Hemiptera: Argentina, Chile, Naturally Conifer

rileyi Aphididae Colombia regenerated, planted
Glycaspis Hemiptera: Brazil, Chile, Mexico Planted Broadleaf

brimblecombei Psyllidae
Hypsipyla Lepidoptera: Argentina, Belize, Planted Broadleaf

grandella* Pyralidae Brazil, Colombia,
Mexico, Uruguay
Megaplatypus Coleoptera: Argentina, Brazil, Naturally Broadleaf

mutatus Platypodidae Uruguay regenerated, planted
Nematus Hymenoptera: Argentina, Chile Planted Broadleaf

desantisi Tenthredinidae
Phorocantha Coleoptera: Chile, Uruguay Planted Broadleaf

recurva* Cerambycidae
Rhyacionia Lepidoptera: Argentina, Chile Planted Conifer

buoliana Tortricidae
Sarsina Lepidoptera: Argentina, Brazil, Planted Broadleaf

violascens Lymantriidae Mexico
Sirex noctilio* Hymenoptera: Argentina, Brazil, Planted Conifer

Siricidae Chile, Uruguay
Urocerus gigas Hymenoptera: Argentina, Chile Planted Conifer

Siricidae
Diseases
Ceratocystis Ascomycota: Brazil, Uruguay Planted Broadleaf

fimbriata Ceratocystidaceae
Chrysoporthe Ascomycota: Brazil, Colombia Planted Broadleaf

cubensis* Incertae sedis
Puccinia psidii Basidiomycota: Brazil, Uruguay Planted Broadleaf

Pucciniaceae
Other
Castor canadensis Rodentia: Argentina, Chile Naturally Broadleaf

Castoridae regenerated
Psittacanthus spp. Santalales: Honduras, Mexico Naturally Broadleaf,

Loranthaceae regenerated Conifer
Argentina and Chile (FAO, 2007a). They fell many trees, and their dams result in
flooding of Nothofagus pumilio forests, effectively killing the trees. In 2007 they swam
across the Magellan Straits from Tierra del Fuego and are now establishing in one of the
national parks near Punta Arenas in Chile. Reported from both Honduras and Mexico,
Psittacanthus spp. can affect the health and vitality of host trees through growth loss,
reduction in seed production and, in extreme cases, tree mortality.

In many of the countries, monitoring and detection activities are an informal process
of field surveillance by foresters and forest workers, often carried out only in planted
forests. Belize, Brazil, Chile, Honduras and Mexico carry out aerial and ground surveys
to detect and assess the damage caused by specific pests.
Data management
For the most part, information on pests and pest damage in the selected countries is
qualitative. When quantitative data exist, they are not available in an easily accessible
format. In some countries, such as Brazil, Colombia and Honduras, data management
systems have been developed as part of programmes to address specific forest pests.
Uruguay has developed a national database for all pest problems that could act as a
model for the region.
Consistent data on the impacts of forest pests and diseases over time are not
available for Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO, 2006a). As part of the FRA
2005 process, only five of the eight countries provided some quantitative data on
forest pests; no data were reported from Argentina, Colombia and Uruguay. Bark
beetles were noted to have damaged approximately 70 percent of forests in the
Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve in Belize. Brazil reported that 50 000 ha of
forest were damaged by insects for the 1990 reporting period, and 30 000 ha of
forest were affected by insects and 20 000 ha by diseases for the 2000 reporting
period. In Chile, insects affected 866 000 ha and 531 000 ha for the 1990 and 2000
reporting periods respectively. Diseases impacted 13 000 ha and 810 000 ha for the
two reporting periods. Insects, primarily bark beetles, damaged almost 550 ha (2000)
of forest in Honduras. Mexico reported over 8 000 ha and over 7 800 ha of forest
damaged by insects for the 1990 and 2000 reporting periods respectively. Diseases
impacted 11 000 ha and 2 000 ha of forest for the two reporting periods.
Pest management
A variety of pest management techniques from physical management to biopesticides
have been used in the selected countries, primarily to deal with specific pests in planted
forests and reserves. Preventative measures, such as thinning and removal of susceptible
trees, and direct control methods, such as salvage removal, cut and leave and burning of
infested trees, have been applied in Belize, Honduras and Mexico to address outbreaks
of Dendroctonus frontalis* and other bark beetles. The introduction and release of
parasitoids has been applied in many countries against pests such as Cinara pinivora*,
Rhyacionia buoliana and Sirex noctilio*.
Ownership
For the most part, private landowners and forest companies have active programmes
to protect planted forests from insect pests and diseases and may bring in international
experts for consultation. In countries such as Chile, Honduras and Mexico, private
companies and the government work in collaboration on issues of forest health. No
information was found for Argentina and Belize where the majority of forests are in
the public domain.
Many countries in the region recognize environmental and forest health issues.
However, consistent data over time are not available with enough reliability to draw
conclusions about trends in forest health in Latin America and the Caribbean.
In Central America and Mexico, the indigenous Dendroctonus species has been
credited with the greatest losses of pine forests in Central America in the past 40 years
(Vité et al., 1975; Billings and Schmidtke, 2002). A regional bark beetle strategy has
been prepared to address this pest.
The mahogany shoot borer, Hypsipyla grandella*, continues to be a major problem
throughout the region particularly in mahogany plantations (Swietenia macrophylla, S.
mahagoni). Attempts to establish plantations of mahogany and other forest trees such as
cedar (Cedrela odorata) and crabwood (Carapa guianensis) have failed in Belize, Dominica,
Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent because of the damage caused by this pest (Cock, 1985).
In 1995, the pink or hibiscus mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) was introduced
in Grenada where it attacked teak (Tectona spp.) and Blue Mahoe (Hibiscus elatus)
plantations but the damage was less severe than initially thought and the pest was
controlled biologically by introducing a predatory wasp (C. Eckelmann, personal
communication). The pest was subsequently introduced in Trinidad and Tobago, St.
Kitts-Nevis and other eastern Caribbean islands. This insect is capable of feeding
on 125 to 150 different plant species, posing a severe threat to natural mixed tropical
forests as well as vegetable crops and ornamental plants in the region (FAO, 2001).
Hurricanes are a regular occurrence in the region, particularly in Central America
and the Caribbean, and the impacts can be devastating. In areas where the centre of the
storm passes, entire forests can be blown down, trees uprooted or damaged. Following
a hurricane, forests can become more susceptible to forest pests, diseases and other
problems such as vines. Forest fires, especially in semi-evergreen and dry forest types,
are also a problem in the region and increase the susceptibility of forest trees to attack
by insect pests and diseases.

IPPC regional plant protection organizations that help prevent the spread and
introduction of pests and promote appropriate control measures include: Comité de
Sanidad Vegetal del Cono Sur (COSAVE), Comunidad Andina (CA), Caribbean Plant
Protection Commission (CPPC) and Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad
Agropecuaria (OIRSA).
Following the discovery of Sirex noctilio* in Uruguay in 1986 and its spread to
Argentina, Brazil and Chile, these countries agreed to work together to combat pests
that affect regional trade. In 2008, with the assistance of FAO, these countries, together
with Paraguay and Bolivia, established a network for integrated and dynamic forest
pest management in the Southern Cone, Red de Países del Cono Sur sobre Especies
Exoticas Invasoras a Ambientes Forestales (www.fao.org/forestry/52502).
Near East
The total number of pest species reported for the two countries in the Near East
region was 81. Only seven pests were recorded for Cyprus while 75 were reported for
Kyrgyzstan (Figure 9).
Insect pests were the most commonly reported pest species (70 percent) followed
by diseases (15 percent) and other pests (15 percent) (Table 10). Kyrgyzstan reported
12 species in the other pest category, including the indigenous dwarf mistletoe
(Arceuthobium oxycedri), while the remainder were acrarines. Both countries reported
more indigenous species as forest pests.
Kyrgyzstan reported more pests in naturally regenerated forests, mainly on
broadleaf trees, while pests in Cyprus were reported in equal numbers in naturally
regenerated and planted forests, generally on conifers.
Of the insect pests, coleopterans were the most abundant species (Figure 10).
Pathogens were only reported from Kyrgyzstan and the most common species
reported were Basidiomycota.

PART I Regional and global analysis NEAR EAST 33
FIGURE 9
Number of forest pest species reported, Near East
Cyprus Kyrgyz Republic

60
Number of species
50
40
30
20
10
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
TABLE 10
Summary of the data on forest pest species reported, Near East

forests forest
Indigenous species
Insects 52 26 16 10 25 25 2
Diseases 12 5 5 2 5 7 0
Other 12 8 4 0 11 1 0
Introduced species
Insects 5 2 1 2 5 0 0
Diseases 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 81 41 26 14 46 33 2
FIGURE 10
Most prevalent pests, Near East
Insects Diseases
Coleoptera 39% Basidiomycota 12%
Hemiptera 11% Ascomycota 2%
Lepidoptera 14%
Other insects 1% Other pests 15%

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar*, was noted to occur in both countries; the
Asian strain in Kyrgyzstan and the European strain in Cyprus. It is a major pest of
broadleaf trees in both naturally regenerated and planted forests and is of particular
concern in wild pistachio (Pistacia Vera), fruit trees and walnut (Juglans regia) forests
in Kyrgyzstan. The indigenous bark beetles, such as Ips, Orthotomicus and Tomicus
species, are a particular problem in the region.

As in other regions profiled, monitoring and detection activities in the Near East
countries are often informal although some activities have targeted specific pests.
In Cyprus, a method to predict defoliation by the pine processionary caterpillar,
Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni, using egg mass and colony counts has been developed.
Kyrgyzstan has a risk rating system for phytophagous insect pests.
Data management
National capacity for the collection and management of forest health data is weak in
both the countries profiled. Little data are collected and tools for data management
need to be developed. In Kyrgyzstan, a number of studies have been carried out on
insect pests and a few on forest diseases.
No quantitative information was provided by Cyprus for FRA 2005. Kyrgyzstan
provided information for both reporting periods. Insects affected 70 000 ha of forest
for the 1990 period and 60 000 ha for the 2000 reporting period. Diseases affected
16 000 ha and 10 000 ha of forest for the 1990 and 2000 reporting periods respectively.
Pest management
In Cyprus, a variety of tactics have been used to target specific pests. Rapid removal
of wind thrown, storm damaged or infested trees has been used to deal with bark
beetle infestations. Direct control projects against the pine processionary caterpillar,
Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni, have been conducted annually through ground or aerial
application of microbial or chemical insecticides. No information was found on pest
management strategies in Kyrgyzstan although the country correspondent noted that
new control methods will be introduced, with priority given to biological control.
Ownership
Forests in Kyrgyzstan are public lands. In Cyprus private forest ownership is often
passive, with little or no management.
Insect pests, along with fire, are the greatest threats to forests in the Near East (FAO,
2007a). However, data are not highly reliable since most countries do not maintain
good records on forest disturbances.
A number of important, high-profile pests are significant pests in the region
including Armillaria mellea*, Erannis defoliaria, Hyphantria cunea, Lymantria dispar*,
Pineus pini, Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni* and Thaumetopoea pityocampa*. In northern
Iraq and southwestern Islamic Republic of Iran, brown-tail moth, Euproctis melania,
is one of the most destructive defoliators of oak and fruit trees. In Lebanon, Cedrus
libani was under serious threat from repeated defoliations caused by a new pest, the
cedar web-spinning sawfly, Cephalcia tannourinensis. Fortunately, concerted efforts in
management reduced the risk to local trees and gene stock and prevented transboundary
spread. The blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa*, was reported in nurseries and young
eucalypt plantations in Tunisia in 2004 (Ben Jamaa and Belhaj Salah, 2007).
Pines are the target of a variety of bark beetles that can cause tree death,
branch dieback and reduced productivity. These include the European bark beetle,
Orthotomicus erosus*, in Cyprus and Turkey on Pinus brutia and P. pinaster; the lesser
pine shoot beetle, Tomicus minor, found infesting P. pinaster in Cyprus and Turkey;
the pine shoot beetle, Tomicus destruens, recorded in Cyprus; and Phloeosinus armatus
recorded on Cupressus sempervirens in Cyprus. Currently, stands of Pinus pinea in
Lebanon are seriously infested with an unidentified bark beetle; it may be a Tomicus
species. Tree death has occurred in all stands.
PART I Regional and global analysis NEAR EAST 35
Chestnut blight caused by the fungal pathogen Cryphonectria parasitica is a

prevalent problem in Castanea sativa in chestnut-growing regions of Turkey.
Dieback and declines of forest trees, junipers and cedars in particular, are also a
significant concern to many countries in the region. The interrelated causes, biotic
and abiotic, are being examined. Some species affected by decline and dieback include:
Juniperus procera in the Asir highlands, Saudi Arabia; Cedrus libani, Juniperus excelsa
and Abies cilicica in Lebanon; and Juniperus polycarpus in Kyrgyzstan and Oman.
Phloeosinus armatus was recorded as a pest of conifers, cypress in particular, in
naturally regenerated and planted forests in Cyprus. Kyrgyzstan reported Phloeosinus
turkestanicus as a pest of conifers, primarily junipers, in both forest types.

Concerned about the increased threat to forests and trees outside forests posed by
climatic changes that may influence movement and establishment of new insect pests
and diseases, the countries of the region have established the Near East Network
on Forest Health and Invasive Species (NENFHIS) (www.fao.org/forestry/51295)
to foster integrated and dynamic forest pest management in the region and provide
decision-makers with baseline data for making informed decisions.
North America
A variety of indigenous and introduced insect pests and diseases are known to negatively
affect North American forests. No countries were profiled in this region, but the following
is a brief discussion of some of the major pests impacting Canada and the United States.
INDIGENOUS INSECTS
Three species of Coleoptera (the southern pine beetle, mountain pine beetle and
white pine weevil) are known pests of pines in the region. The southern pine beetle
(Dendroctonus frontalis*) is a very destructive pest of pines in the southern United
States as well as Mexico and Central America (Billings et al., 2004). Populations can
build rapidly to outbreak proportions and kill large numbers of trees. This beetle
kills trees by a combination of girdling during construction of egg galleries and the
introduction of blue stain fungi of the genus Ophiostoma (Billings et al., 2004).
The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae*) is the most destructive pest
of mature lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests in North America. In the western
United States, outbreaks have been increasing in area after several years of drought
(Tkacz, Moody and Villa Castillo, 2007). A major epidemic of this pest has been
ongoing in western Canada (British Columbia and, more recently, Alberta) for several
years and even with large-scale efforts to mitigate the impacts of the pest, millions of
trees have been killed. The problem has been exacerbated by local climatic changes
and increased winter temperatures which reduce mortality of overwintering stages.
A record 10 million hectares of pines were recorded as infested during 2007 aerial
overview surveys in British Columbia, with more than 860 000 ha of this located in
provincial parks and protected areas (Westfall and Ebata, 2008). In January 2007, the
Government of Canada announced the Mountain Pine Beetle Program, a three-year
programme aimed primarily at slowing the eastward spread of the mountain pine
beetle infestation, but also at recovering economic value from damaged forests and
protecting forest resources and communities.
The white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi) is the most serious and economically important
insect pest of spruce and pine species, primarily eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), in Canada
and the United States (PFC and LFC, 2007). The weevil is also known to attack Norway
spruce (Picea abies) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and, to a lesser extent, pitch pine (P.
rigida), red pine (P. resinosa), Scots pine (P. sylvestis) and red spruce (Picea rubens).
Important indigenous lepidopteran defoliators in the region include the hemlock
looper, forest tent caterpillar, large aspen tortrix, spruce budworm and western spruce
budworm. Larvae of the hemlock looper (Lambdina fiscellaria) can be extremely
destructive to hemlock (Tsuga spp.), balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and white spruce
(Picea glauca). It feeds on eastern hemlock (T. canadensis) in western areas of its
distribution and on balsam fir in the east; during periodic outbreaks it will feed on
other conifers and hardwoods.
The forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) is a serious defoliator of trembling
aspen (Populus tremuloides) and other hardwood tree species in Canada and the United
States. Outbreaks occur periodically over wide areas of the eastern half of North America,
resulting in inhibited growth and dieback. However, trees are seldom killed unless they
sustain three or more successive years of complete defoliation (Cerezke, 1991).
The large aspen tortrix (Choristoneura conflictana) is an early summer defoliator
of trembling aspen (P. tremuloides). While it does not generally affect tree survival,
outbreaks may sometimes last for more than three years and can kill trees, particularly
PART I Regional and global analysis NORTH AMERICA 37
if trees are stressed by other factors such as drought (CFS, 2006a). Outbreaks of the
pest occur periodically, impacting hundreds of square kilometres of aspen forests, often
in association with infestations of the forest tent caterpillar (Cerezke, 1992).
Spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) and the western spruce budworm
(Choristoneura occidentalis) are widespread destructive pests of spruce and fir species
in many northern coniferous forests (CFS, 2006a). During years of peak infestation,
over 20 million hectares of forest in Canada have been affected by C. fumiferana
annually (Tkacz, Moody and Villa Castillo, 2007). Damage caused by C. occidentalis in
British Columbia has increased steadily from over 120 000 ha of forests in 2001 to over
600 000 ha in 2004 (CFS, 2006a).
The hymenopteran balsam fir sawfly (Neodiprion abietis) is a common and
destructive native defoliator that feeds mainly on balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and
occasionally on white spruce (Picea glauca) and black spruce (P. mariana) (CFS, 2006a).
Outbreaks occur occasionally and may cause growth loss or limited tree mortality.
Some indigenous pests may not have significant impacts on the region’s forest
resources but concerns about introductions into other nations can have serious effects
on the forest sector through international trade restrictions. An example is the pine
wilt nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus*, the causal agent of pine wilt disease,
which is spread through insect vectors, pine sawyer beetles (Monochamus spp.). The
pine wild nematode is native to North America, where it is widespread in natural
coniferous forests, but significant losses have not been recorded and it is not considered
a serious pest (EPPO/CABI, 1997). While the nematode has been associated with the
death of some pines in the United States, in general losses are most often confined to
non-native tree species (primarily Pinus sylvestris) in artificial forest ecosystems such
as ornamental conifer plantings, windbreaks and Christmas tree plantations (EPPO/
CABI, 1997; Liebhold et al., 1995).
While not a serious problem in North America, pine wilt disease is a major threat
to Asian and European pine forests and has resulted in extensive tree mortality in
countries such as China, Japan, Republic of Korea and Portugal (Shi, 2005). It was
apparently introduced to Japan on North American timber imports in the early 1900s
and since then it has caused major epidemics of pine wilt disease (Krcmar-Nozic,
Wilson and Arthur, 2000). The pest was intercepted in shipments of wood chips to
Finland and Sweden. As a result, B. xylophilus is listed as an A1 quarantine pest by
EPPO and regulations have been imposed on Canadian and United States shipments
of unprocessed coniferous wood products since the early 1990s (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Such regulations have resulted in significant economic losses to Canada and the United
States, as decreased exports of coniferous wood and wood products to Europe has cost
both countries hundreds of millions of dollars (FAO, 2000; Allen and Humble, 2002).
INTRODUCED INSECTS
A number of destructive forest pests have been introduced into North America.
Coleopteran species include the Asian longhorned beetle, emerald ash borer, banded
elm bark beetle, pine shoot beetle and the brown spruce longhorn beetle. Discovered in
2002 in Michigan (United States) and Ontario (Canada), the emerald ash borer (Agrilus
planipennis*) is threatening ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) in North American forests, urban
plantings and shelterbelts (Thomas, 2005). In June 2008 it was also reported from the
province of Quebec, Canada (CFIA, 2008a). This native of Asia kills trees by feeding
under the bark and disrupting the flow of nutrients and water throughout the tree
(CFS, 2006a). It is responsible for the death and decline of millions of trees in the
region and as a result it is considered a major pest problem; many believe the potential
for damage to ash trees and overall biodiversity could rival the devastation caused by
Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. The emerald ash borer could also become a
major threat to other countries.
The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis*) was first discovered in the
United States in Amityville, New York in 1996 followed by three separate infestations in
Chicago, Illinois in 1998 and one in Jersey City, New Jersey in 2002. A very aggressive
quarantine and eradication programme was implemented by the USDA Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) at all sites after detection. In September 2003,
the beetle was discovered in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The area was immediately
quarantined by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) and an eradication
programme was initiated involving the removal of infested trees, which has contained
the spread of the beetle. This insect attacks many hardwood species in North America
including maple, elm, birch, horse chestnut, willow and sycamore (CFIA, 2008b).
The pine shoot beetle (Tomicus piniperda), a European species, was discovered in North
America in 1992. As of December 2002, twelve states in the United States (Illinois, Indiana,
Maine, Maryland, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont,
West Virginia and Wisconsin) and two Canadian provinces (Ontario and Quebec) were
known to have infestations of Tomicus piniperda (Haack and Poland, 2001). Pines are the
preferred hosts although the pest also attacks Abies, Larix, Picea and Pseudotsuga species.
Native to Europe, the brown spruce longhorn beetle (Tetropium fuscum) was
found in dying red spruce (Picea rubens) trees in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada in 1999
(Hurley et al., 2004). White spruce (Picea glauca) and black spruce (P. mariana) have
also been attacked. The beetle is believed to have entered the region on wood packing
materials or dunnage (Hurley et al., 2004). Federal and provincial agencies are carrying
out a survey and eradication programme.
Native to eastern Russian Federation, China, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Republic of Korea, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan, the first specimens of the banded elm bark beetle (Scolytus schevyrewi)
were trapped in Colorado and Utah, United States in 2003 although it is suspected
that this insect had been present for several years (Thomas, 2005). This pest has been
collected from Ulmus americana, U. pumila, U. thomasii and U. procera in the United
States and is suspected to transmit Dutch elm disease (EPPO, 2008).
The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar*, is a significant pest of oaks, poplars, and
maples, but is also capable of feeding on over 500 different plant and tree species.
Two strains of gypsy moth have been recovered in North America: the Asian strain
(not established), of which the female is capable of flight; and the European strain,
of which the female is flightless (Brandt, 1994). The Asian strain was introduced into
western North America on several occasions but in each case it was eradicated. While
the pest has been prevented from establishing in the region, the costs associated with
eradicating the Asian gypsy moth have been enormous, estimated at US$34 million for
two introductions (Pacific Northwest, North and South Carolina) in the United States
alone (Krcmar-Nozic, Wilson and Arthur, 2000). Coupled with the costs of border
vigilance and monitoring, the economic losses are enormous. The European strain was
introduced into the northeastern United States in 1869 and is now found primarily in
eastern Canada and the United States. In Canada, this strain of gypsy moth was found
first in Quebec in 1924 and then in New Brunswick in 1936; both of these infestations
were eradicated (Brandt, 1994). In the last 20 years, however, Quebec, Ontario, New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia have all been infested with the European strain (Brandt,
1994). The European gypsy moth is considered the most costly of introduced forest
insect pests. In the United States, annual expenditures for control have exceeded
US$35 million since 1980 (Wallner 1996, 1997). In addition, timber losses have been
estimated at over US$291 million (Krcmar-Nozic, Wilson and Arthur, 2000).
A new pest in eastern Canada and the United States is the European woodwasp, Sirex
noctilio*. Native to Asia, northern Africa and Europe, this insect has been introduced
into many countries in the southern hemisphere where it has caused significant damage
to conifer trees, pines in particular. The woodwasp was discovered in the United States
PART I Regional and global analysis NORTH AMERICA 39
(New York) in 2004 and in Canada (Ontario) in 2005 (Haugen and Hoebeke, 2005;
CFS, 2006a). Since these initial introductions, the pest has spread throughout various
counties in the Canadian province of Ontario and also to parts of the United States
including Michigan, Pennsylvania and Vermont (P. de Groot, personal communication).
Monterey (Pinus radiata), lodgepole (P. contorta), ponderosa (P. ponderosa), jack (P.
banksiana), and most species of southern pines are known hosts; the susceptibility
of other North American conifers is not known (Tkacz, Moody and Villa Castillo,
2007). Based on its behaviour in other countries, it is expected that, without adequate
control measures, sirex will spread rapidly throughout the region. It is thus considered
a serious pest in the region.
At least five species of adelgids have been introduced into North America (Blackman
and Eastop, 1984). Two species have caused extensive tree mortality: the balsam woolly
adelgid (Adelges piceae) and the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). The balsam
woolly adelgid is a major pest of true firs and the greatest cause of balsam fir (Abies
balsamea) mortality in North America. It was accidentally introduced into Canada and
the United States from Europe in the early part of the twentieth century (CFS, 2006b).
Native to China and Japan, the hemlock woolly adelgid was first reported in western
Canada (British Columbia) in the 1920s and in the United States (Virginia) in the 1950s
(Thomas, 2005). This pest attacks spruce and hemlock trees. In the eastern United
States, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and Carolina hemlock (T. caroliniana)
are susceptible to infestations; in western Canada, damage to western hemlock (T.
heterophylla) has been minor.
INTRODUCED DISEASES
Many of the major diseases impacting North American forests are introduced species.
Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi) is the most destructive disease of wild and planted
elm trees (Ulmus spp.) in North America (Ip, 1992). It was first found in Ohio in 1930 and
has since spread throughout almost the entire North American range of elms. In Manitoba,
the disease was found for the first time in 1975, and in 1981 it appeared in Saskatchewan.
Over 35 million elms in the United States and millions of elms in eastern Canada have
been killed by this disease resulting in significant landscape destruction (Ip, 1992).
White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), an introduced fungus from Asia, has
decimated several species of native white pines across the western United States and
Canada (Thomas, 2005). It entered North America through the east and west coasts on
European nursery stock around 1910.
Sudden oak death, Phytophthora ramorum*, causes a serious disease of tanoak and
oaks, resulting in crown dieback, stem bark lesions and basal cankers (Thomas, 2005).
It attacks a variety of tree species including coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), California
black oak (Q. kelloggii), shreve oak (Q. parvula var. shrevei), tanoak (Lithocarpus
densiflorus) and madrone (Arbutus spp.), and also infects several other plant species
(Thomas, 2005). Infected trees die relatively quickly once crown symptoms develop
although the severity of damage varies considerably between sites.
Beech bark disease, caused by the fungus Nectria coccinea var. faginata, causes
significant damage or mortality in American beech (Fagus grandifolia). The disease
results when bark that is attacked and altered by the beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga)
is invaded and killed by fungi, primarily Nectria coccinea var. faginata and sometimes
N. galligena. It was introduced to North America at Halifax, Nova Scotia in the 1890s
and it killed entire stands of American beech as it spread north and west throughout
the Canadian Maritime Provinces and in localized areas of eastern and south-central
Maine (Houston and O’Brien, 1983).
Butternut canker (Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum) is a significant pest of
Juglans species, primarily butternut, J. cinerea. The natural range of butternut extends
throughout the northern and eastern United States and southern portion of eastern
Canada. The fungus was first reported in Wisconsin in 1967, but the causal agent was
not isolated and described until 1979. It is not known how long it has existed in North
American hardwood forests or if it was native or introduced, but there is evidence
that it was introduced into the United States in the 1960s or earlier (EPPO, 2005). The
pathogen spread rapidly across the United States and is now present in the entire native
distribution area of J. cinerea. It was detected in Canada for the first time in Quebec
in 1990 and in Ontario in 1991 (EPPO, 2005). The canker is currently known to exist
throughout the range of butternut in Canada.

The capacity for forest health protection in the region is high. Both Canada and the
United States are very active in the area of forest health and protection. They have clear
and comprehensive pest management programmes at both national and provincial/
state levels, efficient monitoring and detection activities and sophisticated systems for
data management. There is significant high quality information publicly available on
specific pests with alerts for particularly noxious pests.

North America has several mechanisms for promoting regional cooperation on forest
health issues. The working group for forest insects and disease of the North American
Forest Commission (NAFC) was established over 40 years ago and was recently
amended to include invasive plant species. In addition, the North American Plant
Protection Organization (NAPPO), recognized under the IPPC, offers mechanisms
for regional coordination on phytosanitary matters, including those for reporting on
pests and activating alerts, as well as providing fact sheets.
PART I Regional and global analysis GLOBAL ANALYSIS 41
Global analysis
PEST TYPE
Almost 77 percent of the forest pests reported from the overview countries were insect
pest species (Table 11). All regions reported significantly more insect pests than other
pest types (Figure 11; Table 12). Sixteen percent of the pest species were pathogens and
the remaining 7 percent were other pests.
Insects tend to be easier to trap than other pests and easier to identify as the cause
of tree damage, although identification still requires specialized training and expertise.
The impacts of pathogenic diseases on forest trees, such as destruction of internal
wood, reductions in growth, or delayed regeneration, are often subtle and difficult to
detect. It can be difficult to determine the causative agent of these impacts. Likewise,
the impacts of other pests such as nematodes, mites, mammals and parasitic plants on
forest trees are not easy to detect.
INDIGENOUS VERSUS INTRODUCED PESTS

A large majority of the forest pests reported from the overview countries are indigenous
species (Table 11). All regions reported more indigenous pest species than introduced
species (Figure 11). Latin America and the Caribbean, however, reported almost equal
numbers of indigenous and introduced species.
Eleven of the pest species were reported as both indigenous and introduced
– the fungal pathogens Armillaria mellea*, Botryosphaeria dothidea*, Nattrassia
mangiferae and Subramanianospora vesiculosa and the insect pests Brontispa longissima,
Coptotermes gestroi, Hylurgus ligniperda, Hypsipyla grandella*, Hypsipyla robusta*,
Pineus pini and Xylosandrus morigerus.
Countries profiled
FIGURE 11
Number of pest species by region as reported from the selected 25 countries
Latin America &

Africa Asia-Pacific Europe Caribbean Near East
120
Number of species
100
80
60
40
20
0
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
Insects
Diseases
Other
TABLE 11
Summary of the data on forest pest species from the 25 countries

forests forest
Indigenous species
Insects 277 102 135 39 178 80 18

Diseases 46 7 30 9 34 8 4
Other 22 14 7 1 14 5 3
Total 344 123 172 49 226 93 25
Introduced species
Insects 64 3 49 12 28 34 2
Diseases 28 2 22 4 17 6 5
Other 9 7 1 1 5 1 3
Total 101 12 72 17 50 41 10
Total all regions a

434 135 235 64 268 132 34
a
Eleven pest species (Armillaria mellea*, Botryosphaeria dothidea*, Brontispa longissima, Coptotermes
gestroi, Hylurgus ligniperda, Hypsipyla grandella*, Hypsipyla robusta*, Nattrassia mangiferae, Pineus pini,
Subramanianospora vesiculosa and Xylosandrus morigerus) were reported as both indigenous and introduced
pests. These species were included in each section but were counted only once in the total.
TABLE 12
Prevalent characteristics of pest problems by region (from the 25 forest pest overviews)
Region Pest Indigenous/ Planted/ Host Insect pest Disease Other pest
type introduced naturally type order order order
regenerated
Africa Insect Indigenous Planted Broadleaf Coleoptera, Ascomycota Primata
Lepidoptera
Asia and Insect Indigenous Planted Broadleaf Coleoptera, Ascomycota Tylenchida,
the Pacific Lepidoptera Rodentia
Europe Insect Indigenous Naturally Broadleaf Lepidoptera Ascomycota Artiodactyla
regenerated
Latin Insect Indigenous Planted Broadleaf Coleoptera Ascomycota Santalales
America
and the
Caribbean
Near East Insect Indigenous Naturally Broadleaf Coleoptera Basidiomycota Acarina
regenerated
Indigenous pests and signs of their infestation are often well-known to foresters
and forest workers in the region. Previous experience with the pests leads to better and
faster identification. Introduced pest species are usually more difficult to identify and
detect owing to lack of knowledge of their biology and associated symptoms and lack
of monitoring for such species.
TYPE OF FOREST
Over 54 percent of pests in the overview countries were recorded in planted forests,
31 percent in naturally regenerated forests and almost 15 percent in both forest types
(Table 11). Planted forests are growing in importance but represent just 6.9 percent
of the global forest total (271 million hectares) (FAO, 2006b). Nearly half of the
world’s planted forests are in Asia, almost 30 percent in Europe, 11 percent in North
and Central America, 6 percent in Africa, 5 percent in South America and just over
1 percent in Oceania (FAO, 2006b). The pest data are likely to be skewed positively
towards planted forests. Because of their commercial and economic importance, more
attention is often paid to their health and monitoring, and pests in these forests are
more often detected, identified, dealt with and reported.
Forest plantations of single tree species may have higher risk of major insect or
disease infestation. In more diverse forest ecosystems, the risk of major infestations is
not considered to be as high.
Three of the regions reported more species impacting planted forests than naturally
regenerated forests: Asia and the Pacific (77 percent); Latin America and the Caribbean
(65 percent); and Africa (59 percent) (Table 12). A number of countries with the largest
planted forest area in Asia and the Pacific and in Latin America and the Caribbean were
included in this analysis. Therefore, it is not surprising that more pests were reported
from planted forests in these regions. A similar result was noted for Africa, where two
countries with particularly large planted forest area, the Sudan and South Africa, were
included in the overview.
Europe and the Near East, regions with the lowest sample sizes, reported more
pest species in naturally regenerated forests, almost 62 percent and 51 percent
respectively. Although planted forests are an important category in Europe, many
of the countries that contribute to the large area, such as Sweden, Finland and
France, were not part of the review. The Near East is represented by only two
countries, Cyprus and Kyrgyzstan, and Kyrgyzstan provided more information
on the naturally regenerated forests than on the remote and less accessible planted
forests in the country.
Belize, Honduras, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, Moldova and Romania reported more
pests in naturally regenerated forests, while Mongolia, Russian Federation and Cyprus
reported pests in equal numbers in both forest types.
Over 73 percent of pests in planted forests and 91 percent in naturally
regenerated forests were indigenous species (Table 11). Introduced pests were
found more prevalently in planted forests than naturally regenerated forests. This
is notable since many planted forest trees are comprised of exotic species that were
introduced for particular purposes. These may be more susceptible to introduced
pests which, in the absence of natural enemies, can build up into large numbers
(FAO, 2001). In addition, introduced pests are often difficult for foresters and
forest workers to detect and identify due to lack of knowledge about the pest and
its biology.
HOST TYPE
Almost 62 percent of forest pests were recorded on broadleaf tree species, over
30 percent on conifers and almost 8 percent on both host types (Table 11). In all
regions, pests were recorded more often on broadleaf trees than conifers.
In 16 of the 25 overview countries, broadleaf tree species were the most commonly
affected host species. Argentina, Belize, Cyprus, Honduras, Mexico, Mongolia,
Morocco and the Russian Federation reported more pests on conifers. Kenya,
reported equal numbers on both host types.
Broadleaf trees in planted forests were more affected by forest pests than those in
naturally regenerated forests. The proportion of conifer pests in each forest type also
exhibited the same pattern.
FIGURE 12
Insect pests reported from the 25 countries
Coleoptera 39%
Diptera 1%
Hemiptera 17%
Hymenoptera 4%
Isoptera 4%
Lepidoptera 33%
Orthoptera 2%
Thysanoptera 1%
FIGURE 13
Disease-causing pathogens reported from the 25 countries
Ascomycota 59%
Bacteria 3%
Basidiomycota 33%
Oomycota 4%
Phytoplasma 1%
FIGURE 14
Other pests reported from the 25 countries
Acarina 40%
Artiodactyla 17%
Carnivora 3%
Lagomorpha 6%
Primata 6%
Rodentia 6%
Santalales 16%
Tylenchida 6%
PREVALENT PEST SPECIES

For insect pests, the most commonly reported pest species belong to the orders
Coleoptera and Lepidoptera which together made up over 70 percent of all insect
pest species reported (Figure 12). Hemipteran species were the third most important
insect order at 16 percent. In Africa and Asia and the Pacific, both Coleoptera and
Lepidoptera made up the majority of pest species reported. Europe reported more
lepidopterans and Latin America and the Caribbean reported more coleopterans.
For diseases, the majority of species were members of the phylum Ascomycota
which represented almost 60 percent of all pathogens reported (Figure 13).
Basidiomycota species were the next major group at 33 percent. Four of the
regions reported more Ascomycota species while the Near East reported more
Basidiomycota species.
For the category other pests (Figure 14), Acarina species were the most common
followed by Artiodactyla species (even-toed ungulates) and Santalales (mistletoes
and parasitic plants). Nematodes, rodents and primates were also classified as
important pests. Africa reported more primate species, Europe more Artiodactyla,
Latin America and the Caribbean more mistletoes and parasitic plants, and the Near
East more Acarina species. In the Asia and Pacific region, nematodes and rodents
were equally reported.
TRANSBOUNDARY PESTS
Twenty-five insect pest species were recorded in more than one region (Table 13).
In order of importance are coleopterans (9), lepidopterans (7), hemipterans (6),
hymenopterans (2) and isopterans (1). Bark beetles (Curculionidae, Scolytinae) were
the most prevalent order.
Eleven of the above are introduced species, eight are indigenous and six are both
indigenous and introduced depending on the country from which the species was reported.
Twelve of the pests were recorded in planted forests, one in naturally regenerated forests
and 12 in both forest types. Conifers were the host species for 12 of the transboundary
pests, broadleaf trees for 12, and one pest was reported on both host types.
Nine disease-causing pathogens were reported from more than one region (Table 14).
The majority of these were species of the phylum Ascomycota; the remainder were
Basidiomycota species. Five of the pathogens are introduced species and four are both
indigenous and introduced depending on the country from which they were reported.
Seven of the pests were recorded in planted forests and two in both forest types.
Broadleaf trees were the hosts for six of the transboundary pests, conifers for two
species, and one pathogen was recorded on both host types.
In the category other pests, genera but not species were repeated for more than
one continent, e.g. Arceuthobium was reported on conifers in Latin America and
the Caribbean (Arceuthobium spp. in Mexico) and the Near East (A. oxycedri,
Kyrgyzstan); and deer (Cervus spp.) were reported as pests of naturally regenerated
forests in Latin America and the Caribbean (Cervus elaphus, Chile) and Europe
(Cervus nippon, Moldova).

Countries are increasingly recognizing the importance of environmental and biodiversity
issues, including health and protection, to effective forest management. Many countries
have national centres dedicated to forest research and in some countries there are also
centres for forest health and protection. A number of constraints have been noted
from the regions, including outdated equipment and lack of financial resources and
specialized training.
TABLE 13
Insect pest species reported across regional borders from the 25 countries
Insect pest Order: family Countries of Indigenous/ Type of Host type
species occurrence introduced forest
Cinara Hemiptera: Africa: Introduced Naturally Conifer

cupressivora* Aphididae Kenya, Malawi, regenerated,
Mauritius planted
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Chile, Colombia
Cinara Hemiptera: Africa: Kenya Introduced Planted Conifer

pinivora* Aphididae Latin America and
Caribbean:
Argentina, Brazil
Coptotermes Isoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf

gestroi Rhinotermitidae Thailand introduced
Latin America and
Caribbean: Mexico
Dendrolimus Lepidoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous Naturally Conifer

sibiricus* Lasiocampidae China, Mongolia regenerated,
Europe: planted
Russian Federation
Erannis Lepidoptera: Europe: Indigenous Naturally Broadleaf

defoliaria Geometridae Moldova, Romania regenerated
Near East:
Kyrgyzstan
Eulachnus Hemiptera: Africa: Introduced Naturally Conifer

rileyi Aphididae Kenya, Malawi regenerated,
Latin America and planted
Caribbean:
Argentina,
Chile, Colombia
Gonipterus Coleoptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

scutellatus* Curculionidae Kenya, Mauritius,
South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean: Chile
Heteropsylla Hemiptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

cubana* Psyllidae Kenya, Malawi,
Mauritius, Sudan
Asia and Pacific: India,
Indonesia, Thailand
Hylurgus Coleoptera: Africa: Indigenous, Naturally Conifer

ligniperda Scolytidae South Africa introduced regenerated,
Latin America and planted
Caribbean: Chile
Hyphantria Lepidoptera: Asia and Pacific: Introduced Naturally Broadleaf

cunea Arctiidae China regenerated,
Europe: planted
Moldova, Romania
Near East: Kyrgyzstan
Hypsipyla Lepidoptera: Africa: Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf

grandella* Pyralidae Mauritius introduced
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Argentina, Belize,
Brazil, Colombia,
Mexico, Uruguay
Hypsipyla Lepidoptera: Africa: Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf

robusta* Pyralidae Ghana, Mauritius introduced
Asia and Pacific:
India, Indonesia, Thailand
Ips Coleoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous Naturally Conifer

sexdentatus* Scolytidae Mongolia, Thailand regenerated,
Europe: Romania, Russian planted
Federation
Insect pest Order: family Countries of Indigenous/ Type of Host type

species occurrence introduced forest
Leptocybe Hymenoptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

invasa* Eulophidae Kenya, Morocco,
South Africa
Asia and Pacific: India
Lymantria Lepidoptera: Africa: Indigenous Naturally Broadleaf,

dispar* Lymantriidae Morocco regenerated, Conifer
(European strain) planted
Asia and Pacific:
China and Mongolia
(Asian)
Europe:
Moldova and Romania
(European),
Russian Federation
(Asian)
Near East:
Cyprus (European),
Kyrgyzstan (Asian)
Orthotomicus Coleoptera: Africa: Indigenous Naturally Conifer

erosus* Scolytidae Morocco regenerated,
Near East: planted
Cyprus
Phoracantha Coleoptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

recurva* Cerambycidae Malawi, Morocco,
South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Chile, Uruguay
Phoracantha Coleoptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

semipunctata* Cerambycidae Malawi, Morocco,
South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean: Chile
Pineus pini Hemiptera: Africa: Indigenous, Planted Conifer

Adelgidae Kenya, Malawi, introduced
South Africa
Asia and Pacific:
India
Near East: Kyrgyzstan
Quadraspidiotus Hemiptera: Asia and the Pacific: Introduced Naturally Broadleaf

perniciosus Coccidae India regenerated,
Near East: planted
Kyrgyzstan
Sirex noctilio* Hymenoptera: Africa: Introduced Planted Conifer

Siricidae South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, Uruguay
Thaumetopoea Lepidoptera: Africa: Morocco Indigenous Naturally Conifer

pityocampa* Thaumetopoeidae Near East: Cyprus regenerated,
(Thaumetopoea planted
wilkinsoni)
Tomicus minor Coleoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous Naturally Conifer

Scolytidae Mongolia regenerated,
Europe: Romania planted
Near East: Cyprus
Tomicus Coleoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous Naturally Conifer

piniperda Scolytidae Mongolia regenerated,
Europe: Romania, planted
Russian Federation
Near East: Cyprus
Xylosandrus Coleoptera: Asia and Pacific: Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf

morigerus Scolytidae Indonesia introduced
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Mexico
TABLE 14
Disease pest species reported across regional borders from the 25 countries
Disease species Phylum: family Countries of Indigenous/ Type of Host type
occurrence introduced forest
Armillaria Basidiomycota: Africa: Indigenous, Naturally Broadleaf,
mellea* Marasmiaceae Kenya, Malawi, introduced regenerated, Conifer
Sudan planted
Near East:
Kyrgyzstan
Botryosphaeria Ascomycota: Africa: Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf
dothidea* Botryosphaeriaceae South Africa introduced
Asia and Pacific:
Thailand
Latin America and
Caribbean: Uruguay
Chrysoporthe Ascomycota: Asia and Pacific: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

cubensis* Incertae sedis Thailand
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Brazil, Colombia
Coniothyrium Ascomycota: Asia and Pacific: Introduced Planted Broadleaf

zuluense Leptosphaeriaceae Thailand
Latin America and
Caribbean:
Uruguay
Mycosphaerella Ascomycota: Africa: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

pini* Mycosphaerellaceae South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean: Chile
Nattrassia Ascomycota: Africa: Sudan Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf

mangiferae Incertae sedis Asia and Pacific: introduced
Thailand
Phanerochaete Basidiomycota: Africa: South Africa Introduced Naturally Broadleaf

salmonicolor Phanerochaetaceae Latin America and regenerated,
Caribbean: Brazil planted
Sphaeropsis Ascomycota: Africa: Introduced Planted Conifer

sapinea Incertae sedis Kenya, South Africa
Latin America and
Caribbean: Chile
Subramanianospora Ascomycota: Africa: Mauritius Indigenous, Planted Broadleaf
vesiculosa Incertae sedis Asia and Pacific: introduced
India, Thailand

In most of the regions, monitoring and detection activities are informal, involving
field surveillance by foresters and forest workers, and many are targeted to specific
pests. Some activities include aerial and ground surveys, mapping of winter nests and
placement of pheromone traps. More activities are carried out in commercially valuable
planted forests than in naturally regenerated forests.
Data management
In some areas advanced tools for data management are available, often developed as
part of programmes to address specific forest pests. In most regions, however, data
management capacity is lacking.
Most information on forest health is qualitative in nature. Very little quantitative data
exist for many regions, and existing data are often not available in an easily accessible format.
Data are often collected only after significant damage has been caused. Consistent data on
the impacts of forest pests and diseases over time are not available for most regions.
Only 13 of the 25 overview countries provided quantitative data on forest health as
part of the FRA 2005 process, and the information is still incomplete for many of these
countries (Table 15). For these countries, the area affected by insects, diseases and other
TABLE 15
Total forest area and forest area affected by disturbances for the selected countries that
provided quantitative information for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005
Country Total forest Average forest area affected annually
area (1 000 ha)
(1 000 ha) Insects Diseases Other Total
1990 2000 1990 2000 1990 2000 1990 2000
Brazil 477 698 50 30 – 20 – – 50 50
Chile 16 121 866 531 13 810 – – 879 1 341
China 197 290 7 879 6 191 1 820 883 755 820 10 454 7 894
Honduras 4 648 – 1 – – – – – 1
India 67 701 – 1 – 8 – – – 9
Indonesia 88 495 3 – – – – – 3 –
Kyrgyzstan 869 70 60 16 10 – – 86 70
Mexico 64 238 8 8 11 2 – – 19 10
Moldova 329 61a 96 – – – – 61 96
Mongolia 10 252 28 2 798 – – – – 28 2 798
Morocco 4 364 16 37 – – – 3 16 40
Russian 808 790 1 718 4 953 124 957 – – 1 842 5 910
Federation
South Africab 9 203 2 1 – – – – 2 1
Total 1 749 998 10 701 14 707 1 984 2 690 755 823 13 440 18 220
Source: FAO, 2006a

a
The estimate for damage by insects for 1990 in Moldova may include some areas damaged by disease.
b
Data for South Africa are from one source for planted forests only and refer to disturbances by weather, diseases,
insects, animals and rodents.
pests and disturbances increased for the 2000 reporting period from the 1990 period by
over 36 percent. For the 2000 reporting period, a total of over 18 million hectares were
affected by forest pests; 14.7 million hectares damaged by insects, 2.7 million hectares
by diseases and over 800 000 ha by other pests and disturbances. The total area affected
was just over one percent of the total forest area of the countries reporting.
Pest management
Few comprehensive forest pest management plans exist for most regions and emphasis
on preventative measures is for the most part lacking. A variety of pest management
activities (biological, chemical, silvicultural) have been carried out in each region for
specific pests. Such activities include the physical removal of infested trees and other
silvicultural procedures, ground and aerial application of chemical and microbial
pesticides, the use of biocontrol agents, and the planting of pest tolerant tree species.
Ownership
While forests are publicly owned in many of the regions, there is a trend from public to
private ownership (FAO, 2007a). Little information is available on the capacity of private
landowners in the area of forest health protection although it was noted that in many cases,
they work collaboratively with national agencies, institutes and universities on such issues.
SUMMARY
Forest insect pests, diseases and other pests are having significant impacts on forests
worldwide. While the devastating impacts of indigenous forest pests are already
recognized, those of introduced species are increasingly being recognized as well.
Rapid transport, ease of travel, and free trade have facilitated the spread of pests, as
evidenced by the list of transboundary species (Tables 13 and 14).
There is a growing trend towards adopting more sustainable forest management

strategies to contain forest pests, particularly in developed countries (FAO, 2007a). This
movement is related to changes in the perception and role of forests, which are increasingly
valued not just for economic reasons but also for their ecological and social functions.
Insect pests are the main problem reported. Disease-causing pathogens are more
difficult to detect and identify and are reported less frequently. Training and expertise
in pest identification and in detection of the first signs and symptoms are needed in
many countries as a first line of defence against pest introductions.
Monitoring and surveillance of forest pests are needed, as well as agreement on
parameters by which to gather data, in particular common definitions on what constitutes
a disturbance and how the data are to be collected (FAO, 2007a).
Most countries do not have reliable information on the area of forest affected by
insect pests and diseases because they do not systematically monitor these variables
(FAO, 2007a). Data are often collected only after significant damage has been caused.
More information is available on pests in commercially valuable planted forests than
naturally regenerated forests. Awareness of the need to gather and share information on
forest pests at national, regional and global levels is increasing.
Many strides have been made on forest health issues at regional and international
levels by a variety of working groups, regional plant protection organizations,
international organizations, research organizations and networks (Box 2). There
have been concerted efforts to increase the free flow of information through
networking and the Internet (Box 3) and to encourage compliance with international
phytosanitary standards, especially those with direct relevance to forestry.
BOX 2
Regional and international groups and initiatives addressing forest health
• The International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) has a number of

divisions and units dedicated to research on a variety of forest health issues including
entomology, pathology, invasive alien species and the impacts of air pollution and climate
change on forest ecosystems.
• The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) targets the spread and introduction
of pests of plants and plant products and promotes appropriate measures for their
control (see Box 1).
• The working group for forest insects and disease of the North American Forest
Commission (NAFC) was established over 40 years ago and was recently amended to
include invasive plant species.
• Regional networks dealing with forest pests, primarily forest invasive species, include
the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN), the Forest Invasive Species
Network for Africa (FISNA), the Near East Network on Forest Health and Invasive
Species (NENFHIS) and Red de Países de Cono Sur sobre Especias Exoticas Invasoras a
Ambientes Forestales.
• In 1993, Near Eastern countries agreed to create the Near East Plant Protection Organization
(NEPPO). This agreement has been ratified by eight countries (most recently the Syrian Arab
Republic in July 2005), but two more ratifications are required for it to enter into force.
• A number of international instruments and organizations concentrate on the issue of
invasive alien species such as the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP), International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG),
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).
BOX 3
Sources of information on forest pests and invasive species
• FAO’s forest health Web site: www.fao.org/forestry/pests

• FAO’s invasive species Web site: www.fao.org/forestry/aliens
• FAO’s forest biosecurity Web site: www.fao.org/forestry/biosecurity
• Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa (FISNA): www.fao.org/forestry/27679
• Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN): www.fao.org/forestry/35067
• Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (Bugwood Network): www.forestpests.org
• Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE): www.europe-aliens.org
• Ecoport: www.ecoport.org
• European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) pest lists:
www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/quarantine.htm
• Exotic Forest Pest Information System for North America: spfnic.fs.fed.us/exfor
• Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), IUCN:
www.issg.org/database
• Global Invasive Species Information Network (GISIN), list of invasive alien species (IAS)
online information systems: www.gisinetwork.org/Documents/draftiasdbs.htm
• Near East Network on Forest Health and Invasive Species (NENFHIS):
www.fao.org/forestry/51295
• Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): www.hear.org/pier/index.html
• Phytosanitary Alert System, North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO):
www.pestalert.org
• Red de Países del Cono Sur sobre Especies Exoticas Invasoras a Ambientes Forestales:
www.fao.org/forestry/52502
• Tree Protection Co-operative Programme (TCPC) pamphlets:
www.fabinet.up.ac.za/tpcp/pamphlets
Conclusions
Given the vast benefits that forests and other wooded lands provide to the world,
it is vital to protect these resources. This publication and many others on forest
health illustrate that insect pests and diseases have had, and will continue to have,
significant impacts on the world’s forests and forest sector. In terms of sustainable
forest management, minimizing the impacts of insects and diseases is no less important
to a viable and strong forest sector than improving silvicultural and traditional forest
management techniques.
Forest pests and diseases are a global problem and, consequently, it is necessary
to look beyond national borders to develop effective solutions. The problem of
intercontinental spread of insect pests and pathogens has raised serious concerns for
some time now. In the past five years, the importance of invasive species and their
impact on the environment has been increasingly recognized. More and more forest
pest species appear to have been intentionally or accidentally introduced into areas
beyond their natural ranges, resulting in a more extensive list of transboundary pests
threatening forests and the forest sector worldwide. While this may seem to indicate
that our ability to address the problem is progressively worsening, it is more likely
that new introductions have increased as a result of the speed, volume and improved
efficiency of the global trade market and that, fortunately, capacity to monitor and
detect new pests and their impacts has improved.
Awareness of the need to gather and share information on forest pests at national,
regional and global levels is increasing. Countries need to obtain reliable, quantitative
information on the impacts of forest insect pests and diseases on a regular basis. At
present, however, data are often collected only after significant damage has been caused
and for most countries little information is available on pest impacts in naturally
regenerated forests. Agreement is needed on the parameters by which to gather data
and, in particular, on common definitions on what constitutes a disturbance and how
the data are to be collected (FAO, 2007a).
Although many countries are adopting more pest management strategies to contain
forest pests, greater recognition is still needed of the importance of pest management
for effective forest management. Improving forest pest management involves increased
research into the pests themselves and their control, increased taxonomic and diagnostic
expertise to improve pest identifications, better monitoring and detection including
the development of detection methodologies and diagnostic tools, research into new
control technologies, and an overall increase in the capacity of all countries in forest
health protection.
Over the past few decades, there has been a notable shift in requests to FAO: from
requests for technical assistance for emergency control of pests to requests for help in
increasing national or regional capacities in monitoring and prevention techniques for
forest health and protection. Pest outbreaks are cyclical, occurring every 7 to 10 years,
and the fact that there are fewer requests for emergency assistance for pests that were
dealt with within the last decade suggests that countries have increased their capacity to
deal with forest pest problems themselves. The progression of emphasis from dealing
solely with pest emergencies towards more holistic approaches of prevention and
improving national capacities needs to be continued.
The development and dissemination of effective control measures is vital to the
protection of forest health. An evolution has been observed over the past few decades
in terms of techniques and attitudes towards pest control. In the early 1960s a variety
of methods were used to control forest insect pests and diseases including mechanical,
silvicultural, chemical and biological methods, with chemical control the most
commonly used. By the 1970s environmental concerns were being increasingly raised
about the use of chemicals. As a result, research into the use of biological control agents
in conjunction with silvicultural methods or pheromones began in earnest.
There is also a growing recognition of the importance of environmental policies
and pesticide legislation. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), a non-governmental
organization established to promote the responsible management of the world’s
forests, prohibits the use of highly hazardous pesticides and promotes the development
and adoption of environmentally friendly non-chemical methods around the world.
The FSC maintains a list of prohibited highly hazardous pesticides which includes
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, pesticides banned by international agreement,
and pesticides that are persistent, toxic or whose derivatives remain biologically active
and accumulate in the food chain beyond their intended use (FSC, 1996). Today,
integrated pest management involving a combination of control measures is considered
the most effective way to deal with forest pests. Applications of biological control
agents and microbial insecticides have become major components of pest management
programmes and considerable emphasis is placed on prevention and early detection as
a means to avoid future pest problems.
Breeding trees for pest resistance is another technique that has grown in importance
over the past few decades. Currently, there are many programmes on breeding for
resistance of forest trees, and resistant hosts have been developed against a variety of
forests pests. For example, strains of black poplar (Populus nigra) resistant to attack
by the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis*) have been developed in
China (Hu et al., 2001), monterey pine (Pinus radiata) resistant to Mycosphaerella
pini* have been developed in New Zealand (Carson, 1990) and western white pine
(Pinus monticola) have been bred for resistance to white pine blister rust (Cronartium
ribicola) in Canada and the United States (Sniezko, 2006).
Cooperation and coordination of pest management activities between countries
and regions is imperative, as are international activities, particularly those geared
to developing international standards on pests and global trade. There is a
need for increased pest reporting to National Plant Protection Organizations
(NPPOs) and stronger links between the forest sector and the International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC). This has been improving: the IPPC has given greater
recognition to forest pests and has adopted International Standards for Phytosanitary
Measures (ISPMs) directly relevant to the forest sector. Recent focus is on better
implementation of these complex international standards by translating them into
more understandable and relevant terms for the use of all forest personnel dealing
with phytosanitary issues.
The forest sector needs to be able to adapt to new situations and scenarios and
this requires research, policies and practices that will enable it to plan and manage
healthy forests to meet future needs. The impacts of a changing climate on forests
and the possibility of increased susceptibility to forest insects and pathogens are of
global significance in forest health today. Climate change is influencing not only
trees and forests but also the way in which forestry is practiced. For example, climate
change can stress forest ecosystems and may be a key factor in forest health decline.
This has serious implications for forests in terms of altering pest distributions,
population dynamics and behaviours. In response to such global concern, FAO,
IUFRO, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), USDA Forest
Service, Seoul National University, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture
and Forestry sponsored an international conference on Adaptation of Forests and
Forest Management to Changing Climate with Emphasis on Forest Health, held in
Sweden in August 2008.
PART II
Profiles of selected
forest pests
PART II Profiles of selected forest pests 55
INSECT PESTS
Agrilus planipennis
Other scientific names: Agrilus feretrius Obenberger; Agrilus marcopoli Obenberger;

Agrilus marcopoli ulmi Kurosawa
Order and Family: Coleoptera: Buprestidae
Common names: emerald ash borer; EAB
Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, commonly known as the emerald ash borer, is a metallic
wood-boring beetle that is a highly destructive pest of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.). This
pest is native to eastern Asia and has been accidentally introduced into North America,
presumably through infested wood-packaging materials from Asia, where it is a major
threat to ash trees in forests, urban plantings and shelterbelts. It is responsible for the
death and decline of millions of trees in Canada and the United States.
CONSERVATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES, FORESTRY

BUGWOOD.ORG/PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. CAPPAERT/9000019
ARCHIVE/5016061
Adult emerald ash borers, Agrilus planipennis
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Japan, Mongolia,
People’s Republic of China, Republic of Korea
Europe: Russian Federation
Introduced: North America: Canada (2002), United States (2002)
IDENTIFICATION
Adult beetles are metallic blue-green, slender, elongate, hairless and approximately 7.5
to 14 mm long and 3.1 to 3.4 mm wide (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006; McCullough
and Katovich, 2004). The head is flat with a shield-shaped top and the kidney-shaped
eyes are bronze or black. The prothorax, the segment behind the head which contains
the first pair of legs, is slightly wider than the head and transversely rectangular,
but is the same width as the base of the wing covers (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt,
2006; McCullough and Katovich, 2004). Males are smaller than females and are
further distinguished by the presence of fine hairs on the ventral side of the thorax
(McCullough and Katovich, 2004).
Mature larvae are white to cream-coloured, 26 to 32 mm long with broad flattened bodies
(Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006; McCullough and Katovich, 2004). The head is relatively
small, brown and retracted inside the enlarged prothorax (Haack et al., 2002). The abdomen
is 10-segmented, some with bell-shaped posterior ends. The first eight segments have one pair
of spiracles each and the last segment has one pair of brownish, pincer-like appendages.
HOSTS
In its native distribution, hosts include Fraxinus species (F. chinensis, F. japonica, F. lanuginosa,
F. mandshurica, F. mandshurica var. japonica, F. rhynchophylla); Juglans spp. (J. mandshurica,
J. mandshurica var. sieboldiana); Pterocarya spp. (P. rhoifolia); and Ulmus spp. (U. davidiana,
U. davidiana var. japonica, U. propinqua) (McCullough and Katovich, 2004; EPPO, 2005).
In its introduced range in North America, only Fraxinus species (F. americana, F. nigra, F.
pennsylvanica) have been attacked (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
BIOLOGY
The emerald ash borer typically has a one-year life cycle although in colder regions it
could require up to two years to complete a generation (McCullough and Katovich,
2004). The length of the life cycle is also influenced by the age of the infestation, the
health of host tree, and other biotic and abiotic factors (Bauer et al., 2007). Immature
beetles maturation feed on the leaves of host trees, creating irregular notches in the
leaves (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Females can mate multiple times and egg-
laying begins a few days after the initial mating. Egg-laying peaks toward the end of
June, but eggs are laid throughout the summer and into the fall due to a prolonged
adult emergence period and long adult longevity (Bauer et al., 2007). Females can lay
60 to 90 eggs in their lifetime and they deposit them singly in bark crevices on the main
trunk or branches (greater than 2.5 cm diameter) in the crown (Kimoto and Duthie-
Holt, 2006; McCullough and Katovich, 2004).
Eggs hatch within 7 to 10 days after which first instar larvae bore through the bark
until they reach the phloem where they continue feeding through four larval stages
(Bauer et al., 2007). Flat and wide ‘S-shaped’ galleries are created that are filled with
a fine brownish frass. Galleries are typically 9 to 16 cm long, but can reach lengths of
20 to 30 cm, and increase in width as the larva grows (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006;
McCullough and Katovich, 2004).
BUGWOOD.ORG/A. WAGNER/5147090
BUGWOOD.ORG/J. O’BRIEN/5038050
Agrilus planipennis larval galleries and adult exit holes

PART II Profiles of selected forest pests INSECT PESTS 57
Pupation occurs during the spring or summer and takes place at the end of a gallery
either just beneath the bark near the surface of the sapwood (5 to 10 mm) or in the
corky tissue of thick-barked trees (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Adult beetles
emerge through small, distinct ‘D-shaped’ exit holes which are 3 to 4 mm in diameter.
Emergence typically begins in late May and peaks in June (Bauer et al., 2007).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

In China, A. planipennis typically attacks ash trees in open areas or along forest edges
while in North America it has infested ash trees in both open settings and closed forests
(Haack et al., 2002). Attacks are initiated along the upper trunk and lower portions of
the main branches with the lower trunk being the target in successive attacks (Haack et
al., 2002). The borers are known to attack and kill trees of various sizes and conditions
from small to large mature trees.
Trees attacked by the emerald ash borer are ultimately killed, typically within three
years of the initial attack although under heavy infestations, trees can be killed within
1 to 2 years (Haack et al., 2002). This pest kills trees by feeding under the bark and
disrupting the flow of nutrients and water throughout the tree (CFS, 2006a).
Symptoms of attack include frass-filled larval galleries in the cambium, adult exit
holes, yellowing and thinning of foliage, dying of branches, dieback and mortality of
the host tree. In response to larval feeding, callus tissue may be produced by the tree
and may cause vertical bark cracks to occur over a gallery (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt,
2006). Woodpecker activity may also indicate the presence of this pest.
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. HERMS/5171036
Tree infested by Agrilus planipennis exhibiting root sprouts and crown dieback
DISPERSAL AND INTRODUCTION PATHWAYS

Adult emerald ash borers are strong fliers, typically in 8 to 12 m bursts, and have been
known to fly over 1 km in search of suitable host material (Haack et al., 2002). Their
relatively small size also subjects them to dispersal by air currents. Long distance
spread, however, is primarily human assisted through the international trade and
transport of plants, wood and wood products containing bark.
CONTROL MEASURES
No effective control methods are currently available although research is ongoing
to investigate the biology of the pest, develop methods for early detection and
evaluate possible control measures such as insecticides and natural enemies. Three
hymenopteran parasitoids have been discovered in China that are considered suitable
for use as biocontrol agents in North America including a larval ectoparasitoid Spathius
agrili, a larval endoparasitoid Tetrastichus planipennisi, and a solitary, parthenogenic egg
parasitoid Oobius agrili (Bauer et al., 2007). After consultations with scientists and land
managers at federal and state agencies, university faculty members and the public, it
was agreed that these parasitoids would be released at selected sites in Michigan, United
States. Field releases of O. agrili and T. planipennisi began in July 2007 and releases of
S. agrili were expected to begin in late summer or early fall (Bauer et al., 2007).
A. planipennis is classed as a quarantine pest in Canada and the United States and
appears on the NAPPO alert list. Domestic phytosanitary measures have been imposed
to restrict the movement of wood and wood products from infested to non-infested
areas (Haack et al., 2002; CFS, 2006a). Regulated materials include: nursery stock;
trees; logs; wood; rough lumber including pallets and other wood packaging materials;
bark; wood chips or bark chips from ash (Fraxinus species); and firewood of all host
tree species (CFIA, 2007). Canada and the United States are working together on
strategies to combat the spread of this pest.
In 2002 the emerald ash borer was added to the EPPO A2 action list, and it has been
recommended that EPPO member countries regulate it as a quarantine pest. Suggested
phytosanitary measures for commodities of Fraxinus include origin from a pest-free
area or heat treatment for wood and bark.
Anoplophora glabripennis
Other scientific names: Anoplophora nobilis; Cerosterna glabripennis; Cerosterna

laevigator; Melanauster nobilis; Melanauster luteonotatus; Melanauster angustatus;
Melanauster nanakineus
Order and Family: Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Common names: Asian longhorned beetle; ALB; starry sky beetle; Basicosta white-
spotted longicorn beetle
Anoplophora glabripennis Motschulsky, 1853 is a wood-boring beetle that is a major

threat to broadleaved trees in both urban environments and naturally regenerated and
planted forests. Native to China and Korea, it has been introduced into Europe and North
America through international trade on wood packaging materials. As a result, many
countries in other continents are increasingly concerned about this pest and have established
phytosanitary restrictions for wooden packing materials from infested countries.
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
Asian longhorned beetles, China
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Japan, People’s
Democratic Republic of China, Republic of Korea (several records but no recent
collections are known).
Introduced: North America: Introduced and under eradication in Canada (2003) and
the United States (first introduced in 1990s, discovered in 1996).
Europe: Introduced but not established in Germany (Bayern), France (Gien, Sainte Anne
sur Brivet, 2003), and Austria (Braunau, 2001), Poland (single specimen in 2003).
IDENTIFICATION
Typical adult Asian longhorned beetles are large (20 to 35 mm in length, 7 to 12 mm wide),
shiny, and bluish-black in colour with white spots (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
There is one prominent spine on each side of the black thorax. The antennae are black,
spotted and very long; 2.5 times the body length in males and 1.3 times the body length in
females (EPPO, 1999). The antennae have 11 segments, each with a white or whitish-blue
base (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Legs are black with a bluish tinge. The A. nobilis
form has yellow spots and is believed by some authorities to be a different species and by
others as a different morphotype of a single species (Lingafelter and Hoebeke, 2002).
Larvae are legless creamy white grubs with a chitinized brown mark on the prothorax
and when mature are up to 50 mm in length (EPPO, 1999; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt,
2006). The larvae and pupae are normally found inside the tree within the larval tunnels.
Eggs are off-white, oblong, approximately 5 to 7 mm in length with slightly concave
ends (EPPO, 1999). They turn a yellowish-brown colour just before hatching.
HOSTS
In China, the major hosts are species and hybrids of the genus Populus including
P. nigra, P. deltoides, P. x canadensis and the Chinese hybrid P. dakhuanensis (EPPO,
1999). Salix species, such as S. babylonica and S. matsudana, are also major hosts. Other
hosts recorded in China include Acer, Alnus, Malus, Melia, Morus, Platanus, Prunus,
Pyrus, Robinia, Rosa, Sophora and Ulmus species.
In North America, species of Acer, Aesculus, Albizia, Betula, Celtis, Platanus,
Populus, Salix, Sorbus and Ulmus are known hosts (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The
suitability of Alnus, Crataegus, Elaeagnus, Fraxinus, Hibiscus, Malus, Morus, Prunus,
Pyrus, Quercus, Robinia and Tilia species in North America is still in question.
BIOLOGY
The life cycle of A. glabripennis is long but uneven, fecundity is high and there may be
one or two generations per year (Pan, 2005). Adults may mate several times. Females
chew oval oviposition slots (about 10 mm wide) and lay a single egg in the inner bark
of the trunk, branches as small as 2 to 3 cm in diameter or exposed roots; exit holes
left by emerging adults may also be used (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006; Pan, 2005).
Frothy, white sap may exude from recently created oviposition niches which ferments
and stains the bark over time.
Eggs hatch after approximately two weeks and larvae bore large galleries deep into
the wood. Immature larvae feed on the inner bark and sapwood while mature larvae
feed on the heartwood. Several larval tunnels may occur in the trunk which degrades
the quality of timber and can even cause death of host trees (Pan, 2005). This beetle
is able to survive and finish development in cut logs although females do not oviposit
on dead, debarked wood. Adults emerge from host trees by chewing round exit holes,
approximately 6 to 12 mm in diameter, and expelling large, coarse wood fibres on the
ground (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
Damage caused by the Asian longhorned beetle, China
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Asian longhorned beetles are wood-borers that attack healthy and stressed trees.
Adults feed on the leaves, petioles and twigs of host trees; feeding damage on young
shoots causes them to wither and die (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Larval tunnels
disrupt the vascular functioning of the host tree eventually weakening it to the point of
death. Several generations can develop in one tree, causing severe damage.
Leaf yellowing and wilting, premature leaf drop, branch dieback and tree death are
symptoms of advanced infestations of A. glabripennis. Infestations decrease diameter
at breast height (DBH), tree height, timber volume, and biomass; these losses increase
with forest age and pest density (Weilun and Wen, 2005).
According to experiments carried out in China, 4- to 10-year-old poplars die after
2 to 4 years of consecutive damage, and poplar forests grown in monoculture can die
after 3 to 5 years of consecutive damage (Pan, 2005). Within 5 to 8 years, severe damage
may occur depending on the host tree species, forest structure and growing status.

The Asian longhorned beetle has a low dispersal rate. While adults are capable of flying
1 000 to 1 200 m per flight, short-distance flight is typical and they usually fly only 50
to 75 m in search of suitable hosts. Infestations spread slowly, reported as less than
300 m per year in Beijing poplar groves (Cavey, 2000).
The presence of preadult stages is usually not easily detectable hence eggs, larvae or pupae
are readily dispersed in infested timber such as solid timber packaging and dunnage.
CONTROL MEASURES
Effective monitoring, quarantine and control of A. glabripennis are difficult since the
adult stage can be short and detecting the early stages of damage during the concealed
larval stages nearly impossible (Pan, 2005). Once A. glabripennis has infested a tree,
the only treatment is to cut down, chip and burn the infested tree. In North America,
eradication measures have been, and continue to be, carried out involving the removal
of infested trees which has been successful in containing the spread of the beetle.
Research aimed at providing technology to better detect, control and ultimately
eradicate the pest from the region is ongoing.
In China, a variety of techniques have been investigated to control the pest
including afforestation models, altering shelterbelt structure and composition, bait
tree arrangement and treatment technology, application of synthetic pheromones,
development of genetically modified poplars with resistance to pests, establishment
of an eco-control system, and biocontrol applications such as the use of the parasitoid
Dastarcus helophorides and woodpeckers (Weilun and Wen, 2005).
The establishment of the Asian longhorned beetle outside its native distribution has
caused great concerns in many countries and is one of the invasive alien species that has
led to the development of an international standard (ISPM No. 15) for the movement
of wood packaging material that is treated to avoid phytosanitary risk.
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. HAUGEN/1393015
BUGWOOD.ORG/G. ALLARD/1240221
Control measures for the Asian longhorned Removal and chipping of infested trees,
beetle: insecticide impregnated sticks placed Chicago, United States
into the holes created by newly emerged
larvae, China
Cinara cupressivora
Order and Family: Hemiptera: Aphididae

Common names: giant cypress aphid; cypress aphid
Cinara cupressivora Watson & Voegtlin, 1999 is a significant pest of Cupressaceae

species and has caused serious damage to naturally regenerated and planted forests in
Africa, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean and the Near East. It is believed to
have originated on Cupressus sempervirens from eastern Greece to just south of the
Caspian Sea (Watson et al., 1999). This pest has been recognized as a separate species
for only a short time (Watson et al., 1999) and much of the information on its biology
and ecology has been reported under the name Cinara cupressi.
BUGWOOD.ORG/W.M. CIESLA/3948001
BUGWOOD.ORG/J.D. WARD/2912011
Cypress aphids
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Europe and the Near East: eastern Greece to Islamic Republic of Iran
Introduced: Africa: Burundi (1988), Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia (2004), Kenya
(1990), Malawi (1986), Mauritius (1999), Morocco, Rwanda (1989), South Africa (1993),
Uganda (1989), United Republic of Tanzania (1988), Zambia (1985), Zimbabwe (1989)
Europe: France, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom
Latin America and Caribbean: Chile (2003), Colombia
Near East: Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, Yemen
IDENTIFICATION
Giant conifer aphid adults are typically 2 to 5 mm in length, dark brown in colour with
long legs (Ciesla, 2003a). Their bodies are sometimes covered with a powdery wax.
They typically occur in colonies of 20 to 80 adults and nymphs on the branches of host
trees (Ciesla, 1991). Winged and non-winged adults can be found in the same colony.
Detailed descriptions of female adults are provided by Watson et al. (1999).
HOSTS
Austrocedrus chilensis; Callitris spp.; Chamaecyparis spp.; Cupressus spp., including C.
lusitanica; Juniperus spp., including J. bermudiana; Thuja spp.; Cupressocyparis spp.;
Widdringtonia spp., including W. nodiflora
Cinara cupressivora has a broad host range and would probably find any
Cupressaceae species to be suitable host material (Ciesla, 2003a).
BIOLOGY
Cinara cupressivora has a high reproductive potential. Only females are present during
the summer months which reproduce parthenogenetically and give birth to live young
(Ciesla, 2003a). As cool weather approaches, both males and females are found and
eggs are produced instead of live nymphs. Eggs are deposited in rough areas on twigs
and foliage where they overwinter. Several generations are produced in a year and the
life span of a single generation is about 25 days during the peak of the summer season
(Ciesla, 2003a).
Damage caused by the cypress aphid, Kenya
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Adults and nymphs suck the plant sap on terminal growth of young and old trees
(Ciesla, 1991). Feeding retards new growth and causes desiccation of the stems
and a progressive dieback on heavily infested trees. Damage to host trees includes
browning and defoliation which, in some cases, causes dieback and death of trees. A
secondary problem caused by aphid feeding is the copious quantities of honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mould (Ciesla, 1991). The mould causes foliage
discolouration and interferes with photosynthesis and gas exchange.
The occurrence of adult and larval coccinellids is often an indicator of aphid infestation
as is the presence of ants, which tend the aphids and feed on the honeydew.

Winged adults are capable of flying short distances although this is not considered an
important means of spread. Adults and nymphs can be spread from tree to tree by air
currents. Ants have developed a symbiotic relationship with Cinara aphids and are
known to move aphids to new hosts to maintain colonies capable of producing copious
amounts of honeydew on which the ants feed (Ciesla, 2003a).
This insect’s present widespread worldwide distribution suggests that it is easily
transported on live plant materials. Extensive planting of conifers that are hosts for
Cinara species and international transport of nursery stock are the primary human
assisted means of spread of conifer aphids.
CONTROL MEASURES
Cultural and biological control tactics are available for management of damaging
populations of Cinara cupressivora. Short-term protection of cypress hedges and small
ornamental trees has been achieved with ground applications of chemical pesticides
but this is not recommended. In Africa, observations indicate that cypress plantations
established on good soils are more tolerant of aphid infestations than those established
on shallow, rocky soils and young, fast-growing plantations are less susceptible to
damage than mature plantations (Ciesla, 2003a). Based on these observations, proper site
selection and timely harvesting of plantations should reduce losses.
Release of Pauesia parasitoids for biocontrol of cypress aphid, western Kenya
Biological control agents have been used successfully against several species of
Cinara. The introduction of Pauesia spp. in Kenya and Malawi has significantly
reduced the impact and spread of C. cupressivora (Day et al., 2003). Larvae and adults
of ladybird beetles and larvae of several species of syrphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae)
are natural control agents of the cypress aphid but they are not considered capable of
controlling high populations (Ciesla, 2003a).
Cinara pinivora
Order and Family: Hemiptera: Aphididae

Common names: giant conifer aphid
Cinara pinivora Wilson, 1919 is sap-sucking aphid native to North America that has
been introduced into Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean.
A major pest of Pinus species, this aphid poses a significant threat to planted pine
forests worldwide. A. BALDINI
A. BALDINI
Cinara pinivora
DISTRIBUTION
Native: North America
Introduced: Africa: Kenya, Malawi
Asia and the Pacific: Australia
Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina, Brazil (1996), Uruguay
IDENTIFICATION
The adult body length is typically 3.3 to 4.2 mm. The wingless form (apterae) have a
shiny dark brown head, lighter brown thorax and abdomen with dark dorsal sclerites
and spots of grey wax, and black steep-sided siphuncular cones. Legs have pale yellow
sections. They are found in dense colonies at tips of branches, or scattered along older
sections of twigs (Blackman and Eastop, 1994).
HOSTS
Pinus spp., including P. elliottii and P. taeda
BIOLOGY
A sap-sucking aphid, Cinara pinivora has a very short life cycle and is capable of
multiplying rapidly. Some forms reproduce asexually at times and can therefore
quickly build up numbers. Populations are extremely reduced during periods of high
temperatures (Lázzari, Trentini and de Carvalho, 2004).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Cinara pinivora forms dense colonies on all parts of host trees. It attacks young
plantations of Pinus spp. infesting month old plants through to 3- to 4-year-old
saplings and the tips of older plants. Damage starts as discolouration and premature
needle fall with some branches turning brown. Inflammation of branches and mortality
of plants has been observed in Brazil (Patti and Fox, 1981). The reduced photosynthetic
surfaces results in stunting, affecting the form of host trees and reducing increments. A
secondary problem caused by aphid feeding is the production of copious quantities of
honeydew which encourages sooty mould growth.

Winged adults are weak fliers, but are readily carried by wind over considerable
distances. As adults or juveniles, they do not survive off host plant material for very
long. Therefore, international transport of nursery stock is a significant pathway for
the introduction of C. pinivora.
CONTROL MEASURES
According to Penteado (1995), biological control has been achieved in Brazil through
the release of insect predators of the families Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chrysophidae,
Staphilidae, Dermaptera and some Heteroptera.
Dendroctonus frontalis
Other scientific names: Dendroctonus arizonicus Hopkins

Order and Family: Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Common names: southern pine beetle; bark beetle; el gorgojo (Central America);
tree killer
Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmerman, 1868 is considered to be one of the most damaging

species of bark beetles in Central America and southern areas of North America. It is
a major pest of pines and has a wide distribution occurring from Pennsylvania in the
United States south to Mexico and Central America.
BUGWOOD.ORG/SOUTHERN FOREST INSECT

BUGWOOD.ORG/E.G. VALLERY/5289030
WORK CONFERENCE ARCHIVE/1669048

Southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis. On the right, an adult is compared to a grain of
rice and an adult black turpentine beetle (l-r)
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America (Belize, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua), Mexico
North America: southern United States
Introduced: Europe: Ireland (intercepted only)
Near East: Israel (intercepted only)
IDENTIFICATION
Adult southern pine beetles are short-legged, stout, about 3 mm long and dark reddish
brown to black in colour (Thatcher and Barry, 1982; USDA Forest Service, 1989). The
front of its head is notched and the hind end of the body is rounded. Newly emerged
adults are soft-bodied and amber coloured but quickly harden and darken in colour
(Thatcher and Barry, 1982). Larvae are crescent-shaped, whitish with an amber head
and approximately the same length as adults when fully developed (USDA Forest
Service, 1989). The pupae are also the same size and white. Eggs are smooth, pearly-
white and found in notches along either side of the adult egg galleries.
HOSTS
Pinus spp., primarily P. taeda, P. echinata, P. elliottii, P. virginiana, P. rigida, P. palustris,
P. serotina, P. pungens and the introduced P. strobes in southeastern United States;
P. ponderosa, P. engelmannii and P. leiophylla in southwestern United States; and P.
caribaea, P. engelmannii, P. leiophylla, P. maximinoi and P. oocarpa in Central America.
BIOLOGY
Adult females lay eggs along S-shaped galleries constructed in the inner bark/sapwood
interface (Billings et al., 2004). Larvae feed in the inner bark and pupate in chambers
near the bark surface. After completing their development, the new adults tunnel their
way through the bark, creating small, round exit holes, and fly to new host trees. The
beetles introduce a blue-stain fungus which penetrates into the wood interfering with
the uptake of water and nutrients and quickly reducing the marketability of the trees
(Billings et al., 2004). All life stages of the southern pine beetle overwinter beneath or
within the bark (Thatcher and Barry, 1982).
Initial attacks are generally on weakened trees; however D. frontalis is capable of
killing otherwise healthy trees. Other characteristics that contribute to the destructive
potential of this beetle include: a rapid life cycle with up to ten overlapping generations
per year; the ability of females to establish multiple broods (Payne, 1980); the ability to
infest and kill pines of all ages beyond five years as infestations expand, regardless of
the physiological condition of the host trees (Lorio, 1980); and infestation cycles that
reach peak levels every six to nine years in certain portions of its range.
Once an attack is initiated on the tree trunk, the beetles release aggregation
pheromones to attract other individuals of both sexes (Billings et al., 2004). Thousands
of adult beetles may respond to these pheromones and resin odours, and their
concentrated attack overcomes the tree’s defence system of resin production. The
presence of aggregation pheromones often leads to the attack of trees on the periphery
of the infestation by emerging beetles, causing the infestation to rapidly expand and
increase tree mortality (Payne, 1980).
BUGWOOD.ORG/R.F. BILLINGS/0284022
Southern pine beetles damage host trees by creating galleries and introducing blue-stain fungi
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Discoloured tree foliage is often the first indication of beetle attack; needles become
yellowish, change to red, and eventually become brown within 1 to 2 months (Thatcher
and Barry, 1982). Pines are often killed in groups ranging from a few trees to those
covering several hundred acres.
Another typical indication of beetle attack is the presence of pitch tubes, small
yellowish-white masses of resin 6 to 13 mm in diameter, on the trunk of host trees
which mark the points of beetle attack (Thatcher and Barry, 1982). However,
drought-stressed trees may not produce pitch tubes in which case reddish boring
dust in bark crevices or at the base of the infested tree may be the only indication
of attack.
Characteristic S-shaped egg galleries that cross one another in the inner bark and
on the wood surface can be observed upon removal of the bark (Thatcher and Barry,
1982). Adults or larvae may be observed in the galleries or around them if an attack is
recent and with time most of the brood can be seen by chipping or shaving the bark
(Thatcher and Barry, 1982).
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
Pine trees damaged by the southern pine beetle
In the five years following Hurricane Mitch in 1998, over 100 000 ha of pine forest in
Central America were infested mainly with D. frontalis in association with other
species of Dendroctonus and Ips spp. The resulting extensive tree mortality severely
increased the risk of wildfires and negatively affected wildlife and recreation causing
widespread and significant economic impacts.

Some bark beetles are strong fliers with the ability to migrate long distances. However, the
most common pathway of introduction into new areas is through transport of untreated
sawn wood and wooden packaging materials with bark on them. Dunnage is also a high risk
category of material. If wood is debarked, there is no possibility of introducing bark beetles.
CONTROL MEASURES
The preferred approach for mitigating losses from southern pine beetle attacks is an
integrated pest management (IPM) programme involving preventative, detection and
control measures (Billings et al., 2004).
Direct control methods used against the southern pine beetle include cut-and-leave, salvage
removal and application of chemical insecticides
Preventative measures include thinning to reduce stand density, removing

damaged and weakened trees, and harvesting before trees become overmature.
Once an outbreak begins, attention shifts to prompt detection and suppression of
individual infestations which can substantially reduce resource loss (Clarke and
Billings, 2003). Direct control methods include salvage removal, cut-and-leave,
chemical insecticides, and burning infested trees. Cut-and-leave is a technique used
solely for D. frontalis that consists of felling all trees with fresh attacks or bark
beetle broods plus a buffer strip of adjacent uninfested trees and leaving them on
site (Billings et al., 2004). This procedure reduces beetle survival within infested
trees and prevents infestations from growing larger by disrupting pheromone
production. Natural enemies, such as diseases, parasites, predators, woodpeckers
and weather, may help maintain beetle populations at low levels and bring outbreaks
under control.
Dendroctonus frontalis is an A1 quarantine pest for EPPO and member countries
are recommended to prohibit the import of Pinus commodities from countries where
the pest occurs, and optionally also bark of Pinus (EPPO/CABI, 1997). If bark is
imported, then it is recommended that it be heat-treated or fermented and pine wood
from such countries should be debarked, kiln-dried or treated.
Dendroctonus ponderosae
Other scientific names: Dendroctonus monticolae Hopkins

Common names: mountain pine beetle; bark beetle; Black Hills beetle
The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, is the most destructive
pest of mature pines in North America, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) in particular.
Major outbreaks of this pest have been occurring in western regions of the United
States and Canada causing the death of millions of trees. Local climatic changes and
increased winter temperatures has exacerbated the problem.
BUGWOOD.ORG/E.G. VALLERY/5288099
Adult mountain pine beetle
DISTRIBUTION
Native: North America (Canada, Mexico, United States)
Introduced: No records to date
IDENTIFICATION
Adult D. ponderosae are small, black, cylindrical beetles about the size of a grain of
rice at 4 to 7.5 mm long. Larvae are legless, creamy-white with light brown heads and
about 6 to 7 mm long when fully grown (Langor, 2003). Eggs are smooth, oval, white
and translucent.
HOSTS
Primary hosts of the mountain pine beetle are Pinus contorta and P. ponderosa
but P. albicaulis, P. contorta var. latifolia, P. lambertiana, P. monticola, P. nigra,
and P. sylvestris are also attacked. This pest has also been recorded on P. aristata,
P. balfouriana, P. coulteri, P. edulis, P. flexilis, P. monophylla and other pines.
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Libocedrus decurrens, Abies spp., Larix spp. and Picea spp.
such as Picea engelmannii are occasionally attacked, particularly near infested pines.
These hosts are not used for reproduction, however.
BIOLOGY
Except for a few days during the summer when adults emerge and fly to new host trees,
all life stages of the mountain pine beetle are spent under the bark of infested trees. Their
life cycle is generally completed in one year although warmer temperatures can result in
two generations per year and beetles in high altitudes and cool temperatures may require
two years to complete the life cycle (Amman, McGregor and Dolph, 1990).
Female beetles making the first attacks release aggregating pheromones which attract
males and other females until a mass attack overcomes the host tree. In mid-summer,
adult females attack new host trees by boring through the bark to the sapwood. They
construct vertical galleries in the phloem where, after the males join them, they mate
and then deposit their eggs. The eggs hatch in 10 to 14 days although it may take longer
in cool weather (Amman, McGregor and Dolph, 1990). Larvae feed outwards from
the egg galleries on the phloem tissue of the host tree until early fall, overwinter, and
continue feeding in the spring (Langor, 2003). Pupation takes place in late spring to
early summer and the new beetles feed under the bark for a few days before emerging
to fly and attack new host trees in the summer following the initial attack. Adult beetles
introduce a blue-stain fungus into the sapwood of the tree that prevents the tree from
repelling and killing the beetles with pitch flow (Langor, 2003).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Symptoms of attack by Dendroctonus ponderosae are first detectable only from the
ground and require close examination of trees (Langor, 2003). Conspicuous pitch tubes,
masses of red, amorphous resin mixed with bark and wood borings, are produced on the
bark surface at the site of attack (Hagle, Gibson and Tunnock, 2003). Pitch tubes may be
less obvious on trees suffering from severe drought stress prior to attack (Langor, 2003).
Boring dust is also evident in bark crevices and around the base of infested trees.
Removal of the bark from infested trees reveals the characteristic symptoms of a
vertical parent gallery with a slight J-like hook at the bottom and evenly spaced larval
feeding galleries extending at right angles from the parent gallery (Unger, 1993). One or
more life stages may also be present depending on the time since attack (Langor, 2003).
The fungi transmitted by adult beetles produce a greyish-blue staining of the sapwood
of the host tree which can be observed shortly after a successful attack (Langor, 2003).
This fungi blocks the flow of water and nutrients throughout the tree which kills the
host tree within a few weeks of successful attack (Langor, 2003).
SERVICE, ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

BUGWOOD.ORG/L. CHONG/1306003
BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST
ARCHIVE/1441012
Symptoms of attack by the mountain pine beetle: pitch tubes, galleries and blue-stain
During the fall and winter after attack, woodpeckers often feed on bark and wood-
boring insects on infested trees. Bark stripped from the tree trunk, particulary in thin-
barked hosts such as lodgepole pine, and piles of bark fragments accumulated on the
ground at the base of trees are evidence of woodpecker foraging (Hagle, Gibson and
Tunnock, 2003; Langor, 2003).
Foliage symptoms are generally not obvious until shortly before the mature adults
fly from the tree in the summer following attack.
Red foliage colour indicative of attack by the mountain pine beetle
The needles of infested trees first turn a faint yellow and then a bright red, which
can be mapped in aerial overview surveys (Langor, 2003). Foliage fades to a dull red or
reddish-brown in the second year following attack. Three or four years after the initial
attack, very little foliage will remain on the host tree.
In addition to the death of trees and forests, outbreaks of D. ponderosae upset harvesting
plans, reduce the aesthetic values in recreational areas, and increase fire hazard.
Since the first recorded infestations in 1913 in the Okanagan and Merritt areas of
Canada, major infestations have occurred regularly killing over 500 million trees by
the early 1990s. The current outbreak began to intensify in the northern part of British
Columbia’s Tweedsmuir Provincial Park in 1993 (CFS, 2007). Successive years of mild
winters have allowed the beetle population to grow and spread further each year through
the lodgepole pine forests making the current outbreak the largest ever recorded in
North America. The large numbers of dead and dying trees have also increased the risk
of wildfires. It has been predicted that if the beetle continues to spread at its current rate,
as much as 80 percent of mature pine will be dead by 2013 (CFS, 2007).

Bark beetles are strong fliers with the ability to migrate long distances. The most
common pathway of introduction into new areas is through transport of untreated
sawn wood and wood packaging materials with bark on them. If wood is debarked,
there is no possibility of introducing bark beetles.
CONTROL MEASURES
The options available for controlling Dendroctonus ponderosae depend somewhat
on the size of the outbreak, the age of the stand, the size of host trees, and the
site conditions. Current approaches to the present outbreak include preventative
management to reduce tree, stand and landscape susceptibility and direct control
strategies such as logging infested and dead trees (Langor, 2003).
Silvicultural control measures, such as thinning stands, patch cutting, selective harvesting
and salvage logging, are the most efficient (Amman, McGregor and Dolph, 1990; Langor,
2003). Some other direct control measures include felling and burning trees and debarking.
To provide a temporary control measure that slows infestations, insecticides are
available. However if beetle outbreaks are large, chemical control is not cost effective
(Amman, McGregor and Dolph, 1990; Langor, 2003). Preventive spraying can help
protect individual high-value trees.
Baiting and trapping with synthetic beetle attractants can help manipulate and
monitor small outbreaks by localizing infestations and preventing spread into
susceptible stands (Amman, McGregor and Dolph, 1990).
BUGWOOD.ORG/S. TUNNOCK/2252071
Silvicultural measures used to control the mountain pine beetle include thinning and felling
of infested trees
Natural enemies of this pest species include woodpeckers, nematodes, predaceous

insects, such as Enoclerus sphegeus, Laphria gilva, Lonchaea sp., Medetera aldrichii,
Temnochila chlorodia, Thanasimus undatulus and Xylophagus sp., and parasitic
insects, such as Coeloides dendroctoni, Dinotiscus burkei and Roptrocerus eccoptogastri
(Bellows, Meisenbacher and Reardon, 1998). These natural enemies are likely most
important in limiting or controlling the pest at low populations; during outbreaks, they
appear less able to exert sufficient limits on the population.
Dendroctonus ponderosae is an A1 quarantine pest for EPPO and member countries
are recommended to prohibit the import of Pinus commodities from countries where
the pest occurs, and optionally also bark of pines (EPPO/CABI, 1997). If bark is
imported, then it is recommended that it be heat-treated or fermented and pine wood
from such countries should be debarked, kiln-dried or treated.
Dendroctonus valens
Other scientific names: Dendroctonus rhizophagus

Common names: red turpentine beetle; bark beetle
The red turpentine beetle, Dendroctonus valens LeConte, is a common pest of forest,
shade and park trees of pole size or larger. It is native to North America and was
accidentally introduced into China in the 1980s presumably on unprocessed logs
imported from the western United States. Red turpentine beetles can be distinguished
from engraver beetles by their larger size, reddish-brown colour and the presence of
large, pinkish brown to white pitch tubes, a mixture of pine sap and beetle boring dust,
on the lower trunk of infected hosts.
BUGWOOD.ORG/J.R. BAKER & S.B. BAMBARA/5155049
Adult red turpentine beetle, Dendroctonus valens
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Latin America and the Caribbean: portions of Central America, Mexico
(Wood, 1982)
North America (Wood, 1982)
Introduced: Asia and the Pacific: China (mid 1980s)
IDENTIFICATION
Eggs are shiny, opaque white, ovoid cylindrical, and a little over 1 mm in length
(Smith, 1971). Larvae are grublike, legless and white with a brown head capsule and a
small brown area at the hind end (Smith, 1971). A row of small, pale-brown tubercles
develop along each side of the body. Full grown larvae are approximately 10 to 12 mm
long. Pupae are white and slightly shorter than the larvae.
Adult beetles are typically long and stout, about 6 to 10 mm long and dark brown
to black in colour with reddish-brown wing covers (Smith, 1971; Hagle, Gibson and
Tunnock, 2003).
HOSTS
In its native range, hosts include: Pinus spp., including P. resinosa, P. contorta, P.
banksiana, P. strobes, P. rigida, P. echinata, P. radiata, and P. ponderosa; Picea spp.;
Larix spp.; Abies spp.; and Pseudotsuga menziesii. In its introduced range in China,
hosts are primarily Pinus tabulaeformis and P. armandii and occasionally Picea and
Abies species.
BIOLOGY
Peak flight and activity usually occur in the spring when adult beetles emerge from
recently cut stumps and dying trees to attack trees, exposed roots, or freshly cut
stumps (Smith, 1971). The female beetle bores through the bark to the surface of the
wood where she is soon joined by a male. Typically one pair of beetles is found in an
individual gallery but occasionally there may be one, three, or four beetles present.
Resin mixed with boring particles and frass is pushed to the outer bark surface forming
a pitch tube or dropping in pellets to the base of the tree (Smith, 1971).
Eggs are deposited on alternate sides of the gallery (Hagle, Gibson and Tunnock,
2003). The egg mass can extend from one to several inches along the gallery and the
number of eggs it contains varies from a few to more than a hundred (Smith, 1971).
The adult beetles continue to feed in the gallery for several weeks and then they either
bore out through the bark and make additional attacks or die within the gallery. The
eggs hatch in 1 to 3 weeks during the summer months.
Larvae feed gregariously in the phloem often forming fan-shaped galleries. Larvae
are present for two summers after which they pupate and then overwinter the second
year as adults beneath the bark (Hagle, Gibson and Tunnock, 2003). In standing trees,
adults briefly emerge in their second fall and re-enter the tree to overwinter beneath the
bark at the root collar where they are protected from the elements.
The rate of development and the number of generations per year are largely
dependent on temperature (Smith, 1971). In warmer regions there is at least one
generation per year while in northern areas at high elevations two years may be
required for a single generation. In southern areas at low elevations, there may be as
many as three generations per year.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

The red turpentine beetle usually attacks trees of reduced vigour or those infested with
other bark beetles, but it can attack healthy trees. It is often found in association with
other bark and wood-boring beetles such as Ips spp. and other Dendroctonus spp.
Attacks on standing trees are concentrated on the lower trunk and exposed roots.
Large reddish-white pitch tubes on the bark or pellets on the ground around the base
of host trees from mid-May to July are usually the first sign of infestation (Hagle,
Gibson and Tunnock, 2003). Feeding by larvae and adults in galleries can completely
girdle the trees resulting in death although this is not always the case. Host trees are
inoculated with blue-stain fungi. Freshly cut logs with thick bark may be attacked and
while they will not produce large numbers of beetles, they can multiply and threaten
nearby trees (Smith, 1971). Attacks, especially on healthy trees, may last for two years
or more. Severe attacks can kill trees.
Despite the abundance and wide distribution of D. valens, outbreaks have not
been extensive or severe in the United States (Smith, 1971). The beetle has been
found most frequently in individual trees or in groups of trees in localized areas.
In China, however, it is considered an aggressive and very destructive pest of Pinus
tabuliformis, China’s most widely planted pine species. It was first detected in Shanxi
Province in 1998 and widespread tree mortality was reported in 1999; this outbreak
continues and has spread to three adjacent provinces causing unprecedented tree
mortality (Yan et al., 2005).
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. MILLER/1306016
Pitch tubes evident on a host tree infested with Dendroctonus valens

The beetles are strong fliers capable of flying more than 10 miles (Smith, 1971). This
species can also be introduced into new areas on forest products and wood packaging
materials as evidenced by its arrival in China in the 1980s.
CONTROL MEASURES
Once attacked a tree typically cannot be saved therefore preventive measures such
as maintaining the health and vigour of forest stands by thinning or removal of
overmature trees are the best tactics to reduce the impacts of this pest. Chemicals have
been used in some areas and have been shown to help prevent attacks and kill beetles
already beneath the bark.
In China, a variety of methods from informal surveys to the use of baited traps are
used to detect and monitor Dendroctonus valens populations. In addition, investigations
are underway on the use of the predator Rhizophagus grandis for biological control.
BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST SERVICE, NORTHEASTERN AREA ARCHIVE/1396117
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. OWEN/1312016
Damage caused by Dendroctonus valens in the United States (left) and Shanxi Province, China (right)
Dendrolimus sibiricus
Other scientific names: Dendrolimus laricus Tschetverikov; Dendrolimus superans

sibiricus Tschetverikov
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae
Common names: Siberian caterpillar; Siberian silk moth; Siberian moth; Siberian conifer
silk moth; Siberian coniferous silk moth; Siberian lasiocampid; larch caterpillar
Widespread on the Asian continent, Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetverikov is a destructive

pest of conifers causing significant defoliation of trees in both naturally regenerated
and planted forests. It is able to attack and kill healthy trees and it has been known to
kill forests across very wide areas.
BUGWOOD.ORG/J. GHENT/1241015
BUGWOOD.ORG/N. KIRICHENKO/5174047
Dendrolimus sibiricus life cycle stages: eggs, larva, pupae, adult
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kazakhstan,
Mongolia, People’s Republic of China, Republic of Korea,
This pest is believed to have originated in Siberia.
Introduced: No record to date but this pest poses a real threat
IDENTIFICATION
Adult Siberian moths are yellowish-brown or light grey to dark brown or almost
black. The forewings are marked by two characteristic dark stripes and a white spot in
the centre. Hind wings are the same colour as the forewings but lack markings. Females
are approximately 40 mm long with a wing span of 60 to 80 mm while males are
approximately 30 mm long with a 40 to 60 mm wing span (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt,
2006; EPPO, 2005).
Larvae are mainly black or dark brown with numerous spots and long hairs. They
are 55 to 70 mm long and the second and third segments are marked with blue-black
stripes (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Reddish setae are found on the sides of larvae,
usually as red jagged bands or spots.
Eggs are oval, 2.2 mm long and 1.9 mm wide. Initially light-green in colour, they
turn creamy-white and darken and become spotted over time (Kimoto and Duthie-
Holt, 2006; EPPO, 2005).
HOSTS
Larix spp., including L. gmelinii and L. sibirica; Pinus spp., including P. sibirica and P.
koraiensis; Abies spp., including A. sibirica and A. nephrolepis; Picea spp., including P.
ajanensis and P. obovata; and Tsuga spp.
BIOLOGY
Spring flight usually occurs in mid-July. Immediately after mating, females lay eggs on
the needles primarily in the lower part of the crown although during outbreak years, eggs
are laid throughout the tree and on the surrounding ground. One egg mass may contain
1 to 200 eggs (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006; EPPO, 2005). Each female lays an average
of 200 to 300 eggs, with a maximum of 800 (EPPO, 2005). Egg development typically
takes 13 to 15 days with an occasional maximum of 20 to 22 days (EPPO, 2005).
There are 6 to 8 larval instars. First instar larvae eat the edges of needles and moult in
9 to 12 days while second instar larvae cause further damage to the needles and develop
for 3 to 4 weeks before moulting (EPPO, 2005). The third instar larvae descend to the soil
in September and overwinter in the top layers of soil. In the spring of the following year,
the larvae return to the crowns to feed, eating complete needles and sometimes the bark
of young shoots and cones. They moult after one month and again at the end of July or
in August. In autumn, the larvae return to the soil and overwinter for a second time.
In the following spring, when the temperature of the forest floor rises to 3.5 to
5.0 °C, the larvae break diapause and ascend to the tree crowns to resume feeding.
During this period, they eat about 95 percent of the food they need for development
and it is then that the major damage occurs (Orlinski, 2000). Larvae finish maturation
feeding by late June or early July and pupate in the crowns of trees where they form
silken cocoons intertwined with foliage and branches. The pupal stage last from 18 to
22 days after which the adults emerge and the cycle begins again.
The full life cycle usually takes two years. However in southern parts of its native range
one generation can develop in a single year while in northern regions it may take up to three
years (Orlinski, 2000). Drought, increasing population density and other factors cause
some larvae to have a shorter, two calendar-year life cycle. As a result, the adults of two
generations emerge simultaneously and the population increases sharply. Competition for
food may extend larval development and increase the number of instars.
Outbreaks of this moth are cyclic, occurring every 8 to 11 years following a few
years of water shortage and last for 2 to 3 years. The period between outbreaks is
becoming shorter partly due to changing climate.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

The Siberian caterpillar causes significant defoliation of both naturally regenerated and
planted forests. It is able to attack and kill healthy plants and it has been known to
kill trees and forests across very wide areas. Death of forests can be caused directly by
defoliation or indirectly by increasing the susceptibility of the forest to subsequent attack
by other forest pests such as bark beetles or forest fires (Orlinski, 2000). Other effects of D.
sibiricus attack include the loss of vigour, reduction in growth, and reduced seed crops.
The duration and effect of outbreaks depends on the forest type (Ghent and Onken,
2004). Outbreaks in fir and five-needled pines result in defined focal areas with very
high densities of larvae that defoliate trees for two or three successive years before the
outbreak collapses. Tree mortality is virtually 100 percent in many stands. Outbreaks
in larch forests are more prolonged but cause less tree mortality. Moths migrate from
defoliated larch hosts to new areas to lay eggs. As a result, successive years of severe
defoliation rarely occur and the outbreak population becomes dispersed.
As well as the impact on trees and forests, Siberian caterpillars have stinging hairs that can
cause significant allergic reactions in people living near and visiting forests as well as forest
workers. Exposure to the larval hairs or secretions of the Siberian caterpillar produces severe
dermatitis as well as systemic reactions affecting the joints and other parts of the body.
Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) defoliated by the Siberian caterpillar, Mongolia

Adults are strong fliers and can spread fairly rapidly. Pathways of introduction include natural
movement of adults and the movement of eggs on nursery stock or forest products.
CONTROL MEASURES
Ground and aerial application of chemical and bacterial insecticides, such as Bacillus
thuringiensis var kurstaki (Btk), has been used to control Dendrolimus sibiricus in
countries within the native range of the pest.
Natural enemies of the Siberian caterpillar, including several parasitoids and
pathogens, play an important role in the regulation of population density. Examples
include the egg parasitoids Telenomus gracilis, T. tetratomus, and Trichogramma
dendrolimi; the larval and pupal parasitoids Ooencyrtus pinicolus and Rhogas dendrolimi;
the bacteria Bacillus dendrolimus and B. thuringiensis; the fungus Beauveria bassiana;
and some viruses (Orlinski, 2000; EPPO, 2005).
In 2002, D. sibiricus was added to the EPPO A2 action list and it has been
recommended that EPPO member countries regulate it as a quarantine pest. Since
D. sibiricus is apparently slowly spreading westwards through Europe, carrying out
surveys using pheromone traps and applying appropriate control measures in areas at
the border of the pest’s present range would help avoid the possible introduction of this
pest into new areas (EPPO, 2005).
To prevent the introduction of D. sibiricus, it is recommended that: commodities,
plants for planting and cut branches of host plants from infested areas should be free of
soil; commodities should originate in a pest-free area, be produced in protected houses,
fumigated, or be imported during winter; and wood should be debarked, heat-treated,
originate in a pest-free area, or be imported during winter, and isolated bark should be
treated to destroy any insects (EPPO, 2005).
Gonipterus scutellatus
Order and Family: Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Common names: eucalyptus weevil; eucalyptus snout beetle
Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal, 1833 is a leaf-feeding beetle that is a major defoliator

of eucalypts. It is indigenous to Australia but occurs in many countries throughout the
world where eucalypts are grown. Infestations of this beetle are known to cause serious
damage. This pest is a major threat worldwide as it continues to spread, both within
continents where it currently occurs and to previously uninfested continents.
BUGWOOD.ORG/PESTS AND DISEASES IMAGE LIBRARY (PADIL)/5318047
Adult Gonipterus scutellatus
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific: Australia
Introduced: Africa: Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius (1940),
Mozambique, South Africa (1916), St. Helena, Swaziland, Uganda, Zimbabwe
Asia and the Pacific: New Zealand, People’s Republic of China
Europe: France (1977), Italy (1975), Portugal (1990s), Spain (1991)
Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay
North America: United States (1990s)
IDENTIFICATION
Approximately 12 to 14 mm in length, adult eucalypt weevils vary in colour from grey
to reddish-brown with a light, transverse band on the back and are covered by small
pale brown hairs (Phillips, 1992). It is very similar to the Australian gum tree weevil,
Gonipterus gibberus.
Larvae are approximately 10 to 14 mm long, yellowish-green in colour with

black spots and a black stripe running along each side of the body (Phillips, 1992;
EPPO, 2005). They often have a characteristic long thread of faecal material coiled
up behind them.
Eggs are laid in greyish or blackish-brown coloured capsules on both surfaces of the
leaves (Phillips, 1992). These capsules are approximately 3 mm in length, 2 mm high
and 1.5 mm in width and contain 3 to 16 pale yellow eggs arranged in vertical layers.
HOSTS
Eucalyptus spp., including E. camaldulensis, E. cornuta, E. globulus ssp. globulus, E.
grandis, E. kirtoniana, E. longifolia, E. maidenii ssp. globulus, E. obliqua, E. propinqua,
E. punctata, E. robusta, E. smithii, E. tereticornis, E. urnigera and E. viminalis.
Differences in susceptibility exist among eucalypt species (Rivera and Carbone,
2000). In Mauritius, E. robusta, E. tereticornis and E. kirtoniana are the most
susceptible eucalypt species while in Kenya, E. globulus ssp. globulus, E. maidenii ssp.
globulus, E. robusta and E. smithii are the most commonly attacked and E. saligna and
E. citriodora are known to be practically immune. In Madagascar, the most susceptible
species were E. cornuta, E. viminalis, E. punctata, E. globulus ssp. globulus, E.
urnigera and E. camaldulensis; in Spain, E. globulus ssp. globulus and E. obliqua
were most commonly attacked; and in Italy, G. scutellatus showed a clear preference
for the leaves of E. globulus ssp. globulus and did not attack E. cinerea, E. gunnii, E.
polyanthemos, E. stuartiana and E. rostrata. Another report from Spain reported that
G. scutellatus exhibited a clear preference for E. globulus ssp. globulus, E. longifolia, E.
grandis and E. propinqua and completely avoided other species although they noted
that less palatable species might be used by the insect if preferred species were absent
(Rivera and Carbone, 2000).
BIOLOGY
Females mate several times and lay their eggs in batches covered by a capsule on both
surfaces of new leaves.
They continue to lay eggs, up to 21 to 33 capsules, throughout a lifetime of about
91 days (EPPO, 2005). Eggs hatch in 3 to 4 weeks and the larvae feed on leaves and twigs
and then pupate in the soil. Adults also feed on leaves and growing shoots.
There is usually more than one generation per year, with females living for about
three months and larval development taking between 30 and 80 days. In some places
there are continuous generations.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Adults and larvae feed on the leaves of host trees but it is the larval stage that does
the most damage. They cause damage by eating only one surface of the leaves,
leaving characteristic tracks while adults chew the edges of the leaves giving them a
ragged, scalloped appearance (Phillips, 1992). Both adults and larvae prefer the newly
expanded adult leaves and shoots. Such feeding can result in dieback of shoot tips and
development of tufts of epicormic shoots (EPPO, 2005).
Severe infestations and successive defoliations by this beetle can cause tree mortality,
reduction in growth, coppicing and stunting of trees, although some Eucalyptus spp.
are more susceptible to damage than others. Young trees are the most susceptible but
seedlings may also be attacked.

Dispersal is by adult flight, adults hitch-hiking on non-plant material, and movement
of infested plant material or soil.
CONTROL MEASURES
Biological control of this species by means of the importation of Anaphes nitens
(Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), an egg parasitoid, has been highly successful in many
areas. Where the biological control of G. scutellatus is unsuccessful, the alternative is to
use tolerant host plant species (Rivera and Carbone, 2000). Chemical treatment is not
recommended because of the potential danger to beneficial honey bees attracted to the
flowers of eucalypt species (EPPO, 2005).
Gonipterus scutellatus is an A2 quarantine pest for EPPO and is also of phytosanitary
significance for COSAVE. It is regulated by most EPPO countries, in particular by the
EU, and recommended measures require that Eucalyptus plants for planting (except
seeds) and cut branches should come from a pest-free area or plants should be free from
soil and treated against G. scutellatus (EPPO, 2005).
Heteropsylla cubana
Other scientific names: Heteropsylla incisa Sulc.

Order and Family: Hemiptera: Psyllidae
Common names: leucaena psyllid
Heteropsylla cubana Crawford, 1914 is a significant pest of Leucaena leucocephala, a

tree grown extensively in community forestry and agroforestry ecosystems for fodder
and fuelwood throughout the tropics, causing defoliation, wilting, dieback, and in
some cases, tree death. It is native to Central and South America but has dramatically
spread from its native range, across the Pacific Ocean to Asia and the Pacific and Africa
in less than 10 years. In many countries where leucaena has been introduced it is now
considered a highly invasive tree. As a result, H. cubana may be considered more of a
biological control agent than a forest pest.
Infestation of the leucaena psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana, near Mombasa, Kenya
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Latin America and the Caribbean
Introduced: Africa: Burundi (1992), Ethiopia (1993), Kenya (1992), Malawi (1994),
Mauritius (1991), Mozambique (1993), Réunion (1991), Sudan (1994), the United
Republic of Tanzania (1992), Uganda (1992), Zambia (1994)
Asia and the Pacific: Australia (1986), Bangladesh (1987), Cambodia (1986), China
(1986), Cook Islands (1985), Fiji (1985), Guam (1985), India (1988), Indonesia (1986),
Malaysia (1986), Myanmar (1986), Nepal (1987), New Caledonia (1985), Papua New
Guinea (1985), the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (1986), Philippines (1985),
Singapore (1986), Solomon Islands (1985), Sri Lanka (1987), Tahiti (1985), Thailand
(1986), Tonga (1985), Viet Nam (1986)
North America: United States (1993)
IDENTIFICATION
Adult psyllids are aphid-like, approximately 2 mm in length, winged and light green to
yellow in colour. If disturbed, they use stout legs to jump before taking flight. Nymphs
are similar to adults in appearance except they are smaller, wingless and remain on the
plant if disturbed. They undergo five instars over 8 to 9 days (Moog, 1992). Eggs can
be barely seen with the naked eye primarily on young terminal leaves; in large numbers
they appear as orange-yellow masses.
HOSTS
Leucaena spp. in particular Leucaena leucocephala, but also L. trichodes, L. pulverulenta,
L. diversifolia, L. salvadorensis (Nair, 2001); Albizia spp.; Mimosa spp.; Samanea saman
BIOLOGY
Females begin laying eggs 1 to 3 days after becoming adults (Moog, 1992). Eggs are laid
on and between new leaves on young shoot tips and hatch in 2 to 3 days. The insect is
most common on young growth where eggs, nymphs and adults often occur together
(Hertel, 1998). The cycle from egg to adult takes 10 to 20 days. Psyllids prefer high
relative humidity and temperatures in the 20s (oC). Adults feed on young growth and
occasionally older growth and flowers.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Adults and nymphs suck the sap of the terminal leaves, buds and flowers of host plants
which reduces flower and seed production and causes new shoots and foliage to become
stunted and deformed rendering the foliage useless for fodder or human consumption.
In addition, honeydew produced by the psyllids permits the growth of sooty moulds
which prevents light from reaching the leaf surfaces thereby reducing photosynthesis
and plant production. Repeated attacks cause wilting, defoliation, branch dieback or
death of host trees (Hertel, 1998).
Leucaena psyllid damage, Kenya

The quick and impressive spread of leucaena psyllid, over large areas and regions has
led to speculation that wind dispersal plays a major role as opposed to human-assisted
dispersal (Ciesla, 1998).
CONTROL MEASURES
Measures aimed at controlling the leucaena psyllid have primarily concentrated on
the development of resistant leucaena varieties and the use of biological control
agents. Biological control agents for the leucaena psyllid include the predators,
Curinus coeruleus and Olla v-nigrum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and the parasitoids,
Psyllaephagus yaseeni (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and Tamarixia leucaenae
(Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) (FAO, 1998).
Hypsipyla grandella and

Hypsipyla robusta
Hypsipyla grandella Zeller, 1848
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Common names: mahogany shoot borer
Hypsipyla robusta Moore, 1886

Other scientific names: Epicrocis terebrans Oliff, 1890; Magiria robusta Moore, 1886;
Hypsipyla scabrusculella Ragonot, 1893; Hypsipyla pagodella Ragonot, 1888
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Common names: mahogany shoot borer; cedar tip moth; toon shoot fruit borer
Hypsipyla shoot borers are a significant threat to many high value timber species
belonging to the Meliaceae and Verbenaceae, including species of Swietenia, Khaya,
Toona, Tectona and Cedrela. The two most important Hypsipyla species are H. grandella
in the Americas, and H. robusta in areas of Africa and Asia and the Pacific.
DISTRIBUTION
Hypsipyla grandella
Native: Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico,
South America (except Chile)
North America: United States (southern Florida)
Introduced: The introduced range is not verified, but it is known from Mauritius (Africa).
Hypsipyla robusta
Native: Africa (West and East); Asia and the Pacific
Introduced: The introduced range is not verified.
IDENTIFICATION
Adults are brown to greyish-brown in colour with a wingspan of approximately 23 to
45 mm (Howard and Merida, 2005). The forewings are grey to brown with shades of
rusty red on the lower portion and whitish scales with black dots toward the wing tips
(Howard and Merida, 2005). Wing veins are distinctively overlaid with black. Hind
wings are white to translucent with dark-coloured margins.
Larvae are tan to white in colour, turning bluish in later instars, with a brown head
capsule (Howard and Merida, 2005). Mature larvae are approximately 25 mm long.
Pupae are brownish-black and enclosed in a silken cocoon (Howard and Merida, 2005).
Eggs are oval, dorsoventrally flattened, and measure 0.5 to 1.0 mm by 0.5 to 0.98 mm
(Griffiths, 2001; Howard and Merida, 2005). When first laid they are white in colour
and if fertilized, they develop distinct red and white banding within 24 hours.
HOSTS
Hypsipyla grandella
Meliaceae and Verbenaceae: Swietenia spp. (S. macrophylla, S. mahagoni); Cedrela
spp.; Tectona spp.; Toona spp. (T. australis, T. ciliata); Chukrasia tabularis
Hypsipyla robusta
Meliaceae and Verbenaceae: Swietenia spp. (S. macrophylla, S. mahagoni); Cedrella
spp. (C. toona); Tectona spp. (T. grandis); Toona spp. (T. australis, T. ciliata); Chukrasia
tabularis; Khaya spp.; Carapa procera; Entandrophragma spp.; Lovoa trichiliodes
BIOLOGY
Females mate only once and lay 200 to 450 eggs over a period of five to eight days. On
young trees, eggs are deposited singly or occasionally in clusters of 3 to 4 on the shoots,
stems and leaves, particularly the upper leaf surface. Concentrated around the growing
shoots, eggs may occur at all heights on the host tree and are often placed in concealed
locations such as leaf axils, leaf scars, veins, lenticels and fissures in the bark (Griffiths,
2001). Eggs laid on fruit are initially deposited singly on the fruit surface but are later
laid in clumps of up to 12 among the frass and webbing associated with existing damage
to the fruit (Griffiths, 2001).
After three to five days, the eggs hatch and the larvae tunnel in the developing
shoots of young trees and sometimes also feed upon the flowers, fruit and bark of host
trees (Griffiths, 2001). They pupate either in the twigs, shoots or the soil.
A generation usually takes 1 to 2 months but may extend to five months if larvae
enter diapause, which has been reported from areas of low temperature or rainfall,
and occurs immediately after fruit-feeding despite apparently suitable climatic
conditions (Griffiths, 2001). Adults are typically nocturnal and mate within six
days of emergence.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Hypsipyla caterpillars attack seed and fruit capsules and bore into the tips, shoots
and twigs of several high quality timber species killing the first few centimeters. The
caterpillars destroy the terminal shoot causing the tree to form many side branches
and frequently a deformed trunk thereby significantly reducing the economic value
of the timber (Griffiths, 2001). Growth rate is reduced and heavy and repeated
attacks can result in tree death.
This species mainly attacks trees in areas with high light, hence the biggest effects
are observed in young planted forests, particularly those planted with a single species
(Nair, 2001). Young understorey trees in naturally regenerated forests suffer far less
damage. The borer is a problem to both nursery and planted stock; trees from three
months to fourteen years in age and between 50 cm and 15 m in height have shown
symptoms of Hypsipyla attacks (Griffiths, 2001). It has been one of the main factors
preventing the ready establishment of mahogany plantations in many areas.

Adults are strong fliers and can travel considerable distances to locate suitable
host material.
CONTROL MEASURES
Hypsipyla grandella and H. robusta have proven difficult to control. While some
methods can significantly reduce populations, this pest can cause significant damage
even at low population levels and it is therefore considered a major destructive
forest pest. Three main control methods are considered to control Hypsipyla species:
silvicultural, chemical and biological.
Silvicultural techniques applied to control Hypsipyla species include mixed
or enrichment plantings, varying tree density, provision of shade, promoting
vigourous tree growth in nurseries and plantations, and the selection of resistant
or tolerant host trees.
In a review of research on the chemical control of Hypsipyla spp., Wylie (2001)
noted that there is no single reliable, cost-effective, and environmentally sound
chemical pesticide available to control these insects and suggested that chemical
control of these pests might be most applicable in nursery situations or as part of
an integrated pest management programme by temporarily reducing populations
in limited areas.
Though H. robusta and H. grandella are attacked by a range of natural enemies, they
have not been shown to reduce the larval abundance and subsequent damage to acceptable
levels (Sands and Murphy, 2001). Previous attempts at biological control of Hypsipyla
species have not been successful although research into possible agents continues.
The most promising strategies for management of Hypsipyla species are integrated
pest management programmes involving a combination of these techniques such as the
use of pest tolerant host trees, planting of mixed stands and providing shade.
Ips sexdentatus
Other scientific names: Dermestes sexdentatus Börner; Bostrichus pinastri Bechstein;

Tomicus stenographus Duftschmidt; Ips typographus De Geer
Common names: six-spined engraver beetle; six-toothed bark beetle; twelve-spined
ips; pine stenographer beetle
Ips sexdentatus Börner, 1767 is a pest of conifer tree species in its native range of Asia
and Europe. While it typically attacks stressed or weakened trees it has been known to
attack and cause the death of healthy trees of commercial importance.
BUGWOOD.ORG/R. DZWONKOWSKI/1292023
BUGWOOD.ORG/L-M. NAGELEISEN/2101081
Ips sexdentatus adults and galleries
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific (mainland); Europe
IDENTIFICATION
At approximately 5.5 to 8.2 mm in length, Ips sexdentatus is the largest species of its
genus (Cavey, Passoa and Kucera, 1994; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). They are
cylindrical, robust, shiny, brown or brownish-black beetles with erect yellow hairs
protruding from the body. The head is covered by a thoracic shield and is not visible
when viewed dorsally (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). This beetle is named for the
six spines or teeth found on each side of the posterior portion of the forewings (Cavey,
Passoa and Kucera, 1994).
HOSTS
Pinus spp., including P. brutia, P. heldrichii, P. nigra, P. pinaster and P. sylvestris; Abies
spp., including A. alba and A. normanndiana; Larix spp., including L. decidua and L.
sibirica; Picea spp., including P. abies and P. orientalis; Pseudotsuga menzeisii
BIOLOGY
Attacks are initiated by the males, who construct nuptial chambers under the bark,
emit aggregation pheromones and are subsequently joined by 2 to 5 females (Kimoto
and Duthie-Holt, 2006). After mating, each female constructs a longitudinal egg
gallery, typically 15 to 35 cm long and 4 to 5 mm wide, and deposits eggs in individual
niches along each side of the gallery.
Young larvae feed in galleries perpendicular to the egg galleries which are usually
found in the inner bark of the lower stem. Larval galleries increase in size as the larvae
grow. Pupation takes place in round chambers constructed at the ends of the larval
galleries. Adults require maturation feeding before reaching sexual maturity. Round
exit holes measuring approximately 4 mm in diameter are apparent on the tree trunk
after adults emerge (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
The number of generations per year and the timing of the life cycle depend on
climate. This insect typically has two generations per year, one generation north of the
Arctic Circle, with adult flight periods from April to May and July to August. In the
Mediterranean region and other areas with a long, warm summer season, I. sexdentatus
can undergo four to five generations (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Ips sexdentatus is considered a secondary pest, often found in association with other
forest pests such as I. acuminatus and Tomicus piniperda, that usually attacks trees that
have been otherwise stressed or weakened and occasionally attacks freshly felled trees
or windthrown trees (EPPO/CABI, 1997). It prefers to attack large trees with thick
bark. It rarely attacks healthy, vigorously growing trees though it is capable of killing
trees of commercial importance.
Breeding attacks by Ips sexdentatus are characterized by the presence of reddish-
brown frass on the bark surface of host trees, freshly cut logs or windthrow (Kimoto
and Duthie-Holt, 2006). If healthy, vigourous trees are attacked, pitch tubes can be
found on the main stem (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The needles of attacked
trees turn from green to yellow and then reddish-brown. As with other conifer bark
beetle species, Ips sexdentatus is a vector for blue-stain fungi (Ophiostoma spp.)
which hastens the death of trees, discolours the wood and can result in loss of lumber
grade and value.
Damage caused by Ips sexdentatus: L, pitch tubes; R, discoloured needles of Austrian

pine (Pinus nigra), France

Adult Ips beetles are capable of flying up to 4 km in search of suitable host material and
they are also subject to wind dispersal. Transport of unprocessed logs, wood products,
wooden packing materials, dunnage or pallets containing bark strips can provide a
means of introduction of immature stages and adults.
CONTROL MEASURES
The most effective control measure against damage by Ips sexdentatus is to remove
infested trees before the new generation of adult beetles emerges (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Debarking infested trees may also help to prevent further infestations. The use of trap
trees may be helpful in controlling high density populations.
Ips subelongatus
Other scientific names: Ips fallax Eggers

Common names: larch bark beetle; larch engraver beetle; oblong bark beetle
Ips subelongatus Motschulsky, 1860 is considered to be the most destructive bark

beetle pest of larch within its natural range. It is considered by many to be of equal
importance to the European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus, which is generally
regarded as Europe’s most damaging bark beetle.
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific (mainland)
Introduced: No reports to date
IDENTIFICATION
Adult beetles are completely brown in colour and have an elongated body
approximately 4.5 to 6.0 mm long (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The posterior
end of the forewings is completely covered with long hairs and also has four spines
on each side, the third of which has a characteristic bulge at the top (Kimoto and
Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Eggs are round and pearly white in colour. The larvae are white grubs with
amber coloured head capsules that are typically 4 to 5 mm long when mature
(Orlinski, 2004).
HOSTS
Larix spp., including L. sibirica, L. gmelinii, L. leptolepis and L. olgensis; Abies spp.;
Picea spp.; Pinus spp., including P. sylvestris, P. sibirica and P. koraiensis
BIOLOGY
In the southern part of its distribution, the first spring mass flight usually occurs
from mid-May to the end of June, when midday temperature reaches 16 to 20 °C,
and lasts for 15 to 17 days (EPPO, 2005). Attacks are initiated by the males, who
construct nuptial chambers under the bark, emit aggregation pheromones and are
subsequently joined by 2 to 5 females (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). After mating,
each female constructs an egg gallery, typically 16 to 18 cm long and 3 to 3.5 mm
wide, and deposits her eggs. The shape and depth of egg galleries varies depending
on the health of the host tree; in healthy trees, they radiate downwards and upwards
from the nuptial chamber but in stressed trees they radiate vertically and horizontally
(Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Larval galleries are typically perpendicular to the
egg galleries.
Adults must feed in order to achieve sexual maturity. Maturation feeding usually
occurs along the trunk but may also occur on the root collar or on branches (Kimoto
and Duthie-Holt, 2006). These galleries are characterized by large quantities of frass.
Mature beetles overwinter in forest litter whereas pupae, larvae and some adults
overwinter under the bark of larch host trees (EPPO, 2005).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Ips subelongatus is capable of attacking both apparently healthy trees and stressed trees
but they most frequently occur on trees that have been stressed by other factors such as
wildfire or other pests. Mature trees are preferred. It is often found in association with
infestations of other bark beetles and wood-borers such as Scolytus morawitzi, Xylotrechus
altaicus, Monochamus galloprovincialis and Melanophila guttulata (Orlinski, 2004).
Repeated attacks by this species can affect the growth and rate of timber
production, occasionally leading to dieback or death of a host tree. Characteristic
symptoms of attack by I. subelongatus include: sparse crowns of larch trees with
partly dead tops and branches; wilting of needles; fading of foliage from green to
yellow and finally to red; resin flow from entrance holes; the presence of small
round exit holes, pitch tubes, reddish frass on the bark surface and a gallery system
with central chamber and radial larval galleries under the bark (EPPO, 2005). As
with other conifer bark beetle species, Ips subelongatus is a vector for blue-stain
fungi (Ophiostoma spp.) which hastens the death of trees and discolours the wood
resulting in loss of timber grade and value.
BUGWOOD.ORG/G. CSOKA/1231222
Galleries created by Ips subelongatus

they are also subject to wind dispersal. Transport of untreated larch wood can provide
a means of introduction of immature stages and adults.
CONTROL MEASURES
Control measures include silvicultural measures such as rapid removal and processing
of infested trees, improving the resistance of forests, thinning, and treatments with
chemical and biological preparations (EPPO, 2005). Biological control agents such as
nematodes, microorganisms, parasitoids and predators may also play a role in regulating
I. subelongatus populations. A forecasting system has been developed in China.
Since it is virtually absent from Europe with the exception of a small area in
northeastern European Russia, Ips subelongatus was added to the EPPO A2 action list
of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests in 2004. Recommended control
measures include requiring imported Larix wood and bark to be from a pest-free area
and debarking or kiln-drying wood and bark from infested areas. These requirements
are also extended to the less important hosts of Abies, Picea and Pinus species.
Ips typographus
Other scientific names: Dermestes typographus Linnaeus, 1758; Bostrichus

octodentatus Paykull, 1800; Ips japonicus Niijima, 1909; Ips sexdentatus Börner, 1776;
Tomicus typographus Linnaeus, 1758
Common names: European spruce bark beetle; spruce beetle; spruce engraver beetle;
eight-toothed spruce bark beetle
Ips typographus Linnaeus, 1758 is one of the most serious and destructive pests of
spruce in its native range of Asia and Europe. It is common throughout the entire
natural range of Picea abies in Europe and also occurs in plantations in Western
Europe, outside the natural range of the host. Outbreaks have occurred in the Czech
Republic, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, Slovakia and Sweden. This pest has caused
excessive secondary damage in forests already damaged by other factors such as severe
storms. I. typographus is a significant quarantine pest risk in North America where it
has been intercepted at several locations.
BUGWOOD.ORG/G. CSOKA/1231225
Adult European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Europe; Asia and the Pacific (northern)
IDENTIFICATION
Larvae are small, legless and whitish in colour with orange heads and the pupae are
waxy white and approximately 4 mm long (Humphreys and Allen, 1999).
Adult beetles are cylindrical, reddish, dark brown or black in colour and
approximately 4.2 to 5.5 mm long (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Long yellowish hairs cover the front of the head and the sides of the body. Both sexes
have four spines on each side of the posterior portion of the forewings, with the third
spine being the largest and enlarged at the tip (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
HOSTS
Picea spp., including P. abies (main host in Europe), P. orientalis and P. yezoensis
(northern Asia); Pinus spp.; Abies spp.
BIOLOGY
The European spruce bark beetle attacks both stressed and healthy trees in groups and
overwhelms the defence mechanisms of host trees. During non-outbreak periods, the
beetles breed in wind-felled trees, slash and logs while during outbreaks the beetles kill
healthy trees (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Attacks are initiated by the males, who construct
nuptial chambers under the bark, emit aggregation pheromones and are subsequently
joined by 1 to 4 females (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The females construct egg
galleries in the inner bark where they lay approximately 50 eggs on each side. Young
larvae feed in larval galleries which radiate at right angles to the egg gallery and become
wider as the larvae grow. Pupation takes place at the ends of the larval galleries. Young
adult beetles maturation feed under the bark creating characteristic tunnels in the
wood before emerging through round exit holes approximately 2 to 3 mm in diameter
(Humphreys and Allen, 1999). The beetles generally overwinter in the adult stage,
mainly in the forest litter near the tree where they developed but also under the bark
of the host tree.
The number of generations per year and the timing of the life cycle depend on
climate. At high altitude and latitude only one annual generation is produced while in
the lowlands of Central Europe two generations are typical and even three generations
per year at warmer sites (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Spring flight occurs when the air
temperature rises to approximately 20 °C which generally occurs from April to June
in different parts of its range. The flight for the second generation generally takes place
in July or August but in northern areas, adults emerge from July to October and in
central Europe emergence of the second generation may take place as late as November
(EPPO/CABI, 1997).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

The needles of attacked conifers turn yellow-green to reddish-brown and eventually
drop within a few weeks. Other signs of infestation include red-brown frass in bark
crevices, the presence of round exit holes, and small pitch tubes extruding from the
bark (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Woodpecker damage may also be evident.
As with other conifer bark beetle species, Ips typographus is a vector for blue-
stain fungi (Ophiostoma spp., Ceratocystis polonica) which hastens the death of trees,
discolours the wood and can result in loss of timber grade and value.
Extensive gallery systems, blue-stained wood and round exit holes indicate attack by Ips typographus

they are also subject to wind dispersal. Transport of unprocessed logs, wood products
or wooden packing materials, dunnage or pallets containing bark strips can provide a
means of introduction of immature stages and adults.
CONTROL MEASURES
The most effective control measure against damage by Ips typographus is to remove
infested trees and all potential breeding materials such as weakened trees, windthrows
and logs with bark before the new generation of adult beetles emerge. Silvicultural
techniques aimed at increasing the stability and vitality of forest stands is also
recommended. The use of pheromone-baited traps or trap trees has also been successfully
used to trap and suppress beetle populations and prevent outbreak conditions.
As this pest is of major quarantine importance, debarking of logs before export is the
best and likely only efficient way to prevent it from being introduced into new areas.
G. ALLARD
Pheromone traps have been used to help control Ips typographus in Slovakia
Leptocybe invasa
Order and Family: Hymenoptera: Eulophidae

Common names: blue gum chalcid
The blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa Fisher & LaSalle, 2004, is a newly described
insect that is a major pest of young eucalypt trees and seedlings. Believed native to
Australia, it is currently spreading through Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and the
Near East. Information on the taxonomy, distribution, biology and economic impacts
of the blue gum chalcid are still being investigated.
Z. MENDEL
Adult female Leptocybe invasa
DISTRIBUTION
Native: believed native to Australia (Asia and the Pacific) although its distribution
there is still unknown.
Introduced: Africa: Algeria, Kenya (2002), Morocco, South Africa (2007), the United
Republic of Tanzania (2005), Uganda (2002)
Asia and the Pacific: India, New Zealand, Thailand, Viet Nam
Europe: France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Turkey
Near East: Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic
IDENTIFICATION
The female chalcid is a small wasp, brown in colour with a slight to distinctive
blue to green metallic shine (TPCP, 2005). The average length is 1.2 mm. With the
exception of one record describing males in Turkey, only females of this species,
which reproduce by parthenogenesis, have been observed (EPPO, 2008). Larvae are
minute, white and legless.
HOSTS
The blue gum chalcid has a relatively narrow host range attacking eucalypt species
(Mendel et al., 2004). Suitable host species include Eucalyptus saligna, E. grandis, E.
deanei, E. globulus ssp. globulus, E. nitens, E. botryoides, E. camaldulensis, E. gunnii,
E. robusta, E. bridgesiana, E. viminalis and E. tereticornis.
BIOLOGY
Attacks take place within 1 to 2 weeks of bud break. Eggs are laid in the epidermis
of the upper sides of newly developed leaves, on both sides of the midrib, in the
petioles and in the parenchyma of twigs (TPCP, 2005; EPPO, 2008). White minute,
legless larvae develop within the host plant. Five stages of gall development have been
recorded on E. camaldulensis in Israel (TPCP, 2005).
• The first symptoms of cork tissue appearing at the egg insertion spot begin one
to two weeks after oviposition. A small change in the morphology of the attacked
tissue is evident, the cork scar becomes bigger and the section of the midrib that
carries the eggs often changes colour from green to pink.
• The typical bump shape of the galls develops and they reach their maximum size
of about 2.7 mm wide.
• The green surface colour fades and tends to become pink while retaining its
typical gloss.
• Glossiness of the gall surface is lost and its colour changes to light or dark red
depending on whether the galls are present on leaves or stems.
• The galls change colour to light brown on leaves and red on stems. Emergence
holes of the adult wasps are evident.
Two to three overlapping generations per year have been observed in the Islamic
Republic of Iran, Israel and Turkey (Mendel et al., 2004).
Z. MENDEL
Ovipositing female Leptocybe invasa

SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

The developing larvae form bump-shaped galls on the leaf midribs, petioles and stems
of new growth of young eucalypt trees, coppice and nursery seedlings. Severely
attacked trees show leaf fall, gnarled appearance, loss of growth and vigour, stunted
growth, lodging, dieback and eventually tree death (Mendel et al., 2004).
During outbreaks wasp pressure is quite intensive and all new growth may be
damaged. While the impact of the wasp on mature tree development is not yet clear,
galls can be found on most leaves if the wasp occurs in large numbers (TPCP, 2005).
G. ALLARD
G. ALLARD
Damage caused by Leptocybe invasa on eucalypt branches and leaf petioles, Kibaha, the
United Republic of Tanzania. Left: young galls; right: older galls with exit holes

Possible pathways of introduction include movement of nursery stock. The adult
wasps are very small and are thus incapable of long distance flight.
CONTROL MEASURES
There are currently no control measures for Leptocybe invasa although research on
possible biological control agents is ongoing in Australia and Israel.
Z. MENDEL
Aprostocetus sp., a natural enemy of Leptocybe invasa, recently released in Israel

Lymantria dispar
Other scientific names: Porthetria dispar Linnaeus; Ocneria dispar Linnaeus; Bombyx
dispar Linnaeus; Hypogymna dispar Linnaeus; Liparis dispar Linnaeus; Phalaena dispar
Linnaeus; Porthesia dispar Linnaeus
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Common names: gypsy moth; Asian gypsy moth; European gypsy moth
The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar Linnaeus, 1758, is a significant defoliator of a wide
range of broadleaf and even conifer trees. While low population levels can exist for
many years without causing significant damage, severe outbreaks can occur resulting
in severe defoliation, growth loss, dieback and sometimes tree mortality. Two strains
of gypsy moth exist: the Asian strain, of which the female is capable of flight; and the
European strain, of which the female is flightless. This moth is considered a significant
pest in both its native and introduced ranges.
BUGWOOD.ORG/J.H. GHENT/0488025
BUGWOOD.ORG/H. OVIDIU/2168003
G. ALLARD
Gypsy moth egg masses, larva and adults
DISTRIBUTION
Native: The Asian strain is native to southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia and the
Pacific (central and southern, and Japan).
The European strain is found in temperate forests throughout Western Europe.
Introduced: The European strain has been introduced to North America, in Canada
(1912 first detected, 1924 first infestation) and the United States (1869).
The Asian strain has been introduced into Europe (Germany, other countries in the
region) where it readily hybridizes with the European strain. A breeding colony was
reported in 1995 in Europe (United Kingdom) but there was no establishment. This
strain has been introduced but has not established in North America (Canada, United
States) (Wallner, 2000a).
IDENTIFICATION
The Asian gypsy moth is virtually identical in appearance to its European counterpart
(Wallner, 2000a). Adult females are white or cream in colour and are much larger than the
males with a wingspan of 55 to 70 mm (Wallner, 2000a; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Adult males are mottled brown in colour and have a wingspan of 35 to 40 mm (Wallner,
2000a; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Both sexes have a dark, crescent-shaped mark
on the forewing and pectinate antennae, although the longer branches on the males give
their antennae a feathered appearance (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Egg masses are ovoid, 3 to 6 cm in length and 2 to 3 cm in width, and can contain
100 to 1 000 eggs (Wallner, 2000a). They are covered in tan coloured hairs from the
female’s abdomen and eventually become sun bleached with age (Brandt, 1994; Kimoto
and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Spent egg masses have small pin-sized holes created by
emerging larvae.
Newly hatched larvae are 3 mm in length and tan in colour but turn black within 24
hours (Wallner, 2000a). The first and third instars are black with long hairs while the
second instar is brown with short hairs (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The fourth,
fifth and sixth instars are quite similar to each other and may be light to dark gray
with flecks of yellow. They have long dark or golden hairs and two rows of tubercles
along the back which are typically arranged in five pairs of blue tubercles followed by
six pairs of red, but variations are known to occur (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Mature larvae are approximately 50 to 90 mm in length (Wallner, 2000a).
HOSTS
Both strains have exceptionally wide host ranges, more than 250 species, although the
Asian strain is even broader than the European strain. Preferred hosts of both forms
include Quercus, Populus, Salix, Tilia, Betula and Malus species. Larix, Ulmus and
Diospyros species are also highly preferred. Conifers growing in mixture with preferred
hosts can also be defoliated during periods of high insect pest densities (Wallner, 2000a).
BIOLOGY
Both the Asian and European strains of the gypsy moth have one generation per year.
Adults are active in July and August when mating and egg-laying occur (Wallner,
2000a). Adult females of Asian strains are capable of flight whereas females of European
strains are flightless. Females lay egg masses indiscriminately on almost any surface
including tree bark, branches, rock piles, lawn furniture, birdhouses, wood piles, logs,
recreational vehicles and equipment.
Larvae hatch in early May and climb to the tree tops and balloon on silken threads
to neighboring trees where they feed gregariously (Wallner, 2000a). Male gypsy moth
larvae typically pass through five instars while females have six instars (Wallner, 2000a).
Early instar larvae excavate small holes in leaves and as the larvae grow they make
larger holes and consume the leaf margins; final instar larvae consume the entire leaf
(Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). They are primarily nocturnal feeders and rest in
protected locations such as bark flaps, holes and wounds on host trees during the day.
Pupation takes place in sheltered places; pupae may be found attached by silken
thread to branches, tree trunks, rocks, forest debris, buildings or fences (Kimoto and
Duthie-Holt, 2006). Adults emerge approximately two weeks later.
G. ALLARD
Defoliation of trees by the gypsy moth in Romania (L) and Kyrgyzstan (R)
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Populations of the gypsy moth can occur at low levels in forests for many years without
causing significant damage. However, at times there are significant outbreaks, frequently
coinciding with periods when the trees are under stress such as in Central Europe in the
1990s. These outbreaks cause severe defoliation of host trees resulting in growth loss, dieback
and sometimes tree mortality. Tree mortality often occurs when there are several sequential
outbreaks. Outbreaks typically last for about three years and collapse when host trees are
weakened to the point that they produce little or no foliage for the larvae to feed upon in the
following spring. High levels of parasitism can also cause outbreaks to collapse.

Adults of Asian strains are capable of flight and thus have strong dispersal ability
whereas females of European strains are flightless. Young larvae can move some
distance by ballooning from the tops of trees.
Pathways of introduction of the gypsy moth include movement of vehicles, camping
equipment, nursery stock, ships, and equipment that has been exposed for a period
to the outdoors. Ecotourism may contribute to ignorant or passive possession and
dispersal and thus awareness campaigns are important.
CONTROL MEASURES
Preventative measures include thinning of forest stands to improve tree vigour and
thinning to reduce the proportion of preferred host trees. Small infestations of gypsy
moths particularly on ornamental trees can be controlled by collecting and destroying
the egg masses before the eggs hatch (Brandt, 1994). Mass-trapping through the use of
pheromones can also assist with control.
Aerial spraying operations using Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki (Btk) (Foray 76B) for gypsy
moth control, United States
Aerial and ground application of biological insecticides is the most common

method for eradicating new isolated populations and also to suppress outbreaks of
well established populations. The most common biological insecticide used against
the gypsy moth is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which disrupts the digestive system
of larvae, suppressing their appetites and eventually resulting in death typically
within 7 to 10 days. In the United States the gypsy moth is considered the most
costly of introduced forest insect pests with annual control expenditures exceeding
US$ 35 million since 1980 (Wallner, 2000a).
A number of natural predators have been used to control L. dispar. Vertebrate
predators are important in maintaining low densities, parasites are often abundant
during outbreaks, and diseases, especially a nucleopolyhedrosis virus, have been noted
to be responsible for the collapse of outbreak populations (Wallner, 2000a). Another
important natural control is the fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga, which is
not dependent on gypsy moth density (Wallner, 2000a).
Predictive models have been used to determine risk assessment and potential
damage in new areas.
Lymantria monacha
Other scientific names: Psilura monacha Linnaeus; Liparis monacha Linnaeus;

Ocneria monacha Linnaeus; Phalaena monacha Linnaeus; Porthetria monacha
Linnaeus; Bombyx monacha Linnaeus, 1758; Noctua heteroclita Müller, 1764;
Bombyx eremita Hübner, 1808; Bombyx nigra Freyer, 1833; Liparis monacha
var. oethiops De Selys-Longchamps, 1857; Psilura transiens Thierry Mieg, 1886;
Lymantria transiens Lambillion, 1909; Lymantria monacha flaviventer Kruilikovsky;
Lymantria monacha gracilis Kruilikovsky; Lymantria fasciata Hannemann, 1916;
Lymantria kusnezovi Kulossow, 1928; Lymantria brunnea Stipan, 1933; Lymantria
monacha chosenibia Bryk; Lymantria monacha matuta Bryk; Lymantria monacha
idae Bryk; Lymantria monacha lateralis Bryk; Lymantria monacha eremita;
Lymantria monacha nigra
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Common names: nun moth; tussock moth; black arches moth; black-arched
tussock moth
Lymantria monacha Linnaeus, 1758 is a major pest of broadleaved and coniferous

trees in Europe and Asia. Defoliation by nun moth larvae can kill host trees especially
conifers and has caused extensive losses despite intervention with biological and
chemical insecticides. In parts of Europe, the occurrence of outbreaks has increased
possibly as a result of the establishment of extensive pine plantations in poor quality
areas. A serious outbreak was recorded in Europe between 1978 and 1985 and again in
1992 in Poland which involved hundreds of thousands of hectares. BUGWOOD.ORG/H. LEMME/1260001
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. ADAM/2515023
Lymantria monacha larva and adults (female and male)

DISTRIBUTION
Native: Asia and the Pacific; Europe
IDENTIFICATION
Adult nun moths are moderately sized, hairy and often stout-bodied. Their forewings
are white with numerous black, transverse, wavy lines and patches and the hind wings
are greyish, with dark patches along the outer edge (Humphreys and Allen, 2002). Black
and grey-brown forms occasionally occur. Females have a reddish-brown abdomen
with black bands, short saw-like antennae, an extremely long extensible ovipositor and
a wingspan of 45 to 55 mm (Humphreys and Allen, 2002; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt,
2006). Males have a grey-black abdomen, feathery antennae and a wingspan of 35 to
45 mm (Wallner, 2000b; Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).
Pupae are stout, shiny reddish-brown with light-coloured hair, and approximately
18 to 25 mm in length (Humphreys and Allen, 2002).
Newly hatched larvae are approximately 4 mm long and tan in colour though they
turn black within 24 hours (Wallner, 2000b). Mature larvae are 30 to 40 mm long, light
to dark brown with an orange to pale-brown head with black markings (Wallner, 2000b;
Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). The first four abdominal segments have a dorsal pair
of small, bluish glandular protrusions, the sixth and seventh segments have prominent
mid-dorsal, orange glandular warts, and a dark dorsal band runs from the second to the
eleventh segment (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). Numerous short black and white
hairs are present; hairs on the prothoracic and anal segments are longer.
Eggs are round, slightly concave in the centre, one millimetre in diameter, and
initially orange-brown or purple in colour, turning dark brown over time (Kimoto and
Duthie-Holt, 2006). They are laid in masses in bark crevasses of host trees and cannot
be seen unless the outer bark is peeled away (Wallner, 2000b).
HOSTS
Species of Pinus, Picea, Larix and Abies are preferred hosts but the nun moth will also
feed on many broadleaf trees including Acer, Betula, Carpinus, Fagus, Fraxinus, Malus,
Prunus, Quercus and Ulmus species and other fruit trees. Host tree preference varies
between areas.
BIOLOGY
Nun moth has one generation per year. Both male and female adults are strong fliers
and are active for 3 to 5 weeks between July and September when they mate and
deposit eggs (Wallner, 2000b). Females lay masses of 70 to 300 eggs, typically in bark
crevices. However they will also lay on any hard surface such as motor vehicles. They
overwinter as eggs and hatch in spring. Newly hatched larvae feed on young foliage,
often towards the top of trees, while older larvae feed on older foliage. Larvae develop
through five to seven instars depending on host type and health, weather and other
factors (Wallner, 2000b). Pupation usually occurs in July on the tree trunks, but when
populations are high, pupae can also be found high in tree crowns. Adults emerge in
mid-summer; females live approximately 10 days while males may live up to 24 days
after emerging (Wallner, 2000b).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Nun moth larvae feed on needles or leaves and can severely defoliate host trees resulting
in tree mortality. They tend to attack monoculture stands of trees that are growing in
poor conditions. The nun moth can decimate vast areas of forest and increase the risk
of attack by other insects such as bark beetles. Outbreaks last for approximately five
years in pine forests and seven years in spruce forests (Humphreys and Allen, 2002).
BUGWOOD.ORG/J. LISKA/1191019
Heavy defoliation of Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands in the Czech Republic by the nun moth
On conifer host trees, young larvae feed on the foliage of newly expanded shoots
whereas older larvae are able to feed on more mature foliage but still prefer new needles.
They can be wasteful feeders, eating only the base of a needle which results in partially
uneaten needles falling to the ground. Defoliated trees exhibit thinned crowns and are
reddish-brown in colour (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). During outbreaks, over
50 percent of the foliage can be defoliated and successive years of severe defoliation
can cause tree mortality (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006). On broadleaved host trees,
larval feeding initially creates holes in the leaves. As feeding progresses, however, entire
leaves are consumed except for the middle vein (Kimoto and Duthie-Holt, 2006).

Adults are strong fliers and can spread fair distances, males have been known to disperse
up to 3.5 km, and young larvae can balloon from tree tops. Eggs may also be transported
on logs, ships or vehicles. Since egg masses are typically deposited in bark crevices of
host trees, long distance transport of this species could be facilitated by the movement
of unprocessed logs and crates, pallets or dunnage containing large strips of bark.
CONTROL MEASURES
Nun moth has a number of natural enemies including parasitoids, predators and disease
(Wallner, 2000b). Birds have been known to help control egg and larval stages and a
baculovirus has also been implicated in population collapses and has been cultured and
applied for control (Wallner, 2000b).
Pheromone trapping can be used both for detection purposes and as a means
of disrupting mating (Humphreys and Allen, 2002). Direct control with biological
insecticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensis, can be effective over large areas.
Orthotomicus erosus
Other scientific names: Bostrichus duplicatus Ferrari; Bostrichus laricis Perris; Ips
erosus Wollaston; Ips erosus var. robustus Knotek; Tomicus erosus Wollaston; Tomicus
rectangulus Eichoff
Common names: Mediterranean pine engraver beetle; European bark beetle;
Mediterranean pine beetle
Orthotomicus erosus Wollaston, 1857 is a bark beetle that can kill pines particularly
those planted at low elevations and on dry sites. It is usually considered a secondary
pest infesting fallen and stressed trees and is often found in association with other
forest pests. Its successful introduction into countries outside its native range has lead
to some concern, particularly in regions with significant areas of pine plantations.
Adult Mediterranean pine engraver beetle, Orthotomicus erosus
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Northern Africa (Morocco); Asia and the Pacific; Europe
Introduced: Africa: South Africa, Swaziland (early 1980s)
Asia and the Pacific: Fiji
Europe: Finland, Sweden, United Kingdom
Latin America and the Caribbean: Chile (1986 not now detected)
Near East: Tajikistan
IDENTIFICATION
Adult beetles averages 2.7 to 3.8 mm length and are reddish-brown in colour
(Cavey, Passoa and Kucera, 1994; Eglitis, 2000). The head is covered by a thoracic
shield and is not visible when viewed dorsally. The posterior portion of the
forewings is concave with four lateral spines; the second spine is the broadest and
most conspicuous (Eglitis, 2000).
Larvae are white or cream-coloured, legless grubs with amber heads and are
approximately 5 mm long when mature (Eglitis, 2000).
HOSTS
Orthotomicus erosus primarily attacks pine species such as Pinus armandii, P. brutia, P.
brutia var. eldarica, P. brutia var. pityusa, P. canariensis, P. caribaea, P. coulteri, P. echinata,
P. kesiya, P. massoniana, P. mugo subsp. uncinata, P. nigra, P. nigra ssp. pallasiana, P.
patula, P. pinaster, P. pinea, P. radiata, P. strobus, P. sylvestris, P. tabulaeformis and P.
yunnanensis. It will attack other conifer species such as Pseudotsuga menziesii and
Picea, Abies and Cedrus species but it is believed to breed only in pines.
BIOLOGY
The Mediterranean pine engraver typically attacks recently fallen or cut pine trees
and branches, but it can colonize and kill standing trees especially those stressed by
drought, fire or wind (Haack, 2004). They generally breed in the rough-barked sections
of the main trunk and in branches larger than 5 cm in diameter (Eglitis, 2000). Smooth-
barked portions of host trees are primarily used for maturation feeding.
Attacks are initiated by males that bore through the bark to the phloem-cambium
layer where they construct a nuptial chamber. They emit aggregation pheromones and
are soon joined by one to three females, each of which mates with the male and then
constructs an individual egg gallery from the nuptial chamber, parallel to the grain of
the wood (Eglitis, 2000). Females typically lay 26 to 75 eggs in niches along the sides
of the galleries (Eglitis, 2000; Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). The eggs hatch and the
larvae feed in the phloem causing a distinctive engraving pattern; they develop through
three instars expanding the tunnels as they feed (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). When
the larvae are ready to pupate, they tunnel towards the bark particularly if the phloem
of the host tree is thick (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005).
Adult beetles maturation feed beneath the bark of the brood host or in another
suitable host tree, sometimes of a different species (Eglitis, 2000; Haack, 2004). Between
mid-October and December, they aggregate under the bark of host trees to overwinter.
Small round exit holes measuring approximately 1.5 mm in diameter are apparent in
the outer bark of host trees after adults emerge (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). Adult
beetle flight can occur through a broad temperature range of 14 to 38 oC; in Israel, the
threshold for flight is even lower during winter (12 oC) (Eglitis, 2000).
The Mediterranean pine engraver completes two to seven generations per year in
different parts of its range, depending on local temperatures and host quality (Haack,
2004). Two generations per year are typical in Turkey, France and Morocco, three to
four generations are observed in Tunisia and South Africa, and three to five in Israel
(Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

The Mediterranean pine engraver is usually a secondary bark beetle that infests
recently fallen trees, broken branches, slash, and standing trees that have been
wounded or are stressed from a variety of factors such as fire or drought (Eglitis,
2000; Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). Attacks on stressed trees frequently leads to
death of the tree.
The most conspicuous indication of attack by Orthotomicus erosus is the fading of
foliage of infested host trees from green to yellow to reddish brown (Eglitis, 2000).
Small entrance holes with frass pushed out and exit holes may be visible on the bark
surface, especially on smoother bark surfaces; entrance and exit holes may be difficult
to detect on rough-barked regions of the tree (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). If
vigorous trees are attacked, pitch tubes may be found in the bark crevices (Eglitis,
2000). Inspection of the underside of the bark of declining pines may reveal a dense
network of galleries (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). These galleries typically consist
of a nuptial chamber and one to five longitudinal egg galleries but may vary depending
on host type and location (Eglitis, 2000).
Galleries created by the Mediterranean pine engraver beetle
This beetle is often found in association with other forest pests including Carphoborus
minimus, Hylastes angustatus, Hylurgus ligniperda, Matsucoccus feytaudi, Pityogenes
calcaratus, Pissodes nemorensis, Tomicus destruens and T. minor (Eglitis, 2000). As
with other conifer bark beetle species, Orthotomicus erosus is a vector for a number
of wood-staining or blue-stain fungi which hastens the death of trees, discolours the
wood and can result in loss of timber grade and value.

Adult beetles are capable of flying considerable distances in search of suitable hosts and
are also subject to wind dispersal (Eglitis, 2000). All life stages of the Mediterranean
pine engraver can be easily transported on wood packing materials, particularly those
made from pine and containing bark strips. Prior to the implementation of ISPM No.
15, this pest was commonly intercepted on wood packing materials such as crates and
pallets since it often attacks recently cut trees which are typically converted into such
materials (Haack, 2004).
CONTROL MEASURES
Preventative measures that involve good sanitation, limiting movement of recently
cut pine branches and stems, keeping standing trees healthy and vigourous and early
detection of infestations are the best defence against the Mediterranean pine engraver
(Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). Proper care and watering of standing trees can reduce
the probability of an outbreak since these beetles are known to primarily attack living
trees under stress. It is recommended that managers avoid piling any pine material next
to live trees and that they chip, burn or debark freshly cut pine material or for small
quantities of pine material, completely cover them with thick, clear plastic sheeting in
a sunny location (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005).
Pinus brutia killed by the Mediterranean pine engraver beetle, Cyprus
The Mediterranean pine engraver has several known natural enemies. The Syrian
woodpecker (Picoides syriacus) has been observed feeding on the beetle in Israel (Lee,
Smith and Seybold, 2005). In South Africa, the larvae are parasitized by wasps, such as
Dendrosoter caenopachoides and Metacolus unifasciatus, and eaten by several predatory
beetles including Alulonium ruficorne, Corticeus pini and Platysoma oblongum and the
predatory bug Lyctoris sp. (Lee, Smith and Seybold, 2005). A parasitoid, Dendrosoter
caenopachoides, was reared and released in South Africa and it has since established
(Eglitis, 2000).
Phoracantha recurva and

Phoracantha semipunctata
Phoracantha recurva Newman, 1840
Common names: eucalyptus longhorned borer; eucalyptus borer; longicorn beetle;
yellow phoracantha borer; yellow longicorn beetle
Phoracantha semipunctata Fabricius, 1775

Common names: eucalyptus longhorned borer; common eucalypt longhorn; common
eucalypt longicorn; eucalypt longhorn; eucalyptus borer; longicorn beetle; blue gum
borer; firewood beetle
Phoracantha recurva and Phoracantha semipunctata are both serious borer pests
of eucalypts, particularly those planted outside their natural range. In their native
Australia they are considered minor pests attacking damaged, stressed or newly
felled trees but they have become established in many temperate and tropical regions
worldwide where they have been known to kill even healthy trees.
BUGWOOD.ORG/F & K. STARR/5251011

Phoracantha recurva (L) and Phoracantha semipunctata (R)
DISTRIBUTION
Phoracantha recurva
Native: Asia and the Pacific: Australia
Introduced: Africa: Malawi, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia (1999), Zambia
Asia and the Pacific: New Zealand, Papua New Guinea
Europe: Greece (one record), Spain (1998)
Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina (1997), Brazil (2001), Chile (1997),
Uruguay (1998)
Phoracantha semipunctata
Native: Australia
Introduced: Africa: Algeria (1972), Egypt (1950s), Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1998),
Morocco (1962), Tunisia (1962)
Europe: Canary Islands (1991), France (1984), Italy (around 1969), Netherlands
(detected but believed eradicated), Portugal (1980), Spain (1980), Turkey (1959)
Latin America and the Caribbean: Brazil (1994)
Near East: Cyprus (around 1967), Israel (1940s), Lebanon (1950s)
North America: United States (California, 1980s)
IDENTIFICATION
Adult eucalyptus longhorned borers are approximately 14 to 30 mm long and have
shiny, dark brown and yellow to cream-coloured areas on their wing covers (University
of California, 2000). Antennae are as long as or longer than the body and the antennae
of males have prominent spines.
Adults of both species are very similar to one another although there are differences
in wing cover colour and hairs and spines on antennae (University of California,
2000). Phoracantha semipunctata has wing covers that are mostly dark brown with a
zigzag line bisecting the cream-coloured area in the middle whereas the wing covers
of P. recurva are mostly cream to yellowish in colour with dark brown areas primarily
limited to the posterior end. Long, dense golden hairs can be found on the underside
of each antenna segment on Phoracantha recurva; such hairs are either absent or sparse
on P. semipunctata.
Mature larvae are cream-coloured, legless and may be more than an inch in length
(University of California, 2000). Eggs are ovoid and pale yellow in colour.
HOSTS
Eucalyptus species
BIOLOGY
Female beetles are attracted to stressed trees or freshly cut wood where they lay eggs
in groups under loose bark. The larvae tunnel under the bark and into the cambium
layer and effectively ring bark the host trees. The larval feeding can rapidly kill the trees
or cause significant damage to the timber of affected trees. Larvae take 2 to 6 months
to develop depending on the moisture conditions in the logs. Pupation takes place in
pupal chambers. Adults live for several weeks.
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Phoracantha species tend to attack damaged or stressed trees; vigorous, well-watered
trees are rarely attacked though it does occur.
The presence of holes in the bark and stains or oozing liquid on limbs or trunks
are common symptoms of longhorned borer attack (University of California, 2000).
Foliage may also discolour and wilt, and limbs may dieback.
The feeding by larvae and resulting galleries created within host trees can girdle
trees killing them. Such trees are characterized by a thin canopy with wilted or dry
leaves and cracked bark packed with frass (University of California, 2000). Infested
trees are often killed in a matter of a few weeks and resprouting may occur from
the tree base.

Adults are moderately long-lived and are strong fliers that are thus capable of
naturally dispersing a fair distance. Dispersal over greater distances occurs through
movement of nursery stock and freshly cut wood with high moisture content.
Introduction into southern Africa is believed to have been through the importation
of infested railway sleepers.
CONTROL MEASURES
The same management and control methods are applied to both Phoracantha species
and are based on good cultural practices and biological control. Such practices involve
reducing tree stress through irrigation and protection against injury, planting resistant
or tolerant eucalypt species and avoiding activities that disrupt biological control
(University of California, 2000).
Properly handling eucalyptus wood is also effective in controlling borer populations
(University of California, 2000). Since moist wood is most suitable for ovipositing
beetles, methods such as cutting and splitting wood to hasten the drying of the wood
helps to reduce the length of time the wood can support beetle development. Bark
can be removed from felled logs or the wood can be solarized by placing it in a sunny
location for 10 to 12 weeks and covering it with ultraviolet-resistant plastic which
prevents new beetles from attacking and resident beetles from emerging and spreading
to standing hosts nearby. Infested eucalypt trees, branches and wood should be treated
or destroyed by burying, burning or chipping.
Chemical insecticides are not considered suitable or effective for the management of
eucalyptus longhorned borer populations.
Biological control with natural enemies is possibly the best solution to controlling
longhorned borer populations. At low beetle population levels, natural enemies
may be better able to keep populations in check and vigorous trees can survive a
few attacks. Some examples of biological control agents for Phoracantha species
include the Australian parasitic wasps Avetianella longoi, Callibracon limbatus, Jarra
maculipennis, J. phoracantha and Syngaster lepidus, and Helcostizus rufiscutum from
California (University of California, 2000). Felled trap trees with bark are used to
deliver the natural enemies and to attract gravid females.
Sirex noctilio
Other scientific names: Sirex melanocerus Thomson, 1871; Paururus noctilio

Order and Family: Hymenoptera: Siricidae
Common names: European woodwasp; sirex; sirex woodwasp; steel-blue horntail
Sirex noctilio Fabricius, 1793 is a major global threat to forests and the forest sector
causing considerable damage and costs for control. In 1900, this pest was reported from
New Zealand which represented the first time it was recorded outside of its native
range. Since then it has gradually spread around the globe – to Australia in the 1960s,
Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1980s, Africa in the 1990s and North America
in this decade.
BUGWOOD.ORG/D.R. LANCE/1414001
BUGWOOD.ORG/D.R. LANCE/1414003
Adult sirex woodwasps: male (L); female (R)
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Africa (northern: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia); Asia and the Pacific, Europe
Introduced: Africa: South Africa (1994)
Asia and the Pacific: Australia (1961), New Zealand (1900), Tasmania (1952)
Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina (1985), Brazil (1988), Chile (2001),
Uruguay (1980)
North America: Canada (2005), United States (2004)
IDENTIFICATION
Eggs are cylindrical, creamy white and approximately 0.30 to 0.35 mm wide and 1.35
to 1.56 mm long (Ciesla, 2003b). Larvae are creamy white in colour, legless with a
distinctive dark spine at the posterior end (TPCP, n.d.). Length varies but larvae can
reach up to 30 mm in length.
Adult wasps are metallic blue-black in colour with two pairs of clear yellow
membranous wings, black antennae and an upturned, spear-shaped spine or plate
(cornus) at the end of the abdomen (TPCP, n.d.; Walker, 2006). They are large, robust
insects ranging in size from 10 to 44 mm in length (Walker, 2006). Females are uniform
in colour with a prominent robust ovipositor located beneath the cornus, orange legs
and black feet (Haugen and Hoebeke, 2005; Walker, 2006). Smaller than the female, the
male wasp has orange middle abdominal segments and orange legs except for the hind
legs which are thickened and black (Haugen and Hoebeke, 2005; Walker, 2006).
HOSTS
Sirex noctilio has a wide host range and is primarily a pest of Pinus spp. such as P.
attenuata, P. banksiana, P. brutia, P. canariensis, P. caribaea, P. contorta, P. densiflora,
P. echinata, P. elliottii, P. halepensis, P. jeffreyi, P. kesiya, P. muricata, P. nigra, P. nigra
austriaca, P. nigra calabrica, P. palustris, P. patula, P. pinaster, P. pinea, P. ponderosae,
P. radiata, P. resinosa, P. strobus, P. sylvestris and P. taeda (Carnegie et al., 2006;
USDA-APHIS, 2007). Pinus radiata, P. taeda and P. patula are particularly susceptible
(Carnegie et al., 2006). Species of Abies, Larix, Picea and Pseudotsuga, particularly
Pseudotsuga menziesii, have also been attacked (USDA-APHIS, 2007).
BIOLOGY
The sirex woodwasp attacks living pines and is particularly attracted to stressed or dying
trees with low sap pressure. The adult female drills into the wood of trees using her
ovipositor, depositing eggs (20 to 500) as well as toxic mucus and a fungus (Amylostereum
areolatum) which effectively kill the host tree (Hurley, Slippers and Wingfield, 2007). The
movement of water and sugars within the tree trunk is impeded by the mucus causing foliage
to wilt and creating suitable conditions for the fungus (Matthews, 2005). Amylostereum
areolatum relies on S. noctilio for dispersal and inoculation into trees and the wasp larvae
rely on the fungus for wood breakdown and food (USDA-APHIS, 2007).
Unfertilized eggs develop into males whereas fertilized eggs produce females
(Haugen and Hoebeke, 2005). Larvae can hatch as early as nine days after oviposition
and can remain dormant for several months, particularly in cooler climates (Ciesla,
2003b). They feed in the wood, constructing large galleries and thus degrading wood
quality. Once feeding is complete, the larvae enter prepupal and pupal stages; pupation
lasts 16 to 21 days (Ciesla, 2003b). Adult wasps bore their way out of host trees leaving
perfectly round exit holes. Males emerge before the females. The lifespan of adult
woodwasps can be up to 12 days, but females that have deposited all their eggs may
only live for three to four days (Ciesla, 2003b). Each generation takes between ten
months and two years, the latter primarily in cooler climates.
BUGWOOD.ORG/D. HAUGEN/1393019
BUGWOOD.ORG/P. KLASMER/1349007
BUGWOOD.ORG/P. KLASMER/1349006
Damage caused by Sirex noctilio

SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Resin droplets and oviposition scars on the bark of trees are the first signs of infestation
by sirex (Ciesla, 2003b). Tree crowns and foliage wilts and turns from green to yellow
to reddish brown. Larvae tunnel in the wood creating galleries full of very fine frass,
which significantly damages the wood. Round exit holes, approximately 3 to 8 mm in
diameter, appear when the adult insects emerge.

Sirex noctilio can spread naturally through flight and wind dispersal. Adults are
strong fliers capable of traveling several kilometers in search of suitable host trees.
For example, in southwestern South Africa the dispersal rate of S. noctilio has been
estimated at 48 km per year and rates of 30 to 40 km per year have been observed
in Australia (Carnegie et al., 2006). Other pathways of S. noctilio dispersal include
movement of nursery stock, untreated pine logs and sawnwood, and untreated
packing materials. The woodwasp is believed to have entered Argentina, Australia,
New Zealand and South Africa in wooden packaging from Europe or North Africa
(Keiran and Allen, 2004).
CONTROL MEASURES
The development of control strategies for S. noctilio originated in Australia and
they are being used by various Southern Hemisphere countries where sirex has
established. Control of this pest is achieved through a combination of silvicultural
and biological measures including the restricted movement of infested materials,
population monitoring through survey and trap trees, good silvicultural management
practices, and the use of biological control agents (Carnegie, Eldridge and Waterson,
2005; USDA-APHIS, 2007). Since stressed trees are a prime target for sirex attack,
silvicultural measures which maintain the health and vigour of trees and managing
plantations optimally can significantly reduce the risk of sirex attack (Carnegie,
Eldridge and Waterson, 2005).
A variety of biological control agents have been applied to target the sirex
woodwasp. The most effective is the parasitic nematode, Beddingia (=Deladenus)
siricidicola, which infects sirex larvae rendering adult female wasps sterile (Carnegie,
Eldridge and Waterson, 2005; Haugen and Hoebeke, 2005). Infected females emerge
and lay infertile eggs which are infected with nematodes in trees thereby assisting in
the spread of the nematodes. Several parasitic wasps have also been introduced into
Southern Hemisphere countries to help control sirex, including Ibalia leucospoides,
Megarhyssa nortoni, Rhyssa hoferi, R. persuasoria and Schlettererius cinctipes
(Carnegie, Eldridge and Waterson, 2005).
Thaumetopoea pityocampa
Other scientific names: Bombyx pityocampa Denis & Schiffermüller; Cnethocampa

pityocampa; Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni Tams
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Thaumetopoeidae
Common names: pine processionary caterpillar
Thaumetopoea pityocampa Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775 is considered the most

destructive forest insect pest throughout the Mediterranean Basin. It is a tent-making
caterpillar that feeds gregariously and defoliates various species of pine and cedar.
Note the taxonomic status of this pest is under review. In Cyprus for example,
Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni is the preferred scientific name though it is considered an
eastern Mediterranean form (race) of Thaumetopoea pityocampa.
BUGWOOD.ORG/W. CIESLA/1232005
Pine processionary caterpillars, Thaumetopoea pityocampa
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Africa (North), Europe (southern), Near East. This pest is found in almost all
the countries around the Mediterranean Sea with the exception of Egypt and Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya.
IDENTIFICATION
Eggs are laid in cylindrical egg masses that range in length from 4 to 5 cm and are covered
in pale buff scales which conceal them and mimic the pine shoots (Dajoz, 2000).
The larvae develop through five instars, recognized by differences in head capsule
size. First instar larvae have dull green bodies. After the second moult, the caterpillar
assumes its definitive appearance and the paired reddish dorsal hair patches on each
body segment are evident (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Typically, they are darker in colder
areas varying from dull bluish-grey to black. Lateral hairs vary in colour from white
to dark-yellow while dorsal hairs are yellow to dull orange. The average head width
of the fifth instar caterpillar is 4.8 mm for males and 3.4 mm for females (EPPO/
CABI, 1997). Mature larvae are about 40 mm in length with a black head capsule
(EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Pupation takes place in oval, yellowish or white silken cocoons. Pupae are oval,
approximately 20 mm in length, and pale brownish-yellow in colour that changes to
dark reddish-brown (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Adult female moths have a wing-span of 36 to 49 mm while males have a wing-span
of 31 to 39 mm (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Both sexes have a hairy thorax, a stout abdomen
and a tuft of large scales covering the last segments. Antennae are filiform in females
and pectinate in males. Forewings are dull ashen-grey with darker veins, margins and
three transverse bands. Hindwings are white, fringed with grey and have a characteristic
dark spot in the anal region.
HOSTS
Pinus and Cedrus species are primary hosts; Larix decidua is occasionally attacked. The
rate of survival of this insect pest varies depending upon which species of plant it feeds,
i.e. it is higher for Pinus sylvestris and P. nigra.
BIOLOGY
The life cycle of the pine processionary caterpillar is typically annual but may extend
over two years at high altitudes or in northern latitudes (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Daily
average sunshine plays an important role in defining the northern limit of distribution.
At northern latitudes and at higher altitudes, adults emerge earlier.
The day after emergence and mating, females oviposit on pines nearest to their
pupation site although they can fly several kilometres in search of hosts thereby
quickly increasing the extent of the outbreak (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Dajoz, 2000). Eggs
are laid in masses containing 70 to 300 eggs typically near the tips of branches in the
crown. The larvae hatch after 30 to 45 days and aggregate in colonies. There are five
instars during which the larvae change location as host foliage is consumed (Dajoz,
2000). The larvae change colour at each moult and at the third instar urticating hair
patches appear. They spin silken nests which are abandoned with each move until the
fourth instar when the winter nest is built. The winter nest is a large silk bag up to
20 cm in length where the larvae spend the cold season (Dajoz, 2000).
Pupation processions occur at the end of the larval stage in late winter and early
spring. A female is usually at the head of the procession which leads the colony in
a file searching for a suitable site, typically a bright warm area near a host tree, to
tunnel underground and pupate in the soil (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Dajoz, 2000). The
processions occur at temperatures of 10 to 22 °C; at lower temperatures the colonies
regroup and at higher temperatures they bury themselves wherever suitable soil
conditions exist. The larvae burrow 5 to 20 cm below the ground where they weave a
cocoon and pupate (Dajoz, 2000). The pupae enter diapause which breaks one month
before adult emergence. The emergence period generally lasts less than one month
for vigorous populations and approximately six weeks for weakened populations in
regression (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
If environmental conditions are unfavourable, they can remain in the pupal stage for
several years therefore resulting in moths from several generations emerging simultaneously
when favourable conditions occur, causing severe outbreaks (Vega et al., 1999).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Infestation by Thaumetopoea pityocampa can be detected by the presence of white
silken nests and brown and yellowing needles of partially eaten twigs (EPPO/CABI,
1997). The caterpillars feed on the foliage of host trees during the cooler months of the
year causing significant defoliation. Defoliation damage is extremely serious in young
reforested areas and young plantations where it may lead to death of trees. Although
mature trees are rarely killed by this species, reduced growth rates are observed
resulting in significant production losses. Host trees become stressed which can make
them more susceptible to other agents including attack by secondary pest species.
This insect is regarded as a major pest of Mediterranean pine forests because it can
contribute to increment losses of approximately 30 percent.
Thaumetopoea pityocampa larvae have urticating hairs that can cause skin irritation,
conjunctivitis, respiratory congestions and asthma in humans. Contact with dead
larvae, cocoons, nests and debris from infested pine forests can also cause dermatitis
and other symptoms throughout the year. This significant problem not only affects
recreational and residential areas but also impacts silvicultural operations and grazing
in forests (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Damage caused by the pine processionary caterpillar to trees in Cyprus

Adults are reasonably strong fliers and are thus capable of natural dispersal to new areas.
Pupation processions may travel up to 37 m (EPPO/CABI, 1997). The movement of
nursery stock and soil could transport T. pityocampa pupae.
CONTROL MEASURES
Control measures targeting the pine processionary caterpillar should be applied when
the pest is at its most vulnerable and when its predators are not as active (Dajoz,
2000). The period between larval hatching and building of winter nests is the most
effective. Chemical and biological control treatments are typically applied aerially and
the most effective insecticide is Bacillus thuringiensis. For small outbreaks or when
population density is low, mechanical control by cutting and burning winter nests is
also recommended (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Pheromone traps are also used for detection,
monitoring and mass trapping.
There are a number of predators, parasitoids and diseases which play a role
in the biological control of Thaumetopoea pityocampa. Eggs are attacked by the
wasp parasitoids Anastatus bifasciatus, Baryscapus servadeii, Oencyrtus pityocampae,
Tetrastichus servadei and Trichogramma sp. and the orthopteran predators Barbitiste
fischeri and Ephippiger ephippiger (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Schmidt, Mirchev and
Tsankov, 1997). Pine processionary larvae are attacked by the dipteran parasitoids
Phryxe caudata, Compsilura concinnata and Ctenophora pavida, the hymenopteran
parasitoids Erigorgus femorator and Meteorus versicolor, and the dipteran predator
Xanthandrus comptus (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Dajoz, 2000). Birds are also known to
feed on these caterpillars. Pupae are attacked by the dipteran parasitoids Villa brunnea
and V. quinquefasciata, the wasp parasitoids Coelichneumon rudis, Ichneumon rudis
and Conomorium eremita, and the fungus Beauveria bassiana (EPPO/CABI, 1997;
Dajoz, 2000). The most important diseases of T. pityocampa are caused by the viruses
Borrelina sp. and Smithiavirus pityocampae, the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis and
Clostridium sp., and the fungi Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana, Cordyceps sp.,
Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomyces farinosus, P. fumoso-roseus and Scopulariopsis sp.
(EPPO/CABI, 1997).
To avoid the accidental introduction of this pest into new areas, nursery stock,
plants and trees, particularly Pinus and Cedrus species, should be examined for the
presence of egg masses, caterpillar colonies and pupae (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
Thaumetopoea processionea
Other scientific names: Bombyx pityocampa Denis & Schiffermüller; Cnethocampa

pityocampa; Thaumetopoea wilkinsonii Tams
Order and Family: Lepidoptera: Thaumetopoeidae
Common names: oak processionary moth
Thaumetopoea processionea Linnaeus, 1758 is a major defoliating pest of oak in Europe.

Native to central and southern Europe, its range has been expanding northwards where
it is causing significant problems in other European countries.
Oak processionary caterpillars, Thaumetopoea processionea
DISTRIBUTION
Native: Europe (central and southern)
Introduced: Europe (northern): Its distribution is expanding northwards and it is now
firmly established in Belgium, northern France and the Netherlands, and has been
reported from southern Sweden and the United Kingdom.
IDENTIFICATION
Adults have a wingspan of 30 to 32 mm and grey forewings with white and some
darker grey markings (UK Forestry Commission, n.d.).
Newly hatched larvae have a uniformly brown body and dark head which lightens
as they grow to become greyer in colour (UK Forestry Commission, n.d.). These
mature larvae have a single dark stripe on the middle of the back and a whitish stripe
along each side. The length of the body is covered by thousands of short hairs and
reddish-orange warts with clumps of very long white hairs.
HOSTS
Oak trees (Quercus spp.) are the main hosts, but other broadleaved trees such as
hornbeam (Carpinus spp.), hazel (Corylus spp.), beech (Fagus spp.), sweet chestnut
(Castanea spp.) and birch (Betula spp.) have also been attacked by this pest, mainly
when they are grown next to severely defoliated oaks.
BIOLOGY
Thaumetopoea processionea has one generation per year (Dajoz, 2000). Females lay
their eggs, between 100 to 200, from July to early September on twigs and small
branches in the canopy (UK Forestry Commission, n.d.). They are deposited in groups
forming plaques of a single layer of eggs which are covered with greyish scales and
remain on the branches over the winter.
Larvae can be found from April to June. They feed in groups and congregate in
communal white silk nests under branches or on the trunk when not feeding. Larval
nests are typically small, about the size of a tennis ball, but much larger ones have been
reported. The larvae pass through 6 to 10 instars, shedding their skin inside the nests
between each stage as they grow (UK Forestry Commission, n.d.; Dajoz, 2000). The
cast skins and hairs accumulate in the nests leading them to take on an orange-brown
colour over time. The larvae typically migrate in procession; following one another
head-to-tail in long lines to and from the nest and from one feeding position to another,
which gives rise to the common name.
Pupation takes place in the nest typically during late June or early July (UK Forestry
Commission, n.d.). Adults typically emerge in August. They are nocturnal and live for
only a day or two (Dajoz, 2000).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Larvae feed on the leaves of host trees causing significant defoliation. Trees are not
usually killed but repeated attacks can severely reduce health and vigour.
Thaumetopoea processionea larvae have urticating hairs that can cause skin
irritation, conjunctivitis, respiratory congestions and asthma in humans. Contact
with dead larvae, cocoons, nests and debris from infested oak forests can also cause
dermatitis and other symptoms throughout the year. These hairs are also carried on air
currents and therefore direct contact is not necessary to cause health problems. The oak
processionary moth tends to be more abundant on urban trees and along forest edges
where there is a high probability of it coming into contact with people. BUGWOOD.ORG/L-M. NAGELEISEN/2101012
Oak branch defoliated by Thaumetopoea processionea


Adult males are strong fliers and are thus capable of natural dispersal to new areas.
Larval processions are also known to travel some distance to find suitable hosts.
Important possible pathways of introduction include the movement of nursery
stock, live oak trees, branches and roundwood (with bark) which is infested with the
eggs or even larvae.
CONTROL MEASURES
If detected, egg masses can be destroyed before they hatch the following spring. The
application of biological pesticides against the larval stages soon after they hatch in
the spring can be effective. Destruction of the nests during the brief pupal stage in
the summer can reduce the number of adult moths that will emerge. Debarking of
roundwood can help prevent the spread of this pest to new areas.
A number of species are known enemies of the oak processionary moth (Dajoz,
2000). Non-specific predators include the beetles Xylodrepa quadripunctata, Calasoma
sycophanta and C. inquisitor, the heteropterans Picromerus bidens and Troilus luridus,
and the dipteran predator Xanthandrus comptus. Non-specific parasitoids include
species of flies such as Ctenophorocera pavida, Zenilia libatrix, Phorocera agilis
and Compsilura concinnata, and the wasps, Pimpla examinator, Theronia atalantae
and Trichogramma, Anastatus and Phobocampe species. The dipteran Carcelia
processioneae is a host specific parasite. Other predators include some species of birds
and small mammals.
DISEASES
Armillaria mellea
Other scientific names: Agaricus melleus Vahl; Agaricus sulphureus Weinm.; Armillaria
mellea var. glabra Gillet; Armillaria mellea var. maxima Barla; Armillaria mellea var.
minor Barla; Armillaria mellea var. sulphurea (Weinm.) Fr.; Armillariella mellea (Vahl)
P. Karst.; Clitocybe mellea (Vahl) Ricken; Lepiota mellea (Vahl) J.E. Lange
Phylum, Order and Family: Basidiomycota: Agaricales: Marasmiaceae
Common names: Armillaria root disease; honey mushroom; shoestring root rot
Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kummer is a common worldwide pathogen of trees, woody

shrubs and herbaceous plants causing root rot, root-collar rot and butt rot. A natural
component of forest ecosystems, it can cause wood decay, growth reduction and even
mortality, particularly in trees stressed by other factors, or in young trees planted on
sites from which infected hosts have been removed.
NORTHEASTERN AREA ARCHIVE/1396133
NORTHEASTERN AREA ARCHIVE/1396135

BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST SERVICE,
BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST SERVICE,
Armillaria mellea fruiting bodies
DISTRIBUTION
Global, found throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world.
IDENTIFICATION
The following description refers to Armillaria species in general (Williams et al.,
1986). Armillaria can be detected by removing the bark covering an infected area to
expose characteristic, fan-like sheets of white mycelium or rhizomorphs that grow
between the wood and the bark. The hyphae grow together in bundles that give
this mycelial mat a striated appearance. The bundles can enlarge, darken and harden
into rhizomorphs. The rhizomorphs are flat, black to reddish brown in colour, up
to 5 mm in width with an outer layer of dark mycelium and an inner core of white
mycelium. Rhizomorphs can also grow through the soil although these tend to be
more cylindrical than and approximately half as wide as those produced beneath
the bark. The rhizomorphs and mycelial fans can leave impressions on the inner
bark, allowing diagnosis even after they decompose.
Mushrooms growing in clusters around the bases of infected trees or stumps
may indicate the presence of Armillaria. These short-lived mushrooms, produced
sporadically in late summer or autumn, are most abundant during moist periods.
They are approximately 5 cm tall with yellow or brown stalks and a ring around
the stalk just below the gills is sometimes evident. The caps are honey-yellow or
tan-brown in colour, 5 to 12.5 cm in diameter with slightly sticky, brown tufted
hairs and light-coloured gills beneath which produce millions of white to light
yellow basidiospores.
HOSTS
Armillaria mellea has a very wide host range of both broadleaf and conifer trees and
also herbaceous plants.
BIOLOGY
The following description refers to Armillaria species in general (Sinclair and Lyon,
2005). The fungus survives as rhizomorphs and vegetative mycelium on and in the dead
wood of tree stumps and roots. It has sometimes been found living several feet above
the soil line on the trunk of trees several years after they are killed by Armillaria.
In late autumn, mushrooms may arise from the rhizomorphs and release millions
of basidiospores which are carried by the wind to dead stumps or injured bark
on living plants. Under favourable conditions of moisture and temperature, the
basidiospores germinate and produce a mycelium that first infects the bark and then
the sapwood and cambial regions. White mycelial mats develop on the sapwood,
followed by the formation of rhizomorphs which can grow for distances of up to
3 m through the soil. Infection occurs when the mycelium comes in contact with
and adheres to the roots of a susceptible host by means of a gelatinous secretion.
The rhizomorph penetrates the root by a combination of mechanical pressure and
enzymes that partially digest the root’s cell walls and then grows into the root tissue
between the cells. Once a host tree or plant has been invaded, the fungus continues
to spread through the root and trunk tissues even several years after it has died; a
large stump can support the growth of rhizomorphs for decades. Depending on
environmental conditions and vigour, host trees or shrubs may die one to several
years after the initial infection.
BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST SERVICE, OGDEN
BUGWOOD.ORG/R.L. ANDERSON/0364052
ARCHIVE/1468005
Peeling back the bark of trees infected with Armillaria mellea exposes mycelial fans (L) and
rhizomorphs (R)
PART II Profiles of selected forest pests DISEASES 125
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Since Armillaria mellea commonly inhabits the roots of host trees and plants, detection
of this species and differentiation of aboveground symptoms from other root and
trunk fungi is difficult. However the presence of characteristic mushrooms growing
around the bases of host trees or obvious symptoms in the crown or on the lower stem
help to identify this pathogen (Williams et al., 1986).
Symptoms of A. mellea infestation include premature autumn colouration and leaf
drop, stunting of growth, yellowing or browning of the foliage, a general decline in
the vigour of the host tree or plant, and dieback of twigs, branches and main stems
(University of Illinois Extension, 2000). Large, vigorous or lightly infected trees can
develop crown symptoms over a number of years until the trees die while small,
extensively infected or low vigour trees develop symptoms rapidly, foliage quickly
discolours and the host tree often dies within a year (Williams et al., 1986). Conifers
frequently produce a larger cone crop (stress cones) shortly before they die. As host
tree decline progresses, rotting of the buttress roots and the lower trunk becomes
evident and severely infected trees exude resin, gum or a fermenting watery liquid from
the lower trunk (University of Illinois Extension, 2000).
On conifers, lower stem infections appear as enlarged areas with large amounts
of resin flow while on broadleaved trees they sometimes develop as sunken cankers
covered with loose bark or a combination of bark, gum and other resins (Williams
et al., 1986). Root infections are frequently heavily coated with resin, soil and
sometimes fungal tissue.

Armillaria can live for decades in suitable live host material, stumps and root fragments, and
can disperse naturally through the spread of rhizomorphs in the soil (Williams et al., 1986).
The movement of infected plants, trees and soil can spread the pathogen to new areas.
CONTROL MEASURES
Due to the worldwide distribution and wide host range of Armillaria mellea, eradication
is not feasible. Control measures focus on limiting the buildup of the disease or
reducing its impact (Williams et al., 1986). Cultural practices, such as reforesting stands
with a mixture of suitable, Armillaria free species, maintaining vigorous tree growth,
minimizing tree stress, preventing tree damage, and reducing the availability of food by
uprooting and burning infected or susceptible root systems and stumps, may help with
managing Armillaria in commercial forests and urban landscapes (Williams et al., 1986).
Individual high value trees can be treated with fungicides around the base of infected
stems or in holes left after trees have been uprooted (Williams et al., 1986).
Botryosphaeria dothidea
Other scientific names: Caumadothis dothidea (Moug.) Petr.; Dothiorella mali var.
fructans Dearn.; Sphaeria dothidea Moug.
Phylum, Order and Family: Ascomycota: Dothideales: Botryosphaeriaceae
Common names: Botryosphaeria canker
Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug.) Ces. & De Not. (1863) is known in many parts
of the world and is commonly associated with cankers and dieback on hundreds of
different woody plants, including eucalypts. Eucalypt species are planted around the
world which makes this species a major concern to the forest sector. This pathogen
is an opportunistic pathogen that attacks stressed trees. The entire taxonomy of the
genus Botryosphaeria has undergone changes in the last few years (see Crous et al.,
2006 for more information). This species was previously considered synonymous with
Botryosphaeria ribis, so literature on both species is inextricably intertwined, but these
are now considered two distinct species.
BUGWOOD.ORG/UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA PLANT PATHOLOGY ARCHIVE/1496002
BUGWOOD.ORG/R.L. ANDERSON/0590018
Cankers caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea on apple (Malus sp.) (L) and Leyland cypress (X
Cupressocyparis leylandii) with bark removed (R)
DISTRIBUTION
Botryosphaeria dothidea has a worldwide distribution. The origin of this species is
unknown although it has been suggested that it is native to the Northern Hemisphere
since it occurs on native and cultivated hosts there (Slippers et al., 2005).
IDENTIFICATION
A more detailed description of the morphology of Botryosphaeria dothidea can be
found in Slippers et al. (2004), Crous et al. (2006) or CREM (2008).
Asci are produced in fruiting bodies called stroma that erupt through the bark
and have multi-layered walls. The fruiting bodies occur singly or in clusters, often
intermixed with conidiomata, and are 200 to 500 μm in diameter (Slippers et al., 2004;
Crous et al., 2006). Asci have two layers (bitunicate) and the inner layer is quite thick.
They can be stalked or not stalked, club-shaped, with a well-developed apical chamber,
eight-spored, septate and rarely branched toward the tip (Slippers et al., 2004; Crous
et al., 2006). Ascospores are unicellular, hyaline, fusoid to ovoid and sometimes have
tapered ends giving a spindle-shaped appearance (Slippers et al., 2004; Crous et al.,
2006). Once germinated, they turn brown and become septate and even slightly bumpy
(Crous et al., 2006).
The pathogen is often diagnosed by the conidial state, Fusicoccum aesculi Corda.
Conidiomata are flask-shaped and morphologicallyindistinguishable from the ascomata
(Slippers et al., 2004). Conidia are hyaline, unicellular, narrowly fusiform or irregularly
fusiform with subtruncate to bluntly rounded bases, 23 to 25 μm in length and 4 to
5 μm in diameter and rarely have septums (Slippers et al., 2004). Conidiogenous cells
are holoblastic, hyaline, subcylindrical and 6 to 20 μm in length and 2 to 5 μm in
diameter (Slippers et al., 2004).
Spermatia are unicellular, hyaline, allantoid to rod-shaped and 3 to 6 μm in length and
1.5 to 2 μm in diameter (Slippers et al., 2004). Spermatophores are hyaline, cylindrical to
subcylindrical, 4 to 10 μm in length and 1 to 2 μm in diameter (Slippers et al., 2004).
BUGWOOD.ORG/UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA PLANT PATHOLOGY ARCHIVE/1496106

BUGWOOD.ORG/E.L. BARNARD/4822085
Crown thinning and dieback in American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and apple (Malus sp.)
caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea infection
HOSTS
Botryosphaeria dothidea has a very wide host range of trees and shrubs. It is a major
problem in planted forests particularly those planted with eucalypts, but susceptibility
differs among the eucalypt species.
BIOLOGY
Botryosphaeria dothidea is an opportunistic pathogen that becomes more of a problem
to stressed hosts. The pathogen infects through wounds or natural openings in the bark,
and survives endophytically until the host becomes stressed by drought, late frosts, cold
or hot winds, insect damage or pruning (TPCP, 2002a; Sinclair and Lyon, 2005).
Botryosphaeria dothidea overwinters in dead and infected stems. Spores are dispersed
by wind, rain and possibly insects to new hosts where they germinate and invade the
host tissues. Pruning wounds are a common infection court. Fungal fruiting bodies
produced just under the surface of stems release spores which spread to adjacent hosts.
Except for a few weeks in winter, spores are released year-round although infections
occur more frequently in early summer.
Discolouration of the vascular tissue of American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) caused by
Botryosphaeria dothidea infection; only the light-coloured section (¼) is alive
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Botryosphaeria dothidea causes dieback and canker in hundreds of woody plants and
trees. On some hosts, only small twigs die, especially if the host is vigorous. Stressed
trees may be unable to compartmentalize the infection, and the dieback progresses into
larger branches and trunk.
In Eucalyptus spp. infection can result in the death of tree tops and a discolouration
of the stem core which can extend throughout the tree (TPCP, 2002a). Stem and branch
cankers are very serious symptoms of B. dothidea infection; the stems and branches
often break at the site of the cankers (TPCP, 2002a).

Spores are dispersed by wind, rain and possibly insects to new hosts. Movement of
infected trees, plants and wood products is a possible pathway of introduction.
CONTROL MEASURES
Encouraging vigourous growth and reducing damage to susceptible host trees can help
avoid infection by Botryosphaeria dothidea. Removal of pruned or fallen branches can
reduce inoculum. Early detection and the planting of disease tolerant species or clones
can help reduce losses in forest plantations (TPCP, 2002a).
Chrysoporthe cubensis
Phylum, Order and Family:: Ascomycota: Diaporthales: Incertae sedis

Common names: Eucalyptus canker; Eucalyptus canker disease
Chrysoporthe cubensis (Bruner) Gryzenhout & M.J. Wingfield, previously named

Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges, is a widespread fungus well known for the
canker disease it causes, particularly in Eucalyptus spp. The cankers result in limb and
trunk breakages, stunted and distorted growth, and often mortality. This is a very
important disease in eucalypt plantations as it is known to kill significant numbers of
trees, particularly those in young plantations, and as a result it is a major constraint to
the successful establishment of eucalypt plantations.
Fruiting bodies of Chrysoporthe cubensis: perithecia embedded in and protruding from bark
removed from cankered tissues of Eucalyptus grandis
DISTRIBUTION
The geographic origin of this pathogen is unknown. The original host is thought to be
clove (Syzygium aromaticum) which is native to Indonesia (Myburg, Wingfield and
Wingfield, 1999). However, others have suggested that C. cubensis is native to South
and Central America based upon its wide occurrence in the region, its high phenotypic
diversity in various South America countries and the discovery of this pathogen on
native Miconia species in Colombia (Gryzenhout et al., 2006).
It is found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world including
Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Suriname, Venezuela, United States (Florida, Hawaii,
Puerto Rico), Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo,
United Republic of Tanzania (Zanzibar), Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore and Western Samoa (Gryzenhout et al., 2004).
IDENTIFICATION
Detailed descriptions of the morphology of Chrysoporthe cubensis can be found in
Gryzenhout et al. (2004) and Myburg et al. (2004).
Conidiomata of Chrysoporthe cubensis occur separately or on the top of an
ascostroma and are distinguishable from ascomata by their pyriform shape, attenuated
necks, conidiomatal locules and distinct stromatic tissue (Gryzenhout et al., 2004).
They are generally superficial, black, pyriform to globose with attenuated necks
(Gryzenhout et al., 2004; Myburg et al., 2004). Conidiophores are hyaline and consist
of a globular to rectangular basal cell that branches irregularly at the base or above into
cylindrical cells (Gryzenhout et al., 2004). Conidia are hyaline, non-septate, oblong,
and secreted as bright spore tendrils or droplets (Gryzenhout et al., 2004).
Ascomata are semi-immersed in the bark and are recognizable by extending, fuscous-
black, cylindrical perithecial necks (Gryzenhout et al., 2004; Myburg et al., 2004).
Ascostroma stand 120 to 230 μm above the level of bark and are 280 to 490 μm in
diameter (Gryzenhout et al., 2004). Ascospores are fusoid to oval with a septum that is
usually central and tapered apices (Gryzenhout et al., 2004; Myburg et al., 2004).
HOSTS
Species from the Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae and Lythraceae families including
Syzygium aromaticum, Melastoma malabathricum, Lagerstroemia indica, Clidemia
sericea, Rhynchanthera mexicana, Psidium cattleianum and species of Eucalyptus,
Tibouchina and Miconia.
BIOLOGY
Chrysoporthe cubensis infects trees through wounds, particularly at the bases of young
trees. The most common method of infection is believed to be through asexual spores
that are dispersed by rain splash although wind disseminated sexual spores are also
common (TPCP, 2002b). Infection is favoured by warm temperatures and rainfall
(Myburg, Wingfield and Wingfield, 1999). Lesions expand more rapidly in plants that
are well-watered than in those where the soil or climate is relatively dry (Sinclair and
Lyon, 2005).
Symptoms and damage caused by Chrysoporthe cubensis on Eucalyptus grandis: bark fissures
at the base of infected tree (L) and advanced canker development (R)
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Chrysoporthe cubensis causes a canker disease which results in girdling of stems,
limb and trunk breakages, stunted and distorted growth, wilting and often mortality
(Gryzenhout et al., 2004; Nakabonge et al., 2006). This is a very important disease in
eucalypt plantations as it is known to kill significant numbers of eucalypts, particularly
those in young plantations. The cankers can be found at the bases of hosts or higher up
on the trunks (Nakabonge et al., 2006).

The movement of infected plants and trees can spread the pathogen to new areas.
CONTROL MEASURES
Breeding for disease-tolerant eucalypt hybrids has been successful in managing the
disease caused by Chrysoporthe spp. in some countries, such as Brazil and South Africa
(Nakabonge et al., 2006). Planting of disease tolerant eucalypts, and avoiding planting
in high risk areas, can help reduce losses in plantations (TPCP, 2002b).
Mycosphaerella pini
Other scientific names: Cytosporina septospora Dorog.; Dothistroma pini Hulbary;

Dothistroma pini var. keniense M.H. Ivory [as ‘keniensis’]; Dothistroma pini var. lineare
Thyr & C.G. Shaw; Dothistroma septosporum (Dorog.) M. Morelet [as ‘septospora’];
Dothistroma septosporum var. keniense (M.H. Ivory) B. Sutton; Dothistroma
septosporum var. lineare (Thyr & D.E. Shaw) B. Sutton; Dothistroma septosporum var.
septosporum (Dorog.) M. Morelet; Eruptio pini (Rostr.) M.E. Barr; Mycosphaerella pini
(A. Funk & A.K. Parker) Arx; Scirrhia pini A. Funk & A.K. Parker; Septoria septospora
(Dorog.) Arx; Septoriella septospora (Dorog.) Sacc.
Phylum, Order and Family: Ascomycota: Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae
Common names: pine needle blight; dothistroma needle blight; needle fungus; red
band needle blight
Mycosphaerella pini Rostrup, 1957 is a fungus that infects and kills the needles of Pinus
spp. resulting in significant defoliation, stunted growth and eventually death of host
trees. It is a major pest in both naturally regenerated and planted forests and probably
the most important foliage disease of exotic pines. Susceptibility among pine species
does vary. The widely planted P. radiata is particularly susceptible and many forests
planted with this species in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly in East Africa,
New Zealand and Chile, have been devastated by this needle blight. This pathogen has
forced managers in some areas to abandon the planting of P. radiata and depend more
on other tree species.
BUGWOOD.ORG/USDA FOREST SERVICE

BUGWOOD.ORG/R.L. JAMES/2251051
ARCHIVE/2251050
Red transverse bands on pine needles are a characteristic symptom of Mycosphaerella pini infection
DISTRIBUTION
Mycosphaerella pini is believed to be native to the cloud forests of Central America
though it now has a worldwide distribution (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
IDENTIFICATION
Ascostromata are black, multiloculate, subepidermal, erumpent, 200 to 600 x 95 to 150 μm
in size and densely aggregated in red bands (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Hildebrand, 2005).
Asci are cylindric or clavate, bitunicate, apex rounded, eight-spored, and 46 to 52 x 8 to
10 μm in size (Hildebrand, 2005). Ascospores are hyaline, with one septum, fusiform to
cuneate, and 13 to 16 x 3 to 4 μm in size (Hildebrand, 2005).
The conidial state is known as Dothistroma septosprum. Conidial stromata are

linear, subepidermal, erumpent, dark brown or black, 125 to 1500 μm long, 5 to 45 μm
wide and up to 600 μm high (Hildebrand, 2005). Conidial locules are parallel to the
longitudinal axis of stromata and lack a distinct wall (Hildebrand, 2005). Conidiophores
are numerous, hyaline or amber, dense, unbranched and are approximately the same
size as the conidia which they produce at their tips (Hildebrand, 2005). Conidia are
hyaline, one- to five- but usually three-septate, blunt at the ends, straight, slightly
curved or bent and 16 to 64 x 3.5 μm in size (Hildebrand, 2005).
HOSTS
The main hosts are pines, such as Pinus contorta, P. echinata, P. jeffreyi, P. monticola,
P. muricata, P. pinaster, P. ponderosa, P. radiata, P. resinosa, and P. sylvestris, although
other species such as Picea abies, Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Larix
decidua have been infected (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
BIOLOGY
Mycosphaerella pini produces both conidia and ascospores although the conidial
state is most frequently encountered (Hildebrand, 2005). Numerous conidia are
produced in the stromata (fruiting bodies) which develop below the epidermis of
infected needles (Peterson, 1982). Stromata can remain viable on dry infected foliage
for many months and will produce conidia when suitable moist conditions arise
(Hildebrand, 2005). Conidia are dispersed short distances by rain splash and longer
distances by wind-dispersed moisture droplets, mist and low clouds (EPPO/CABI,
1997; Hildebrand, 2005). Optimum temperatures for spore germination are between
18 and 24 oC (Hildebrand, 2005). After germination, germ tubes grow toward the
stomata through which infection occurs. The fungus grows within the needle tissue
and kills cells with the toxin, dothistromin, in advance of the growing hyphae
(Hildebrand, 2005). Dead needles remain attached to the host tree and produce
spores for approximately one year (Hildebrand, 2005).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Mycosphaerella pini is a fungus that infects and kills the needles of many Pinus
spp. resulting in premature loss of needles and significant defoliation. Damage by
Mycosphaerella pini has significant impacts on commercial forests, Christmas tree
plantations and nurseries. This pathogen can spread rapidly when environmental
conditions, mild climate with high rainfall or frequent fog or mist, favour infection.
BUGWOOD.ORG/A.S. MUNSON/1470122
Symptoms of Mycosphaerella pini infection on Pinus nigra

Infected host trees typically have thin crowns with discoloured and dead needles,
especially on the lower crown (Hildebrand, 2005). Early symptoms are the presence of
yellow to tan spots on needles which later turn brown or reddish brown and enlarge
to produce the characteristic red band around the needle (Peterson, 1982; Hildebrand,
2005). These red bands are diagnostic for this disease and are caused by the presence
of dothistromin, a toxin produced by M. pini (Hildebrand, 2005). The ends of infected
needles eventually turn brown but the bases of the needles remain green (Peterson,
1982; Hildebrand, 2005). Small black fruiting bodies break through the needle
epidermis in the centre of the red band (Hildebrand, 2005). Infected needles die and
drop prematurely typically leaving branches with only terminal needles remaining
(Hildebrand, 2005). Older needles are typically cast before younger needles. The
development of epicormic shoots on the stem and major branches of infected host trees
may also occur (EPPO/CABI, 1997). Host trees can be defoliated within weeks and
successive years of infection results in stunted growth and eventual mortality.

Mycosphaerella pini produces numerous conidia that can be dispersed short distances
by rain splash; long distance dispersal is often through wind dispersed moisture
droplets, mist and low cloud (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Hildebrand, 2005). Ascospores can
also be wind-dispersed long distances.
Longer distance spread can occur through the movement of infected planting stock,
seed mixed with small infected needle pieces and logs which have infected needles
lodged in the bark crevices (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Hildebrand, 2005). Once the pathogen
has been transported to new areas, it is capable of producing spores and thereby
spreading to nearby suitable hosts as long as there is sufficient moisture for spore
germination and infection (Hildebrand, 2005).
CONTROL MEASURES
Mycosphaerella pini has been successfully controlled through the use of copper
fungicides although over large areas their use is not always economically feasible
(EPPO/CABI, 1997; Hildebrand, 2005). In nurseries and Christmas tree plantings,
however, fungicides can be effective and economical (Hildebrand, 2005). Pruning and
the planting of less susceptible pine species or pest tolerant varieties can also help in the
control of this pathogen (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Hildebrand, 2005).
Phytophthora ramorum
Phylum, Order and Family: Oomycota: Pythiales: Pythiaceae

Common names: sudden oak death (SOD); sudden oak death syndrome (SODS);
ramorum blight; ramorum dieback; ramorum leaf blight; ramorum shoot blight
Phytophthora ramorum S. Werres, A.W.A.M. de Cock & W.A. Man in’t Veld causes a
very serious disease called sudden oak death which causes extensive mortality of tanoak
and oaks. It is also associated with disease on ornamental plants and other broadleaf
and conifer trees. This pathogen has been a significant problem in North American and
European forests and nurseries.
Cankers and bleeding on coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) resulting from Phytophthora
ramorum infection
DISTRIBUTION
Native: The geographic origin of P. ramorum is unknown.
Introduced: It is believed that it has been introduced independently to Europe and
North America from an unidentified third country.
North America: Canada (nursery report now eradicated); United States (14 counties in
coastal California, one county in southwest Oregon)
Europe: Nursery reports only from Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland,
Italy, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and Sweden; nursery as well as
wildland reports from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
IDENTIFICATION
In culture, P. ramorum hyphae are highly branched, contorted and dendritic (GISD,
2007). Chlamydospores are mostly terminal occurring on hyphal tips, 22 to 72 μm in
length and at first are translucent but darken to a cinnamon brown colour (Kliejunas,
2001; GISD, 2007). Sporangia are oval-shaped, semi-papillate, deciduous and 30 to 90 μm
in length (Kliejunas, 2001; GISD, 2007).
HOSTS
In the United States, Phytophthora ramorum attacks a variety of tree species including
coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), California black oak (Q. kelloggii), shreve oak
(Q. parvula var. shrevei), canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis) and tanoaks (Lithocarpus
densiflorus) (Thomas, 2005). It is also known to infect several other plant and tree species
such as Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobatum),
big leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies grandis), rhododendron and azalea species
(Rhododendron), Pacific huckleberry/evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum),
lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), mountain laurel (Kalmia
latifolia), manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita), English yew (Taxus baccata), dwarf
rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), California coffeeberry
(Rhamnus californica), cascara buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana), beaked hazelnut
(Corylus cornuta), Victorian box (Pittosporum undulatum), California buckeye
(Aesculus californica), California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica), California
honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula), toyon/Christmasberry (Heteromeles arbutifolia),
western starflower (Trientalis latifolia), Syringa spp., Viburnum spp., Pieris spp. and
Camellia spp. (Kliejunas, 2001; EPPO, 2008).
In Europe, P. ramorum is mainly found on Rhododendron and Viburnum species,
but has also been isolated from Arbutus, Camellia, Hamamelis, Kalmia, Leucothoe,
Pieris and Syringa species (EPPO, 2008). In the United Kingdom, an isolated finding
was reported on one Quercus falcata tree and on a few trees of Fagus sylvatica, Quercus
ilex, Q.cerris, Castanea sativa and Aesculus hippocastanum (EPPO, 2008). In the
Netherlands, infections on one Q. rubra and two Fagus sylvatica have been reported;
all were located near infected Rhododendron (EPPO, 2008).
An updated list of P. ramorum hosts can be found on the USDA’s Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Web site at: www.aphis.usda.gov
BIOLOGY
Phytophthora ramorum exists as two separate mating types: the A1 mating type (found
primarily in Europe); and the A2 type (found primarily in North America) (Kliejunas,
2001). Sexual reproduction can only occur if these two types come together.
Two types of asexual fruiting structures, sporangia and chlamydospores, are
produced on the foliage of non-oak hosts (Kliejunas, 2005; DEFRA, 2005a). Infected
oak produce few spores while other hosts such as bay laurel and tanoak produce
prolific sporulation, and are believed important in the epidemiology of the disease. The
sporangia hold and produce zoospores which can swim by means of flagellae. Warm
temperatures of approximately 18 to 20 °C and/or a water film facilitate infection.
Leaves and twigs then develop black lesions where, in conditions of very high humidity
and moderate temperature, new sporangia and chlamydospores are produced typically
within two days (GISD, 2007). Chlamydospores form inside the leaf tissue, and
provide a resting/survival structure that remains viable in the organic material or soil
for over one year. Infectious propagules accumulate in water bodies in the soil beneath
the host (GISD, 2007). Infection of the main stems of tanoaks and oaks generally
occurs only under high spore pressure, usually provided by nearby sporulation hosts,
such as rhododendron or bay laurel (GISD, 2007).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Symptoms vary depending on host type. On oaks and tanoak, infection results in
stem bark lesions, basal cankers which produce reddish, black or dark brown sappy
exudates (‘bleeding’), and crown dieback (Kliejunas, 2001; Thomas, 2005). Cankers
are typically found on the lower trunk, although they may occur up to 20 m above
the ground; they do not extend into the roots below the soil line (Kliejunas, 2001).
Branch cankers also occur, especially on tanoak. On tanoak, infection of terminal twigs
can lead to tip dieback, leaf flagging or the formation of shepherd’s crooks (Kliejunas,
2001). Exudations do not always develop on tanoak, especially on smaller diameter
branches. Infected host trees die relatively quickly once crown symptoms develop
although the severity of damage varies considerably between sites. On other hosts,
infection typically results in leaf lesions, small branch cankers, and stem and branch
dieback (Kliejunas, 2001).
Symptoms of Phytophthora ramorum infection on tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and coast
live oak (Quercus agrifolia)

Phytophthora ramorum is dispersed locally by rain splash, wind-driven rain, irrigation
or ground water, soil and soil litter (Kliejunas, 2001; DEFRA, 2005a). The deciduous
nature of the sporangia opens the possibility for air dispersal. Bark and ambrosia
beetles are commonly found on infected trees but their potential role of vectors has not
yet been investigated (EPPO, 2008).
Spread over longer distances occurs through the movement of contaminated plant
material, growing media and nursery stock as well as in soil carried on vehicles,
machinery, footwear or animals (Kliejunas, 2001; DEFRA, 2005a).
CONTROL MEASURES
Trunk painting with Agri-Fos, a systemic fungicide, has effectively prevented infection
on high value trees. This material provides some curative action, if the infection is not
too far advanced. An active eradication program, requiring the removal of all host
material with a buffer strip of 30 m has greatly reduced the spread of the pathogen in
Oregon. In California, and in nurseries, the focus is on preventing the further spread
through careful monitoring and detection methods and quarantine procedures.
In natural areas heavily infested with P. ramorum eradication is not feasible.
Small infestations can be eradicated if the pathogen is detected early enough, by
removing all infected or suspect host material, with a large buffer zone, treating
stumps to prevent resprouting, and broadcast burning to kill inoculum in the

plant debris and leaf litter (COMTF, 2008). In nurseries, the application of
fungicides, the planting of host resistant plants and cultural control methods such
as pruning, destruction of affected plants, avoiding standing water and careful
examination of plants can help to decrease the incidence of P. ramorum (DEFRA,
2005b; Benson, 2003).
OTHER PESTS
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
Other scientific names: Aphelenchoides xylophilus Steiner & Buhrer; Bursaphelenchus

lignicolus Mamiya & Kiyohara
Order and Family: Tylenchida: Aphelenchoididae
Common names: pine wood nematode; pine wilt nematode; pine wilt disease
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner & Buhrer) Nickle, the pine wilt nematode, is the
causal agent of pine wilt disease. Native to North America where it is not considered a
serious pest, the nematode is a major threat to Asian and European pine forests and has
resulted in extensive tree mortality in countries where it has been introduced.
BUGWOOD.ORG/J. TOMMINEN/0725076
BUGWOOD.ORG/L.D. DWINELL/4387006
Species of Monochamus serve as vectors for the pine wilt nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
DISTRIBUTION
Native: North America (Canada, Mexico, United States)
Introduced: Asia and the Pacific: Hong Kong (1999); Japan (early 1990s, first record in
1905), People’s Republic of China (1982), Republic of Korea (1988)
Europe: Portugal (1999)
IDENTIFICATION
B. xylophilus shows the general characters of Bursaphelenchus spp. with lips high and
offset, a weakly developed stylet with reduced basal knobs, well developed median bulb
with a dorsal oesophageal gland opening inside (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Shi, 2005). The
female’s post-uterine sac is long and in males, the tail is curved ventrally, conoid and has a
pointed terminus. A small bursa is situated terminally and spicules are well developed, with
a prominent rostrum. Characteristics distinct to the species B. xylophilus include: spicules
in males are flattened into a disc-like structure (the cucullus) at their distal extremity; the
anterior vulval lip in the female is a distinct overlapping flap; and the posterior end of the
body is rounded in nearly all females (EPPO/CABI, 1997; Shi, 2005).
HOSTS
Pines are the main hosts and the dead wood of all pines can provide substrate for
nematode development. Examples of species susceptible to attack as living trees
include Pinus bungeana, P. densiflora, P. echinata, P. luchuensis P. massoniana, P. nigra,
P. palustris P. pinaster, P. strobus, P. sylvestris and P. thunbergii (EPPO/CABI, 1997;
Diekmann et al., 2002). Larix, Abies, Picea and Pseudotsuga species can also act as hosts
though reports of damage are rare (EPPO/CABI, 1997).
BIOLOGY
The spread of this nematode is via wood-boring beetles in the genus Monochamus: M.
alternatus in China, Korea and Japan, M. carolinensis, M. scutellatus and M. titillator in
North America (Diekmann et al., 2002; Shi, 2005) and M. galloprovincialis in Portugal.
They become infested with the nematode just before emerging as adults from diseased
host trees. Adult beetles can act as vectors for thousands of nematodes. The beetles fly
to healthy pines where they feed on the thin bark of twigs and shoots. The nematode
enters the trees via the feeding wounds created by the beetles. They feed on fungi
and multiply in the host trees. Pine wilt disease is most prevalent in warm climates as
the nematode completes its life cycle in 12, 6 and 3 days at 15 °C, 20 °C and 30 °C,
respectively (Diekmann et al., 2002).
SYMPTOMS AND DAMAGE

Within host trees, the pine wilt nematodes reproduce rapidly and the infested trees show
symptoms of decline approximately three weeks later (Kiritani and Morimoto, 2004).
Initial symptoms appear in summer through early autumn, and include yellowing and
BUGWOOD.ORG/M. OSTRY/1406274
BUGWOOD.ORG/L.D. DWINELL/4387010
Damage caused by the pine wilt nematode including needle discolouration, reddish crowns
and stained wood
PART II Profiles of selected forest pests OTHER PESTS 141
needle wilting. Dead trees characteristically exhibit reddish-brown foliage throughout

the crown. No oleoresin flows from wounds made to the trunk, branches or twigs of
diseased trees which is a first indication of the presence of nematodes (Diekmann et al.,
2002; Kiritani and Morimoto, 2004).
Usually trees die rapidly, but in cooler areas disease development may be slower
and affected trees may survive until the following year. High temperatures and low
precipitation in summer can accelerate damage because of their impacts on feeding
by the adult beetle vectors, the propagation of the nematode and water stress on trees
(Kiritani and Morimoto, 2004). In Asia, infected trees have been noted to die within
40 days and the entire pine forest invaded by the nematode declines in 3 to 5 years (Shi,
2005). Kiritani and Morimoto (2004) noted that most infected trees die within a year of
infection in warm temperate climatic zones.

Without their vectors, pine wilt nematodes are incapable of moving from one host
tree to another. Adult vector beetles are active fliers and peak flight activity is usually
about 5 days after emergence. It has been reported that the beetles are capable of flying
several kilometers, but in most cases dispersal is only for a few hundred metres (EPPO/
CABI, 1997). Long-distance spread occurs with movement of vector-infested logs and
other wood products (Diekmann et al., 2002).
CONTROL MEASURES
Once introduced into a tree B. xylophilus is considered impossible to control. Therefore
efforts have concentrated on prevention and a combination of silvicultural practices,
such as removing dead or dying trees from the forest to help eliminate the source
of further infection, and chemical control aimed at the vector beetles. Preventative
measures applied in North America include avoiding the planting of non-native pines
in areas where the mean summer temperature is greater than 20 °C and reducing the
susceptibility of trees by fertilizing and watering to avoid drought stress, promote
tree health and reduce the chances of borer attack (Shi, 2005). Research on alternative
control measures, such as biological control agents for the nematodes and their
vectors, insect attractants, breeding of resistant Pinus clones and inducing resistance by
inoculation of non-pathogenic strains of B. xylophilus, is ongoing (EPPO/CABI, 1997;
Kiritani and Morimoto, 2004).
Listed as an A1 quarantine pest by EPPO, regulations have been imposed on United
States and Canadian shipments of unprocessed coniferous wood products since the
early 1990s (EPPO/CABI, 1997). To prevent the introduction of B. xylophilus and its
vectors EPPO recommends that coniferous plants and products should be prohibited
from countries where the nematode occurs. The international standard ISPM No. 15
provides guidelines for regulating wood packaging materials in international trade to
prevent the introduction of forest pests including B. xylophilus.
PART III
Pests of
selected forest
tree species
PART III Pests of selected forest tree species 143
Abies grandis
Order and Family: Pinales: Pinaceae

Common names: grand fir; giant fir
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
Abies grandis is a western North American (both Pacific and Cordilleran) species
(Klinka et al., 1999). It grows in coastal (maritime) and interior (continental) regions
from latitude 39 to 51 °N and at a longitude of 125 to 114 °W. In coastal regions, it
grows in southern British Columbia (Canada), in the interior valleys and lowlands
of western Washington and Oregon (United States), and in northwestern California
(United States). Its range extends to eastern Washington, northern Idaho, western
Montana, and northeastern Oregon (Foiles, 1965; Little, 1979). This species is not
cultivated as an exotic to any significant extent.
PESTS
Arthropods in indigenous range
The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) and Douglas-fir tussock
moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata) have caused widespread defoliation, top kill and mortality
to grand fir. Early-instar larvae of C. occidentalis mine and kill the buds, while late-
instar larvae are voracious and wasteful feeders, often consuming only parts of needles,
chewing them off at their bases. The western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes confusus)
and the fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis) are the principal bark beetles. Fir cone moths
(Barbara spp.), fir cone maggots (Earomyia spp.), and several seed chalcids destroy
large numbers of grand fir cones and seeds. The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae)
is a serious pest of A. grandis in western Oregon, Washington and southwestern British
Columbia (Furniss and Carolin, 1977). Feeding by this aphid causes twigs to swell or
‘gout’ at the nodes and the cambium produces wide, irregular annual growth rings
consisting of reddish, highly lignified, brittle wood (Harris, 1978).
Diseases in indigenous range

Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important factors in the
management of A. grandis. Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) is the most
destructive fungus affecting this species in Washington and Oregon (Hepting, 1971),
but is rare where rapid growth rates close branch stubs quickly (Etheridge and Craig,
1976). E. tinctorium causes a brown stringy rot, but in early stages decay appears as
a light-brown or water-soaked stain in the heartwood. Centres of decay are closely
related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops and other mechanical injuries (Maloy,
1967). Armillaria spp. and Phellinus weirii are the two most important root-rot fungi
(Hepting, 1971).
Acacia mangium
Order and Family: Fabales: Fabaceae

Common names: brown salwood
Acacia mangium is found in northern Queensland, Australia, where it has a very limited
distribution in two regions. Most occurrences are in the coastal, tropical lowlands, with small
occurrences up to 800 m. It extends through the Western Province of Papua New Guinea
into the Indonesian provinces of Irian Jaya and Maluku (Awang and Taylor, 1993).
PESTS
Arthropods and diseases in indigenous range
There are no significant reports.
Arthropods in introduced range

Hutacharern (1992, 1993) lists a wide range of insect pests affecting A. mangium and
identified a stem borer (Zeuzera coffeae), root pests (Coptotermes curvignathus) and a
shoot and stem girdler (Sinoxylon sp.) as serious pests. Insect damage to the wood by
carpenter ants (Camporatus sp.), termites (Coptotermes sp.) and a Cerambycid wood
borer (Xystocera sp.) has been recorded in localized areas in Sabah, Malaysia.
Pinhole beetles of three species (Xyleborus perforans, X. crassiusculus, and an
unidentified Xyleborus sp.) were observed on logs of A. mangium during pruning
studies in an industrial plantation at Surigao del Sur, Philippines (Braza, 1995). Ho
and Maznah (1995) found a total of 21 species of beetles from the family Scolytidae
attacking both unseasoned and seasoned A. mangium timber.
Diseases in introduced range

Diseases of A. mangium in plantations in tropical areas of Southeast Asia, the Indian
subcontinent and northern Australia have been reviewed by Lenné (1992), Lee (1993)
and Old, Lee and Sharma (1997).
Mehrotra et al. (1996) describe root and heart rots, their causal agents and potential
control measures in plantations of A. mangium in West Bengal, India. Root rot of A.
mangium, caused by Ganoderma sp. and Phellinus spp., affects young stands in most
places where A. mangium is now grown. Management options include the physical
removal of stumps and woody debris and possible use of fungicides. A yellow, mottled,
soft, light heart rot involving a range of wood decay fungi is a potentially serious
source of wood degradadation throughout all areas where the species is grown, with
50 percent of trees affected in some stands. Cankers associated with decayed branch
stubs and pruning wounds are good indicators of heart rot. Infected trees can continue
to grow vigorously to maturity. Management options include adopting silvicultural
practices that limit wounds to the stem, including early singling of multistemmed trees,
short rotations and selecting provenances for slender branches and single stems.
Other significant diseases include stem cankers involving a range of pathogens, pink
disease (Corticium salmonicolor) and phyllode rust (Endoraecium digitatum).
INVASIVENESS
Acacia mangium could become a weed under certain conditions.
Casuarina equisetifolia
Order and Family: Casuarinales: Casuarinaceae

Common names: coast she-oak; whistling pine; casuarina
Subsp. equisetifolia occurs naturally along the tropical coastlines from Northern
Queensland and Northern Territory in Australia, throughout the whole Malesian
region to the Kra Isthmus of Thailand and adjoining coastal areas of the Andaman Sea
in southern Myanmar. Subsp. incana has a much narrower distribution extending from
the coastlines of central New South Wales to north Queensland in Australia, and in
Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Some dispersal of seed, from cones, may be affected by
water, ensuring the spread of the species along sea shores. C. equisetifolia may form
pure stands on the coastal dunes growing over a ground cover of dune grasses and
broadleaved herbs, or can be part of a richer association of trees and shrubs collectively
termed the Indo-Pacific strand flora (Champion, 1936; Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In
Australia, it also grows in narrow belts adjacent to mangrove forests or scattered in
open woodlands dominated by eucalypts.
PESTS
Arthropods and diseases in indigenous range
There are no significant reports.

C. equisetifolia is a nitrogen-fixing tree of considerable social, economic and
environmental importance in many tropical areas of the world. It is widely planted for
reclamation of unstable coastal ecosystems in the tropics and subtropics.
Over 50 species of insects are known to feed on the species, but serious pest problems
have not occurred. A borer beetle, Sinoxylon anale, girdles small stems (about 1 cm in
diameter), causing them to break at the point of attack (Pinyopusarerk et al., 1996b).
Seedlings are susceptible to browsing by rodents, crabs, crickets and grasshoppers. In
Puerto Rico casuarina is the host for many insect species from the orders Coleoptera,
Hemiptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera (Martorell, 1975). In Cuba, insects
that damage in plantations include the stem and twig borer Apate monachus, leaf
cutting ant Atta insularis, Australian pine spittle-bug Clastoptera undulata and the
cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi. In Florida minor damage is caused by the twig
girdler Oncideres cingulata, the thorn bug Umbonia crassicornis, Australian pine spittle
bug C. undulata and the leaf notcher weevil Artipus floridanus.

The most serious disease threatening C. equisetifolia is blister bark disease. Infected
trees die rapidly after exhibiting symptoms of foliar wilt and cracking of the bark
where blisters develop enclosing a black powdery mass of spores (Bakshi, 1976). Blister
bark disease is associated with the fungus Subramanianospora vesiculosa. The disease
was first reported in Orissa State, India. It has since been recorded in Sri Lanka, from
all of the peninsular states of India, and from Mauritius and Indonesia. It has recently
been observed in Thailand (Pongpanich, Luangviriyasaeng and Dudzinski, 1996) and
Viet Nam (Sharma, 1994).
Bacterial wilt, associated with Ralstonia solanacearum, causes yellowing foliage

and wilting and death has been reported in China and India (Liang and Chen, 1982).
Other serious recorded diseases include serious stem cankers and dieback caused by
Phomopsis casuarinae (Anamorphic Diaporthe), and Botryosphaeria ribis and pink
disease (Corticium salmonicolor) (Pongpanich, Luangviriyasaeng and Dudzinski, 1996).
Brown rot caused by Phellinus noxius causes tree decline in Taiwan (Chang, 1995).
INVASIVENESS
Casuarina equisetifolia has the potential to become a weed under certain conditions
which has been observed in the United States in Hawaii and Florida. It has colonized
disturbed native vegetation formations and interfered in the nesting of sea turtles on
foreshore dunes (Geary, 1983).
Dalbergia latifolia
Order and Family: Fabales: Fabaceae

Common names: blackwood; Indian rosewood
Dalbergia latifolia is indigenous to south and Southeast Asia. In India it is widely
distributed from the sub-Himalayan tract to southern India at altitudes from 0 to
900 m (1350 m in southern India). It is not a gregarious tree and occurs scattered in
mixed deciduous forests.
PESTS
Arthropods in indigenous/introduced range
More than 40 species of insects, including defoliators, bark feeders and sap suckers,
are known to be associated with living trees of D. latifolia. The damage caused by
them is insignificant and there is no threat from any of them in the establishment of
nurseries or plantations (Beeson, 1941; Mathur and Singh, 1960; Browne, 1968; Troup
and Joshi, 1983).

Under the humid conditions of Kerala and Karnataka, fungi cause foliage infection
of minor importance in nursery seedlings, root suckers and trees in natural stands
and plantations (Chiddawar, 1959; Bhat and Hegde, 1991; Sharma, Mohanan and
Florence, 1985).
The rust fungi Uredo sissoo, Maravalia achroa and M. pterocarpi have been reported
to cause foliage infections in nursery seedlings (Spaulding, 1961; Sharma, Mohanan
and Florence, 1985). A Meliola sp. causes a sooty mould of seedlings. Root rot of D.
latifolia caused by Phellinus gilvus and Coriolopsis sanguinaria are the other minor
diseases of the tree, reported from India (Bakshi, 1971, 1976).

In D. latifolia, 13 species of fungi have been reported to cause diseases of nursery
seedlings, root suckers and trees in plantations and natural stands. Among them,
Fusarium solani (Anamorphic Gibberella) which causes wilt and dieback of >15-
year-old trees, as reported from Indonesia, seems to be economically important
(Suharti and Hadi, 1974).
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Order and Family: Myrtales: Myrtaceae

Common names: river red gum
Eucalyptus camaldulensis is the most widely distributed of all eucalypts. The latitudinal
range extends from 12°48' S in the tropical Northern Territory to 38°15' S in cool,
temperate Victoria. It occurs throughout inland mainland Australia, typically along
water-courses and on flood plains, but occasionally extends to slopes at higher
elevations, as in the Mount Lofty Ranges near Adelaide.
PESTS
Insects (e.g. termites and aphids) and rodents may be troublesome in the nursery, and
both physical and chemical control measures may be needed.
In Australia, natural stands and plantations of E. camaldulensis are affected by many
insects and fungi. Leaves are often attacked by leaf chewing insects, particularly of the
Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae families (such as Paropsis spp., Chrysophtharta spp.,
Gonipterus spp., Oxyops spp.) (Stone and Bacon, 1995).

Where the tree is well adapted outside Australia, it is relatively free from problems.
In parts of Africa and Asia, termites affect young trees and must be chemically
controlled (Day, Rudgard and Nair, 1994). In Africa, the Australian eucalyptus
snout beetle, Gonipterus scutellatus* (once considered synonymous with Gonipterus
gibberus), feeds on young shoots but can be controlled biologically. Moribund or
newly felled trees may become infested with the Australian stem borer or longicorn
beetle, Phoracantha semipunctata* (Poynton, 1979). The longicorn beetle has caused
major damage to plantations of E. camaldulensis in parts of North Africa and the
Middle East; it is the most important pest of eucalypts in Israel (Mendel, 1987). E.
camaldulensis was found to be relatively resistant to this pest in southern California,
United States, and this was associated with the species drought resistance (Hanks
et al., 1995).

In the nursery, E. camaldulensis is susceptible to a diverse range of fungi causing
damping-off, collar rot, and leaf diseases (Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia
spp., Cylindrocladium spp.).

Disease is most common where the species is planted off-site, or where inappropriate
provenances are used, resulting in stressed trees that are more susceptible to disease than
healthy ones. Stem cankers and leaf diseases proliferate where rainfall and humidity are
much higher than normally encountered in the natural habitat (e.g. in parts of India;
Sharma and Mohanan, 1991). In humid regions of Viet Nam and Thailand, many E.
camaldulensis plants are defoliated by fungi causing severe reductions in growth rate
and deformed crowns and stems. Several pathogens are associated with this disease
in these countries, with Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum, an important causal

agent (ACIAR, 1996). The most susceptible provenances suffer mortality and general
decline, but some provenances (e.g. Katherine) are little affected, allowing selection and
breeding for resistance to the disease.
In Indonesia, prominent leaf spot symptoms on E. camaldulensis have been
attributed to an unidentified Mycosphaerella sp. (Crous and Alfenas, 1995).
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Anamorphic Glomerella) has been found responsible
for leaf spot and twig blight diseases of young E. camaldulensis plantations in
Bangladesh, but was controllable by chemical sprays (Begum, 1995).
Eucalyptus robusta
Order and Family: Myrtales: Myrtaceae

Common names: swamp mahogany
Eucalyptus robusta occurs naturally in Australia, within a narrow coastal strip
from southern New South Wales (near Nowra) to coastal southeastern Queensland
(northwest of Bundaberg). It is also grows on the offshore islands of North Stradbroke,
Moreton and Fraser in southeast Queensland. A disjunct population occurs just north
of Yeppoon in coastal, central Queensland.
PESTS
In Australia, E. robusta is moderately to highly susceptible to insect attack (Marcar et al.,
1995). The juvenile foliage is attacked by leaf-blister sawfly (Phylacteophaga froggatti)
and autumn gum moth (Mnesampela privata) while adult foliage is susceptible to lerp
(Cardiaspina sp.), autumn gum moth, leaf beetle (Paropsis spp., Chrysophtharta spp.),
leaf-blister sawfly, gumtree hoppers (Eurymela sp., Eurymeloides sp.), scale (Eriococcus
coriaceus, Acanthococcus danzigae (=E. confusus) and Christmas beetle (Anoplognathus
sp.). Older trees under stress by drought are attacked by eucalypt borers (Phoracantha
spp., Phoracantha acanthocera [=Tryphocaria acanthocera], Epithora dorsalis), and
cossid borer (Endoxyla spp.). Young trees are susceptible to termites (Ruskin, 1983).

The sapwood of sawn timber is prone to attack by Lyctus borers (Boland et al.,
1984). E. robusta wood is susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites in Puerto Rico
(Longwood, 1961), while the heartwood of E. robusta was only slightly resistant to
the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, in Hawaii (Grace, Ewart
and Tome, 1996).
The leaf-eating beetle, Colaspis favosa, has reportedly caused serious damage to
young seedlings and coppice shoots in Florida; older trees are unaffected (Geary,
Meskimen and Franklin, 1983). Coleoptera borers (Brazil) and cockchafers (Viet Nam)
are also reported pests of E. robusta (see review in Fenton, Roper and Watt, 1977).
Susceptibility of E. robusta to the Australian eucalyptus snout beetle, Gonipterus
scutellatus* (once considered synonymous with Gonipterus gibberus) has caused a
cessation of planting of the species in some parts of southern Africa (Fenton, Roper
and Watt, 1977; Poynton, 1979).

Leaf spots on E. robusta in the United States (Hawaii), Brazil, Mauritius and
Zimbabwe have been attributed to the fungal pathogens Harknessia hawaiiensis
(Anamorphic Wuestneia), H. insueta (Anamorphic Wuestneia), Colletrotrichum
gloeosporioides (Anamorphic Glomerella) and Cylindrocladium ovatum sp. novus
(see reviews in Fenton, Roper and Watt, 1977; El-Gholl et al., 1993). In Australia,
leaf spots on E. robusta have been attributed to Readeriella mirabilis (Anamorphic
Ascomycetes) (reviewed in Fenton, Roper and Watt, 1977). In the past, the fungus
Cylindrocladium scoparium (Anamorphic Calonectria) has caused serious seedling
losses in Florida (Durst, 1988), but is now controlled by soil sterilization and sprays.
In Puerto Rico, E. robusta is susceptible to gummosis and trunk rots caused by
Phaeolus schweinitzii and Fomes sp. (Durst, 1988). Another fungus, Botryosphaeria
ribis, causes cankers on the trunk (Jacobs, 1981). Susceptibility of E. robusta to root
rot has also been reported (reviewed in Fenton, Roper and Watt, 1977). In Sao Paulo,
Brazil, E. robusta has been attacked by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens
(formerly Phytomonas tumifaciens) (Ruskin, 1983).
Fagus sylvatica
Order and Family: Fagales: Fagaceae

Common names: common beech; European beech
Fagus sylvatica or beech is a deciduous broadleaved tree found in temperate and warm
temperate climates of western Eurasia, where it dominates the natural development of
forest vegetation (Ellenberg, 1986). The southern limit of the natural distribution of F.
sylvatica in Europe is from the Pindos Mountains (Greece), the islands of Sicily and
Corsica, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains in northern Spain. The western
distribution limit is the coast of continental Europe, although beech is indigenous to
southern England and southern Scandinavia. The eastern limit is roughly a line from
the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.
PESTS
Beech is less affected by serious diseases than other tree species in western Eurasia.
Pathogens can destroy regeneration and individual older beech trees, but no mass
destruction on a regional scale has been described (Hartig, 1877; Klimetzek, 1992).
Elateridae larvae, snails (Agriolima agrestis, Arion spp.), Noctuidae larvae (Agrotis
segetum) and fungal pathogens of seedlings (Phytophthora cactorum, P. cinnamomi,
Pythium debaryanum, P. ultimum) cause high mortality (Schwerdtfeger, 1981).
Damage in forest nurseries can be mitigated by pesticides.
Arthropods
The larvae of Cydia fagiglandana and Rhynchaenus fagi can kill 40 percent of beech
mast (Veldmann, 1978).
The gall inducing insects Contarinia fagi and Dasyneura fagicola can destroy buds at bud
burst (Schwerdtfeger, 1981). If the terminal bud is injured the tree tends to become forked.
Several insect species (e.g. Operophtera fagata, Ennomos quercinaria, Rhynchaenus
fagi, Dasychira pudibunda) can completely defoliate beech stands, but as attacks do not
occur until well after foliage has developed, the main effect of them is a reduction in
annual increment and fruit production, rather than long-term damage (Schwerdtfeger,
1981). Protection from biotic damage can be undertaken using chemical pesticides, but
these are only used in nurseries.
Diseases
Germinative capacity can be reduced by infection of beech nuts with the pathogen
Thanatephorus cucumeris (Dubbel, 1992). Fungal infections and staining of fruits can be
prevented by use of nets to harvest beech nuts (Dubbel, 1989; Burschel and Huss, 1987).
Generally the most serious and mortal diseases of beech affect the stem. Beech
bark disease is the only serious disease of beech in Europe. This complex disease can
be widely observed and appears to be chronic on a local to regional scale. It tends
to occur on trees previously subjected to stress due to prolonged drought (or other
causes): a minute sap-sucking insect, the felted beech coccus (Cryptococcus fagisuga),
attacks the tree, followed by infection of the pathogenic fungus Nectria coccinea. The
combined attack of insect and fungus can result in tree death due to moisture stress. In
some cases, the succession of secondary pathogens may include wood-boring insects
(Xyloterus domesticus) and Hylecoetus dermestoides and, finally, white rot (Fomes
fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola, Polyporus spp.) (Lunderstadt, 1992; Schwerdtfeger,
1981). Protection against biotic damage can be achieved by the immediate removal,
through felling, of infected trees.
Gmelina arborea
Order and Family: Lamiales: Verbenaceae

Common names: candahar; gamhar; gumhar
Gmelina arborea is indigenous to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Yunnan
and Guangxi provinces in China (Troup, 1921; Moldenke, 1977; Greaves, 1981; Gupta,
1993; Luna, 1996). It is found in deciduous forest and moist deciduous forest, but also
sometimes occurs in evergreen and Shorea robusta forests. It is seldom found above
1200 m altitude in the Himalayan region (Troup, 1921), but it has been observed above
1500 m in the Sri Lankan moist forests (Greaves, 1981).
PESTS
Severe pest and disease problems are frequent in plantations within the natural
distribution of G. arborea and have even led to the failure of plantations (Homfray,
1937; Allsop, 1945).

Insect pests that are common in G. arborea plantations within the natural distribution
area are stem borers, leaf defoliators and leaf or shoot cutters. Stem borers include
Dihammus cervinus (Beeson, 1961) in India and Myanmar; leaf defoliators include
larvae of Calopepla leayana in Assam, Bengal and Myanmar (Ahmed and Sen,
1990), and nymphs and adults of Tingis beesoni in India and Myanmar (Greaves,
1981). Dieback is caused by shoot cutters such as the larvae of Alcidodes ludificator
(=gmelinae) in Assam, Bengal and Myanmar (Greaves, 1981).

Although G. arborea planted outside its natural range suffers similar pest problems, on
the whole these are less serious. Leaf defoliators on seedlings and in mature stands are
very common. In Nigeria alone, Roberts (1969) noted that defoliators such as Apophylia
nigricollis, Zonocerus variegates and Achaea lienardi are common in plantations. In
the Philippines, defoliators such as Chrysodeixis chalcites, Acherontia lachesis, Ozola
minor and Attacus spp. are common in nurseries and plantations (Lapis and Bautista,
1977; Lapis and Genil, 1979). In Latin America, leaf-cutting ants (Atta spp.) are a major
problem for stem quality and growth of plantations (Greaves, 1981). In Malaysia, a
beehole borer, Duomitus ceramicus is a damaging insect pest (Ahmad Said, 1989). Chey
(1996) reported that Coptotermes curvignathus, a termite pest that severely damages G.
arborea plantations in Malaysia, can be controlled by the application of the termiticide
chlorpyrifos. See also records of other insect pests in Browne (1968).

Fungal attacks are less prevalent, but can cause damage to G. arborea stands. Bagchee
(1952) recorded a leaf spot leading to defoliation caused by a Gnomonia sp. A species
of Poria attacks G. arborea in India and Bangladash during waterlogging (Bagchee,
1952, 1953). A powdery mildew, Phyllactinia guttata, attacks leaves but does not
seriously affect the whole tree.

Outside the natural distribution of G. arborea, fungal diseases are mainly root diseases
found in Africa and Latin America. Root diseases of nursery seedlings are normally
caused by Gibberella fujikuroi in Gambia and Athelia rolfsii in Sierra Leone, Gambia
and Nigeria (Gibson, 1975). Thanatephorus cucumeris, Chaetophoma sp. (Anamorphic
Ascomycetes), Polyporus sp. and Armillaria mellea* are also causal agents of root
diseases in Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire (Gibson, 1975). In Amazonia, Ceratocystis
fimbriata, which is an important pathogen of rubber, mango, coffee and cocoa, also
infected G. arborea; the vectors of the fungus are insects of the genera Scolytus and
Platypus (Muchovej, Albuquerque and Ribeiro, 1978). In Malaysia, diseases such as
leaf spot, collar-rot and wilt have been identified, caused respectively by the fungi
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Anamorphic Glomerella), Thanatephorus cucumeris
(Anamorphic Ceratobasidium) and Pythium spp. Treatments to overcome these
diseases are prescribed by Maziah and Norani (1988). Stem rot and anthracnose are
common seedling diseases in Malaysia, although these can be controlled (Lee and
Goh, 1989).
Juglans nigra
Order and Family: Juglandales: Juglandaceae

Common names: black walnut
The natural range of Juglans nigra covers much of the eastern United States and into
Lower Canada. Baker (1921) divided the range of J. nigra into botanical, primary
commercial and secondary commercial ranges.
PESTS
A range of insects occur on J. nigra in its natural range; some cause quality loss
through retarding form and others are recognized as important causes of growth loss.
Schlesinger and Funk (1977) consider the major threats to growing J. nigra in the
United States are walnut caterpillar, bud borers, casebearers and anthracnose.
Walnut caterpillar (Datana integerrima) is regarded as the most destructive leaf-
feeding insect that occurs on J. nigra (Linit and Stamps, 1997), but the damage is
considered minor as most feeding occurs late in the growing season (Marshall, 1989).
Fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) is another common J. nigra defoliator that forms
a web over branches about mid-July (Weber, 1988). As with walnut caterpillar, damage
is usually at the end of the growing season (Marshall, 1989).
Walnut shoot moth (Acrobasis demotella) is considered the most destructive
shoot borer on J. nigra (Linit and Stamps, 1997). Females deposit single eggs on
the underside of leaves in early summer; these overwinter at the base of buds and
emerge to bore into the elongating shoot at bud swell, destroying the shoot. Rink et
al. (1991) concluded that Acrobasis infestation appeared to be a problem primarily
on young trees <2.5 m in height, but there was no evidence for genetic resistance to
Acrobasis infestation in J. nigra.
Ambrosia beetles (Xylosandrus germanus) develop galleries in the stem and the
larvae feed on fungi growing in the gallery. They usually attack slower growing trees
less than 3 m tall (van Sambeek and Schlesinger, 1988).
Black walnut curculio (Conotrachelus retentus) develops in the nuts of J. nigra.
The female deposits an egg within the developing nut and as the larva feeds, the nut is
dropped prematurely; its abundance is determined by the availability of nuts during the
previous year (Linit and Stamps, 1997).

Walnut anthracnose (Gnomonia leptostyla) is a fungus which causes premature leaf drop,
resulting in growth loss and reduction in quantity and quality of nut crops. Wet weather
in which the foliage is covered with moisture for prolonged periods makes the disease
more severe (Kessler, 1988). Field and glasshouse trials have shown that fertilization
enhanced resistance to walnut anthracnose and delayed premature defoliation (Neely,
1981, 1986). Incidence of walnut anthracnose can also vary with seed source (Funk et
al., 1983), while interactions occur with selecting for growth and/or resistance.
Cankers are caused by fungi that enter the tree through unprotected wounds, small
injuries, or leaf scars. Cankers lasting more than a year (perennial or target cankers)
are caused by a Nectria fungus (Neonectria galligena) (Kessler, 1988). Studies of canker
incidence and effect found that tree growth rate was 30 percent less for trees with
cankers than for healthy trees (Thomas and Hart, 1986), and that soil texture, rooting
depth and drainage features were not significant to disease incidence but some surface
geology and topographic features were (Thomas and Hart, 1986).
Walnut black line disease, caused by the walnut strain of the cherry leaf roll nepovirus
(CLRV), causes fatal necrosis of the graft union between susceptible, infected scions
of Persian walnut (Juglans regia) and hypersensitive, resistant rootstocks. J. regia is
tolerant whereas J. hindsii (a hybrid of J. hindsii and J. regia) is hypersensitive. Dosba
et al. (1990) report CLRV was found in many cultivars of J. regia and always detected
in J. regia/J. nigra showing black line, but the distribution of the virus was irregular;
virus progression inside the tree was slow. Seed and pollen transmission were also
demonstrated. It was concluded that the rootstocks belonging to J. nigra, J. major, J.
sieboldiana, nom. illeg. and various interspecific hybrids did not multiply the virus.

Bacterial blight is considered one of the most serious diseases affecting the genus
Juglans in Italy. Artificial inoculations with Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis
were performed in an open field nursery by spraying seedlings of Juglans species and
hybrids. None of the tested bacterial strains multiplied in the leaves of J. nigra. This
confirms the results obtained in field tests. J. regia was the most susceptible among the
walnut species tested (Belisario et al., 1999).
Belisario and Corazza (1996) reported from Italy that Corticium rolfsii was isolated
from diseased walnuts (J. regia) and J. nigra seedlings in the field in 1995. J. nigra
seedlings were more susceptible than J. regia seedlings. This was the first report of C.
rolfsii on J. regia and J. hindsii and its first record on Juglans in Europe.
Belisario (1996) report that blight (caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis)
was the major disease of J. regia in Italy, causing severe damage in both nurseries
and plantations. Anthracnose (caused by Gnomonia leptostyla) was damaging only
in plantations, where it affected both walnut species. Copper treatments were
effective against the two diseases. Other diseases were present but most of these were
opportunistic pathogens and infections could be prevented by growing walnut trees
under suitable cultural and environmental conditions (Belisario, 1996). Luisi and
Campanile (1993) also implicated environmental factors, suggesting that Sphaeropsis
camarosporium caused the most severe symptoms in areas with low soil fertility, with
prolonged spring and summer drought, and in neglected plantations.
Khaya ivorensis
Order and Family: Sapindales: Meliaceae

Common names: African mahogany
Khaya ivorensis occurs in West Africa mostly in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo,
Benin and Nigeria.
PESTS
The larvae of Hypsipyla robusta* feed on the soft tissue inside the terminal stem. In
heavy infestations as many as 20 to 40 wounds may occur on a stem resulting in a heavy
exudation. This species also lays eggs on seeds and larvae bores through seeds. Mature
larvae move from fruit to fruit feeding. Trees are attacked in their second or third year.
Generally shoot borer attack weakens the tree and predisposes it to attack by other
insects and fungi. With repeated infestations mortality can occur. Economic loss is
usually due to reduced height growth and poorer forms of infested trees. Attempts to
control H. robusta with systematic insecticides including brushing Bidrin on affected
parts have been only partially successful. Silvicultural control methods are used to
increase shade and isolate infested trees.
Catopyla dysorphanea lays eggs on fruit and larvae at first feed within individual
seeds then move from fruit to fruit. Xylosandrus compactus, Xyleborus perforans, X.
semiopacus, and X. sharpi attack temporarily stressed or injured trees but also attacks
transplants that have yet to recover from transplant shock.
Gyroptera robertsi attacks mainly old trees. Cledus obesus has larvae which tunnel
in the stem branch axils causing stem to swell at the point of infestation. Udinia
faraquarsoni sucks sap from the abaxial portion of leaves and Pseudophacopteron
zimmerani produces numerous galls (3 to 5 mm in diameter) on K. ivorensis (Wagner,
Atuahene and Cobbinah, 1991).

Fungus diseases include Phellinus noxius, which attacks the roots, and Uredo tesoensis,
which attack the leaves.
Lovoa trichilioides

Common names: African walnut
L. trichioides is naturally distributed in the Guinea-Congolian region, from 10° N to
10° S (Hall and Swaine, 1976). It is one of the main timber species in the Congo and
exploitation rates are high (Oldfield, Lusty and MacKinven, 1998).
PESTS
Very little is recorded regarding pests and diseases of L. trichilioides. It is considered
less susceptible to tree borers and other insects than others in this genus, and Catopyla
dysorphnaea, a minor stem borer of maize, has been recorded on the fruits and seeds
of L. trichilioides (Wagner, Atuahene and Cobbinah, 1991).
Paulownia tomentosa
Order and Family: Scrophulariales: Scrophulariaceae

Common names: paulownia; princess tree
Paulownia tomentosa is native to China, and is widely distributed in central and
northern regions. It is one of the most important tree species in China and currently
there are about 1.1 billion Paulownia trees planted throughout the country. It occurs
in Japan and South Korea, but some Japanese taxonomists believe that these are
naturalized populations resulting from past introduction and cultivation of this species
in these countries. P. tomentosa naturally occurs in deciduous and mixed forest species,
and to a lesser extent in secondary forest.
PESTS
The main pest found on P. tomentosa is Eumeta variegata, and Yang and Li (1982)
discuss methods used to control this defoliator. E. variegata occurs throughout the
distribution range of P. tomentosa; it develops one generation in northern China and
two generations in southern China. Seedling stock is the major source of spread of this
pest (Yang, Zhou and Gao, 1975).

In plantations this species is susceptible to Paulownia witches’ broom disease, which is
caused by a phytoplasma (previously described as a mycoplasma-like organism). This
disease may be identified by distinctive yellow broom-like shoots, which die back in
the autumn. It is commonly found in seedling stocks and young trees (3 to 6 years old),
and may greatly influence their growth. It may also occur in adult trees, but has little
effect on their growth. In its natural environment the disease is spread by Halymorpha
picus. Infected roots and seedling stock aid the spread of this disease, yet seeds obtained
from infected trees may grow disease-free. The effects of Paulownia witches’ broom
disease vary depending on the Paulownia species. Selecting clones with good resistance
and using suckers free of the disease will reduce spread of the disease.
Anthracnose disease is a major disease in saplings that injures leaves, petolies and
shoots, and causes early leaf drop. P. tomentosa also suffers damping-off disease
caused by Thanatephorus cucumeris (Anamorphic Ceratobasidium) and Fusarium
spp. (Anamorphic Gibberella) (Zhu et al., 1986). Other diseases include the nematode
Meloidogyne marioni, which infects the roots of seedlings and results in mortality,
and the fungus Sphaceloma tsugii (Anamorphic Elsinöe), which commonly damages
seedling shoots and causes dieback. Both diseases have a common occurrence
throughout the distribution range of P. tomentosa.
Picea sitchensis

Common names: sitka spruce
Picea sitchensis is an ecologically important species of the north temperate coastal
rain forest of western North America. The natural range of P. sitchensis spans a
narrow strip on the north Pacific coast of North America, extending for 2 900 km
from 61° N in south-central Alaska to 39° N in northern California. Throughout
this tremendous north-south range, P. sitchensis is a coastal species. While its natural
range is not extensive and the species’ economic importance ranks far below that
of other western conifers, it is a keystone species in some of the most productive
ecosystems of North America, particularly in the Queen Charlotte Islands of British
Columbia (Peterson et al., 1997).
PESTS
By far the most serious insect pest of P. sitchensis in North America is the white pine
weevil (Pissodes strobi), particularly in the southern part of the range and on warmer
sites inland from the coast (Martineau, 1984; Warkentin et al., 1992; Alfaro, 1994).
Adults overwinter in the litter and emerge in the spring to mate and lay eggs in feeding
punctures made on the tree’s leader. The larvae hatch two weeks later and tunnel down
the inner bark of the shoot, killing the leader and seriously affecting tree form and
reducing merchantability (Alfaro, 1982, 1989). The risk and impact of damage is so
great that annual P. sitchensis planting in British Columbia is limited to about 2 million
seedlings, established only on cooler sites. Putative resistance of individual trees is a
complex trait involving phenology, leader length and morphology, resin canal density
and chemical components, and appears to be genetically inherited as is the level of
damage sustained by trees following attack.

Outside its natural range, P. sitchensis has played an important role in plantation
forestry, particularly in northern Europe (Hermann, 1987).
Except in high-value seed orchards and nurseries, the economic impact of insect
pests other than P. strobi in North America is low although the number of insect
species with potential to do damage is rather high. In Great Britain, the diversity
and impact of insect pests have been limited by the relatively short period since
introduction and the area planted (Evans, 1987). In the United Kingdom, the green
spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum) is a sap-sucking insect feeding on many species
of spruce, although P. sitchensis has the least resistance owing to low concentrations
of volatile plant compounds (Nichols, 1987). Outbreaks occur periodically in both
North America and Britain, particularly when mild weather results in favourable
overwintering conditions (Powell and Parry, 1976; Straw, 1995), and defoliation
can result in serious growth losses and up to 10 percent mortality (e.g. Seaby and
Mowat, 1993).

While many pathogens can attack P. sitchensis at various stages of its life cycle, only a
small number of decay fungi cause serious commercial damage. In both North America
and Europe, P. sitchensis is susceptible to Heterobasidion annosum causing butt rot
(Morrison, Larock and Waters, 1986), and can result in significant loss of yield and
quality in plantations (Pratt, 1979a, 1979b). P. sitchensis is also host to Armillaria root
rot*, but usually only young trees are killed (Morrison, 1981). Phellinus weirii causes
butt decay in older trees, but only young trees are likely to be killed (Nelson and
Sturrock, 1993).
Pinus oocarpa

Common names: ocote pine; ocote chino; oocarpa pine
Pinus oocarpa grows naturally in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador
and Nicaragua. Most of the trees are concentrated on the southwestern (Pacific) half
of the axis running through these six states. In Mexico the tree grows in abundance on
the lower slopes of the sierras of the western and southern parts of the country. It is
plentiful in the mountains of southern Guatemala and central Honduras, northern El
Salvador and northwestern Nicaragua.
PESTS
Mexican pine bark beetles, Dendroctonus mexicanus, can destroy a substantial number
of trees. Other Central American insects that can cause damage to trees are Rhyacionia
spp. (pine tip moths), Pissodes spp. (shoot weevils), defoliators (Tortricidae), a pine
bark beetle Dendroctonus frontalis*, and cone weevils (Perry, 1991).

Seedlings are prone to damping off while growing in the nursery.
Pinus radiata

Common names: radiata pine
Pinus radiata occurs naturally in just five discrete populations off the coast of the Baja
California Peninsula (Mexico). The location and habitats of the mainland populations
have been described by Lindsay (1932), Roy (1966) and Forde (1964) and those for
the islands by Libby, Bannister and Linhart (1968) (see also Moran, 1996) specifically
for Guadalupe Island). The total extent of natural forest, prior to European impacts,
was slightly under 10 000 ha, of which about 5 300 ha remain (Burdon, 2000). All
natural habitats represent a special and highly localized variant of the dry to mesic
Mediterranean climate (rainfall generally 700 mm or less), caused by a cold ocean
current; summer temperatures are mild, and sea fogs during the essentially rainless
summer months produce a crucial amount of occult precipitation in the form of fog
drip. Nowhere do natural stands extend beyond 8 km inland. Altitude ranges from sea
level to 420 m on the mainland, and from 300 to 1 200 m in the more southerly island
populations. Geology and soils are highly variable, overall and within the Monterey
population. Within its range, P. radiata is generally the sole high-forest species.
PESTS
The species has become naturalized in several countries, notably New Zealand, Chile,
Australia and South Africa, often regenerating naturally within plantations and often
invading surrounding land.
Damage agents, in the forms of fungal pathogens, insect pests and environmental
factors, are inevitably important, given the attractions of growing the species to the
limits of its site tolerances (Scott, 1960; Burdon, 2000).

Various insect pests are present in native stands (Ohmart, 1982), but have historically
been in ecological balance with the P. radiata. Various scolytid beetles, and some other
insects, have evidently become significant primarily for their role as vectors for the
introduced pitch canker (Gibberella circinata).

The woodwasp Sirex noctilio* can kill trees very quickly by attacking the boles.
Spectacular tree mortality in New Zealand in 1946–1949, but that did little real harm
and sirex is now unimportant because of effective biological control. Sirex has since
been introduced into many other countries where it is of major concern incuding
Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, South Africa, United States and Uruguay.
The bark beetle Ips grandicollis is a significant pest in Australia. The European pine
shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana has long caused varying amounts of leader damage in
plantings in Europe, and can limit the use of P. radiata. It has spread to Argentina and
then to Chile, where it is a major pest. The processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea
pityocampa*, is a significant defoliator in warmer parts of Europe, where it limits the
use of P. radiata. Another defoliator is the pine emperor moth, Imbrasia cytherea,
which can be troublesome in South Africa. The pine woolly aphid, Pineus pini, is a
minor pest in many parts, but has recently caused concern in South Africa. Other
insect pests of P. radiata have been covered by Rawlings (1955), Scott (1960) and
Lavery (1986).

Several fungal pathogens are known to limit the sites on which the species can be
grown successfully (see Offord, 1964). Fungal pathogens are perhaps more important
than insect pests because they tend to affect trees more on the moister sites that are
potentially much more productive. These include Mycosphaerella pini*, which causes
needle cast although it can often be controlled by aerial spraying of copper fungicide,
and western gall rust, Endocronartium harknessii (syn. Peridermium harknessii), which
causes galls that often develop into serious stem cankers. These two pathogens have
limited where P. radiata can be grown in wetter conditions north of the species’ natural
range on the California coast. Fortunately, western gall rust has not reached plantations
outside North America, where its potential impacts are conjectural.
Sphaeropsis sapinea (syn. Diplodia pinea) is often the immediate cause of failure in
summer-rainfall areas characterized by damp heat. It usually causes shoot dieback and
can attack both wounds and uninjured shoots. It also affects drought-stressed trees,
causing the condition that is called ‘autumn brown top’ in Australia.
Pitch canker, caused by Gibberella circinata is a disease that has recently reached
the native populations of mainland California (Storer et al., 1997). It causes shoot
dieback resembling that caused by S. sapinea, but can readily affect much larger limbs,
including the bole. Its final impact is unclear, but it is seen as a very serious threat to the
native stands, P. radiata being one of the most susceptible pines (see also Dick, 1998;
Hodge and Dvorak, 2000).
The potential impact of pitch canker in exotic stands, where it is not yet present,
is unknown; most of its Californian vectors are not present elsewhere, but its ready
transmission by seed is a concern.

Root-rot fungi of the genus Armillaria, notably A. mellea*, are locally important. In
New Zealand they can cause severe losses where P. radiata has replaced freshly-cut
native forest and may become progressively more troublesome after the first rotation
planted on unforested land. The impact can be much increased by the presence of
significant Mycosphaerella infection.
The root pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi is locally important where there
is seasonal waterlogging, especially in Western Australia. The needle-cast fungus,
Naemacyclus minor (syn. Cyclaneusma minus), is notable for its almost ubiquitous
occurrence, rather than acute impacts. Various other pathogens have been reported; some
being locally serious (see Rawlings, 1955; Poynton, 1960; Lavery, 1986; Burdon, 2000).
INVASIVENESS
Its invasiveness can sometimes lead to bonus crops of timber, but often leads to
the production of unusable trees. It can invade plant communities of considerable
conservation value, and in the course of that can reduce catchment water yields. On
the other hand, P. radiata can often act as an effective nurse crop for re-establishment
of natural vegetation. There can be considerable impacts on fauna, some adverse, but
some surprisingly favourable (Burdon, 2000).
Populus nigra
Order and Family: Salicales: Salicaceae

Common names: black poplar
The natural distribution of Populus nigra covers a large range from central and southern
Europe (including the United Kingdom) to Western and Central Asia reaching the
Jenisse River in Siberia.
PESTS
Poplars are hosts to a large number of insect species, but only a few of these are of any
importance. The most important are: the goat moth (Cossus cossus); the large longhorn
beetle (Saperda carcharias) and the weevil (Cryptorhynchus lapathi). Paranthrene
tabaniformis attacks young trees. Larval damage of wood by boring is caused by
all these pests. C. cossus and S. carcharias attack old trees, whereas C. lapathi only
damages young trees. The woolly poplar aphid (Phloeomyzus passerinii) can also
damage trees; only genotypes of P. nigra collected in xeric and warm habitats are
resistant (Allegro and Cagelli, 1996).
Defoliating beetle pests of P. x canadensis include the large poplar-leaf beetle
(Chrysomela populi) and larvae of the white satin moth (Leucoma salicis). Larvae of the
poplar shoot borer (Gypsonoma aceriana) may cause failure of the leading shoots by
boring them. Occasionally other insect pests such as Operophtera brumata, Leucoptera
sinuella, Lymantria dispar* and Clostera spp. can cause damage. The minor pest,
woolly poplar aphid, Phloeomyzus passerinii, can be controlled by selection of resistant
clones (Giorcelli and Allegro, 1998).

P. nigra is naturalized in North America (USDA, 1999) and in South America
(Jobling, 1990) where the cv. Chile, remarkable for its almost evergreen habit, is
found (Van Kraayenoord, 1959). Larvae of a sesiid (Paranthrene dollii) in the United
States and a hepialid (Phassus excrescens) in Japan are reported to bore in trunks and
branches. Hyphantria cunea can be a significant defoliator in North America (Allegro
and Picco, 1992) but can be controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis. In South America
ants of the leaf-cutting genera Atta and Acromyrmex are harmful to poplars, cutting
and consuming leaves.

The fungal pathogen Drepanopeziza populorum and several species of Melampsora
(for example, Melampsora laricis-populina) can cause premature defoliation of trees.
Venturia populina attacks leaves and young shoots causing complete defoliation and
deformation of the shoot/branch early in spring (Vietto and Giorcelli, 1996).
Serious attacks of Cryptodiaporthe populea cause cankering and dieback especially
in nurseries or on the young sapling after transplantation (Gojkovic and Avramovic,
1985; Anselmi, 1986). Davidiella populorum causes leaf spot and cankers.
Fungal disease can be controlled spraying fungicides, or by selecting varieties or
clones which are tolerant or resistant (Giorcelli and Vietto, 1995, 1998).
Pseudotsuga menziesii

Common names: Douglas fir
The latitudinal range of Pseudotsuga menziesii is the greatest of any commercial conifer
of western North America – from 19 to 55 °N latitude. The range of var. menziesii
extends from central British Columbia south along the Pacific Coast Ranges for about
2 200 km into California (near 35 °N latitude); the range of var. glauca stretches from
central British Columbia along the Rocky Mountains into the mountains of central
Mexico over a distance of nearly 4 500 km (Hermann and Lavender, 1990).
PESTS
The Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata) and the spruce budworm
(Choristoneura fumiferana) are the most important destructive insects of P. menziesii
in its native range. Both insects attack trees of all ages at periodic intervals throughout
the range of interior population, often resulting in severe defoliation of stands.
The Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) is a destructive insect pest in
old-growth stands (Hermann and Lavender, 1990). The Douglas-fir woolly aphid
(Gilletteella cooleyi) can severely check the growth of some provenances on some sites
(Savill, 1991).
The cones and seeds are host to a number of destructive pests (Furniss and Carolin,
1977; Hedlin et al., 1980). The Douglas-fir seed chalcid (Megastigmus spermotrophus)
matures in the developing seed and gives no external sign of its presence. Larvae of
the Douglas-fir cone moth (Barbara colfaxiana) and the fir cone worm (Dioryctria
abietivorella) bore through the developing cones. The Douglas-fir cone gall midge
(Contarinia oregonensis) and the cone scale midge (C. washingtonensis) destroy
some seed but prevent harvest of many more by causing galls that prevent normal
opening of cones.
The European strawberry root weevil (Otiorhynchus ovatus) and cranberry girdler
(Chrysoteuchia topiaria) may cause significant damage to seedlings in nurseries
(Hermann and Lavender, 1990).

P. menziesii is host to hundreds of fungi, but relatively few of these cause serious
problems. Various species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora, Fusarium, and
Botrytis may cause signficant losses of seedlings in nurseries (Peterson and Smith,
1975; Sutherland and van Eerden, 1980), whereas Rhizina undulata, shoestring root rot
(Armillaria mellea*), and laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii) have caused significant
damage in plantations. The latter two fungi represent a serious threat to management of
young stands of P. menziesii, especially west of the Cascade Mountains. Trees die or are
so weakened that they are blown over. Effective control measures are not available.
Of the many heart rot fungi (over 300), the most damaging and widespread is red
ring rot (Porodaedalea pini). Knots and scars resulting from fire, lightning, and falling
trees are the main routes of infection. Losses from this heart rot far exceed those
from any other decay. Other heart rot fungi in the Pacific Northwest are Fomitopsis
officinalis (=Laricifomes officinalis), F. cajanderi and Phaeolus schweinitzii (Hepting,

1971). In the southwest United States, Echinodontium tinctorium, Fomitopsis cajanderi,
and F. pinicola are important.
Among several needle diseases, the most conspicuous is a needlecast caused by
Rhabdocline pseudotsugae. It is mainly a disease of younger trees, reaching damaging
proportions only after prolonged periods of rain while the new needles are appearing
(Hermann and Lavender, 1990). The Swiss needle-cast fungus (Phaeocryptopus
gaeumannii) also occurs on P. menziesii throughout its natural range, usually causing
little damage.

Where Douglas fir has been planted elsewhere (eastern United States, Europe and New
Zealand), significant reductions in growth have been associated with Phaeocryptopus
gaeumannii. Studies in New Zealand have indicated that the losses are linked to a
variety of influences, including insect defoliators, and are not solely attributable to the
needle-cast fungus (Miller and Knowles, 1994).
Parasitic plants
A mistletoe species, Arceuthobium douglasii, is a significant parasite throughout most
of the natural range of P. menziesii (Hawksworth and Wiens, 1972).
Shorea macrophylla
Order and Family: Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae
Shorea macrophylla is indigenous to Borneo, and is especially widespread in west and
central Sarawak, Kapuas valley, Tidung and Burau. It is commonly found in lowland
tropical rain forest, and seldom occurs above 600 m in altitude (Ashton, 1964). In
Brunei, this species is confined to damp clay soils near rivers and streams and has
less favourable growth in hillsides, ridge tops or upper slopes (Rasip and Lokmal,
1994). Shorea macrophylla is rarely gregarious and is often scattered at a low density.
This climax species is commonly found in riparian forests and also establishes well in
canopy gaps.
PESTS
Seedlings of S. macrophylla are affected by damping-off in the nursery resulting in
decay and death. This is caused by fungi which occur naturally in the soil such as
Fusarium spp. and Pythium spp. (Chin, 1995). This species also suffers from wilt,
the control of which is discussed by Chin (1995). Heart rot is another form of decay
whereby the heartwood loses its strength and may crumble.
A deformed stem is likely to develop in the species if the apical shoot is destroyed
either by insects, climbers, or heat stress, as is found in other dipterocarps such as S.
platyclados (Ang and Maruyama, 1995).
Swietenia macrophylla

Common names: big-leaved mahogany; broad-leaved mahogany
The genus Swietenia has a natural distribution from 20 °N to 18 °S in tropical
America. Swietenia macrophylla is the most widely distributed species occurring from
the Atlantic regions of southeast Mexico, through Central America, northern South
America and in an arc across the southern Amazon Basin, in Bolivia and Brazil (Lamb,
1966; Styles, 1981).
PESTS
Shoot borers, Hypsipyla spp., principally H. grandella*, are the major limitation
to artificial establishment of mahogany in Central and South America (Martorell,
1943; Ramirez-Sanchez, 1964; Bauer, 1987). In Colombia, various silvicultural and
agroforestry trials show no consistent successful methods of shoot borer control
(Vega Gonzalez, 1987). However, trials established in many parts of Central America
proved that shoot borer damage can be partially controlled by cultural methods
(Newton, Leakey and Mesen, 1992). A combination of silvicultural, biological and
chemical control was proposed by Newton, Leakey and Mesen (1992); and production
of resistant plants through selection has been suggested as the most effective method
(Grijpma, 1976; Newton, Leakey and Mesen, 1992). The use of slow release/systemic
insecticides has also shown promising results (Chaplin 1993). See Newton et al. (1993)
and Floyd and Hauxwell (2001) for reviews.

Hypsipyla robusta* causes serious damage in nurseries and plantations in the Solomon
Islands (Chaplin, 1993) and other areas. In Fiji, ambrosia beetles (Crossotarsus
externedentatus, Platypus gerstaeckeri) may attack living trees and cause variable,
sometimes major, levels of pinhole damage. The small holes and associated staining
may considerably reduce the value of the timber for decorative uses (Oliver, 1992).
An ambrosia beetle (Xylosandrus compactus) has also been observed to cause damage
in young stands in Puerto Rico (Bauer, 1987). Termites are also potentially a major
damage agent in mahogany plantings in Fiji.
Tectona grandis
Order and Family: Lamiales: Verbenaceae

Common names: teak
Tectona grandis is the principal timber tree of peninsular India, Myanmar, Indonesia
and Thailand and one of the most valuable timbers in the world. The reputation of
teak timber is due to its matchless combination of qualities such as: termite, fungus
and weathering resistance; lightness with strength; attractiveness; workability; and
seasoning capacity without splitting, cracking, warping or materially altering shape
(Kadambi, 1972). Tectona grandis is indigenous to south and Southeast Asia. It grows
naturally between latitudes of 9° N to 25°30' N in most of peninsular India, large
areas of Myanmar, and parts of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Thailand
(White, 1991).
T. grandis has been widely planted both within and beyond its natural range. In
Africa, it is a major exotic species planted for sawlogs. It is widespread in Central and
South America and in the Pacific. Long established plantations now extend from 28 °N
to 18 °S (Rao, 1997). Locations in which T. grandis occurs include Southeast Asia, the
Pacific, East Africa, West Africa, South Africa, the Carribbean Islands, South America,
and Central America (Tewari, 1992).
PESTS
Over 180 species of insects are reported to be associated with teak (Mathur, 1960;
Mathur and Singh, 1960). Most of them are minor pests. Those which cause serious
damage include white grubs in nurseries, sapling borers in young plantations, trunk
borers in older plantations and two species of defoliators (Beeson, 1941; Sen Sarma and
Thapa, 1981; Day, Rudgard and Nair, 1994).
In nurseries, white grubs (Holotrichia spp.) eat the seedling roots causing wilting
and subsequent death. White grubs can be controlled by treating the nursery beds with
systemic soil insecticides (Oka and Vaishampayan, 1981; Varma, 1991).
The sapling borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus) is a problem in young plantations,
with dense weed growth. It can be managed through regular pest surveillance and spot
application of selected insecticides (Nair, 1987).
The defoliator (Hyblaea puera) and the skeletonizer (Paliga machoeralis, P.
damastesalis) are recognized as serious pests (Beeson, 1941; Nair, 1988). In young
plantations in Kerala, India the teak defoliator causes repeated severe defoliation in the
early part of the growth season of a loss of up to 44 percent of the potential volume
increment. The skeletonizer on the other hand causes defoliation later in the season and
has no significant impact (Nair et al., 1996). Although biological control methods using
native parasites and silvicultural practices were recommended in the past (Beeson,
1941; Mathur, 1960), this is not currently practiced. Current emphasis is on the use of a
naturally-occurring nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) for control of the teak defoliator
(Sudheendrakumar, Ali and Varma, 1988; Nair et al., 1997).
The beehole borer (Xyleutes ceramicus) is a serious pest in Myanmar and Thailand
(Beeson, 1941), which also attacks Gmelina arborea. It riddles the tree trunk with borer
holes severely degrading the quality of wood (Beeson, 1921, 1941; Chalerempongse,
Boonthavikoon and Chairuangsirikul, 1990; Hutacharern, 1990). Cossus cadambae

causes similar problems in the southern states of India, but the incidence is limited to
pockets where the trees are subject to repeated lopping (Beeson, 1941; Mathew and
Rugmini, 1996).

Hyblaea puera occurs widely in the tropics, but curiously there are no significant
reports of damage outside its indigenous range.

Although diseases are not recognized as major problem in teak, some pathogens are of
importance. In nurseries, bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas spp., leaf spots caused by
Phomopsis (Anamorphic Diaporthe) and leaf rust caused by Olivea often cause serious
problems (Sharma, Mohanan and Florence, 1985; Balasundaran et al., 1995). Ralstonia
solanacearum causes typical vascular wilt in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar
while P. tectonae is prominent in the Philippines (Gibson, 1975; Sharma, Mohanan
and Florence, 1985). Lack of soil drainage and root injury are predisposing factors of
bacterial wilt. The leaf spots caused by Phomopsis tectonae (Anamorphic Diaporthe)
in combination with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Anamorphic Glomerella) result
in defoliation and death of the seedlings. Rust caused by Olivea tectonae results
in premature defoliation in nurseries and plantations in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Indonesia and Thailand (Gibson, 1975). In nurseries, rust can be controlled
by foliar spray of sulfur-based fungicides. In 1- to 3-year-old plants Corticium
salmonicolor (pink disease) causes death of terminal shoots in India (Sharma, Mohanan
and Florence, 1985) and Indonesia (Gibson, 1975).
In Kerala, India, T. grandis is attacked by the trunk borer, Cossus cadambae. This
results in the infection of the tunnels by the fungus Pleurostomophora richardsiae
(Anamorphic Ascomycetes) and causes dieback of trees (Sharma, Mohanan and
Florence, 1985).

Several fungi have been reported to cause root rot and decay of standing trees in India,
the United Republic of Tanzania, Dahomey, Nigeria and Papua New Guinea, but they
are of local and minor importance (Bakshi, 1976; Gibson, 1975; Sharma, Mohanan and
Florence, 1985).
Parasitic plants
The mistletoe, Dendrophthoe falcata, is a major problem in plantations in almost all the
teak-growing countries especially, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Trinidad (Murray,
1961; Gibson, 1975; Ghosh, Balasundaran and Ali, 1984). It was found to cause up
to 40 percent reduction in annual increment and mortality reaching 9 percent in teak
plantations in Kerala, India (Ghosh, Balasundaran and Ali, 1984). Lopping the infested
branches before the flowering season is the usual method of management.
Terminalia amazonia
Order and Family: Myrtales: Combretaceae

Common names: nargusta
Terminalia amazonia is found over a very wide area from southern Mexico through
Central America and into Brazil and Peru, as well as in Trinidad and Guyana. It is a
component of moist to wet tropical forests throughout this region, on a large variety
of soil types, including sands and gravels, upland volcanic soils, low fertility clays,
and limestone soils. It is generally absent on drier sites within its range. Apparently,
plantations to date have been little used and there are no records of the species
spreading from its natural range.
PESTS
In general, T. amazonia appears to be capable of growing in pure stands with few insect
or disease problems, although cautious optimism is warranted in regard to its potential
in pure plantations. Ford (1986) reported borer attacks of 4 to 45 percent on various
Terminalia species in Costa Rica. Larvae of the genus Cossula bore underneath the
bark and into the xylem and then bore upwards for 25 to 40 cm, making galleries 12
to 14 mm in diameter. Moulaert and Arguedas (1993) reported moderate defoliation
damage to plantation trees from Exophthalmus spp., a weevil. More seriously,
Montagnini et al. (1995) observed low survival (66 percent) of planted seedlings due to
attacks by leaf-cutting ants.

In Costa Rica, Nichols et al. found unidentified fungi on 4-year-old plantation trees,
causing red spots and yellowing of leaves. Care should be taken when pruning to avoid
wet weather, so that fungal entry into stems is minimized.
175
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Annex 1: Pest species distribution in the selected countries, by region 193
Annex 1
Pest species distribution in
the selected countries, by region
AFRICA
Order/phylum: South
Pest species Ghana Kenya Malawi Mauritius Morocco Sudan
family Africa
Insects
Amyna punctum Lepidoptera:

DNC
Noctuidae
Anacridum Orthoptera:
melanorhodon DNB
Acrididae
Analeptes trifasciata Coleoptera:

DNB
Cerambycidae
Anaphe panda Lepidoptera:

DNB
Thaumetopoeidae
Anaphe venata Lepidoptera:

DNB
Notodontidae
Ancistrotermes Isoptera:
latinotus DNB
Termitidae
Apate indistincta Coleoptera:

DPB
Bostrichidae
Apate monachus Coleoptera:

DPB DPB
Bostrichidae
Apate terebrans Coleoptera:

DPB
Bostrichidae
Bruchidius uberatus Coleoptera:

DPB
Bruchidae
Buzura abruptaria Lepidoptera:

DNC
Geometridae
Caryedon serratus Coleoptera:

DPB
Bruchidae
Chrysobothris Coleoptera:
dorsata TPB
Buprestidae
Cinara cronartii Hemiptera:

TPC
Aphididae
Cinara cupressivora Hemiptera:

TPC TPC TPC
Aphididae
Cinara pinivora Hemiptera:

TPC
Aphididae
Cisseis rufobasalis Coleoptera:

DNB
Buprestidae
Coryphodema tristis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Cossidae
T= Introduced pest P= Planted forest B= Broadleaf trees

D= Indigenous pest N= Naturally regenerated forest C= Coniferous trees
Order/phylum: South
family Africa
Cubitermes spp. Isoptera:

DNB
Termitidae
Diclidophlebia Hemiptera:
eastopi DPB
Psyllidae
Distantiella Hemiptera:
theobroma DPB
Miridae
Dysmicoccus brevipes Hemiptera:

DPB
Pseudococcidae
Ellimenistes laesicollis Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Epicerura Lepidoptera:
pulverulenta DPB
Notodontidae
Eulachnus rileyi Hemiptera:

TPC TPC
Aphididae
Euproctis terminalis Lepidoptera:

DPC
Lymantriidae
Gonipterus Coleoptera:
scutellatus TPB TPB TPB
Curculionidae
Gonometa podocarpi Lepidoptera:

DNC
Lasiocampidae
Helopeltis lalandei Hemiptera:

DPB
Miridae
Heteropsylla cubana Hemiptera:

TPB TPB TPB TPB
Psyllidae
Hodotermes Isoptera:
mossambicus DNB
Hodotermitidae
Hylastes angustatus Coleoptera:

TPC
Curculionidae
Hylurgus ligniperda Coleoptera:

TPC
Scolytidae
Hypsipyla grandella Lepidoptera:

TPB
Pyralidae
Hypsipyla robusta Lepidoptera:

TPB TPB
Pyralidae
Imbrasia cytherea Lepidoptera:

DPC
Saturnidae
Kotochalia junodi Lepidoptera:

DPB
Psychidae
Lamprosema Lepidoptera:
lateritialis DNB
Pyralidae
Leptocybe invasa Hymenoptera:

TPB TPB TPB
Eulophidae
Lygidolon laevigatum Hemiptera:

DPB
Miridae
Lymantria dispar Lepidoptera:

DNB
Lymantriidae
Macrotermes falciger Isoptera:

DNB
Termitidae
Mesoplatys cincta Coleoptera:

DPB
Chrysomelidae

Order/phylum: South
family Africa
Microtermes spp. Isoptera:

DNB
Termitidae
Nezara robusta Hemiptera:

DNB
Pentatomidae
Odontotermes Isoptera:
spiniger DNB
Termitidae
Oemida gahani Coleoptera:

DNC
Cerambycidae
Orthotomicus erosus Coleoptera:

DPC
Scolytidae
Pachypasa capensis Lepidoptera:

D P B/C
Lasiocampidae
Phoracantha recurva Coleoptera:

TPB TPB TPB
Cerambycidae
Phoracantha Coleoptera:
semipunctata TPB TPB TPB
Cerambycidae
Phytolyma fusca Hemiptera:

DPB
Psyllidae
Phytolyma lata Hemiptera:

DPB
Psyllidae
Pineus pini Hemiptera:

TPC TPC TPC
Adelgidae
Pissodes nemorensis Coleoptera:

TPC
Curculionidae
Plagotriptus Orthoptera:
pinivorus DNC
Eumasticidae
Pseudocanthotermes Isoptera:
militaris DNB
Termitidae
Sahlbergella Hemiptera:
singularis DPB
Miridae
Salagena discata Lepidoptera:

DNB
Cossidae
Scolytus kirschii Coleoptera:

TPB
Scolytidae
Sirex noctilio Hymenoptera:

TPC
Siricidae
Sphenoptera Coleoptera:
chalcichroa arenosa D N/P B
Buprestidae
Sphenoptera fulgens Coleoptera:

D N/P B
Buprestidae
Strepsicrates rhothia Lepidoptera:

DPB
Tortricidae
Thaumastocoris Hemiptera:
peregrinus TPB
Thaumastocoridae
Thaumetopoea Lepidoptera:
bonjeani DNC
Notodontidae
libanotica DNC
Thaumetopoeidae
pityocampa DPC
Notodontidae

Order/phylum: South
family Africa
Trachyostus Coleoptera:
ghanaensis DNB
Platypodidae
Tridesmodes Lepidoptera:
ramiculata DPB
Thyrididae
Xasinthisa tarsispina Lepidoptera:

DNC
Geometridae
Zonocerus elegans Orthoptera:

D N B/C
Pyrgomorphidae
Diseases
Armillaria fuscipes Basidiomycota: D N/P

Marasmiaceae B/C
Armillaria heimii Basidiomycota: TP

Marasmiaceae B/C
Armillaria mellea Basidiomycota: TP TN

TPB
Marasmiaceae B/C B/C
Armillaria spp. Basidiomycota:

DNB DPC
Marasmiaceae
Botryosphaeria Ascomycota:
dothidea TPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
eucalypticola TPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
eucalyptorum TPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
Botryosphaeria spp. Ascomycota: TN

TPB
Incertae sedis B/C
Botrytis cinerea Ascomycota:

TNC
Sclerotiniaceae
Ceratocystis Ascomycota:
albofundus T N/P B
Ceratocystidaceae
Ceratocystis spp. Ascomycota:

TPB
Ceratocystidaceae
Chrysoporthe Ascomycota:
austroafricana D N/P B
Incertae sedis
Fusarium spp. Ascomycetes: TN

Nectriaceae B/C
Gibberella circinata Ascomycota:

TPC
Nectriaceae
Holocryphia eucalypti Ascomycota:

TPB
Valsaceae
Lepteutypa cupressi Ascomycota:

DPC DPC
Amphisphaeriaceae
Mycosphaerella pini Ascomycota:

TPC TPC
Mycosphaerellaceae
Nattrassia Ascomycota:
mangiferae TPB
Incertae sedis
Nectria rigidiuscula Ascomycota:

TPB
Nectriaceae
Phanerochaete Basidiomycota:
salmonicolor T N/P B
Phanerochaetaceae

Order/phylum: South
family Africa
Phytophthora Oomycota:
cinnamomi T N/P B
Pythiaceae
Phytophthora Oomycota:
nicotianae TPB
Pythiaceae
Rhizina undulata Ascomycota:

TPC
Rhizinaceae
Sphaeropsis sapinea Ascomycota:

TPC TPC
Incertae sedis
Subramanianospora Ascomycota:
vesiculosa TPB
Incertae sedis
Xanthomonas Xanthomonadales:
axonopodis p.v. Xanthomonadaceae DNB
khayae
Other pests
Macaca sylvana Primates:

D N/P C
Cercopithecidae

ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Order/phylum:
Pest species China India Indonesia Mongolia Thailand
family
Insects
Acalolepta cervina Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Achaea janata Lepidoptera:

DNB
Noctuidae
Achaea serva Lepidoptera:

DNB
Noctuidae
Agrilus kalshoveni Coleoptera:

DNB
Buprestidae
Alcidodes frenatus Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Alcidodes ludificator Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Anoplophora glabripennis Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Apoderus notatus Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Apriona cinerea Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Archips micaceana Lepidoptera:

DPB
Tortricidae
Aristobia approximator Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Aristobia horridula Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Asphondylia tectonae Diptera:

DNB
Cecidomyiidae
Aulacaspis marina Hemiptera:

DPB
Diaspidae
Batocera rubus Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Brontispa longissima Coleoptera:

TPB DPB TPB
Chrysomelidae
Calliteara cerigoides Lepidoptera:

DPB
Lymantriidae
Calopepla leayana Coleoptera:

DPB DPB
Chrysomelidae
Catopsilia crocale crocale Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pieridae
Catopsilia pomona pomona Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pieridae
Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pieridae
Celosterna pollinosa sulphurea Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Chrysomela populi Coleoptera:

DPB
Chrysomelidae

Order/phylum:
family
Clostera cupreata Lepidoptera:

DPB
Notodontidae
Clostera fulgurita Lepidoptera:

DPB
Notodontidae
Conogethes punctiferalis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Coptotermes curvignathus Isoptera:

D P B/C D P B/C
Rhinotermitidae
Coptotermes gestroi Isoptera:

DPB
Rhinotermitidae
Craspedonta mouhoti Coleoptera:

DPB
Chrysomelidae
Cryptothelia cramerii Lepidoptera:

DNC
Psychidae
Curculio davidi Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Cydia splendana Lepidoptera:

DPB
Tortricidae
Cyrtotrachelus dichrous Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Cyrtotrachelus longimanus Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Dasychira mendosa Lepidoptera:

DPB
Lymantriidae
Dendroctonus valens Coleoptera:

TPC
Scolytidae
Dendrolimus punctatus Lepidoptera:

DPC
Lasiocampidae
Dendrolimus sibiricus Lepidoptera:

DNC D N/P C
Lasiocampidae
Dendrolimus tabulaeformis Lepidoptera:

DNC
Lasiocampidae
Dichocrocis punctiferalis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Dioryctria rubella Lepidoptera:

DPC
Pyralidae
Ectropis deodarae Lepidoptera:

DNC
Geometridae
Erannis jacobsoni Lepidoptera:

D N/P C
Geometridae
Eucosma hypsidryas Lepidoptera:

DNC
Tortricidae
Eumeta variegata Lepidoptera:

D N B/C
Psychidae
Eurema blanda Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pieridae
Eutectona machaeralis Lepidoptera:

D N/P B D N/P B
Pyralidae
Euwallacea destruens Coleoptera:

DPB
Scolytidae

Order/phylum:
family
Euwallacea fornicatus Coleoptera:

DPB
Scolytidae
Glena indiana Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Helopeltis theivora Hemiptera:

DPB
Miridae
Hemiberlesia pitysophila Hemiptera:

TPC
Diaspidae
Heteropsylla cubana Hemiptera:

TPB TPB TPB
Psyllidae
Holotrichia sp. near Coleoptera:

longicarinata DPB
Scarabaeidae
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Coleoptera:

DNB
Cerambycidae
Hyblaea puera Lepidoptera:

DPB DPB DNB
Hyblaeidae
Hyphantria cunea Lepidoptera:

TNB
Arctiidae
Hypomeces squamosus Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Hypsipyla robusta Lepidoptera:

DPB DPB DPB
Pyralidae
Icerya purchasi Hemiptera:

TPB
Margarodidae
Indarbela quadrinotata Lepidoptera:

DPB
Cossidae
Indarbela spp. Lepidoptera,

DPB
Metarbelidae
Ips sexdentatus Coleoptera:

D N/P C DPC
Scolytidae
Ips subelongatus Coleoptera:

D N/P B/C
Scolytidae
Leptocentrus spp. Hemiptera:

DPB
Membracidae
Leptocybe invasa Hymenoptera:

TPB
Eulophidae
Leucoma salicis Lepidoptera:

D N/P B
Lymantriidae

D N B/C D N/P B/C
Lymantriidae
Lymantria lepcha Lepidoptera:

DNB
Lymantriidae
Lymantria mathura Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Lymantria obfuscata Lepidoptera:

DPB
Lymantriidae
Machaerota elegans Hemiptera:

DPB
Cercopidae
Melanophila cyanea Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Buprestidae

Order/phylum:
family
Micropistus sp. Coleoptera:

DPB
Buprestidae
Milionia basalis Lepidoptera:

D N/P B/C
Geometridae
Mylabris phalerata Coleoptera:

DPB
Meloidae
Neotermes tectonae Isoptera:

DPB
Kalotermitidae
Niphades castanea Coleoptera:

DPB
Curculionidae
Oracella acuta Hemiptera:

TPC
Pseudococcidae
Orgyia antiqua Lepidoptera:

D N/P B/C
Lymantriidae
Orthotomicus suturalis Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Scolytidae
Pagyda salvalis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Paliga damastesalis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Phassus signifer Lepidoptera:

DPB
Hepialidae
Physomerus grossipes Coleoptera:

DPB
Coreidae
Pineus pini Hemiptera:

TPC
Adelgidae
Pionea aureolalis Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Prioptera spp. Lepidoptera:

DPB
Pyralidae
Pseudoregma sp. Hemiptera:

DPB
Pemphigidae
Psilogramma menephron Lepidoptera:

DPB
Sphingidae
Pteroma plagiophleps Lepidoptera:

DPB
Psychidae
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Hemiptera:

TPB
Coccidae
Sagra femorata Coleoptera:

DPB
Chrysomelidae
Scolytus morawitzi Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Scolytidae
Sinoxylon anale Coleoptera:

DPB
Bostrychidae
Sternocera spp. Coleoptera:

DPB
Buprestidae
Tetropium gracilicorne Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Cerambycidae
Tingis beesoni Hemiptera:

DPB
Tingidae

Order/phylum:
family
Tomicus minor Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Scolytidae
Tomicus n.sp. Coleoptera:

TPC
Scolytidae
Tomicus piniperda Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Scolytidae
Valanga nigricornis Orthoptera:

DPB
Acrididae
Voracia casuariniphaga Lepidoptera:

D N B/C
Lasiocampidae
Xyleborus dispar Coleoptera:

D N/P B
Scolytidae
Xyleutes ceramica Lepidoptera:

DPB D N/P B
Cossidae
Xylosandrus compactus Coleoptera:

DPB
Scolytidae
Xylosandrus morigerus Coleoptera:

DPB
Scolytidae
Xystrocera festiva Coleoptera:

DPB
Cerambycidae
Zeuzera coffeae Lepidoptera:

DPB D N/P B
Cossidae
Diseases
Agrobacterium tumefaciens Rhizobiales:

DPB DPB
Rhizobiaceae
Balansia linearis Ascomycota:

DPB
Clavicipitaceae
Botryosphaeria dothidea Ascomycota:

DPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
Chondroplea populea Ascomycota:

DPB
Valsaceae
Chrysoporthe cubensis Ascomycota:

TPB
Valsaceae
Coniothyrium zuluense Ascomycetes:

TPB
Leptosphaeriaceae
Corticium salmonicolor Basidiomycota:

DPB
Corticiaceae
Coryneum populinum Ascomycota:

DPB
Melanconidaceae
Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Ascomycota:

DPB
Dermateaceae
Cylindrocladium Ascomycota:
quinqueseptatum DPB
Nectriaceae
Dothiorella gregaria Ascomycota:

DPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
Dothiorella gregaria Ascomycota:

DPC
Botryosphaeriaceae
Drepanopeziza punctiformis Ascomycota:

DPB
Leotiales

Order/phylum:
family
Endoraecium digitatum Basidiomycota:

TPB
Raveneliaceae
Entoleuca mammata Ascomycota:

DPB
Xylariaceae
Fusarium solani f. dalbergiae Ascomycota:

DPB
Nectriaceae
Ganoderma philippii Basidiomycota:

DPB
Ganodermataceae
Melampsora laricis-populina Basidiomycota:

DPB
Melampsoraceae
Mycosphaerella populi Ascomycota:

DPB
Mycosphaerellaceae
Nattrassia mangiferae Ascomycota:

DPB
Incertae sedis
Paulownia witches broom Phytoplasma DPB
Phellinus noxius Basidiomycota:

DPB
Hymenochaetaceae
Phytophthora palmivora Oomycota: Pythiaceae DPB
Poria hypobrunnea Basidiomycota:

DPB
Polyporaceae
Subramanianospora vesiculosa Ascomycota:

DPB DPB
Incertae sedis
Tinctoporellus epimiltinus Basidiomycota:

DPB
Polyporaceae
Valsa sordida Ascomycota:

DPB
Valsaceae
Venturia populina Ascomycota:

DPB
Venturiaceae
Other pests
Apodemus spp. Rodentia:

D P B/C
Muridae
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Tylenchida:

T N/P C
Aphelenchoididae

EUROPE
Order/phylum:
Pest species Moldova Romania Russian Federation
family
Insects
Apethymus filiformis Hymenoptera:

DNB
Tenthredinidae
Archips crataegana Lepidoptera:

DNB
Tortricidae
Archips xylosteana Lepidoptera:

DNB
Tortricidae
Bupalus piniarius Lepidoptera:

D N/P C
Geometridae
Cameraria ohridella Lepidoptera:

TNB
Gracillariidae
Choristoneura murinana Lepidoptera:

D N/P B/C
Tortricidae
Curculio spp. Coleoptera:

DNB
Curculionidae
Cydia spp. Lepidoptera:

DNB
Tortricidae
Dendrolimus sibiricus Lepidoptera:

D N/P C
Lasiocampidae
Diprion pini Hymenoptera:

DPC
Diprionidae
Erannis defoliaria Lepidoptera:

DNB DNB
Geometridae
Euproctis chrysorrhoea Lepidoptera:

DNB
Lymantriidae
Hylobius abietis Coleoptera:

DNC
Curculionidae
Hyphantria cunea Lepidoptera:

TNB TNB
Arctiidae
Ips acuminatus Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips amitinus Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips cembrae Coleoptera:

DNC D N/P C
Scolytidae
Ips sexdentatus Coleoptera:

DNC D N/P C
Scolytidae
Ips typographus Coleoptera:

DNC D N/P C
Scolytidae

D N B/C D N/P B/C D N/P B/C
Lymantriidae
Lymantria monacha Lepidoptera:

D N B/C D N/P B/C
Lymantriidae
Malacosoma neustria Lepidoptera:

DNB
Lasiocampidae
Monochamus urussovi Coleoptera:

DNC
Cerambycidae

Order/phylum:
Pest species Moldova Romania Russian Federation
family
Monochamus urussovi Coleoptera:

DPC
Cerambycidae
Neodiprion sertifier Hymenoptera:

DPC
Diprionidae
Operophtera brumata Lepidoptera:

DNB DNB
Geometridae
Orthosia cruda Lepidoptera:

DNB
Noctuidae
Pandemis cerasana Lepidoptera:

DNB
Tortricidae
Pityogenes chalcographus Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Semasia rufimitrana Lepidoptera:

DNC
Tortricidae
Stereonychus fraxini Coleoptera:

DNB DNB
Curculionidae
Tetropium castaneum Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Cerambycidae
Thaumetopoea processionea Lepidoptera:

DNB
Notodontidae
Tomicus minor Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Tomicus piniperda Coleoptera:

DNC D N/P C
Scolytidae
Tortrix viridana Lepidoptera:

DNB DNB
Tortricidae
Xylotrechus altaicus Coleoptera:

D N/P C
Cerambycidae
Yponomeuta rorellus Lepidoptera:

DNB
Yponomeutoidae
Zeiraphera diniana Lepidoptera:

D N/P C
Tortricidae
Diseases
Gremmeniella abietina Ascomycota:

D N/P C
Helotiaceae
Microsphaera abbreviata Ascomycota:

DNB D N/P B
Erysiphaceae
Nectria spp. Ascomycota:

DNB
Nectriaceae
Other pests
Cervus nippon Artiodactyla:

TNB
Cervidae
Dama dama Artiodactyla:

TNB
Cervidae
Nyctereutes procyonoides Carnivora:

TNB
Canidae

LATIN AMERICAN AND THE CARIBBEAN

Order/phylum:
Pest species Argentina Belize Brazil Chile Colombia Honduras Mexico Uruguay
family
Insects
Acrospila Lepidoptera:
gastralis DPB
Pyralidae
Adelges cooleyi Hemiptera:

TPC
Adelgidae
Amitermes foreli Isoptera:

DPB
Termitidae
Amphicerus Coleoptera:
cornutus DPB
Bostrichidae
Anomala Coleoptera: DP
pyropyga Scarabaeidae B/C
Anomis illita Lepidoptera:

DPB
Noctuidae
Buprestis Coleoptera:
novemmaculata TPC
Buprestidae
Cargolia arana Lepidoptera: DP

Geometridae B/C
Ceroys Orthoptera:
quadrispinosus DPC
Phasmidae
Chilecomadia Lepidoptera:
valdiviana DNB
Cossidae
Chionaspis Hemiptera:
pinifoliae TPC
Diaspidae
Chrysobothris Coleoptera:
yucatanensis DPB
Buprestidae
Cinara Hemiptera:
acutirostris TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
atlantica TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
cedri TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
costata TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
cupressi TNC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
cupressivora TNC TPC
Aphididae
Cinara fresai Hemiptera:

TPC TPC TNC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
juniperi TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
maghrebica TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
maritimae TPC TPC TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
piceae TPC
Aphididae

Order/phylum:
family
Cinara Hemiptera:
pilicornis TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
piniformosana TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
pinivora TPC TPC
Aphididae
Cinara Hemiptera:
tujafilina TPC TPC TNC
Aphididae
Coptotermes Isoptera:
gestroi TPB
Rhinotermitidae
Ctenarytaina Hemiptera:
eucalypti TPB TPB
Psyllidae
Ctenarytaina Hemiptera:
spatulata TPB
Psyllidae
Dendroctonus Coleoptera:
adjunctus DNC
Scolytidae
frontalis DNC DNC DNC
Scolytidae
mexicanus DNC
Scolytidae
pseudotsugae DNC
Scolytidae
Dictyla Hemiptera:
monotropidia DPB
Tingidae
Dirphia Lepidoptera:
araucariae DNC
Saturnidae
Dynaspidiotus Hemiptera:
californicus TPC
Diaspidae
Elatobium Hemiptera:
abietinum TPC
Aphididae
Eulachnus Hemiptera:
rileyi TPC TPC T N/P C
Aphididae
Eulachnus Hemiptera:
tauricus TPC
Aphididae
Euryscopa Coleoptera:
cingulata DPB
Chrysomelidae
Glena Lepidoptera: DP
bisulca Geometridae B/C
Glycaspis Hemiptera:
brimblecombei TPB TPB TPB
Psyllidae
Gonipterus Coleoptera:
scutellatus TPB
Curculionidae
Hedypathes Coleoptera:
betulinus DNB
Cerambycidae
Heliothrips Thysanoptera:
haemorrhoidalis DPB
Thripidae
Hemeroplanes Lepidoptera:
parce DPB
Sphingidae
Holopterus Coleoptera:
chilensis DNB
Cerambycidae

Order/phylum:
family
Hornius Coleoptera:
grandis DNB
Chrysomelidae
Hylamorpha Coleoptera:
elegans DNB
Scarabaeidae
Hylamorpha Coleoptera:
elegans DNC
Scarabaeidae
Hylurgus Coleoptera:
ligniperda DNC
Scolytidae
Hypsipyla Lepidoptera:
grandella DPB DPB DPB DPB DPB DPB
Pyralidae
Ips calligraphus Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips confusus Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips grandicollis Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips pini Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Ips apache Coleoptera:

DNC
Scolytidae
Lagynopteryx Lepidoptera:
botulata DNB
Geometridae
Megalopyge Lepidoptera:
orsilochus DPB
Megalopygidae
Megaplatypus Coleoptera:
mutatus DPB DPB D N/P B
Platypodidae
Melanolophia Lepidoptera:
commotaria DPC
Geometridae
Minthea Coleoptera:
rugicollis TPB
Bostrichidae
Nematus Hymenoptera:
desantisi TPB TPB
Tenthredinidae
Neuromelia Lepidoptera:
albinearia DPC
Geometridae
Oncideres Coleoptera:
dejeani DNB
Cerambycidae
impluviata DNB
Cerambycidae
tessellata DPB
Cerambycidae
Ormiscodes Lepidoptera: DP
cinnamomea Saturniidae B/C
Oxydia olivata Lepidoptera:

DPB
Geometridae
Oxydia trychiata Lepidoptera:

DPC
Geometridae
Paranthrene Lepidoptera:
dollii TPB
Sesiidae
recurva TPB
Cerambycidae

Order/phylum:
family
semipunctata TPB
Cerambycidae
Planudes cortex Orthoptera:

DPC
Phasmidae
Pseudohylesinus Coleoptera:
variegatus DNC
Scolytidae
Reticulitermes Isoptera: T N/P

lucifugus Rhinotermitidae B/C
Rhyacionia Lepidoptera:
buoliana TPC TPC
Tortricidae
Rugitermes sp. Isoptera: T N/P

Kalotermitidae B/C
Sarsina Lepidoptera:
violascens DPB DPB DPB
Lymantriidae
Scolytus Coleoptera:
multistriatus TPB
Scolytidae
Sirex noctilio Hymenoptera:

TPC TPC TPC TPC
Siricidae
Steirastoma Coleoptera:
histrionicum DPB
Cerambycidae
Thyrinteina Lepidoptera:
arnobia DPB
Geometridae
Tremex Hymenoptera:
fuscicornis TPB
Siricidae
Urocerus gigas Hymenoptera:

TPC TPC
Siricidae
Warrenaria sp. Lepidoptera:

DNB
Geometridae
Xylosandrus Coleoptera:
morigerus TPB
Scolytidae
Diseases
Armillaria spp. Basidiomycota:

DPC
Marasmiaceae
dothidea TPB
Botryosphaeriaceae
Botryosphaeria Ascomycota: TP
ribis Botryosphaeriaceae B/C
Ceratocystis Ascomycota:
fimbriata TPB TPB
Ceratocystidaceae
Chrysoporthe Ascomycota:
cubensis TPB TPB
Incertae sedis
Coniothyrium Ascomycota:
zuluense TPB
Incertae sedis
Fusarium Ascomycota:
subglutinans Nectriaceae TPC
f. sp. pini
Melampsora Basidiomycota:
medusae TPB
Melampsoraceae
Mycosphaerella Ascomycota:
pini TPC
Mycosphaerellaceae

Order/phylum:
family
Mycosphaerella Ascomycota:
sp. TPB
Mycosphaerellaceae
Phanerochaete Basidiomycota:
salmonicolor TPB
Phanerochaetaceae
Puccinia psidii Basidiomycota:

DPB DPB
Pucciniaceae
Sphaeropsis Ascomycota:
sapinea TPC
Incertae sedis
Other pests
Arceuthobium Santalales:
spp. DNC
Visaceae
Capra hircus Artiodactyla:

TNB
Bovidae
Castor Rodentia:
canadensis TNB TNB
Castoridae
Cebus paella Primata:

DPC
Cebidae
Cervus elaphus Artiodactyla: TN

Cervidae B/C
Lama guanicoe Artiodactyla:

DNB
Camelidae
Lepus capensis Lagomorpha:

T N B/C
Leporidae
Misodendrum Santalales: DN
spp. Misodendraceae B/C
Oryctolagus Lagomorpha:
cuniculus T P B/C
Leporidae
Phoradendron Santalales:
spp. DNB
Visaceae
Psittacanthus Santalales: DN
spp. DNC
Loranthaceae B/C
Subanguina Tylenchida:
chilensis DNB
Tylenchidae
Tetranychus Acarina:
desertorum DPB
Tetranychidae

NEAR EAST
Pest species Order/phylum: family Cyprus Kyrgyzstan
Insects
Adelges japonicus Hemiptera: Adelgidae DPC
Aeolesthes sarta Coleoptera: Cerambycidae T N/P B
Agonoscena viridis Hemiptera: Aphalaridae DPB
Anthaxia bicolor Coleoptera: Buprestidae DPC
Anthaxia conradti Coleoptera: Buprestidae DNC
Anthaxia turkestanica Coleoptera: Buprestidae DPC
Aonidia isfarensis Hemiptera: Diaspididae DNC
Argyrestia praecocella Lepidoptera: Argyresthiidae DNC
Caliroa cerasi Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae D N/P B
Capnodis sexmaculata Coleoptera: Buprestidae DNB
Capnodis tenebricosa Coleoptera: Buprestidae DNB
Carphoborus persicus Coleoptera: Scolytidae DNB
Carpocapsa pomonella Lepidoptera: Torticidae DNB
Cinara grossa Hemiptera: Lachnidae DPC
Contarinia spp. Diptera: Cecidomyiidae DNC
Erannis defoliaria Lepidoptera: Geometridae DNB
Erschoviella musculana Lepidoptera: Noctuidae DNB
Eurytoma plotnikovi Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae DNB
Hylastes substriatus Coleoptera: Curclionidae DPC
Hylesinus prytenskyi Coleoptera: Scolytidae DNB
Hylesinus tupolevi Coleoptera: Scolytidae DNB
Hyphantria cunea Lepidoptera: Arctiidae TPB
Ips hauseri Coleoptera: Scolytidae DPC
Labidostomis stenostoma Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae DPB
Lymantria dispar Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae D N/P B D N/P B
Malacosoma parallela Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae D N/P B
Megastigmus certus Hymenoptera: Torymidae DNC
Megastigmus juniperi Hymenoptera: Torymidae DNC
Megastigmus validus Hymenoptera: Torymidae DNC
Melanophila cuspidata Coleoptera: Buprestidae DNB

Melasoma populi Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae DPB
Molorchus kiesenwetteri Coleoptera: Cerambycidae DPC
Molorchus pallidipennis Coleoptera: Cerambycidae D P B/C
Tomicus destruens Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Orthotomicus erosus Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Panaphis juglandis Hemiptera: Drepanosiphidae DNB
Phloeosinus armatus Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Phloeosinus turkestanicus Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Pineus pini Hemiptera: Adelgidae DPC
Pityogenes spessivtsevi Coleoptera: Scolytidae DPC
Pityophthorus parfentjevi Coleoptera: Scolytidae DPC
Pityophthorus schrenkianus Coleoptera: Scolytidae DPC
Prionus turkestanicus Coleoptera: Cerambycidae DNB
Pseudococcus comstocki Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae TNB
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Hemiptera: Diaspididae TNB
Recurvaria pistaciicola Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae DNB
Rhopalopus nadari Coleoptera: Buprestidae DNB
Scolytus mali Coleoptera: Scolytidae DNB
Sphaerolecanium prunastri Hemiptera: Coccidae T N/P B
Tetropium staudingeri Coleoptera: Cerambycidae D P B/C
Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni Lepidoptera: Thaumetopoeidae D N/P C
Tomicus minor Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Xyleborus saxeni Coleoptera: Scolytidae DNB
Xylotrechus namanganensis Coleoptera: Cerambycidae DNB
Yponomeuta malinellus Lepidoptera: Yponomeutoidae DNB
Yponomeuta padellus Lepidoptera: Yponomeutoidae DNB
Tomicus piniperda Coleoptera: Scolytidae D N/P C
Diseases
Armillaria mellea Basidiomycota: Marasmiaceae DPC
Biscogniauxia mediterranea
Ascomycota: Xylariaceae DNB
var. mediterranea
Cenangium ferruginosum Ascomycota: Helotiaceae DPC
Fomes fomentarius Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae DNB

Fomitopsis pinicola Basidiomycota: Fomitopsidaceae DPC
Ganoderma applanatum Basidiomycota: Ganodermataceae DNB
Gymnosporangium spp. Basidiomycota: Pucciniaceae DNC
Heterobasidion annosum Basidiomycota: Bondarzewiaceae DPC
Inonotus hispidus Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae D N/P B
Laetiporus sulphureus Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae D N/P B
Phellinus chrysoloma Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae DPC
Pyrofomes demidoffii Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae DNC
Other pests
Aceria erinoea Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Aceria sp. Acarina: Eriophyidae DPB
Aceria tristriatus Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Arceuthobium oxycedri Santalales: Viscaceae DNC
Eriophyes dispar Acarina: Eriophyidae DPB
Eriophyes mali Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Eriophyes parapopuli Acarina: Eriophyidae DPB
Eriophyes phloeocoptes Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Eriophyes pyri Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Eriophyes tarbinskii Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNB
Phyllocoptes aegerenus Acarina: Eriophyidae DPB
Trisetacus kirghisorum Acarina: Eriophyoidae DNC

Annex 2: Pest species mentioned in Part III 215
Annex 2
Pest species mentioned in Part III
Pest species Order/phylum: family
Insects
Acanthococcus danzigae Miller & Gimpel Hemiptera: Eriococcidae
Achaea lienardi Boisduval Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Acherontia lachesis (Fabricius) Lepidoptera: Sphingidae
Acrobasis demotella Grote Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Acromyrmex spp. Hymenoptera: Formicidae
Adelges piceae (Ratzeberg) Hemiptera: Adelgidae
Agriolima agrestis Coleoptera: Elateridae
Agrotis segetum Denis & Schiffermuller Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Alcidodes ludificator (=gmelinae) Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Anoplognathus sp. Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Apate monachus Fabricius Coleoptera: Bostrichidae
Apophylia nigricollis Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Arion spp. Coleoptera: Elateridae
Artipus floridanus Horn Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Atta insularis Guérin-Ménéville Hymenoptera: Formicidae
Atta spp. Hymenoptera: Formicidae
Attacus spp. Lepidoptera: Saturniidae
Calopepla leayana (Latreille) Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Camporatus sp. Hymenoptera: Formicidae
Cardiaspina sp. Hemiptera: Psyllidae
Catopyla dysorphnaea Bradly Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens) Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Chrysodeixis chalcites (Esper) Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Chrysomela populi Linnaeus Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Chrysophtharta spp. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Chrysoteuchia topiaria (Zeller) Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Clastoptera undulata (Uhl.) Hemiptera: Cercopidae
Cledus obesus Hustache Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Clostera spp. Lepidoptera: Notodontidae
Colaspis favosa Say Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Conotrachelus retentus (Say) Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Contarinia fagi (Hartig) Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Contarinia oregonensis Foote Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Contarinia washingtonensis Johnson Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae
Coptotermes formosanus (Shiraki) Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae
Coptotermes sp. Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae
Cossula spp. Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Cossus cadambae Moore Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Cossus cossus Linnaeus Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Crossotarsus externedentatus Fairmaire Coleoptera: Platypodidae
Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger Hemiptera: Eriococcidae
Cryptorhynchus lapathi Linnaeus Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Cydia fagiglandana (Zeller) Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Dasychira pudibunda (Linnaeus) Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Dasyneura fagicola Barnes Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Datana integerrima Grote & Robinson Lepidoptera: Notodontidae
Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Dendroctonus mexicanus Hopkins Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Dihammus cervinus (Hope) Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Dioryctria abietivorella Grote Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Dryocoetes confuses Swaine Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Duomitus ceramicus Walker Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Earomyia spp. Diptera: Lonchaeidae
Elatobium abietinum (Walker) Hemiptera: Aphididae
Endoxyla spp. Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Ennomos quercinaria (Hufnagel) Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Epithora dorsalis McL. Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell Hemiptera: Eriococcidae
Eumeta variegata (Snellen) Lepidoptera: Psychidae
Eurymela sp. Hemiptera: Eurymelinae
Eurymeloides sp. Hemiptera: Eurymelinae
Exophthalmus spp. Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Gilletteella cooleyi Gillette Hemiptera: Adelgidae
Gonipterus gibberus Boisduval Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Gonipterus scutellatus Gyllenhal, 1833 Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Gonipterus spp. Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Gypsonoma aceriana Duponchel Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Gyroptera robertsi Bradley Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Halymorpha picus (Fabricius) Hemiptera: Pentatomidae
Holotrichia spp. Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Hyblaea puera (Cramer) Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae
Hylecoetus dermestoides Linnaues Coleoptera: Lymexylidae
Hyphantria cunea Drury Lepidoptera: Arctiidae
Hypsipyla grandella (Zeller) Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Hypsipyla robusta (Moore) Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Icerya purchasi Maskell Hemiptera: Margarodidae
Imbrasia cytherea Fabricius Lepidoptera: Saturniidae
Ips grandicollis Eichhoff Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Leucoma salicis Linnaeus Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Leucoptera sinuella (Ruetti) Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae
Lyctus spp. Coleoptera: Lyctidae
Lymantria dispar Linnaeus Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Megastigmus spermotrophus Wachtl Hymenoptera: Torymidae
Mnesampela privata (Guenée) Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Oncideres cingulata (Say) Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Operophtera brumata Linnaeus Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Operophtera fagata (Scharfenberg) Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Orgyia pseudotsugata McDunnough Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae
Otiorhynchus ovatus (Linnaeus) Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Oxyops spp. Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Ozola minor (Moore) Lepidoptera: Geometridae
Paliga damastesalis Walker Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Paliga machoeralis (Walker) Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Paranthrene dollii (Neumogen) Lepidoptera: Sesiidae
Paranthrene tabaniformis Rottemburg Lepidoptera: Sesiidae
Paropsis spp. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Phassus excrescens (Butler) Lepidoptera: Hepialidae
Phloeomyzus passerinii (Signoret) Hemiptera: Aphididae
Phoracantha acanthocera (Macleay) Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Phoracantha semipunctata (Fabricius) Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Phoracantha spp. Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Phylacteophaga froggatti Riek Hymenoptera: Pergidae
Pineus pini Gmelin Hemiptera: Adelgidae
Pissodes spp. Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Pissodes strobi (Peck) Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Platypus gerstaeckeri Chapuis Coleoptera: Platypodidae
Platypus spp. Coleoptera: Platypodidae

Pseudophacopteron zimmerani Hemiptera: Psyllidae
Rhyacionia buoliana Denis & Schiffermüller Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Rhyacionia spp. Lepidoptera: Tortricidae
Rhynchaenus fagi (Linnaeus) Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Sahyadrassus malabaricus (Moore) Lepidoptera: Hepialidae
Saperda carcharias Linnaeus Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Scolytus spp. Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Scolytus ventralis Leconte Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Sinoxylon anale Lesne Coleoptera: Bostrichidae
Sinoxylon sp. Coleoptera: Bostrichidae
Sirex noctilio Fabricius Hymenoptera: Siricidae
Thaumetopoea pityocampa Denis & Schiffermüller Lepidoptera: Thaumetopoeidae
Tingis beesoni (Drake) Hemiptera: Tingidae
Udinia faraquarsoni (Newest) Hemiptera: Diaspididae
Umbonia crassicornis (Amyot & Serville) Hemiptera: Membracidae
Xyleborus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyleborus perforans (Wollatson) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyleborus semiopacus (Motschulsky) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyleborus sharpi Blandford Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyleborus sp. Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyleutes ceramicus Walker Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xyloterus domesticus (Linnaeus) Coleoptera: Scolytidae
Xystocera sp. Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Zeuzera coffeae Nietner Lepidoptera: Cossidae
Zonocerus variegatus (Linnaeus) Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae
Diseases
Agrobacterium tumefaciens Smith & Townsend Rhizobiales: Rhizobiaceae
Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm Basidiomycota: Marasmiaceae
Armillaria spp. Basidiomycota: Marasmiaceae
Endoraecium digitatum (G. Winter) M. Scholler & Aime Basidiomycota: Pileolariaceae
Botryosphaeria ribis Grossenb. & Duggar Ascomycota: Botryosphaeriaceae
Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis & Halsted Ascomycota: Ceratocystidaceae
Chaetophoma sp. Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. Ascomycota: Glomerellaceae
Coriolopsis sanguinaria (Klotzsch) Teng Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae
Corticium rolfsii Curzi Basidiomycota: Corticiaceae
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Broome Basidiomycota: Corticiaceae

Cryptodiaporthe populea (Sacc.) Butin ex Butin 1958 Ascomycota: Valsaceae
Cylindrocladium ovatum sp. novus Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Figueiredo & Namekata Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Cylindrocladium scoparium Morgan Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Cylindrocladium spp. Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Echinodontium tinctorium Ellis & Everh. Basidiomycota: Echinodontiaceae
Endocronartium harknessii Moore Basidiomycota: Cronartiaceae
Fomes fomentarius (L.) Kickx Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae
Fomes sp. Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae
Fomitopsis cajanderi (P. Karst.) Kotl. & Pouzar Basidiomycota: Fomitopsidaceae
Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill.) Bondartsev & Singer Basidiomycota: Fomitopsidaceae
Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst. Basidiomycota: Fomitopsidaceae
Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Fusarium spp. Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Ganoderma sp. Basidiomycota: Ganodermataceae
Gibberella circinata Nirenberg & O’Donnell Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Wollenw. Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Gnomonia leptostyla (Fr.) Ces. & de Not. Ascomycota: Valsaceae
Gnomonia sp. Ascomycota: Valsaceae
Harknessia hawaiiensis F. Stevens & E. Young Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Apoharknessia insueta (B. Sutton) Crous & S.J. Lee Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. Basidiomycota: Bondarzewiaceae
Phellinus weirii (Murrill) Gilb. Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae
Maravalia achroa (Syd.) Arthur & Cummins Basidiomycota: Chaconiaceae
Maravalia pterocarpi (Thirum.) Thirum. Basidiomycota: Chaconiaceae
Drepanopeziza populorum (Desm.) Höhn. Ascomycota: Dermateaceae
Melampsora laricis-populina Kleb. Basidiomycota: Melampsoraceae
Meliola sp. Ascomycota: Meliolaceae
Mycosphaerella pini Rostrup Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellaceae
Davidiella populorum (G.E. Thomps.) Aptroot Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellaceae
Mycosphaerella sp. Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellaceae
Naemacyclus minor Butin Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Nectria coccinea (Pers.) Fr. Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Neonectria galligena (Bres.) Rossman & Samuels Ascomycota: Nectriaceae
Olivea spp. Basidiomycota: Chaconiaceae
Olivea tectonae (T.S. Ramakr. & K. Ramakr.) Thirum. Basidiomycota: Chaconiaceae
Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii (T. Rohde) Petr. Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Phaeolus schweinitzii (Fr.) Pat. Basidiomycota: Fomitopsidaceae
Phellinus gilvus (Schwein.) Pat. Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae

Phellinus noxius (Corner) G. Cunn Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae
Porodaedalea pini (Brot.) Murrill Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae
Phellinus spp. Basidiomycota: Hymenochaetaceae
Pleurostomophora richardsiae (Nannf.) L. Mostert, W. Gams & Crous Ascomycota: Pleurostomataceae
Phomopsis casuarinae (Tassi) Died. Ascomycota: Diaporthaceae
Phomopsis spp. Ascomycota: Diaporthaceae
Phomopsis tectonae D.P. Tiwari, R.C. Rajak & Nikhra Ascomycota: Diaporthaceae
Phyllactinia guttata (Wallr.) Lév. Ascomycota: Erysiphaceae
Pythium debaryanum R. Hesse Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Pythium ultimum Trow Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schröt. Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Phytophthora spp. Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Polyporus spp. Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae
Poria sp. Basidiomycota: Polyporaceae
Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith 1896) Yabuuchi et al. Burkholderiales: Ralstoniaceae
Pseudomonas spp. Pseudomonadales: Pseudomonadaceae
Pseudomonas tectonae Roldan & Andres Pseudomonadales: Pseudomonadaceae
Pythium spp. Oomycota: Pythiaceae
Readeriella mirabilis Syd. & P. Syd. Ascomycota: Teratosphaeriaceae
Rhabdocline pseudotsugae Sydow Ascomycota: Hemiphacidiaceae
Rhizina undulata Fr. Ascomycota: Rhizinaceae
Thanatephorus cucumeris (A.B. Frank) Donk Basidiomycota: Ceratobasidiaceae
Rhizoctonia spp. Basidiomycota: Ceratobasidiaceae
Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) C.C. Tu & Kimbr. Basidiomycota: Typhulaceae
Sphaceloma tsugii Hara Ascomycota: Elsinoaceae
Sphaeropsis camarosporium Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Sphaeropsis sapinea (Fr.) Dyko & B.Sutton Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Subramanianospora vesiculosa (Butler) Narayanan, Sharma & Minter Ascomycota: Incertae sedis
Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk Basidiomycota: Ceratobasidiaceae
Uredo sissoo Syd., Syd. & Butler Basidiomycota: Incertae sedis
Uredo tesoensis Wakef. Basidiomycota: Incertae sedis
Venturia populina (Vuill.) Fabricius Ascomycota: Venturiaceae
Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (Pierce) Vauterin, Hoste, Kersters & Swings Xanthomonadales: Xanthomonadaceae
Other pests
Arceuthobium douglasii Engelmann Santalales: Viscaceae
Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Ettingsh. Santalales: Loranthaceae
Meloidogyne marioni (Cornu) Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae

Annex 3: FAO forest health publications 221
Annex 3
FAO forest health publications
FOREST HEALTH AND BIOSECURITY WORKING PAPERS

Cock, M.J.W. 2003. Biosecurity and forests: an introduction with particular emphasis on forest pests. FBS/2E.
Haysom, K.A. & Murphy, S.T. 2003. The status of invasiveness of forest tree species outside their natural
habitat: a global review and discussion paper. FBS/3E.
Hong Yang, P. 2005. Review of the Asian longhorned beetle research, biology, distribution and
management in China. FBS/6E.
Kueffer, C. & Lavergne, C. 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the
Western Indian Ocean: 4. Réunion. FBS/4-4E.
Kueffer, C. & Mauremootoo, J. 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the
Western Indian Ocean: 3. Mauritius (Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues). FBS/4-3E.
Kueffer, C. & Vos, P. 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western
Indian Ocean: 5. Seychelles. FBS/4-5E.
Kueffer, C., Vos, P., Lavergne, C. & Mauremootoo, J. 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive
woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean: 1. Synthesis. FBS/4-1E.
Moore, B.A. 2005. Alien invasive species: impacts on forests and forestry. A review. FBS/8E.
Moore, B. & Allard, G. 2008. Climate change impacts on forest health. FBS/34E.
Nyoka, B.I. 2003. Biosecurity in forestry: a case study on the status of invasive forest trees species in
Southern Africa. FBS/1E.
Vos, P. 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean: 2.
The Comoros Archipelago (Union of the Comoros and Mayotte). FBS/4-2E.
Weilun, Y. & Wen, L. 2005. Review of tree selection and afforestation for control of Asian longhorned
beetle in North China. FBS/7E.
FAO/IPGRI TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR THE SAFE MOVEMENT OF GERMPLASM

Ciesla, W.M., Diekmann, M. & Putter, C.A.J. (eds). 1996. Eucalyptus spp. No. 17.
Old, K.M., Vercoe, T.K., Floyd, R.B., Wingfield, M.J., Roux, J. & Neser, S. (eds). 2002. Acacia spp. No. 20.
Diekmann, M., Sutherland, J.R., Nowell, D.C., Morales, F.J. & Allard, G. (eds). 2002.. Pinus spp. No. 21.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
Ciesla, W.M. 1994. Forest health considerations. FAO, Rome (Italy). Forest Resources Division.
FAO. 1993. Decline and mortality in Acacia niloticain riverine forests of the Blue Nile. By Ciesla, W.M.,
FAO, Rome (Italy), Forestry Department.
FAO. 1993. Recent introductions of forest insects and their effects: a global overview. By Ciesla, W.M.
In: FAO Plant Protection Bulletin: 41(1): 3–13.
FAO. 1994. Assessment of forest diseases in Kenya with specific emphasis on cedar decline. By Anderson,
R.L., FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Department, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources,
Nairobi (Kenya).
FAO. 1994. Decline and dieback of trees and forests: a global overview. By Ciesla, W.M. & Donaubauer,
E. FAO Forestry Paper 120, FAO, Rome Italy.
FAO. 1994. Ensuring sustainability of forests through protection from fire, insects and disease. By
Ciesla, W.M. In: Readings in sustainable forest management. FAO Forestry Paper 122, FAO, Rome,
Italy, pp. 131–149.
FAO. 1994. Leucaena psyllid in the Asia-Pacific region: implications for its management in Africa. RAPA
publication: 1994/13, RAPA/FAO, Bangkok.
FAO. 1995. Forest pathology laboratory manual. By Anderson, R.L., FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry
Department.
FAO. 1995. A guide to the identification of diseases and pests of neem (Azadirachta indica). By E. R. Boa,
RAP publication: 1995/41, RAPA, FAO, Bangkok.
FAO. 2001. Protecting plantations from pests and diseases. Based on the work of W. M. Ciesla. D.J. Mead
(ed). Forest Plantations Thematic Papers, Working Paper FP/10, Rome, FAO (unpublished).
FAO. 2003. An illustrated guide to the state of health of trees. Recognition and interpretation of symptoms
and damage. By E. Boa. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 2004. Contribution of forest insects to food security. The example of caterpillars in Central Africa.
In French & English. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 2007. Damaging poplar insects – Internationally important species. By de Tillesse, V., Nef, L.,
Charles, J., Hopkin, A. & Augustin, S. FAO, Rome. (unpublished).

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Fao Pests and Diseases

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*44/

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Part I. Regional and global analysis 4

Part II. Profiles of selected forest pests 1

Part III. Pests of selected forest tree species 142

Annex 1. Pest species distribution in the selected countries, by region 193

Annex 2. Pest species mentioned in Part III 215

Annex 3. FAO forest health publications 221

This publication was compiled by Beverly A. Moore under the supervision of

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

FAO ACTIVITIES IN FOREST HEALTH

COLLECTING GLOBAL FOREST HEALTH INFORMATION

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is an international treaty to secure

Africa Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, South Africa, Sudan

Asia and the Pacific China, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Thailand

Europe Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation

Near East Cyprus, Kyrgyzstan

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Countries profiled in the region

Ghana Kenya Malawi Mauritius Morocco South Africa Sudan

SPECIES FOUND IN MORE THAN ONE COUNTRY

Total In naturally In planted In both types On On On both

Cinara cupressivora* Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Eulachnus rileyi Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Naturally Conifer

Gonipterus Coleoptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Heteropsylla Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Hypsipyla robusta* Lepidoptera: Ghana, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Leptocybe invasa* Hymenoptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Phoracantha Coleoptera: Malawi, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Phoracantha Coleoptera: Malawi, Introduced Planted Broadleaf

Pineus pini Hemiptera: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Armillaria mellea* Basidiomycota: Kenya, Introduced Naturally Broadleaf,

Mycosphaerella Ascomycota: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

Sphaeropsis sapinea Ascomycota: Kenya, Introduced Planted Conifer

CAPACITY FOR FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION

REGIONAL PEST MANAGEMENT EFFORTS

Asia and the Pacific

Countries profiled in the region

Seventy-eight percent of forest pests were recorded on broadleaf trees, 15 percent on

China India Indonesia Mongolia Thailand

Total In naturally In planted In both On On conifer On both

Totala 138 13 105 20 108 21 9

SPECIES FOUND IN MORE THAN ONE COUNTRY

Brontispa Coleoptera: China, Indonesia, Planted Coconut palm

Calopepla leayana Coleoptera: India, Thailand Planted Broadleaf

Coptotermes Isoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Planted Broadleaf,

Dendrolimus Lepidoptera: China, Mongolia Naturally Conifer

Eutectona Lepidoptera: India, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

Heteropsylla Hemiptera: India, Indonesia, Planted Broadleaf

Hyblaea puera Lepidoptera: India, Indonesia, Naturally Broadleaf

Hypsipyla robusta* Lepidoptera: India, Indonesia, Planted Broadleaf

Ips sexdentatus* Coleoptera: Mongolia, Thailand Naturally Conifer

Lymantria dispar* Lepidoptera: China, Mongolia Naturally Broadleaf,

Xyleutes ceramica Lepidoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

Zeuzera coffeae Lepidoptera: Indonesia, Thailand Naturally Broadleaf

Agrobacterium Rhizobiales: China, Indonesia Planted Broadleaf

CAPACITY FOR FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION

REGIONAL PEST MANAGEMENT EFFORTS

SPECIES FOUND IN MORE THAN ONE COUNTRY

Countries profiled in the region

Moldova Romania Russian Federation

Total In naturally In planted In both On On conifer On both

Other lepidopterans included Erannis defoliaria, Operophtera brumata, Tortrix

Erannis defoliaria Lepidoptera: Moldova, Romania Naturally Broadleaf

*44/

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