Insect Pests

Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests
An assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature
K.S.S. Nair (Editor)
Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MAJOR THREATS, RESEARCH EFFORTS AND LITERATURE
Editor K.S.S. Nair
2000 by Center for International Forestry Research All rights reserved. Published in December 2000 Printed by SMT Grafika Desa Putera, Indonesia Cover photos by Levania Santoso
ISBN 979-8764-52-8
Nair, K.S.S. (ed.). 2000. Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian forests: an assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature. Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia. 101p.
Published by Center for International Forestry Research Bogor, Indonesia P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100 E-mail: cifor@cgiar.org Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org
Contents
Acknowledgements Abstract 1. Introduction K.S.S. Nair 1.1. Background 1.2. Objectives 1.3. Methodology 1.4. Presentation 2. The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair 2.1. A time of change 2.2. Forest types, area and policies 2.3. Forest concession right and plantation development 2.4. Plantation trends-areas and species 2.5. Forest plantations in perspective 3. General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 3.1. Natural forests 3.2. Plantations 3.3. Comparison between plantations and natural forests 4. Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 4.1. Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp. 4.2. Agathis dammara 4.3. Alstonia spp. 4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba 4.5. Azadirachta excelsa 4.6. Dalbergia spp. 4.7. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarps) vi vii
1 1 2 2
3 3 4 6 8
11 12 12
15 19 20 20 21 21 22
4.8. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. 4.14. 4.15. 4.16. 4.17. 4.18. 4.19. 4.20. 4.21. 4.22. 4.23. 4.24.
Dyera spp. Eucalyptus spp. Eusideroxylon zwageri Gmelina arborea Gonystylus bancanus Koompassia species Maesopsis eminii Mangrove species Melaleuca cajuputi Ochroma pyramidale Octomeles sumatrana Paraserianthes falcataria Peronema canescens Pinus merkusii Schleichera oleosa Swietenia macrophylla Tectona grandis
24 24 26 26 27 28 28 28 29 30 30 31 33 33 35 35 37
5. General Conclusions K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi 5.1. Summary of present problems and future threats 5.2. The research scenario 5.3. Outlook for future Literature Cited 6. Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair 6.1. Insect Pests 6.2. Diseases 6.3. Bibliography Indexes Indexes
39 43 44 45
57 70 79 87
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Table 2.2. Table 2.3. Table 2.4 Table 2.5. Table 2.6. Table 2.7. Table 4.1. Table 4.2. Table 4.3. Table 4.4. Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus Forest plantations in Java in 1995 Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to 1998-99 Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands Species and area planted by some HTI companies Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia 4 6 6 7 7 7 8 16 17 23 23 25 25 29 32 32 34 35 37 40 41
Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing plantation species Table 5.2. Summary of pest and disease problems for new plantation species
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province 9
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. E.A. Husaeni and Prof. Gunarwan Suratmo of Bogor Agricultural University; Prof. Ahmad Sultoni, Mr. Subyanto and Ms. Sri Rahayu of Gadjah Mada University; Dr. Daddy Ruhiyat, Mr. Encep Iskandar and Mr. CH. Soeyamto of Mulawarman University; Ms. Mieke Suharti and Mr. Erdy Santoso of Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development Agency (FERDA); and Dr. John Poulsen of CIFOR for helpful discussions. We are grateful to all of them for enriching this study by sharing information and their personal experience. We also thank Dr. Ken MacDicken, Director of Research, CIFOR and Dr. J.W. Turnbull, whose editorial comments helped to improve the presentation. We received useful information on pests and diseases from Mr. S.S. Maurits and Mr. S.N. Sunaryo of PT Surya Hutani Jaya; and Mr. Canesio Munoz, Mr. Cheah Leong Chew and Mr. Lee Foo Wah of PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper. Representatives of several plantation companies helped this study by providing statistics on plantations as well as information on pests and diseases. We thank all of them.
Abstract
Major pests and diseases of natural and planted Indonesian forests have been reviewed, threats assessed and a bibliography compiled. Indonesia has about 96 million hectares of natural forests, dominated by dipterocarps, and 4 million ha of forest plantations. About half the plantations are in Java, consisting of long-established species including Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Agathis dammara, Swietenia macrophylla, Dalbergia latifolia and Melaleuca cajuputi, and half in Sumatra and Kalimantan, mainly fast growing pulpwood species. Major plantation species are: Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Acacia mangium, Agathis dammara, Paraserianthes falcataria, Swietenia macrophylla, Gmelina arborea, mangrove species, Eucalyptus spp., Dalbergia spp., Melaleuca cajuputi and Azadirachta excelsa. Only small-scale plantations exist for the other species reviewed, viz., Alstonia spp., Anthocephalus sp., Dipterocarpaceae, Dyera spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Gonystylus bancanus, Koompassia spp., Maesopsis eminii, Ochroma pyramidale, Octomeles sumatrana, Peronema canescens and Schleichera oleosa. Occasional and unpredictable insect outbreaks have occurred in natural stands of Pinus merkusii, Plaquium sp., Casuarina junghuhniana, mangroves, etc., but plantations of teak, pine, mahogany and Paraserianthes falcataria etc., are damaged by pests every year. In natural forests high host density appears to be a predisposing factor for pest build-up. Serious pests occur on Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Paraserianthes falcataria and Swietenia macrophylla, with the most damaging being the Paraserianthes trunk borer, Xystrocera festiva. Disease problems are less significant than pests in the natural forests and no major disease outbreak has occurred in plantations, although many fungal diseases are prevalent in nurseries. No major pest or disease has been recorded on the minor plantation species, but their history is too short and planted areas too small to draw reliable conclusions on their susceptibility. There are indications of impending problems, e.g. root rot in Eucalyptus spp. and root and stem rot in Acacia mangium. There is also the risk of new pests in Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. Research capacity in Indonesia is inadequate to meet the existing and future challenges and more collaboration between Government, universities and plantation companies is needed for pest and disease surveillance and research in the rapidly expanding forest plantations.
Chapter 1
Introduction
K.S.S. Nair
1.1. Background
Indonesia is a forest country. In 1993, the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry estimated (MoF 1993) that about three-quarters of the 193 million hectares (ha) of the land area, i.e., about 144 million ha, are covered by forest. FAO estimates in 1996 showed the forest area to be 96.2 million ha, i.e., about half of the land area, and there has been further reduction in forested land since then (Fox et al. 2000). This trend of deforestation has been continuing for some time. Shifting agriculture by indigenous communities and logging by forest concessionaires have created about 30 million ha of secondary forests in the outer islands, particularly Sumatra and Kalimantan. These are often further degraded into grasslands. Apart from the early planting of nearly 2 million ha of teak, pine, mahogany, agathis and other species in Java for industrial purposes, planting programmes to rehabilitate degraded lands were initiated in the 1970s. In the 1980s, the Government initiated an ambitious programme of Industrial Forest Plantations (Hutan Tanaman Industri, or HTI). Under this programme, intended to meet the raw material demands of forestbased industries, Concession areas were granted to both foreign and national companies, and incentives were offered, e.g. capital in the form of Government equity, interest free loans, etc., in order to promote plantation development. Although the Government target (MoF 1993) of 6.2 million ha of industrial forest plantations by year 2000 was not reached, it is estimated that at least 4 million ha have been planted (including plantations in Java) (see Chapter 2). In the outer islands, fast growing species such as Acacia
mangium, Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and Paraserianthes falcataria are planted. Replacement of natural mixed forests over vast areas, with plantations, raises several important questions. Apart from the uncertainty in sustainability of production over successive short rotations and the environmental impact (loss of biodiversity, soil compaction, disturbance to water balance, etc.), outbreaks of serious pests and diseases may be a major threat. Devastating outbreaks of the psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana in plantations of Leucaena leucocephala in South and Southeast Asia, conifer aphids in plantations in East Africa and eucalypt leaf diseases are only recent history. What is the risk of such new pest and disease outbreaks, in the rapidly expanding forest plantations in Indonesia? This study is an attempt to assess the present pest and disease situation in Indonesian forests, particularly, in forest plantations, and evaluate the future risks.
1.2. Objectives
The specific objectives were: i. to prepare a bibliography of pests and diseases literature pertaining to Indonesian forests, including informal publications (grey literature), like consultant reports and student theses; ii. to interpret the literature and summarise the main findings, and
Introduction
iii. to derive general conclusions on the impact of pests and diseases, and make informed judgment on the future risks.
University. In addition, there was correspondence with representatives of several plantation companies to elicit information on pest and disease outbreaks.
1.3. Methodology
Information was gathered from published and grey literature, field visits and discussions with Indonesian entomologists and pathologists. The TREECD database published by the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International (1939-1998(4)) was screened for abstracts of formal publications. Most relevant publications were in the Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia) and many in conference proceedings, student theses and departmental and consultant reports. Full text of most of the relevant publications, both in English and Bahasa Indonesia, was read to extract information. Field visits were made to plantations of Tectona grandis, Paraserianthes falcataria and other species in Java, and of Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea and Eucalyptus spp. in East Kalimantan. Discussions were held with specialist scientists at CIFOR, FERDA (Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development Agency of Indonesia), IPB (Bogor Agricultural University), Gadjah Mada University and Mulawarman
1.4. Presentation
The results of the study are presented in five chapters. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the state of the forest and plantation trends in Indonesia and Chapter 3 a general comparison of the pest and disease problems in natural forests and plantations. In Chapter 4, the insect pests and diseases of major plantation species in Indonesia are discussed in detail by tree species. This sets the background for Chapter 5 in which general conclusions are drawn on the impacts of pests and diseases, the current status of research on the subject and constraints to research and management of pests and diseases. Based on the available information and the personal experience of the authors, an assessment is made of the future threats of pest and disease outbreaks in plantations. Suggestions are made to meet the challenges. In addition to the cited references, there is a separate bibliography of published and grey literature for insect pests and diseases, which includes documents in English, Bahasa Indonesia and Dutch.
Chapter 2
The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair
2.1. A time of change

Indonesian forests are in a state of transition. The traditional low-level exploitation of forests by indigenous communities has been supplemented, over the past 30 years, by increased logging operations for selected timbers which has led to degradation of foests over large areas. Presently, there is large-scale replacement of degraded natural forests with short rotation industrial tree crops, raised and managed by commercial companies. Estate crops such as rubber and oil palm have also replaced part of the natural forests. What drives these changes is not the Indonesian consumer demands, but the rapidly rising international demand for engineered wood products, e.g. medium density fibre board and pulp and paper; and rubber and palm oil.
deforestation during 19721990 was about 840 000 ha per year (Sumahadi et al. 1997). As noted earlier, in 1996 FAO estimated forest area as 96.2 million ha, and there has been further reduction since then (Fox et al. 2000). Most Government sources continue to give higher figures with estimates of 92-124 million ha in many publications. Often there is confusion between land area classified as forest in Government records and the land area actually covered by forest. Since most forest policy decisions of Government have been made on the basis of the older figures, it is difficult to use more recent figures in the following discussion. The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia dictates that all forests of the country are to be governed by the State and there are a number of Acts and Rules that set principles and guidelines for their management. In 1984, the Government classified the forests into five categories, based on land-use preference established by a consensus of provincial Government agencies (Handadhari 1997, Gautam et al. 2000). Data in Table 2.1 show about 49 million ha reserved for conservation purposes (first and second categories), 34 million ha for production and about 30 million ha for limited production. About 30 million ha are designated as convertible forest area for long-term non-forestry uses. The areas assigned to each category are only estimates, as all lands not otherwise identified with existing agricultural or urban land uses in records available to provincial offices at that time were designated as forests (Gautam et al. 2000). The estimates were often contended and adjustments
2.2. Forest types, area and policies

Nature has endowed the country with a rich variety of tropical forests. Dominated by dipterocarps, these include the monsoon forests, hill rainforests, lowland rainforests, peat-swamp forests, swamp forests, littoral forests and mangrove forests (Handadhari 1997). Forest area statistics given by different authors are often conflicting. In addition to degradation due to shifting agriculture and selective logging, since the 1970s, large areas have been converted to agricultural land, estates and human settlements. Estimates based on remote sensed data, show that the forest area of Indonesia is about 124 million ha and the rate of
4 Table 2.1.
Category Nature Reserve and Recreation forest Protection forest Production forest Limited production forest Convertible forest
Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus

Purpose1 Conservation, including wildlife, national parks and tourism Watershed protection Selective timber harvesting Harvest restricted to protect environment Conversion for estate crops, smallholdings, future agricultural use, etc. Area2 (million ha) 18.8 30.3 33.9 30.5 30.5 % Area 13 21 24 21 21
Total
1
144.0
100
vide Gautam et al. (2000); 2Area in 1984 Source: Handadhari (1997)
were made. Due to this, the area figures given by various authors in the above categories often differ (e.g. see Leech et al. 1996; MoFEC 1999). The 64 million ha of production forest (including the 30 million ha of limited production forest) is a massive resource for wood production. Ensuring the sustainability of production in these forests, and arresting forest conversion within the set limit of about 30 million ha are the main challenges of Indonesian forestry today. The basic principles to guide sound forest management have been identified as national interest, sustainability of yield, multisectoral benefits, equality and justice for all provinces and peoples within the country, social participation, and encouragement of agroforestry and smallholder forestry. However, there are constraints putting these principles into practice, which have been identified as conflict of interest among development sectors and the irresponsible attitude of forest concessionaires (see MoF 1993; Handadhari 1997).
been given the responsibility for management of about 3 million ha of State-owned forests. The mandate includes planning, management, exploitation and protection of all forests in Java and Madura, except nature reserves and parks. Thus, Perum Perhutani manages about 1 million ha of naturalised teak forests that have been planted and managed since the Dutch colonial times (1870s), in addition to nearly another million hectares of plantations of Pinus, Agathis, Dalbergia spp. and other species were raised later. Teak plantation are managed in Java under the taungya system, in which local farmers are permitted to plant food crops between rows of forest trees during the initial years of tree growth. In 1967, Forest Concession Right (Hak Pengusahaan Hutan, or HPH) was granted to private and State-owned enterprises, to exploit natural forests in the outer islands. In the production and limited production forests, besides exploiting the timber, forest concessionaires were required to undertake rehabilitation planting in the logged area. There was a rapid increase in the number of concessionaires, from 64 in 1970, with a concession area of 7.8 million ha to 462 in 1979, with a concession area of about 50 million ha (MoF 1993). Simultaneously, shifting agriculture by indigenous communities and excessive logging by the concessionaires created vast areas of degraded, secondary forests, which were often converted into
2.3. Forest concession right and plantation development

Management of Indonesian forests has traditionally been vested with forest concessionaires. In Java, a Government-owned company, Perum Perhutani, has
unproductive grassland, dominated by Imperata cylindrica. Such lands were estimated at about 30 million ha (Supriana and Natawiria 1987a) and intensive efforts were made to reforest them. As many native tree species were suppressed by the grass, the exotic Acacia mangium emerged as a promising species for afforestation of such lands. In 1980, in order to meet the increasing raw material demand of forest industries, the Government of Indonesia initiated a programme to develop industrial forest plantations (HTI). This was justified by the anticipated pressure on natural forest resources and the need to rehabilitate denuded areas. The Government assisted the concessionaires by providing capital in the form of Government equity amounting to 14% and interestfree loan up to 32.5% of the plantation cost (MoF 1993). The period of concession was 35 years, plus one rotation length of the tree species planted, with provision for further extension. Concession areas were granted to foreign and Indonesian entrepreneurs. The Government set a target of about 6 million ha of HTI by the year 2000. The Government also initiated a Forest Village Development Programme, with social benefit schemes adapted to local conditions and requirements, in an attempt to encourage the native shifting cultivators to become settled farmers. The settled manpower was also expected to assist in the development of HTI and the forest concessionaires were assigned the responsibility for implementation of the Forest Village Development Programme. Other forest development programmes included transmigration settlements, in which people from densely populated areas were translocated to the sparsely populated outer islands, with benefits such as housing, land for agriculture, etc. They were also expected to provide the labour force for development of HTI. In addition, several schemes were introduced to encourage agroforestry on forest and non-forest land and for development of smallholder forestry. Involvement of a large number of plantation companies in the management of state-owned
forests, creates its own problems. Although it brings in the much-needed investment and expertise, the short-term financial interests of the investors rather than long term ecological, economic and social prosperity of the country are likely to be given precedence. Liberal government incentives to promote forest-based industries have led to large-scale clearing of productive secondary forest, in some cases to procure land tenure rather than to produce an economic crop, and to deprivation of local people of their traditional rights on the land (Turnbull et al. 1998). There is fear of long-term ecological deterioration caused by over-logging and inadequate regeneration efforts in natural forests, and inappropriate management practices in plantation areas. Although the policies and prescriptions are adequate, there are problems in implementation at all levels, and a large number of forest concessionaires who are managing natural forest areas, are not implementing the prescribed forest management systems correctly (Djakaria et al. 1997). It is public knowledge that the forest concession system has been plagued by political patronage. Rules and regulations have been grossly violated. Concessions and conversion rights were often granted in areas set aside for conservation. Such patronage has often led to conflicts between local communities, logging concessionaires, plantation companies, transmigrants and other state-sponsored activities (Gautam et al. 2000). It has been alleged that some plantation companies, particularly those engaged in oil palm cultivation, clandestinely abet the devastating forest fires that have erupted almost every summer in recent years, for easy clearance of natural growth for raising plantations. Given the vastness of the forest area, monitoring to ensure compliance with the prescriptions is difficult. In many cases, concession rights have been revoked due to poor performance but significant damage has already been done. The magnitude of the problem can be judged from the fact that after 20 years, the concession rights of only 96 out of the 359 HPH companies were renewed (Gautam et al. 2000). This means that a large proportion of the allotted area was not managed properly.
2.4. Plantation trends areas and species

Indonesia has a long plantation history, starting with teak (Tectona grandis) cultivation. Believed to have been introduced to Java some 400 - 600 years ago (Phengklai et al. 1993), teak has been planted systematically since the 1870s and in 1995 there were about 1 million ha of well-managed plantations, in Java and the adjacent island of Madura (Perum Perhutani 1995). Table 2.2 shows the areas of major tree species planted in Java managed by the Government-owned company, Perum Perhutani.
Table 2.2. Forest plantations in Java in 1995 Species Tectona grandis Pinus merkusii Agathis dammara Swietenia macrophylla Dalbergia latifolia Melaleuca cajuputi Paraserianthes falcataria Schleichera oleosa Rhizophora spp. Others Total
Source: Perum Perhutani (1995)
oil from the leaves and Schleichera oleosa for cultivation of lac. There is currently an expansion of Paraserianthes falcataria plantations by smallholders throughout Java. Among the major plantation species, only Melaleuca cajuputi and the mangroves Rhizophora spp. are strictly native to Java. Teak (Tectona grandis), mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) are exotic to Indonesia, although teak is naturalised. Other species have been introduced to Java from other parts of Indonesia where they occur naturally. Plantation forestry in the outer islands began in the 1970s, with attempts to afforest the extensive Imperata cylindrica grasslands, particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Opening up of HPH to foreign investors in 1967, with the issuance of Foreign Investment Law (UU PMA) in forestry sector, accelerated the expansion of plantations. By 1989, 565 units of HPH holders operated in about 58 million ha of forest land (MoF 1993: Fact Sheet No. 12). Apart from rehabilitation planting carried out by these companies in the logged areas, over 7 million ha have been allotted (Table 2.3), to about 100 companies for raising HTI. About 67% of the allotted HTI area is for pulpwood production, 23% for sawlog production and 10% for transmigration settlements (Table 2.4). The area allotted to individual companies ranges from about 4000 ha to 300 000 ha.
Area (ha) 1 066 532 583 974 66 013 54 383 25 502 11 848 6 064 3 732 49 662 89 063 1 956 775
Pine (Pinus merkusii) plantations comprise the second largest area, about 0.6 million ha, after teak. Native to the northern part of Sumatra, this species is primarily utilised for resin tapping in Java and yields a general-purpose timber, although it was originally planted for pulpwood production. Agathis dammara is also tapped for resin. Melaleuca cajuputi is planted for extraction of essential
In the outer islands, over 60% of the geographical area consists of forest land. Forest land is land that has been legally defined as forest land and is not synonymous with land under forest cover for which there are no reliable data. Of the forest land, nearly 7% has been allotted for HTI and by 1998-99 about 22% of the allotted area (about 1.6 million ha) has been utilised by the concessionaires (Table 2.3). It is
Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia Region Sumatra Kalimantan Sulawesi Irian Jaya Nusa Tenggara Moluccas Total Geographical area (ha) 47 050 873 54 824 700 19 227 076 41 066 000 6 744 235 8 572 800 178 485 684 Forest area (ha) 23 877 500 35 745 200 11 473 400 30 611 800 2 732 400 4 201 600 108 641 900 Area allotted for HTI (ha) 2 525 486 3 129 781 187 146 1 389 200 55 074 74 568 7 361 255 Area planted up to 98-99 (ha) 888 354 802 505 27 931 0 5 945 33 264 1 757 999
Source: Statistik Pengusahaan Hutan 1998/1999, Dirjen Pengusahaan Hutan Produksi, Dephutbun (1999); Geographical area and forest area from MoFEC (1999); HTI area and planted area from Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC
estimated that the planted area may have reached at least 2 million ha by year 2000. No information is available on the extent of area cleared of forest but apparently it is much more than the area planted.
Table 2.4. Utilisation of HTI area for different purposes to 1998-99 Category Area allotted Area planted up to 98/99
summarised in Table 2.6. The overriding dominance of Acacia mangium and the relative importance of other pulpwood species are highlighted by this data.
Table 2.5. Main species planted in the HTI in the outer islands Pulpwood species Acacia mangium Other Acacia spp. Eucalyptus spp. Gmelina arborea Paraserianthes falcataria Timber or plywood species Alstonia sp. Anthocephalus sp. Azadirachta excelsa Dyera sp. Eusideroxylon zwageri Gonystylus bancanus Koompasia sp. Maesopsis eminii Ochroma pyramidale Octomeles sumatrana Peronema canescens Pinus merkusii Shorea spp. Tectona grandis
(million ha) Pulp Construction wood Transmigration Total 4.94 (67%) 1.65 (23%) 0.76 (10%) 7.34 (100%) 1.04 (64%) 0.32 (20%) 0.26 (16%) 1.63 (100%)
Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC
The 1998 Government reorganisation of the Ministries of Forestry and Agriculture to bring estate crops under the purview of the new MoFEC is indicative of a change in the Governments strategy. There is strong interest among private investors for diverting forest land for oil palm cultivation, encouraged by the Governments incentives for investment in oil palm. The Government has also granted permission to stateowned forestry companies to convert 30% of their concession areas within production forest boundaries to oil palm. It is estimated that currently 330 000 ha of forest land is being converted annually to oil palm plantations (Gautam et al. 2000). These policy changes are still evolving and are likely to impact significantly on the future forest plantation scenario. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province, including the three provinces in Java, is shown in Fig.2. Unlike in Java (Table 2.2), detailed information on the species planted and the area under each is not available for other regions. However, most area in the outer islands is used for pulpwood species (Table 2.4), mainly, Acacia mangium. The main species planted are listed in Table 2.5. Twenty-eight of the 42 companies from whom we requested information provided details; the species and area planted by these companies are
Table 2.6. Species and area planted by some HTI companies Species Acacia mangium Other Acacia spp. Paraserianthes falcataria Gmelina arborea Eucalyptus spp. Azadirachta excelsa Hevea braziliensis Peronema canescens Octomeles sumatrana Dipterocarps Tectona grandis Maesopsis eminii Swietenia macrophylla Miscellaneous species Total Area (ha) 443 535 24 023 48 401 47 790 29 821 18 463 8 293 4 963 4 456 2 977 1 966 282 244 55 213 690 528 Percentage 64.2 3.5 7.0 6.7 4.3 2.7 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.3 >0.1 >0.1 8.0 100.0
Source: Data supplied by 28 responding Companies under Adindo Hutani Lestari, Barito Timber Pacific, Hutrindo, Indah Kiat, Korindo, Musi Hutan Persada, Raja Garuda Mas, Sumalindo and Uniseraya Groups.
2.5. Forest plantations in perspective

The total extent of forest plantations in Indonesia is about 4 million ha including 2 million ha in Java and about 2 million ha in the outer islands. Plantations in the outer islands are poised for huge expansion from 2.0 million ha to 7.4 million ha in the coming years (see Table 2.3). Based on current trends, much of this will consist of Acacia mangium, followed by Gmelina arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Eucalyptus spp. Indigenous timber species will constitute a small proportion about 20%. Although there is concern among environmental groups about such expansion of industrial plantations of a few species, the fact remains that these plantations account for only about 10%of the total extent of Indonesian forests (9.4 million ha out of 96.2 million ha). What is of greater concern is the degradation of the natural forest in the rest of the 64 million ha of production forests entrusted to private and quasi-Government enterprises for logging
and management, and the increasing rate of conversion of forest land into oil palm estates. The Government expects plantation-grown wood to satisfy much of the future wood demand by increasing the area of plantations and improving plantation productivity. At present, the mean annual increment of most plantations of fast growing tree species in Indonesia is 15-25 m3 ha-1, and efforts are under way to increase the productivity through use of genetically improved planting stock, including hybrids, and nutrient management (Natadiwirya 1998; Tiarks et al. 1999). Projections by the Ministry of Forestry of future wood production indicates almost a doubling of the present wood production by 2018-19. This will be accomplished by an increase of 52 million m3 of annual wood production from plantations, while there will be a decrease of 3.23 million m3 of annual wood production from natural forests (Table 2.7). Plantation forestry in Indonesia has to meet this challenge.
Table 2.7. Projected wood production in 2018-19 from different sources Year Natural forest Plantation forest For pulpwood For construction timber
million m3
Community forest
Total
1999 - 2000 2018 - 2019 Difference
34.79 31.56 -3.23
15.52 42.58 +27.06
1.70 26.73 +25.03
1.49 2.86 +1.37
53.50 103.73 +50.23
Source: Natadiwirya (1998)
Figure. 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province
NORTH SUMATRA - Acacia mangium - other Acacia spp. - Anthocephalus spp. - Azadirachta excelsa - Duabanga moluccana - Eucalyptus spp. - Gmelina arborea - Maesopsis eminii - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Pinus merkusii - Swietenia macrophylla WEST KALIMANTAN - Acacia mangium - Alstonia spp. - Eucalyptus spp. - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp.
D.I. ACEH - Acacia mangium - Eucalyptus spp. - Paraserianthes falcataria - Pinus merkusii
RIAU - Acacia mangium - other Acacia spp. - Anthocephalus spp. - Azadirachta excelsa - Gmelina arborea - Maesopsis eminii - Octomeles sumatrana - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens
CENTRAL KALIMANTAN - Acacia mangium - Anthocephalus spp. - Dyera spp. - Gmelina arborea - Koompassia spp. - Ochroma spp. - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp.
EAST KALIMANTAN - Acacia mangium - Eucalyptus spp. - Eusideroxylon zwageri - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp. - Swietenia macrophylla - Tectona grandis
CENTRAL SULAWESI - Ochroma spp. - Paraserianthes falcataria
WEST SUMATRA - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria
D.I.ACEH
NORTH SUMATRA EAST KALIMANTAN RIAU WEST SUMATRA JAMBI SOUTH SUMATRA LAMPUNG WEST JAVA CENTRAL JAVA EAST JAVA EAST NUSA TENGGARA SOUTH SULAWESI SOUTHEAST SULAWESI SOUTH KALIMANTAN CENTRAL KALIMANTAN WEST KALIMANTAN CENTRAL SULAWESI MOLLUCAS
MOLLUCAS - Acacia mangium - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria
JAMBI - Acacia mangium - other Acacia spp. - Dyera spp. - Eucalyptus spp. - Gmelina arborea - Gonystylus bancanus - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp.
SOUTH KALIMANTAN - Acacia mangium - Eucalyptus spp. - Eusideroxylon zwageri - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria - Peronema canescens - Shorea spp. - Tectona grandis
SOUTH SUMATRA - Acacia mangium - Alstonia spp. - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria - Shorea spp.
LAMPUNG - Acacia mangium - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria - Shorea spp. CENTRAL JAVA - Agathis spp. - Dalbergia spp. - mangrove species - Melaleuca cajuputi - Pinus Merkusii - Swietenia macrophylla - Tectona grandis
WEST JAVA - Acacia mangium - Agathis spp. - mangrove species - Pinus merkusii - Shorea spp. - Swietenia macrophylla - Tectona grandis
EAST JAVA - Agathis spp. - Melaleuca cajuputi - Paraserianthes falcataria - Pinus merkusii - Schleichera oleosa - Swietenia macrophylla - Tectona grandis
SOUTH SULAWESI - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria
SOUTHEAST SULAWESI - Acacia mangium - Gmelina arborea - Swietenia macrophylla - Tectona grandis
EAST NUSA TENGGARA - Paraserianthes falcataria - Tectona grandis
Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC
Chapter 3
General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
Conventional wisdom suggests that natural stands of tropical forests, characterised by high species diversity, are free of pests and diseases. Tropical forests are often quoted as examples that demonstrate the strong correlation between diversity and stability, in relation to pest and disease outbreaks. However, a critical study of the literature shows that there is more discussion than data on this relationship (Nair et al. 1986). Plantations, on the other hand, characterised by even-aged stands of the same tree species are generally believed to be pest and disease prone. There is enough data to support this generalisation, although monocultures of some species may be pest or disease free. An overview of the general situation in natural forests and plantations in Indonesia is given below. 1924, 1933, and 1934-38, causing defoliation over large areas. The 1934-38 outbreak continued over a four-year period, during which repeated defoliation occurred, month after month. The damage was more serious on poorer sites. Another pine pest was a larger bagworm, Eumeta (Clania) variegata, a well-known polyphagous insect, but its outbreaks were less frequent. The third pest was also a lepidopteran (Geometridae) defoliator, Milionia basalis. Repeated outbreaks of this insect have been recorded, smaller outbreaks developing simultaneously in different places all over the pine stands. Our knowledge about these early outbreaks of pine insects was due to regular observations made by the resin and turpentine industry. No systematic observations are available for later periods, although outbreaks of other pests have been recorded in pine plantations. Occasional severe outbreaks of the caterpillar Voracia casuariniphaga (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae) occur in natural stands of Casuarina junghuhniana growing on mountain ridges and peaks in East Java. In an outbreak in February 1938 on Mt Lawu, 800 ha were totally stripped. Outbreaks of the caterpillar, Ophiusa serva (Noctuidae) have been recorded on Palaquium sp., which often constitutes 50% or more of the crop in some primary forests in South Sumatra. On the mangrove, Sonneratia acida, in an estuary at the Barito River in Southeast Kalimantan, a caterpillar provisionally identified as Lymantria galinara (Lymantriidae) caused defoliation of all trees on one occasion. More recently there was a near total defoliation of a mangrove species, Excoecaria
3.1. Natural forests

Published information on pests and diseases in natural forests of Indonesia is scarce. Kalshoven (1953) recorded some of the early instances of insect pest outbreaks, the highlights of which are given below. Natural stands of Pinus merkusii, Casuarina junghuhniana (syn. C. montana), Palaquium sp., Actinophora fragrans and mangroves have suffered occasional pest outbreaks. Outbreaks of three species of insects are on record in pine stands, which cover an area of about 100 000 ha in North Sumatra, mainly in stands subjected to resin tapping. An undetermined species of the genus, Pteroma (a small bagworm belonging to the lepidopteran family Psychidae), has been the most serious. Severe outbreaks occurred in
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General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia
agallocha (Whitten and Damanik 1986) This was caused by the caterpillar, Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Achaea janata) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and covered about 500-1000 ha of forest south of Belawan in North Sumatra, where the tree occurs essentially as singlespecies stands. In lowland forests in Java, outbreak of a small woodborer, Agrilus kalshoveni (Coleoptera, Buprestidae) caused large-scale mortality of scattered trees of all sizes of Actinophora fragrans (Tiliaceae), in 1926-28. In a recent study in Wanariset and Bukit Soeharto forest area in East Kalimantan, Rahayu et al. (1998) recorded damage to Shorea spp. by leaf feeding caterpillars. Three diseases were also recorded: prolepsis (excessive proliferation of shoot tissue caused by a bacterium, resulting in stunted growth), leaf spot (leaf blight) and stem canker induced by fungi. However, these pests and diseases were of minor importance. Seed pests are known to make a significant impact in natural dipterocarp forests. Larvae of some small moths and curculionid beetles attack the fruits on the tree and on the ground (Elouard 1998, Natawiria et al. 1986) and feed on the cotyledons so preventing seed germination. Curran and Leighton (1991) observed the 1996 seed crop of about 100 000 seeds ha-1 was entirely destroyed by insects in the lowland forest of West Kalimantan. The well-known phenomenon of mass fruiting of dipterocarps is thought to be a strategy to escape complete seed destruction by satiating the seed pests (Janzen 1974).
the pests have not been recognised as serious. Mahogany plantations suffer severely from the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta, which has been a factor limiting plantation establishment. Paraserianthes falcataria is killed by the stem borer, Xystrocera festiva. Shoot borers damage pine plantations in Sumatra, but these insects have not been encountered in pine plantations in Java. Other species have suffered no major pest damage. Diseases have not become a serious threat in any of the plantations in Java, although many fungal diseases have been noted in nurseries. It is concluded that some tree species are susceptible to pest damage in plantations but others are not. Diseases have made much less impact, except in nurseries. Pests and diseases of each tree species are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
3.3. Comparison between plantations and natural forests

A comparison of the pest and disease problems in plantations with those in natural forests indicates that pests have a greater impact in plantations. However, pest outbreaks have also occurred in natural forests. Most of these outbreaks have been recorded in tree species that occur gregariously, like in a monoculture plantation. Examples are Pinus merkusii, Casuarina junghuhniana, Palaquium sp., and Excoecaria agallocha. A high host density appears to be a key factor promoting pest outbreaks. Most insects that have acquired pest status are ubiquitous components of the normal insect fauna that are present in low numbers in natural forests. They become pests when a high host density as in plantations or other factors cause a large increase in insect populations. Many species that are grown in plantations in Indonesia are exotic. Some of them have also suffered damage from pests and diseases, as discussed in the next chapter. By definition, indigenous species are those that occur as part of the natural vegetation within the geographic boundaries of a country. In the case of Indonesia, which has 17 500 islands extending across
3.2. Plantations
More data are available on pests and diseases of plantation trees than for native forests. However, as most plantations in the outer islands are still young, plantation experience is limited to species planted in Java. These include teak, pine, mahogany, rosewood, and species of Melaleuca, Paraserianthes, Schleichera and Rhizophora. Teak plantations have suffered chronic damage from the defoliator, Hyblaea puera, throughout the plantations in Java. In some locations, the termite Neotermes tectonae that infests the trunk and branches of living teak trees has caused economic damage. However, because the trees are not killed,
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5100 km from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, between 50 N and 110 S latitude and 940 141 0 E longitude (Whitten et al. 1996), and the Wallaces line separating a small eastern part, the conventional definition of indigenous species has little relevance. For instance, the natural distribution of Pinus merkusii is limited to northern Sumatra and that of Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria to some small areas of the eastern islands, and therefore it is not appropriate to consider them as indigenous to
Indonesia as a whole. Designating a species as exotic is a matter of definition. If instead of the political boundary of the country, we accept a narrower spatial scale like the major island groups and their surroundings as the spatial unit to define indigenous and exotic species, most plantation species in Indonesia will have to be treated as exotic. A comparison between indigenous and exotic species is best made after a detailed consideration of pests and diseases in plantations.
Chapter 4
Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

In this Chapter, the pests and diseases of 24 forest trees, including pulpwood and timber species, planted in Indonesia are discussed. The species are based on information supplied by plantation companies and include some species planted only on an experimental scale, so there is little information on their pests and diseases. A brief introductory paragraph gives general information on the species, including its natural distribution, planting locations within Indonesia (see also Fig. 2.1) and uses. This is followed by a brief description of the damage caused by the main insect pests and diseases. Then information is provided on pests and diseases in neighbouring countries and a critical look at the threat posed by the pests and diseases in Indonesia.
West Java, Aceh, North Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, Lampung, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan and Moluccas (see Fig. 2.1). Ten companies had planted 426 000 ha of A. mangium by 1996 (Turnbull et al. 1998). PT Musi Hutan Persada has reported that 90% of its 200 000 ha of forest plantations in South Sumatra is A. mangium (Siregar et al. 1999). Second rotation plantations exist in some areas. Acacia mangium is native to three small islands in the Moluccas and parts of Irian Jaya in eastern Indonesia (Pinyopusarerk et al. 1993). Insect pests There is little published information on the pests of A. mangium in Indonesia. The following data (Table 4.1) have been assembled from a variety of sources, including unpublished reports and information obtained from companies through visits and correspondence. Nursery seedlings of A. mangium are attacked by a number of insects including plant bugs, grasshoppers and bagworms, causing variable damage. A subterranean termite, Coptotermes curvignathus (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae), which eats into the taproot and stem is reported to kill 10-50% of saplings in plantations in Central Sumatra in their first year (Wylie et al.1998). In Malaysia, this insect infests even older trees (Chew 1987). Control should be possible by using appropriate prophylactic insecticidal treatment (Varma and Nair 1997).
4.1. Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp.

Indonesian common name: Akasia Plantation forestry in Indonesia is dominated by Acacia mangium due largely to its ability to compete with grasses in the unproductive Imperata cylindrica grasslands. Large-scale planting began in 1986 under the Industrial Plantation Scheme and there has been a massive expansion of the area since then (Turnbull et al. 1998). Now there are at least 500 000 ha of A. mangium, mostly in Sumatra and Kalimantan. It has been planted in the provinces of
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Table 4.1. Insect pests of Acacia mangium in Indonesia Type of damage Root-feeding Leaf-feeding Scientific name Coptotermes curvignathus (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae) Pteroma plagiophleps and other bagworms (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) Unidentified caterpillar (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) Valanga nigricornis (Orthoptera, Acrididae) Sap-sucking Helopeltis theivora and other Helopeltis spp. (Hemiptera, Miridae) Xylosandrus sp. and Xyleborus fornicatus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) Xytrocera festiva (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) Common name Termite Bagworms Notes Causes death of saplings
Caterpillar Plusia Grasshopper Mosquito bug
On young saplings
On young saplings
Twig-boring
Pinhole borers
Attacked small branches often dry up and break
Trunk-boring
Stem borer
The leaf-feeding bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps has been recorded in many plantations. It is a polyphagous caterpillar, which is generally a minor pest on most of its hosts although localised outbreaks have occurred in Paraserianthes falcataria and some other hosts (Nair and Mathew 1992). Other unidentified bagworms are commonly seen on A. mangium but all are minor leaffeeders. The grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis, also a polyphagous leaf-feeder, is often seen in A. mangium plantations in fairly large numbers. It appears sporadically and eats even the shoot tips. In teak plantations in Java, it causes recognisable damage periodically but has not become a serious pest. It is particularly active in the border zone between forests and open ground (Hutacharern 1993). Locusta sp., with similar feeding habits, occurs less frequently. Other leaf feeding insects are also occasional minor pests. Caterpillars of an unidentified moth, tentatively called, Plusia, feeds on the leaves (phyllodes) of young saplings (PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper, personal communication). The sap-sucking bug Helopeltis spp. is the principal pest in plantations in Sumatra. These are well-known pests of several horticultural and tree crops in the tropics, such
as, tea, cacao, cinchona, cashew and neem. Localised damage by Helopeltis sp. to A. mangium has been reported from Malaysia (Hamid 1987) and Philippines (Luego 1990) and it regularly causes severe damage in 618-month-old plantations in North and Central Sumatra (Wylie et al. 1998). The principal species is H. theivora, but H. fasciaticollis and H. sumatranus have also been recorded (Wylie personal communication). Feeding by Helopeltis spp. causes necrotic spots on the leaves and often dieback of tender shoots. Shoot dieback is probably caused by injection of toxic saliva or pathogenic organisms in the feeding process. Some companies have applied urea to boost the growth of attacked saplings and in rare cases insecticides like deltamethrin have been used. More systematic observations are needed to assess the quantitative impact and some plantation companies are doing this. In cashew plantations in Kerala, India, damage by H. theivora is most serious during the flushing and flowering season, causing the top layer of the crown to dry out and necessitating regular prophylactic insecticidal sprays to prevent yield loss.
Pinhole borers, Xyleborus fornicatus and Xylosandrus sp., attack small branches which often dry up and
17
break off at the point of attack (Hardi and Intari 1990; Riyantoko 1998; Zulfiyah 1998). Usually the intensity of attack is low and is not a threat to plantations. The borer Xystrocera festiva, primarily a pest of Paraserianthes falcataria, attacks A. mangium in agroforestry plantations in East Java and in industrial plantations in South Sumatra where up to 11% of trees have been infested (Matsumoto 1994). It is unlikely to become a major pest of Acacia as the life cycle is annual and the attacked trees generally survive. A related species, X. globosa, occurs on Albizia spp. and A. mangium in Malaysia. Matsumoto (1994) recorded this species on A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria in East Java and South Sumatra but the larvae of X. globosa feed less gregariously than X. festiva and had a much lower population level. Diseases In general, Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia have suffered little from diseases. Following the
Table 4.2. Diseases of Acacia mangium in Indonesia Disease Foliar diseases Rust Powdery mildew Black mildew Leaf spot Stem cankers Pink disease Black canker Causative agent
threat of widespread occurrence of heart rot disease of A. mangium in Malaysia, detailed studies were carried out on diseases of acacias in the region, including Indonesia, and excellent reviews written (Old 1998; Old et al. 2000). Four major categories of diseases have been recognised foliar diseases, stem canker, heart rot and root rots (Table 4.2). Among the foliar diseases, leaf rust caused by a fungus distorts the growing points in nursery plants and young plantations. This has caused concern, particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, as there is no effective control method. An epidemic leading to premature leaf shedding occurred in 15-month-old trees in South Kalimantan. The fungus is similar to Atelocauda digitata which is common in northern Australia and affects nursery stock and trees of a wide range of age classes. There is considerable variation between provenances in susceptibility which suggests potential for selecting resistant genotypes (Old 1998). Other leaf diseases (Table 4.2) are of minor importance.
Notes
(Near) Atelocauda digitata Oidium spp. Meliola spp. Cercospora, Pestalotiopsis and Collectotrichum spp. Corticium salmonicolor Pytophthora palmivora Cytospora sp. Hypoxylon mammatum < 2% of 5-year old trees were affected in Sumatra Present in older plantations in Sumatra and Java Minor Minor
Heart rot
Phellinus noxius Rigidoporus hypobrunneus Tinctoporellus epimiltinus Ganoderma philipii (syn. G. pseudoferreum) Rigidoporus microporus (syn. Leptoporus lignosus) (syn. Fomes lignosus)
Root rots Red root rot White root rot
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Among the stem canker diseases, pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor, a basidiomycete fungus infecting a wide range of hosts in high rainfall areas in the tropics, is common in Indonesia and is most prevalent in denser stands (Zulfiah and Gales 1997). It causes necrosis of the bark tissue on small stems, and branches, often leading to their breakage. Heart rot, caused by a complex of Phellinus noxius and other unidentified basidiomycete fungi entering through wounds, occurs in East Kalimantan (Lee and Sikin 1999). However, the proportion of infected trees is small compared to some plantations in Malaysia. In Malaysia, more than 50% of trees have been infected in some places, but the wood volume damaged was small. It is not considered to be a major problem when the end use is pulpwood rather than timber (Old et al. 2000). The hybrid, A. mangium x A. auriculiformis, is resistant to heart rot, as is A. auriculiformis (Ito and Nanis 1997). White root rot, caused by Rigidoporus microporus (syn. Fomes lignosus), has been recorded in plantations in Jambi and South Sumatra. The red root rot, Ganoderma philipii, formerly C. pseudoferreum, has been isolated from an A. mangium plantation in Yogyakarta. Threat Assessment In making an assessment of threat, the problems experienced in neighbouring countries must also be taken into consideration. For insect pests, Wylie et al. (1998) have reviewed the problems and listed 22 species as main pests in the region covering Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. These pests can be categorised into five groups - leaf feeders (7 spp.), root or stem feeding termites (5 spp.), trunk borers (4 spp.), twig borers (4 spp.), and sapsuckers (2 spp.). Seven important pests in Indonesia were identified in an assessment made in May 1997 (Wylie et al. 1998). They were a root feeding termite (1 sp.), a twig borer (1 sp.), leaf feeders (4 spp.) and a sap sucker (1 sp.). In order of importance they are: Coptotermes curvignathus (root-feeding termite), Xylosandrus sp. (stem-boring scolytid beetle), Pteroma plagiophleps (leaf-feeding bagworm), unidentified caterpillar (leaf-feeding), Valanga nigricornis (leaffeeding grasshopper), Locusta sp. (leaf feeding), and Helopeltis theivora (sap-sucking bug). In a global review, Hutacharern (1993) considered there were only four serious pests of A. mangium. These were the termite, C. curvignathus; the buprestid root collar
borer, Sternocera spp.; the bostrychid twig borer, Sinoxylon sp.; and the cossid stem borer, Zeuzera coffeae. Among the seven serious pests recognised by Wylie et al. (1998) for Indonesia, only the termite, C. curvignathus, was in Hutacharerns list . We rate the sap-sucking bug, Helopeltis sp., as potentially the most serious pest, based on current knowledge of pest incidence in A. mangium plantations in Indonesia and the insects habits and past history in other crops. Two species of Helopeltis are reported to occur in forest plantations in Indonesia - H. antonii in Eucalyptus spp. (Rahardjo 1992) and H. theivora in Eucalyptus spp. and A. mangium (Hardi 1993; Wylie et al. 1998). In addition, H. fasciaticollis and H. sumatranus have been identified recently from A. mangium. Both H. theivora and H. antonii are serious pests of cashew in India. Helopeltis spp. have acquired pest status on various tree crops in Australia, China (Hainan Island), Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and some countries in Africa. Many species of Helopeltis occur in Indonesia on a variety of crops and severe outbreaks occurred in the 1960s on tea in North Sumatra before the advent of modern insecticides (Kalshoven 1981). Difficulty in controlling them, other than through repeated chemical sprays, adds to the seriousness of the problem. It is already recognised as serious in young plantations in Sumatra. It was not found in a plantation examined by one of us (K.S.S.N.) in East Kalimantan, but it could build up there as it already occurs in adjacent Sarawak (East Malaysia). Careful monitoring of Helopeltis spp. as a potentially serious pest of A. mangium is recommended. Root-feeding termites are the next most serious threat, during the establishment stage of the crop, as experienced in Sumatra, but they can be controlled effectively using insecticidal spot treatment. The risk of new pests emerging over time cannot be ignored. In 1992 a new pest, Spirama retorta (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), attacked 800 ha of a 1-yearold A. mangium plantation in Peninsular Malaysia (Sajap et al. 1997b). Little was known about this insect which had been recorded on Albizia lebbek in India (Beeson 1941) and on an unknown host in Thailand (Hutacharern and Tubtim 1995). It has been recorded recently on A. mearnsii in China (Wang et al. 1998).
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Another new noctuid pest, Ericeia sp., has damaged A. mangium in Malaysia (Sajap et al. 1997a). The unidentified caterpillar, Plusia, found in young plantations in Sumatra is also a noctuid. The lepidopteran family, Noctuidae, contains several wellknown pests with outbreak potential. They include Achaea janata, Helicoverpa armigera (Heliothis armigera), Plecoptera reflexa, Prodenia litura and Selepa celtis. Therefore, there is a high risk of emergence of new noctuid pests on A. mangium. Old (1998) reviewed the risks of diseases in Indonesia and the neighbouring countries. Foliar rust, root rots and heart rot are potentially dangerous. However, there are indications of presence of genotypes resistant to the rust and heart rot. Avoiding wounds to the stem also reduces the risk of heart rot. The heart rot problem may be the result of mismatching of the tree species with the sites (Arentz 1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). In its natural habitat A. mangium grows in areas with a seasonal dry period. It has been hypothesised that absence of a dry period may hinder the self-pruning ability of branches, permitting the development of entry points for decay fungi into the main stem through the dying branches. The situation needs monitoring. The A. auriculiformis x A. mangium hybrid may prove resistant to heart rot. Root rot appears to be potentially more damaging, as the pathogens spread by root contact between diseased and healthy trees. Old et al. (2000) have concluded that planting successive rotations of acacias on the same site will provide conditions favourable for the build-up of root rot diseases; particularly if there is no post-harvest burn as the inoculum may build-up in the slash. Careful monitoring of root rot diseases is also necessary as there is no practical means of control. Other Acacia species After A. mangium, A. auriculiformis is the most widely planted acacia in industrial plantations, followed by A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa (syn. A. perigrina from Papua New Guinea). Acacia auriculiformis seedlings in nurseries are attacked by the stem boring scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus compactus. It has been reported from Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi (Intari and Santoso 1990; Natawiria 1990). Related scolytid and bostrychid borers have also been noted on Acacia spp. in Malaysia and Thailand. The stem borers Xystrocera festiva and
X. globosa also attack A. auriculiformis but the incidence is rare. In general, these Acacia species have no major pest problems, although occasional leaf feeding by polyphagous insects is common. Among diseases, rust occurs on A. auriculiformis and pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) in A. crassicarpa and A. aulacocarpa plantations (Hadi and Nuhamura 1997). Canker caused by unknown agents has been noted in all the three species. Root rot caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum has been reported on A. auriculiformis (Widyastuti et al. 1998b). Acacia auriculiformis is resistant to heart rot and except for this disease the risk rating for these other acacias is the same as for A. mangium.
4.2. Agathis dammara

Indonesian common name: Damar Agathis dammara (Lambert) Rich (syn. A. loranthifolia) is a conifer native to Indonesia and occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the Moluccas. It also occurs in the Philippines. Agathis borneensis Warb. occurs in Sumatra and Borneo, and Peninsular Malaysia; some authors treat it as synonymous with A. dammara. About 66 000 ha of A. dammara plantations have been established in the provinces of Central and East Java, particularly in mountainous areas, over the past few decades (Perum Perhutani 1995). It provides a general-purpose timber and is tapped for resin (copal). Insect pests No major insect pest problem has occurred on A. dammara, in Indonesia. Two unidentified beetles have been recorded from seeds (Zethner et al. 1996). Diseases In nurseries, damping off caused by species of Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium has been caused up to 90% mortality of seedlings (Suharti et al. 1991) but effective fungicidal control methods are available. In nurseries and young plantations, rust caused by Aecidium fragiformae has been noted (Hadi et al. 1996). It causes reddish brown raised lesions on the leaves. Although it may cause some growth retardation, it is not considered a serious problem.
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Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) can occur in young plantations (Suharti 1983), particularly when the canopy closes and the humidity increases. Thinning reduces the incidence of disease by lowering humidity. Threat assessment Outside Indonesia, decay of mature trees has been recorded in the Philippines and moths (Agathiphaga spp.) can destroy the seeds (Bowen and Whitmore 1980) but A. dammara has been grown successfully in Java for many years and there is no major threat of pests and diseases.
4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba

Indonesian common name: Jabon Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. (syn. A. chinensis auct.non (Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp.; Neolamarckia cadamba ((Roxb.) Bosser) (Rubiaceae) is a fast growing, medium- to large tree. Some authors prefer to use the new generic name, Neolamarckia. It has a light coloured wood used for plywood, light construction and pulping. Another species of the genus, A. macrophyllus, occurs naturally in Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Smits et al. 1993). Anthocephalus cadamba is planted mainly in HTI plantations in North Sumatra, Riau and Central Kalimantan. It is also planted in Java to replace poor teak plantations after harvest. Insect Pests White grubs (larvae of some groups of beetles) feeding on the roots damage 1-2-year-old trees planted under taungya system in Java (Intari and Natawiria 1973). Selander (1990) reported heavy defoliation of experimental plantations of A. cadamba in South Kalimantan by an unidentified caterpillar and Ngatiman and Tangketasik (1987) recorded some unidentified insects (presumably, caterpillars) in plantations in East Kalimantan. Suratmo (1987) refers to Margaronia sp. (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) as a defoliator of A. cadamba. Suratmo (1996) observed that plantations raised in small areas have been seriously attacked by an undetermined defoliator, which has prevented further planting of this otherwise promising fast growing species. Diseases No diseases have been reported on A. cadamba in Indonesia. Threat assessment In India, a longhorn beetle, Batocera numitor (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) bores into the base of the stem of unhealthy trees; and a caterpillar, Margaronia hilaralis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) skeletonises leaves (Beeson 1941). Other polyphagous, leaf feeding, caterpillars have also been noted in India, but no serious pest situation has developed. Leaf feeding caterpillars are potential threats but the plantation history is too short to make informed judgment. The main diseases
4.3. Alstonia species

Indonesian common name: Pulai Two species of Alstonia (Apocynaceae) are of commercial importance in Indonesia (Whitten et al. 1996). Alstonia scholaris is common in drier areas and A. spatulata in swamps. Alstonia scholaris is mainly planted, particularly in West Kalimantan, and yields good pulp and plywood timber. Insect pests No information is available on pests in Indonesia, except that the freshly felled logs are attacked by pinhole borers of the families Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Sukartana 1996). Diseases No diseases have been reported. Threat assessment A few insect pests have been reported on living trees outside Indonesia. In Guangxi, China, the psyllid, Pseudophacopteron alstonium (Homoptera) produces galls on the leaf (Yang and Li 1983). In India, caterpillars of a pyralid moth, Glyphodes bicolor have been recorded (Beeson 1941) and in Kerala an unidentified Glyphodes sp. which feeds in folded leaves causes sporadic damage to isolated trees under seminatural conditions (K.S.S. Nair unpublished). While there is no indication of threat from diseases, the plantation history of A. scholaris is too short to draw a similar conclusion for insect pests.
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reported outside Indonesia are on nursery seedlings and include damping-off by Fusarium and Pythium spp. in Malaysia (Chin 1995) and leaf blight by Rhizoctonia in India (Mehrotra 1993). Apart from nursery diseases, which can be controlled by appropriate nursery practices and fungicides, there appears to be no major threat of diseases.
There are over 25 000 ha of Dalbergia plantations in Java, mostly in Central Java, but the proportion of each species is not available. Insect Pests Prawirohatmodjo et al. (1993) observed that various insects such as leaf miners, defoliators and stem borers cause minor damage to Dalbergia trees in Java, but details are not available. Root feeding by the termites, Macrotermes gilvus and Odontotermes grandiceps occurs but damage is negligible (Intari et al. 1995). Diseases There is a high rate of mortality of nursery seedlings caused by damping-off fungi. In 1973, about 300 ha of a 15-year-old D. latifolia plantation in East Java was severely damaged by a disease characterised by inrolling of young leaves and discoloration of older leaves, followed by red streaks on the outer layers of sapwood, finally resulting in the death of the trees (Suharti and Hadi 1974). The disease was attributed to Fusarium solani. Root rot caused by Ganoderma sp. resulted in the death of trees in plantations and along roadsides in Yogyakarta (Widyastuti and Sumardi 1998). Threat assessment Several insect pests of Dalbergia spp. have been recorded outside Indonesia. In India, Pakistan and Nepal they include root-feeding termites, lepidopteran defoliators, curculionid defoliators, leaf miners and tree hoppers. Of these, the defoliator, Plecoptera reflexa (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) has caused regular defoliation in plantations in northern India and Pakistan. Epidemics of the leaf miner, Leucoptera sphenograpta, have occurred occasionally in nurseries in India and Pakistan. As this insect outbreaks took place in northern latitudes with cooler climates, they are unlikely to be a threat in Indonesia. A large number of diseases, including damping-off, root rot and leaf blight of nursery seedlings; and leaf and twig rust, root rot, stem canker and leaf spot of older plants caused by a variety of fungi have been reported on D. sissoo in India. Some of these have also been recorded on D. latifolia. A wilt disease, similar to that reported by Suharti and Hadi (1974) on D. latifolia in Indonesia (see above), damaged D. sissoo in India (ICFRE 1995). Trees aged 15-25 years were susceptible. It was concluded that the soil borne
4.5. Azadirachta excelsa

Indonesian common name: Nimba, Nimbo Azadirachta excelsa (Meliaceae) is native to Southeast Asia. Its valuable timber is used for light construction and veneering. Plantations of A. excelsa have been established in Sumatra. Insect pests No information is available on pests of A. excelsa in Indonesia. Diseases No information is available. 4.5.3. Threat assessment Four species of thrips (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) and a moth caterpillar, Loboschiza vulnerata (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) have caused minor damage to A. excelsa plantations in Malaysia (Intachat 1997). The teamosquito bug, Helopeltis antonii (Heteroptera, Myriidae) has attacked tender shoots of the related species, A. indica (neem) in India. Azadirachta excelsa leaves contain insecticidal and insect repellent chemicals, as in neem, and is resistant to most insects. There is no indication of a threat by pests and diseases.
4.6. Dalbergia spp.

Indonesian common names: Sonokeling (D. latifolia), Sonosissoo (D. sisso) Dalbergia latifolia and D. sissoo (Leguminosae) have been raised in plantations in Indonesia. Both species yield construction and specialty timber and D. latifolia (Indian rosewood) is highly prized for furniture and decorative veneers.
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fungus, Fusarium solani, invades the root system, destroys the root hairs, the finer rootlets and the bacterial nodules, and travels a short distance along the stem, clogging vessels and tissues in the sapwood (which develops pinkish brown stain) and stopping the flow of sap to the crown and finally causing the tree to die. Although this appears to be a serious disease, no incidence of this disease has been reported in Indonesia since the first episode in 1973. As Dalbergia ssp.have been grown successfully in Indonesia for a long time, more critical study is needed on the differential susceptibility of D. sissoo and D. latifolia to F. solani wilt.
plantations. There will be about 500 ha of plantations in West Java and Sumatra (Riau and Jambi), mostly S. leprosula and S. selanica. Insect pests Major insect pests recorded on dipterocarps are listed in Table 4.3. Various species of weevils (Coleoptera) and small moths (Lepidoptera) attack the seeds when the fruits are on the tree and after they are shed (Curran and Leighton 1991). They damage 40-90% of seeds of several Shorea spp., Dipterocarpus cornutus and Hopea odorata (Natawiria et al. 1986). Nursery seedlings of Shorea leprosula and S. parviflora in East Kalimantan are killed by gall forming mites (Rahayu et al. 1998). In Sumatra, a sap-sucking bug, Mucanum sp. (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) kills Shorea javanica seedlings in nurseries (Intari 1996) and the sap-sucking cicada, Lawana candida, is an occasional pest of 7- to 9-year-old S. leprosula in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998). Unidentified bagworms and other caterpillars have caused serious damage to 5-7-year-old trees of several Shorea spp. in East Kalimantan (Rahayu et al. 1998). The polyphagous caterpillar Calliteara cerigoides is a serious defoliator of dipterocarps in Indonesia (Messer et al. 1992, Matsumoto 1994). The species attacked include Shorea leprosula, S. pinanga, S. selanica, S. stenoptera, Hopea mengrawan and H. odorata. Some defoliated saplings of H. mengrawan succumbed to the damage. Minor leaf damage by caterpillars and scarabaeid beetles has been noticed in plantations of S. leprosula and S. selanica in West Java (K.S.S. Nair, unpublished observations). Termites attack living dipterocarps and may cause death of trees (Nuhamara 1977; Elouard 1998). Diseases Several fungi, including Cylindrocarpon sp. and Curvularia sp. attack dipterocarp seeds and reduce germinability. Seedlings and saplings suffer leaf spots, root and collar rots, defoliation, and darkening of root and twig bark, caused by a variety of fungi, notably, Fusarium spp. (Table 4.4). Information on fungi on dipterocarps in Indonesia and the diseases they cause is available in Elouard (1991, 1998). Gall formation on shoots of seedlings and saplings of Shorea spp. is attributed to the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan and an insectvector is suspected (Elouard 1998). Recently, Rahayu et al. (1998) noted a similar disease resulting in abnormal tissue proliferation (prolepsis) and stunting of Shorea
4.7. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarps)

Indonesian common names: Meranti, Balau, Sengkawang, etc. Natural forests in Indonesia are dominated by dipterocarps but they have not received much attention as plantation species. Apart from experimental plantings in West Java since the 1950s, most planting has been enrichment planting of logged-over forests using wildlings. There is renewed interest in dipterocarps and plantations are being established, mainly in the provinces of West, Central, East and South Kalimantan, South Sumatra and Jambi (see Fig. 2.1). In addition, Perum Perhutani intends to use them to replace poor pine plantations in West Java. The species planted are mainly Shorea and Dipterocarpus spp. The genus Shorea consists of many species commercially grouped on wood characteristics into red meranti, white meranti, yellow meranti, balau and red balau. Most Shorea spp. have been tried in experimental plantations and the relatively fast-growing S. leprosula, S. selanica, S. javanica, S. smithiana and S. parviflora are receiving more attention. The rates of growth of these species differ between regions but S. leprosula grows faster in most places. In cooperation with Japanese plantation companies (Japan is the main importer of Indonesian dipterocarp timber), FERDA (Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development Agency of Indonesia) and some universities have compared the performance of Shorea spp. seedlings and rooted cuttings and established experimental
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi Table 4.3. Insect pests of dipterocarps in Indonesia Type of damage Seed damage Scientific name Nanophyes shoreae (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Alcidodes dipterocarpi (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) Unidentified pyralid (Lepidoptera) Sap sucking Mucanum sp. (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae) Lawana candida (Homoptera, Cicadidae) Leaf feeding Calliteara cerigoides (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) Unidentified bagworm Unidentified beetles (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) Common name weevil weevil moth larva plant bug cicada hairy caterpillar bagworm scarabaeid beetles Tree species Shorea spp. Hopea odorata Shorea smithiana and Dipterocarpus cornutus Shorea spp. Shorea javanica Shorea leprosula Several species of Shorea and Hopea Shorea smithiana Shorea spp. On seedlings in nurseries Notes
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Occasional pest on older plants Serious pest
Table 4.4. Diseases of dipterocarps in Indonesia Type of damage Flower destruction and seed abortion Necrosis/decay of seeds Causative agent Curvularia harveyi Cylindrocarpon destructens (Nectria radiocola) Complex of bacteria and fungi Leaf spots, root and collar rot, bark necrosis and defoliation of seedlings Leaf spot and defoliation in saplings Gall formation on shoots of seedlings and saplings Heart rot of trees Fusarium spp. Asterina, Capnodium, Cercospora, Collectotrichum and Pestalotia Agrobacterium tumefaciens Species affected Shorea pinanga Shorea pinanga several Shorea spp. Many Shorea spp. S. javanica
assamica and S. lamellata seedlings in East Kalimantan. They also found leaf spots, leaf blight and stem cankers on saplings of Shorea spp., but the damage was not serious. There is heart rot in about 10% of Shorea javanica tapped for resin in Sumatra (Elouard 1991). Threat assessment Insects in Indonesian dipterocarp plantations are polyphagous and none seems to be specially adapted to
dipterocarps. The hairy caterpillar, Calliteara cerigoides has been consistently associated with experimental dipterocarp plantings but there is no serious pest problem in about 11 000 ha of Shorea johorensis, S. leprosula and S. parviflora plantations of PT. Kiani Hutani Lestari in East Kalimantan (Suhendi and Sembiring 1998). Except for Helopeltis clavifer (Hemiptera, Miridae) damage to seedlings, there has been no major pest problem in Malaysia where
24
dipterocarps have been planted for a longer period. An exception is Shorea robusta (sal) in India, where devastating outbreaks of a borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) have occurred periodically in northern latitudes (Roonwal 1978). There was a large outbreak of a hairy caterpillar in over 12 000 ha of natural peat swamp forest of Shorea albida in Sarawak and Brunei during the 1950s (Anderson 1961). This may be an exceptional situation but details are sketchy. While there is no indication of any serious emerging pest problem in dipterocarps, the situation needs monitoring. In general, the resin present in dipterocarps may afford protection against insects. Diseases do not seem to be a major threat.
4.9. Eucalyptus spp.

Indonesian common names: Empupu, Leda, Ekaliptus As in many tropical countries, Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae) have been planted over large areas in Indonesia for pulpwood production. The main species planted are E. deglupta and E. urophylla, which are native to Indonesia although their natural distribution is in the eastern islands. Many other species have been tried in small-scale experimental plantations, notably, E. camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. pellita, E. tereticornis and E. torelliana. Most plantations are in Sumatra (Aceh, North Sumatra, Jambi) and Kalimantan (West, East and South Kalimantan). Insect pests In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings may be attacked by several insects, including a pyralid leaf roller (probably Archips micaceana), the jassid bug, Kolla bataviae, the curculionid shoot borer, Alcides sp. and the teamosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. (Table 4.5) (Hardi 1993; Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998). Generally, they have not posed a major threat, and chemical control methods have been tested (Hardi 1993). Transplanted saplings are attacked, particularly during the field establishment phase, by species of subterranean termites that often cause substantial mortality unless prophylactic chemical protection is given (Intari and Natawiria 1976; Selander 1990; Santoso and Hardi 1991). Older plants are attacked by Helopeltis spp., which cause dieback of young shoots and are a serious pest in North Sumatra where up to 57% of trees may be infested (Hardi and Intari 1990). Saplings are attacked by Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, Cossidae), which bore into the stem and often cause it to break; Suratmo (1996) reported that 12-30% of saplings might be infested in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Recently, an unidentified borer killed 1000 ha of 2-3-year-old E. deglupta plantation of PT. Hutan Kusuma (Soepangkat 1998). Most probably, this damage was caused by the varicose borer, Agrilus sexsignatus (Coleoptera, Buprestidae) which devastated some plantations in the Philippines in the 1970s. Eucalyptus deglupta trees weakened by other causes and the Papua New Guinea provenances are very susceptible to this borer whose density in attacked plants has reached 37 larvae m-2 of wood surface in the Philippines (Braza 1988, 1992).
4.8. Dyera spp.

Indonesian common name: Jelutung At least three species of Dyera (Apocynaceae): D. costulata, D. polyphylla and D. lowii occur in Indonesia (Whitten et al. 1987; Kessler and Sidiyasa 1994). In Kalimantan, D. costulata and D. polyphylla occur in lowland swamp forests and they have been tapped for latex and their soft timber used for manufacturing plywood, toys, boards, etc. Plantations of Dyera spp. are being established South Kalimantan and Jambi provinces. Insect pests No information is available. Diseases No information is available except for the occurrence of sapstain fungi on freshly cut logs (Martono 1989). Threat assessment Little information is available from other countries. In Malaysia, where there are trial plantations of D. costulata (Appanah and Weinland 1993), seeds were damaged by ants (Duncan 1977) but no major pests recorded. The timber is susceptible to damage by powder-post beetles. It appears that there is no major threat of pests and diseases for plantations of Dyera spp. Perhaps the latex affords protection as it does in most other Apocyanaceae.
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi Table 4.5. Insect pests of eucalypts in Indonesia Category Nursery pests Scientific name Helopeltis spp. (Hemiptera, Miridae) Unidentified (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Alcides sp. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) On young transplants Saplings Several species (Termitidae) Helopeltis spp. (Hemiptera, Miridae) Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) Unidentified borer (probably Agrilus sp., Coleoptera, Buprestidae) Common name Tea mosquito bug Leaf roller Shoot borer Subterranean termites Tea-mosquito bug Red borer Causes plant mortality Causes die-back of shoots Notes
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Only on weakened trees, causes heavy mortality
In general, there are no major pest problems in older eucalypt plantations. Diseases In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings are susceptible to damping-off by Pythium and Fusarium spp. (Sitepu and Suharti 1998). The diseases can be managed by appropriate nursery techniques (controlling soil quality, water regime and crowding of seedlings) and, when necessary by fungicides. Older seedlings and saplings are affected by leaf spot diseases caused by several fungi (Table 4.6). Stem canker of saplings caused by Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) has occurred in North Sumatra but little information is available on its severity and extent of incidence. Death of older trees caused by root rot has often been noted and the associated pathogens were Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Botryodiplodia sp. (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). In a 7-year-old plantation of E. urophylla examined by one of us (K.S.S.N.) at Sebulu, East Kalimantan, several trees in patches were found dead due to root disease. In future plantings in this area E. urophylla is being replaced with E. pellita which is less susceptible to diseases (S.S. Maurits personal communication). Stem canker was also observed on some trees. Stem canker on Eucalyptus has been attributed to Nectria sp. (Nazif and Suharti 1990) and in Riau, Sumatra, 52% of 5-year-old trees in a 10 ha E. urophylla
plantation had stem canker (Nectria sp.) and nearly 5% were killed (Suharti and Santoso 1995). Threat assessment Pests are not a major constraint to eucalypt plantations. Nursery pests, and termites that attack the out-planted saplings during plantation establishment stage, can be effectively managed.
Table 4.6. Diseases of eucalypts in Indonesia Disease Damping-off Leaf spot Causative agent Pythium sp., Fusarium sp. Pestalotia sp., Curvularia sp., Mycosphaerella spp. Cylindrocladium multiseptatum Kirramyces destructens Pink disease Root rot Stem canker Corticium salmonicolor Phytophthora sp., Botryodiplodia sp. Nectria sp. Notes In nurseries On seedlings and saplings On saplings On saplings On saplings On older trees On older trees
Leaf blight
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Experience with extensive eucalypt plantations outside Indonesia is similar. The buprestid borer, Agrilus sexsignatus, which affected some plantations in the Philippines, was restricted to plantations growing on poor sites and a particular provenance. Two serious pests of eucalypts of Australian origin, Phoracantha (borer) and Gonipterus (defoliator), were accidentally introduced into some eucalypt growing countries in Africa and the Mediterranean where they spread rapidly causing economic damage. Therefore, vigilance is necessary against accidental introduction of these pests. Nursery diseases can be kept in check by using fungicides and appropriate nursery management techniques. However, root disease affecting older trees is a serious problem which is likely to be aggravated in the future because inoculum build up will occur over successive short rotations and there is no effective control method. Root isolation by trenching around diseased trees is practised but is costly and not fully effective. Phytophthora sp. is one of the causative agents identified. Phytophthora cinnamomi is a serious and widespread pathogen of E. marginata (jarrah) forests in Australia, with a wide host range (Keane et al. 2000). There is urgent need for an in-depth study of the fungi associated with root rot of eucalypts in Indonesia and to screen Eucalyptus species and provenances for resistance to root rot. Leaf diseases, e.g. Cylindrocladium spp., have been a serious problem in humid tropical environments in parts of Asia, but while some have been recorded in Indonesia, e.g. Macrophoma sp., they are not yet considered a potential threat.
Diseases No disease of the living tree is on record. Threat assessment Although there is very little plantation experience with this species, available information suggests that there is no threat of pests and diseases.
4.11. Gmelina arborea

Indonesian common name: Gmelina Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) is exotic to Indonesia, although the related G. moluccana occurs naturally in the Moluccas (Yap et al. 1993). It is a relatively fast growing species, which produces a lightweight hardwood suitable for construction, carving, etc. It also yields good quality pulp. There are large-scale plantations in Sumatra (Riau, West Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra and Lampung), Kalimantan (West, Central, South and East Kalimantan) and the Moluccas (Fig. 2.1). Small plantations have been raised in Java. Insect pests No major insect pests have been found on G. arborea plantations in Indonesia, although there are minor pests. One of the insects consistently associated with it is a carpenter worm, Prionoxystus sp. (Lepidoptera, Cossidae). The larva bores into the stem of saplings, feeds from within and weakens the tree. In East Kalimantan, 5-70% of saplings may be infested (Ngatiman and Tangketasik 1987) and it also occurs in Java and Sumatra. Injecting the larval tunnel with lubricant oil and plugging the hole was effective for control (Pramono et al. 1998). One of us (K.S.S.N.) observed at Sebulu, East Kalimantan about 80% of saplings stumped to produce multiple shoots in a clonal multiplication area, were infested by this borer. The infestation is conspicuous because the larval frass accumulates on the ground, at the base of the plant. However, the damage is not serious. Multiple infestations may weaken the saplings, but they are not killed, and the insect does not build up in large numbers because it passes through only one generation per year. Shoot cuttings kept in the nursery for rooting were attacked by an unidentified borer, possibly, Alcidodes ludificator (syn. Alcides gmelinae) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). This small curculionid beetle bores into the young green
4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri

Indonesian common name: Ulin Eusideroxlon zwageri (Lauraceae), also called ironwood, is a highly valued indigenous timber species in Indonesia. It is a monotypic species distributed in Sumatra, Kalimantan and some adjacent islands (Kostermans et al. 1993). It is one of the heaviest and highly durable timbers and has a variety of uses. In Sumatra and Kalimantan it is traditionally used for roof shingles. Plantations are being established in South Kalimantan. Insect pests There are no records of pests on the living tree, but seeds are damaged by insects (Kostermans et al. 1993). The wood is highly resistant to termite attack.
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shoots of G. arborea in India and Myanmar (Beeson 1941). In a review paper, Suratmo (1996) listed Alcidodes ludificator and Apion argulicolle (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) as pests of G. arborea in Indonesia. He also listed Xyleborus fornicatus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae), Selepa celtis (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and Calopepla leayana (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) among pests of G. arborea and observed that in 2-3-year-old trees 100% defoliation has been recorded. However, Sitepu and Suharti (1998) have listed only Prionoxystus sp. as a pest of G. arborea. Other insects recorded include the well-known teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramicus (Rachmatsyah and Haneda 1998). Diseases In nurseries, damping off caused by Pythium, Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia spp. is common (Rahayu 1999). Anthracnose disease characterised by sudden death of seedlings, caused by Colletotrichum sp., has been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). Root rot disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. has affected young plantations in South Kalimantan, Jambi and Sumatra (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). Ganoderma sp. has been isolated from the roots of dead trees of G. arborea in the campus of Gajah Mada University in Yogyakarta. Threat assessment Gmelina arborea has several serious pests in countries where it is native. The most damaging is the beetle defoliator, C. leayana. Suratmo (1996) lists it as a pest of G. arborea in Indonesia but no details are available and other reviewers do not mention it. Since this is a potentially dangerous pest which has become a limiting factor for large-scale cultivation of G. arborea in its native range, more investigation is needed on the occurrence and severity of this pest in Indonesia. Other serious pests of G. arborea outside Indonesia include the sap-sucking bug, Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera, Tingidae) which builds up in outbreak proportions in young plantations, causing defoliation and shoot dieback in India (Beeson 1941; Nair and Mathew 1988); the defoliator, Ozola minor (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in the Philippines (Yemane 1990); and the stem borer, Glena indiana (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) in Thailand (Hutacharern 1990). None of these has been reported in Indonesia. At present, there are no major pest problems in G. arborea plantations in Indonesia. This is a similar situation to Brazil and some African countries where G. arborea has been planted as an exotic. Two
common minor pests in Indonesia are the cossid borer, Prionoxystus sp., attacking saplings and the unidentified curculionid borer attacking green shoots in the nursery. In clonal multiplication orchards and high value plantations, where attention can be given to individual plants, Prionoxystus sp. can be controlled by injecting a suitable insecticide solution to the larval tunnel or by pricking the larva using a wire probe. The curculionid borer in nurseries can also be controlled by using insecticides. Except for nursery diseases, for which effective control measures are available, there is no threat of diseases for G. arborea.
4.12. Gonystylus bancanus

Indonesian common name: Ramin Gonystylus bancanus (Thymelaeceae) is the most popular of the several species of Gonystylus endemic to the Malesian region. It is a characteristic associate of the dipterocarp forests in the lowland swamps in Sumatra and Kalimantan and is highly prized for its smooth whitish timber suitable for a variety of light construction, including cabinets (Soerianegara et al. 1993). In addition to enrichment planting in logged over forests, industrial plantations of G. bancanus are being established in Jambi province in Sumatra. Pests No information is available on pests of G. bancanus, except that freshly felled timber is susceptible to pinhole borers. Diseases A disease of unknown etiology, affecting the heartwood of G. bancanus and G. macrophyllus, is known to produce garrowood, a highly valued resinous product used in perfumery (Sumadiwangsa 1997). Although garrowood produced by Aquilaria spp. is the most highly prized, Gonystylus also shows potential. Except for this beneficial disease, no other disease is known. Threat assessment Gonystylus bancanus appears to be free of pests and diseases, but the plantation history is too short to become complacent. Continued monitoring is necessary.
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4.13. Koompassia species

Indonesian common name: Kempas The leguminous Koompassia spp. are characteristic associates of dipterocarp forests in the lowlands and lower hills. The three Indonesian species are Koompassia excelsa and K. malaccensis in Sumatra and Kalimantan and K. grandiflora in Irian Jaya. The dominant Koompassia trees in the upper storey are well known for sustaining the combs of the wild honeybee, Apis dorsata. The timber is durable and is used for a variety of purposes, including railway sleepers, flooring and furniture. Koompassia spp. in natural forests are now protected from cutting and the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops is encouraging the forest concessionaires to raise plantations of these species. Plantations have been established in Central Kalimantan. Insect pests No information is available on pests of the living tree. Diseases No information is available on diseases of the living tree. Threat assessment Koompassia spp. appear to be free of pests and diseases but the plantation history is too short to draw valid conclusions.
Threat assessment In Uganda, a canker, caused by Fusarium solani was described in young trees growing stunted in poor soil (Schabel and Latiff 1993). There is no threat of pests and diseases to this species that has been grown successfully for a long time in agroforestry systems in Java.
4.15. Mangrove species

Indonesian common name: Mangrove Natural mangrove forests are common along the very long Indonesian coastline. Plantations have been raised mainly to restore the natural vegetation in heavily degraded areas, to prevent coastal erosion, to facilitate coastal fisheries and to protect swamps. The commonly planted species are in the genera Avicennia, Bruguiera, Rhizophora and Sonneratia. Large plantations have been raised only in Java, while local people have undertaken small-scale planting in Bali and other places. Nearly 50 000 ha of plantations of Rhizophora spp. have been established in West and Central Java (Perum Perhutani 1995). Insect pests The most common pests of mangroves in Indonesia are scale insects that attach themselves to the shoots and feed on the plant sap, often causing the leaves to wilt. Two species have been recorded: Chionaspis sp. (Intari 1997) and Aulacaspis marina (Takagi and Williams 1998) (Table 4.7). The stem borer, Zeuzera conferta (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) and the twig borer, Xyleborus sp. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) occur and in combination often infest nearly 50% of stems of Avicennia spp. (Hardi 1997). Other pests, noted occasionally, include an unidentified leaf-feeding beetle, which damaged up to 80% of 3-month-old seedlings (Intari 1986) and the bagworms, Acanthopsyche sp. (Intari 1982) and Pteroma plagiophleps (Sitepu and Suharti 1998). A notable, non-insect pest is the crab, Sesarma sp. that cuts off the tops of seedlings in the nursery and new outplantings, often causing considerable mortality (Intari 1988).
4.14. Maesopsis eminii

Indonesian common name: Kayu afrika, Misopsis Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae), a native of tropical Africa, was introduced into Java in 1920s and grown in home gardens. It has a light, general-purpose timber. Plantations have been raised in Sumatra. Insect pests No insect pests have been recorded. Diseases No diseases have been recorded.
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi Table 4.7. Insect pests of mangroves in Indonesia Scientific name Chionaspis sp. (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Diaspididae) Aulacaspis marina (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Diaspididae) Leaf feeding Unidentified beetle (Coleoptera) Pteroma plagiophleps (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) Acanthopsyche sp. (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) Stem boring Zeuzera conferta (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) Xyleborus spp. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) Common name Scale insect Tree species affected Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera gymnorhiza Rhizophora spp. Notes
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Type of damage Sap sucking
Scale insect
Beetle Bagworm
Bruguiera spp. Rhizophora spp.
On seedlings
Bagworm
Bruguiera sp.
Beehole borer Scolytid borer
Avicennia sp. and Rhizophora spp. Avicennia sp. and Rhizophora spp.
Stem borer Twig borer
Threat assessment Among the insect pests in Indonesia, the borer, Z. conferta, has also been recognised as a pest of mangroves in Bangladesh (Chowdhury 1996). Most pests recorded affect the establishment stage and have seriously threatened the cultivation of mangroves. Rhizophora spp. have been grown successfully in Java for a long time. Defoliation during every summer, as occurs in Avicennia marina in Hong Kong (Anderson and Lee 1995), is rare. There are occasional defoliator outbreaks in natural stands of mangroves. In 1983, 500-1000 ha of an almost pure stand of Excoecaria agallocha (Euphorbiacae) was mass defoliated by caterpillars of Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Achaea janata) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in North Sumatra (Whitten and Damanik 1986). Other such outbreaks include mass defoliation of the same species by Achaea serva (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in central Queensland, Australia (McKillup and McKillup 1997); of Avicennia alba by larvae of Cleora injectaria (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in Thailand (Piyakarnchana 1981); and of A. marina by Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in India (Anonymous
1996). These outbreaks are occasional events and are not a threat to mangrove plantations, particularly as the trees are not killed by defoliation. The only serious disease reported from the tropics is top death of Heritiera fomes over extensive areas of the mangrove forests of Sunderbans in Bangladesh (Rahman 1996), the etiology of which is not fully understood although some fungi and bacteria were implicated. There is no threat of diseases to mangrove plantations in Indonesia.
4.16. Melaleuca cajuputi

Indonesian common name: Kayu putih Melaleuca cajuputi, formerly known as M. leucodendron (Myrtaceae) (Blake 1968; Turnbull 1986), is native to Indonesia and planted in Java and Buru island in the Moluccas, particularly in degraded areas. It yields cajuput oil, which is distilled from the leaves. There are about 11 800 ha of plantations in the three provinces of Java (Perum Perhutani 1995).
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Insect pests Several species of subterranean termites are reported to attack young trees, up to 6 years old, often causing mortality up to 80% (Intari 1979; Intari and Wiriadinata 1984). Insecticidal treatments have been standardised for control. Among non-insect pests, a mite causes leaf gall. Diseases No disease has been encountered. Threat assessment Melaleuca cajuputi (as M. leucodendron) has been cultivated successfully in Indonesia for a long time. Apart from the subterranean termites that can be controlled effectively by soil treatment with suitable insecticides, there is no major threat of pests and diseases. The leaves contain chemical components that act as a feeding repellent to some insects (Doskotch et al. 1980; Alonso et al. 1996).
Threat assessment Pests of O. pyramidale, recorded outside Indonesia, include a shoot borer, Anadasmus porinodus (Lepidoptera, Stenomidae) in Costa Rica (Becker 1974) and a leaf roller, Sylepta derogata (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), a common pest of malvaceous plants, in Kerala, India (Mathew 1980). All the known pests, including Z. coffeae in Indonesia, are polyphagous insects and there is no major threat to plantations of O. pyramidale in Indonesia. Diseases recorded outside Indonesia include a brown root rot in areas previously planted with cocoa in Papua New Guinea, caused by Phellinus noxius (Dennis 1992); a bark canker in Ecuador, with which the hyphomycetes fungus Stilbella ecuadorensis was associated (Morgan et al. 1991); and a die-back in Kerala, India with which the fungi, Calonectria rigidiuscula and Fusarium moniliformae were associated (Sharma et al. 1985). However, there is no threat of disease in Indonesia where the tree has been grown successfully for a considerable time.
4.17. Ochroma pyramidale

Indonesian common name: Balsa Ochroma pyramidale (syn. O. lagopus; O. grandiflora) (Bombacaceae) has been planted in small areas in Indonesia, particularly, Java. A typical pioneering species native to Central and South America (Wiselius 1998), it has been planted mainly in degraded lands in Java and plantations are being established in Central Kalimantan. Insect pests The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) has been reported in a plantation 1.5 years old in Java (Wiselius 1998). This moth caterpillar is known to attack coffee, tea, cinchona and a few other small trees. The larvae bore into woody stems and branches and make a longitudinal tunnel along the pith, often causing death of the distal part of the branch. In most species it has not been a serious threat. No other pest has been noted on this species in Indonesia. Diseases No disease of O. pyramidale has been reported from Indonesia.
4.18. Octomeles sumatrana

Common name in Indonesia: Benuang Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae) occurs naturally in Indonesia, except in Java and Nusa Tenggara (Fundter et al. 1997). It is fast growing and produces a light timber which is used for indoor construction. Plantations are being raised in Sumatra under the HTI scheme. Insect pests The leaves are attacked by a moth caterpillar, Characoma sp. (Fundter et al. 1997). No information is available on the seriousness of damage. Diseases No diseases are known. Threat assessment No reliable judgment can be made as the plantation history is so short.
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4.19. Paraserianthes falcataria

Indonesian common name: Sengon laut Paraserianthes falcataria (Leguminosae) is an exceptionally fast growing tree, native to the eastern islands of the Indonesian archipelago and New Guinea. It is widely planted in Indonesia, in industrial plantations in Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and Moluccas (Fig. 2.1), and in smallholder plantations in Java. The rotation period is usually 8 years. The area of large and small plantations has increased steadily over recent years. Wood from industrial plantations is used for pulp, whereas that from smallholder plantations has a variety of uses, including chopsticks, packing cases and furniture for local use. Insect pests The major pests recorded on P. falcataria are listed in Table 4.8. The most notable is Xystrocera festiva (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae), which is becoming more serious as the area planted to the host increases. First reported in 1897 (Hardi et al. 1996), it is present in most areas where P. falcataria is grown in Indonesia, although most reports are from Java and Sumatra. In 1990 it was not noted in trial plantations in South Kalimantan (Selander 1990) although Ngatiman and Tangketasik (1987) detected it in East Kalimantan. The severity of incidence appears to be higher in Java where the host has been cultivated for a long period. It has several other hosts including Acacia spp., Pithecellobium sp., Samanea saman, and Enterolobium sp. Xystrocera festiva is one of the most studied forest insects in Indonesia and detailed information is available on its biology and impact. Matsumoto (1994) covers some aspects of its ecology and Kasno and Husaeni (1998) present a summary of its present status, with emphasis on control. The beetle lays eggs on fissures in the bark and the larvae initially feed underneath the bark, burrowing deeper into the wood as they grow to maturity in about 4 months. The larvae are somewhat gregarious, with several present at each infestation site. Severe infestation reduces the yield and quality of the wood, and often leads to death of the tree. Infestation usually begins when the trees are 2-3 years old and the percentage of infested trees increase with age. In East Java, the
estimated yield loss is about 12% if the trees are harvested when 4 years old, and about 74% if harvested after 8 years (Notoatmodjo 1963). Xystrocera festiva is currently controlled by cutting and removing infested trees to prevent build up of the beetle population. In Government-owned plantations, this is incorporated into the regular thinning operations carried out at 3, 4, 5 and 6 years of age, by removing infested trees first instead of systematic thinning to reduce competition between trees. This has reduced the infestation rate to between 4-10% of trees, although this is not sufficient (Kasno and Husaeni 1998). They recommend an integrated control strategy, involving, (1) a 3-monthly inspection, during which early infestations are detected and the bark removed from the infested portion of the trunk to expose and kill the early larvae, (2) annual thinning to remove infested trees, and (3) release of the egg parasitoid, Anagyrus sp. These may prove helpful, although detecting early infestations on top portions of the trunk is not practicable and release of egg parasitoid is not likely to be cost-effective until rearing methods for the parasitoid are standardised and field effectiveness of parasitoid release demonstrated. Further research is also needed to standardise the promising method of using green light to attract and trap adult beetles (Husaeni et al. 1998). A small population of the related species, Xystrocera globosa, has been found on P. falcataria (Matsumoto 1994). This pest is widespread and is known to attack several leguminous tree species, particularly, if they are unhealthy (Beeson 1941). Next in importance is the small bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) that defoliates the tree. It is a sporadic pest, but some companies in Sumatra, have reported severe infestations. These usually occur repeatedly in endemic patches. The female moths are wingless and dispersal is limited. The larvae live inside conical bags made out of the host plant material, and feed on the leaves and bark in large numbers. The leaves are skeletonised and eventually shed. Repeated heavy infestations may result in tree dieback. A 5-year-old plantation in South Sumatra had a severe attack from 1994 to 1997 (Zulfiah 1998).
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Another sporadic pest is the yellow butterfly, Eurema spp. (mainly E. blanda and to a lesser extent E. hecabe and others), whose caterpillars often build up in large numbers and cause locally widespread defoliation. Severe defoliation occurs occasionally in Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Sulawesi (Tikupadang et al. 1993; Irianto et al. 1997; Suhendi and Sembiring 1998). Although heavy defoliation may cause dieback of branches (Irianto et al. 1997), the infestation is usually transient and the damage not serious. Other minor pests reported on P. falcataria include a few species of scarabaeid beetles whose larvae feed on the roots of saplings, the bark feeding caterpillar, Indarbela quadrinotata, the twig borer, Xylosandrus morigerus (Tikupadang et al. 1993) (Table 4.8), and other polyphagous, occasional feeders. Diseases Damping-off caused by Pythium, Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia spp. is common in nurseries (Table 4.9). Anthracnose disease, characterised by sudden death of the seedlings and caused by Colletotrichum sp., has been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984). Root rot disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. occurs in young
plantations in South Kalimantan and Jambi, Sumatra (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). Older trees are attacked by root rot fungi of the genera, Ganoderma (Widyastuti et al. 2000) Ustulina and Rosellinia. Dieback due to unknown reasons has been reported by some companies. Generally, root rot is a problem only in trees older than 10 years. Except for nursery diseases that can be controlled, P. falcataria does not suffer from any major disease.
Table 4.9. Diseases of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia Disease Damping-off Causative agent Pythium sp. Phytophthora sp. Rhizoctonia sp. Colletotrichum sp. Botryodiplodia sp. Ganoderma sp. Ustulina sp. Rosellinia sp. Notes On seedlings
Anthracnose disease Root rot
On seedlings On young trees On older trees
Table 4.8. Insect pests of Paraserianthes falcataria in Indonesia Type of damage Trunk boring Scientific name Xystrocera festiva (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) X. globosa Leaf feeding Pteroma plagiophleps (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) Eurema blanda (Lepidoptera, Pieridae) Root feeding Bark feeding Twig boring Several species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) Indarbela quadrinotata (Lepidoptera, Indarbelidae) Xylosandrus morigerus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) Common name Sengon borer (albizia borer) Small bagworm Notes Serious pest Minor pest Occasionally serious; feeds also on bark surface Sporadic On saplings
Yellow butterfly caterpillar White grubs Bark caterpillar Scolytid beetle
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Threat Assessment The borer X. festiva is a major threat to P. falcataria plantations in Indonesia. Regular surveillance and removal of infested trees reduces the incidence of attack but extension efforts to promote this method and further research to develop improved control techniques are needed. It is a serious pest of P. falcataria plantations in Malaysia but not in the rest of tropical Asia. The bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps and the yellow butterfly, Eurema spp. are widespread pests with the bagworm potentially capable of causing serious damage in endemic patches of infestation. In Kerala, India, it caused dieback and death of trees in patches where repeated defoliation occurred (Nair and Mathew 1992). Vigilance is necessary against this insect, particularly because it infests many other tree species in Indonesia, facilitating build up to high population levels. Appropriate management methods need to be developed. The yellow butterfly is also capable of causing sporadic, locally widespread defoliation, but since the impact is not serious, it is not a major threat to plantations. Other pests are of minor significance. Nursery diseases can be managed effectively. Root rot is generally not a serious problem, except in trees older than 10 years, and is not a threat to plantations managed on shorter rotations. Dieback caused by Botryodiplodia theobromae has been noted in Kerala, India, but bark injury caused by fire or other agencies is considered to be a predisposing factor (Sharma and Sankaran 1988). In the Philippines, canker caused by Corticium salmonicolor is a common problem, but its impact is not serious (Anino 1990). Thus diseases do not appear to be a threat to P. falcataria plantations in Indonesia. The problems with Botryodiplodia and Corticium spp. in other countries may be due to a narrow genetic base of the host where P. falcataria is an introduced species.
comparable to teak, used for furniture and decorative veneers. It is being planted extensively in Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Java and it is also popular as a border tree in private holdings in Java. It is highly valued for construction timber because it grows faster than teak. Insect Pests An unidentified shoot-boring insect causes deformation of young trees (Graaf et al. 1993). The nymphs of an unidentified bug, Clovia sp. (Homoptera, Aphrophoridae) suck the sap of young leaves, enclosed in a mass of froth on the underside of the leaf, but damage is negligible (Matsumoto 1994). There has been moderate defoliation of P. canescens by an unknown insect (Selander 1990). Diseases Leaf rust has often been noted on seedlings grown under shade. Infestation by a superficial, black mildew fungus, probably Meliola sp., is also common (Selander 1990). Threat Assessment There appears to be no threat of pests or diseases, but the plantation history is too short to arrive at valid conclusions.
4.21. Pinus merkusii

Indonesian common name: Tusam The tropical pine, Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae), occurs naturally in the mountains of northern Sumatra. It has been planted widely in Indonesia for afforestation and protection of watersheds since the 1960s. It yields a general-purpose timber but most plantations were for pulpwood production. The estimated area of pine plantations in Indonesia is 700 000 ha (Nambiar et al. 1998). It is planted in Aceh, North Sumatra and in West, Central, and East Java. Java has about 584 000 ha of plantations that are tapped for resin (Perum Perhutani 1995). Insect pests There are three main pests of P. merkusii in Indonesia (Table 4.10). The most damaging is the tusam pitch moth, Dioryctria rubella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).
4.20. Peronema canescens

Indonesian common name: Sungkai Peronema canescens (Verbenaceae) belongs to a monotypic genus indigenous to Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra) and Malaysia. Often called jati sabrang (teak across Java) it yields high quality timber, almost
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Table 4.10. Insect pests of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia Type of damage Shoot and stem boring Foliage feeding Scientific name Dioryctria rubella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Miliona basalis (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) Nesodiprion biremis (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae) Several species (Lepidoptera, Psychidae) Root feeding Several species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae) Coptotermes sp. (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae) Common name Tusam pitch moth Pine looper Pine sawfly Bagworms Generally, minor pests, but outbreaks known in natural stands On roots of saplings Feeds on root collar Notes Causes shoot die-back and stem distortion
White grubs Termites
The moth lays eggs on young shoots and the larvae bore into them. It causes dieback of the shoots and stem. It has been considered to be a stem borer rather than a shoot borer because of serious damage caused to the stem by the larval tunnel extending upto 30 cm (Matsumoto 1994). It is a serious pest in North Sumatra. Thousands of hectares of young plantations were affected in an outbreak in 1982 (Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). There is no effective control method against this pest. The pine looper, Miliona basalis (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) feeds on the needles and most damage is to young plantations. Frequent, but short-lived, outbreaks occurred in the 1950s in plantations in North Sumatra, during which the egg parasitoid Trichogramma minutus was released for control (Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). Sporadic outbreaks have continued in the 1970s and 1980s (Mangundikoro and Depari 1958; Husaeni 1993). It has also been recorded in Aceh. A third pest, Nesodiprion biremis (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae) causes sporadic light defoliation in North Sumatra. Groups of 5-25 larvae feed on the distal three-fourths of the needles. Generally, the infestation level is not considered serious (Supriana and Natawiria 1987b). These three pests have not been reported from Java although pine plantations have been raised there for many years.
Other pests on P. merkusii in Indonesia include white grubs that attack roots of seedlings in nursery (Intari and Natawiria 1973), termites (Coptotermes sp.) that attack the root collar and lower stem of saplings (Suharti et al.1991) and leaf-feeding bagworms (Pteroma plagiophleps, Eumeta sp. and Cryptothelia variegata). Outbreaks of bagworms and Miliona basalis have occurred in natural pine stands in Sumatra (see Section 3.1). Diseases Damping-off, caused by several species of fungi (Table 4.11) is a serious problem in nurseries. Fortnightly spraying of Propanocarb and Captanol effectively control them (Ibnu and Supriana 1987). Soil treatment with Captanol, Captan or Manzzeb also controlled the problem (Suharti 1988). The fruit extract of Xylocarpus granatum had antifungal activity against damping-off (Widyastuti 1996; Widyastuti et al. 1999). Leaf blight caused by Cladiospora sp. causes the death of up to 70% of seedlings in nurseries in Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished); and similar disease symptoms have been noted in the central pine nursery in North Sumatra. Threat assessment Pine shoot moths are important pests of tropical pines in Southeast Asia, particularly of young plantations. Dioryctria rubella in the Philippines attacks Pinus caribaea, P. kesiya and P. merkusii (Lapis 1987),
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi Table 4.11. Diseases of Pinus merksii in Indonesia Disease Damping-off Causative agent Pythium sp. Fusarium sp. Rhizoctonia sp. Cladiospora sp. Botryodiplodia sp. Notes On seedlings
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4.22. Schleichera oleosa

Indonesian common name: Kesambi Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae) is an introduced species that is naturalised in many parts of Indonesia. There are about 3700 ha, mainly in East Java, planted for lac production (Perum Perhutani 1995). Insect pests No insect pests have been reported from Indonesia although some minor pests occur in India. The main insect pest of the tree, the lac insect, Laccifer lacca, introduced from India, is made used for lac production. Diseases No diseases have been reported from Indonesia although some are known in India. Threat assessment There is no threat of pests and diseases to S. oleosa in Indonesia.
Blight Root rot
On seedlings Rare incidence in nurseries in Java
D. abietella and D. sylvestrella infest P. merkusii in Thailand (Hutacharern 1978) and D. castanea damages P. kesiya in Northern India (Singh et al. 1988). Other shoot borers (Rhyaciona and Petrovia spp.) also occur in the Philippines and Thailand. Since there is no effective method to control this pest, the shoot borer continues to be a threat to pine plantations in Sumatra. It does not occur in Java, possibly because it can survive only in higher latitudes. Milionia basalis and Nesodiprion beremis are also confined to Sumatra. Nesodiprion beremis, which is not a serious pest in Indonesia, occurs in Thailand (Hutcharern 1978) but, in general, they are replaced by other species of defoliators (Dendrolimus, Neodiprion) in more Northern latitudes. The three main pests, D. rubella, M. basalis and N. beremis, are confined to Northern Sumatra. This suggests there is scope for expanding pine plantations to the higher altitudes of lower latitudes in Indonesia without the risk of major pests. Other pests such as root grubs and termites, which are more prevalent in lower latitudes, can be managed effectively and therefore are of little economic significance. Bark beetles (Scolytidae), which can infest the trees in large numbers and kill them, are major pests of pines in temperate climates. One species, Ips calligraphus has been recorded on P. merkusii in Jamaica (Garraway 1986). Bark beetles thrive mainly on freshly cut logs and weak trees. As pine plantations extend to poorer sites, vigilance is needed to detect any new pests. Diseases are not a major threat to pine plantations in Indonesia, as the nursery diseases are manageable.
4.23. Swietenia macrophylla

Indonesian common name: Mahoni Swietenia macrophylla (Meliaceae), commonly called mahogany, is a fairly fast-growing species native to tropical America. It is widely planted across the tropics for its high quality wood that is used for furniture and cabinet making. There are over 54 000 ha of plantations in Indonesia, mainly in West Java (Perum Perhutani 1995). Plantation trials are under way at Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan. Insect pests In common with many other countries, infestation by the shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) has limited expansion of mahogany plantations in Indonesia. Its larvae bore into the growing shoot of saplings destroying the terminal bud causing growth retardation and stem forking. Young trees 3-6 years old and 2-8 m tall are the most heavily attacked (Morgan and Suratmo 1976), a finding supported by Suratmo (1977) who observed about
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90% of 3-year-old trees (2.5 m tall) were infested but only 5% of trees 14 years old and 13 m tall. Older trees are not susceptible to attack. With the life cycle lasting between 1 and 2 months there are several overlapping generations and repeated attacks coincident with flushing. At present, there is no effective method to control this pest. It has been suggested that planting of trees repellent to the shoot borer moth along the plantation border or in a mixture will prevent the arrival of moths for egg laying. In preliminary trials, planting of Acacia mangium around a mahogany plantation prevented H. robusta infestation (Matsumoto et al. 1997), and interplanting neem, Azadirachta indica, with mahogany in uneven admixture reduced shoot borer attack (Suharti et al. 1995). These preliminary results are encouraging, but more critical, large-scale trials are necessary to examine the effectiveness and feasibility of this approach. The scolytid beetle, Xylosandrus compactus (syn. Xyleborus morstatti) (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) lays eggs in galleries in the stems of seedlings in the nursery leading to their collapse (Suratmo 1982; Natawiria 1990; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and Suharti 1998). It also infests living twigs and branches of older trees (Mayhew and Newton 1998). This species also damages mahogany seedlings in Sri Lanka and Thailand. Minor pests observed in experimental plantings include the leaf-feeding caterpillar, Attacus atlas (Lepidoptera, Saturnidae) and the leaf-cutter bee, Megachile sp. (Hymenoptera, Megachilidae) (Matsumoto 1994). Diseases The only disease noted in S. macrophylla is bark rot, which occurs at the base of the trunk. The lesion appears in the middle of the rainy season, spreads rapidly from bottom upwards and often kills the trees by the end of the season. The lesion always appears on the stem surface facing the water flow along the slope and it is assumed that the pathogen arrives through water and enters through wounds. The causative organism remains unidentified. About 40% of trees have been affected in some patches of S. macrophylla stands in Purwodadi forest district, Central Java (Sumardi and Widyastuti unpublished). There are no other major diseases, although occurrence of the root rot pathogens, Armillaria
mellea and Phellinus noxius has been reported (Mayhew and Newton 1998). Threat assessment The shoot borer is the major threat to cultivation of mahogany worldwide, with the related species, Hypsipyla grandella replacing H. robusta, in the Latin American tropics. Although older trees are not attacked, many plantation programmes have been abandoned due to damage during the establishment stage. Development of practical control methods using strategies such as chemical application, insect parasitoids and shade regulation have been unsuccessful. The use of deterrent trees is being tested. Recently, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research has supported international cooperation to find a solution to this vexing problem. The shoot borer does not occur in Fiji, but ambrosia beetle and termites have taken a heavy toll of S. macrophylla plantations there. Three species, Neotermes papua, N. samoanus and an unidentified Neotermes sp. infest living trees aged 2 years and older (Kamath et al. 1996). They hollow out the trees from within the trunk and older infestations become manifested as gentle to heavy swellings on the trunk. On an average, 7% of trees in plantations are infested. This attack is similar to that of Neotermes sp. on teak in Indonesia. Vigilance is necessary to detect signs of termite infestation of mahogany in Indonesia. Two endemic species of ambrosia beetles (Crossotarsus externe-dentatus and Platypus gerstaeckeri) also infest trees older than 6-8 years in Fiji. Such attacks appear to be related to poor tree health. Monitoring the possible build up of Xylosandrus compactus, which infests twigs of older mahogany trees in Indonesia, in trees of poor health is needed. The only serious disease is the unidentified pathogen spread through flowing water which results in the death of trees. Research is needed to determine the etiology of this disease. In this context, it is interesting to note that the fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi, causing a serious root disease in Eucalyptus marginata and other trees in Australia, can disperse through flowing subsurface water in lateritic soil on hill slopes (Kinal et al. 1993).
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4.24. Tectona grandis

Indonesian common name: Jati Teak, Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae), was probably introduced to Java 400-600 years ago from India. It is now naturalised and occurs over extensive areas in Java and Muna Island in Southeast Sulawesi. It produces one of the finest of tropical timbers that is in high demand for a variety of purposes, from building bee hives to ships. Plantation forestry in Java is dominated by teak, with about 1 million ha making up about 55% of all its forest plantations. The plantations are in East Java (570 000 ha), Central Java (312 000 ha) and West Java (185 000 ha). Some plantations exist also in Southeast Sulawesi. Indonesia has a long tradition in teak plantation management and supplies a significant proportion of teak timber in world trade. Teak is managed on a 60-year rotation and plantations are usually established by direct seeding in a taungya system. Recently, a small area of plantations has been established with rooted cuttings and tissue cultured plantlets from selected clones. Experimental teak plantations have been established in Kalimantan and it appears that although the teak grows faster it does not produce good quality wood.
Insect Pests There are three well-known pests of teak in Indonesia (Table 4.12). Caterpillars of the moth, Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae), commonly known as the teak defoliator, feed on the foliage during the early part of the growth season, soon after flushing. It is believed to cause one or more total defoliation events every year in most teak areas, but systematically gathered data are not available. The teak defoliator is a migrant pest, with shifting foci of high-density infestations during the early outbreak period, which coincides with pre-monsoon rains (Nair 1988). This is followed by widespread infestation and sudden disappearance of the pest population. The dynamics of infestation are similar to Indian infestations (Kalshoven 1953), but detailed studies are lacking. In Indian teak plantations H. puera causes substantial loss of growth increment (Nair et al 1996). The teak leaf skeletoniser Eutectona machaeralis (syn. Hapalia machaeralis, Pyrausta machaeralis) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) is also present in plantations in Java (Suratmo 1987). This caterpillar feeds on the leaves, leaving the major veins intact, hence the name, skeletoniser. Intachat (1998) identified the species in Indonesia, Malaysia and probably Thailand as Paliga
Table 4.12. Insect pests of teak in Indonesia Type of damage Leaf feeding Scientific name Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae) Paliga damastesalis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) Valanga nigricornis (Orthoptera, Acrididae) Trunk/stem boring Neotermes tectonae (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae) Xyleutes ceramica (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) Xyleborus destruens (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) Common name Teak defoliator Teak leaf skeletonizer Earlier known as Eutectona, Pyrausta or Hapalia machaeralis Notes
Grasshopper Inger-inger Beehole borer Ambrosia beetle Red borer Minor pest On saplings Unique pest of teak in Indonesia
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damastesalis, as distinct from Eutectona machaeralis present in India, although it has similar habits. She also suggests that the correct nomenclature of Eutectona machaeralis is Paliga machoeralis. Kalshoven (1953) mentions that although present in Java, it does not attack teak, but other authors list it as a major pest of teak in Java (Natawiria and Tarumingkeng 1971; Mieke 1994; Suratmo 1996; Suharti and Sitepu 1997; Sitepu and Suharti 1998). Little primary data is available on the frequency and intensity of its attack in Java. In India, outbreaks of teak leaf skeletoniser occur during the latter part of the growth season in most years when the leaves are old, and so its impact is negligible (Nair et al. 1996). The third notable pest of teak in Java is the termite, Neotermes tectonae (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae). Popularly known as inger-inger, this wood-dwelling termite hollows out portions of stem and branches. Usually, the external symptom, swellings of the trunk and branches, becomes visible only 3-5 years after the initiation of attack. The termites occupy crevices within the swollen stem. Trees over 3 years old are attacked but the symptoms appear only later. It is a serious problem in Central and East Java (Intari 1990) and various aspects have been studied. In some forest districts in Central Java, 10-72% of the trees were attacked and the production loss (degradation of construction timber to fuel wood) estimated at 9-21% (Subyanto 1992; Subyanto et al. 1992). Thinning of infested trees is the only practical method to reduce the incidence of attack, although methods such as introduction of fumigants, e.g. phostoxin, into the affected portion of the trunk have been tried (Intari and Amir 1975). The following teak pests are of lesser importance. The ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus destruens, attacks the trunk of living teak trees making branching tunnels that extend into the heartwood. It is prevalent in areas where there is no definite dry season (Kalshoven 1953) so such areas are avoided for teak cultivation. The teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) which infests the trunk is present but not common in Central Java (Intari 1975). The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae, has infested a small proportion of saplings in an 18-monthold teak plantation at Kendal, Boja Forest District, Central Java (K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi unpublished observation). This plantation was intercropped with corn and other agricultural crops under the taungya system. The grasshopper, Valanga nigricornis (Orthoptera,
Acrididae) causes sporadic defoliation and white grubs damage seedlings in nurseries. Diseases Teak is fairly resistant to diseases, although several pathogenic organisms have been recorded. A few diseases affect young trees in taungya systems, notably, an unidentified root wilt and stem canker, Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease). In a 31 ha plantation at Kendal, Central Java, 6% of 2-year-old saplings were killed by the root wilt and 2% were affected by canker, which resulted in drying up or breakage of stem above the point of canker (about 1.5 m above ground) (Sumardi and Widyastuti 2000). These problems appear to be associated with high input management, involving close cultivation of taungya crops and tillage. Cultivation of agricultural crops increases the humidity, favouring pink disease. Tillage may cause root injury facilitating invasion by the wilt bacterium, which is a wound pathogen. The diseases can be managed by appropriate silvicultural practices. Threat assessment Teak has been grown successfully in Java for over a century and there is no threat of pests or diseases that will ruin teak plantations. The most acknowledged problem is the trunk-infesting termite, Neotermes tectonae, unique to teak in Indonesia. It causes economic loss due to degradation of the timber. It is mostly confined to some endemic patches, particularly in Central Java and is kept under reasonable control by thinning operations. The impact, in terms of growth loss, caused by the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, is not fully recognised because the loss is not visible. Although its control is still not feasible except in young plantations, it is necessary to gather information on its prevalence and impact in Java. Other pests are of little consequence. Information is also needed on the prevalence and seasonal incidence of the teak skeletoniser, Paliga damastesalis. Teak is becoming popular in the agroforestry systems in Indonesia because of the availability of fast growing, tissue-cultured clones and high returns from planting in homesteads. Problems experienced in taungya system under forest plantations will become important in the homestead agroforestry systems. This will include bacterial root wilt, pink disease, red borer and the teak defoliator.
Chapter 5
General Conclusions
Indonesian forests are in a state of transition (see Chapter 2). The rate of conversion of natural forests to plantations in recent years has been faster than ever before. There is rapid expansion of plantations of new, fast-growing species in the outer islands while traditional, slow-growing timber species like teak, pine and Agathis continue to be grown in Java. One species, Acacia mangium, accounts for 64% of the area planted in recent times (Chapter 2, Table 2.6). Paraserianthes falcataria occupies 7% of the area followed by Gmelina arborea and eucalypts. Paraserianthes falcataria is being expanded on private lands in Java with support by various Government agroforestry promotion schemes. Plantation development is taking place in a qualitatively different direction than previously. Although there is a choice for selection from among several species, including some indigenous species recommended under the HTI scheme, growers choose the few species listed above. This is mainly because the emphasis is on fast-growing trees suitable for pulpwood, and more information is available on silviculture, growth performance and suitability for pulping of these species. Risk of pest and disease damage should be an important criterion for selection of species for large-scale planting, but this is seldom done in practice, because the plantation industry cannot wait for scientists to provide the necessary database to make foolproof choices. Scientific method relies on observational and experimental data that are acquired over a long period. Even then, there are many uncertainties regarding the conditions under which pest and disease problems may develop. However, an attempt has been made here to review existing information and to predict the future
risk of pests and diseases in Indonesian forest plantations. There is unavoidable risk in making these judgements but this is typical of many real life situations where decisions must be made without sufficient data. In fact, the plantation companies have already taken the risk. The conclusions drawn here should be taken only as a broad guideline.
5.1. Summary of present problems and future threats

The risk associated with each species has been discussed in Chapter 4. What is attempted here is a summary and analysis of general features. The species fall into two categories: those that have been grown in Indonesia for a long time and those that are new. Long-standing plantation species Species grown in Java are in this category. Risk assessments for these species is easier because we have the benefit of experience. The species and a summary of their present pest and disease problems, and future risk is given in Table 5.1. There is no serious disease problem other than manageable nursery diseases among the ten species grown over a longer period. Serious insect pest problems exist for Paraserianthes falcataria, Swietenia macrophylla and Tectona grandis and they cause economic loss, although this is not generally recognised in the case of teak. Unfortunately, there is no effective control method yet for any of these pests. There are also localised problems such as the pine shoot borer in Sumatra, ambrosia beetle of teak in
40
General Conclusions
Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing plantation species
Tree species Agathis dammara Category Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Current major problem None None None None None None None None None None 1. Trunk borer (Xystrocera festiva) 2. Defoliator (Pteroma plagiophleps) None None in Java Shoot borer (Dioryctria rubella) in Sumatra Disease Schleichera oleosa Pest Disease Pest Disease Tectona grandis Pest Disease None None None Shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta) None Defoliator (Hyblaea puera) None Future threat None None None None None None None None None None 1. Trunk borer (Xystrocera festiva) 2. Defoliator (Pteroma plagiophleps) None None in Java Shoot borer (Dioryctria rubella) in Sumatra None None None Shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta) None Defoliator (Hyblaea puera) None
Dalbergia latifolia
Mangroves (mainly Rhizophora) Maesopsis eminii
Melaleuca cajuputi
Paraserianthes falcataria
Disease Pinus merkusii Pest
Swietenia macrophylla
areas not subject to seasonal drought, and wilt of Dalbergia in some areas. Avoiding planting in risky areas can circumvent these, although in the case of pine, it is not feasible to avoid planting it in its native range in Sumatra.
New plantation species The risks to the new species are presented in Table 5.2. No major problem has so far been experienced in these 14 species, but there are indications of impending problems, such as root rot in Eucalyptus spp. and root
41
Table 5.2.
Tree species
Summary of pest and disease problems for new plantation species

Category Pest Disease Current major problem None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None Future threat Helopeltis, unpredictable caterpillar outbreak Root rot, Heart rot of stem Unpredictable None Unpredictable None None None None None None None None Root rot None None Unpredictable None Unpredictable None None None None None None None None None
Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp.
Alstonia spp.
Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease Pest Disease
Anthocephalus sp.
Azadirachta excelsa
Dipterocarps
Dyera spp.
Eucalyptus spp.
Eusideroxylon zwageri
Gmelina arborea
Gonystylus bancanus
Koompassia spp.
Ochroma pyramidale
Octomeles sumatrana
Peronema canescens
42
General Conclusions
and stem rot in Acacia mangium. Other potential threats are less obvious. Eucalyptus spp.and Acacia mangium have been grown in Indonesia over fairly large area for a longer period than other species in this group. Many pest problems develop over a long period, facilitated by favourable conditions provided by extensive monocultures. Therefore, the risk of pests and diseases for most species in this group is unpredictable. Experience with large monocultures of the same species in other countries can provide some pointers to the potential problems, although this is not fully dependable. For example, Pinus merkusii is plagued by shoot borer in Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, India and Northern Sumatra, but not in Java. We have the advantage of such experience in the case of Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and to some extent, Acacia mangium. Eucalypts have been generally pest free, except for subterranean termites attacking the tap root during the establishment stage. Diseases create problems in nursery, but are manageable. Eucalyptus spp. are susceptible to foliar diseases caused by fungi in humid environments, but selection of resistant species and provenances has circumvented this problem. In Indonesia, some species e.g. E. urophylla, have been found to be susceptible to root rot but others e.g. E. pellita, are less so. These problems have led to the present trend in Indonesia is to replace Eucalyptus spp. with Acacia.spp. Gmelina arborea, except for minor problems with a stem borer, is currently pest free in Indonesia, as in many other countries where it has been planted as an exotic, but the situation needs monitoring, as it suffers from serious pests in its native range. Some companies are now enlarging the area under Gmelina arborea, in place of Acacia mangium, although it requires more fertile sites than the acacia. Acacia mangium suffered a heart-rot problem which threatened to proliferate in Malaysia, but it is being kept in check by enlarging the genetic base of planting stock and by planting the heart rot resistant hybrid, A. mangium x A. auriculiformis. It has been suggested that the heart and root rot problems are the result of mismatching of the species with the sites, with the absence of a seasonal dry spell facilitating the development of the diseases (Arentz
1996; Lee and Arentz 1997). The situation therefore needs monitoring. Although there are no serious insect pest problems at present, the situation also needs attention, in view of the potential threat of the mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. becoming adapted as more of the Indonesian landscape is planted with A. mangium. There is also the treat of unpredictable caterpillar outbreaks, as indicated by some instances in Malaysia. In the case of other new species, most of which are indigenous, there are no serious pest or disease problems, at present. For some of them, limited experience in other countries or the chemical profile of the species (e.g. Azadirachta spp.) suggests that there is little risk (Table 5.2) but for others the risk is unpredictable. Future most important pests and diseases If one insect pest is to be named as the most dangerous to Indonesian forest plantations in future, the choice will undoubtedly fall on the sengon borer, Xystrocera festiva. Its population is likely to increase further as more area is brought under P. falcataria all across Indonesia due to its promotion by industrial and agroforestry plantation initiatives. Xystrocera festiva has a number of alternative hosts, in the family Leguminosae, including Albizia spp. and Acacia spp. Although A. mangium is not a favoured host of X. festiva, its expansion may also help to increase X. festiva population. This borer seems to be welladapted to Indonesia as it is replaced in neighbouring countries by X. globosa, a species also present in low numbers in Indonesia. Another insect likely to build up in future is Helopeltis. Many closely related species of Helopeltis are important pests of horticultural plantations in the tropics and populations have been increasing in young A. mangium plantations, particularly in Sumatra (see Section 4.1). It has a history of outbreaks in cashew, tea and neem in India and in tea and Eucalyptus spp. in Sumatra. Care must be exercised to prevent the build up of Helopeltis species. Good quality timber will remain in demand despite of the present emphasis on pulpwood species. Improvements in machinery and utilisation methods will enable smaller dimension timbers to be used
43
increasingly. Teak, Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. are likely to fill this need. The teak defoliator and the emerging pests of Shorea spp. and Peronema sp. may require attention in future. The most prevalent diseases for most tree species are caused by a host of fungal pathogens in the nursery. Fortunately, they can be kept under control by suitable practices and need-based use of selected fungicides. The most serious threat is the spread of root rot caused by several species of fungi. They will assume greater importance as the disease inoculum builds up on sites where there are consecutive rotations of the same species. Indigenous versus exotic tree species The question is often raised whether exotic tree species are at greater risk of pest and disease outbreaks. It is difficult to offer a simple answer and designating a species as exotic is a matter of definition (see Section 3.3). If we accept the narrow definition, based on the boundaries of the larger island groups than the country, most species currently grown extensively in Indonesia are exotic. Since a valid discussion of the comparative susceptibility of exotic versus indigenous species cannot be attempted without a broader coverage of species and countries where they are grown, it is not attempted here. However, based on Indonesian experience it can be said that both exotic and indigenous species may have serious pest problems. Examples are the indigenous Pinus merkusii in Sumatra and the exotic Swietenia macrophylla. The difference is that an indigenous species is unlikely to be wiped out by a pest because it has evolutionarily outlived such an eventuality and it is therefore safer to grow them. On the other hand, in theory, an exotic species can suffer heavy damage and extinction caused by indigenous pests and pathogens. There is also the risk of pests and pathogens invading from the area of natural occurrence of the exotic host, as in the case of Leucaena psyllid, conifer aphids or eucalypt trunk borers. This does not always happen, as exemplified by the thriving exotic rubber tree, Hevea braziliensis, in many countries. A comprehensive risk analysis is beyond the scope of this study. We can say that the risk is not associated with whether a species is exotic or indigenous per se and that risk must also be balanced with opportunities.
5.2. The research scenario

Existing unsolved pest and disease problems and newly emerging problems call for timely attention to research and development in this field. Research capacity in Indonesia is quite inadequate to meet the challenge. Indonesian forest protection research literature is characterised by a large number of reviews describing or listing the problems (see the bibliography). Most of them have been presented in seminars and conferences that are often organised with external support. Very little new knowledge is generated by the small number of researchers in the forest protection field, although there are exceptions. Some plantation companies have established research units which look at pest and disease problems and collaborate with universities, but there is scope for strengthening the ties for mutual benefit. The main constraints to improving forest protection research are: Few specialised researchers Forestry protection research capacity exists at the Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development Agency (FERDA), two universities in Java (IPB and Gadjah Mada), three in Kalimantan, (East Kalimantan (Mulawarman), Central Kalimantan and West Kalimantan), one in Sulawesi and one in Sumatra. The total number of researchers in forest protection is only about 40, with less than half possessing a Ph.D. degree. This is inadequate to meet the entomological and pathological research needs. Low budget provision Staff salaries and research funds are low and often the staff have to depend on external support from plantation companies and other sources to conduct research. Extensive plantations Except in Java, most plantations are located far away from the staff headquarters and there are inadequate travelling and field camping facilities to carry out research. Inadequate research publication effort Most research results remain in the form of student theses and project reports, and inadequate attention is given to publishing them in peer-reviewed journals. The few published papers appear in in-house journals
44
General Conclusions
and symposia proceedings, mostly in Bahasa Indonesia, the benefits of broader expert review of the research are not captured. While there are numerous publications, the scientific quality of many is inadequate. Although there are some high quality publications that contribute to advancement of knowledge or solving problems, there are also many publications that are premature, and many recommendations that are impracticable, ineffective or prohibitively expensive.
5.3. Future outlook

To meet the needs of expanding plantations, more attention needs to be paid to promoting research on
pests and diseases. This calls for a dialogue between Government, universities and plantation companies to formulate appropriate approaches. An immediate need is to set up a plantation health monitoring system for Indonesia covering pests and diseases, and plantation failures due to other causes. This has the support of some plantation companies. Some fundamental research is needed to complement problem-solving research, for example, to create a scientific database and expertise for identification of disease organisms and insects, many of which are poorly identified. Although plantation companies may be interested in immediate problem solving research, the approach should be to simultaneously strengthen indigenous research capability and infrastructure for long-term benefits.
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Chapter 6
Bibliography of Insect Pests and Diseases

L. Santoso and K.S.S. Nair
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pests and diseases in industrial plantation forests). Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Universitas Mulawarman, Samarinda. 277. Sulthoni, A. 1986. Permasalahan perlindungan tanaman pada hutan tanaman industri dan kaitannya dengan teknologi maju (Issues on plant protection in industrial plantation forest and its relation with advanced technology). In: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ancaman terhadap HTI, 20 December 1986, Jakarta, 20-25. FMIPA dan Departemen Kehutanan. Inhutani I, Jakarta. 278. Sumadiwangsa, S. 1997. Kayu gaharu komoditi elit di Kalimantan Timur (Agarwood as a highvalue commodity in East Kalimantan). Duta Rimba 20: 205-206. 279. Supriana, N. and Natawiria, D. 1987. Forest pests and diseases in Indonesia. In: de Guzman, E.D. and Nuhamara, S.T. (eds.) Forest pests and diseases in South-East Asia, 21-41. BIOTROP Special Publication No. 26, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, Bogor, Indonesia. 280. Tikupadang, H., Sumardjito, Z. and Sila, M. 1993. Inventarisasi dan identifikasi serangga potensial menjadi hama dan mikroba potensial menjadi penyakit pada hutan tanaman industri PT Inhutani I, Kabupaten Gowa, Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan. (Inventory and identification of potentially serious pests and diseases in industrial forest plantation at PT Inhutani I, Gowa regency, South Sulawesi). Jurnal Penelitian Kehutanan 7: 10-21. 281. Torquebiau, E. 1984. Man-made Dipterocarp forest in Sumatra. Agroforestry Systems 2: 103-127. 282. Widyastuti, S.M. 1996. Penghambatan penyakit damping-off (rebah semai) pada semai pinus oleh ekstrak biji nyiri (Xylocarpus granatum). (Inhibition of damping-off of pine seedling by extract of Xylocarpus granatums seed). Jurnal Perlindungan Tanaman Indonesia 2(1): 32-35. 283. Widyastuti, S.M. and Sumardi. 1998. Antagonistic potential of Trichoderma spp. against root rot pathogen of forest tree species. Asian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 2:1-8.
78
284. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Harjono. 1999. Potensi antagonistik tiga Trichoderma spp. terhadap delapan penyakit akar tanaman kehutanan. (Antagonistic potential of three species of Trichoderma spp. against eight root rot diseases of forest trees). Buletin Kehutanan Gadjah Mada University 41:2-10. 285. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Hidayati, N. 1998a. Kemampuan Trichoderma spp. untuk pengendalian hayati jamur akar putih pada Acacia mangium secara in vitro. (Potential of Trichoderma spp. for biological control white root rot of Acacia mangium). Buletin Kehutanan Gadjah Mada University 36: 24-38. 286. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi and Puspitasari, D. 1999. Uji kemampuan penghambatan ekstrak biji nyiri (Xylocarpus granatum) terhadap jamur benih tanaman kehutanan. (Test toward inhibition potential of the extract of Xylocarpus granatum against fungi on seed of forest tree species). Buletin Kehutanan Gadjah Mada University 37: 2-9. 287. Widyastuti, S.M., Sumardi, Sulthoni, A. and Harjono. 1998b. Pengendalian hayati penyakit akar merah pada akasia dengan Trichoderma.
(Biological control of red root rot on Acacia using Trichoderma). Jurnal Perlindungan Tanaman 4: 65-72. 288. Zaidi, M.D.H. 1997. Mekanisme masuknya intensitas serangan jamur pelapuk kayu teras pada tegakan Acacia mangium Willd di HTI PT Wirakarya Sakti, Propinsi Jambi (Entry mechanism of heart rot disease on Acacia mangium Willd in HTI PT Wirakarya Sakti, Jambi province). Thesis, Fakultas Kehutanan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia. 289. Zakir, Simon, T. and Suharti, M. 1993. Jenis jamur yang berasosiasi dengan biji Paraserianthes falcataria and Pinus merkusii dalam berbagai periode serta cara simpan (Fungi associated with Paraserianthes falcataria and Pinus merkusii in various method and period of storage). Buletin Penelitian Hutan 554: 37-55. 290. Zulfiah, A. and Gales, K. 1997. Diseases of tropical Acacias in South Sumatra. In: Old, K.M., Lee, S.S. and Sharma, J.K. (eds.) Diseases of tropical Acacias, 48-52. Proceedings of an International Workshop held at Subanjerji (South Sumatra), 28 April-3 May 1996. CIFOR Special Publication, Bogor, Indonesia.
79
6.3. Bibliography Indexes Scientific Indexes

Tree Species
Acacia
Bibliography Number
003 111 211 251 221 003 111 243 070 266 007 255 013 129 041 060 063 258 036 188 271 056 098 271 030 137 040 181 019 282
011 166 221 253 253 011 174 245 213
016 171 228 284 016 180 251 239
027 174 242 287 027 184 284
029 180 243 288 029 192 287
094 184 244 290 094 228 288
110 192 245
Acacia auriculiformis Acacia mangium
110 242
Agathis dammara Agathis loranthifolia Alstonia scholaris Anacardium occidentale Avicennia Azadirachta indica Bruguiera Dalbergia latifolia Dipterocarpaceae Eucalyptus
187 044 224 071 281 056 189 272 225 110 272 072 145 059 264 265 097 251 271 272 268 078 098 190 086 102 191 163 103 215 164 110 225 209 186 251
Eucalyptus alba Eucalyptus deglupta Eucalyptus urophylla Gmelina arborea Gonystylus bancanus Melaleuca cajuputi/leucadendron Metroxylon sagu Mikania micrantha Nylocarpus granatum
284
80
Paraserianthes falcataria Paulownia kawakamii Pinanga Pinus merkusii
029 130 263 200 005 119 175 222 004 004 109 002 248 237 002 006 237 077 010 122
050 132
061 133
068 162
082 167
090 232
104 289
009 120 183 256 013 250 006
011 141 184 259 187
043 143 194 260
074 167 217 262
084 172 219 267
114 174 220 270
Rhizophora Rhizophora mucronata Santalum album Shorea Shorea acuminatissima Shorea albida Shorea javanica Shorea smithiana Swietenia macrophylla Tectona grandis
051
105
178
182
237
051 080 038 123
182 127 039 124 142 042 126 147 045 158 148 053 269 149 065
Insects
Acanthopsyche Antennopsis gayi Aulacaspis vitis Calliteara cerigoides Chaetocnema Chionaspis Clouges glauculalis Curinus coeruleus Dioryctria Duomitus ceramicus Eurema Helopeltis Helopeltis antonii 041 096 157 078 044 004 007 117 054 038 031 067 103 061 102 134 103 057 114 141 052
81
Hypsipyla robusta Loranthus Macrochirus praetor Metisa plana Milionia basalis Mucanum Neotermes tectonae Paliga damastesalis Prionoxystus Scolytids Xyleutes ceramicus Xystrocera festiva Zeuzera coffeae
077 125 046 106 043 051 010 124 037 097 066 038 033 132 098
080
127
142
147
148
149
039 158
042
045
053
122
123
035
068
076
090
104
130
Diseases
Aecidium fragiforme Botryodiplodia Cylindrocarpon Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Fusarium Guignardia candeloflamma Hyphomycetes Mycosphaerella Mycosphaerella gracilis Pseudomonas solanacearum Ramaria canieticolor Rhizoctonia solani Trichoderma 213 177 195 186 195 200 190 188 188 255 243 174 175 176 177 283 284 286 287 189 239
82
General Indexes
In Bahasa Indonesia
Akasia
Bibliography Number
003 111 211 251 178 033 132 060 176 181 228 109 070 004 002 086 258 036 188 271 217 221 140 026 186 008 049 112 134 161 218 238 257 010 124 287
011 166 221 253 188 035 176 266 288 250 213 006 163 281 056 189 272 270 278
016 171 228 284 200 068 179
027 174 242 287 215 076 224
029 180 243 288 090 283
094 184 244 290 104 286
110 192 245
Bercak daun Boktor Busuk akar Busuk batang Busuk bonggol Busuk hati Cendana Damar Derajat penularan Dipterocarpa
130
239 015 164 098 190 018 195 102 191 063 197 103 215 071 198 110 225 078 209 186 251
Ekaliptus
Ekor serigala Embun tepung Gaharu Hama persemaian Hawar daun Hutan Tanaman Industri
021 058 115 136 162 223 240 261 039 158
024 079 116 138 170 230 241 273 042
025 083 118 139 201 231 246 275 045
026 088 121 154 205 233 247 276 053
032 100 128 156 207 235 252 277 122
036 101 131 159 212 236 254 280 123
Inger-inger Jamur akar merah
83
Jamur akar putih Jamur karat Jamur pewarna Jati Jati putih Kanker batang Kayu putih Kerawai Kumbang ambrosia Kupu kuning Leda Lodoh Mahoni Mangrove Mete Mimba Nyiri Oleng-oleng Penggerek batang Penggerek lubang jarum Penggerek pucuk Penggerek pucuk rotan Penyakit layu Penyakit puru Pulai Ramin Rayap
284 239 229 010 122 030 271 040 084 012 031 098 172 282 077 004 255 129 282 038 012 136 077 046 268 264 007 137 010 056 123 263 046 181 047 062 145 027 059 124 039 060 158 040 070 224 042 096 045 108 053 122 080 047 274 265 127 142 147 148 149 030 097 098 284 137 134 110 173 080 013 251 175 127 028 222 142 052 256 147 157 262 148 165 267 149 187 145 160 038 123 072 272 059 264 265 039 124 097 042 126 045 158 053 269 065 253
Kanker akar Rotan Sagu
84
Sengon Sonokeling Tusam
029 130 060 005 114 174 220 270 041
049 132 224 009 119 175 222 274 106
061 133 268 011 120 183 256 282
068 162 043 141 184 259
082 167 057 143 194 260
090 232 074 167 217 262
104 289 084 172 219 267
Ulat kantung
In English
Agarwood Ambrosia beetle Bagworm Bark beetle Bark rot Beehole borer Cashew Caueput Damping-off Dipterocarp 140 012 041 012 266 038 255 040 172 282 002 086 258 217 264 228 008 049 112 134 161 218 238 257 137 186 059 173 006 163 281 270 265 288 021 058 115 136 162 223 240 261 145 024 079 116 138 170 230 241 273 025 083 118 139 201 231 246 275 026 088 121 154 205 233 247 276 032 100 128 156 207 235 252 277 036 101 131 159 212 236 254 280 264 175 015 164 265 222 018 195 256 063 197 262 071 198 267 078 209 278 137 106 030 145 160
Fox-tail Gall disease Heart rot Industrial plantation forest
Ironwood Leaf blight
85
Leaf spot Mahogany Mangrove Neem Nursery pests Pine
178 077 004 129 026 005 114 174 220 270 084 136 062 221 046 046 287 181 263 060 239 181 109 229 004 271 176 010 122 037 010 056 123 055 284 268
188 080 013
200 127 028
215 142 052 147 157 148 165 149 187
009 119 175 222 274
011 120 183 256 282
043 141 184 259
057 143 194 260
074 167 217 262
084 172 219 267
Pine sawfly Pinhole borer Powder post beetle Powdery mildew Rattan Rattan top borer Red root rot Rhizome rot Root canker Root rot Rust disease Sago Sandalwood Sapstain Scale insect Stem canker Stem rot Teak Teak skeletonizer Termite
047 047
062
176 253 250
179
224
283
286
272 038 123 027 059 124 039 124 039 060 158 042 126 040 070 224 045 158 042 096 053 269 045 108 065
053 122
White grubs White root rot Wilt disease
274
Indexes
Tree
Acacia 17, 19, 31, 41, 42, 46, 50, 54 A. aulacocarpa 19 A. auriculiformis 17, 18, 19, 42, 45 A. crassicarpa 19 A. mangium 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54 A. mearnsii 18, 54 A. perigrina 19 Actinophora fragrans 11, 12 Agathis 3, 39, 45 A. borneensis 19 A. dammara 6, 19, 20, 40 A. loranthifolia 19, 52 Albizia 17, 42, 48 A. falcataria 50, 51 A. lebbek 18 Alstonia 7, 20, 41 A. scholaris 20 A. spatulata 20 Anthocephalus 7, 41, 52 A. cadamba 20 A. chinensis 20, 49 A. macrophyllus 20 Aquilaria 27 Avicennia 28, 29 A. marina 29, 45 A. alba 29, 50 Azadirachta 42 A. excelsa 7, 21, 41 A. indica 21, 36, 52 Bruguiera 28, 29, 47 B. gymnorhiza 29 Casuarina C. junghuhniana 11, 12 C. montana 11 Dalbergia 3, 21, 22, 40 D. latifolia 6, 21, 22, 40, 48, 51, 52 D. sissoo 21, 22, 47 Dipterocarps 7, 41, 46 Dipterocarpus 22 D. cornutus 22, 23 Dyera 7, 24, 41 D. costulata 24 D. lowii 24 D. polyphylla 24 Eucalyptus 1, 2, 7, 8, 18, 24, 25, 26, 40, 41, 42, 51 E. alba 48 E. camaldulensi 24 E. deglupta 24, 45 E. grandis 24 E. marginata 26, 36 E. pellita 24, 25, 42 E. tereticornis 24 E. torrelliana 24 E. urophylla 24, 25, 42, 52 Enterolobium 31 Eusideroxylon 48 E. zwageri 7, 26, 41 Excoecaria agallocha 11, 12, 29, 49 Gmelina 50, 54 G. arborea 1, 2, 7, 8, 27, 39, 41, 42 G. moluccana 26 Gonystylus 27, 52 G. bancanus 7, 27, 41 G. macrophyllus 27 Hopea 23 H. mengrawan 22 H. odorata 22, 23 Heritiera fomes 29, 51 Hevea braziliensis 7, 43
88
Indexes
Koompassia 7, 28, 41 K. excelsa 28 K. grandiflora 28 K. malaccensis 28 Leucaena leucocephala 1 Melaleuca 12 M. cajuputi 6, 29, 30, 40 M. leucodendron 29, 30, 45, 46, 48 Maesopsis eminii 7, 28, 40, 51 Neolamarckia 20 N. cadamba 20 Ochroma grandiflora 30 O. lagopus 30, 45 O. pyramidale 7, 30, 41, 49 Octomeles sumatrana 7, 30, 41, 46 Palaquium 11, 12 Paraserianthes 12 P. falcataria 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 31, 32, 33, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49 Peronema 43, 46 P. canescens 7, 33, 41 Pinus 3 P. caribaea 34 P. kesiya 34, 35 P. merkusii 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 33, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 47, 49, 52
Pithecolobium 31 Prionoxystus 27 Rhizophora 6, 12, 28, 29, 40 Samanea saman 31 Schleichera 12 S. oleosa 6, 35, 40 Shorea 7, 12, 22, 23, 43, 51 S. albida 24, 45 S. assamica 23 S. johorensis 23 S. javanica 22, 23, 47 S. lamellata 23 S. leprosula 22, 23 S. parviflora 22, 23 S. pinanga 22, 23 S. robusta 24 S. selanica 22 S. smithiana 22, 23 S. stenoptera 22 Sonneratia 28 S. acida 11 Swietenia macrophylla 6, 7, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43, 48, 53 Tectona grandis 2, 6, 7, 37, 39, 40 Xylocarpus granatum 34, 54
Indexes
89
Insect
Acanthopsyche 28, 29, 47 Achaea janata 12, 19, 29 A. serva 29, 49 Agathiphaga 20 Agrilus 25 A. kalshoveni 12 A. sexsignatus 24, 26 Alcides 24, 25 A. gmelinae 26 Alcidodes A. dipterocarpi 23 A. ludificator 26, 27 Anadasmus porinodus 30 Anagyrus 31 Andrector ruficornis 45 Apion argulicolle 27 Apis dorsata 28 Archips micaceana 24 Attacus atlas 36 Aulacaspis 53 A. marina 28, 29 A. vitis 53 Batocera numitor 20 Calliteara cerigoides 22, 23, 49 Calopepla leayana 27 Chaetocnema 47 Characoma 30 Chionaspis 28, 29, 47 Cleora injectaria 29, 50 Clovia 33 Coptotermes 34 C. curvignathus 15, 16, 18 Crossotarsus externe-dentatus 36 Cryptothelia variegata 34 Dendrolimus 35 Dioryctria D. abietella 35 D. castanea 35, 51 D. rubella 33, 34, 35, 40, 48 D. sylvestrella 35 Duomitus ceramicus 47 Eurema 32, 33, 53 E. blanda 32 E. hecabe 32
Ericeia 19 E. subcinerea 51 Eumeta 34 E. (Clania) variegata 11 Eurema E. blanda 32 Eutectona 37 E. machaeralis 37, 38, 49 Glena indiana 27 Glyphodes 20 G. bicolor 20 Gonipterus 26 Hapalia machaeralis 37 Helicoverpa armigera 19 Heliothis armigera 19 Helopeltis 16, 18, 24, 25, 41, 42, 51 H. antonii 18, 21 H. clavifer 23 H. fasciaticollis 16, 18 H. sumatranus 16, 18 H. theivora 16, 18 Heteropsylla cubana 1 Hoplocerambyx spinicornis 24, 51 Hyblaea puera 12, 29, 37, 38, 40, 49 Hypsipyla H. grandella 36 H. robusta 12, 35, 36, 40, 48, 49, 53 Indarbela quadrinotata 31, 32 Ips I. calligraphus 35, 46 I. grandicollis 46 Kolla bataviae 24 Laccifer lacca 35 Lawana candida 22, 23 Leucoptera sphenograpta 21 Loboschiza vulnerata 21 Locusta 16, 18 Lymantria galinara 11 Macrotermes gilvus 21 Margaronia 20 M. hilaralis 20 Megachile 36 Milionia basalis 11, 34, 35 Mucanum 22, 23, 47
90
Indexes
Nanophyes shoreae 23 Neodiprion 35 Neotermes 36 N. papua 36 N. samoanus 36 N. tectonae 12, 37, 38, 47, 52 Nesodiprion beremis 34, 35 Odontotermes grandiceps 21 Ophiusa O. melicerta 12, 29 O. serva 11 Ozola minor 27 Paliga P. damastesalis 37, 38, 47 P. machaeralis 38 Petrova cristata 48 Petrovia 35 Phoracantha 26 Platypus gerstaeckeri 36 Plecoptera reflexa 19, 20 Prionoxystus 26, 27 Prodenia litura 19 Pseudophacopteron 54 P. alstonium 20 Pteroma 11 P. plagiophleps 16, 18, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40, 49 Pyrausta 37 P. machaeralis 37
Rhyaciona 35 Selepa celtis 19, 27 Sesarma 28, 47 Sinoxylon 18 Spirama retorta 18, 51 Sternocera 18 Sylepta derogata 30, 49 Tingis beesoni 27 Trichogramma minutus 34 Valanga nigricornis 16, 18, 37, 38 Voracia casuariniphaga 11 Xyleborus 28, 29 X. destruens 37, 38 X. fornicatus 16, 27 X. morstatti 36 Xyleutes ceramica 27, 37, 38 Xylosandrus 16, 18 X. compactus 19, 36 X. morigerus 32 Xystrocera X. festiva 12, 16, 17, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 42, 46, 47, 50 X. globosa 17, 19, 31, 32, 42 Zeuzera coffeae 18, 24, 25, 30, 37, 38 Zeuzera conferta 28, 29
Indexes
91
Disease
Aecidium fragiformae 19 Agrobacterium tumefaciens 22, 23 Armillaria mellea 36 Asterina 23 Atelocauda digitata 17 Botryodiplodia 25, 27, 32, 33, 51 B. thoeobromae 33 Calonectria rigidiuscula 30 Capnodium 23 Cercospora 17, 23 Cladiospora 34 Collectotrichum 17, 23, 27, 32 Corticium 33 C. pseudoferreum 18 C. salmonicolor 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 33, 38 Curvularia 22, 25 C. harveyi 23 Cylindrocarpon 22 C. destructens 23 Cylindrocladium 25, 26 Cylindrocladium multiseptatum 25 Cytospora 17 Fusarium 19, 21, 22, 23, 25 F. moniliformae 30 F. solani 21, 22, 28 Fomes lignosus 17, 18 Ganoderma 21, 27, 32 G. philipii 17, 18 G. pseudoferreum 17, 19
Hypoxylon mammatum 17 Kirramyces destructens 25 Leptoporus lignosus 17 Macrophoma 26 Meliola 17, 33 Mycosphaerella 25 Nectria 25 Nectria radiocola 23 Oidium 17 Pestalotia 23, 25 Pestalotiopsis 17 Phellinus noxius 17, 18, 30, 36, 45 Phytophthora 25, 26, 27, 32 P. cinnamomi 26, 36, 48 Pythium 19, 20, 25, 27, 32 Pytophthora palmivora 17 Rhizoctonia 19, 20, 27, 32, 49 Rigidoporus hypobrunneus 17 Rigidoporus microporus 17, 18 Rosellinia 32 Stilbella ecuadorensis 30, 49 Tinctoporellus epimiltinus 17 Trichoderma 54 Ustulina 32

Insect Pests

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Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests

An assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature

K.S.S. Nair (Editor)

Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests

Editor K.S.S. Nair

The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

2.1. A time of change

2.2. Forest types, area and policies

The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

Forest categories as per forest land use by consensus

vide Gautam et al. (2000); 2Area in 1984 Source: Handadhari (1997)

2.3. Forest concession right and plantation development

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair

The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

2.4. Plantation trends areas and species

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair

Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC

The State of the Forest and Plantation Trends

2.5. Forest plantations in perspective

1999 - 2000 2018 - 2019 Difference

34.79 31.56 -3.23

15.52 42.58 +27.06

1.70 26.73 +25.03

1.49 2.86 +1.37

53.50 103.73 +50.23

Source: Natadiwirya (1998)

CENTRAL SULAWESI - Ochroma spp. - Paraserianthes falcataria

WEST SUMATRA - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria

MOLLUCAS - Acacia mangium - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria

C. Cossalter and K.S.S. Nair

SOUTH SULAWESI - Gmelina arborea - Paraserianthes falcataria

EAST NUSA TENGGARA - Paraserianthes falcataria - Tectona grandis

Source: Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC

3.1. Natural forests

3.3. Comparison between plantations and natural forests

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.1. Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp.

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

Caterpillar Plusia Grasshopper Mosquito bug

Attacked small branches often dry up and break

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

Root rots Red root rot White root rot

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

4.2. Agathis dammara

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.4. Anthocephalus cadamba

4.3. Alstonia species

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi

4.5. Azadirachta excelsa

4.6. Dalbergia spp.

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.7. Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarps)

Occasional pest on older plants Serious pest

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.9. Eucalyptus spp.

4.8. Dyera spp.

Only on weakened trees, causes heavy mortality

Insect Pests and Diseases of Major Plantation Species

4.11. Gmelina arborea

4.10. Eusideroxylon zwageri

K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi